ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA VOL. vai •jft THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768—1771. SECOND ten 1777—1784. THIRD eighteen 1788—1797. FOURTH twenty 1801 — 1810. FIFTH twenty 1815—1817. SIXTH twenty 1823—1824. SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1842. EIGHTH twenty-two 1853—1860. NINTH twenty-five 1875—1889. TENTH ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. ELEVENTH „ published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE All rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME VIM DEMIJOHN to EDWARD Cambridge, England: at the University Press New York, 35 West 3 2nd Street 1910 AE-5 Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company INITIALS USED IN VOLUME VIII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. Ca. ARTHUR CAYLEY, LL.D., F.R.S. f Determinant. See the biographical article: CAYLEY, ARTHUR. \ A. E. G.* REV. ALFRED ERNEST GARVIE, M.A., D.D. Principal of New College, Hampstead. Member of the Board of Theology and Board of Philosophy, London University. Formerly Professor of Philosophy, -j Devil. Theism, Comparative Religion, and Christian Ethics in Hackney and New Colleges, London. Author of Studies in the Inner Life of Jesus; The Christian Certainty; &c. [ A. E. S. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.L.S. Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer of Christ's College, Cambridge. University Reader Desmoscoleeida' in Zoology. President of the Association of Economic Biologists. Formerly < Z? University Lecturer on the Advanced Morphology of the Invertebrata. Author of Hcniuroiflea. Zoology of the Invertebrata. Editor of the Pitt Press Natural Science Manuals; &c. [ A. Fi. PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTE FILON. f n_ , p,^,j. / •„ See the biographical article : FILON, P. M. A. \ Drama' French (m A. P. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.Soc. [ Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford. Professor of English History in the University I Edward VI of London. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-1901.] Author of England under the Protector Somerset ; Life of Thomas Cranmer ; &c. I A. G. MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908). f H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgale;\ Deportation. Secrets of the Prison House ; &c. [_ A. G. D. ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, C.M.G., M.A., Lrrr.D., F.R.Hisi.S. f Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of Canada. I Dorion. Author of The Cradle of New France; &c. Joint Editor of Documents relating to] the Constitutional History of Canada. [ A. H. J. G. ABEL HENDY TONES GREENIDGE, M.A., D.LiTT. (d. 1905). Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Hertford College, Oxford, and of St John's College, Oxford. Author of Infamia in Roman Law; Handbook of Greek Con- \ Dictator. stitutwnal History; Roman Public Life; History of Rome. Joint Editor of Sources of Roman History, 133-70 B.C. A. H. S. REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, D.LITT., L.L.D., D.D. f Echatana See the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H. \ A. J. L. ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX. f Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Formerly Editor of the Rio -\ Ecuador (in part). News, Rio de Janeiro. A. J. P. ALEXANDER J. PHILIP. f «._. hniBJES MARY CLERKE. f _. . _ See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. Y Dick' Tnomas; Donati. A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. r Diver; Dodo (in part) ; See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. ^ Dove; Duck; Eagle. 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. v 1977 vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES A. R. C. ALEXANDER Ross CLARKE, C.B., F.R.S. f Colonel, R.E. Royal Medal of Royal Society, 1887. In charge of Trigonometrical •{ Earth, Figure of the (in part). Operations of the Ordnance Survey, 1854-1881. A. S. Wo. ARTHUR SMITH WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S. f Keeper of Geology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Secretary of the ) DiplodOCUS. Geological Society, London. A. Wa. ARTHUR WAUGH, M.A. New College, Oxford. Newdigate Prize, 1888. Managing Director of Chapman & J De Tabley. Hall, Ltd. Author of Gordon in Africa; Alfred, Lord Tennyson. Editor of I Johnson's Lives of the Poets; editions of Dickens, Tennyson, Arnold, Lamb; &c. I. A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. f Derby, Earls of (in part). Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. \ A, W. R. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. f Pni«inp TnHcrp nf thp ^imrpmp Pniirt nf Opvlnn KHitnr nf F,nrvr.lnbrtj>din. nf Ike J.n.ins < A. W. W. Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws \ Easement. of England. ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LL.D., D.Lirr. /Drama. See the' biographical article: WARD, A. W. \ C. A. G. CHRISTIAN CARL AUGUST GOSCH, M.Sc. J Denmark: Geography and Commander of the Danebrog. Knight of St Anna. Formerly Attach^ to theH e , • .•' <•• ., ,\ Danish Legation, London. Author of Denmark and Germany since 1815. I »*««»« W» Pa1 C. Ch. CHARLES CHREE, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. f Superintendent, Kew Observatory. Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. J v .«. „, President of Physical Society of London. Watt Medallist, Institute of Civil] *-artH Currents. Engineers, 1905. C. C. H. CHARLES CAESAR HAWKINS, M.A., M.I.E.E. f _ Author of The Dynamo. \ Dynamo. C. E.* CHARLES EVERITT, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. J Density Distillation. Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford. \ C. F. A. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. f Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal •{ Dutch Wars: Military. Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. I C. H. Rd. CHARLES HERCULES READ, LL.D. Keeper of British and Medieval Antiquities, British Museum. President of the") Drinking Vessels. Society of Antiquaries of London. Author of Antiquities from Benin ; &c. I C. H. T.* CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, A.M., LL.D. f Ecelesiastes See the biographical article: TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL. \ C. L. K. CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S., F.S.A. . J Derby, 1st Earl of; Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor of 1 Edward IV Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London. C. PL CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D. is L. f Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of J Ebroin. Etude sur le rkgne de Robert le Pieux; Le duch6 merovingien d' Alsace el la legende de\ Sainte-Odile. I C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HisT.S. r Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow Diaz de Novaes* of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. -< nicuil Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. L C. S. P.* REV. CHARLES STANLEY PHILLIPS. f Edmund Ironside; King's College, Cambridge. Gladstone Memorial Prize, 1904. L Edward the Confessor. C. W. W. SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907). c Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com- J niarhatr (;„ A/r.rt mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1836-1894. Director-General] L"arDeiir ^n pan). of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; Life of Lord Clive; &c. D. B. Ma. DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. r Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. Author J Dervish; of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory;] Divan. Selection from Ibn Khaldum ; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam ; &c. L D. C. T. DAVID CROAL THOMSON. r Formerly Editor of the Art Journal. Author of The Brothers Maris; The Barbizon \ Diaz, N. V. School of Painters ; Life of " Phiz " ; Life of Bewick ; &c. D. G. H. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. r Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Derna; Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naukratis, 1899^ Didymi; and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Druses (in part) Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. L D. H. DAVID HANNAY. it-icti \7irA.r^r»ncn1 at- Rarrplnna AiitTir»r nf *\ltnvt WVc/rt^^r /i/ Jfsi+tfiJ J Dutch Wars: Naval. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal \ Dudley» Sir Navy, 1217-1688; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. [ Dutch War D. Mn. REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A. Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Director of the London -\ Duff, Alexander. Missionary Society, INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES VII E. A. T. E. Br. E. C. B. E. C. B.* E. C. K. E. C. Q. E. Es. £• £• A* E.G. E. Gr. E. I. C. E. J. D. E.K. Ed. M. E. Ma. E. M. T. E. O'M. E. Pr. P. A. B. F. E. B. F. G. M. B. MRS (ETHEL) ALEC TWEEDIE. Author of Porfirio Diaz ; Mexico as I saw it ; &c. ERNEST BARKER, M.A. Fellow of, and Lecturer in Modern History at, St John's College, Oxford. Formerly - Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895. RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., D.LITT. (Dublin). Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. EDWARD CRESSWELL BASER, M.A. (d. 1910). Formerly Senior Surgeon, Brighton and Sussex Throat and Ear Hospital. Prize-, man and William Brown Scholar, St George's Hospital, London. Author of numerous papers on Diseases of the Ear, Nose and Throat. EDWARD CAMERON KIRK, D.Sc. Dean of the Dental Faculty and Professor of Dental Pathology, Therapeutics and . Materia Medica, University of Pennsylvania. Editor of The American Text-Book of Operative Dentistry. EDMUND CROSBY QUIGGIN, M.A. Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge; Lecturer in Modern Languages' and Monro Lecturer in Celtic. EDMOND ESMONIN. ERNEST E. AUSTEN. Assistant in Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. - EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. See the biographical article : GOSSE, EDMUND. ERNEST A. GARDNER, M.A. See the biographical article : GARDNER, PERCY. EDWARD IRVING CARLYLE, M.A., F.R.HiST.S. Fellow, Lecturer in Modern History, and Tutor of Lincoln College, Oxford. . Formerly Fellow of Merton College. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1895-1901. Diaz, Porfirio. Diet. Dominic, Saint; Dominicans. Ear: Diseases. Dentistry. Druidism. Desmarets. Diptera. Denmark: Literature; Descriptive Poetry; Dialogue; Diary; Didactic Poetry; Dithyrambic Poetry; Donne; Drachmann; Drayton, Michael; I Dutch Literature; Edda. ! Dodona. Dost Mahommed Khan. EDWARD JOSEPH DENT, M.A., MUS.BAC. Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. and Works. Author of A . Scarlatti: his Life \ Durante, Francesco. EDMUND KNECHT, PH.D., M.SC.TECH. (Manchester), F.I.C. Professor of Technological Chemistry, Manchester University. Head of Chemical Department, Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. Examiner in Dyeing, -| Dyeing. City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of A Manual of Dyeing; &c. Editor of Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists. EDUARD MEYER, D.LITT. (Oxon.), LL.D., PH.D. Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte I Diodotus. des Alterthums; Forschungen zur alien Geschichte; Geschichte des alien Agyptens;\ Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme ; &c. I EDWARD MANSON. r Barrister-at-Law. Joint Editor of Journal of Comparative Legislation; Author of"! Directors. Law of Trading Companies ; Practical Guide to Company Law ; &c. {. SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON, G.C.B., I.S.O., D.C.L., Lrrr.D., LL.D. Director and Principal Librarian, British Museum, 1898-1909. Sandars Reader in Bibliography, Cambridge, 1895-1896. Hon. Fellow of University College, Oxford. Correspondent of the Institute of France and of the Royal Prussian J Diplomatic. Academy of Sciences. Author of Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography. Editor of Chronicon Angliae. Joint Editor of publications of the Palaeographical Society, the New Palaeographical Society, and of the Facsimile of the Laurentian Sophocles. J Diatomaceae (in part). r Eca de Queiroz. REV. EUGENE HENRY O'MEARA, M.A Vicar of Tallaght, County Dublin. EDGAR PRESTAGE. Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Com- mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. L FRANCIS ARTHUR BATHER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. f Assistant Keeper of Geology, British Museum. Rolleston Prizeman, Oxford, 1892.] Echinoderma. Author of " Echinoderma " in A Treatise on Zoology; Triassic Echinoderms of\ Bakony; &c. I FRANK EVERS BEDDARD, M.A., F.R.S. f Prosector of the Zoological Society, London. Formerly Lecturer in Biology at J Earth-worm. Guy's Hospital. Naturalist to " Challenger " Expedition Commission, 1882-1884. 1 Author of Text-Book of Zoogeography; Animal Colouration; &c. I FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. | East Anglia. viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on Diaphragm; Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. •< Ductless Glands* Formerly Examiner in the Universities of Cambridge, Aberdeen, London and £-- Birmingham ; and Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. F. G. P.* FRANK GEORGE POPE. J Diazo Lecturer on Chemistry, East London College (University of London). "^ F. J. H. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. f Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Monographs on " Roman History, especially Roman Britain, &c. L F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. f Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, J Dendera; Oxford. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeological Reports of the | Edfu. Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial German Archaeological [Institute. L F. R. H. FREDERICK ROBERT HELMERT, PH.D., D.ING. /Knrtii IK™ «f tt» /• Professor of Geodesy, University of Berlin. \ W F. R. M. FRANCIS RICHARD MAUNSELL, C.M.G. c Lieutenant-Colonel. Military Vice-Consul, Sivas, Trebizond, Van (Kurdistan), J Diarbekr (*n ^a,rf\ 1897-1898. Military Attache, British Embassy, Constantinople, 1901-1905. 1 ' part). Author of Central Kurdistan ; &c. L F. S. FRANCIS STORR, M.A. f D , Editor of the Journal of Education, London. Officier d'Academie, Paris \ F. T. M. SIR FRANK THOMAS MARZIALS, K.C.B. f rjumas. m Formerly Accountant General of the Army. Editor of the " Great Writers " Series. \ F. V. T. FREDERICK VINCENT THEOBALD, M.A. f Vice-Principal and Zoologist, S.E. Agricultural College, Wye, Kent (University of J BI... ._,„ ,,_.t _ . London). Grand Medallist of the Societe Nationale d'Acclimatation de France. 1 t'co lc Entomology. Author of The Insect and other Allied Pests of Orchard, Bush and Hothouse Fruits ; &c. L F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. -j Earthquake (in part). President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. I F. W. W. FREDERIC W. WHYTE. f Author of Actors of the Century; &c. Translator of Filon's English Stage; Schil-H Du Maurier, G. ling's With Flashlight and Rifle; &c. L G. A. B. GEORGE A. BOULENGER, F.R.S., D.Sc., PH.D. I" In charge of the collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British -! Dory. Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. L G. Be. GERTRUDE MARGARET LOTHIAN BELL. f nmcoc / * A/, A Author of The Desert and the Sown ; &c. \ ul G. B. M. C. GEORGE BARNARD MILBANK COORE. f -eM11(,««nn. ATW,;^,/,* c,,^«, Assistant Secretary, Board of Education, London. \ Education. Natwnal Systems. G. C. W. GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, LITT.D. f Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures; Life of Richard J Downman; Cosway, R.A . ; George Engleheart ; Portrait Drawings ; &c. Editor of new edition ] Dumont, Francois, of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. I G. F. B. G. F. BARWICK. (" Assistant Keeper of Printed Books and Superintendent of Reading Room, British i Dhuleep Singh. Museum. L G. G. S. GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. f Douglas Gavin- Professor of English Literature, Queen's University of Belfast: Author of The •{ _ ' ,,,..,. Days of James IV.; The Transition Period ; Specimens of Middle Scots ; &c. [ Dul»Dar, William. G. H. Br. GEORGE HARTLEY BRYAN, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. f Professor of Pure and Applied Mathematics, University College of North Wales. J Diffusion. Formerly Fellow of Peterhouse, Cambridge. President of Mathematical Association, | 1907. G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.Sc. f" Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: -I Dragon-fly (in part), their Structure and Life. G. S. W.* GEORGE STEPHEN WEST, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. f Professor of Botany, University of Birmingham. Associate of Royal College of •} Diatomaceae (in part). Science, London. Author of Treatise on British Fresh-water Algae; &c. H. A. Mi. HENRY ALEXANDER MIERS, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. r Principal of the University of London. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Formerly Waynflete Professor of Mineralogy, Oxford. President of Mineralogical -J Diamond. Society since 1904. Editor of the Mineralogical Magazine, 1891-1900. Author of Mineralogy; &c. L H. B. Wo. HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S. (" Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England and Wales, -j Desmarest, N. President, Geologists' Association, 1893-1894. Wollaston Medallist, 1908. , Devonshire, Earls and Dukes H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. of; Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition-^ Dufferin and Ava 1st of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the loth edition. Marau«SS* Edward VII H. De. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J. f Bollandist. Joint Author of the Acta Sanctorum. \ Denis, Saint. H F. Ba. HENRY FREDERICK BAKER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. r Fellow and Lecturer of St John's College, Cambridge. Cayley Lecturer in Mathe- J Differential Equation. ma tics in the University. Author of Abel's Theory and the Allied Theory; &c. H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, M.A., F.R.S., PH.D. f Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge, -j Dodo (in part). Author of Amphibia and Reptiles (Cambridge Natural History). L H. G. HUGH GODFRAY, M.A. Sometime Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Author of an Elementary •{ Dial and Dialling. Treatise on the Lunar Theory; A Treatise on Astronomy. [_ H. H. T. HERBERT HALL TURNER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. r Savilian Professor of Astronomy, Oxford University. Fellow of New College. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Chief Assistant at the Royal I jp-ii-,. f A -*1 Observatory, Greenwich. Correspondent, Institut de France. President, Royal | '"'UP5* l*» pan). Astronomical Society, 1903-1904. Author of Modern Astronomy; Astronomical Discovery. H. Lb. HORACE LAMB, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. f Professor of Mathematics, University of Manchester. Formerly Fellow and J Assistant Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Member of Council of Royal "j Dynamics. Society, 1894-1896. Royal Medallist, 1902. President of London Mathematical Society, 1902-1904. Author of Hydrodynamics; &c. H. N. D. HENRY NEWTON DICKSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.R.G.S. [ Professor of Geography at University College, Reading. Formerly Vice-President, J Qeser* Royal Meteorological Society. Lecturer in Physical Geography, Oxford. Author 1 of Meteorology ; Elements of Weather and Climate ; &c. H. 0. T. HENRY OSBORN TAYLOR, LL.B. (Columbia). f _ Author of The Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages ; Ancient Ideals ; &c. \ Dionysius AreopagltiCUS. H. St. HENRY STURT, M.A. Author of Idola T H. S. S. HAROLD SPENCER SCOTT, M.A. l~ Author of Idola Theatri ; The Idea of a Free Church ; and Personal Idealism. \ f New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. 1 Dower. H. Ti. HENRY TIEDEMANN. f London Editor of the Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant. Ex-President of the Foreign -j Dozy. Press Association. H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. f - . ,. «,.,..«._„ Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, 1 "" 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. [Edmund, Saint. H. W. H. HOPE W. HOGG, M.A. f -,. Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Manchester. \ I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. f Dujjes Leopold • Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. President, J nill an ' ture; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages. I Duran. J. A.* JOHN AITKEN, LL.D., F.R.S. r Investigator of Atmospheric Dust. Inventor of instruments for counting the dust particles in the atmosphere. Author of papers on Dust Fogs and Clouds; Hazing -{ Dust. Effects of Atmospheric Dust; Cyclones and Anticyclones; &c., in publications of Royal Society. J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. f Devonian System ; Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. \ Drift. J. A. P.* REV. JAMES ALEXANDER PATERSON, M.A., D.D. r Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, New College, Edinburgh. Author of The Period of the Judges; Book of Leviticus, in" Temple" Bible; Book o}\ Deuteronomy. Numbers, in "Polychrome" Bible; &c. Translator of Schultz's Old Testament Theology. J. C. M. JAMES CLERK MAXWELL, D.C.L., F.R.S. / _. See the biographical article: MAXWELL, JAMES CLERK. "^ Ulasram. J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HisT.S. r Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Deus, Joao de ; Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. 4 Don Juan ; Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of Frhpp-arav v Fi7a Dreams- 0. J. R. H. OSBERT JOHN RADCLIFFE HOWARTH, M.A. f Denmark: Geography and Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1901. Assistant Secretary of the"! Statistics (in part) British Association. L Dnieper (in part) ; Dniester nnnrn«pT«f *h Don Cossacks, Territory of the (tn part); Dvina (in part); Echmiadzin (in part). P. C. M. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, F.R.S., M.A., D.Sc., LL.D. f Secretary to the Zoological Society cf London. University Demonstrator in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891..) Dog (in part) Lecturer on Biology at Charing Cross Hospital, 1892-1894; at London Hospital, I 1894. Examiner in Biology to the Royal College of Physicians, 1892-1896, 1901- 1903. Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903. f Derby, 7th Earl of; P. C. Y. PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE M.A. I Digby Slr Everard; Magdalen College, Oxford. j Digby> sir P. Gi. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT. D. Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J R Reader in Comparative Philology. Late Secretary of the Cambridge Philological 1 Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology ; &c. P. G. K. PAUL GEORGE KONODY. f Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of The Artist. 1 Donatello. Author of Ths Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c. I R. LORD RAYLEIGH. See the biographical article : RAYLEIGH, 3RD BARON. R. A. S. M. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. f St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explora- J Diptych, tion Fund. R. C. J. SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB., LITT.D., D.C.L. f n«n - »h See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD C. \UM ies< R. D. M. R. D. MlLNER. f lit.*.*-.. /• • A Formerly Assistant, U.S. Department of Agriculture. \ uie s Vn Part)- R. H. D.* ROBERT HENRY DAVIS. f Managing Director, Siebe, Gorman & Co., Ltd., Submarine Engineers, London. -| Divers and Diving Apparatus. Author of A Diving Manual; &c. R. I. P. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. • f Earwig. Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. \ R. J. RICHARD JORDAN. f Drau!,hts (in *n.rt\ Draughts Champion of Scotland, 1896, and of the world, 1896 seq. \ " R. J. H. RONALD JOHN McNEiLL, M.A. f Driving- Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's •{ r>,,_i,n <,.* r.,,.1 „; Gazette, London. I Durham, 1st Earl of. xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. r niniro. nolnhln- Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J „ Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; The Deer of] Dormouse; Dugong; all Lands ; &c. L Duiker; Edentata. R. Ma. REV. ROBERT MACKINTOSH, D.D. f Professor of Christian Ethics and Apologetics, Lancashire Independent College. „ Lecturer on the Philosophy of Religion, University of Manchester. Author of Christ and the Jewish Law ; &c. 1. R. M'L. ROBERT M'LACHLAN, F.R.S. | _ ,. Editor of the Entomologists' Monthly Magazine. \ "ragon-ny (in part). R. N. B. ROBERT -NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). f Denmark: Medieval and Assistant Librarian, British Museum 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the Modern History Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, -\ n ff _. 1613 to 1725 ; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1460 u*»ewny; IMUgosz; to 1796; &c. I Dolgoruki; Dozsa. R. P. S. R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. r Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past- I Dome; Door; President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, -j Doorway; London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's Earlv Enplfch Pprinri History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. S. A. C. STANLEY ARTHUR COOK. /• Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonyille and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and j Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Council of Royal Asiatic Society, 1904- -j Edom. 1905. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses and Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c. ISCSeTthe biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, IST EARL OF. | Du VerSier de Hauranne. St H. LORD ST HELIER (SIR FRANCIS HENRY JEUNE), P.C., K.C.B., G.C.B. (1843-1905). I" President of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court oH Divorce. Justice, 1892-1905. Honorary Fellow of Hertford College, Oxford. L S. C. SIDNEY COLVIN, LL.D. f Dttrer. See the biographical article : COLVIN, S. \ S. D. H. S. D. HOPKINSON. -I Dividend. S. K. STEN KONOW, Pn.D. f Prof esspr of Indian Philology in the University of Christiania. Officier del' Academic I Franchise. Author of Stamavidhana brdhmana; The Karpuramanjan; volumes •{ Dravidian. ori Tibeto-Burman languages; Munda and Dravidian; " Marathi Bhil " in The Linguistic Survey of India. S. N. SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D. / Eclipse (in part); See the biographical article : NEWCOMB, SIMON. I Ecliptic. T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT., F.S.A. Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Corresponding Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ -j Eboli. Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1897. Author of The Classical Topo- graphy of the Roman Campagna ; &c. T. A. I. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin. T. F. T. THOMAS FREDERICK TOUT, M.A. f Professor of Medieval and Modern History in the University of Manchester. I Edward L, II., III.; Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford. Author of Edward I. ; The Empire ] Edward The Black Prince. and Papacy ; &c. T. K. C. REV. THOMAS KELLY CHEYNE, M.A., D.D. J~ _ . See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K. \ Baen- T. L. H. SIR THOMAS LITTLE HEATH, K.C.B., D.Sc. f Assistant Secretary to the Treasury. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- I nionhantos bridge. Author of Diophantos of Alexandria; Editor of The Thirteen Books of\ Euclid's Elements; &c. T. M. F. THOMAS McCALL FALLOW, M.A., F.S.A. f Formerly Editor of the Antiquary. Author of Memorials of Old Yorkshire ; -j Easter. Cathedral Churches of Ireland ; &c. [ T. Se. THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges Dickens; (University of London). Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of 4 nostoievskv Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson; Joint Author of The Bookman History of English Literature ; &c. T. W. R. D. T. W. RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D. Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester. Professor of Pali and Buddhist Devadatta- Literature, University College, London, 1882-1904. President of the Pali Text J "~v **' Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal Asiatic DnammapSla. Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the Buddhists; Early Buddhism; Buddhist India; Dialogues of the Buddha; &c. I INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Xlll V.T. W. A. W. A. B. C. VLADIMIR TCHERTKOFF. Editor of The Free Age Press. Literary Representative of Leo Tolstoy. Author of -| DoukhobOFS. Christian Martyrdom in Russia ; &c. WILLIAM ARCHER. See the biographical article Archer, William. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. (Bern). , Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's Dolomites, The; College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of < Dornbirn; the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in Durance; History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889; &c. I Ebel J G •j Drama (Recent English). f Digne; W. A. P. W. A. S. H. W. B. W. E. B. WALTER ALISON M.A. f Diplomacy; Dispensation; Donation nf "OI LHOn °l W. E. D. W. P. Sh. W. F. W. W. G. P. P. W. Hy. W. H.* W. H. Ma. W. L. G. W. M. W. IVl* K. W. N. S. Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c. WILLIAM ALBERT SAMUEL HEWINS, M.A. Secretary of the Tariff Commission. Formerly Director of the London School of Economics. Teacher of Modern Economic History in the University of London, 1902-1903. Tooke Professor of Economic Science and Statistics at King's' College, London, 1897-1903. Author of Imperialism and its Probable Effect on the Commercial Policy of the United Kingdom ; &c. WALTER BAXENDALE. Kennel Editor of the Field. REV. WILLIAM EMERY BARNES, M.A., D.D. Hulsean Professor of Divinity, Cambridge. Fellow and Hon. Chaplain of Peter- house, Cambridge. Examining Chaplain to the_Bishop of London. Joinl Editor of Journal of Theological Studies, 1899-1901. Formerly Leclurer in Hebrew, - Clare College, and Leclurer in Hebrew and Divinily, Peterhouse. Author of The Canonical and Uncanonical Gospels', The Peshitta Text of Chronicles; The Psalms in the Peshitta Version ; Genuineness of Isaiah ; &c. WILLIAM ERNEST DALBY, M.A., M.lNST.C.E., M.I.M.E., A.M.lNSx.N.A. Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering al the City and Guilds of London Institute Central Technical College, South Kensington. Formerly University -\ Dynamometer. Demonstrator in the Engineering Department, Cambridge. Author of The Balanc- ing of Engines ; Valves and Valve Gear Mechanism ;&c. WILLIAM FLEETWOOD SHEPPARD, M.A. Senior Examiner to the Board of Education. Cambridge. Senior Wrangler, 1884. Dragon; Duke; I Eastern Question, The. Economics. Dog (in part). Ecclesiasticus. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, -I Differences, Calculus of. WALTER FRANCIS WILLCOX, LL.B., PH.D. [ Chief Statistician, United States Census Bureau. Professor of Social Science and Statistics, Cornell University. Member of the American Social Science Association J Divorce: United States. and Secretary of the American Economical Association. [Author of The Divorce Problem: A Study in Statistics; Social Statistics of the United States; &c. SIR WALTER GEORGE FRANK PHILLIMORE, BART., D.C.L., LL.D. f Judge of the King's Bench Division. President of International Law Association, 1905. Author of Book of Church Law. Editor of 2nd editi9n of Phillimore's } Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction. Ecclesiastical Law; yd edition of vol. iv. of Phillimore's International Law; &c. [ WILLIAM HENRY. r Founder and Chief Secretary to the Royal Life Saying Society. Associate of the Order of St John of Jerusalem. Joint Author of Swimming, (Badminton Library) ; " &c. Drowning and Life Saving. WALTER HUNTER, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., F.G.S. Consulting Engineer for Waterworks to Crown Agents for the Colonies. Member of Council of Institute of Civil Engineers. Silver Medallist, Royal Society of Arts. \ Originator of Staines Scheme of Storage Reservoirs. Has reported on Waterworks at Accra, Secconder and Lagos; also on Rand Water Supply. WILLIAM HENRY MAXWELL, A.M.I.C.E. f Borough and Waterworks Engineer, Tunbridge Wells. Formerly President of Institute of Sanitary Engineers, London. Author of Refuse Destructors; &c. " Joint Editor of Encyclopaedia of Municipal and Sanitary Engineering. WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A. Professorial Queen'ss University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly Beit Lecturer in anil ,. Hydraulic Engineering. Destructors. rrotessor at yueen s university, Kingston, Canada, hormerly Beit Lecturer in I n«w.i«e«M. ict Colonial History at Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy Council, Colonial 1 uorcne •» lsl series; Canadian Constitutional Development (in collaboration). L WILLIAM MINTO, M.A. See the biographical article: MINTO, WILLIAM. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL. Dry den (in part). ("Dole!; Domenichino; t Dyce, William; Eastlake. WILLIAM NAPIER SHAW, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. f" Director of the Meteorological Office. Reader in Meteorology in the University of London. President of Permanent International Meteorological Committee. I Member of Meteorological Council, 1897-1905. Hon. Fellow of Emmanuel College, 1 Cambridge. Senior Tutor, 1890-1899. Joint Author of Text Book of Practical Physics; &c. XIV INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES W. 0. A. W. R. E. H. W. R. L. W. S. J. W. W. W. W. R.* WILBUR OLIN ATWATER, PH.D. (1844-1907). Formerly Professor of Chemistry, Wesleyan University, U.S.A. Special Agent of H Dietetics (in part). the United States Department of Agriculture in charge of Nutrition Investigations. L WILLIAM RICHARD EATON HODGKINSON, PH.D., F.R.S. I" Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ordnance College, Woolwich. Formerly J Professor of Chemistry andlPhysics, R.M.A., Woolwich. Part author of Valentin- 1 Hodgkinson's Prqctical Chemistry ; &c. I W. R. LETHABY, F.S.A. Principal of the Central School of Arts and Crafts under the London County Council. Author of Architecture, Mysticism and Myth; &c. WILLIAM STANLEY JEVONS, LL.D. See the biographical article: JEVONS, WILLIAM STANLEY. WILLIAM WALLACE. See the biographical article: WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897). Design. : De Morgan. 1 Descartes. WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC.THEOL. / n , c , . Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. \ uon' &ynoa OI- PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Democratic Party. Democritus. Derbyshire. Desmoulins. Detroit. Devonshire. De Witt, John. Diabetes. Diamond Necklace. Dice. Dictionary. Didache. Dietary. Dietrich of Bern. Digitalis. Dijon. Dionysius. Diphtheria. Distress. Dittersdorf, Karl D. von. Divining-rod. Dockyards. Doge. Dominoes. Donatists. Donegal. Dorset, Earls, Marquesses and Dukes of. Dorsetshire. Douglas: Family. Dover. Down. Dragoman. Drainage of Land. Drake, Sir Francis. Dresden. Dropsy. Drummond of Hawthornden. Drunkenness. Dualism. Dublin. Dunbar. Dundee, Viscount. Dundee: City. Dundonald. Duns Scotus. Durban. Durham. Dutch East India Company. Dutch West India Company. Dwarf. Dyaks. Dysentery. Dyspepsia. Earth. Eastern Bengal and Assam, East India Company. Ebionites. Ecarte". Ecclesiastical Law. Eclecticism. Edgeworth. Edinburgh. Edinburghshire. ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME VIII DEMIJOHN, a glass bottle or jar with a large round body and narrow neck, encased in wicker-work and provided with handles. The word is also used of an earthenware jar, similarly covered with wicker. The capacity of a demijohn varies from two to twelve gallons, but the common size contains five gallons. According to the New English Dictionary the word is an adapta- tion of a French Dame Jeanne, or Dame Jane, an application of a personal name to an object which is not uncommon; cf. the use of " Toby " for a particular form of jug and the many uses of the name " Jack." DEMISE, an Anglo-French legal term (from the Fr. demettre, Lat. dimiltere, to send away) for a transfer of an estate, especially by lease. The word has an operative effect in a lease implying a covenant for " quiet enjoyment " (see LANDLORD AND TENANT). The phrase " demise of the crown " is used in English law to signify the immediate transfer of the sovereignty, with all its attributes and prerogatives, to the successor without any inter- regnum in accordance with the maxim " the king never dies." At common law the death of the sovereign eo facto dissolved parliament, but this was abolished by the Representation of the People Act 1867, §51. Similarly the common law doctrine that all offices held under the crown determined at its demise has been negatived by the Demise of the Crown Act 1901. "Demise" is thus often used loosely for death or decease. DEMIURGE (Gr. d-rjfuovpyos, from Sixties, of or for the people, and epyov, work), a handicraftsman or artisan. In Homer the word has a wide application, including not only hand-workers but even heralds and physicians. In Attica the demiurgi formed one of the three classes (with the Eupatridae and the geomori, georgi or agroeci) into which the early population was divided (cf . Arist. Ath. Pol. xiii. 2). They represented either a class of the whole population, or, according to Busolt, a commercial nobility (see EUPATRIDAE). In the sense of " worker for the people " the word was used throughout the Peloponnese, with the excep- tion of Sparta, and in many parts of Greece, for a higher magistrate. The demiurgi among other officials represent Elis and Mantineia at the treaty of peace between Athens, Argos, Elis andMantineiain42OB.c. (Thuc. v. 47). In the Achaean League (q.v.) the name is given to ten elective officers who presided over the assembly, and Corinth sent " Epidemiurgi " every year to Potidaea, officials who apparently answered to the Spartan harmosts. In Plato dijfuovpybs is the name given to the " creator of the world " (Timaeus, 40) and the word was so adopted by the Gnostics (see GNOSTICISM). DEMMIN, a town of Germany, kingdom of Prussia, on the navigable river Peene (which in the immediate neighbourhood receives the Trebel and the Tollense), 72 m. W.N.W. of Stettin, on the Berlin-Stralsund railway. Pop. (1905) 12,541. It has manufactures of textiles, besides breweries, distilleries and tanneries, and an active trade in corn and timber, vm — i The town is of Slavonian origin and of considerable antiquity, and was a place of importance in the time of Charlemagne. It was besieged by a German army in 1 148, and captured by Henry the Lion in 1164. In the Thirty Years' War Demmin was the object of frequent conflicts, and even after the peace of West- phalia was taken and retaken in the contest between the electoral prince and the Swedes. It passed to Prussia in 1720, and its fortifications were dismantled in 1759. In 1807 several engage- ments took place in the vicinity between the French and Russians. DEMOCHARES (c. 355-275 B.C.), nephew of Demosthenes, Athenian orator and stateman, was one of the few distinguished Athenians in the period of decline. He is first heard of in 322, when he spoke in vain against the surrender of Demosthenes and the other anti-Macedonian orators demanded by Antipater. During the next fifteen years he probably lived in exile. On the restoration of the democracy by Demetrius Poliorcetes in 307 he occupied a prominent position, but was banished in 303 for having ridiculed the decree of Stratocles, which contained a fulsome eulogy of Demetrius. He was recalled in 298, and during the next four years l fortified and equipped the city with provisions and ammunition. In 296 (or 295) he was again banished for having concluded an alliance with the Boeotians, and did not return until 287 (or 286). In 280 he induced the Athenians to erect a public monument in honour of his uncle with a suitable inscription. After his death (some five years later) the son of Demochares proposed and obtained a decree (Plutarch, Vitae decent oratomm,p. 851) that a statue should be erected in his honour, containing a record of his public services, which seem to have consisted in a reduction of public expenses, a more prudent management of the state finances (after his return in 287) and successful begging missions to the rulers of Egypt and Macedonia. Although a friend of the Stoic Zeno, Demochares regarded all other philosophers as the enemies of freedom, and in 306 supported the proposal of one Sophocles, advocating their expulsion from Attica. According to Cicero (Brutus, 83) Demo- chares was the author of a history of his own times, written in an oratorical rather than a historical style. As a speaker he was noted for his freedom of language (Parrhesiastes, Seneca, De ira, iii. 23) . He was violently attacked by Timaeus, but found a strenuous defender in Polybius (xii. 13). See also Plutarch, Demosthenes, 30, Demetrius, 24, Vitae decem oralorum, p. 847; J. G. Droysen's essay on Demochares in Zeil- schriftfiir die Altertumswissenschaft (1836), Nos. 20, 21. DEMOCRACY (Gr. SrifioKparia, from Sij/uos, the people, ije. the commons, and KP&.TOS, rule), in political science, that form of government in which the people rules itself, either directly, as in the small city-states of Greece, or through representatives. According to Aristotle, democracy is the perverted form of the 1 For the " four years' war " and the chronological questions in- volved, see C. W. Muller, Frag. Hist. Graec. ii. 445. DEMOCRATIC PARTY third form of government, which he called TroXireta, " polity " or " constitutional government," the rule of the majority of the free and equal citizens, as opposed to monarchy and aristocracy, the rule respectively of an individual and of a minority consist- ing of the best citizens (see GOVERNMENT and ARISTOCRACY). Aristotle's restriction of " democracy " to bad popular govern- ment, i.e. mob-rule, or, as it has sometimes been called, " ochlocracy " (oxAos, mob), was due to the fact that the Athenian democracy had in his day degenerated far below the ideals of the 5th century, when it reached its zenith under Pericles. Since Aristotle's day the word has resumed its natural meaning, but democracy in modern times is a very different thing from what it was in its best days in Greece and Rome. The Greek states were what are known as " city-states," the characteristic of which was that all the citizens could assemble together in the city at regular intervals for legislative and other purposes. This sovereign assembly of the people was known at Athens as the Ecclesia (q.v.), at Sparta as the Apella (q.v.), at Rome variously as the Comitia Centuriata or the Concilium Plebis (see COMITIA). Of representative government in the modern sense there is practically no trace in Athenian history, though certain of the magistrates (see STRATEGUS) had a quasi-representative char- acter. Direct democracy is impossible except in small states. In the second place the qualification for citizenship was rigorous; thus Pericles restricted citizenship to those who were the sons of an Athenian father, himself a citizen, and an Athenian mother (e£ &ndiv iurroiv) . This system excluded not only all the slaves, who were more numerous than the free population, but also resident aliens, subject allies, and those Athenians whose descent did not satisfy this criterion (T<$ yivei /ii) Kadapoi). The Athenian democracy, which was typical in ancient Greece, was a highly exclusive form of government. With the growth of empire and nation states this narrow parochial type of democracy became impossible. The population became too large and the distance too great for regular assemblies of qualified citizens. The rigid distinction of citizens and non- citizens was progressively more difficult to maintain, and new criteria of citizenship came into force. The first difficulty has been met by various forms of representative government. The second problem has been solved in various ways in different countries; moderate democracies have adopted a low property qualification, while extreme democracy is based on the exten- sion of citizenship to all adult persons with or without dis- tinction of sex. The essence of modern representative govern- ment is that the people does not govern itself, but periodically elects those who shall govern on its behalf (see GOVERNMENT; REPRESENTATION) . DEMOCRATIC PARTY, originally DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PARTY, the oldest of existing political parties in the United States. Its origin lay in the principles of local self-government and repugnance to social and political aristocracy established as cardinal tenets of American colonial democracy, which by the War of Independence, which was essentially a democratic move- ment, became the basis of the political institutions of the nation. The evils of lax government, both central and state, under the Confederation caused, however, a marked anti-democratic reaction, and this united with the temperamental conservatism of the framers of the constitution of 1787 hi the shaping of that conservative instrument. The influences and interests for and against its adoption took form in the groupings of Federalists and Anti-Federalists, and these, after the creation of the new government, became respectively, in underlying principles, and, to a large extent, in personnel, the Federalist party (q.v.) and the Democratic-Republican party.1 The latter, organized by Thomas Jefferson in opposition to the Federalists dominated by Alexander Hamilton, was a real party by 1 792. The great service of attaching to the constitution a democratic bill of rights be- longs to the Anti-Federalists or Democratic-Republican party, although this was then amorphous. The Democratic-Republican party gained full control of the government, save the judiciary, 1 The orefix " Democratic " was not used by Jefferson; it became established, however, and official. in 1801, and controlled it continuously thereafter until 1825. No political " platforms " were then known, but the writings of Jefferson, who dominated his party throughout this period, take the place of such. His inaugural address of 1801 is a famous statement of democratic principles, which to-day are taken for granted only because, through the party organized by him to secure their success, they became universally accepted as the ideal of American institutions. In all the colonies, says John Adams, " a court and a country party had always contended "; Jefferson's followers believed sincerely that the Federalists were a new court party, and monarchist. Hence they called themselves " Republicans " as against monarchists, — standing also, incident- ally, for states' rights against the centralization that monarchy (or any approach to it) implied; and " Democrats " as against aristocrats, — standing for the " common rights of Englishmen," the " rights of man," the levelling of social ranks and the widen- ing of political privileges. In the early years of its history — and during the period of the French Revolution and afterwards — the Republicans sympathized with the French as against the British, the Federalists with the British as against the French. Devotion to abstract principles of democracy and liberty, and in practical politics a strict construction of the constitution, in order to prevent an aggrandizement of national power at the expense of the states (which were nearer popular control) or the citizens, have been permanent characteristics of the Democratic party as contrasted with its principal opponents; but neither these nor any other distinctions have been continuously or consistently true throughout its long course.2 After 1801 the commercial and manufacturing nationalistic3 elements of the Federalist party,being now dependent on Jefferson for protection, gradually went over to the Republicans, especially after the War of 1812; moreover, administration of government naturally developed in Republican ranks a group of broad-constructionists. These groups fused, and became an independent party.4 They called themselves National Republicans, while the Jacksonian Republicans soon came to be known simply as Democrats.6 Immediately afterward followed the tremendous victory of the Jacksonians in 1828, — a great advance in radical democracy over the victory of 1800. In the interval the Federalist party had disappeared, and practically the entire country, embracing Jeffersonian democracy, had passed through the school of the Republican party. It had established the power of the " people " in the sense of that word in present-day American politics. Bills of rights in every state constitution protected the citizen; some state judges were already elective; very soon the people came to nominate their presidential candidates in national conven- tions, and draft their party platforms through their conven- tion representatives.* After the National Republican scission the Democratic party, weakened thereby in its nationalistic tendencies, and deprived of the leadership of Jackson, fell quickly under the control of its Southern adherents and became virtually sectional in its objects. Its states' rights doctrine was turned to the defence of slavery. In thus opposing anti-slavery sentiment — inconsistently, alike as regarded the " rights of man " and constitutional construction, with its original and permanent 2 Under the rubric of " strict construction " fall the greatest struggles in the party's history: those over the United States Bank, over tariffs — for protection or for " revenue "only — over "internal improvements," over issues of administrative economy in pro- viding for the " general welfare," &c. The course of the party has frequently been inconsistent, and its doctrines have shown, absolutely considered, progressive latitudinarianism. 8 " Nationalistic " is used here and below, not in the sense of a general nationalistic spirit, such as that of Jackson, but to indicate the centralizing tendency of a broad construction of constitutional powers in behalf of commerce and manufactures. 4 Standing for protective tariffs, internal improvements, &c. 5 It should be borne in mind, however, that the Democratic party of Jackson was not strictly identical with the Democratic- Republican party of Jefferson, — and some writers date back the origin of the present Democratic party only to 1828-1829. 8 The Democratic national convention of 1832 was preceded by an Anti-Masonic convention of 1830 and by the National-Republican convention of 1831 ; but the Democratic platform of 1840 was the first of its kind. DEMOCRITUS principles — it lost morale and power. As a result of the contest over Kansas it became fatally divided, and in 1860 put forward two presidential tickets: one representing the doctrine of Jefferson Davis that the constitution recognized slave-property, and therefore the national government must protect slavery in the territories; the other representing Douglas's doctrine that the inhabitants of a territory might virtually exclude slavery by " unfriendly legislation." The combined popular votes for the two tickets exceeded that cast by the new, anti-slavery Republican party (the second of the name) for Lincoln; but the election was lost. During the ensuing Civil War such members of the party as did not become War Democrats antagonized the Lincoln administration, and in 1864 made the great blunder of pronounc- ing the war " a failure." Owing to Republican errors in recon- struction and the scandals of President Grant's administration, the party gradually regained its strength and morale, until, having largely subordinated Southern questions to economic issues, it cast for Tilden for president in 1876 a popular vote greater than that obtained by the Republican candidate, Hayes, and gained control of the House of Representatives. The Electoral Commission, however, made Hayes president, and the quiet acceptance of this decision by the Democratic party did it considerable credit. Since 1877 the Southern states have been almost solidly Democratic; but, except on the negro question, such unanimity among Southern whites has been, naturally, factitious; and by no means an unmixed good for the party. Apart from the " Solid South," the period after 1875 is characterized by two other party difficulties. The first was the attempt from 1878 to 1896 to "straddle" the silver issue;1 the second, an attempt after 1896 to harmonize general elements of conservatism and radicalism within the party. In 1896 the South and West gained control of the organization, and the national campaigns of 1896 and 1900 were fought and lost mainly on the issue of " free silver," which, however, was abandoned before 1904. After 1898 " imperialism," to which the Democrats were hostile, became another issue. Finally, after 1896, there became very apparent in the party a tendency to attract the radical elements of society in the general re-alignment of parties taking place on industrial-social issues; the Democratic party apparently attracting, in this readjustment, the " radicals " and the " masses " as in the time of Jefferson and Jackson. In this process, in the years 1896-1900, it took over many of the principles and absorbed, in large part, the members of the radical third- party of the " Populists," only to be confronted thereupon by the growing strength of Socialism, challenging it to a farther radical widening of its programme. From 1860 to 1908 it elected but a single president (Grover Cleveland, 1885-1889 and 1893-1897) .2 All American parties accepted long ago in theory " Jeffersonian democracy "; but the Democratic party has been " the political champion of those elements of the [American] democracy which are most democratic. It stands nearest the people."3 It may be noted that the Jeffersonian Republicans did not attempt to democratize the constitution itself. The choice of a president was soon popularized, however, in effect; and the popular election of United States senators is to-day a definite Demo- cratic tenet.4 BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For an exposition of the party's principles see Thomas Jefferson, Writings, ed. by P. L. Ford (10 vols., New York, 1892-1899); J. P. Foley (ed.), The Jeffersonian Cyclopaedia (New York, 1900) ; and especially the Campaign Text-Books of more recent 1 The attitude of the Republican party was no less inconsistent and evasive. 1 It controlled the House of Representatives from 1874 to 1894 except in 1880-1882 and 1888-1890; but except for a time in Cleveland^ second term, there were never simultaneously a Democratic president and a Democratic majority in Congress. 1 Professor A. D. Morse in International Monthly, October 1000. He adds, " It^has done more to Americanize the foreigner than all other parties." (It is predominant in the great cities of the country.) 4 In connexion with the prevalent popular tendency to regard the president as a people's tribune, it may be noted that a strong pre- sidential veto is, historically, peculiarly a Democratic contribution, owing to the history of Jackson's (compare Cleveland's) adminis- tration. times, usually issued by the national Democratic committee in alternate years, and M. Carey, The Democratic Speaker's Hand- book (Cincinnati, 1868). For a hostile criticism of the party, see W. D.Jones, Mirror of Modern Democracy; History cf the Democratic Party from 1825 to /S<5i(New York, 1864) ; Jonathan Norcross,History of Democracy Considered as a Party-Name and a Political Organisa- tion (New York, 1883); J. H. Patton, The Democratic Party: Its Political History and Influence (New York, 1884). Favourable treatises are R. H. Gillet, Democracy in the United States (New York, 1868); and George Fitch, Political Facts: an Historical Text-Book of the Democratic and Other Parties (Baltimore, 1884). See also, for general political history, Thomas H. Benton, Thirty Years' View (2 vols., New York, 1854-1856, and later editions) ; James G. Elaine, Twenty Years of Congress (2 vols., Norwich, Conn., 1884-1893); S. S. Cox, Three Decades of Federal Legislation (Providence, 1885); S. P. Orth, Five American Politicians: a Study in the Evolution of American Politics (Cleveland, 1906), containing sketches of four Democratic leaders — Burr, De Witt Clinton.Van Buren and Douglas; {. Maoy, Party Organization and Machinery (New York, 1904); . H. Hopkins, History of Political Parties in the United States (New York, 1900); E. S. Stanwood, History of the Presidency (last ed., Boston, 1904); I. P. Gordy, History of Political Parties, \. (New York, 1900); H. J. Ford, Rise and Growth of American Politics (New York, 1898) ; Alexander Johnston, History of American Politics (New York, 1900, and later editions); C. E. Merriam, A History of American Political Theories (New York, 1903), containing chapters on the Jeffersonian and the Jacksonian Democracy; and James A. Woodburn, Political Parties and Partv Problems in the United States (New York, 1903). DEMOCRITUS, probably the greatest of the Greek physical philosophers, was a native of Abdera in Thrace, or as some say — probably wrongly — of Miletus (Diog. Laert. ix. 34). Our knowledge of his life is based almost entirely on tradition of an untrustworthy kind. He seems to have been born about 470 or 460 B.C., and was, therefore, an older contemporary of Socrates. He inherited a considerable property, which enabled him to travel widely in the East in search of information. In Egypt he settled for seven years, during which he studied the mathe- matical and physical systems of the ancient schools. The extent to which he was influenced by the Magi and the Eastern astrologists is a matter of pure conjecture. He returned from his travels impoverished; one tradition says that he received 500 talents from his fellow-citizens, and that a public funeral was decreed him. Another tradition states that he was regarded as insane by the Abderitans, and that Hippocrates was summoned to cure him. Diodorus Siculus tells us that he died at the age of ninety; others make him as much as twenty years older. His works, according to Diogenes Laertius, numbered seventy- two, and were characterized by a purity of style which com- pares favourably with that of Plato. The absurd epithet, the " laughing philosopher," applied to him by some unknown and very superficial thinker, may possibly have contributed in some measure to the fact that his importance was for centuries overlooked. It is interesting, however, to notice that Bacon (De Principiis) assigns to him his true place in the history of thought, and points out that both in his own day and later " in the times of Roman learning " he was spoken of in terms of the highest praise. In the variety of his knowledge, and in the importance of his influence on both Greek and modern speculation he was the Aristotle of the sth century, while the sanity of his metaphysical theory has led many to regard him as the equal, if not the superior, of Plato. His views may be treated under the following heads: — i. The Atoms and Cosmology (adopted in part at least from the doctrines of Leucippus, though the relations between the two are hopelessly obscure). While agreeing with the Eleatics as to the eternal sameness of Being (nothing can arise out of nothing; nothing can be reduced to nothing), Democritus followed the physicists in denying its oneness and immobility. Movement and plurality being necessary to explain the pheno- mena of the universe and impossible without space (not-Being), he asserted that the latter had an equal right with Being to be considered existent. Being is the Full (irMjoes, plenum) ; not-Being is the Void (Kev6v, vacuum) , the infinite space in which moved tire infinite number of atoms into which the single Being of the Eleatics was broken up. These atoms are eternal and invisible; absolutely small, so small that their size cannot be DEMOGEOT— DEMOGRAPHY diminished (hence the name OTOJUOS, " indivisible "); absolutely full and incompressible, they are without pores and entirely fill the space they occupy; homogeneous, differing only in figure (as A from N), arrangement (as AN from NA), position (as N is Z on its side), magnitude (and consequently in weight, although some authorities dispute this). But while the atoms thus differ in quantity, their differences of quality are only apparent, due to the impressions caused on our senses by different configurations and combinations of atoms. A thing is only hot or cold, sweet or bitter, hard or soft by convention (vonqi); the only things that exist in reality (erej;) are the atoms and the void. Locke's distinction between primary and secondary qualities is here anticipated. Thus, the atoms of water and iron are the same, but those of the former, being smooth and round, and therefore unable to hook on to one another, roll over and over like small globes, whereas the atoms of iron, being rough, jagged and uneven, cling together and form a solid body. Since all phenomena are composed of the same eternal atoms (just as a tragedy and a comedy contain the same letters) it may be said that nothing comes into being or perishes in the absolute sense of the words (cf. the modern "indestructibility of matter " and " conservation of energy ") , although the compounds of the atoms are liable to increase and decrease, appearance and disappearance — in other words, to birth and death. As the atoms are eternal and uncaused, so is motion; it has its origin in a preceding motion, and so on ad infinitum. For the Love and Hate of Empedocles and the Nous (Intelligence) of Anaxagoras, Demo- critus substituted fixed and necessary laws (not chance; that is a misrepresentation due chiefly to Cicero). Everything can be explained by a purely mechanical (but not fortuitous) system, in which there is no room for the idea of a providence or an intelligent cause working with a view to an end. The origin of the universe was explained as follows. An infinite number of atoms was carried downwards through infinite space. The larger (and heavier), falling with greater velocity, overtook and collided with the smaller (and lighter), which were thereby forced upwards. This caused various lateral and contrary movements, resulting in a whirling movement (Sivrf) resembling the rotation of Anaxagoras, whereby similar atoms were brought together (as in the winnowing of grain) and united to form larger bodies and worlds. Atoms and void being infinite in number and extent, and motion having always existed, there must always have been an infinite number of worlds, all consisting of similar atoms, in various stages of growth and decay. 2. The Soul. — Democritus devoted considerable attention to the structure of the human body, the noblest portion of which he considered to be the soul, which everywhere pervades it, a psychic atom being intercalated between two corporeal atoms. Although, in accordance with his principles, Democritus was bound to regard the soul as material (composed of round, smooth, specially mobile atoms, identified with the fire-atoms floating in the air), he admitted a distinction between it and the body, and is even said to have looked upon it as something divine. These all-pervading soul atoms exercise different functions in different organs; the head is the seat of reason, the heart of anger, the liver of desire. Life is maintained by the inhalation of fresh atoms to replace those lost by exhalation, and when respiration, and consequently the supply of atoms, ceases, the result is death. It follows that the soul perishes with, and in the same sense as, the body. 3. Perception. — Sensations are the changes produced in the soul by external impressions, and are the result of contact, since every action of one body (and all representations are corporeal phenomena) upon another is of the nature of a shock. Certain emanations (awoltpoai, biropfroiai) or images (elScoXa), consisting of subtle atoms, thrown off from the surface of an object, penetrate the body through the pores. On the principle that like acts upon like, the particular senses are only affected by that which resembles them. We see by means of the eye alone, and hear by means of the ear alone, these organs being best adapted to receive the images or sound currents. The organs are thus merely conduits or passages through which the atoms pour into the soul. The eye, for example, is damp and porous, and the act of seeing consists in the reflection of the image (Sei/ctXoc) mirrored on the smooth moist surface of the pupil. To the interposition of air is due the fact that all visual images are to some extent blurred. At the same time Democritus distinguished between obscure (axoTtfj) cognition, resting on sensation alone, and genuine (yvT\tu>, to write), the science which deals with the statistics of health and DEMOIVRE— DEMONOLOGY disease, of the physical, intellectual, physiological and economical aspects of births, marriages and mortality. The first to employ the word was Achille Guillard in his tUments de statistique humaine ou demographic comparee (1855), but the meaning which he attached to it was merely that of the science which treats of the condition, general movement and progress of population in civilized countries, i.e. little more than what is comprised in the ordinary vital statistics, gleaned from census and registra- tion reports. The word has come to have a much wider meaning and may now be defined as that branch of statistics which deals with the life-conditions of peoples. DEMOIVRE, ABRAHAM (1667-1754), English mathematician of French extraction, was born at Vitry, in Champagne, on the 26th of May 1667. He belonged to a French Protestant family, and was compelled to take refuge in England at the revocation of the edict of Nantes, in 1685. Having laid the foundation of his mathematical studies in France, he prosecuted them further in London, where he read public lectures on natural philosophy for his support. The Principia mathematical of Sir Isaac Newton, which chance threw in his way, caused him to prosecute his studies with vigour, and he soon became distinguished among first-rate mathematicians. He was among the intimate personal friends of Newton, and his eminence and abilities secured his admission into the Royal Society of London in 1697, and after- wards into the Academies of Berlin and Paris. His merit was so well known and acknowledged by the Royal Society that they judged him a fit person to decide the famous contest between Newton and G. W. Leibnitz (see INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS). The life of Demoivre was quiet and uneventful. His old age was spent in obscure poverty, his friends and associates having nearly all passed away before him. He died at London, on the 27th of November 1754. The Philosophical Transactions contain several of his papers. He also published some excellent works, such as Miscellanea analytica de seriebus et quadraturis (1730), in 4to. This contained some elegant and valuable improvements on then existing methods, which have themselves, however, long been superseded. But he has been more generally known by his Doctrine of Chances, or Method of Calculating the Probabilities of Events at Play. This work was first printed in 1618, in 4to, and dedicated to Sir Isaac Newton. It was reprinted in 1738, with great alterations and improvements; and a third edition was afterwards published with additions in 1756. He also published a Treatise on Annuities (1725), which has passed through several revised and corrected editions. See C. Hutton, Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary (1815). For Demoivre' s Theorem see TRIGONOMETRY: Analytical. DEMONETIZATION, a term employed in monetary science in two different senses, (a) The depriving or divesting of a metal of its standard monetary value. From 1663 to 1717 silver was the standard of value in England and gold coins passed at their market value. The debasement and underrating of the silver coinage insensibly brought about the demonetization of silver in England as a standard of value and the substitution of gold. During the latter half of the igth century, the tremendous depreciation of silver, owing to its continually increasing pro- duction, and consequently the impossibility of preserving any ratio of stability between it and gold, led to the abandonment or demonetization of the metal as a standard and to its use merely as token money, (b) The withdrawal of coin from circulation, as, for example, in England that of all pre- Victorian gold coins under the provisions of the Coinage Act 1889, and the royal proclama- tion of the 22nd of November 1890. DEMONOLOGY (Aatjuwc, demon, genius, spirit), the branch of the science of religions which relates to superhuman beings which are not gods. It deals both with benevolent beings which have no circle of worshippers or so limited a circle as to be below the rank of gods, and with malevolent beings of all kinds. It may be noted that the original sense of " demon " was a benevolent being; but in English the name now connotes malevolence; in German it has a neutral sense, e.g. Korndamonen. Demons, when they are regarded as spirits, may belong to either of the classes of spirits recognized by primitive animism (s) for the law courts, sometimes speaking himself. Biographers have delighted to relate how painfully Demosthenes made him- self a tolerable speaker, — how, with pebbles in his mouth, he tried his lungs against the waves, how he declaimed as he ran up hill, how he shut himself up in a cell, having first guarded himself against a longing for the haunts of men by shaving one side of his head, how he wrote out Thucydides eight times, how he was derided by the Assembly and encouraged by a judicious actor who met him moping about the Peiraeus. He certainly seems to have been the reverse of athletic (the stalwart Aeschines upbraids him with never having been a sportsman), and he probably had some sort of defect or impediment in his speech as a boy. Perhaps the most interesting fact about his work for the law courts is that he seems to have continued it, in some measure, through the most exciting parts of his great political career. The speech for Phormio belongs to the same year as the plea for Megalopolis. The speech against Boeotus " Concerning the Name " comes between the First Philippic and the First Olynthiac. The speech against Pantaenetus comes between the speech " On the Peace " and the Second Philippic. 1 See Jebb's Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeos, vol. ii. p. 267 f. The political career of Demosthenes, from his first direct contact with public affairs in 355 B.C. to his death in 322, has an essential unity. It is the assertion, in successive forms adapted to successive moments, of unchanging Pollacal principles. Externally, it is divided into the chap- "eec^"' ter which precedes and the chapter which follows Chaeronea. But its inner meaning, the secret of its indomitable vigour, the law which harmonizes its apparent contrasts, cannot be understood unless it is regarded as a whole. Still less can it be appreciated in all its large wisdom and sustained self-mastery if it is viewed merely as a duel between the ablest champion and the craftiest enemy of Greek freedom. The time indeed came when Demosthenes and Philip stood face to face as representative antagonists in a mortal conflict. But, for Demosthenes, the special peril represented by Philip, the peril of subjugation to Macedon, was merely a disastrous accident. Philip happened to become the most prominent and most formidable type of a danger which was already threatening Greece before his baleful star arose. As Demosthenes said to the Athenians, if the Macedonian had not existed, they would have made another Philip lor themselves. Until Athens recovered something of its old spirit, there must ever be a great standing danger, not for Athens only, but for Greece, — the danger that sooner or later, in some shape, from some quarter — no man could foretell the hour, the manner or the source — barbarian violence would break up the gracious and undefiled tradition of separate Hellenic life. What was the true relation of Athens to Greece ? The answer which he gave to this question is the key to the life of Demosthenes. Athens, so Demosthenes held, was the natural head of Greece. Not, however, as an empress holding subject or subordinate cities in a dependence more or less compulsory. Rather as that city which most nobly expressed the noblest attributes of Greek political existence, and which, by her pre- eminent gifts both of intellect and of moral insight, was primarily responsible, everywhere and always, for the maintenance of those attributes in their integrity. Wherever the cry of the oppressed goes up from Greek against Greek, it was the voice of Athens which should first remind the oppressor that Hellene differed from barbarian in postponing the use of force to the persuasions of equal law. Wherever a barbarian hand offered wrong to any city of the Hellenic sisterhood, it was the arm of Athens which should first be stretched forth in the holy strength of Apollo the Averter. Wherever among her own children the ancient loyalty was yielding to love of pleasure or of base gain, there, above all, it was the duty of Athens to see that the central hearth of Hellas was kept pure. Athens must never again seek " empire " in the sense which became odious under the influence of Cleon and Hyperbolus, — when, to use the image of Aristophanes, the allies were as Babylonian slaves grinding in the Athenian mill. Athens must never permit, if she could help it, the re-establishment of such a domination as Sparta exercised in Greece from the battle of Aegospotami to the battle of Leuctra. Athens must aim at leading a free confederacy, of which the members should be bound to her by their own truest interests. Athens must seek to deserve the confidence of all Greeks alike. Such, in the belief of Demosthenes, was the part which Athens must perform if Greece was to be safe. But reforms must be effected before Athens could be capable of such a part. The evils to be cured were different phases of one malady. Athens had long been suffering from the profound decay of public spirit. Since the early years of the Peloponnesian War, the separation of Athenian society from the state had been growing more and more marked. The old type of the eminent citizen, who was at once statesman and general, had become almost extinct. Politics were now managed by a small circle .of politicians. Wars were conducted by professional soldiers whose troops were chiefly mercenaries, and who were usually regarded by the politicians either as instruments or as enemies. The mass of the citizens took no active interest in public affairs. But, ^^ though indifferent to principles, they had quickly sensi- tive partialities for men, and it was necessary to keep them in good humour. Pericles had introduced the practice of giving a DEMOSTHENES ii small bounty from the treasury to the poorer citizens, for the pur- pose of enabling them to attend the theatre at the great festivals, — in other words, for the purpose of bringing them under the concentrated influence of the best Attic culture. A provision eminently wise for the age of Pericles easily became a mischief when the once honourable name of " demagogue " began to mean a flatterer of the mob. Before the end of the Pelopon- nesian War the festival-money (theoricon) was abolished. A few years after the restoration of the democracy it was again intro- duced. But until 354 B.C. it had never been more than a gratuity, of which the payment depended on the treasury having a surplus. In 354 B.C. Eubulus became steward of the treasury. He was an able man, with a special talent for finance, free from all taint of personal corruption, and sincerely solicitous for the honour of Athens, but enslaved to popularity, and without principles of policy. His first measure was to make the festival-money a permanent item in the budget. Thenceforth this bounty was in reality very much what Demades afterwards called it, — the cement (xoXXa) of the democracy. Years before the danger from Macedon was urgent, Demos- thenes had begun the work of his life, — the effort to lift the spirit Forensic °^ Athens, to revive the old civic loyalty, to rouse the speeches city into taking that place and performing that part la public which her own welfare as well as the safety of Greece causes, prescribed. His formally political speeches must never be considered apart from his forensic speeches in public causes. The Athenian procedure against the proposer of an unconstitu- tional law — i.e. of a law incompatible with existing laws — had a direct tendency to make the law court, in such cases, a political arena. The same tendency was indirectly exerted by the tolerance of Athenian juries (in the absence of a presiding expert like a judge) for irrelevant matter, since it was usually easy for a speaker to make capital out of the adversary's political ante- cedents. But the forensic speeches of Demosthenes for public causes are not only political in this general sense. They are documents, as indispensable as the Olynthiacs or Philippics, for his own political career. Only by taking them along with the formally political speeches, and regarding the whole as one unbroken series, can we see clearly the full scope of the task which he set before him, — a task in which his long resistance to Philip was only the most dramatic incident, and in which his real achievement is not to be measured by the event of Chaeronea. A forensic speech, composed for a public cause, opens the political career of Demosthenes with a protest against a signal abuse. In 355 B.C., at the age of twenty-nine, he wrote the speech " Against Androtion." This combats on legal grounds a proposal that the out-going senate should receive the honour of a golden crown. In its larger aspect, it is a denunciation of the corrupt system which that senate represented, and especially of the manner in which the treasury had been administered by Aristophon. In 354 B.C. Demosthenes composed and spoke the oration " Against Leptines," who had effected a slender saving for the state by the expedient of revoking those hereditary exemptions from taxation which had at various times been conferred in recognition of distinguished merit. The descendants of Harmodius and Aristogeiton alone had been excepted from the operation of the law. This was the first time that