ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA

VOL. vai

•jft

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768—1771.

SECOND ten 1777—1784.

THIRD eighteen 1788—1797.

FOURTH twenty 1801 — 1810.

FIFTH twenty 1815—1817.

SIXTH twenty 1823—1824.

SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1842.

EIGHTH twenty-two 1853—1860.

NINTH twenty-five 1875—1889.

TENTH ninth edition and eleven

supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903.

ELEVENTH „ published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911.

COPYRIGHT

in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention

by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS

of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

All rights reserved

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL

INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME VIM

DEMIJOHN to EDWARD

Cambridge, England:

at the University Press

New York, 35 West 3 2nd Street
1910

AE-5

Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,

by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company

INITIALS USED IN VOLUME VIII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL

CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE

ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.

A. Ca. ARTHUR CAYLEY, LL.D., F.R.S. f Determinant.

See the biographical article: CAYLEY, ARTHUR. \

A. E. G.* REV. ALFRED ERNEST GARVIE, M.A., D.D.

Principal of New College, Hampstead. Member of the Board of Theology and
Board of Philosophy, London University. Formerly Professor of Philosophy, -j Devil.
Theism, Comparative Religion, and Christian Ethics in Hackney and New Colleges,
London. Author of Studies in the Inner Life of Jesus; The Christian Certainty; &c. [

A. E. S. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.L.S.

Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer of Christ's College, Cambridge. University Reader Desmoscoleeida'
in Zoology. President of the Association of Economic Biologists. Formerly < Z?
University Lecturer on the Advanced Morphology of the Invertebrata. Author of Hcniuroiflea.
Zoology of the Invertebrata. Editor of the Pitt Press Natural Science Manuals; &c. [

A. Fi. PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTE FILON. f n_ , p,^,j. / •„

See the biographical article : FILON, P. M. A. \ Drama' French (m

A. P. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.Soc. [

Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford. Professor of English History in the University I Edward VI
of London. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-1901.]
Author of England under the Protector Somerset ; Life of Thomas Cranmer ; &c. I

A. G. MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908). f

H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgale;\ Deportation.
Secrets of the Prison House ; &c. [_

A. G. D. ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, C.M.G., M.A., Lrrr.D., F.R.Hisi.S. f

Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of Canada. I Dorion.
Author of The Cradle of New France; &c. Joint Editor of Documents relating to]
the Constitutional History of Canada. [

A. H. J. G. ABEL HENDY TONES GREENIDGE, M.A., D.LiTT. (d. 1905).

Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Hertford College, Oxford, and of St John's
College, Oxford. Author of Infamia in Roman Law; Handbook of Greek Con- \ Dictator.
stitutwnal History; Roman Public Life; History of Rome. Joint Editor of Sources
of Roman History, 133-70 B.C.

A. H. S. REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, D.LITT., L.L.D., D.D. f Echatana

See the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H. \

A. J. L. ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX. f

Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Formerly Editor of the Rio -\ Ecuador (in part).
News, Rio de Janeiro.

A. J. P. ALEXANDER J. PHILIP. f «._. hniB<!

Borough Librarian of Gravesend. \ Uel

A. L. G. ANDREW LOCKHART GILLESPIE, M.D., F.R.S. (Edin.) (d. 1904). f Digestive Onrans- Pathnlnr

Formerly Lecturer on Modern Gastric Methods, Edinburgh Post-Graduate School \ UIges"ve Organs. Pathology
Author of Manual of Modern Gastric Methods ; &c. |_ (impart).

A. Mw. ALLEN MAWER, M.A.

Professor of English Language and Literature, Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-
Tyne. Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Formerly Lecturer in
English at the University of Sheffield.

Denmark: Ancient History;
Edgar, King;

Edmund , King of East Anglia;
Edmund I.; Edred;

A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE.

Edward (the Elder);
Edward (the Martyr).

>JES MARY CLERKE. f _. . _

See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. Y Dick' Tnomas; Donati.

A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. r Diver; Dodo (in part) ;

See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. ^ Dove; Duck; Eagle.

1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.

v

1977

vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

A. R. C. ALEXANDER Ross CLARKE, C.B., F.R.S. f

Colonel, R.E. Royal Medal of Royal Society, 1887. In charge of Trigonometrical •{ Earth, Figure of the (in part).
Operations of the Ordnance Survey, 1854-1881.

A. S. Wo. ARTHUR SMITH WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S. f

Keeper of Geology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Secretary of the ) DiplodOCUS.
Geological Society, London.

A. Wa. ARTHUR WAUGH, M.A.

New College, Oxford. Newdigate Prize, 1888. Managing Director of Chapman & J De Tabley.
Hall, Ltd. Author of Gordon in Africa; Alfred, Lord Tennyson. Editor of I
Johnson's Lives of the Poets; editions of Dickens, Tennyson, Arnold, Lamb; &c. I.

A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. f Derby, Earls of (in part).

Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. \

A, W. R. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. f

Pni«inp TnHcrp nf thp ^imrpmp Pniirt nf Opvlnn KHitnr nf F,nrvr.lnbrtj>din. nf Ike J.n.ins <

A. W. W.

Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws \ Easement.
of England.

ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LL.D., D.Lirr. /Drama.

See the' biographical article: WARD, A. W. \

C. A. G. CHRISTIAN CARL AUGUST GOSCH, M.Sc. J Denmark: Geography and

Commander of the Danebrog. Knight of St Anna. Formerly Attach^ to theH e , • .•' <•• ., ,\
Danish Legation, London. Author of Denmark and Germany since 1815. I »*««»« W» Pa1

C. Ch. CHARLES CHREE, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. f

Superintendent, Kew Observatory. Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. J v .«. „,
President of Physical Society of London. Watt Medallist, Institute of Civil] *-artH Currents.
Engineers, 1905.

C. C. H. CHARLES CAESAR HAWKINS, M.A., M.I.E.E. f _

Author of The Dynamo. \ Dynamo.

C. E.* CHARLES EVERITT, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. J Density Distillation.

Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford. \

C. F. A. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. f

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal •{ Dutch Wars: Military.
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. I

C. H. Rd. CHARLES HERCULES READ, LL.D.

Keeper of British and Medieval Antiquities, British Museum. President of the") Drinking Vessels.
Society of Antiquaries of London. Author of Antiquities from Benin ; &c. I

C. H. T.* CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, A.M., LL.D. f Ecelesiastes

See the biographical article: TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL. \

C. L. K. CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S., F.S.A. . J Derby, 1st Earl of;

Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor of 1 Edward IV
Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London.

C. PL CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D. is L. f

Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of J Ebroin.
Etude sur le rkgne de Robert le Pieux; Le duch6 merovingien d' Alsace el la legende de\
Sainte-Odile. I

C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HisT.S. r

Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow Diaz de Novaes*
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. -< nicuil
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of
Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. L

C. S. P.* REV. CHARLES STANLEY PHILLIPS. f Edmund Ironside;

King's College, Cambridge. Gladstone Memorial Prize, 1904. L Edward the Confessor.

C. W. W. SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907). c

Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary

Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com- J niarhatr (;„ A/r.rt

mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1836-1894. Director-General] L"arDeiir ^n pan).

of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; Life of

Lord Clive; &c.

D. B. Ma. DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. r

Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. Author J Dervish;
of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory;] Divan.
Selection from Ibn Khaldum ; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam ; &c. L

D. C. T. DAVID CROAL THOMSON. r

Formerly Editor of the Art Journal. Author of The Brothers Maris; The Barbizon \ Diaz, N. V.
School of Painters ; Life of " Phiz " ; Life of Bewick ; &c.

D. G. H. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. r

Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Derna;
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naukratis, 1899^ Didymi;
and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Druses (in part)
Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. L

D. H. DAVID HANNAY.

it-icti \7irA.r^r»ncn1 at- Rarrplnna AiitTir»r nf *\ltnvt WVc/rt^^r /i/ Jfsi+tfiJ J

Dutch Wars: Naval.

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal \ Dudley» Sir
Navy, 1217-1688; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. [ Dutch War

D. Mn. REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A.

Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Director of the London -\ Duff, Alexander.
Missionary Society,

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

VII

E. A. T.

E. Br.

E. C. B.
E. C. B.*

E. C. K.

E. C. Q.

E. Es.
£• £• A*

E.G.

E. Gr.
E. I. C.

E. J. D.

E.K.

Ed. M.