the voice of Demosthenes himself had been heard on the public concerns of Athens, and the utterance was a worthy prelude to the career of a statesman. He answers the advocates of the retrenchment by pointing out that the public interest will not ultimately be served by a wholesale violation of the public faith. In the same year he delivered his first strictly political speech, " On the Navy Boards " (Symmories). The Athenians, irritated by the support which Artaxerxes had lately given to the revolt of their allies, and excited by rumours of his hostile preparations, were feverishly eager for a war with Persia. Demosthenes urges that such an enterprise would at present be useless; that it would fail to unite Greece; that the energies of the city should be reserved for a real emergency; but that, before the city can successfully cope with any war, there must be a better organization of resources, and, first of all, a reform of the navy, which he outlines with character- istic lucidity and precision. Two years later (352 B.C.) he is found dealing with a more definite question of foreign policy. Sparta, favoured by the depression of Thebes in the Phocian War, was threatening Megalopolis. Both Sparta and Megalopolis sent embassies to Athens. Demosthenes supported Megalopolis. The ruin of Megalopolis would mean, he argued, the return of Spartan domination in the Peloponnesus. Athenians must not favour the tyranny of any one city. They must respect the rights of all the cities, and thus promote unity based on mutual confidence. In the same year Demosthenes wrote the speech " Against Timocrates," to be spoken by the same Diodorus who had before prosecuted Androtion, and who now combated an attempt to screen Androtion and others from the penalties of embezzlement. The speech " Against Aristocrates," also of 352 B.C., reproves that foreign policy of feeble makeshifts which was now popular at Athens. The Athenian tenure of the Thracian Chersonese partly depended for its security on the good-will of the Thracian prince Cersobleptes. Charidemus, a soldier of fortune who had already played Athens false, was now the brother-in-law and the favourite of Cersobleptes. Aristocrates proposed that the person of Charidemus should be invested with a special sanctity, by the enactment that whoever attempted his life should be an outlaw from all dominions of Athens. Demosthenes points out that such adulation is as futile as it is fulsome. Athens can secure the permanence of her foreign possessions only in one way — by being strong enough to hold them. Thus, between 355 and 352, Demosthenes had laid down the main lines of his policy. Domestic administration must be purified. Statesmen must be made to feel that they are responsible to the state, They must not be allowed to anticipate judgment on their deserts by voting each other golden crowns. They must not think to screen mis- appropriation of public money by getting partisans to pass new laws about state-debtors. Foreign policy must be guided by a larger and more provident conception of Athenian interests. When public excitement demands a foreign war, Athens must not rush into it without asking whether it is necessary, whether it will have Greek support, and whether she herself is ready for it. When a strong Greek city threatens a weak one, and seeks to purchase Athenian connivance with the bribe of a border-town, Athens must remember that duty and prudence alike command her to respect the independence of all Greeks. When it is pro- posed, by way of insurance on Athenian possessions abroad, to flatter the favourite of a doubtful ally, Athens must remember that such devices will not avail a power which has no army except on paper, and no ships fit to leave their moorings. But the time had gone by when Athenians could have tranquil leisure for domestic reform. A danger, calling for prompt action, had at last come very near. For six years Athens had been at war with Philip on account of his seizure of Amphipolis. Meanwhile he had destroyed Potidaea Philip. and founded Philippi. On the Thracian coasts he had become master of Abdera and Maronea. On the Thessalian coast he had acquired Methone. In a second invasion of Thessaly, he had overthrown the Phocians under Onomarchus, and had advanced to Thermopylae, to find the gates of Greece closed against him by an Athenian force. He had then marched to Heraeon on the Propontis, and had dictated a peace to Cersobleptes. He had formed an alliance with Cardia, Perinthus and Byzantium. Lastly, he had begun to show designs on the great Confederacy of Olynthus, the more warlike Miletus of the North. The First Philippic of Demosthenes was spoken in 351 B.C. The Third Philippic — the latest of the extant political speeches — was spoken in 341 B.C. Between these he delivered eight political orations, of which seven are directly concerned with Philip. The whole series falls into two great divisions. The first division comprises those speeches which were spoken against Philip while he was still a foreign power threatening Greece from without. Such are the First Philippic and the three orations for Olynthus. The second division comprises the speeches 12 DEMOSTHENES spoken against Philip when, by admission to the Amphictyonic Council, he had now won his way within the circle of the Greek states, and when the issue was no longer between Greece and Macedonia, but between the Greek and Macedonian parties in Greece. Such are the speech " On the Peace," the speech " On the Embassy," the speech " On the Chersonese," the Second and Third Philippics. The First Philippic, spoken early in 351 B.C., was no sudden note of alarm drawing attention to an unnoticed peril. On the contrary, the Assembly was weary of the subject. For PAfl/ fc, s*x Xears tne war w*tn Philip had been a theme of barren talk. Demosthenes urges that it is time to do some- thing, and to do it with a plan. Athens fighting Philip has fared, he says, like an amateur boxer opposed to a skilled pugilist. The helpless hands have only followed blows which a trained eye should have taught them to parry. An Athenian force must be stationed in the north, at Lemnos or Thasos. Of 2000 infantry and 200 cavalry at least one quarter must be Athenian citizens capable of directing the mercenaries. Later in the same year Demosthenes did another service to the cause of national freedom. Rhodes, severed by its own act from the Athenian Confederacy, had since 355 been virtually subject to Mausolus, prince (Svvaarrp) of Caria, himself a tributary of Persia. Mausolus died in 351, and was succeeded by his widow Artemisia. The democratic party in Rhodes now appealed to Athens for help in throwing off the Carian yoke. Demosthenes supported their application in his speech " For the Rhodians." No act of his life was a truer proof of statesmanship. He failed. But at least he had once more warned Athens that the cause of political freedom was everywhere her own, and that, wherever that cause was forsaken, there a new danger was created both for Athens and for Greece. Next year (350) an Athenian force under Phocion was sent to Euboea, in support of Plutarchus, tyrant of Eretria, against the faction of Cleitarchus. Demosthenes protested against spending strength, needed for greater objects, on the local quarrels of a despot. Phocion won a victory at Tamynae. But the " inglorious and costly war " entailed an outlay of more than £12,000 on the ransom of captives alone, and ended in the total destruction of Athenian influence through- out Euboea. That island was now left an open field for the intrigues of Philip. Worst of all, the party of Eubulus not only defeated a proposal, arising from this campaign, for applying the festival-money to the war-fund, but actually carried a law making it high treason to renew the proposal. The degree to which political enmity was exasperated by the Euboean War may be judged from the incident of Midias, an adherent of Eubulus, and a type of opulent rowdyism. Demosthenes was choragus of his tribe, and was wearing the robe of that sacred office at the great festival in the theatre of Dionysus, when Midias struck him on the face. The affair was eventually compromised. The speech " Against Midias " written by Demosthenes for the trial (in 349) was neither spoken nor completed, and remains, as few will regret, a sketch. It was now three years since, in 352, the Olynthians had sent an embassy to Athens, and had made peace with their only sure ally. In 350 a second Olynthian embassy had sought and obtained Athenian help. The hour of Olynthus had indeed come. In 349 Philip opened war against the Chalcidic towns of the Olynthian League. The First and Second Olynthiacs of Demosthenes were spoken in that year in support of sending one force to defend Olynthus and another to attack Philip. " Better now than later," is the thought of the First Olynthiac: The Second argues that Philip's strength is overrated. The Third — spoken in 348 — carries us into the midst of action.1 It deals with practical details. The festival-fund must be used for the war. The citizens must serve in person. 1 It is generally agreed that the Third Olynthiac is the latest ; but the question of the order of the First and Second has been much discussed. See Grote (History of Greece, chap. 88, appendix), who prefers the arrangement ii. i. iii., and Blass, Die attische Beredsamkeit, iii. p. 319. Euboean War. Olyn- thiacs. A few months later, Olynthus and the thirty-two towns of the confederacy were swept from the earth. Men could walk over their sites, Demosthenes said seven years afterwards, without knowing that such cities had existed. It was now certain that Philip could not be stopped outside of Greece. The question was, What point within Greece shall he be allowed to reach? Eubulus and his party, with that versatility which is the privilege of political vagueness, now began to call for a congress of the allies to consider the common danger. They found a brilliant interpreter in Aeschines, who, after having been a tragic actor and a clerk to the assembly, had entered political life with the advantages of a splendid gift for eloquence, a fine presence, a happy address, a ready wit and a facile conscience. While his opponents had thus suddenly become warlike, Demosthenes had become pacific. He saw that Athens must have time to collect strength. Nothing could be gained, meanwhile, by going on with the war. Macedonian sympathizers at Athens, of whom Philocrates was the chief, also favoured peace. Eleven envoys, including Philocrates, Aeschines, and Demosthenes, were sent to Philip in February 346 B.C. After a debate at Athens, peace was concluded with Philip in April. Philip on the one Peace hand, Athens and her allies on the other, were to keep between what they respectively held at the time when the peace phll'P aad was ratified. But here the Athenians made a fatal error. Philip was bent on keeping the door of Greece open. Demosthenes was bent on shutting it against him. Philip was now at war with the people of Halus in Thessaly. Thebes had for ten years been at war with Phocis. Here were two distinct chances for Philip's armed intervention in Greece. But if the Kalians and the Phocians were included in the peace, Philip could not bear arms against them without violating the peace. Accordingly Philip insisted that they should not be included. Demosthenes insisted they should be included. They were not included. The result followed speedily. The same envoys were sent a second time to Philip at the end of April 346 for the purpose of receiving his oaths in ratification of the peace. It was late in June before he returned from Thrace to Pella — thus gaining, under the terms, all the towns that he had taken mean- while. He next took the envoys with him through Thessaly to Thermopylae. There — at the invitation of Thessalians and Thebans — he intervened in the Phocian War. Phalaecus surrendered. Phocis was crushed. Philip took its place in the Amphictyonic Council, and was thus p£%Jfaa established as a Greek power in the very centre, at the war. sacred hearth, of Greece. The right of precedence in consultation of the oracle (irponavrdo.) was transferred from Athens to Philip. While indignant Athenians were clamouring for the revocation of the peace, Demosthenes upheld it in his speech " On the Peace " in September. It ought never to have been made on such terms, he said. But, having been made, it had better be kept. " If we went to war now, where should we find allies? And after losing Oropus, Amphipolis, Cardia, Chios, Cos, Rhodes, Byzantium, shall we fight about the shadow of Delphi?" During the eight years between the peace of Philocrates and the battle of Chaeronea, the authority of Demosthenes steadily grew, until it became first predominant and then paramount. He had, indeed, a melancholy advantage. Each year his argument was more and more cogently enforced by the logic of facts. In 344 he visited the Peloponnesus for the purpose of counteracting Macedonian intrigue. Mistrust, he told the Peloponnesian cities, is the safeguard of free communities against tyrants. Philip lodged a formal complaint at Athens. Here, as elsewhere, the future master of Greece reminds us of Napoleon on the eve of the first empire. He has the same imperturbable and persuasive effrontery in protesting that he is doing one thing at the moment when his energies are concentrated on doing the opposite. Demosthenes replied in the Second Philippic. " If," he said, " Philip is the friend of Greece, we are doing wrong. If he is the enemy of Greece, we are doing right. Which is he? I hold him to be our enemy, because everything that he has hitherto done has benefited himself and hurt us." The prosecution of Aeschines for malversation on the Second Philippic. DEMOSTHENES Third Philippic. embassy (commonly known as De falsa legalione), which was brought to an issue in the following year, marks the moral strength of the position now held by Demosthenes. When the gravity of the charge and the complexity of the evidence are considered, the acquittal of Aeschines by a narrow majority must be deemed his condemnation. The speech " On the Affairs of the Chersonese " and the Third Philippic were the crowning efforts of Demosthenes. Spoken in the same year, 341 B.C., and within a short space of each other, they must be taken together. The speech " On the Affairs of the Chersonese " regards the situation chiefly from an Athenian point of view. " If the peace means," argues Demosthenes, " that Philip can seize with impunity one Athenian possession after another, but that Athenians shall not on their peril touch aught that belongs to Philip, where is the line to be drawn? We shall go to war, I am told, when it is necessary. If the necessity has not come yet, when will it come? " The Third Philippic surveys a wider horizon. It ascends from the Athenian to the Hellenic view. Philip has annihilated Olynthus and the Chalcidic towns. He has ruined Pbocis. He has frightened Thebes. He has divided Thessaly. Euboea and the Pelo- ponnesus are his. His power stretches from the Adriatic to the Hellespont. Where shall be the end? Athens is the last hope of Greece. And, in this final crisis, Demosthenes was the embodied energy of Athens. It was Demosthenes who went to Byzantium, brought the estranged city back to the Athenian alliance, and snatched it from the hands of Philip. It was Demosthenes who, when Philip had already seized Elatea, hurried to Thebes, who by his passionate appeal gained one last chance, the only possible chance, for Greek freedom, who broke down the barrier of an inveterate jealousy, who brought Thebans to fight beside Athenians, and who thus won at the eleventh hour a victory for the spirit of loyal union which took away at least one bitterness from the unspeakable calamity of Chaeronea. But the work of Demosthenes was not closed by the ruin of his cause. During the last sixteen years of his life (338-322) he rendered services to Athens not less important, and 'activity? perhaps more difficult, than those which he had rendered before. He was now, as a matter of course, foremost in the public affairs of Athens. In January 337, at the annual winter Festival of the Dead in the Outer Ceramicus, he spoke the funeral oration over those who had fallen at Chaeronea. He was member of a commission for strengthening the fortifica- tions of the city (reixorotos). He administered the festival-fund. During a dearth which visited Athens between 330 and 326 he was charged with the organization of public relief. In 324 he was chief (Apxt0€wpos) of the sacred embassy to Olympia. Already, in 336, Ctesiphon had proposed that Demosthenes should receive a golden crown from the state, and that his extraordinary merits should be proclaimed in the theatre at the Great Dionysia. The proposal was adopted by the senate as a bill (irpoftovKevna) ; but it must be passed by the Assembly before it could become an act (^(^wrpta). To prevent this, Aeschines gave notice, in 336, that he intended to proceed against Ctesiphon for having proposed an unconstitutional measure. For six years Aeschines avoided action on this notice. At last, in 330, the patriotic party felt strong enough to force him to an issue. Aeschines spoke the speech " Against Ctesiphon," an attack on the whole public life of Demosthenes. Demosthenes gained an overwhelming victory for himself and for the honour of Athens in the most finished, the most splendid and the most pathetic work of ancient eloquence — the immortal oration " On the Crown." In the winter of 325-324 Harpalus, the receiver-general of Alexander in Asia, fled to Greece, taking with him 8000 mercen- aries, and treasure equivalent to about a million and Harpalus. a quarter sterling. On the motion of Demosthenes he was warned from the harbours of Attica. Having left his troops and part of his treasure at Taenarum, he again present'ed himself at the Peiraeus, and was now admitted. He spoke fervently of the opportunity which offered itself to those who loved the freedom of Greece. All Asia would rise with Athens to throw off the hated yoke. Fiery patriots like Hypereides were in raptures. For zeal which could be bought Harpalus had other persuasions. But Demosthenes stood firm. War with Alexander would, he saw, be madness. It could have but one result, — some indefinitely worse doom for Athens. Antipater and Olympias presently demanded the surrender of Harpalus. Demosthenes opposed this. But he reconciled the dignity with the loyalty of Athens by carrying a decree that Harpalus should be arrested, and that his treasure should be deposited in the Parthenon, to be held in trust for Alexander. Harpalus escaped from prison. The amount of the treasure, which Harpalus had stated as 700 talents, proved to be no more than 350. Demosthenes proposed that the Areopagus should inquire what had become of the other 350. Six months, spent in party intrigues, passed before the Areo- pagus gave hi their report (dwo^cuns). The report inculpated nine persons. Demosthenes headed the list of the accused. Hypereides was among the ten public prosecutors. Demos- thenes was condemned, fined fifty talents, and, in default of payment, imprisoned. After a few days he escaped from prison to Aegina, and thence to Troezen. Two things in this obscure affair are beyond reasonable doubt. First, that Demosthenes was not bribed by Harpalus. The hatred of the Macedonian party towards Demosthenes, and the fury of those vehement patriots who cried out that he had betrayed their best oppor- tunity, combined to procure his condemnation, with the help, probably, of some appearances which were against him. Secondly, it can hardly be questioned that, by withstanding the hot-headed patriots at this juncture, Demosthenes did heroic service to Athens. Next year (323 B.C.) Alexander died. Then the voice of Demos- thenes, calling Greece to arms, rang out like a trumpet. Early in August 322 the battle of Crannon decided the Lamian War against Greece. Antipater demanded, as the condition on which he would refrain from besieging war. Athens, the surrender of the leading patriots. De- mades moved the decree of the Assembly by which Demosthenes, Hypereides, and some others were condemned to death as traitors. On the 2oth of Boedromion (September 16) Demos- 322, a Macedonian garrison occupied Munychia. It thenes was a day of solemn and happy memories, a day con~ devoted, in the celebration of the Great Mysteries, to sacred joy, — the day on which the glad procession of the Initiated returned from Eleusis to Athens. It happened, however, to have another association, more significant than any ironical contrast for the present purpose of Antipater. It was the day on which, thirteen years before, Alexander had punished the rebellion of Thebes with annihilation. The condemned men had fled to Aegina. Parting there from Hypereides and the rest, Demosthenes went on to Calauria, a small island off the coast of Argolis. In Calauria there was an ancient temple of Poseidon, once a centre of Minyan and Ionian worship, and surrounded with a peculiar sanctity as having been, from time immemorial, an inviolable refuge for the pursued. Here Demosthenes sought asylum. Archias of Thurii, a man who, like Aeschines, had begun life as a tragic actor, and who was now in the pay of Antipater, soon traced the fugitive, landed in Calauria, and appeared before the temple of Poseidon with a body of Thracian spearmen. Plutarch's picturesque narrative bears the marks of artistic elaboration. Demosthenes had dreamed the night before that he and Archias were competing for a prize as tragic actors; the house applauded Demosthenes; but his chorus was shabbily equipped, and Archias gained the prize. Archias was not the man to stick at sacrilege. In Aegina, Hypereides and the others had been taken from the shrine of Aeacus. But he hesitated to violate an asylum so peculiarly sacred as the Calaurian temple. Standing before its open door, with his Thracian soldiers around him, he endeavoured to prevail on Demosthenes to quit the holy precinct. Antipater would be certain to pardon him. Demos- thenes sat silent, with his eyes fixed on the ground. At last, as the emissary persisted in his bland persuasions, he looked up and said, — " Archias, you never moved me by your acting, and you demned. DEMOSTHENES will not move me now by your promises." Archias lost his temper, and began to threaten. " Now," rejoined Demosthenes, " you speak like a real Macedonian oracle; before you were acting. Wait a moment, then, till 1 write to my friends." With these words, Demosthenes withdrew into the inner part of the temple, — still visible, however, from the entrance. He took out a roll of paper, as if he were going to write, put the pen to his mouth, and bit it, as was his habit in composing. Then he threw his head back, and drew his cloak over it. The Thracian spearmen, who were watching him from the door, began to gibe at his cowardice. _ .. Archias went in to him, encouraged him to rise, repeated his old arguments, talked to him of reconcilia- tion with Antipater. By this time Demosthenes felt that the poison which he had sucked from the pen was beginning to work. He drew the cloak from his face, and looked steadily at Archias. " Now you can play the part of Creon in the tragedy as soon as you like," he said, " and cast forth my body unburied. But I, O gracious Poseidon, quit thy temple while I yet live; Antipater and his Macedonians have done what they could to pollute it." He moved towards the door, calling to them to support his tottering steps. He had just passed the altar of the god, when he fell, and with a groan gave up the ghost (October 322 B.C.). As a statesman, Demosthenes needs no epitaph but his own words in the speech " On the Crown," — / say that, if the event had been manifest to the whole world beforehand, not even then character. ou&ht Athens to have forsaken this course, if Athens had any regard for her glory, or for her past, or for the ages to come. The Persian soldier in Herodotus, following Xerxes to foreseen ruin, confides to his fellow-guest at the banquet that the bitterest pain which man can know is TroXXet poveovra nr/Stvos Kparktiv, — complete, but helpless, prescience. In the grasp of a more inexorable necessity, the champion of Greek freedom was borne onward to a more tremendous catastrophe than that which strewed the waters of Salamis with Persian wrecks and the field of Plataea with Persian dead; but to him, at least, it was given to proclaim aloud the clear and sure foreboding that filled his soul, to do all that true heart and free hand could do for his cause, and, though not to save, yet to encourage, to console and to ennoble. As the inspiration of his life was larger and higher than the mere courage of resistance, so his merit must be regarded as standing altogether outside and above the struggle with Macedon. The great purpose which he set before him was to revive the public spirit, to restore the political vigour, and to re-establish the Panhellenic influence of Athens, — never for her own advantage merely, but always in the interest of Greece. His glory is, that while he lived he helped Athens to live a higher life. Wherever the noblest expressions of her mind are honoured, wherever the large conceptions of Pericles command the admiration of states- men, wherever the architect and the sculptor love to dwell on the masterpieces of Ictinus and Pheidias, wherever the spell of ideal beauty or of lofty contemplation is exercised by the creations of Sophocles or of Plato, there it will be remembered that the spirit which wrought in all these would have passed sooner from among men, if it had not been recalled from a trance, which others were content to mistake for the last sleep, by the passionate breath of Demosthenes. The orator in whom artistic genius was united, more perfectly than in any other man, with moral enthusiasm and with intel- Orato lectual grasp, has held in the modern world the same rank which was accorded to him in the old; but he cannot enjoy the same appreciation. Macaulay's ridicule has rescued from oblivion the criticism which pronounced the eloquence of Chatham to be more ornate than that of Demos- thenes, and less diffuse than that of Cicero. Did the critic, asks Macaulay, ever hear any speaking that was less ornamented than that of Demosthenes, or more diffuse than that of Cicero? Yet the critic's remark was not so pointless as Macaulay thought it. Sincerity and intensity are, indeed, to the modern reader, the most obvious characteristics of Demosthenes. His style is, on the whole, singularly free from what we are accustomed to regard as rhetorical embellishment. Where the modern orator would employ a wealth of imagery, or elaborate a picture in exquisite detail, Demosthenes is content with a phrase or a word. Burke uses, in reference to Hyder Ali, the same image which Demosthenes uses in reference to Philip. " Compounding all the materials of fury, havoc, desolation, into one black cloud, he hung for a while on the declivity of the mountains. Whilst the authors of all these evils were idly and stupidly gazing on this menacing meteor, which darkened all their horizon, it suddenly burst, and poured down the whole of its contents upon the plains of the Carnatic." Demosthenes forbears to amplify. " The people gave their voice, and the danger which hung upon our borders went by like a cloud." To our modern feeling, the eloquence of Demosthenes exhibits everywhere a general stamp of earnest and simple strength. But it is well to remember the charge made against the style of Demosthenes by a contempo- rary Greek orator, and the defence offered by the best Greek critic of oratory. Aeschines reproached the diction of Demos- thenes with excess of elaboration and adornment (irepitpyia). Dionysius, in reply, admits that Demosthenes does at times depart from simplicity, — that his style is sometimes elaborately ornate and remote from the ordinary usage. But, he adds, Demosthenes adopts this manner where it is justified by the elevation of his theme. The remark may serve to remind us of our modern disadvantage for a full appreciation of Demosthenes. The old world felt, as we do, his moral and mental greatness, his fire, his self-devotion, his insight. But it felt also, as we can never feel, the versatile perfection of his skill. This it was that made Demosthenes unique to the ancients. The ardent patriot, the far-seeing statesman, were united in his person with the con- summate and unapproachable artist. Dionysius devoted two special treatises to Demosthenes, — one on his language and style (Xecrads TOJTOS) , the other on his treatment of subject-matter (irpaynariKos Torres). The latter is lost. The former is one of the best essays in literary criticism which antiquity has bequeathed to us. The idea which it works out is that Demos- thenes has perfected Greek prose by fusing in a glorious harmony the elements which had hitherto belonged to separate types. The austere dignity of Antiphon, the plain elegance of Lysias, the smooth and balanced finish of that middle or normal char- acter which is represented by Isocrates, have come together in Demosthenes. Nor is this all. In each species he excels the specialists. He surpasses the school of Antiphon in perspicuity, the school of Lysias in verve, the school of Isocrates in variety, in felicity, in symmetry, in pathos, in power. Demosthenes has at command all the discursive brilliancy which fascinates a festal audience. He has that power of concise and lucid narration, of terse reasoning, of persuasive appeal, which is required by the forensic speaker. His political eloquence can worthily image the majesty of the state, and enforce weighty counsels with lofty and impassioned fervour. A true artist, he grudged no labour which could make the least part of his work more perfect. Isocrates spent ten years on the Panegyricus. After Plato's death, a manuscript was found among his papers with the first eight words of the Republic arranged in several different orders. What wonder, then, asks the Greek critic, if the diligence of Demosthenes was no less incessant and minute? " To me," he says, " it seems far more natural that a man engaged in com- posing political discourses, imperishable memorials of his power, should neglect not even the smallest details, than that the veneration of painters and sculptors, who are darkly showing forth their manual tact and toil in a corruptible material, should exhaust the refinements of their art on the veins, on the feathers, on the down of the lip, and the like niceties." More than half of the sixty-one speeches extant under the name of Demosthenes are certainly or probably spurious. The results to which the preponderance of opinion leans are given works. in the following table. Those marked a were already rejected or doubted in antiquity; those marked m, first in modern times:1 1 The dates agree in the main with those given by A. D. Schafer in Demosthenes und seine Zeit (2nd ed., 1885-1887), and by F. Blass in Die attische Beredsamkeit (1887-1898), who regards thirty-three (or possibly thirty-five) of the speeches as genuine. DEMOSTHENES I. DELIBERATIVE SPEECHES. GENUINE. Or. 14. On the Navy Boards . . 354 B.C. Or. 1 6. For the People of Megalopolis . 352 „ Or. 4. First Philippic . 351 „ Or. 15. For the Rhodians . 351 „ Or. i. First Olynthiac . 349 Or. 2. Second Olynthiac . 349 Or. 3. Third Olynthiac . 348 Or. 5. On the Peace . 346 Or. 6. Second Philippic . 344 Or. 8. On the Affairs of the Chersonese 341 Or. 9. Third Philippic . . . 341 SPURIOUS. (a) Or. 7. On Halonnesus (by Hegesippus) . . 342 B.C. Rhetorical Forgeries. (a) Or. 17. On the Treaty with Alexander. (a) Or. 10. Fourth Philippic. (TO) Or. II. Answer to Philip's Letter.1 (m) Or. 12. Philip's Letter. (m) Or. 13. On the Assessment (oinrfu). II. FORENSIC SPEECHES. A. IN PUBLIC CAUSES. GENUINE. Or. 22. In (KOTA) Androtionem . 355 B.C. Or. 20. Contra (irp6s) Leptinem 354 „ Or. 24. In Timocratem . 352 ,, Or. 23. In Aristocratem . 352 „ Or. 21. In Midiam . . 349 „ Or. 19. On the Embassy . 343 • „ Or. 18. On the Crown . 330 „ SPURIOUS. (a) Or. 58. In Theocrinem ..... 339 B.C. (a) Or. 25, 26. In Aristogitona I. and II. (Rhetorical forgeries). B. IN PRIVATE CAUSES. GENUINE. Or. 27, 28. In Aphobum I. et II. . 364 B.C. (m) Or. 30, 31. Contra Onetora I. et II. . 362 „ Or. 41. Contra Spudiam . . . ? „ (m) Or. 55. Contra Calliclem . . ? Or. 54. In Cononem. . . . 356 ,, Or. 36. Pro Phormione . . . 352 ,, (m) Or. 39. Contra Boeotum de Nomine . 350 ,, Or. 37. Contra Pantaenetum . . 346-5 ,, (m) Or. 38. Contra Nausimachum et Diopithem ? SPURIOUS. (The first eight of the following are given by Schafer to Apollodorus.) . after (TO) Or. 52. Contra Callippum. (a) Or. 53. Contra Nicostratum . (a) Or. 49. Contra Timotheum . (TO) Or. 50. Contra Polyclem . (a) Or. 47. In Evergum et Mnesibulum (m) Or. 45, 46. In Stephanum I. et II. (a) Or. 59. In Neaeram . . 349[343~o, Blass] (TO) -Or. 51. OntheTrierarchicCrown(by Cephiso- dotus?) 369-8 B.C. 368 362 357 356 351 (TO) Or. 43. Contra Macartatum (TO) Or. 48. In Olympiodorum. (TO) Or. 44. Contra Leocharem. ,,_ 300-359 after 343 (a) Or. 35. Contra Lacritum .... 341 „ (a) Or. 42. Contra Phaenippum ... ? (m) Or. 32. Contra Zenothemin ... ? (TO) Or. 34. Contra Phormionem ... ? (TO) Or. 29. Contra Aphobum pro Phano (a) Or. 40. Contra Boeotum de Dote . . 347 „ (TO) Or. 57. Contra Eubulidem . . . 346-5 ,, (TO) Or. 33. Contra Apaturium . . ? (a) Or. 56. In Dionysodorum . not before 322-1 „ Or. 60 (imT&ios) and Or. 61 (4poiT«6s) are works of rhetor- icians. The six epistles are also forgeries; they were used by the composer of the twelve epistles which bear the name of Aeschines. The 56 irpoolfua, exordia or sketches for political speeches, are by various hands and of various dates.2 They are valuable as being compiled from Demosthenes himself, or from other classical models. The ancient fame of Demosthenes as an orator can be compared only with the fame of Homer as a poet. Cicero, with generous appreciation, recognizes Demosthenes as the standard of perfec- tion. Dionysius, the closest and most penetrating of his ancient critics, exhausts the language of admiration in showing how 1 Or. ii and 12 are probably both by Anaximenes of Lampsacus. 1 According to Blass, the second and third epistles and the exordia are genuine. Demosthenes united and elevated whatever had been best in earlier masters of the Greek idiom. Hermogenes, in his works on rhetoric, refers to Demosthenes as 6 p^rwp, the Literary orator. The writer of the treatise On Sublimity knows history of no heights loftier than those to which Demosthenes has risen. From his own younger contemporaries, Aristotle and Theophrastus, who founded their theory of rhetoric in large part on his practice, down to the latest Byzantines, the consent of theorists, orators, antiquarians, anthologists, lexico- graphers, offered the same unvarying homage to Demosthenes. His work busied commentators such as Xenon, Minucian, Basilicus, Aelius, Theon, Zosimus of Gaza. Arguments to his speeches were drawn up by rhetoricians so distinguished as Numenius and Libanius. Accomplished men of letters, such as Julius Vestinus and Aelius Dionysius, selected from his writings choice passages for declamation or perusal, of which fragments are incorporated in the miscellany of Photius and the lexicons of Harpocration, Pollux and Suidas. It might have been anticipated that the purity of a text so widely read and so renowned would, from the earliest times, have been guarded with jealous care. The works of the three great dramatists had been thus protected, about 340 B.C., by a standard Attic recension. But no such good fortune befell the works of Demosthenes. Alexandrian criticism was chiefly occupied with poetry. The titular works of Demosthenes were, indeed, registered, with those of the other orators, in the catalogues (PTJTOPIKOI irlvoxts) of Alexandria and Pergamum. But no thorough attempt was made to separate the authentic works from those spurious works which had even then become mingled with them. Philosophical schools which, like the Stoic, felt the ethical interest of Demos- thenes, cared little for his language. The rhetoricians who imitated or analysed his style cared little for the criticism of his text. Their treatment of it had, indeed, a direct tendency to falsify it. It was customary to indicate by marks those passages which were especially useful for study or imitation. It then became a rhetorical exercise to recast, adapt or interweave such passages. Sopater, the commentator on Hermogenes, wrote on /i€Ta/3oXai xoi utrairoiriffta T&V &t\iuxj8ivovs \upiuv, " adap- tations or transcripts of passages in Demosthenes." Such manipulation could not but lead to interpolations or confusions in the original text. Great, too, as was the attention bestowed on the thought, sentiment and style of Demosthenes, compara- tively little care was bestowed on his subject-matter. He was studied more on the moral and the formal side than on the real side. An incorrect substitution of one name for another, a reading which gave an impossible date, insertions of spurious laws or decrees, were points which few readers would stop to notice. Hence it resulted that, while Plato, Thucydides and Demos- thenes were the most universally popular of the classical prose- writers, the text of Demosthenes, the most widely used perhaps of all, was also the least pure. His more careful students at length made an effort to arrest the process of corruption. Editions of Demosthenes based on a critical recension, and called 'ArrLKiava (avriypatjia), came to be distinguished from the vulgates, or oynuSea ec&fcmJ. Among the extant manuscripts of Demosthenes — upwards of 170 in number — one is far superior, as a whole, to the rest. This is Parisinus S 2934, of the loth century. A com- parison of this MS. with the extracts of Aelius, Aristeides and Harpocration from the Third Philippic favours the view that it is derived from an 'AmKt.av6v, whereas the SrjjuajSets ec56 1675), was educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. He was summoned to the House of Lords as Baron Feilding in March 1629. After seeing military service in the Netherlands he was sent in 1634 by Charles I. as ambassador to Venice, where he remained for five years. When the Civil War broke out Feilding, unlike the other members of his family, ranged himself among the Parliamentarians, led a regiment of horse at Edgehill, and, having become earl of Denbigh in April 1643, was made com- mander-in-chief of the Parliamentary army in Warwickshire and the neighbouring counties, and lord-lieutenant of Warwickshire. During the year 1644 he was fairly active in the field, but in some quarters he was distrusted and he resigned his command after the passing of the self-denying ordinance in April 1645. At Uxbridge in 1645 Denbigh was one of the commissioners appointed to treat with the king, and he undertook a similar duty at Carisbrooke in 1647. Clarendon relates how at Uxbridge Denbigh declared privately that he regretted the position in which he found himself, and expressed his willingness to serve Charles I. He supported the army in its dispute with the parliament, but he would take no part in the trial of Charles I. Under the government of the commonwealth Denbigh was a member of the council of state, but his loyalty to his former associates grew lukewarm, and gradually he came to be regarded as a royalist. In 1664 the earl was created Baron St Liz. Although four times married he left no issue when he died on the 28th of November 1675. His titles devolved on his nephew WILLIAM FEILDING (1640- 1685), son and heir of his brother George (created Baron Feilding of Lecaghe, Viscount Callan and earl of Desmond), and the earldom of Desmond has been held by his descendants to the present day in conjunction with the earldom of Denbigh. DENBIGH (Dinbych), a municipal and (with Holt, Ruthin and Wrexham) contributory parliamentary borough, market town and county town of Denbighshire, N. Wales, on branches of the London & North Western and the Great Western railways. Pop. (1901) 6438. Denbigh Castle, surrounding the hill with a double wall, was built, in Edward I.'s reign, by Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, from whom the town received its first charter. The outer wall is nearly a mile round; over its main gateway is a niche with a figure representing, possibly, Edward I., but more probably, de Lacy. Here, in 1645, after the defeat of Rowton Moor, Charles I. found shelter, the castle long resisting the Parliamentarians, and being reduced to ruins by his successor. The chief buildings are the Carmelite Priory (ruins dating Derhaps from the i3th century); a Bluecoat school (1514); a :ree grammar school (1527); an orphan girl school (funds left by Thomas Howel to the Drapers' Co., in Henry VII. 's reign); the town hall (built in 1572 by Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, enlarged and restored in 1780); an unfinished church (begun Leicester); a market hall (with arcades or "rows," such as :hose of Chester or Yarmouth); and the old parish church of St Marcella. The streams near Denbigh are the Clwyd and Elwy. The inhabitants of Denbigh are chiefly occupied in he timber trade, butter-making, poultry-farming, bootmaking, :anning and quarrying (lime, slate and paving-stones). The jorough of Denbigh has a separate commission of the peace, but no separate court of quarter sessions. The town has long been known as a Welsh publishing centre, the vernacular newspaper, Barter, being edited and printed here. Near Denbigh, at Jodelwyddan, &c., coal is worked. The old British tower and castle were called Castell caled 'ryn yn Rhds, the " castle of the hard hill in Rh6s." Din in i8 DENBIGHSHIRE— DENDERA Dinbych means a fort. There is a goblin well at the castle. Historically, David (Dafydd), brother of the last Llewelyn, was here (act. Edward I.) perhaps on a foray; also Henry Lacy, who built the castle (aet. Edward I.), given to the Mortimers and to Leicester (under Edward III. and Elizabeth, respectively). DENBiaHSHIRE (Dinbych), a county of N. Wales, bounded N. by the Irish Sea, N.E. by Flint and Cheshire, S.E. by Flint and Shropshire, S. by Montgomery and Merioneth, and W. by Carnarvon. Area, 662 sq. m. On the N. coast, within the Denbighshire borders and between Old Colwyn and Llandulas, is a wedge of land included in Carnarvonshire, owing to a change in the course of the Conwy stream. (Thus, also, Llandudno is partly in the Bangor, and partly in the St Asaph, diocese.) The surface of Denbighshire is irregular, and physically diversified. In the N.W. are the bleak Hiraethog (" longing ") hills, sloping W. to the Conwy and E. to the Clwyd. In the N. are Colwyn and Abergele bays, on the S. the Yspytty (Lat. Hospitium) and Llangwm range, between Denbigh and Merioneth. From this watershed flow the Elwy, Aled, Clywedog, Merddwr and Alwen, tributaries of the Clwyd, Conwy and Dee (Dyfrdwy). Some of the valleys contrast agreeably with the bleak hills, e.g. those of the Clwyd and Elwy. The portion lying between Ruabon (Rhiwabon) hills and the Dee is agricultural and rich in minerals; the Berwyn to Offa's Dyke (Wdl Of a) is wild and barren, except the Tanat valley, Llansilin and Ceiriog. One feeder of the Tanat forms the Pistyll Rhaiadr (waterspout fall), another rises in Llyncaws (cheese pool) under Moel Sych (dry bare-hill), the highest point in the county. Aled and Alwen are both lakes and streams. Geology. — The geology of the county is full of interest, as it develops all the principal strata that intervenes between the Ordovician and the Triassic series. In the Ordovician district, which extends from the southern boundary to the Ceiriog, the Llandeilo formation of the eastern slopes of the Berwyn and the Bala beds of shelly sandstone are traversed east and west by bands of intrusive felspathic porphyry and ashes. The same formation occurs just within the county border at Cerrig-y-Druidion, Langum, Bettys-y- coed and in the Fairy Glen. Northwards from the Ceiriog to the limestone fringe at Llandrillo the Wenlock shale of the Silurian covers the entire mass of the Hiraethog and Clwydian hills, but verging on its western slopes into the Denbighshire grit, which may be traced southward in a continuous line from the mouth of the Conway as far as Llanddewi Ystrad Enni in Radnorshire, near Pentre-Voelas and Conway they are abundantly fossiliferous. On its eastern slope a narrow broken band of the Old Red, or what may be a conglomeratic basement bed of the Carboniferous Limestone series, crops up along the Vale of Clwyd and in Eglwyseg. Resting upon this the Carboniferous Limestone extends from Llanymynach, its extreme southern point, to the Cyrnybrain fault, and there forks into two divisions that terminate respectively in the Great Orme's Head and in Talargoch, and are separated from each other by the denuded shales of the Moel Famma range. In the Vale of Clwyd the jimestone underlies the New Red Sandstone, and in the eastern division it is itself overlaid by the Millstone Grit of Ruabon and Minera, and by a long reach of the Coal Measures which near Wrexham are 4j m. in breadth. Eastward of these a broad strip of the red marly beds succeeds, formerly considered to be Permian but now regarded as belonging to the Coal Measures, and yet again between this and the Dee the ground is occupied — as in the Vale of Clwyd — by the New Red rocks. As in the other northern counties of Wales, the whole of the lower ground is covered more or less thickly with glacial drift. On the western side of the Vale of Clwyd, at Cefn and Plas Heaton, the caves, which are a common feature in such limestone districts, have yielded the remains of the rhinoceros, mammoth, hippopotamus and other extinct mammals. Coal is mined from the Coal Measures, and from the limestone below, lead with silver and zinc ores have been obtained. Valuable fireclays and terra-cotta marls are also taken from the Coal Measures about Wrexham. The uplands being uncongenial for corn, ponies, sheep and black cattle are reared, for fattening in the Midlands of England and sale in London. Oats and turnips, rather than wheat, barley and potatoes, occupy the tilled land. The county is fairly wooded. There are several important farmers' clubs (the Denbighshire and Flintshire, the vale of Conway, the Cerrig y druidion, &c.). The London & North- Western railway (Holyhead line), with the Conway and Clwyd valleys branches, together with the lines connecting Denbigh with Ruabon (Rhiwabon), via Ruthin and Corwen, Wrexham with Connah's Quay (Great Central) and Rhosllanerchrhugog with Glyn Ceiriog (for the Great Western and Great Central railways) have opened up the county. Down the valley of Llangollen also runs the Holyhead road from London, well built and passing thro ugh fine scenery. At Nantglyn paving flags are raised, at Rhiwfelen (near Llangollen) slabs and slates, and good slates are also obtained at Glyn Ceiriog. There is plenty of limestone, with china stone at Brymbo. Cefn Rhiwabon yields sandstone (for hones) and millstone grit. Chirk, Ruabon and Brymbo have coal mines. The great Minera is the principal lead mine. There is much brick and pottery clay. The Ceiriog valley has a dynamite factory. Llangollen and Llansantffraid (St Bridgit's) have woollen manufactures. The area of the ancient county is 423,499 acres, with a popula- tion in 1901 of 129,942. The area of the administrative county is 426,084 acres. The chief towns are: Wrexham, a mining centre and N. Wales . military centre, with a fine church; Denbigh; Ruthin, where assizes are held (here are a grammar school, a warden and a 13th-century castle rebuilt); Llangollen and Llanrwst; and Holt, with an old ruined castle. The Denbigh district of parliamentary boroughs is formed of: Denbigh (pop. 6483), Holt (1059), Ruthin (2643), and Wrexham (14,966). The county has two parliamentary divisions. The urban districts are: Abergele and Pensarn (2083), Colwyn Bay and Colwyn (8689), Llangollen (3303), and Llanrwst (2645). Denbighshire is in the N. Wales circuit, assizes being held at Ruthin. Denbigh and Wrexham boroughs have separate commissions of the peace, but no separate quarter-session courts. The ancient county, which is in the diocese of St Asaph, contains seventy-five ecclesiastical parishes and districts and part of a parish. The county was formed, by an act of Henry VIII., out of the lordships of Denbigh, Ruthin (Rhuthyn), Rhos and Rhyfoniog, which are roughly the Perfeddwlad (midland) between Conway and Clwyd, and the lordships of Bromfield, Yale (Idl, open land) and Chirkland, the old possessions of Gruffydd ap Madoc, arglwydd (lord) of Dinas Bran. Cefn (Elwy Valley) limestone caves hold the prehistoric hippopotamus, elephant, rhinoceros, lion, hyena, bear, reindeer, &c.; Plas Heaton cave, the glutton; Pont Newydd, felstone tools and a polished stone axe (like that of Rhosdigre) ; Carnedd Tyddyn Bleiddian, " platycnemic (skeleton) men of Denbighshire " (like those of Perthi Chwareu). Clawdd Coch has traces of the Romans; so also Penygaer and Penbarras. Roman roads ran from Deva (Chester; to Segontium (Carnarvon) and from Deva to Mons Henri (Tomen y mur). To their period belong the inscribed Gwytherin and Pentrefoelas (near Bettws-y-coed) stones. The Valle Crucis " Eliseg's pillar " tells of Brochmael and tKe Cairlegion (Chester) struggle against ^Ethelfrith's invading Northumbrians, A.D. 613, while Offa's dike goes back to the Mercian advance. Near and parallel to Offa's is the shorter and mysterious Watt's dike. Chirk is the only Denbighshire castle comparatively untouched by time and still occupied. Ruthin has cloisters; Wrexham, the Brynffynnon " nunnery "; and at both are collegiate churches. Llanrwst, Gresford and Derwen boast rood lofts and screens; Whitchurch and Llanrwst, portrait brasses and monuments; Derwen, a churchyard cross; Gresford and Llanrhaiadr (Dyffryn Clwyd) , stained glass. Near Abergele, known for its sea baths, is the ogof (or cave), traditionally the refuge of Richard II. and the scene of his capture by Bolingbroke in 1399. See J. Williams, Denbigh (1856), and T. F. Tout, Welsh Shires. DENDERA, a village in Upper Egypt, situated in the angle of the great westward bend of the Nile opposite Kena. Here was the ancient city of Tentyra, capital of the Tentyrite nome, the sixth of Upper Egypt, and the principal seat of the worship of Hathor [Aphrodite] the cow-goddess of love and joy. The old Egyptian name of Tentyra was written Tn-t (Ant), but the pro- nunciation of it is unknown: in later days it was 'In-t-t-ntr-t, " ant of the goddess," pronounced Ni-tent6ri, whence Ttvrvpa, Tevrupis. The temple of Hathor was built in the ist century B.C., being begun under the later Ptolemies (Ptol. XIII.) and finished by Augustus, but much of the decoration is later. A great DENDROCOMETES— DENE-HOLES rectangular enclosure of crude bricks, measuring about 900 X 850 ft., contains the sacred buildings: it was entered by two stone gateways, in the north and the east sides, built by Domitian. Another smaller enclosure lies to the east with a gateway also of the Roman period. The plan of the temple may be supposed to have included a colonnaded court in front of the present facade, and pylon towers at the entrance; but these were never built, probably for lack of funds. The building, which is of sandstone, measures about 300 ft. from front to back, and consists of two oblong rectangles; the foremost, placed transversely to the other, is the great hypostyle hall or pronaos, the broadest and loftiest part of the temple, measuring 135 ft. in width, and comprising about one- third of the whole structure; the facade has six columns with heads of Hathor, and the ceiling is supported by eighteen great columns. The second rectangle contains a small hypostyle hall with six columns, and the sanctuary, with their subsidiary chambers. The sanctuary is surrounded by a corridor into which the chambers open: on the west side is an apartment forming a court and kiosk for the celebration of the feast of the New Year, the principal festival of Dendera. On the roof of the temple, reached by two staircases, are a pavilion and several chambers dedicated to the worship of Osiris. Inside and out, the whole of the temple is covered with scenes and inscriptions in crowded characters, of ceremonial and religious import; the decoration is even carried into a remarkable series of hidden passages and chambers or crypts made in the solid walls for the reception of its most valuable treasures. The architectural style is dignified and pleasing in design and proportions. The interior of the building has been completely cleared: from the outside, however, its imposing effect is quite lost, owing to the mounds of rubbish amongst which it is sunk. North-east of the entrance is a " Birth House " for the cult of the child Harsemteu, and behind the temple a small temple of Isis, dating from the reign of Augustus. The original foundation of the temple must date back to a remote time: the work of some of the early builders is in fact referred to in the inscriptions on the present structure. Petrie's excavation of the cemetery behind the temple enclosures revealed burials dating from the fourth dynasty onwards, the most important being mastables of the period from the sixth to the eleventh dynasties; many of these exhibited a peculiar degradation of the contemporary style of sculpture. The zodiacs of the temple of Dendera gave rise to a consider- able literature before their late origin was established by Champollion in 1822: one of them, from a chamber on the roof, was removed in 1820 to the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. Figures of the celebrated Cleopatra VI. occur amongst the sculptures on the exterior of the temple, but they are purely conventional, without a trace of portraiture. Horus of Edfu, the enemy of the crocodiles and hippopotami of Set, appears sometimes as the consort of Hathor of Dendera. The skill displayed by the Tentyrites in capturing the crocodile is referred to by Strabo and other Greek writers. Juvenal, in his seventeenth satire, takes as his text a religious riot between the Tentyrites and the neighbouring Ombites, in the course of which an unlucky Ombite was torn to pieces and devoured by the opposite party. The Ombos in question is not the distant Ombos south of Edfu, where the crocodile was worshipped; Petrie has shown that opposite Coptos, only about 15 m. from Tentyra, there was another Ombos, venerating the hippopotamus sacred to Set. See A. Mariette, Denderah (5 vols. atlas and text, 1869-1880); W. M. F. Petrie, Denderah (1900) ; Nagada and Dallas (1896). (F. LL. G.) DENDROCOMETES (so named by F. Stein), a genus of suctorian Infusoria, characterized by the repeatedly branched attached body; each of the lobes of the body gives off a few retractile tentacles. It is parasitic on the gills of the so-called freshwater shrimp Gammarus pulex. For its conjugation see Sydney H. HicksOn, in Quarterly Journ. of Microsc. Science, vol xlv. (1902), p. 325. DENE-HOLES, the name given to certain caves or excavations in England, which have been popularly supposed to be due to the Danes or some other of the early northern invaders of the country. The common spelling " Dane hole " is adduced as evidence of this, and individual names, such as Vortigern's Caves at Margate, and Canute's Gold Mine near Bexley, naturally follow the same theory. The word, however, is probably derived from the Anglo- Saxon den, a hole or valley. There are many underground excavations in the south of the country, also found to some extent in the midlands and the north, but true dene-holes are found chiefly in those parts of Kent and Essex along the lower banks of the Thames. With one exception there are no recorded specimens farther east than those of the Grays Thurrock district, situated in Hangman's Wood, on the north, and one near Rochester on the south side of the river. The general outline of the formation of these caves is invariably the same. The entrance is a vertical shaft some 3 ft. in diameter falling, on an average, to a depth of 60 ft. The depth is regulated, obviously, by the depth of the chalk from the surface, but, although chalk could have been obtained close at hand within a few feet, or even inches, from the surface, a depth of from 45 to 80 ft., or more, is a characteristic feature. It is believed that dene-holes were also excavated in sand, but as these would be of a perishable nature there are no available data of any value. The shaft, when the chalk is reached, widens out into a domed chamber with a roof of chalk some 3 ft. thick. The walls frequently contract somewhat as they near the floor. As a rule there is only one chamber, from 16 to 18 ft. in height, beneath each shaft. From this excessive height it has been inferred that the caves were not primarily intended for habitations or even hiding-places. In some cases the chamber is extended, the roof being supported by pillars of chalk left standing. A rare specimen of a twin-chamber was discovered at Gravesend. In this case the one entrance served for both caves, although a separate aperture connected them on the floor level. Where galleries are found connecting the chambers, forming a bewildering labyrinth, a careful scrutiny of the walls usually reveals evidence that they are the work of a people of a much later period than that of the chambers, or, as they become in these cases, the halls of the galleries. Isolated specimens have been discovered in various parts of Kent and Essex, but the most important groups have been found at Grays Thurrock, in the districts of Woolwich, Abbey V/ood and Bexley, and at Gravesend. Those at Bexley and Grays Thurrock are the most valuable still existing. It is generally found that the tool work on the root or ceiling is rougher than that on the walls, where an upright position could be maintained. Casts taken of some of the pick-holes near the roof show that, in all probability, they were made by bone or horn picks. And numerous bone picks have been discovered in Essex and Kent. These pick-holes are amongst the most valuable data for the study of dene-holes, and have assisted in fixing the date of their formation to pre-Roman times. Very few relics of antiquarian value have been discovered in any of the known dene-holes which have assisted in fixing the date or determining the uses of these prehistoric excavations. Pliny mentions pits sunk to a depth of a hundred feet, " where they branched out like the veins of mines." This has been used in support of the theory that dene-holes were wells sunk for the extraction of chalk; but no known dene-hole branches out in this way. Chretien de Troyes has a passage on underground caves in Britain which may have reference to dene-holes, and tradition of the I4th century treated the dene-holes of Grays as the fabled gold mines of Cunobeline (or Cymbeline) of the ist century. Vortigern's Caves at Margate are possibly dene-holes which have been adapted by later peoples to other purposes; and excellent examples of various pick-holes may be seen on different parts of the walls. Local tradition in some cases traces the use of these caves to the smugglers, and, when it is remembered that illicit traffic was common not only on the coast but in the Thames as far up the river as Barking Creek, the theory is at least tenable that these ready-made hiding-places, difficult of approach and dangerous to descend, were so utilized. 20 DENGUE— DENHAM There are three purposes for which dene-holes may have been originally excavated: (a) as hiding-places or dwellings, (b) draw- wells for the extraction of chalk for agricultural uses, and (c) store- houses for grain . For several reasons it is unlikely that they were used as habitations, although they may have been used occasion- ally as hiding-places. Other evidence has shown that it is equally improbable that they were used for the extraction of chalk. The chief reasons against this theory are that chalk could have been obtained outcropping close by, and that every trace of loose chalk has been removed from the vicinity of the holes, while known examples of chalk draw-wells do not descend to so great a depth. The discovery of a shallow dene-hole, about 14 ft. below the surface, at Stone negatives this theory still further. The last of the three possible uses for which these prehistoric excavations were designed is usually accepted as the most probable. Silos, or underground storehouses, are well known in the south of Europe and Morocco. It is supposed that the grain was stored in the ear and carefully protected from damp by straw. A curious smoothness of the roof of one of the chambers of the Gravesend twin-chamber dene-hole has been put forward as additional evidence in support of this theory. One other theory has been advanced, viz. that the excavations were made in order to get flints for implements, but this is quite impossible, as a careful examination of a few examples will show. Further reference may be made to Essex Dene-holes by T. V. Holmes and W. Cole; fo The Archaeological Journal (1882); the Transac- tions of the Essex Field Club; Archaeologia Cantiana, &c.; Dene- holes by F. W. Reader, in Old Essex, ed. A. C. Kelway (1908). (A.J.P.) DENGUE (pronounced deng-ga), an infectious fever occurring in warm climates. The symptoms are a sudden attack of fever, accompanied by rheumatic pains in the joints and muscles with severe headache and erythema. After a few days a crisis is reached and an interval of two or three days is followed by a slighter return of fever and pain and an eruption resembling measles, the most marked characteristic of the disease. The disease is rarely fatal, death occurring only in cases of extreme weakness caused by old age, infancy or other illness. Little is known of the aetiology of " dengue." The virus is probably similar to that of other exanthematous fevers and communicated by an intermediary culex. The disease is nearly always epidemic, though at intervals it appears to be pandemic and in certain districts almost endemic. The area over which the disease ranges may be stated generally to be between 32° 47' N. and 23° 23' S. Throughout this area " dengue " is constantly epidemic. The earliest epidemic of which anything is known occurred in 1779- 1780 in Egypt and the East Indies. The chief epidemics have been those of 1824-1826 in India, and in the West Indies and the southern states of North America, of 1870-1875, extending practically over the whole of the tropical portions of the East and reaching as far as China. In 1888 and 1889 a great outbreak spread along the shores of the Aegean and over nearly the whole of Asia Minor. Perhaps " dengue " is most nearly endemic in equatorial East Africa and in the West Indies. The word has usually been identified with the Spanish dengue, meaning stiff or prim behaviour, and adopted in the West Indies as a name suit- able to the curious cramped movements of a sufferer from the disease, similar to the name " dandy-fever " which was given to it by the negroes. According to the New English Dictionary (quoting Dr Christie in The Glasgow Medical Journal, September 1881), both " dengue " and " dandy " are corruptions of the Swahili word dinga or denga, meaning a sudden attack of cramp, the Swahili name for the disease being ka-dinga pepo. See Sir Patrick Manson, Tropical Diseases; a Manual of Diseases of Warm Climates (1903). DENHAM, DIXON (1786-1828), English traveller in West Central Africa, was born in London on the ist of January 1786. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School, and was articled to a solicitor, but joined the army in 1811. First in the 23rd Royal Welsh Fusiliers, and afterwards in the 54th foot, he served in the campaigns in Portugal, Spain, France and Belgium, and received the Waterloo medal. In 1821 he volunteered to join Dr Oudney and Hugh Clapperton (?.».), who had been sent by the British government via Tripoli to the central Sudan. He joined the expedition at Murzuk in Fezzan. Finding the promised escort not forthcoming, Denham, whose energy was boundless, started for England to complain of the " duplicity " of the pasha of Tripoli. The pasha, alarmed, sent messengers after him with promises to meet his demands. Denham, who had reached Marseilles, consented to return, the escort was forthcoming, and Murzuk was regained in November 1822. Thence the expedition made its way across the Sahara to Bornu, reached in February 1823. Here Denham, against the wish of Oudney and Clapperton, accompanied a slave-raiding expedition into the Mandara high- lands south of Bornu. The raiders were defeated, and Denham barely escaped with his life. When Oudney and Clapperton set out, December 1823, for the Hausa states, Denham remained behind. He explored the western, south and south-eastern shores of Lake Chad, and the lower courses of the rivers Waube, Logone and Shari. In August 1824, Clapperton having returned and Oudney being dead, Bornu was left on the return journey to Tripoli and England. In December 1826 Denham, promoted lieutenant-colonel, sailed for Sierra Leone as superintendent of liberated Africans. In 1828 he was appointed governor of Sierra Leone, but after administering the colony for five weeks died of fever at Freetown on the 8th of May 1828. See Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central Africa in the years 1822-1824 (London, 1826), the greater part of which is written by Denham ; The Story of Africa, vol. i. chap. xiii. (London, 1892), by Dr Robert Brown. DENHAM, SIR JOHN (1615-1669), English poet, only son of Sir John Denham (1550-1639), lord chief baron of the exchequer in Ireland, was born in Dublin in 1615. In 1617 his father became baron of the exchequer in England, and removed to London with his family. In Michaelmas term 1631 the future poet was entered as a gentleman commoner at Trinity College, Oxford. He removed in 1634 to Lincoln's Inn, where he was, says John Aubrey, a good student, but not suspected of being a wit. The reputation he had gained at Oxford of being the " dream- ingest young fellow " gave way to a scandalous reputation for gambling. In 1634 he married Ann Cotton, and seems to have lived with his father at Egham, Surrey. In 1636 he wrote his paraphrase of the second book of the Aeneid (published in 1656 as The Destruction of Troy, with an excellent verse essay on the art of translation). About the same time he wrote a prose tract against gambling, The Anatomy of Play (printed 1651), designed to assure his father of his repentance, but as soon as he came into his fortune he squandered it at play. It was a surprise to every- one when in 1642 he suddenly, as Edmund Waller said, " broke out like the Irish rebellion, three score thousand strong, when no one was aware, nor in the least expected it," by publishing The Sophy, a tragedy in five acts, the subject of which was drawn from Sir Thomas Herbert's travels. At the beginning of the Civil War Denham was high sheriff for Surrey, and was appointed governor of Farnham Castle. He showed no military ability, and speedily surrendered the castle to the parliament. He was sent as a prisoner to London, but was soon permitted to join the king at Oxford. In 1642 appeared Cooper's Hill, a poem describing the Thames scenery round his home at Egham. The first edition was anonymous: subsequent editions show numerous alterations, and the poem did not assume its final form until 1655. This famous piece, which was Pope's model for his Windsor Forest, was not new in theme or manner, but the praise which it received was well merited by its ease and grace. Moreover Denham expressed his commonplaces with great dignity and skill. He followed the taste of the time in his frequent use of antithesis and metaphor, but these devices seem to arise out of the matter, and are not of the nature of mere external ornament. At Oxford he wrote many squibs against the roundheads. One of the few serious pieces belonging to this period is the short poem " On the Earl of Stafford's Trial and Death." From this time Denham was much in Charles I.'s confidence. He was entrusted with the charge of forwarding letters to and from the king when he was in the custody of the parliament, a DENIA— DENIS, SAINT 21 duty which he discharged successfully with Abraham Cowley, but in 1648 he was suspected by the Parliamentary authorities, and thought it wiser to cross the Channel. He helped in the removal of the young duke of York to Holland, and for some time he served Queen Henrietta Maria in Paris, being entrusted by her with despatches for Holland. In 1650 he was sent to Poland in company with Lord Crofts to obtain money for Charles II. They succeeded in raising £10,000. After two years spent at the exiled court in Holland, Denham returned to London and being quite without resources, he was for some time the guest of the earl of Pembroke at Wilton. In 1655 an order was given that Denham should restrict himself to some place of residence to be selected by himself at a distance of not less than 20 m. from London; subsequently he obtained from the Protector a licence to live at Bury St Edmunds, and in 1658 a passport to travel abroad with the earl of Pembroke. At the Restoration Denham's services were rewarded by the office of surveyor-general of works. His qualifications as an architect were probably slight, but it is safe to regard as grossly exaggerated the accusations of incompetence and peculation made by Samuel Butler in his brutal " Panegyric upon Sir John Denham's Recovery from his Madness." He eventually secured the services of Christopher Wren as deputy- surveyor. In 1660 he was also made a knight of the Bath> In 1665 he married for the second time. His wife, Margaret, daughter of Sir William Brooke, was, according to the comte de Gramont, a beautiful girl of eighteen. She soon became known as the mistress of the duke of York, and the scandal, according to common report, shattered the poet's reason. While Denham was recovering, his wife died, poisoned, it was said, by a cup of chocolate. Some suspected the duchess of York of the crime, but the Comte de Gramont says that the general opinion was that Denham himself was guilty. No sign of poison, however, was found in the examination after Lady Denham's death. Denham survived her for two years, dying at his house near Whitehall in March 1669. He was buried on the 23rd in West- minster Abbey. In the last years of his life he wrote the bitter political satires on the shameful conduct of the Dutch War entitled " Directions to a Painter," and " Fresh Directions," continuing Edmund Waller's " Instructions to a Painter." The printer of these poems, with which were printed one by Andrew Marvell, was sentenced to stand in the pillory. In 1667 Denham wrote his beautiful elegy on Abraham Cowley. Denham's poems include, beside those already given, a verse paraphrase of Cicero's Cato major, and a metrical version of the Psalms. As a writer of didactic verse, he was perhaps too highly praised by his immediate successors. Dryden called Copper's Hill " the exact standard of good writing," and Pope in his Windsor Forest called him " majestic Denham. ' His collected poems with a dedicatory epistle to Charles II. appeared in 1668. Other editions followed, and they are reprinted in Chalmers' (1810) and other col- lections of the English poets. His political satires were printed with some of Rochester's and Marvell's in Bibliotheca curiosa, vol. i. (Edinburgh, 1885). D^NIA, a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of Alicante; on the Mediterranean Sea, at the head of a railway from Car- cagente. Pop. ( i goo) 1 2 ,43 1 . Denia occupies the seaward slopes of a hill surmounted by a ruined castle, and divided by a narrow valley on the south from the limestone ridge of Mongo (2500 ft.), which commands a magnificent view of the Balearic Islands and the Valencian coast. The older houses of Denia are characterized by their flat Moorish roofs (azoteas) and view-turrets (mir adores) , while fragments of the Moorish ramparts are also visible near the harbour; owing, however, to the rapid extension of local com- merce, many of the older quarters were modernized at the beginning of the 2oth century. Nails, and woollen, linen and esparto grass fabrics are manufactured here; and there is a brisk export trade in grapes, raisins and onions, mostly consigned to Great Britain or the United States. Baltic timber and British coal are largely imported. The harbour bay, which is well lighted and sheltered by a breakwater, contains only a small space of deep water, shut in by deposits of sand on three sides. In 1904 it accommodated 402 vessels of 175,000 tons; about half of which were small fishing craft, and coasters carrying agricultural produce to Spanish and African ports. Denia was colonized by Greek merchants from Emporiae (Ampurias in Catalonia), or Massilia (Marseilles), at a very early date; but its Greek name of Hemeroskopeion was soon super- seded by the Roman Dianium. In the ist century B.C., Sertorius made it the naval headquarters of his resistance to Rome; and, as its name implies, it was already famous for its temple of Diana, built in imitation of that at Ephesus. The site of this temple can be traced at the foot of the castle hill. D6nia was captured by the Moors in 713, and from 1031 to 1253 belonged successively to the Moorish kingdoms of Murcia and Valencia. According to an ancient but questionable tradition, its population rose at this period to 50,000, and its commerce proportionately increased. After the city was retaken by the Christians in 1253, its pros- perity dwindled away, and only began to revive in the igth century. During the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14), Denia was thrice besieged; and in 1813 the citadel was held for five months by the French against the allied British and Spanish forces, until the garrison was reduced to 100 men, and compelled to surrender, on honourable terms. DENIKER, JOSEPH (1852- ) French naturalist and anthropologist, was born of French parents at Astrakhan, Russia, on the 6th of March 1852. After receiving his education at the university and technical institute of St Petersburg, he adopted engineering as a profession, and in this capacity travelled ex- tensively in the petroleum districts of the Caucasus, in Central Europe, Italy and Dalmatia. Settling at Paris in 1876, he studied at the Sorbonne, where he took his degree in natural science. In 1888 he was appointed chief librarian of the Natural History Museum, Paris. Among his many valuable ethnological works mention may be made of Recherches anatomiques et embryo- logiques sur les singes anthropoides (1886); £lude sur les Kal- mouks (1883); Les Ghiliaks (1883); and Races et peuples de la lerre (1900). He became one of the chief editors of the Diction- naire de g&ographie uniiierselle, and published many papers in the anthropological and zoological journals of France. DENILIQUIN, a municipal town of Townsend county, New South Wales, Australia, 534 m. direct S.W. of Sydney, and 195 m. by rail N. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 2644. The business of the town is chiefly connected with the interests of the sheep and cattle farmers of the Riverina district, a plain country, in the main pastoral, but suited in some parts for cultivation. Deniliquin has a well-known public school. DENIM (an abbreviation of serge de Nimes), the name origin- ally given to a kind of serge. It is now applied to a stout twilled cloth made in various colours, usually of cotton, and used for ovcrnlls &c DENINA, CARLO GIOVANNI MARIA (1731-1813), Italian historian, was born at Revello, Piedmont, in 1731, and was educated at Saluzzo and Turin. In 1753 he was appointed to the chair of humanity at Pignerol, but he was soon compelled by the influence of the Jesuits to retire from it. In 1756 he graduated as doctor in theology, and began authorship with a theological treatise. Promoted to the professorship of humanity and rhetoric in the college of Turin, he published (1769-1772) his Delle re- voluzioni d'ltalia, the work on which his reputation is mainly founded. Collegiate honours accompanied the issue of its successive volumes, which, however, at the same time multiplied his foes and stimulated their hatred. In 1782, at Frederick the Great's invitation, he went to Berlin, where he remained for many years, in the course of which he published his Vie et regne de Frederic II (Berlin, 1788) and La Prusse litteraire sous Frederic II (3 vols., Berlin, 1790-1791). His Delle revoluzioni della Germania was published at Florence in 1804, in which year he went to Paris as the imperial librarian, on the invitation of Napoleon. At Paris he published in 1 805 his Tableau de la Haute Italie, et des Alpes qui I'entourent. He died there on the 5th of December 1813. DENIS (DiONYSius) , SAINT, first bishop of Paris, patron saint of France. According to Gregory of Tours (Hist. Franc, i. 30), he was sent into Gaul at the time of the .emperor Decius. He suffered martyrdom at the village of Catulliacus, the modern St Denis. His tomb was situated by the side of the Roman road, 22 DENIS, J. N. C. M.— DENIZLI where rose the priory of St-Denis-de-l'Estr€e, which existed until the i8th century. In the sth century the clergy of the diocese of Paris built a basilica over the tomb. About 625 Dagobert, son of Lothair II., founded in honour of St Denis, at some distance from the basilica, the monastery where the greater number of the kings of France have been buried. The festival of St Denis is celebrated on the gth of October. With his name are already associated in the Martyrologium Hieronymianum the priest Rusticus and the deacon Eleutherius. Other traditions — • of no value — are connected with the name of St Denis. A false interpretation of Gregory of Tours, apparently dating from 724, represented St Denis as having received his mission from Pope Clement, and as having suffered martyrdom under Domitian (81-96). Hilduin, abbot of St-Denis in the first half of the gth century, identified Denis of Paris with Denis (Dionysius) the Areopagite (mentioned in Acts xviii. 