E. Ma.
E. M. T.

E. O'M.

E. Pr.

P. A. B.

F. E. B.

F. G. M. B.

MRS (ETHEL) ALEC TWEEDIE.

Author of Porfirio Diaz ; Mexico as I saw it ; &c.

ERNEST BARKER, M.A.

Fellow of, and Lecturer in Modern History at, St John's College, Oxford. Formerly -
Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895.

RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., D.LITT. (Dublin).
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath.

EDWARD CRESSWELL BASER, M.A. (d. 1910).

Formerly Senior Surgeon, Brighton and Sussex Throat and Ear Hospital. Prize-,
man and William Brown Scholar, St George's Hospital, London. Author of
numerous papers on Diseases of the Ear, Nose and Throat.

EDWARD CAMERON KIRK, D.Sc.

Dean of the Dental Faculty and Professor of Dental Pathology, Therapeutics and .
Materia Medica, University of Pennsylvania. Editor of The American Text-Book
of Operative Dentistry.

EDMUND CROSBY QUIGGIN, M.A.

Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge; Lecturer in Modern Languages'
and Monro Lecturer in Celtic.

EDMOND ESMONIN.

ERNEST E. AUSTEN.

Assistant in Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. -

EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D.

See the biographical article : GOSSE, EDMUND.

ERNEST A. GARDNER, M.A.

See the biographical article : GARDNER, PERCY.

EDWARD IRVING CARLYLE, M.A., F.R.HiST.S.

Fellow, Lecturer in Modern History, and Tutor of Lincoln College, Oxford. .
Formerly Fellow of Merton College. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National
Biography, 1895-1901.

Diaz, Porfirio.

Diet.

Dominic, Saint;
Dominicans.

Ear: Diseases.
Dentistry.

Druidism.

Desmarets.

Diptera.

Denmark: Literature;
Descriptive Poetry;
Dialogue; Diary;
Didactic Poetry;
Dithyrambic Poetry; Donne;
Drachmann;
Drayton, Michael;
I Dutch Literature; Edda.

! Dodona.
Dost Mahommed Khan.

EDWARD JOSEPH DENT, M.A., MUS.BAC.

Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge.
and Works.

Author of A . Scarlatti: his Life \ Durante, Francesco.

EDMUND KNECHT, PH.D., M.SC.TECH. (Manchester), F.I.C.

Professor of Technological Chemistry, Manchester University. Head of Chemical
Department, Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. Examiner in Dyeing, -| Dyeing.
City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of A Manual of Dyeing; &c. Editor
of Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists.

EDUARD MEYER, D.LITT. (Oxon.), LL.D., PH.D.

Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte I Diodotus.
des Alterthums; Forschungen zur alien Geschichte; Geschichte des alien Agyptens;\
Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme ; &c. I

EDWARD MANSON. r

Barrister-at-Law. Joint Editor of Journal of Comparative Legislation; Author of"! Directors.
Law of Trading Companies ; Practical Guide to Company Law ; &c. {.

SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON, G.C.B., I.S.O., D.C.L., Lrrr.D., LL.D.

Director and Principal Librarian, British Museum, 1898-1909. Sandars Reader

in Bibliography, Cambridge, 1895-1896. Hon. Fellow of University College,

Oxford. Correspondent of the Institute of France and of the Royal Prussian J Diplomatic.

Academy of Sciences. Author of Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography.

Editor of Chronicon Angliae. Joint Editor of publications of the Palaeographical

Society, the New Palaeographical Society, and of the Facsimile of the Laurentian

Sophocles.

J Diatomaceae (in part).

r

Eca de Queiroz.

REV. EUGENE HENRY O'MEARA, M.A
Vicar of Tallaght, County Dublin.

EDGAR PRESTAGE.

Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Com-
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal
Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. L

FRANCIS ARTHUR BATHER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. f

Assistant Keeper of Geology, British Museum. Rolleston Prizeman, Oxford, 1892.] Echinoderma.
Author of " Echinoderma " in A Treatise on Zoology; Triassic Echinoderms of\
Bakony; &c. I

FRANK EVERS BEDDARD, M.A., F.R.S. f

Prosector of the Zoological Society, London. Formerly Lecturer in Biology at J Earth-worm.
Guy's Hospital. Naturalist to " Challenger " Expedition Commission, 1882-1884. 1
Author of Text-Book of Zoogeography; Animal Colouration; &c. I

FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A.

Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge.

| East Anglia.

viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST.

Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on Diaphragm;
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. •< Ductless Glands*
Formerly Examiner in the Universities of Cambridge, Aberdeen, London and £--
Birmingham ; and Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons.

F. G. P.* FRANK GEORGE POPE. J Diazo

Lecturer on Chemistry, East London College (University of London). "^

F. J. H. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. f

Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of
Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Monographs on "
Roman History, especially Roman Britain, &c. L

F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. f

Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, J Dendera;
Oxford. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeological Reports of the | Edfu.
Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial German Archaeological [Institute. L

F. R. H. FREDERICK ROBERT HELMERT, PH.D., D.ING. /Knrtii IK™ «f tt» /•

Professor of Geodesy, University of Berlin. \ W

F. R. M. FRANCIS RICHARD MAUNSELL, C.M.G. c

Lieutenant-Colonel. Military Vice-Consul, Sivas, Trebizond, Van (Kurdistan), J Diarbekr (*n ^a,rf\
1897-1898. Military Attache, British Embassy, Constantinople, 1901-1905. 1 ' part).

Author of Central Kurdistan ; &c. L

F. S. FRANCIS STORR, M.A. f D ,

Editor of the Journal of Education, London. Officier d'Academie, Paris \

F. T. M. SIR FRANK THOMAS MARZIALS, K.C.B. f rjumas. m

Formerly Accountant General of the Army. Editor of the " Great Writers " Series. \

F. V. T. FREDERICK VINCENT THEOBALD, M.A. f

Vice-Principal and Zoologist, S.E. Agricultural College, Wye, Kent (University of J BI... ._,„ ,,_.t _ .
London). Grand Medallist of the Societe Nationale d'Acclimatation de France. 1 t'co lc Entomology.
Author of The Insect and other Allied Pests of Orchard, Bush and Hothouse Fruits ; &c. L

F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. -j Earthquake (in part).
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. I

F. W. W. FREDERIC W. WHYTE. f

Author of Actors of the Century; &c. Translator of Filon's English Stage; Schil-H Du Maurier, G.
ling's With Flashlight and Rifle; &c. L

G. A. B. GEORGE A. BOULENGER, F.R.S., D.Sc., PH.D. I"

In charge of the collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British -! Dory.
Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. L

G. Be. GERTRUDE MARGARET LOTHIAN BELL. f nmcoc / * A/, A

Author of The Desert and the Sown ; &c. \ ul

G. B. M. C. GEORGE BARNARD MILBANK COORE. f -eM11(,««nn. ATW,;^,/,* c,,^«,

Assistant Secretary, Board of Education, London. \ Education. Natwnal Systems.

G. C. W. GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, LITT.D. f

Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures; Life of Richard J Downman;
Cosway, R.A . ; George Engleheart ; Portrait Drawings ; &c. Editor of new edition ] Dumont, Francois,
of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. I

G. F. B. G. F. BARWICK. ("

Assistant Keeper of Printed Books and Superintendent of Reading Room, British i Dhuleep Singh.
Museum. L

G. G. S. GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. f Douglas Gavin-

Professor of English Literature, Queen's University of Belfast: Author of The •{ _ ' ,,,..,.

Days of James IV.; The Transition Period ; Specimens of Middle Scots ; &c. [ Dul»Dar, William.

G. H. Br. GEORGE HARTLEY BRYAN, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. f

Professor of Pure and Applied Mathematics, University College of North Wales. J Diffusion.

Formerly Fellow of Peterhouse, Cambridge. President of Mathematical Association, |

1907.

G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.Sc. f"

Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: -I Dragon-fly (in part),
their Structure and Life.

G. S. W.* GEORGE STEPHEN WEST, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. f

Professor of Botany, University of Birmingham. Associate of Royal College of •} Diatomaceae (in part).
Science, London. Author of Treatise on British Fresh-water Algae; &c.

H. A. Mi. HENRY ALEXANDER MIERS, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. r

Principal of the University of London. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford.
Formerly Waynflete Professor of Mineralogy, Oxford. President of Mineralogical -J Diamond.
Society since 1904. Editor of the Mineralogical Magazine, 1891-1900. Author of
Mineralogy; &c. L

H. B. Wo. HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S. ("

Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England and Wales, -j Desmarest, N.
President, Geologists' Association, 1893-1894. Wollaston Medallist, 1908.

, Devonshire, Earls and Dukes

H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. of;

Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition-^ Dufferin and Ava 1st
of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the loth edition. Marau«SS* Edward VII

H. De.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix

REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J. f

Bollandist. Joint Author of the Acta Sanctorum. \ Denis, Saint.

H F. Ba. HENRY FREDERICK BAKER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. r

Fellow and Lecturer of St John's College, Cambridge. Cayley Lecturer in Mathe- J Differential Equation.

ma tics in the University. Author of Abel's Theory and the Allied Theory; &c.

H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, M.A., F.R.S., PH.D. f

Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge, -j Dodo (in part).
Author of Amphibia and Reptiles (Cambridge Natural History). L

H. G. HUGH GODFRAY, M.A.

Sometime Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Author of an Elementary •{ Dial and Dialling.
Treatise on the Lunar Theory; A Treatise on Astronomy. [_

H. H. T. HERBERT HALL TURNER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. r

Savilian Professor of Astronomy, Oxford University. Fellow of New College.

Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Chief Assistant at the Royal I jp-ii-,. f A -*1

Observatory, Greenwich. Correspondent, Institut de France. President, Royal | '"'UP5* l*» pan).

Astronomical Society, 1903-1904. Author of Modern Astronomy; Astronomical

Discovery.

H. Lb. HORACE LAMB, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. f

Professor of Mathematics, University of Manchester. Formerly Fellow and J
Assistant Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Member of Council of Royal "j Dynamics.
Society, 1894-1896. Royal Medallist, 1902. President of London Mathematical
Society, 1902-1904. Author of Hydrodynamics; &c.

H. N. D. HENRY NEWTON DICKSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.R.G.S. [

Professor of Geography at University College, Reading. Formerly Vice-President, J Qeser*
Royal Meteorological Society. Lecturer in Physical Geography, Oxford. Author 1
of Meteorology ; Elements of Weather and Climate ; &c.

H. 0. T. HENRY OSBORN TAYLOR, LL.B. (Columbia). f _

Author of The Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages ; Ancient Ideals ; &c. \ Dionysius AreopagltiCUS.

H. St. HENRY STURT, M.A.

Author of Idola T

H. S. S. HAROLD SPENCER SCOTT, M.A.

l~
Author of Idola Theatri ; The Idea of a Free Church ; and Personal Idealism. \

f
New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. 1 Dower.

H. Ti. HENRY TIEDEMANN. f

London Editor of the Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant. Ex-President of the Foreign -j Dozy.
Press Association.

H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. f - . ,. «,.,..«._„

Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, 1 ""
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. [Edmund, Saint.

H. W. H. HOPE W. HOGG, M.A. f -,.

Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Manchester. \

I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. f Dujjes Leopold •

Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. President, J nill a<A. .
Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short History of Jewish Ultra- | Z~ >n '
ture; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages. I Duran.

J. A.* JOHN AITKEN, LL.D., F.R.S. r

Investigator of Atmospheric Dust. Inventor of instruments for counting the dust
particles in the atmosphere. Author of papers on Dust Fogs and Clouds; Hazing -{ Dust.
Effects of Atmospheric Dust; Cyclones and Anticyclones; &c., in publications of
Royal Society.

J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. f Devonian System ;

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. \ Drift.

J. A. P.* REV. JAMES ALEXANDER PATERSON, M.A., D.D. r

Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, New College, Edinburgh. Author
of The Period of the Judges; Book of Leviticus, in" Temple" Bible; Book o}\ Deuteronomy.
Numbers, in "Polychrome" Bible; &c. Translator of Schultz's Old Testament
Theology.

J. C. M. JAMES CLERK MAXWELL, D.C.L., F.R.S. / _.

See the biographical article: MAXWELL, JAMES CLERK. "^ Ulasram.

J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HisT.S. r

Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Deus, Joao de ;
Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. 4 Don Juan ;
Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of Frhpp-arav v Fi7a<Miirr«
Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c.