34), bishop of Athens (Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. iii.4. io,iv. 23.3), and naturally attributed to him the celebrated writings of the pseudo-Areopagite. St Denis is generally represented carrying his head in his hands. See Acta Sanctorum, Octobris, iv. 696-987; Bibliolheca hagio- graphica graeca, p. 37 (Brussels, 1895); Bibiiotheca hagiographica latina. No. 2171-2203 (Brussels, 1899); J. Havet, Les Origines de Saint-Denis, in his collected works, i. 191-246 (Paris, 1896) ; Cahier, Caracteristiques des saints, p. 761 (Paris, 1867). (H. DE.) DENIS, JOHANN NEPOMUK COSMAS MICHAEL (1720-1800), Austrian poet, was born at Scharding on the Inn, on the 27th of September 1729. He was brought up by the Jesuits, entered their order, and in 1759 was appointed professor in the Theresianum in Vienna, a Jesuit college. In 1784, after the suppression of the college, he was made second custodian of the court library, and seven years later became chief librarian. He died on the 2gth of September 1800. A warm admirer of Klopstock, he was one of the leading members of the group of so-called " bards "; and his original poetry, published under the title Die Lieder Sineds des Barden (1772), shows all the extrava- gances of the " bardic " movement. He is best remembered as the translator of Ossian (1768-1769; also published together with his own poems in 5 vols. as Ossians und Sineds Lieder, 1784). More important than either his original poetry or his translations were his efforts to familiarize the Austrians with the literature of North Germany; his Sammlung kurzerer Gedichle aus den neitern Dichtern Deutschlands, 3 vols. (1762-1766), was in this respect invaluable. He has also left a number of bibliographical compilations, Grundriss der Bibliographic und Bucherkunde (1774), Grundriss der Literaturgeschichte (1776), Einleitung in die Bucherkunde (1777) and Wiens Buchdruckergeschichle bis 1560 (1782). Ossians und Sineds Lieder have not been reprinted since 1791 ; but a selection of his poetry edited by R. Hamel will be found in vol. 48 (1884) of Kiirschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur. His Litera- rischer NacUass was published by J. F. von Retzer in 1802 (2 vols.). See P. von Hofmann-Wellenhof, Michael Denis (1881). DENISON, GEORGE ANTHONY (1805-1896), English church- man, brother of John Evelyn Denison (1800-1873; speaker of the House of Commons 1857-1872; Viscount Ossington), was born at Ossington, Notts, on the nth of December 1805, and educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford. In 1828 he was elected fellow of Oriel; and after a few years there as a tutor, during which he was ordained and acted as curate at Cuddesdon, he became rector of Broadwindsor, Dorset (1838). He became a prebendary of Sarum in 1841 and of Wells in 1849. In 1851 he was preferred to the valuable living of East Brent, Somerset, and in the same year was made archdeacon of Taunton. For many years Archdeacon Denison represented the extreme Hjgh Tory party not only in politics but in the Church, regarding all " progressive " movements in education or theology as abomination, and vehemently repudiating the " higher criticism " from the days of Essays and Reviews (1860) to those of Lux Mundi (1800). In 1853 he resigned his position as examining chaplain to the bishop of Bath and Wells owing to his pronounced eucharistic views. A suit on the complaint of a neighbouring clergyman ensued and after various complications Denison was condemned by the archbishops' court at Bath (1856); but on appeal the court of Arches and the privy council quashed this judgment on a technical plea. The result was to make Denison a keen champion of the ritualistic school. He edited The Church and State Review (1862-1865). Secular state education and the " conscience clause " were anathema to him. Until the end of his life he remained a protagonist in theological controversy and a keen fighter against latitudinarianism and liberalism; but the sharpest religious or political differences never broke his personal friendships and his Christian charity. Among other things for which he will be remembered was his origination of harvest festivals. He died on the 2ist of March 1896. DENISON, GEORGE TAYLOR (1839- ), Canadian soldier and publicist, was born in Toronto on the 3ist of August 1839. In 1861 he was called to the bar, and was from 1865-1867 a member of the city council. From the first he took a prominent part in the organization of the military forces of Canada, becom- ing a lieutenant-colonel in the active militia in 1866. He saw active service during the Fenian raid of 1866, and during the rebellion of 1885. Owing to his dissatisfaction with the conduct of the Conservative ministry during the Red River Rebellion in 1869-70, he abandoned that party, and in 1872 unsuccessfully contested Algoma in the Liberal interest. Thereafter he remained free from party ties. In 1877 he was appointed police magistrate of Toronto. Colonel Denison was one of the founders of the " Canada First " party, which did much to shape the national aspirations from 1870 to 1878, and was a consistent supporter of imperial federation and of preferential trade between Great Britain and her colonies. He became a member of the Royal Society of Canada, and was president of the section dealing with English history and literature. The best known of his military works is his History of Modern Cavalry (London, 1877), which was awarded first prize by the Russian government in an open competition and has been translated into German, Russian and Japanese. In 1900 he published his reminiscences under the title of Soldiering in Canada. DENISON, a city of Grayson county, Texas, U.S.A., about i\ m. from the S. bank of the Red river, about 70 m. N. of Dallas. Pop. (1890) 10,958; (1900) 11,807, of whom 2251 were negroes; (1910 census) 13,632. It is served by the Houston & Texas Central, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Texas & Pacific, and the St Louis & San Francisco ('Frisco System) railways, and is connected with Sherman, Texas, by an electric line. Denison is the seat of the Gate City business college (generally known as Harshaw Academy), and of St Xavier's academy (Roman Catholic). It is chiefly important as a railway centre, as a collecting and distributing point for the fruit, vegetables, hogs and poultry, and general farming products of the surrounding region, and as a wholesale and jobbing market for the upper Red river valley. It has railway repair shops, and among its manufactures are cotton-seed oil, cotton, machinery and foundry products, flour, wooden-ware, and dairy products. In 1905 its factory products were valued at $1,234,956, 47-0 % more than in 1900. Denison was settled by Northerners at the time of the construction of the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railway to this point in 1872, and was named in honour of George Denison (1822-1876), a director of the railway; it became a city in 1891, and in 1907 adopted the commission form of government. DENIZEN (derived through the Fr. from Lat. de intus, " from within," i.e. as opposed to "foreign"), an alien who obtains by letters patent (ex donatione regis) certain of the privileges of a British subject. He cannot be a member of the privy council or of parliament, or hold any civil or military office of trust, or take a grant of land from the crown. The Naturalization Act 1870 provides that nothing therein contained shall affect the grant of any letters of denization by the sovereign. DENIZLI (anc. Laodicea (q.v.) ad Lycuni), chief town of a sanjak of the Aidin vilayet of Asia Minor, altitude 1167 ft. Pop. about 17,000. It is beautifully situated at the foot of Baba Dagh (Mt. Salbacus), on a tributary of the Churuk Su (Lycus), and is connected by a branch line with the station of Gonjeli on the Smyrna-Dineir railway. It took the place of Laodicea when that town was deserted during the wars between the DENMAN— DENMARK Byzantines and Seljuk Turks, probably between 1158 and 1174. It had become a fine Moslem city in the I4th century, and was then called Ladik, being famous for the woven and embroidered products of its Greek inhabitants. The delightful gardens of Denizli have obtained for it the name of the "Damascus of Anatolia." DENMAN, THOMAS, IST BARON (1779-1854), English judge, was born in London, the son of a well-known physician, on the 23rd of July 1779. He was educated at Eton and St John's College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1800. Soon after leaving Cambridge he married; and in 1806 he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, and at once entered upon practice. His success was rapid, and in a few years he attained a position at the bar second only to that of Brougham and Scarlett (Lord Abinger). He distinguished himself by his eloquent defence of the Luddites; but his most brilliant appearance was as one of the counsel for Queen Caroline. His speech before the Lords was very powerful, and some competent judges even considered it not inferior to Brougham's. It contained one or two daring passages, which made the king his bitter enemy, and retarded his legal promotion. At the general election of 1818 he was returned M.P. for Wareham, and at once took his seat with the Whig opposition. In the following year he was returned for Nottingham, for which place he continued to sit till his elevation to the bench in 1832. His liberal principles had caused his exclusion from office till in 1822 he was appointed common Serjeant by the corporation of London. In 1830 he was made attorney-general under Lord Grey's administration. Two years later he was made lord chief justice of the King's Bench, and in 1834 he was raised to the peerage. As a judge he is most celebrated for his decision in the important privilege case of Stockdale v. Hansard (9 Ad. & El. I.; n Ad. & El. 253), but he was never ranked as a profound lawyer. In 1850 he resigned his chief justiceship and retired into private life. He died on the 26th of September 1854, his title continuing in the direct line. The HON. GEORGE DENMAN (1810-1896), his fourth son, was also a distinguished lawyer, and a judge of the Queen's Bench from 1872 till his death in 1896. See Memoir of Thomas, first Lord Denman, by Sir Joseph Arnould (2 vols., 1873) ; E. Manson, Builders of our Law (1904). DENMARK (Danmark), a small kingdom of Europe, occupying part of a peninsula and a group of islands dividing the Baltic and North Seas, in the middle latitudes of the eastern coast. The kingdom lies between 54° 33' and 57° 45' N. and between 8° 4' 54" and 12° 47' 25* E., exclusive of the island of Bornholm, which, as will be seen, is not to be included in the Danish archi- pelago. The peninsula is divided between Denmark and Germany (Schleswig-Holstein). The Danish portion is the northern and the greater, and is called Jutland (Dan. Jylland). Its northern part is actually insular, divided from the mainland by the Limf jord or Liimf jord, which communicates with the North Sea to the west and the Cattegat to the east, but this strait, though broad and possessing lacustrine characteristics to the west, has only very narrow entrances. The connexion with the North Sea dates from 1825. The Skagerrack bounds Jutland to the north and north-west. The Cattegat is divided from the Baltic by the Danish islands, between the east coast of the Cimbric peninsula in the neighbourhood of the German frontier and south-western Sweden. There is little variety in the surface of Denmark. It is uniformly low, the highest elevation in the whole country, the Himmelbjerg near Aarhus in eastern Jutland, being little more than 500 ft. above the sea. Denmark, however, is nowhere low in the sense in which Holland is; the country is pleasantly diversified, and rises a little at the coast even though it remains flat inland. The landscape of the islands and the south-eastern part of Jutland is rich in beech-woods, corn fields and meadows, and even the minute islets are green and fertile. In the western and northern districts of Jutland this condition gives place to a wide expanse of moorland, covered with heather, and ending towards the sea in low whitish-grey cliffs. There is a certain charm even about these monotonous tracts, and it cannot be said that Denmark is wanting hi natural beauty of a quiet order. Lakes, though small, are numerous; the largest are the Arreso and the Esromso in Zealand, and the chain of lakes in the Himmelbjerg region, which are drained by the largest river hi Denmark, the Gudenaa, which, however, has a course not exceeding 80 m. Many of the meres, overhung with thick beech- woods, are extremely beautiful. The coasts are generally low and sandy; the whole western shore of Jutland is a succession of sand ridges and shallow lagoons, very dangerous to shipping. In many places the sea has encroached; even in the igth century entire villages were destroyed, but during the last twenty years of the century systematic efforts were made to secure the coast by groynes and embankments. A belt of sand dunes, from 500 yds. to 7 m. wide, stretches along the whole of this coast for about 200 m. Skagen, or the Skaw, a long, low, sandy point, stretches far into the northern sea, dividing the Skagerrack from the Cattegat. On the western side the coast is bolder and less inhospitable; there are several excellent havens, especially on the islands. The coast is nowhere, however, very high, except at one or two points hi Jutland, and at the eastern extremity of Moen, where limestone cliffs occur. Continental Denmark is confined wholly to Jutland, the geographical description of which is given under that heading. Out of the total area of the kingdom, 14,829 sq. m., Jutland, including the small islands adjacent to it, covers 9753 sq. m., and the insular part of the kingdom (including Bornholm), 5076 sq. m. The islands may be divided into two groups, consisting of the two principal islands Fiinen and Zealand, and the lesser islands attendant on each. Fiinen (Dan. Fyen), in form roughly an oval with an axis from S.E. to N.W. of 53 m., is separated from Jutland by a channel not half a mile wide hi the north, but averaging 10 m. between the island and the Schleswig coast, and known as the Little Belt. Fiinen, geologically a part of southern Jutland, has similar characteristics, a smiling landscape of fertile meadows, the typical beech-forests clothing the low hills and the presence of numerous erratic blocks, are the superficial signs of likeness. Several islands, none of great extent, lie off the west coast of Fiinen in the Little Belt; off the south, how- ever, an archipelago is enclosed by the long narrow islands of Aero (16 m. in length) and Langeland (32 m.), including in a triangular area of shallow sea the islands of Taasinge, Avernako, Dreio, Turo and others. These aie generally fertile and well cultivated. Aeroskjobing and Rudkjobing, on Aero and Langeland respectively, are considerable ports. On Langeland is the great castle of Tranekjaer, whose record dates from the i3th century. The chief towns of Fiinen itself are all coastal. Odense is the principal town, lying close to a great inlet behind the peninsula of Hindsholm on the north-east, known as Odense Fjord. Nyborg on the east is the port for the steam-ferry to Korsor hi Zealand; Svendborg picturesquely overlooks the southern archipelago; Faaborg on the south-west lies on a fjord of the same name; Assens, on the west, a port for the crossing of the Little Belt into Schleswig, still shows traces of the fortifications which were stormed by John of Ranzau in 1535; Middelfart is a seaside resort near the narrowest reach of the Little Belt; Bogense is a small port on the north coast. All these towns are served by railways radiating from Odense. The strait crossed by the Nyborg- Korsor ferry is the Great Belt which divides the Fiinen from the Zealand group, and is con- tinued south by the Langelands Belt, which washes the straight eastern shore of that island, and north by the Samso Belt, named from an island 15 m. in length, with several large villages, which lies somewhat apart from the main archipelago. Zealand, or Sealand (Dan. Sjaelland), measuring 82 m. N. to S. by 68 E. to W. (extremes), with its fantastic coast-line indented by fjords and projecting into long spits or promontories, may be considered as the nucleus of the kingdom, inasmuch as it contains the capital, Copenhagen, and such important towns as Roskilde, Slagelse, Korsor, Naestved and Elsinore (Helsingor). Its topography is described in detail under ZEALAND. Its attendant islands lie mainly to the south and are parts of itself, only separated by geologically recent troughs. The eastern DENMARK [GEOGRAPHY coast of Moen is rocky and bold. It is recorded that this island formed three separate isles in noo, and the village of Borre, now 2 m. inland, was the object of an attack by a fleet from Liibeck in 1510. On Falster is the port of Nykjobing, and from Gjedser, the extreme southern point of Denmark, communication is maintained with Warnemiinde in Germany (29 m.). From Nykjobing a bridge nearly one-third of a mile long crosses to Laaland, at the west of which is the port of Nakskov; the other towns are the county town of Maribo with its fine church of the I4th century, Saxkjobing and Rodby. The island of Bornholm lies 86 m. E. of the nearest point of the archipelago, and as it belongs geologically to Sweden (from which it is distant only 22 m.) must be considered to be physically an appendage rather than an internal part of the kingdom of Denmark. Geology. — The surface in Denmark is almost everywhere formed by the so-called Boulder Clay and what the Danish geologists call the Boulder Sand. The former, as is well known, owes its origin to the action of ice on the mountains of Norway in the Glacial period. It is unstratified; but by the action of water on it, stratified deposits have been formed, some of clay, containing remains of arctic animals, some, and very extensive ones, of sand and gravel. This boulder sand forms almost every- where the highest hills, and besides, in the central part of Jutland, a wide expanse of heath and moorland apparently level, but really sloping gently towards the west. The deposits of the boulder formation rest generally on limestone of the Cretaceous period, which in many places comes near the surface and forms cliffs on the sea-coast. Much of the Danish chalk, including the well- known limestone of Faxe, belongs to the highest or " Danian " subdivision of the Cretaceous period. In the south-western parts a succession of strata, described as the Brown Coal or Lignite formations, intervenes between the chalk and the boulder clay; its name is derived from the deposits of lignite which occur in it. It is only on the island of Bornholm that older formations come to light. This island agrees in geological structure with the southern part of Sweden, and forms, in fact, the southernmost portion of the Scandinavian system. There the boulder clay lies immediately on the primitive rock, except in the south-western corner of the island, where a series of strata appear belonging to the Cambrian, Silurian, Jurassic and Cretaceous formations, the true Coal formation, &c., being absent. Some parts of Denmark are supposed to have been finally raised out of the sea towards the close of the Cretaceous period; but as a whole the country did not appear above the water till about the close of the Glacial period. The upheaval of the country, a movement common to a large part of the Scandinavian peninsula, still continues, though slowly, north-east of a line drawn in a south-easterly direction from Nissumfjord on the west coast of Jutland, across the island of Fyen, a little south of the town of Nyborg. Ancient sea- beaches, marked by accumulations of seaweed, rolled stones, &c., have been noticed as much as 20 ft. above the present level. But the upheaval does not seem to affect all parts equally. Even in historic times it has vastly changed the aspect and configuration of the country. Climate, Flora, Fauna. — The climate of Denmark does not differ materially from that of Great Britain in the same latitude; but whilst the summer is a little warmer, the winter is colder, so that most of the evergreens which adorn an English garden in the winter cannot be grown in the open in Denmark. During thirty years the annual mean temperature varied from 43-88° F. to 46-22° in different years and different localities, the mean average for the whole country being 45-14°. The islands have, upon the whole, a somewhat warmer climate than Jutland. The mean temperatures of the four coldest months, December to March, are 33-26°, 31-64°, 31-82°, and 33-98° respectively, or for the whole winter 32-7°; that of the summer, June to August, 59-2°, but considerable irregularities occur. Frost occurs on an average on twenty days in each of the four winter months, but only on two days in either October or May. A fringe of ice generally lines the greater part of the Danish coasts on the eastern side for some time during the winter, and both the Sound and the Great Belt are at times impassable on account of ice. In some winters the latter is sufficiently firm and level to admit of sledges passing between Copenhagen and Malmo. The annual rainfall varies between 21-58 in. and 27-87 in. in different years and different localities. It is highest on the west coast of Jutland; while the small island of Anholt in the Cattegat has an annual rainfall of only 15-78 in. More than half the rainfall occurs from July to November, the wettest month being September, with an average of 2-95 in.; the driest month is April, with an average of 1-14 in. Thunderstorms are frequent in the summer. South-westerly winds prevail from January to March, and from September to the end of the year. In April the east wind, which is particularly searching, is predominant, while westerly winds prevail from May to August. In the district of Aalborg, in the north of Jutland, a cold and dry N.W. wind called skai prevails in May and June, and is exceedingly destructive to vegetation; while along the west coast of the peninsula similar effects are produced by a salt mist, which carries its influence from 15 to 30 m. inland. The flora of Denmark presents greater variety than might be anticipated in a country of such simple physical structure. The ordinary forms of the north of Europe grow freely in the mild air and protected soil of the islands and the eastern coast; while on the heaths and along the sandhills on the Atlantic side there flourish a number of distinctive species. The Danish forest is almost exclusively made up of beech, a tree which thrives better in Denmark than in any other country of Europe. The oak and ash are now rare, though in ancient times both were abundant in the Danish islands. The elm is also scarce. The almost universal predominance of the beech is by no means of ancient origin, for in the first half of the I7th century the oak was still the characteristic Danish tree. No conifer grows in Denmark except under careful cultivation, which, however, is largely practised in Jutland (S!ra' X3th and Part of tke ^th century, the struggle raged between the Danish kings and the Schleswig dukes; and of six monarchs no fewer than three died violent deaths. Superadded to these troubles was a prolonged struggle for supremacy between the popes and the crown, and, still more serious, the beginning of a breach between the kings and nobles, which had important constitutional consequences. The prevalent disorder had led to general lawlessness, in consequence of which the royal authority had been widely extended; and a strong opposition gradually arose which protested against the abuses of this authority. In 1282 the nobles extorted from King Eric Clipping the first Haandfoestning, or charter, which recognized the Danehof, or national assembly, as a regular branch of the administration and gave guarantees against further usurpations. Christopher II. (1319-1331) was constrained to grant another charter considerably reducing the prerogative, increasing the privileges of the upper classes, and at the same time reducing the burden of taxation. But aristocratic licence proved as mischiev- ous as royal incompetence; and on the death of Christopher II. the whole kingdom was on the verge of dissolution. Eastern Denmark was in the hands of one magnate; another magnate held Jutland and Fiinen in pawn; the dukes of Schleswig were practically independent of the Danish crown; the Scandian pro- vinces had (1332) surrendered themselves to Sweden. It was reserved for another Valdemar (Valdemar IV., q.v.) to reunite and weld together the scattered members of his heritage. vaide- His long reign (1340-1375) resulted in the re-establish- mariv., ment of Denmark as the great Baltic power. It is al&> a very interesting period of her social and constitutional development. This great ruler, who had to fight, year after year, against foreign and domestic foes, could, nevertheless, always find time to promote the internal prosperity of his much afflicted country. For the dissolution of Denmark, during the long anarchy, had been internal as well as external. The whole social fabric had been convulsed and transformed. The monarchy had been undermined. The privileged orders had aggrandized themselves at the expense of the community. The yeoman class had sunk into semi-serfdom. In a word, the natural cohesion of the Danish nation had been loosened and there was no security for law and justice. To make an end of this universal lawlessness Valdemar IV. was obliged, in the first place, to re-establish the royal authority by providing the crown with a regular and certain income. This he did by recovering the alienated royal demesnes in every direction, and from henceforth the annual landgilde, or rent, paid by the royal tenants, became the monarch's principal source of revenue. Throughout his reign Valdemar laboured incessantly to acquire as much land as possible. Moreover, the old distinction between the king's private estate and crown property henceforth ceases; all such property was henceforth regarded as the hereditary possession of the Danish crown. The national army was also re-established on its ancient footing. Not only were the magnates sharply reminded that they held their lands on military tenure, but the towns were also made to contribute both men and ships, and peasant levies, especially archers, were recruited from every parish. Everywhere indeed Valdemar intervened personally. The smallest detail was not beneath his notice. Thus he invented nets for catching wolves and built innumerable water-mills, " for he would not let the waters run into the sea before they had been of use to the community. ' ' Under such a ruler law and order were speedily re- established. The popular tribunals regained their authority, and a supreme court of justice, Del Kongelige Retterting, presided over by Valdemar himself, not only punished the unruly and guarded the prerogatives of the crown, but also protected the weak and defenceless from the tyranny of the strong. Nor did Valdemar hesitate to meet his people hi public and periodically render an account of his stewardship. He voluntarily resorted to the old practice of summoning national assemblies, the so-called Danehof. At the first of these assemblies held at Nyborg, Midsummer Day 1314, the bishops and councillors solemnly promised that the commonalty should enjoy all the ancient rights and privileges conceded to them by Valdemar II., and the wise provision that the Danehof should meet annually considerably strengthened its authority. The keystone to the whole constitutional system was " King Valdemar's Charter " issued in May 1360 at the Rigsmode, or parliament, held at Kalundborg in May 1360. This charter was practically an act of national pacification, the provisions of which king and people together undertook to enforce for the benefit of the commonweal. The work of Valdemar was completed and consolidated by his illustrious daughter Margaret (1375-1412), whose crowning achievement was the Union of Kalmar (1397), whereby she sought to combine the three northern kingdoms Tl" v"ioa into a single state dominated by Denmark. In any ^^*tmar< case Denmark was bound to be the only gainer by the Union. Her population was double that of the two other kingdoms combined, and neither Margaret nor her successors observed the stipulations that each country should retain its own laws and customs and be ruled by natives only. In both Norway and Sweden, therefore, the Union was highly unpopular. The Norwegian aristocracy was too weak, however, seriously to endanger the Union at any time, but Sweden was, from the first, decidedly hostile to Margaret's whole policy. Nevertheless during her lifetime the system worked fairly well; but her pupil and successor, Eric of Pomerania, was unequal to the burden of empire and embroiled himself both with his neighbours and his subjects. The Hanseatic League, whose political ascendancy had been shaken by the Union, enraged by Eric's efforts to bring in the Dutch as commercial rivals, as well as by the establish- ment of the Sound tolls, materially assisted the Holsteiners in their twenty-five years' war with Denmark (1410-35), and Eric VII. himself was finally deposed (1439) in favour of his nephew, Christopher of Bavaria. The deposition of Eric marks another turning-point in Danish history. It was the act not of the people but of the Rigsrood (Senate), which had inherited the authority of the drouth Ot ancient Danehof and, after the death of Margaret, the power grew steadily in power at the expense of the crown. ofihe As the government grew more and more aristocratic, the position of the peasantry steadily deteriorated. It is under Christopher that we first hear, for instance, of the Vornedskab, or patriarchal control of the landlords over their tenants, a system which degenerated into rank slavery. In Jutland, too, after the repression, in 1441, of a peasant rising, something very like serfdom was introduced. On the death of Christopher III. without heirs, in 1448, the Rigsraad elected his distant cousin, Count Christian of Oldenburg, king; but Sweden preferred Karl Knutsson (Charles " VIII."), while Norway finally combined with Den- Break-up mark, at the conference of Halmstad, in a double election which practically terminated the Union, though an agreement was come to that the survivor of the two kings should reign over all three kingdoms. Norway, subse- quently, threw in her lot definitively with Denmark. Dissensions resulting in interminable civil wars had, even before the Union, exhausted the resources of the poorest of the three northern realms; and her ruin was completed by the ravages of the Black HISTORY] DENMARK Death, which wiped out two-thirds of her population. Unfortu- nately, too, for Norway's independence, the native gentry had gradually died out, and were succeeded by immigrant Danish fortune-hunters; native burgesses there were none, and the peasantry were mostly thralls; so that, excepting the clergy, there was no patriotic class to stand up for the national liberties. Far otherwise was it in the wealthier kingdom of Sweden. Here the clergy and part of the nobility were favourable to the Union; but the vast majority of the people hated it as a foreign usurpa- tion. Matters were still further complicated by the continual interference of the Hanseatic League; and Christian I. (1448- 1481) and Hans (1481-1513), whose chief merit it is to have founded the Danish fleet, were, during the greater part of their reigns, only nominally kings of Sweden. Hans also received in fief the territory of Dietmarsch from the emperor, but, in attempting to subdue the hardy Dietmarschers, suffered a crushing defeat in which the national banner called " Danebrog " fell into the enemy's hands ( 1 500) . Moreover, this defeat led to a successful rebellion in Sweden, and a long and ruinous war with Lubeck, terminated by the peace of Malmo, 1512. It was during this war that a strong Danish fleet dominated the Baltic for the first time since the age of the Valdemars. On the succession of Hans's son, Christian II. (1513-1523), Margaret's splendid dream of a Scandinavian empire seemed, finally, about to be realized. The young king, a man //**««" °^ character and genius, had wide views and original 1523. ideas. Elected king of Denmark and Norway, he suc- ceeded in subduing Sweden by force of arms; but he spoiled everything at the culmination of his triumph by the hideous crime and blunder known as the Stockholm massacre, which converted the politically divergent Swedish nation into the irreconcilable foe of the unional government (see CHRISTIAN II.). Christian's contempt of nationality in Sweden is the more remarkable as in Denmark proper he sided with the people against the aristocracy, to his own undoing in that age of privilege and prejudice. His intentions, as exhibited to his famous Landelove (National Code), were progressive and enlightened to an eminent degree; so much so, indeed, that they mystified the people as much as they alienated the patricians; but his actions were often of revolting brutality, and his whole career was vitiated by an incurable double-mindedness which provoked general distrust. Yet there is no doubt that Christian II. was a true patriot, whose ideal it was to weld the three northern kingdoms into a powerful state, independent of all foreign influences, especially of German influence as manifested in the commercial tyranny of the Hansa League. His utter failure was due, partly to the vices of an undisciplined temperament, and partly to the extraordinary difficulties of the most inscrutable period of European history, when the shrewdest heads were at fault and irreparable blunders belonged to the order of the day. That period was the period of the Reformation, which profoundly affected the politics of Scandinavia. Christian II. had always subordinated religion to politics, and was Papist or Lutheran according to circumstances. But, though he treated the Church more like a foe than a friend and was constantly at war with the Curia, he retained the Catholic form of church worship and never seems to have questioned the papal supremacy. On the flight of Christian II. and the election of his uncle, Frederick I. (1523- Frederkk X533)> tne Church resumed her jurisdiction and every- I.,1523- thing was placed on the old footing. The newly 1533. The elected and still insecure German king at first remained ao'a""*' neutral; but in tne autumn of 1525 the current of Lutheranism began to run so strongly in Denmark as to threaten to whirl away every opposing obstacle. This novel and disturbing phenomenon was mainly due to the zeal and eloquence of the ex-monk Hans Tausen and his associates, or disciples, Peder Plad and Sadolin; and, in the autumn of 1526, Tausen was appointed one of the royal chaplains. The three ensuing years were especially favourable for the Reformation, as during that time the king had unlooked-for opportunities for filling the vacant episcopal sees with men after his own heart, and at heart he was a Lutheran. The reformation movement in Denmark was further promoted by Schleswig-Holstein influence. Frederick's eldest son Duke Christian had, since 1527, resided at Haderslev, where he collected round him Lutheran teachers from Germany, and made his court the centre of the propaganda of the new doctrine. On the other hand, the Odense Recess of the 20th of August 1527, which put both confessions on a footing of equality, remained unrepealed; and so long as it remained in force, the spiritual jurisdiction of the bishops, and, consequently, their authority over the " free preachers " (whose ambition convulsed all the important towns of Denmark and aimed at forcibly expelling the Catholic priests from their churches) remained valid, to the great vexation of the reformers. The inevitable ecclesiastical crisis was still further postponed by the superior stress of two urgent political events — Christian II. 's invasion of Norway (1531) and the outbreak, in 1533, of " Grevens fejde," or " The Count's War " (1534-36), no the count in question being Christopher of Oldenburg, Count'* great-nephew of King Christian I., whom Lubeck and War, her allies, on the death of Frederick I., raised up lj?3~ against Frederick's son Christian III. The Catholic party and the lower orders generally took the part of Count Christopher, who acted throughout as the nominee of the captive Christian II., while the Protestant party, aided by the Holstein dukes and Gustavus Vasa of Sweden, sided with Christian III. The war ended with the capture of Copenhagen by the forces of Christian III., on the 2pth of July 1536, and the triumph of so devoted a Lutheran sealed the fate of the Roman Catholic Church in Denmark, though even now it was necessary for the victorious king to proceed against the bishops and their friends by a coup d'itat, engineered by his German generals the Rantzaus. The Recess of 1536 enacted that the bishops should forfeit their temporal and spiritual authority, and that all their property should be transferred to the crown for the good of the common- wealth. In the following year a Church ordinance, based upon the canons of Luther, Melanchthon and Bugenhagen, was drawn up, submitted to Luther for his approval, and promulgated on the 2nd of September 1537. On the same day seven " super- intendents," including Tausen and Sadolin, all of whom had worked zealously for the cause of the Reformation, were consecrated in place of the dethroned bishops. The position of the superintendents and of the reformed church generally was consolidated by the Articles of Ribe in 1542, and the constitution of the Danish church has practically continued the same to the present day. But Catholicism could not wholly or immediately be dislodged by the teaching of Luther. It had struck deep roots into the habits and feelings of the people, and traces of its survival were distinguishable a whole century after the triumph of the Reformation. Catholicism lingered longest in the cathedral chapters. Here were to be found men of ability proof against the eloquence of Hans Tausen or Peder Plad and quite capable of controverting their theories — men like Povl Helgesen, for instance, indisputably the greatest Danish theologian of his day, a scholar whose voice was drowned amidst the clash of conflicting creeds. Though the Reformation at first did comparatively little for education,1 and the whole spiritual life of Denmark was poor and feeble in consequence for at least a generation after- wards, the change of religion was of undeniable, if the K*_° temporary, benefit to the state from the political formation. point of view. The enormous increase of the royal revenue consequent upon the confiscation of the property of the Church could not fail to increase the financial stability of the monarchy. In particular the suppression of the monasteries benefited the crown in two ways. The old church had, indeed, frequently rendered the state considerable financial aid, but such voluntary assistance was, from the nature of the case, casual and arbitrary. Now, however, the state derived a fixed and certain revenue from the confiscated lands; and the possession 1 It is true the university was established on the 9th of September 1537. but its influence was of very gradual growth and small at first. DENMARK [HISTORY of immense landed property at the same time enabled the crown advantageously to conduct the administration. The gross revenue of the state is estimated to have risen threefold. Before the Reformation the annual revenue from land averaged 400,000 bushels of corn; after the confiscations of Church property it averaged 1,200,000 bushels. The possession of a full purse materially assisted the Danish government in its domestic administration, which was indeed epoch-making. It enabled Christian III. to pay off his German mercenaries immediately after the religious coup d'etat of 1536. It enabled him to prosecute shipbuilding with such energy that, by. 1550, the royal fleet numbered at least thirty vessels, which were largely employed as a maritime police in the pirate-haunted Baltic and North Seas. It enabled him to create and remunerate adequately a capable official class, which proved its efficiency under the strictest supervision, and ultimately produced a whole series of great statesmen and admirals like Johan Friis, Peder Oxe, Herluf Trolle and Peder Skram. It is not too much to say that the increased revenue derived from the appropriation of Church property, intelligently applied, gave Denmark the hegemony of the North during the latter Part of Christian III.'s reign, the whole reign of of Frederick II. and the first twenty-five years of the Denmark, reign of Christian IV., a period embracing, roughly speaking, eighty years ( 1 544- 1626). Within this period Denmark was indisputably the leading Scandinavian power. While Sweden, even after the advent of Gustavus Vasa, was still of but small account in Europe, Denmark easily held her own in Germany and elsewhere, even against Charles V., and was important enough, in 1553, to mediate a peace between the emperor and Saxony. Twice during this period Denmark and Sweden measured their strength in the open field, on the first occasion in the " Scandinavian Seven Years' War" (1562-70), on the second in the " Kalmar War" (1611-13), and on both occasions Denmark prevailed, though the temporary advantage she gained was more than neutralized by the intense feeling of hostility which the unnatural wars, between the two kindred peoples of Scandinavia, left behind them. Still, the fact remains that, for a time, Denmark was one of the great powers of Europe. Frederick II., in his later years (1571-1588), aspired to the dominion of all the seas which washed the Scandinavian coasts, and before he died he was able to enforce the rule that all foreign ships should strike their topsails to Danish men-of-war as a token of his right to rule the northern seas. Favourable political circumstances also contributed to this general acknowledgment of Denmark's maritime greatness. The power of the Hansa had gone; the Dutch were enfeebled by their contest with Spain; England's sea-power was yet in the making; Spain, still the greatest of the maritime nations, was exhausting her resources in the vain effort to conquer the Dutch. Yet more even than to felicitous circumstances, Denmark owed her short-lived greatness to the great statesmen and administrators whom Frederick II. succeeded in gathering about him. Never before, since the age of Margaret, had Denmark been so well governed, never before had she possessed so many political celebrities nobly emulous for the common good. Frederick II. was succeeded by his son Christian IV. (April 4, 1588), who attained his majority on the i7th of August 1596, at Denmark ^e age of nineteen. The realm which Christian IV. was at the ac- to govern had undergone great changes within the last cession of two generations. Towards the south the boundaries of ^v^isss ^e Danish state remained unchanged. Levensaa and the Eider still separated Denmark from the Empire. Schleswig was recognized as a Danish fief, in contradistinc- tion to Holstein, which owed vassalage to the Empire. The " kingdom " stretched as far as Kolding and Skedborg, where the " duchy " began; and this duchy since its amalgamation with Holstein by means of a common Landtag, and especially since the union of the dual duchy with the kingdom on almost equal terms in 1533, was, in most respects, a semi-independent state. Denmark, moreover, like Europe in general, was, politic- ally, on the threshold of a transitional period. During the whole course of the i6th century the monarchical form of government was in every large country, with the single exception of Poland, rising on the ruins of feudalism. The great powers of the late i6th and early ryth centuries were to be the strong, highly centralized, hereditary monarchies, like France, Spain and Sweden. There seemed to be no reason why Denmark also should not become a powerful state under the guidance of a powerful monarchy, especially as the sister state of Sweden was developing into a great power under apparently identical conditions. Yet, while Sweden was surely ripening into the dominating power of northern Europe, Denmark had as surely entered upon a period of uninterrupted and apparently incurable decline. What was the cause of this anomaly ? Something of course must be allowed for the superior and altogether extraordinary genius of the great princes of the house of Vasa; yet the causes of the decline of Denmark lay far deeper than this. They may roughly be summed up under two heads: the inherent weakness of an elective monarchy, and the absence of that public spirit which is based on the intimate alliance of ruler and ruled. Whilst Gustavus Vasa had leaned upon the Swedish peasantry, in other words upon the bulk of the Swedish nation, which was and continued to be an integral part of the Swedish body-politic, Christian III. on his accession had crushed the middle and lower classes in Denmark and reduced them to political insignificance. Yet it was not the king who benefited by this blunder. The Danish monarchy since the days of Margaret had continued to be purely elective; and a purely elective monarchy at that stage of the political development of Europe was a mischievous anomaly. It signified in the first place that the crown was not the highest power in the state, but was subject to the aristocratic Rigsraad, or council of state. The Rigsraad was the permanent owner of the realm and the crown-lands; the king was only their temporary administrator. If the king died before the election of his successor, the Rigsraad stepped into the king's place. Moreover, an elective monarchy implied that, at every fresh succession, the king was liable to be bound by a new Haandfaestning, or charter. The election itself might, and did, become a mere formality; but the condition precedent of election, the acceptance of the charter, invariably limiting the royal authority, remained a reality. This period of aristocratic rule, which dates practically from the accession of Frederick I. (1523), and lasted for nearly a century and a half, is known in Danish history as Adelsvaelde, or rule of the nobles. Again, the king was the ruler of the realm, but over a very large portion of it he had but a slight control. The crown-lands and most of the towns were under his immediate jurisdiction, but by the side of the crown-lands lay the estates of the nobility, which already comprised about one-half of the superficial area of Denmark, and were in many respects independent of the central government both as regards taxation and administration. In a word, the monarchy had to share its dominion with the nobility; and the Danish nobility in the i6th century was one of the most exclusive and selfish aristocracies in Europe, and already far advanced in decadence. Hermetically sealing itself from any intrusion from below, it deteriorated by close and constant inter- marriage; and it was already, both morally and intellectually, below the level of the rest of the nation. Yet this very aristo- cracy, whose claim to consideration was based not upon its own achievements but upon the length of its pedigrees, insisted upon an amplification of its privileges which endangered the economical and political interests of the state and the nation. The time was close at hand when a Danish magnate was to demonstrate that he preferred the utter ruin of his country to any abatement of his own personal dignity. All below the king and the nobility were generally classified together as " subjects." Of these lower orders the clergy stood first in the social scale. As a spiritual estate, indeed, it had ceased to exist at the Reformation, though still represented in the Rigsdag or diet. Since then too it had become quite detached from the nobility, which ostentatiously despised the teaching profession. The clergy recruited themselves therefore from the class next below them, and looked more and more to the HISTORY] DENMARK 33 crown for help and protection as they drew apart from the gentry, who, moreover, as dispensers of patronage, lost no opportunity of appropriating church lands and cutting down tithes. The burgesses had not yet recovered from the disaster of " Grevens fejde"; but while the towns had become more dependent on the central power, they had at the same time been released from their former vexatious subjection to the local mag- nates, and could make their voices heard in the Rigsdag, where they were still, though inadequately, represented. Within the Estate of Burgesses itself, too, a levelling process had begun. The old municipal patriciate, which used to form the connecting link between the bourgeoisie and the nobility, had disappeared, and a feeling of common civic fellowship had taken its place. All this tended to enlarge the political views of the burgesses, and was not without its influence on the future. Yet, after all, the prospects of the burgesses depended mainly on economic con- ditions; and in this respect there was a decided improvement, due to the increasing importance of money and commerce all over Europe, especially as the steady decline of the Hanse towns immediately benefited the trade of Denmark-Norway; Norway by this time being completely merged in the Danish state, and ruled from Copenhagen. There can, indeed, be no doubt that the Danish and Norwegian merchants at the end of the i6th century flourished exceedingly, despite the intrusion and competition of the Dutch and the dangers to neutral shipping arising from the frequent wars between England, Spain and the Netherlands. At the bottom of the social ladder lay the peasants, whose condition had decidedly deteriorated. Only in one respect had they benefited by the peculiar conditions of the i6th century: the rise in the price of corn without any corresponding rise in the land-tax must have largely increased their material prosperity. Yet the number of peasant-proprietors had diminished, while the obligations of the peasantry generally had increased; and, still worse, their obligations were vexatiously indefinite, varying from year to year and even from month to month. They weighed especially heavily on the so-called Ugedasmaend, who were forced to work two or three days a week in the demesne lands. This increase of villenage morally depressed the peasantry, and widened still further the breach between the yeomanry and the gentry. Politically its consequences were disastrous. While in Sweden the free and energetic peasant was a salutary power in the state, which he served with both mind and plough, the Danish peasant was sinking to the level of a bondman. While the Swedish peasants were well represented in the Swedish Riksdag, whose proceedings they sometimes dominated, the Danish peasantry had no political rights or privileges what- ever. Such then, briefly, was the condition of things in Denmark when, in 1 588, Christian IV. ascended the throne. Where so much was necessarily uncertain and fluctuating, there was iv S1S88- room f°r an almost infinite variety of development. 1648. Much depended on the character and personality of the young prince who had now taken into his hands the reins of government, and for half a century was to guide the destinies of the nation. In the beginning of his reign the hand of the young monarch, who was nothing if not energetic, made itself felt in every direction. The harbours of Copenhagen, Elsinore and other towns were enlarged; many decaying towns were abolished and many new ones built under more promising conditions, including Christiania, which was founded in August 1624, on the ruins of the ancient city of Oslo. Various attempts were also made to improve trade and industry by abolishing the still remaining privileges of the Hanseatic towns, by promoting a wholesale immigration of skilful and well-to-do Dutch traders and handicraftsmen into Denmark under most favourable conditions, by opening up the rich fisheries of the Arctic seas, and by establishing joint-stock chartered companies both in the East and the West Indies. Copenhagen especially benefited by Christian IV.'s commercial policy. He enlarged and embellished it, and provided it with new harbours and fortifications; in short, did his best to make it the worthy capital of a great empire. But it was in the foreign policy of the government that the royal influence was most perceptible. Unlike Sweden, Denmark had remained outside the great religious-political movements which were the outcome of the Catholic reaction; and the peculiarity of her position made her rather hostile than friendly to the other Protestant states. The possession of the Sound enabled her to close the Baltic against the Western pcwers; the possession of Norway carried along with it the control of the rich fisheries which were Danish monopolies, and therefore a source of irrita- tion to England and Holland. Denmark, moreover, was above all things a Scandinavian power. While the territorial expansion of Sweden in the near future was a matter of necessity, Denmark had not only attained, but even exceeded, her natural limits. Aggrandizement southwards, at the expense of the German empire, was becoming every year more difficult; and in every other direction she had nothing more to gain. Nay, more, Denmark's possession of the Scanian provinces deprived Sweden of her proper geographical frontiers. Clearly it was Denmark's wisest policy to seek a close alliance with Sweden in their common interests, and after the conclusion of the " Kalmar War " the two countries did remain at peace for the next thirty-one years. But the antagonistic interests of the two countries in Germany during the Thirty Years' War precipitated a fourth contest between them (1643-45), in which Denmark would have been utterly ruined but for the heroism of King Christian IV. and his command of the sea during the crisis of the struggle. Even so, by the peace of Bromsebro (February 8, 1645) Denmark surrendered the islands of Oesel and Gotland /osseg „/ and the provinces of Jemteland and Herjedal (in territory. Norway) definitively, and Halland for thirty years. The freedom from the Sound tolls was by the same treaty also extended to Sweden's Baltic provinces. The peace of Bromsebro was the first of the long series of treaties, extending down to our own days, which mark the progressive shrinkage of Danish territory into an irreducible minimum. Sweden's appropriation of Danish soil had begun, and at the same time Denmark's power of resisting the encroach- ments of Sweden was correspondingly reduced. The Danish national debt, too, had risen enormously, while the sources of future income and consequent recuperation had diminished or disappeared. The Sound tolls, for instance, in consequence of the treaties of Bromsebro and Kristianopel (by the latter treaty very considerable concessions were made to the Dutch) had sunk from 400,000 to 140,000 rix-dollars. The political influence of the crown, moreover, had inevitably been weakened, and the conduct of foreign affairs passed from the hands of the king into the hands of the Rigsraad. On the accession of Frederick III. (1648-1670) moreover, the already IIL> ' > diminished royal prerogative was still further curtailed 1670. by the Haandfaestning, or charter, which he was compelled to sign. Fear and hatred of Sweden, and the never abandoned hope of recovering the lost provinces, animated king and people alike; but it was Denmark's crowning misfortune that she possessed at this difficult crisis no statesman of the first rank, no one even approximately comparable with such com- petitors as Charles X. of Sweden or the " Great Elector " Frederick William of Brandenburg. From the very beginning of his reign Frederick III. was resolved upon a rupture at the first convenient opportunity, while the nation was, if possible, even more bellicose than the king. The apparently insuperable difficulties of Sweden in Poland was the feather that turned the scale; on the ist of June 1657, Frederick III. signed the manifesto justifying a war which was never formally declared and brought Denmark to the very verge of ruin. The extraordinary details of this dramatic struggle will be found elsewhere (see FREDERICK III., king of Denmark, and CHARLES X., king of Sweden) ; suffice it to say that by the peace of Roskilde (February 26, 1658), Denmark consented to cede the three Scanian provinces, the island of Bornholm and less. the Norwegian provinces of Baahus and Trondhjem; to renounce all anti-Swedish alliances and to exempt all Swedish 5 34 DENMARK [HISTORY llshed, 1660. vessels, even when carrying foreign goods, from all tolls. These terrible losses were somewhat retrieved by the subsequent treaty of Copenhagen (May 27, 1660) concluded by the Swedish regency with Frederick III. after the failure of Charles X.'s second war against Denmark, a failure chiefly owing to the heroic defence of the Danish capital (1658-60). By this treaty Treaty of Sweden gave back the province of Trondhjem and the Copeo- isle of Bornholm and released Denmark from the most hagea, onerous of the obligations of the treaty of Roskilde. In fact the peace of Copenhagen came as a welcome break in an interminable series of disasters and humiliations. Anyhow, it confirmed the independence of the Danish state. On the other hand, if Denmark had emerged from the war with her honour and dignity unimpaired, she had at the same time tacitly surrendered the dominion of the North to her Scandi- navian rival. But the war just terminated had important political conse- quences, which were to culminate in one of the most curious and Hereditary interesting revolutions of modern history. In the first monarchy place, it marks the termination of the Adelsvaelde, or estab- rule of the nobility. By their cowardice, incapacity, egotism and treachery during the crisis of the struggle, the Danish aristocracy had justly forfeited the respect of every other class of the community, and emerged from the war hopelessly discredited. On the other hand, Copenhagen, proudly conscious of her intrinsic importance and of her inestim- able services to the country, whom she had saved from annihilation by her constancy, now openly claimed to have a voice in public affairs. Still higher had risen the influence of the crown. The courage and resource displayed by Frederick III. in the extremity of the national danger had won for " the least expansive of monarchs " an extraordinary popularity. On the loth of September 1660, the Rigsdug, which was to repair the ravages of the war and provide for the future, was opened with great ceremony in the Riddersaal of the castle of Copenhagen. The first bill laid before the Estates by the government was to impose an excise tax on the principal articles of consumption, together with subsidiary taxes on cattle, poultry, &c., in return for which the abolition of all the old direct taxes was promised. The nobility at first claimed exemption from taxation altogether, while the clergy and burgesses insisted upon an absolute equality of taxation. There were sharp encounters between the presidents of the contending orders, but the position of the Lower Estates was considerably prejudiced by the dissen- sions of its various sections. Thus the privileges of the bishops and of Copenhagen profoundly irritated the lower clergy and the unprivileged towns, and made a cordial understanding impossible, till Hans Svane, bishop of Copenhagen, and Hans Nansen the burgomaster, who now openly came forward as the leader of the reform movement, proposed that the privileges which divided the non-noble Estates should be abolished. In accordance with this proposal, the two Lower Estates, on the i6th of September, subscribed a memorandum addressed to the Rigsraad, declaring their willingness to renounce their privileges, provided the nobility did the same; which was tantamount to a declaration that the whole of the clergy and burgesses had made common cause against the nobility. The opposition so formed took the name of the " Conjoined Estates." The presentation of the memorial provoked an outburst of indignation. But the nobility soon perceived the necessity of complete surrender. On the 30th of September the First Estate abandoned its former standpoint and renounced its privileges, with one unimportant reservation. The struggle now seemed to be ended, and the financial question having also been settled, the king, had he been so minded, might have dismissed the Estates. But the still more important question of reform was now raised. On the I7th of September the burgesses introduced a bill proposing a new constitution, which was to include local self-government in the towns, the abolition of serfdom, and the formation of a national army. It fell to the ground for want of adequate support; but another proposition, the fruit of secret discussion between the king and his confederates, which placed all fiefs under the control of the crown as regards taxation, and provided for selling and letting them to the highest bidder, was accepted by the Estate of burgesses. The significance of this ordinance lay in the fact that it shattered the privileged position of the nobility, by abolishing the exclusive right to the possession of fiefs. What happened next is not quite clear. Our sources fail us, and we are at the mercy of doubtful rumours and more or less unreliable anecdotes. We have a vision of in trigues, mysterious conferences, threats and bribery, dimly discernible through a shifting mirage of tradition. The first glint of light is a letter, dated the 23rd of September, from Frederick III. to Svane and Nansen, authorizing them to communicate the arrangements already made to reliable men, and act quickly, as " if the others gain time they may possibly gain more." The first step was to make sure of the city train- bands: of the garrison of Copenhagen the king had no doubt. The headquarters of the conspirators was the bishop's palace near Vor Frue church, between which and the court messages were passing continually, and where the document to be adopted by the Conjoined Estates took its final shape. On the 8th of October the two burgomasters, Hans Nansen and Kristoffer Hansen, proposed that the realm of Denmark should be made over to the king as a hereditary kingdom, without prejudice to theprivilegesof the Estates ; whereupon they proceeded to Brewer's Hall, and informed the Estate of burgesses there assembled of what had been done. A fiery oration from Nansen dissolved some feeble opposition; and simultaneously Bishop Svane carried the clergy along with him. The so-called " Instrument," now signed by the Lower Estates, offered the realm to the king and his house as a hereditary monarchy, by way of thank-offering mainly for his courageous deliverance of the kingdom during the war; and the Rigsraad and the nobility were urged to notify the resolution to the king, and desire him to maintain each Estate in its due privileges, and to give a written counter- assurance that the revolution now to be effected was for the sole benefit of the state. Events now moved forward rapidly. On the loth of October a deputation from the clergy and burgesses proceeded to the Council House where the Rigsraad were de- liberating, to demand an answer to their propositions. After a tumultuous scene, the aristocratic Raad rejected the " Instru- ment " altogether, whereupon the deputies of the commons pro- ceeded to the palace and were graciously received by the king, who promised them an answer next day. The same afternoon the guards in the streets and on the ramparts were doubled; on the following morning the gates of the city were closed, powder and bullets were distributed among the city train-bands, who were bidden to be in readiness when the alarm bell called them, and cavalry was massed on the environs of the city. The same afternoon the king sent a message to the Rigsraad urging them to declare their views quickly, as he could no longer hold himself responsible for what might happen. After a feeble attempt at a compromise the Raad gave way. On the I3th of October it signed a declaration to the effect that it associated itself still with the Lower Estates in the making over of the kingdom, as a hereditary monarchy, to his majesty and his heirs male and female. The same day the king received the official communi- cation of this declaration and the congratulation of the burgo- masters. Thus the ancient constitution was transformed; and Denmark became a monarchy hereditary in Frederick III. and his posterity. But although hereditary sovereignty had been introduced, the laws of the land had not been abolished. The monarch was specifically now a sovereign over-lord, but he had not been absolved from his obligations towards his subjects. Hereditary sovereignty per se was not held to signify unlimited dominion, still less absolutism. On the contrary, the magnificent gift of the Danish nation to Frederick III. wa? made under express conditions. The " Instrument " drawn up by the Lower Estates implied the retention of all their rights; and the king, in accepting the gift of a hereditary crown, did not repudi- ate the implied inviolability of the privileges of the donors. HISTORY] DENMARK 35 Unfortunately everything had been left so vague, that it was an easy matter for ultra-royalists like Svane and Nansen to ignore the privileges of the Estates, and even the Estates themselves. On the 1 4th of October a committee was summoned to the palace to organize the new government. The discussion turned mainly upon two points, (i) whether a new oath of homage should be taken to the king, and (2) what was to be done with the Haandfaestning or royal charter. The first point was speedily decided in the affirmative, and, as to the second, it was ultimately decided that the king should be released from his oath and the charter returned to him ; but a rider was added suggesting that he should, at the same time, promulgate a Recess providing for his own and his people's welfare. Thus Frederick III. was not left absolutely his own master; for the provision regarding a Recess, or new constitution, showed plainly enough that such a constitution was expected, and, once granted, would of course have limited the royal power. It now only remained to execute the resolutions of the com- mittee. On the 1 7th of October the charter, which the king had sworn to observe twelve years before, was solemnly handed back to him at the palace, Frederick III. thereupon promising to rule as a Christian king to the satisfaction of all the Estates of the realm. On the following clay the king, seated on the topmost step of a lofty tribune surmounted by a baldaquin, erected in the midst of the principal square of Copenhagen, received the public homage of his subjects of all ranks, in the presence of an immense concourse, on which occasion he again promised to rule " as a Christian hereditary king and gracious master," and, " as soon as possible, to prepare and set up " such a constitution as should secure to his subjects a Christian and indulgent sway. The ceremony concluded with a grand banquet at the palace. After dinner the queen and the clergy withdrew; but the king remained. An incident now occurred which made a strong impression on all present. With a brimming beaker in his hand, Frederick III. went up to Hans Nansen, drank with him and drew him aside. They communed together in a low voice for some time, till the burgomaster, succumbing to the influence of his potations, fumbled his way to his carriage with the assistance of some of his civic colleagues. Whether Nansen, intoxicated by wine and the royal favour, consented on this occasion to sacrifice the privileges of his order and his city, it is impossible to say; but it is significant that, from henceforth, we hear no more of the Recess which the more liberal of the leaders of the lower orders had hoped for when they released Frederick III. from the obligations of the charter. We can follow pretty plainly the stages of the progress from a limited to an absolute monarchy. By an act dated the icth Establish- °^ JanuarY 1661, entitled " Instrument, or pragmatic meat of sanction," of the king's hereditary right to the king- absolute doms of Denmark and Norway, it was declared that all the prerogatives of majesty.'and " all regalia as an absolute sovereign lord," had been made over to the king. Yet, even after the issue of the " Instrument," there was nothing, strictly speaking, to prevent Frederick III. from voluntarily conceding to his subjects some share in the administration. Unfortunately the king was bent upon still further emphasizing the plenitude of his power. At Copenhagen his advisers were busy framing drafts of a Lex Regia Perpetua ; and the one which finally won the royal favour was the famous Kongelov, or " King's Law." This document was in every way unique. In the first place it is remarkable for its literary excellence. Compared with the barbarous macaronic jargon of the contemporary official language it shines forth as a masterpiece of pure, pithy and original Danish. Still more remarkable are the tone and tenor of this royal law. The Kongelov has the highly dubious honour of being the one written law in the civilized world which fearlessly carries out absolutism to the last consequences. The monarchy is de- clared to owe its origin to the surrender of the supreme authority by the Estates to the king. The maintenance of the indivisi- bility of the realm and of the Christian faith according to the Augsburg Confession, and the observance of the Kongelov itself, are now the sole obligations binding upon the king. The supreme spiritual authority also is now claimed; and it is expressly stated that it becomes none to crown him ; the moment he ascends the throne, crown and sceptre belong to him of right. Moreover, par. 26 declares guilty of llse-majestt whomsoever shall in any way usurp or infringe the king's absolute authority. In the following reign the ultra-royalists went further still. In their eyes the king was not merely autocratic, but sacrosanct. Thus before the anointing of Christian V. on the 7th of June 1671, a ceremony by way of symbolizing the new autocrat's humble submission to the Almighty, the officiating bishop of Zealand delivered an oration in which he declared that the king was God's immediate creation, His vicegerent on earth, and that it was the bounden duty of all good subjects to serve and honour the celestial majesty as represented by the king's terrestrial majesty. The Kongelov is dated and subscribed the I4th of November 1665, but was kept a profound secret, only two initiated persons knowing of its existence until after the death of Frederick III., one of them being Kristoffer Gabel, the king's chief intermediary during the revolution, and the other the author and custodian of the Kongelov, Secretary Peder Schumacher, better known as Griffenfeldt. It is significant that both these confidential agents were plebeians. The revolution of 1660 was certainly beneficial to Norway. With the disappearance of the Rigsraad, which, as representing the Danish crown, had hitherto exercised sovereignty Effa^ of over both kingdoms, Norway ceased to be a subject the revoiu- principality. The sovereign hereditary king stood in tloa of exactly the same relations to both kingdoms; and 1660' thus, constitutionally, Norway was placed on an equality with Denmark, united with but not subordinate to it. It is clear that the majority of the Norwegian people hoped that the revolution would give them an administration independent of the Danish government; but these expectations were not realised. Till the cessation of the Union in 1814, Copenhagen continued to be the headquarters of the Norwegian administra- tion; both kingdoms had common departments of state; and the common chancery continued to be called the Danish chancery. On the other hand the condition of Norway was now greatly improved. In January 1661 a land commission was appointed to investigate the financial and economical conditions of the kingdoms; the fiefs were transformed into counties; the nobles were deprived of their immunity from taxation; and in July 1662 the Norwegian towns received special privileges, including the monopoly of the lucrative timber trade. The Enevaelde, or absolute monarchy, also distinctly benefited the whole Danish state by materially increasing its reserve of native talent. Its immediate consequence was to throw open every state appointment to the middle classes; and the middle classes of that period, with very few exceptions, monopolized the intellect and the energy of the nation. New blood of the best quality nourished and stimulated the whole body politic. Ex- pansion and progress were the watchwords at home, and abroad it seemed as if Denmark were about to regain her former position as a great power. This was especially the case during the brief but brilliant administration of Chancellor Griffenfeldt. Then, if ever, Denmark had the chance of playing once more a leading part in inter- national politics. But Griffenfeldt's difficulties, always serious, were increased by the instability of the European situation, depending as it did on the ambition of Louis XIV. Resolved to conquer the Netherlands, the French king proceeded, first of all, to isolate her by dissolving the Triple Alliance. (See SWEDEN and GRIFFENFELDT.) In April 1672 a treaty was concluded between France and Sweden, on condition that France should not include Denmark in her system of alliances without the consent of Sweden. This treaty showed that Sweden weighed more in the French balances than Denmark. In June 1672 a French army invaded the Netherlands; whereupon the elector of Brandenburg contracted an alliance with the emperor Leopold, to which Denmark was invited to accede; almost simultaneously DENMARK [HISTORY the States-General began to negotiate for a renewal of the recently expired Dano-Dutch alliance. In these circumstances it was as difficult for Denmark to remain neutral as it was dangerous for her to make a choice. a'liance with France would subordinate her to Denmark in the Sweden ; an alliance with the Netnerlands would expose Great her to an attack from Sweden. The Franco-Swedish wZr"1"' alliance left Griffenfeldt no choice but to accede to the opposite league, for he saw at once that the ruin of the Netherlands would disturb the balance of power in the north by giving an undue preponderance to England and Sweden. But Denmark's experience of Dutch promises in the past was not reassuring; so, while negotiating at the Hague for a renewal of the Dutch alliance, he at the same time felt his way at Stockholm towards a commercial treaty with Sweden. His Swedish mission proved abortive, but, as he had anticipated, it effectually acceler- ated the negotiations at the Hague, and frightened the Dutch into unwonted liberality. In May 1673 a treaty of alliance was signed by the ambassador of the States-General at Copenhagen, whereby the Netherlands pledged themselves to pay Denmark large subsidies in return for the services of 10,000 men and twenty warships, which were to be held in readiness in case the United Provinces were attacked by another enemy besides France. Thus, very dexterously, Griffenfeldt had succeeded in gaining his subsidies without sacrificing his neutrality. His next move was to attempt to detach Sweden from France; but, Sweden showing not the slightest inclination for a rapproche- ment, Denmark was compelled to accede to the anti-French league, which she did by the treaty of Copenhagen, of January 1674, thereby engaging to place an army of 20,000 in the field when required; but here again Griffenfeldt safeguarded himself to some extent by stipulating that this provision was not to be operative till the allies were attacked by a fresh enemy. When, in December 1674, a Swedish army invaded Prussian Pomerania, Denmark was bound to intervene as a belligerent, but Griffen- feldt endeavoured to postpone this intervention as long as possible; and Sweden's anxiety to avoid hostilities with her southern neighbour materially assisted him to postpone the evil day. He only wanted to gain time, and he gained it. To the last he endeavoured to avoid a rupture with France even if he broke with Sweden; but he could not restrain for ever the foolish impetuosity of his own sovereign, Christian V., and his fall in the beginning of 1676 not only, as he had foreseen, involved Denmark in an unprofitable war, but, as his friend and disciple, Jens Juel, well observed, relegated her henceforth to the humiliat- ing position of an international catspaw. Thus at the peace of Fontainebleau (September 2, 1679) Denmark, which had borne the brunt of the struggle in the Baltic, was compelled by the inexorable French king to make full restitution to Sweden, the treaty between the two northern powers being signed at Lund on the 26th of September. Freely had she spent her blood and her treasure, only to emerge from the five years' contest exhausted and empty-handed. By the peace of Fontainebleau Denmark had been sacrificed to the interests of France and Sweden; forty-one years later she was sacrificed to the interests of Hanover and Prussia by the peace of Copenhagen (1720), which ended the Northern War so far as the German powers were concerned. But it would not have terminated advantageously for them at all, had not the powerful and highly efficient Danish fleet effectually prevented the Swedish government from succouring its distressed German provinces, and finally swept the Swedish fleets out of the northern waters. Yet all the compensation Denmark received for her inestimable services during a whole decade was 600,000 rix- dollars! The bishoprics of Bremen and Verden, the province of Farther Pomerania and the isle of Riigen which her armies had actually conquered, and which had been guaranteed to her by a whole catena of treaties, went partly to the upstart electorate of Hanover and partly to the upstart kingdom of Prussia, both of which states had been of no political importance whatever at the beginning of the war of spoliation by which they were, ultimately, to profit so largely and so cheaply. The last ten years of the reign of Christian V.'s successor, Frederick IV. (1690-1730), were devoted to the nursing and development of the resources of the country, which had suffered only less severely than Sweden from the effects of the Great Northern War. The court, seriously pious, did much for education. A wise economy also contri- buted to reduce the national debt within manageable limits, and in the welfare of the peasantry Frederick IV. took a deep interest. In 1722 serfdom was abolished in the case of all peasants in the royal estates born after his accession. The first act of Frederick's successor, Christian VI. (1730-1746), was to abolish the national militia, which had been an intoler- able burden upon the peasantry; yet the more pressing agrarian difficulties were not thereby surmounted, chrlstlaa as had been hoped. The price of corn continued ij46?3°~ to fall; the migration of the peasantry assumed alarming proportions; and at last, " to preserve the land " as well as to increase the defensive capacity of the country, the national militia was re-established by the decree of the 4th of February 1733, which at the same time bound to the soil all peasants between the age of nine and forty. Reactionary as the measure was it enabled the agricultural interest, on which the prosperity of Denmark mainly depended, to tide over one of the most dangerous crises in its history; but certainly the position of the Danish peasantry was never worse than during the reign of the religious and benevolent Christian VI. Under the peaceful reign of Christian's son and successor, Frederick V. (1746-1766), still more was done for commerce, industry and agriculture. To promote Denmark's carrying trade, treaties were made with the Barbary States, Genoa and Naples; and the East Indian Trading Company flourished exceedingly. On the other hand the condition of the peasantry was even worse under Frederick V. than it had been under Christian VI., the Stavns- baand, or regulation which bound all males to the soil, being made operative from the age of four. Yet signs of a coming amelioration were not wanting. The theory of the physiocrats now found powerful advocates in Denmark; and after 1755, when the press censorship was abolished so far as regarded political economy and agriculture, a thorough discussion of the whole agrarian question became possible. A commission appointed in 1757 worked zealously for the repeal of many agricultural abuses; and several great landed proprietors introduced heredi- tary leaseholds, and abolished the servile tenure. Foreign affairs during the reigns of Frederick V. and Christian VI. were left in the capable hands of J. H. E. Bernstorff, who aimed at steering clear of all foreign complications and preserving inviolable the neutrality of Denmark. This he succeeded in doing, in spite of the Seven Years' War and of the difficulties attending the thorny Gottorp question in which Sweden and Russia were equally interested. The same policy was victori- ously pursued by his nephew and pupil Andreas Bernstorff, an even greater man than the elder Bernstorff, who controlled the foreign policy of Denmark from 1773 to 1778, and again from 1784 till his death in 1797. The period of the younger Bernstorff synchronizes with the greater part of the long reign of Christian VII. (1766-1808), one of the most eventful periods of modern Danish history. The king himself was indeed a semi-idiot, scarce responsible for his actions, yet his was the era of such striking personalities as the brilliant charlatan Struensee, the great philanthropist and reformer C. D. F. Reventlow, the ultra-conservative Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, whose mission it was to repair'the damage done by Struensee, and that generation of alert and progressive spirits which surrounded the young crown prince Frederick, whose first act, on taking his seat in the council of state, at the age of sixteen, on the 4th of April 1784, was to dismiss Guldberg. A fresh and fruitful period of reform now began, lasting till nearly the end of the century, and interrupted only by the brief but costly war with Sweden in 1788. The emancipation of the peasantry was now the burning question of the day, and the whole matter was thoroughly ventilated. Bernstorff and the HISTORY] DENMARK 37 crown prince were the most zealous advocates of the peasantry in the council of state; but the honour of bringing the whole peasant question within the range of practical politics un- doubtedly belongs to C. D. F. Reventlow (.rd Storm (1749-1794), were associates and mainly fellow- students at Copenhagen, where they introduced a style peculiar to themselves, and distinct from that of the true Danes. Their lyrics celebrated the mountains and rivers of the magnificent country they had left; and, while introducing images and scenery unfamiliar to the inhabitants of monotonous Denmark, they enriched the language with new words and phrases. This group of writers is now claimed by the Norwegians as the founders of a Norwegian literature; but their true place is certainly among the Danes, to whom they primarily appealed. They added 1 His collected works were edited by Fr. Barford (Copenhagen, 5th ed., 1879). _2Wessel's Digte (3rd ed., 1895) are edited by J. Levin, with a biographical introduction. 3 A biography by his friend, K. L. Rahbek, is prefixed to a selection of his poetry (6 vols., 1824-1829). nothing to the development of the drama, except in the person of N. K. Bredal (1733-1778), who became director of the Royal Danish Theatre, and the writer of some mediocre plays. To the same period belong a few prose writers of eminence. Werner Abrahamson (1744-1812) was the first aesthetic critic Denmark produced. Johan Clemens Tode (1736-1806) was eminent in many branches of science, but especially as a medical writer. Ove Mailing (1746-1829) was an untiring collector of historical data, which he annotated in a lively style. Two historians of more definite claim on our attention are Peter Frederik Suhm (1728-1798), whose History of Denmark (n vols., Copenhagen, 1782-1812,) contains a mass of original material, and Ove Guldberg (1731-1808). In theology Christian Bastholm (1740-1819) and Nicolai Edinger Balle (1744-1816), bishop of Zealand, a Norwegian by birth, demand a reference. But the only really great prose-writer of the period was the Norwegian, Niels Treschow (1751-1833), whose philosophical works are composed in an admirably lucid style, and are distinguished for their depth and originality. The poetical revival sank in the next generation to a more mechanical level. The number of writers of some talent was very great, but genius was wanting. Two intimate friends, Jonas Rein (1760-1821) and Jens Zetlitz (1761-1821), attempted, with indifferent success, to continue the tradition of the Norwegian group. Thomas Thaarup (1740-1821) was a fluent and eloquent writer of occasional poems, and of homely dramatic idylls. The early death of Ole Samsoe (1759-1796) prevented the develop- ment of a dramatic talent that gave rare promise. But while poetry languished, prose, for the first time, began to flourish in Denmark. Knud Lyne Rahbek (1760-1830) was a pleasing novelist, a dramatist of some merit, a pathetic elegist, and a witty song-writer; he was also a man full of the literary instinct, and through a long life he never ceased to busy himself with editing the works of the older poets, and spreading among the people a knowledge of Danish literature through his magazine, Minerva, edited in conjunction with C. H. Pram. Peter Andreas Heiberg (1758-1841) was a political and aesthetic critic of note. Hewas exiled from Denmark in company with another sympathizer with the principles of the French Revolution, Malte Conrad Brunn (1775-1826), who settled in Paris, and attained a world-wide reputation as a geographer. O. C. Olufsen (1764-1827) was a writer on geography, zoology and political economy. Rasmus Nyerup (1759-1829) expended an immense energy in the compila- tion of admirable works on the history of language and literature. From 1 7 78 to his death he exercised a great power in the statistical and critical departments of letters. The best historian of this period, however, was Engelstoft (1774-1850), and the most brilliant theologian Bishop Mynster (1775-1854). In the annals of modern science Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851) is a name universally honoured. He explained his inventions and described his discoveries in language so lucid and so characteristic that he claims an honoured place in the literature of the country of whose culture, in other branches, he is one of the most distinguished ornaments. On the threshold of the romantic movement occurs the name of Jens Baggesen (q.v.; 1764-1826), a man of great genius, whose work was entirely independent of the influences around him. Jens Baggesen is the greatest comic poet that Denmark has produced; and as a satirist and witty lyrist he has no rival among the Danes. In his hands the difficulties of the language disappear; he performs with the utmost ease extraordinary tours de force of style. His astonishing talents were wasted on trifling themes and in a fruitless resistance to the modern spirit in literature. Romanticism. — With the beginning of the I9th century the new light in philosophy and poetry, which radiated from Germany through all parts of Europe, found its way into Denmark also. In scarcely any country was the result so rapid or so brilliant. There arose in Denmark a school of poets who created for them- selves a reputation in all parts of Europe, and would have done honour to any nation or any age. The splendid cultivation of metrical art threw other branches into the shade; and the epoch DENMARK [LITERATURE of which we are about to speak is eminent above all for mastery over verse. The swallow who heralded the summer was a German by birth, Adolph Wilhelm Schack von Staffeldt1 (1769- 1826), who came over to Copenhagen from Pomerania, and prepared the way for the new movement. Since Ewald no one had written Danish lyrical verse so exquisitely as Schack von Staffeldt, and the depth and scientific precision of his thought won him a title which he has preserved, of being the first philo- sophic poet of Denmark. The writings of this man are the deepest and most serious which Denmark had produced, and at his best he yields to no one in choice and skilful use of expression. This sweet song of Schack von Staffeldt's, however, was early silenced by the louder choir that one by one broke into music around him. It was Adam Gottlob Ohlenschlager (q.ii.; 1779- 1850), the greatest poet of Denmark, who was to bring about the new romantic movement. In 1802 he happened to meet the young Norwegian Henrik Steffens (1773-1845), who had just returned from a scientific tour in Germany, full of the doctrines of Schelling. Under the immediate direction of Steffens, Ohlenschlager began an entirely new poetic style, and destroyed all his earlier verses. A new epoch in the language began, and the rapidity and matchless facility of the new poetry was the wonder of Steffens himself. The old Scandinavian mythology lived in the hands of Ohlenschlager exactly as the classical Greek religion was born again in Keats. He aroused in his people the slumbering sense of their Scandinavian nationality. The retirement of Ohlenschlager comparatively early in life, left the way open for the development of his younger con- temporaries, among whom several had genius little inferior to his own. Steen Steensen Blicher (1782-1848) was a Jutlander, and preserved all through life the characteristics of his sterile and sombre fatherland. After a struggling youth of great poverty, he published, in 1807-1809, a translation of Ossian; in 1814 a volume of lyrical poems; and in 1817 he attracted considerable attention by his descriptive poem of The Tour in Jutland. His real genius, however, did not lie in the direction of verse; and his first signal success was with a story, A Village Sexton's Diary, in 1824, which was rapidly followed by other tales, descriptive of village life in Jutland, for the next twelve years. These were collected in five volumes (1833-1836). His masterpiece is a collec- tion of short stories, called The Spinning Room. He also produced many national lyrics of great beauty. But it was Blicher's use of patois which delighted his countrymen with a sense of freshness and strength. They felt as though they heard Danish for the first time spoken in its fulness. The poet Aarestrup (in 1 848) declared that Blicher had raised the Danish language to the dignity of Icelandic. Blicher is a stern realist, in many points akin to Crabbe, and takes a singular position among the romantic idealists of the period, being like them, however, in the love of precise and choice language, and hatred of the mere common- places of imaginative writing.2 Nikolai Frederik Severin Grundtvig (q.v.; 1783-1872), like Ohlenschlager, learned the principles of the German romanticism from the lips of Steffens. He adopted the idea of introducing the Old Scandinavian element into art, and even into life, still more earnestly than the older poet. Bernhard Severin Ingemann (q.v.; 1789-1862) contributed to Danish literature historical romances in the style of Sir Walter Scott. Johannes Carsten Hauch (q.v.; 1790-1872) first distinguished himself as a disciple of Ohlenschlager, and fought under him in the strife against the old school and Baggesen. But the master misunderstood the disciple; and the harsh repulse of Ohlenschlager silenced Hauch for many years. He possessed, however, a strong and fluent genius, which eventually made itself heard in a multitude of volumes, poems, dramas and novels. All that Hauch wrote is marked by great qualities, and by distinction; he had a native bias towards the mystical, which, however, he learned to keep in abeyance. 1 See F. L. Liebenberg, Schack Staff eldts samlede Digte (2 vols., Copenhagen, 1843), and Samlinger til Schack Staff eldts Levnet (4 vols., 1846-1851). * Blicher's Tales were edited by P. Hansen (3 vols., Copenhagen, 1871), and his Poems in 1870. Johan Ludvig Heiberg (q.v.; 1791-1860) was a critic who ruled the world of Danish taste for many years. His mother, the Baroness Gyllembourg-Ehrensvard (q.v.; 1773-1856), wrote a large number of anonymous novels. Her knowledge of life, her sparkling wit and her almost faultless style, make these short stories masterpieces of their kind. Christian Hviid Bredahl (1784-1860) produced six volumes of Dramatic Scenes3 (1810-1833) which, in spite of their many brilliant qualities, were little appreciated at the time. Bredahl gave up literature in despair to become a peasant farmer, and died in poverty. Ludvig Adolf Bodtcher (1793-1874) wrote a single volume of lyrical poems, which he gradually enlarged in succeeding editions. He was a consummate artist in verse, and his impressions are given with the most delicate exactitude of phrase, and in a very fine strain of imagination. He was a quietist and an epicurean, and the closest parallel to Horner in the literature of the North. Most of Bodtcher's poems deal with Italian life, which he learned to know thoroughly during a long residence in Rome. He was secretary to Thorwaldsen for a considerable time. Christian Winther (q.v.; 1796-1876) made the island of Zealand his loving study, and that province of Denmark belongs to him no less thoroughly than the Cumberland lakes belong to Wordsworth. Between the latter poet and Winther there was much resemblance. He was, without compeer, the greatest pastoral lyrist of Denmark. His exquisite strains, in which pure imagination is blended with most accurate and realistic descrip- tions of scenery and rural life, have an extraordinary charm not easily described. The youngest of the great poets born during the last twenty years of the i8th century was Henrik Hertz (q.v.; 1797-1870). As a satirist and comic poet he followed Baggesen, and hi all branches of the poetic art stood a little aside out of the main current of romanticism. He introduced into the Danish literature of his time inestimable elements of lucidity and purity. In his best pieces Hertz is the most modern and most cosmopolitan of the Danish writers of his time. It is noticeable that all the great poets of the romantic period lived to an advanced age. Their prolonged literary activity — for some of them, like Grundtvig, were busy to the last — had a slightly damping influence on their younger contemporaries, but certain names in the next generation have special prominence. Hans Christian Andersen (q.v.; 1805-1875) was the greatest of modern fabulists. In 1835 there appeared the first collection of his Fairy Tales, and won him a world-wide reputation. Almost every year from this time forward until near his death he published about Christmas time one or two of these unique stories, so delicate in their humour and pathos, and so masterly in their simplicity. Carl Christian Bagger (1807-1846) published volumes in 1834 and 1836 which gave promise of a great future, — a promise broken by his early death. Frederik Paludan-Muller (q.v.; 1809-1876) developed, as a poet, a magnificent career, which contrasted in its abundance with his solitary and silent life as a man. His mythological or pastoral dramas, his great satiric epos of Adam Homo (1841-1848), his comedies, his lyrics, and above all his noble philosophic tragedy of Kalanus, prove the immense breadth of his compass, and the inexhaustible riches of his imagination. C. L. Emil Aarestrup (1800-1856) published in 1838 a volume of vivid erotic poetry, but its quality was only appreciated after his death. Edvard Lembcke (1815-1897) made himself famous as the admirable translator of Shakespeare, but the incidents of 1864 produced from him some volumes of direct and manly patriotic verse. The poets completely ruled the literature of Denmark during this period. There were, however, eminent men in other depart- ments of letters, and especially in philology. Rasmus Christian Rask (1787-1832) was one of the most original and gifted linguists of his age. His grammars of Old Frisian, Icelandic and Anglo- Saxon were unapproached in his own time, and are still admirable. Niels Matthias Petersen (1791-1862), a disciple of Rask, was the author of an admirable History of Denmark in the Heathen * Edited (3 vols., and ed., 1855, Copenhagen) by F. L. Liebenberg. LITERATURE] DENMARK 43 Antiquity, and the translator of many of the sagas. Martin Frederik Arendt (1773-1823), the botanist and archaeologist, did much for the study of old Scandinavian records. Christian Molbech (1783-1857) was a laborious lexicographer, author of the first good Danish dictionary, published in 1833. In Joachim Frederik Schouw ( 1 789-185 2) , Denmark produced a very eminent botanist, author of an exhaustive Geography of Plants. In later years he threw himself with zeal into politics. His botanical researches were carried on by Frederik Liebmann (1813-1856). The most famous zoologist contemporary with these men was Salomon Dreier (1813-1842). The romanticists found their philosopher in a most remarkable man, Soren Aaby Kierkegaard (1813-1855), one of the most subtle thinkers of Scandinavia, and the author of some brilliant philosophical and polemical works. A learned philosophical writer, not to be compared, however, for genius or originality to Kierkegaard, was Frederik Christian Sibbern (1785-1872). He wrote a dissertation On Poetry and Art (3 vols., 1853-1869) and The Contentsjtf a MS. from the Year 2133 (3 vols., 1858-1872). Among novelists who were not also poets was Andreas Nikolai de Saint-Aubain (1798-1865), who, under the pseudonym of Carl Bernhard, wrote a series of charming romances. Mention must also be made of two dramatists, Peter Thun Feorsom (i777-i8i7),who produced an excellent translation of Shakespeare (1807-1816), and Thomas Overskou (1798-1873), author of a long series of successful comedies, and of a history of the Danish theatre (5 vols., Copenhagen, 1854-1864). Other writers whose names connect the age of romanticism with a later period were Meyer Aron Goldschmidt (1819-1887), author of novels and tales; Herman Frederik Ewald (1821-1908), who wrote a long series of historical novels; Jens Christian Hostrup (1818-1892), a writer of exquisite comedies; and the miscellaneous writer Erik Bogh (1822-1899). In zoology, J. J. S. Steenstrup (1813-1898); in philology, J. N. Madvig (1804-1886) and his disciple V. Thomsen (b. 1842); in anti- quarianism, C. J. Thomsen (1788-1865) and J. J. Asmussen Worsaae (1821-1885); and in philosophy, Rasmus Nielsen (1809-1884) and Hans Brochner (1820-1875), deserve mention. The development of imaginative literature in Denmark became very closely defined during the latter half of the igth century. The romantic movement culminated in several poets of great eminence, whose deaths prepared the way for a new school. In 1874 Bodtcher passed away, in 1875 Hans Christian Andersen, in the last week of 1876 Winther, and the greatest of all, Frederik Paludan-Miiller. The field was therefore left open to the successors of those idealists, and in 1877 the reaction began to be felt. The eminent critic, Dr Georg Brandes (q.v.), had long foreseen the decline of pure romanticism, and had advocated a more objective and more exact treatment of literary phenomena. Accordingly, as soon as all the great planets had disappeared, a new constellation was perceived to have risen, and all the stars in it had been lighted by the enthusiasm of Brandes. The new writers were what he called Naturalists, and their sympathies were with the latest forms of exotic, but particularly of French literature. Among these fresh forces three immediately took place as leaders — Jacobsen, Drachmann and Schandorph. In J. P. Jacobsen (q.v.; 1847-1885) Denmark was now taught to welcome the greatest artist in prose which she has ever pos- sessed; his romance of Marie Grubbe led off the new school "with a production of unexampled beauty. But Jacobsen died young, and the work was really carried out by his two companions. Holger Drachmann (q.v.; 1846-1908) began life as a marine painter; and a first little volume of poems, which he published in 1872, attracted slight attention. In 1877 he came forward again with one volume of verse, another of fiction, a third of travel; in each he displayed great vigour and freshness of touch, and he rose at one leap to the highest position among men of promise. Drach- mann retained his place, without rival, as the leading imaginative writer in Denmark. For many years he made the aspects of life at sea his particular theme, and he contrived to rouse the patriotic enthusiasm of the Danish public as it had never been roused before. His various and unceasing productiveness, his freshness and vigour, and the inexhaustible richness of his lyric versatility, early brought Drachmann to the front and kept him there. Meanwhile prose imaginative literature was ably sup- ported by Sophus Schandorph (1836-1901), who had been entirely out of sympathy with the idealists, and had taken no step while that school was in the ascendant. In 1876, in his fortieth year, he was encouraged by the change in taste to publish a volume of realistic stories, Country Life, and in 1878 a novel, Without a Centre. He has some relation with Guy de Maupassant as a close analyst of modern types of character, but he has more humour. He has been compared with such Dutch painters of low life as Teniers. His talent reached its height in the novel called Little Folk (1880), a most admirable study of lower middle-class life in Copenhagen. He was for a while, without doubt, the leading living novelist, and he went on producing works of great force, in which, however, a certain motonony is apparent. The three leaders had meanwhile been joined by certain younger men who took a prominent position. Among these Karl Gjellerup and Erik Skram were the earliest. Gjellerup (b. 1857), whose first works of importance date from 1878, was long uncertain as to the direction of his powers; he was poet, novelist, moralist and biologist in one; at length he settled down into line with the new realistic school, and produced in 1882 a satirical novel of manners which had a great success, The Disciple of the Teutons. Erik Skram (b. 1847) had in 1879 written a solitary novel, Gertrude Coldbjornsen, which created a sensation, and was hailed by Brandes as ex- actly representing the " naturalism " which he desired to see encouraged; but Skram has written little else of importance. Other writers of reputation in the naturalistic school were Edvard Brandes (b. 1847), and Herman Bang (b. 1858). Peter Nansen (b. 1861) has come into wide notoriety as the author, in particularly beautiful Danish, of a series of stories of a pronouncedly sexual type, among which Maria (1894) has been the most successful. Meanwhile, several of the elder generation, unaffected by the movement of realism, continued to please the public. Three lyrical poets, H. V. Kaalund (1818-1885), Carl Ploug (1813-1894) and Christian Richardt (1831-1892), of very great talent, were not yet silent, and among the veteran novelists were still active H. F. Ewald and Thomas Lange (1829-1887). Ewald's son Carl (1856-1908) achieved a great name as a novelist, but did his most characteristic work in a series of books for children, in which he used the fairy tale, in the manner of Hans Andersen, as a vehicle for satire and a theory of morals. During the whole of this period the most popular writer of Denmark was J. C. C. Brosboll (1816-1900), who wrote, under the pseudonym Cant Etlar, a vast number of tales. Another popular novelist was Vilhelm Bergsoe (b. 1835), author of In the Sabine Mountains (1871), and other romances. Sophus Bauditz(b. 1850) persevered in composing novels which attain a wide general popularity. Mention must be made also of the dramatist Christian Molbech (1821-1888). Between 1885 and 1892 there was a transitional period in Danish literature. Up to that time all the leaders had been united in accepting the naturalistic formula, which was combined with an individualist and a radical tendency. In 1885, however, Drachmann, already the recognized first poet of the country, threw off his allegiance to Brandes, denounced the exotic|tradition, declared himself a Conservative, and took up a national and patriotic attitude. He was joined a little later by Gjellerup, while Schandorph remained stanchly by the side of Brandes. The camp was thus divided. New writers began to make their appearance, and, while some of these were stanch to Brandes, others were inclined to hold rather with Drachmann. Of the authors who came forward during this period of transition, the strongest novelist proved to be Hendrik Pontoppidan (b. 1857). In some of his books he reminds the reader of Turgeniev. Pontoppidan published in 1 898 the first volume of a great novel entitled Lykke- Per, the biography of a typical Jutlander named Per Sidenius, a work to be completed in eight volumes. From 1893 to 1909 no great features of a fresh kind revealed themselves. The Danish public, grown tired of realism, and satiated with pathological phenomena, returned to a fresh study of their own national 44 DENNERY— DENNIS characteristics. The cultivation of verse, which was greatly dis- couraged in the eighties, returned. Drachmann was supported by excellent younger poets of his school. J. J. Jorgensen (b. 1866), a Catholic decadent, was very prolific. Otto C. Fonss (b. 1853) published seven little volumes of graceful lyrical poems in praise of gardens and of farm-life. Andreas Dolleris (b. 1850), of Vejle, showed himself an occasional poet of merit. Alfred Ipsen (b. 1852) must also be mentioned as a poet and critic. Valdemar Rb'rdam, whose The Danish Tongue was the lyrical success of 1901, may also be named. Some attempts were made to transplant the theories of the symbolists to Denmark, but without signal success. On the other hand, something of a revival of naturalism is to be observed in the powerful studies of low life admirably written by Karl Larsen (b. 1860). The drama has long flourished in Denmark. The principal theatres are liberally open to fresh dramatic talent of every kind, and the great fondness of the Danes for this form of entertain- ment gives unusual scope for experiments in halls or private theatres; nothing is too eccentric to hope to obtain somewhere a fair hearing. Drachmann produced with very great success several romantic dramas founded on the national legends. Most of the novelists and poets already mentioned also essayed the stage, and to those names should be added these of Einar Christiansen (b. 1861), Ernst von der Recke (b. 1848), Oskar Benzon (b. 1856) and Gustav Wied (b. 1838). In theology no names were as eminent as in the preceding generation, in which such writers as H. N. Clausen (1793-1877), and still more Hans Lassen Martensen (1808-1884), lifted the prestige of Danish divinity to a high point. But in history the Danes have been very active. Karl Ferdinand Allen (181 1-1871) began a comprehensive history of the Scandinavian kingdoms (5 vols., 1864-1872). Jens Peter Trap (1810-1885) concluded his great statistical account of Denmark in 1879. The i6th century was made the subject of the investigations of Troels Lund (?.».). About 1880 several of the younger historians formed the plan of combining to investigate and publish the sources of Danish history; in this the indefatigable Johannes Steenstrup (b. 1844) was prominent. The domestic history of the country began, about 1885, to occupy the attention of Edvard Holm (b. 1833), O. Nielsen and the veteran P. Frederik Barfod (1811-1896). The naval histories of G. Liitken attracted much notice. Besides the names already mentioned, A. D. J6rgensen (1840-1897), J. Fredericia (b. 1849), Christian Erslev (b. 1852) and Vilhelm Mollerup have all distinguished them- selves in the excellent school of Danish historians. In 1896 an elaborate composite history of Denmark was undertaken by some leading historians (pub. 1897-1905). In philosophy nothing has recently been published of the highest value. Martensen's Jakob Bohme (1881) belongs to an earlier period. H. Hoffding (b. 1843) has been the most prominent contributor to psychology. His Problems of Philosophy and his Philosophy of Religion were translated into English in 1906. Alfred Lehmann (b. 1858) has, since 1896, attracted a great deal of attention by his sceptical investigation of psychical phenomena. F. Ronning has written on the history of thought in Denmark. In the criticism of art, Julius Lange (1838-1896), and later Karl Madsen, have done excellent service. In literary criticism Dr Georg Brandes is notable for the long period during which he remained pre- dominant. His was a steady and stimulating presence, ever pointing to the best in art and thought, and his influence on his age was greater than that of any other Dane. AUTHORITIES. — R. Nyerup, Den danske Digtekunsts Historie (1800-1808), and Almindeligt Literaturlexikon (1818-1820); N. M. Petersen, Literaturhistorie (2nd ed., 1867-1871, 5 vols.); Oyerskpu, Den danske Skueplads (1854-1866, 5 vols.), with a continuation (2 vols., 1873-1876) by E Collin; Chr. Bruun, Bibliotheca Danica (3 vols., 1872-1896) ; Bricka, Dansk biografisk Lexikon (1887-1901) ; J. Paludan, Danmarks Literatur i Middelalderen (Copenhagen, 1896) ; P. Hansen, Illustreret Dansk Literaturhistorie (3 vols., 1901-1902); F. W. Horn, History of the Scandinavian North from the most ancient times to the present (English translation by Rasmus B. Anderson (Chicago, 1 884), with bibliographical appendix by Thorwald Solberg) ; Ph. Schweitzer, Geschichte der Skandinavischen Litteratur (3 pts., Leipzig, 1886-1889), forming vol. viii. of the Geschichte der Welt- litteratur. See also Brandes, Kritiker og Portraiter (1870); Brandes, Danske Dilgere (1877); Marie Herzfeld, Die Skandinavische Litteratur und ihre Tendenzen (Berlin and Leipzig, 1898) ; Hjalmar Hjorth Boyesen, Essays on Scandinavian Literature (London, 1895); Edmund Gosse, Studies in the Literature of Northern Europe (newed., London, 1883); Vilhelm Andersen, Litteraturbilleder (Copenhagen, 1903); A. P. J. Schener, Kortfattet Indledning til Romantikkus Periode i Danmarks Litteratur (Copenhagen, 1894). (E. G.) DENNERY, or D'ENNERY, ADOLPHE (1811-1899), French dramatist and novelist, whose real surname was PHILIPPE, was born in Paris on the I7th of June 1811. He obtained his first success in collaboration with Charles Desnoyer in Emile, ou le fils d'un pair de France (1831), a drama which was the first of a series of some two hundred pieces written alone or in collaboration with other dramatists.' Among the best of them may be mentioned Gaspard Hauser (1838) with Anicet Bourgeois; Les Bohemiens de Paris (1842) with Eugene Grange; with Mallian, Marie-Jeanne, ou la femme du peuple (1845), in which Madame Dorval obtained a great success; La Case d'Oncle Tom (1853); Les Deux Orphelines (1875), perhaps his best piece, with Eugene Cormon. He wrote the libretto^for Gounod's Tribut de Zamora (1881); with Louis Gallet and Edouard Blan he composed the book of Massenet's Cid (1885); and, again in collaboration with Eugene Cormon, the books of Auber's operas, Le Premier Jour de bonheur (1868) and Reve d' amour (1869). He prepared for the stage Balzac's posthumous comedy Mercadet ou le faiseur, presented at the Gymnase theatre in 1851. Reversing the usual order of procedure, Dennery adapted some of his plays to the form of novels. He died in Paris in 1899. DENNEWITZ, a village of Germany, in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, near Juterbog, 40 m. S.W. from Berlin. It is memorable as the scene of a decisive battle on the 6th of September 1813, in which Marshal Ney, with an army of 58,000 French, Saxons and Poles, was defeated with great loss by 50,000 Prussians under Generals Billow (afterwards Count Billow of Dennewitz) and Tauentzien. The site of the battle is marked by an iron obelisk. DENNIS, JOHN (1657-1734), English critic and dramatist, the son of a saddler, was born in London in 1657. He was educated at Harrow School and Caius College, Cambridge, where he took his B.A. degree in 1679. In the next year he was fined and dis- missed from his college for having wounded a fellow-student with a sword. He was, however, received at Trinity Hall, where he took his M.A. degree in 1683. After travelling in France and Italy, he settled in London, where he became acquainted with Dryden, Wycherley and others; and being made temporarily independent by inheriting a small fortune, he devoted himself to literature. The duke of Marlborough procured him a place as one of the queen's waiters in the customs with a salary of £ 1 20 a year. This he afterwards disposed of for a small sum, retaining, at the suggestion of Lord Halifax, a yearly charge upon it for a long term of years. Neither the poems nor the plays of Dennis are of any account, although one of his tragedies, a violent attack on the French in harmony with popular prejudice, entitled Liberty Asserted, was produced with great success at Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1704. His sense of his own importance approached mania, and he is said to have desired the duke of Marlborough to have a special clause inserted in the treaty of Utrecht to secure him from French vengeance. Marlborough pointed out that although he had been a still greater enemy of the French nation, he had no fear for his own security. This tale and others of a similar nature may well be exaggerations prompted by his enemies, but the infirmities of character and temper indicated in them were real. Dennis is best remembered as a critic, and Isaac D 'Israeli, who took a by no means favourable view of Dennis, said that some of his criticisms attain classical rank. The earlier ones, which have nothing of the rancour that afterwards gained him the nickname of " Furius," are the best. They are Remarks . . . (1696), on Blackmore's epic of Prince Arthur; Letters upon Several Occasions written by and between Mr Dryden, Mr Wycherley, Mr Moyle, Mr Gangrene and Mr Dennis, published by Mr Dennis (1696); two pamphlets in reply to Jeremy Collier's Short View; The Advancement and Reformation of DENOMINATION— DENOTATION 45 Modern Poetry (1701), perhaps his most important work ; The Grounds of Criticism in Poetry (i 704), in which he argued that the ancients owed their superiority over the moderns in poetry to their religious attitude; an Essay upon Publick Spirit . . . (1711), in which he inveighs against luxury, and servile imitation of foreign fashions and customs; and Essay on the Genius and Writings of Shakespeare in three Letters (1712). Dennis had been offended by a humorous quotation made from his works by Addison, and published in 1713 Remarks upon Colo. Much of this criticism was acute and sensible, and it is quoted at considerable length by Johnson in his Life of Addison, but there is no doubt that Dennis was actuated by personal jealousy of Addison's success. Pope replied in The Narrative of Dr Robert N orris, concerning the strange and deplorable frenzy of John Dennis . . . (1713). This pamphlet was full of personal abuse, exposing Dennis's foibles, but offering no defence of Cato. Addison repudiated any connivance in this attack, and in- directly notified Dennis that when he did answer his objections, it would be without personalities. Pope had already assailed Dennis in 1711 in the Essay on Criticism, as Appius. Dennis retorted by Reflections, Critical and Satirical . . . , a scurrilous production in which he taunted Pope with his deformity, saying among other things that he was " as stupid and as venomous as a hunch-backed toad." He also wrote in 1717 Remarks upon Mr Pope's Translation of Homer . . . and A True Character of Mr Pope. He accordingly figures in the Dunciad, and in a scathing note in the edition of 1729 (bk. i. i. 106) Pope quotes his more outrageous attacks, and adds an insulting epigram attributed to Richard Savage, but now generally ascribed to Pope. More pamphlets followed, but Dennis's day was over. He outlived his annuity from the customs, and his last years were spent in great poverty. Bishop Atterbury sent him money, and he received a small sum annually from Sir Robert Walpole. A benefit performance was organized at the Haymarket (December 18, 1733) on his behalf. Pope wrote for the occasion an ill-natured prologue which Gibber recited. Dennis died within three weeks of this performance, on the 6th of January 1734. His other works include several plays, for one of which, Appius and Virginia (1709), he invented a new kind of thunder. He wrote a curious Essay on the Operas after the Italian Manner (1706), main- taining that opera was the outgrowth of effeminate manners, and should, as such, be suppressed. His Works were published in 1702, Select Works ... (2 vols.) in 1718, and Miscellaneous Tracts, the first volume only of which appeared, in 1727. For accounts of Dennis see Gibber's Lives of the Poets, vol. iv. ; Isaac D'Israeli's essays on Pope and Addison in the Quarrels of Authors, and " On the Influence of a Bad Temper in Criticism " in Calamities of Authors; and numerous references in Pope's Works. DENOMINATION (Lat. denominare, to give a specific name to), the giving of a specific name to anything, hence the name or designation of a person or thing, and more particularly of a class of persons or things; thus, in arithmetic, it is applied to a unit in a system of weights and measures, currency or numbers. The most general use of " denomination " is for a body of persons holding specific opinions and having a common name, especially with reference to the religious opinions of such a body. More particularly the word is used of the various " sects " into which members of a common religious faith may be divided. The term " denominationalism " is thus given to the principle of emphasiz- ing the distinctions, rather than the common ground, in the faith held by different bodies professing one sort of religious belief. This use is particularly applied to that system of religious education which lays stress on the principle that children belonging to a particular religious sect should be publicly taught in the tenets of their belief by members belonging to it and under the general control of the ministers of the denomination. DENON, DOMINIQUE VIVANT, BARON DE (1747-1825), French artist and archaeologist, was born at Chalon-sur-Saone on the 4th of January 1747. He was sent to Paris to study law, but he showed a decided preference for art and literature, and soon gave up his profession. In his twenty-third year he pro- duced a comedy, Le Bon Pere, which obtained a succes d'estime, as he had already won a position in society by his agreeable manners and exceptional conversational powers. He became a favourite of Louis XV., who entrusted him with the collection and arrange- ment of a cabinet of medals and antique gems for Madame de Pompadour, and subsequently appointed him attache to the French embassy at St Petersburg. On the accession of Louis XVI. Denon was transferred to Sweden; but he returned, after a brief interval, to Paris with the ambassador M. de Vergennes, who had been appointed foreign minister. In 1775 Denon was sent on a special mission to Switzerland, and took the oppor- tunity of visiting Voltaire at Ferney. He made a portrait of the philosopher, which was engraved and published on his return to Paris. His next diplomatic appointment was to Naples, where he spent seven years, first as secretary to the embassy and after- wards as charge d'affaires. He devoted this period to a careful study of the monuments of ancient art, collecting many specimens and making drawings of others. He also perfected himself in etching and mezzotinto engraving. The death of his patron, M. de Vergennes, in 1787, led to his recall, and the rest of his life was given mainly to artistic pursuits. On his return to Paris he was admitted a member of the Academy of Painting. After a brief interval he returned to Italy, living chiefly at Venice. He also visited Florence and Bologna, and afterwards went to Switzerland. While there he heard that his property had been confiscated, and his name placed on the list of the proscribed, and with characteristic courage he resolved at once to return to Paris. His situation was critical, but he was spared, thanks to the friendship of the painter David, who obtained for him a com- mission to furnish designs for republican costumes. When the Revolution was over, Denon was one of the band of eminent men who frequented the house of Madame de Beauharnais. Here he met Bonaparte, to whose fortunes he wisely attached himself. At Bonaparte's invitation he joined the expedition to Egypt, and thus found the opportunity of gathering the materials for his most important literary and artistic work. He accompanied General Desaix to Upper Egypt, and made numerous sketches of the monuments of ancient art, sometimes under the very fire of the enemy. The results were published in his Voyage dans la basse el la haute Egypte (2 vols. fol., with 141 plates, Paris, 1802), a work which crowned his reputation both as an archaeologist and as an artist. In 1804 he was appointed by Napoleon to the important office of director-general of museums, which he filled until the restoration in 1815, when he had to retire. He was a devoted friend of Napoleon, whom he accompanied in his ex- peditions to Austria, Spain and Poland, taking sketches with his wonted fearlessness on the various battlefields, and advising the conqueror in his choice of spoils of art from the various cities pillaged. After his retirement he began an illustrated history of ancient and modern art, in which he had the co-operation of several skilful engravers. He died at Paris on the 27th of April 1825, leaving the work unfinished. It was published posthu- mously, with an explanatory text by Amaury Duval, under the title Monuments des arts du dessin chez les peuples tant anciens que modernes, recueillis par Vivant Denon (4 vols. fol., Paris, 1829) . Denon was the author of a novel, Point de lendemain (1777), of which further editions were printed in 1812, 1876 and 1879. See J. Renouvier, Histoire de I'art pendant la Revolution; A. de la Fizeliere, L'CEuvre originate de Vivant-Denon (2 vols., Paris, 1872- 1873); Roger Portallis, Les Dessinateurs d' illustrations au XVIII' siecle; D. H. Beraldi, Les Craveurs d' illustrations au XVIII" siecle. DENOTATION (from Lat. denotare, to mark out, specify), in logic, a technical term used strictly as the correlative of Con- notation, to describe one of the two functions of a concrete term. The concrete term " connotes " attributes and " denotes " all the individuals which, as possessing these attributes, constitute the genus or species described by the term. Thus " cricketer " denotes the individuals who play cricket, and connotes the qualities or characteristics by which these individuals are marked. In this sense, in which it was first used by J. S. Mill, Denotation is equivalent to Extension, and Connotation to Intension. It is clear that when the given term is qualified by a limiting adjective the Denotation or Extension diminishes, while the Connotation or Intension increases; e.g. a generic term like "flower" has a larger Extension, and a smaller Intension than " rose ": " rose " 46 DENS— DENSITY than " moss-rose." In more general language Denotation is used loosely for that which is meant or indicated by a word, phrase, sentence or even an action. Thus a proper name or even an abstract term is said to have Denotation. (See CONNOTATION.) DENS, PETER (1690-1775), Belgian Roman Catholic theo- logian, was born at Boom near Antwerp. Most of his life was spent in the archiepiscopal college of Malines, where he was for twelve years reader in theology and for forty president. His great work was the Theologia moralis el dogmatica, a compendium in catechetical form of Roman Catholic doctrine and ethics which has been much used as a students' text-book. Dens died on the isth of February 1775. DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick), in physics, the mass or quantity of matter contained in unit volume of any substance: this is the absolute density; the term relative density or specific gravity denotes the ratio of the mass of a certain volume of a substance to the mass of the same volume of some standard substance. Since the weights used in conjunction with a balance are really standard masses, the word " weight " may be substituted for the word " mass " in the preceding definitions; and we may symbolically express the relations thus: — If M be the weight of substance occupying a volume V, then the absolute density A = M/V; and if m, mi be the weights of the substance and of the standard substance which occupy the same volume, the relative density or specific gravity S = m\m\, or more generally if tm\ be the weight of a volume v of the substance, and mi the weight of a volume i\ of the standard, then S = rrm\lm\v. In the numerical expression of absolute densities it is necessary to specify the units of mass and volume employed; while in the case of relative densities, it is only necessary to specify the standard substance, since the result is a mere number. Absolute densities are generally stated in the C.G.S. system, i.e. as grammes per cubic centimetre. In commerce, however, other expressions are met with, as, for example, " pounds per cubic foot " (used for woods, metals, &c.), " pounds per gallon," &c. The standard substances employed to determine relative densities are: water for liquids and solids, and hydrogen or atmospheric air for gases; oxygen (as 16) is sometimes used in this last case. Other standards of reference may be used in special connexions; for example, the Earth is the usual unit for expressing the relative density of the other members of the solar system. Reference should be made to the article GRAVITATION for an account of the methods employed to determine the " mean density of the earth." In expressing the absolute or relative density of any substance, it is necessary to specify the conditions for which the relation holds: in the case of gases, the temperature and pressure of the experimental gas (and of the standard, in the case of relative density) ; and in the case of solids and liquids, the temperature. The reason for this is readily seen; if a mass M of any gas occupies a volume V at a temperature T (on the absolute scale) and a pressure P, then its absolute density under these conditions is A = M/V; if now the temperature and pressure be changed to Ti and PI, the volume Vi under these conditions is VPT/PiTi, and the absolute density is MPiT/VPTi. It is customary to re- duce gases to the so-called " normal temperature and pressure," abbreviated to N.T.P., which is o° C. and 760 mm. The relative densities of gases are usually expressed in terms of the standard gas under the same conditions. The density gives very important information as to the molecular weight, since by the law of Avogadro it is seen that the relative density is the ratio of the molecular weights of the experimental and standard gases. In the case of liquids and solids, comparison with water at 4° C., the temperature of the maximum density of water; at o° C., the zero of the Centigrade scale and the freezing- point of water; at 15° and 18°, ordinary room-temperatures; and at 25°, the temperature at which a thermostat may be conveniently maintained, are common in laboratory practice. The temperature of the experimental substance may or may not be the temperature of the standard. In such cases a bracketed fraction is appended to the specific gravity, of which the numer- ator and denominator are respectively the temperatures of the M substance and of the standard; thus 1-093 (°e/4°) means that the ratio of the weight of a definite volume of a substance at o° to the weight of the same volume of water 4° is 1-093. It may be noted that if comparison be made with water at 4°, the relative density is the same as the absolute density, since the unit of mass in the C.G.S. system is the weight of a cubic centimetre of water at this temperature. In British units, especially in connexion with the statement of relative densities of alcoholic liquors for Inland Revenue purposes, comparison is made with water at 62° F. (16-6 C.); a reason for this is that the gallon of water is defined by statute as weighing 10 Ib at 62° F., and hence the densities so expressed admit of the ready conversion of volumes to weights. Thus if d be the relative density, then lod represents the weight of a gallon in Ib. The brewer has gone a step further in simplifying his expressions by multiplying the density by 1000, and speaking of the difference between the density so expressed and 1000 as " degrees of gravity " (see BEER). PRACTICAL DETERMINATION OF DENSITIES The methods for determining densities may be divided into two groups according as hydrostatic principles are employed or not. In the group where the principles of hydrostatics are not employed the method consists in determining the weight and volume of a certain quantity of the substance, or the weights of equal volumes of the substance and of the standard. In the case of solids we may determine the volume in some cases by direct measurement — this gives at the best a very rough and ready value ; a better method is to immerse the body in a fluid (in which it must sink and be insoluble) contained in a graduated glass, and to deduce its volume from the height to which the liquid rises. The weight may be directly determined by the balance. The ratio " weight to volume " is the absolute density. The separate determination of the volume and mass of such substances as gunpowder, cotton-wool, soluble sub- stances, &c., supplies the only means of determining their densities. The stereometer of Say, which was greatly improved by Regnault and further modified by Kopp, permits an accurate determination of the volume of a given mass of any such substance. In its simplest form the instrument consists of a glass tube PC (fig. l), of uniform bore, terminating in a cup PE, the mouth of which can be rendered air- tight by the plate of glass E. The substance whose volume is to be determined is placed in the cup PE, and the tube PC is immersed in the vessel of mercury D, until the mercury reaches the mark P. The plate E is then placed on the cup, and the tube PC raised until the surface of the mercury in the tube stands at M, that in the vessel D being at C, and the height MC is measured. Let k denote this height, and let PM be denoted by /. Let u represent the volume of air in the cup before the body was inserted, v the volume of the body, a the area of the horizontal FiG. t. — Say's section of the tube PC, and h the height of the Stereometer. mercurial barometer. Then, by Boyle's law (u—v+al) (h—k) = (u—v)h, and therefore v — u—al(h—k)/k. The volume u may be determined by repeating the experiment when only air is in the cup. In this case t>=o, and the equation becomes (u+al1) (h — kl) = uh, whence u=al1(h — k1)/kl. Substituting this value in the expression for v , the volume of the body inserted in the cup becomes known. The chief errors to which the stereometer is liable are (l) variation of temperature and atmospheric pressure during the experiment, and (2) the presence of moisture which dis- turbs Boyle's law. The method of weighing equal volumes is particularly applicable to the determination of the relative densities of liquids. It consists in weighing a glass vessel (i) empty, (2) filled with the liquid, (3) filled with the standard substance. Calling the weight of the empty vessel w, when filled with the liquid W, and when filled with the standard substance Wi , it is obvious that W — to, and Wi — w, are the weights of equal volumes of the liquid and standard, and hence the relative density is (W— a>)/(Wi— w). Many forms of vessels have been devised. The com moner type of " specific gravity bottle " consists of a thin glass bottle (fig. 2) of a capacity varying from 10 to 100 cc., , fitted with an accurately ground stopper, which is vertically perforated by a fine hole. The bottle is carefully cleansed by washing with soda, hydrochloric acid and distilled water, and then dried by heating in an air bath or by blow- ing in warm air. It is allowed to cool and then weighed. FIG. 2. The bottle is then filled with distilled water, and brought to a definite temperature by immersion in a thermostat, and the stopper inserted. It is removed from the thermostat, and carefully DENSITY 47 XJ FIG. 3. wiped. After cooling it is weighed. The bottle is again cleaned and dried, and the operations repeated with the liquid under examina- tion instead of water. Numerous modifications of this bottle are in use. For volatile liquids, a flask provided with a long neck which carries a graduation and is fitted with a well-ground stopper is recommended. The bringing of the liquid to the mark is effected by removing the excess by means of a capillary. In many forms a thermometer forms part of the apparatus. Another type of vessel, named the Sprengel tube or pycnometer (Gr. jrwcvAs, dense), is shown in fig. 3. It consists of a cylindrical tube of a capacity ranging from 10 to 50 cc., provided at the upper end with a thick-walled capillary bent as shown on the left of the figure. From the bottom there leads " another fine tube, bent upwards, and then at right angles so as to be at the same level as the capillary branch. This tube bears a graduation. A loop of plati- num wire passed under these tubes serves to suspend the vessel from the balance arm. The manner of cleansing, &c., is the same as in the ordinary form. The vessel is filled by placing the capillary in a vessel containing the liquid and gently aspirating. Care must be taken that no air bubbles are enclosed. The liquid is adjusted to the mark by withdrawing any excess from the capillary end by a strip of bibulous paper or by a capillary tube. Many variations of this apparatus are in use; in one of the commonest there are two cylindrical chambers, joined at the bottom, and each provided at the top with fine tubes bent at right angles ; sometimes the inlet and outlet tubes are provided with caps. The specific gravity bottle may be used to determine the relative density of a solid which is available in small fragments, and is insoluble in the standard liquid. The method involves three operations: — (i) weighing the solid in air (W), (2) weighing the specific gravity bottle full of liquid (Wi), (3) weighing the bottle containing the solid and filled up with liquid (W2). It is readily seen that W+Wi-W2 is the weight of the liquid displaced by the solid, and therefore is the weight of an equal volume of liquid; hence the relative density is W/fW+Wi-Wa). The determination of the absolute densities of gases can only be effected with any high degree of accuracy by a development of this method. As originated by Regnault, it consisted in filling a large glass globe with the gas by alternately exhausting with an air-pump and admitting the pure and dry gas. The flask was then brought to o° by immersion in melting ice, the pressure of the gas taken, and the stop-cock closed. The flask is removed from the ice, allowed to attain the1 temperature of the room,«and then weighed. The flask is now partially exhausted, transferred to the cooling bath, and after standing the pressure of the residual gas is taken by a manometer. The flask is again brought to room-temperature, and re-weighed. The difference in the weights corresponds to the volume of gas at a pressure equal to the difference of the recorded pressures. The volume of the flask is determined by weighing empty and filled with water. This method has been refined by many experimenters, among whom we may notice Morley and Lord Rayleigh. Morley determined the densities of hydrogen and oxygen in the course of his classical investigation of the composition of water. The method differed from Regnault's inasmuch as the flask was exhausted to an almost complete vacuum, a performance rendered possible by the high efficiency of the modern air-pump. The actual experiment necessi- tates the most elaborate precautions, for which reference must be made to Morley's original papers in the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge (1895), or to M. Travers, The Study of Gases. Lord Rayleigh has made many investigations of the absolute densities of gases, one of which, namely on atmospheric and artificial nitrogen, undertaken in conjunction with Sir William Ramsay, culminated in the discovery of argon (g.ti.). He pointed put in 1888 (Proc. Roy. Soc. 43, p. 361) an important correction which had been overlooked by previous experimenters with Regnault's method, viz. the change in volume of the experimental globe duetoshrinkage under diminished pressure; this may be experimentally determined and amounts to between 0-04 and 0-16 % of the volume of the globe. Related to the determination of the density of a gas is the deter- mination of the density of a vapour, i.e. matter which at ordinary temperatures exists as a solid or liquid. This subject owes its importance in modern chemistry to the fact that the vapour density, when hydrogen is taken as the standard, gives perfectly definite information as to the molecular condition of the compound, since twice the vapour density equals the molecular weight of the compound. Many methods have been devised. In historical order we may briefly enumerate the following: — in 1811, Gay-Lussac volatilized a weighed quantity of liquid, which must be readily volatile, by letting it rise up a short tube containing mercury and standing inverted in a vessel holding the same metal. This method was developed by Hofmann in 1868, who replaced the short tube of Gay-Lussac by an ordinary barometer tube, thus effecting the volatilization in a Torricellian vacuum. In 1826 Dumas devised a method suitable for substances of high boiling-point ; this consisted in its essential point in vaporizing the substance in a flask made of suitable material, sealing it when full of vapour, and weighing. This method is very tedious in detail. H. Sainte-Claire Deville and L. Tropst made it available for specially high temperatures by employing porcelain vessels, sealing them with the oxyhydrogen blow-pipe, and maintaining a constant temperature by a vapour bath of mercury (350°), sulphur (440°), cadmium (860°) and zinc (1040°). In 1878 Victor Meyer devised his air-expulsion method. Before discussing the methods now used in detail, a summary of the conclusions reached by Victor Meyer in his classical investiga- tions in this field as to the applicability of the different methods will be given: (1) For substances which do not boil higher than 260° and have vapours stable for 30° above the boiling-point and which do not react on mercury, use Victor Meyer's "mercury expulsion method." (2) For substances boiling between 260° and 420°, and which do not react on metals, use Meyer's " Wood's alloy expulsion method." (3) For substances boiling at higher temperatures, or for any substance which reacts on mercury, Meyer's " air expulsion method ' must be used. It is to be noted, however, that this method is applicable to substances of any boiling-point (see below). (4) For substances which can be vaporized only under diminished pressure, several methods may be used, (a) Hofmann's is the best if the substance volatilizes at below 310°, and does not react on mercury; otherwise (b) Demuth and Meyer's, Eykman's, Schall's, or other methods may be used. i. Meyer's " Mercury Expulsion " Method. — A small quantity of the substance is weighed into a tube, of the form shown in fig. 4, which has a capacity of about 35 cc., provided with a capillary tube at the top, and a bent tube about 6 mm. in diameter at the bottom. The vessel is completely filled with mercury, the capillary sealed, and the vessel weighed. The vessel is then lowered into a jacket containing vapour at a known temperature which is sufficient to volatilize the substance. Mercury is expelled, and when this expulsion ceases, the vessel is removed, allowed to cool, and weighed. It is necessary to determine the pressure exerted on the vapour by the mercury in the narrow limb; this is effected by opening the capillary and inclining the tube until the mercury just reaches the top of the narrow tube; the difference between FIG. 4. the height of the mercury in the wide tube and the top of the narrow tube represents the pressure due to the mercury column, and this must be added to the barometric pressure in order to deduce the total pressure on the vapour. The result is calculated by means of the formula : n W( i +q<)X 7,980,000 in which W = weight of substance taken; / = temperature of vapour bath; 0 = 0-00366 = temperature coefficient of gases; p = baro- metric pressure; p\ — height of mercury column in vessel; s = vapour tension of mercury at t° ; m = weight of mercury contained in the vessel; mi = weight of mercury left in vessel after heating; (S = coefficient of expansion of glass = -0000303 ; y = coefficient of expansion of mercury =0-00018 (0-00019 above 240°) (see Ber. 1877, 10, p. 2068; 1886, 19, p. 1862). 2. Meyer's Wood's Alloy Expulsion Method. — This method is a modification of the one just described. The alloy used is composed of 15 parts of bismuth, 8 of lead, 4 of tin and 3 of cadmium; it melts at 70°, and can be experimented with as readily as mercury. The cylindrical vessel is replaced by a globular one, and the pressure on the vapour due to the column of alloy in the side tube is readily reduced to millimetres of mercury since the specific gravity of the alloy at the temperature of boiling sulphur, 444° (at which the apparatus is most frequently used), is two-thirds of that of mercury (see Ber. 1876, 9, p. 1220). 3. Meyer's Air Expulsion Method. — The simplicity, moderate accuracy, and adaptability of this method to every class of substance which can be vaporized entitles it to rank as one of the most potent methods in analytical chemistry; its invention is indissolubly connected with the name of Victor M eyer, being termed " Meyer's method " to the exclusion of his other original methods. It consists in determining the air expelled from a vessel by the vapour of a given quantity of the substance. The apparatus is shown in fig. 5. A long tube (a) terminates at the bottom in a cylindrical chamber of about 100-150 cc. capacity. The top is fitted with a rubber stopper, or in some forms with a stop-cock, while a little way down there is a bent delivery tube (b). To use the apparatus, the long tube is placed in a vapour bath (c) of the requisite temperature, and after the air within the tube is in equilibrium, the delivery tube is placed beneath the surface of the water in a pneumatic trough, the rubber stopper pushed home, and observation made as to FIG. 5. whether any more air is being expelled. If this be not so, a graduated tube (d) is filled with water, and inverted over the delivery tube. The rubber stopper is removed and the experimental substance introduced, and the stopper quickly replaced to the same extent as before. Bubbles are quickly disengaged and collect in the 48 DENSITY graduated tube. Solids may be directly admitted to the tube from a weighing bottle, while liquids are conveniently introduced by means of small stoppered bottles, or, in the case of exceptionally volatile liquids, by means of a bulb blown on a piece of thin capillary tube, the tube being sealed during the weighing operation, and the capillary broken just before transference to the ap- paratus. To prevent the bottom of the apparatus being knocked out by the impact of the substance, a layer of sand, asbestos or sometimes mercury is placed in the tube. To complete the experi- ment, the graduated tube containing the expelled air is brought to a constant and determinate temperature and pressure, and this volume is the volume which the given weight of the substance would occupy if it were a gas under the same temperature and pressure. The vapour density is calculated by the following formula : — _ W(l + aQ X 587,780 in which W = weight of substance taken, V = volume of air expelled, a — 1/273 = -003665, t and p = temperature and pressure at which expelled air is measured, and s = vapour pressure of water at t°. By varying the material of the bulb, this apparatus is rendered available for exceptionally high temperatures. Vapour baths of iron are used in connexion with boiling anthracene (335°), anthraquinone e^ (368°),sulphur(444°),phosphoruspentasulphide(5i8°); molten lead may also be used. For higher tempera- tures the bulb of the vapour density tube is made of porcelain or platinum, and is heated in a gas furnace. (40) Hofmann's Method. — Both the modus operandi and apparatus employed in this method particularly recommend its use for substances which do not react on mercury and which boil in a vacuum at below 310°. The apparatus (fig. 6) consists of a barometer tube, containing mercury and standing in a bath of the same metal, surrounded by a vapour jacket. The vapour is circulated through the jacket, and the height of the mercury read by a cathetometer or otherwise. The sub- stance is weighed into a small stoppered bottle, which is then placed beneath the mouth of the barometer tube. It ascends the tube, the substance is rapidly volatilized, and the mercury column is depressed ; this depression is read off. It is necessary to know the volume of the tube above the second level ; this may most efficiently be determined by calibrating the tube prior to its use. Sir T. E. Thorpe employed a barometer tube 96 cm. long, and determined the volume from the closed end for a distance of about 35 mm. by weighing in mercury ; below this mark it was calibrated in the ordinary way so that a scale reading gave the volume at once. The calculation is effected by the following formulae: — 1-0036650 FIG. 6. 0-0012934 XVXB *,__ lit ',+* 1+0-00018/1 \i +0-00018/2 1+0-00018* in which w = weight of substance taken; / = temperature of vapour jacket ; V = volume of vapour at / ; h = height of barometer reduced to o°; /; =temperature of air; hi = height of mercury column below vapour jacket; fe = temperature of mercury column not heated by vapour; hi = height of mercury column within vapour jacket; s = vapour tension of mercury at /°. The vapour tension of mercury need not be taken into account when water is used in the jacket. (46) Demuth and Meyer's Method. — The principle of this method is as follows: — In the ordinary air expulsion method, the vapour always mixes to some extent with the air in the tube, and this in- volves a reduction of the pressure of the vapour. It is obvious that this reduction may be increased by accelerating the diffusion of the vapour. This may be accomplished by using a vessel with a some- what wide bottom, and inserting the substance so that it may be volatilized very rapidly, as, for example, in tubes of Wood's alloy, _ and by filling the tube with hydrogen. (For further details see Ber. 23, p. 311.) We may here notice a modification of Meyer's r-*, process in which the increase of pressure due to the *• •* volatilization of the substance, and not the volume of the expelled air, is measured. This method has been developed by J. S. Lumsden (Jcurn. Chem. Soc. 1903, 83, p. 342), whose apparatus is shown diagrammatically in fig. 7. The vaporizing bulb A has fused about it a jacket B, provided with a condenser c. Two side tubes are fused on to the neck of A : the lower one leads to a mercury mano- meter M, and to the air by means of a cock C ; the upper tube is provided with a rubber stopper through which a glass rod passes — this rod serves FlG. 7. to support the tube containing the substance to be experimented upon, and so avoids the objection to the practice of withdrawing the stopper of the tube, dropping the substance in, and reinserting the stopper. To use the apparatus, a liquid of suitable boiling-point is placed in the jacket and brought to the boiling-point. All parts of the apparatus are open to the air, and the mercury in the manometer is adjusted so as to come to a fixed mark a. The substance is now placed on the support already mentioned, and the apparatus closed to the air by inserting the cork at D and turning the cock C. By turning or withdrawing the support the substance enters the bulb; and! during its vapori- zation the free limb of the manometer is raised so as to maintain the mercury at a. When the volatilization is quite complete, the level is accurately adjusted, and the difference of the levels of the mercury gives the pressure exerted by the vapour. To calculate the result it is necessary to know the capacity of the apparatus to the mark a, and the temperature of the jacket. Methods depending on the Principles of Hydrostatics. — Hydro- statical principles can be applied to density determinations in four typical ways: (l) depending upon the fact that the heights of liquid columns supported by the same pressure vary inversely as the densities of the liquids ; (2) depending upon the fact that a body which sinks in a liquid loses a weight equal to the weight of liquid which it displaces; (3) depending on the fact that a body remains sus- pended, neither floating nor sinking, in a liquid of exactly the same density; (4) depending on the fact that a floating body is immersed to such an extent that the weight of the fluid displaced equals the weight of the body. 1. The method of balancing columns is of limited use. Two forms are recognized. In one, applicable only to liquids which do not mix, the two liquids are poured into the limbs of a U tube. The heights of the columns above the surface of junction of the liquids are in- versely proportional to the densities of the liquids. In the second form, named after Robert Hare (1781-1858), professor of chemistry at the university of Pennsylvania, the liquids are drawn or aspirated up vertical tubes which have their lower ends placed in reservoirs containing the different liquids, and their upper ends connected to a common tube which is in communication with an aspirator for decreasing the pressure within the vertical tubes. The heights to which the liquids rise, measured in each case by the distance between the surfaces in the reservoirs and in the tubes, are inversely pro- portional to the densities. 2. The method of " hydrostatic weighing " is one of the most important. The principle may be thus stated : the solid is weighed in air, and then in water. If W be the weight in air, and Wi the weight in water, then Wi is always less than W, the difference W-W, representing the weight of the water displaced, i.e. the weight of a volume of water equal to that of the solid. Hence W/(W-Wi) is the relative density or specific gravity of the body. The principle is readily adapted to the determination of the relative densities of two liquids, for it is obvious that if W be the weight of a solid body in air, Wi and W2 its weights when immersed in the liquids, then W-Wi and W-Wz are the weights of equal volumes of the liquids, and therefore the relative density is the quotient (W-Wi)/(W-Ws). The determination in the case of solids lighter than water is effected by the introduction of a sinker i.e. a body which when affixed to the light solid causes it to sink. I" W be the weight of the experimental solid in air, w the weight of the sinker in water, and Wi the weight of the solid plus sinker in water, then the relative density is given by W/(W+w-Wi). In practice the solid or plummet is suspended from the balance arm by a fibre — silk, platinum, &c. — and carefully weighed. A small stool is then placed over the balance pan, and on this is placed a beaker of distilled water so that the solid is totally immersed. Some balances are provided with a " specific gravity pan," i.e. a pan with short suspending arms, provided with a hook at the bottom to which the fibre may be attached ; when this is so, the stool is unnecessary. Any air bubbles are removed from the surface of the body by brushing with a camel-hair brush; if the solid be of a porous nature it is desirable to boil it for some time in water, thus expelling the air from its interstices. The weighing is conducted in the usual way by vibrations, except when the weight be small ; it is then advisable to bring the pointer to zero, an opera- tion rendered necessary by the damping due to the adhesion of water to the fibre. The temperature and pressure of the air and water must also be taken. There are several corrections of the formula A = W/(W-Wi) necessary to the accurate expression of the density. Here we can only summarize the points of the investigation. It may be assumed that the weighing is made with brass weights in air at /° and p mm. pressure. To determine the true weight in vacua at o°, account must be taken of the different buoyancies, or losses of true weight, due to the different volumes of the solids and weights. Similarly in the case of the weighing in water, account must be taken of the buoyancy of the weights, and also, if absolute densities be required, of the density of water at the temperature of the experiment. In a form of great accuracy the absolute density A(o°/4°) is given by A(o°/4°) = (poW-5Wi)/(W-Wi), in which W is the weight of the body in air at t° and p mm. pressure, Wi the weight in water, atmospheric conditions remaining very nearly the same ; p is the density of the water in which the body is weighed, a is (l+o/°) in which a is the coefficient of cubical expansion of the body, and S is the density of the air at t°, p mm. Less accurate formulae are A = p W/(W-Wi), the factor involving the density of the air, and the coefficient of the expansion of the solid being disregarded, and A = W/(W-Wi), in which the density of water is taken as unity. Reference may be made to J. Wade and R. W. Merriman, Journ. Chem. Soc. 1909, 95, p. 2174. DENTATUS 49 FIG. 8. The determination of the density of a liquid by weighing a plummet in air, and in the standard and experimental liquids, has been put into a very convenient laboratory form by means of the apparatus known as a Westphal balance ' (fig. 8). It consists of a steel- yard mounted on a fulcrum; one arm carries at its extrem- ity a heavy bob and pointer, the latter moving along a scale affixed to the stand and serv- ing to indicate when the beam is in its standard position. The other arm is graduated in ten divisions and carries riders — bent pieces of wire of determined weights — and at its extremity a hook from which the glass plummet is suspended. To complete the apparatus there is a glass jar which serves to hold the liquid experimented with. The apparatus is so designed that when the plummet is suspended in air, the index of the beam is at the zero of the scale; if this be not so, then it is adjusted by a levelling screw. The plummet is now placed in distilled water at 15°, and the beam brought to equilibrium by means of a rider, which we shall call I, hung on a hook; other riders are provided, ^th and ji0th respec- tively of I. To determine the density of any liquid it is only neces- sary to suspend the plummet in the liquid, and to bring the beam to its normal position by means of the riders; the relative density is read off directly from the riders. 3. Methods depending on the free suspension of the solid in a liquid of the same density have been especially studied by Retgers and Gossner in view of their applicability to density determinations of crystals. Two typical forms are in use; in one a liquid is pre- pared in which the crystal freely swims, the density of the liquid being ascertained by the pycnometer or other methods; in the other a liquid of variable density, the so-called " diffusion column," is prepared, and observation is made of the level at which the particle comes to rest. The first type is in commonest use; since both necessitate the use of dense liquids, a summary of the media of most value, with their essential properties, will be given. Acetylene tetrabromide, C2H2Br<, which is very conveniently prepared by passing acetylene into cooled bromine, has a density of 3-001 at 6° C. It is highly convenient, since it is colourless, odourless, very stable and easily mobile. It may be diluted with benzene or toluene. Methylene iodide, CH2I2, has a density of 3-33, and may be diluted with benzene. Introduced by Brauns in 1886, it was recommended by Retgers. Its advantages rest on its high density and mobility; its main disadvantages are its liability to decomposition, the originally colourless liquid becoming dark owing to the separation of iodine, and its high coefficient of expansion. Its density may be raised to 3-65 by dissolving iodoform and iodine in it. Thoulct s solution, an aqueous solution of potassium and mercuric iodides (potassium iodo-mercurate), introduced by Thoulet and subsequently investigated by V. Goldschmidt, has a density of 3-196 at 22-9°. It is almost colourless and has a small coefficient of expansion; its hygroscopic properties, its viscous character, and its action on the skin, however, militate against its use. A. Duboin (Compt. rend., 1905, p. 141) has investigated the solutions of mercuric iodide in other alkaline iodides; sodium iodo-mercurate solution has a density of 3-46 at 26°, and gives with an excess of water a dense precipitate of mercuric iodide, which dissolves without decomposition in alcohol; lithium iodo-mercurate solution has a density of 3-28 at 25-6°; and ammonium iodo-mercurate solution a density of 2-98 at 26°. Rohrbach's solution, an aqueous solution of barium and mercuric iodides, jntroduced by Carl Rohrbach, has a density of 3-588. Klein's solution, an aqueous solution of cadmium borotungstate, 2Cd(OH)2-B2O3-9WCVi6H2O, introduced by D. Klein, has a density up to 3-28. The salt melts in its water of crystallization at 75°, and the liquid thus obtained goes up to a density of 3-6. Silver -thallium nitrate^, TIAg(NO3)2, introduced by Retgers, melts at 75° to form a clear liquid of density 4-8; it may be diluted with water. The method of using these liquids is in all cases the same; a particle is dropped in; if it floats a diluent is added and the mixture well stirred. This is continued until the particle freely swims, and then the density of the mixture is determined by the ordinary methods (see MINERALOGY). In_the "diffusion column" method, a liquid column uniformly varying in density from about 3-3 to I is prepared by pouring a little methylene iodide into a long test tube and adding five times as much benzene. The tube is tightly corked to prevent evaporation, and allowed to stand for some hours. The density of the column at any level is determined by means of the areometrical beads proposed by Alexander Wilson (1714-1786), professor of astronomy at Glasgow University. These are hollow glass beads of variable density; they may be prepared by melting off pieces of very thin capillary tubing, and determining the density in each case by the method just previously described. To use the column, the experimental fragment is introduced, when it takes up a definite position. By successive trials two beads, of known density, say dt, d,, are obtained, one of which floats above, and the other below, the test crystal; the distances separating the beads from the crystal are determined by means of a scale placed behind the tube. If the bead of density d\ be at the distance I, above the crystal, and that of d, at ^ below, it is obvious that if the density of the column varies uniformly, then the density of the test crystal is (dJ/2+