J. G. H. JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.MECH.E. J Drawing- Draivine-OfficeWork

Author of Plating and Boiler Making ; Practical Metal Turning ; &c. I

J. H. G. JOHANN HENDRIK GALL£E, PH.D.

Professor of Comparative Philology and Teutonic Languages, University of Utrecht. J Dutch Laneuaee
President of the Philological Society, Utrecht. Author of Altsdchsische Sprach- ]
denkmaler. (.

3. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.). J Domesday Book;

Author of Feudal England ; Studies in Peerage and Family History ; Peerage and \ '

Pedigree ; &c. I Earl Marshal.

J. I. JULES ISAAC. f Dii Bellay, Guillaume and

Professor of History at the Lycee of Lyons. \ Jean.

* INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

J. J. H. J. J. HUMMEL, F.I.C. (d. 1902). [

Formerly Professor of Dyeing, University 01 Leeds. Author of The Dyeing oH Dyeing (in part).
Textile Fabrics.' [_

J. J. L.* REV. JOHN JAMES LIAS, M.A. ["

Chancellor of Llandaff Cathedral. Formerly Hulsean Lecturer in Divinity andi Dollinger.
Lady Margaret Preacher, University of Cambridge. L

J. L. M. JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. f

Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Formerly j Dorians
Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient Geography, University of |
Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical Archaeology in University of Oxford.

J. Mi. JOHN MILNE, F.G.S., F.R.S., D.Sc. I"

Formerly Professor of Mining and Geology, Imperial University of Tokio. Founder _ .

of the Seismic Survey of Japan. Designer of seismographs and instruments to H Earthquake (in part).
record vibrations on railways, &c. Author of Earthquakes; Seismology; Crystal-
lography; &c.

J. Mo. VISCOUNT MORLEY OF BLACKBURN. f _. ,

See the biographical article: MORLEY, VISCOUNT, OF BLACKBURN. \ IflQeroi.

J'. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. f Draco'

Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London \ w ,
College (University of London). Joint Editor of Grote's History of Greece. I Jicclesla'

J. M. M. D. J. M. M. DALLAS. f ..

Formerly Secretary of the Edinburgh Draughts Club. \ Draughts (in part).

J. 0. B. JOHN OLIVER BORLEY, M.A. f _

Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. \ Dredge and Dredging: Marine.

J. P.-B. JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST. r

Editor of the Guardian, London. "j Desk.

J. R. C. JOSEPH ROGERSON COTTER, M.A. r

Assistant to the Professor of Physics, Trinity College, Dublin. Editor of 2nd -I Dispersion.
edition of Preston's Theory of Heat.

J. R. F. JOHN RITCHIE FINDLAY. f

See the biographical article: FINDLAY, J. R. ^ De Qumcey.

J. R. Fo. JOHN R. FOTHERGILL. f _

Editor of The Slade. \ Drawing.

J. S. F. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. r Diabase; Diorite;

Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in J rini..:*.. rtninmito-
Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby 1 „, I*6' Llolomlle»
Medallist of the Geological.Society of London. I Ecloglte.

Dnieper (in part);
Dniester (in part);

J. T. Be. JOHN T. BEALBY.

Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c.

Don (in part);

Don Cossacks, Territory of the

(in part);

Dvina (in part);
-Echmiadzin (in part).

Jno. W. JOHN WESTLAKE, K.C., LL.D., D.C.L. ["

Professor of International Law, Cambridge, 1888-1908. One of the Members for
United Kingdom of International Court of Arbitration under the Hague Conven- -| Domicile,
tion, 1900-1906. Author of A Treatise on Private International Law; International
Law: I. Peace; II. War; &c.

J. Wn. JAMES WELTON, M.A. r

Professor of Education in the University of Leeds. Author of Logical Bases of-i Education: Theory.
Education ; Principles and Methods of Moral Training ; &c.

J. W. He. JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A. f

Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient History at •< Droysen, J. G.
Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the German
Empire ; &c.

K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. f Double-Bass; Drone;

Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra; &c. "\ Drum; Dulcimer.

L. F. V.-H. LEVESON FRANCIS VERNON-HARCOURT, M.A., M.lNST.C.E. (1830-1907). r

Formerly Professor of Civil Engineering at University College, London. Author of J r\nf'ie

Rivers and Canals; Harbours and Docks; Civil Engineering as applied in Con- 1 UOCK-

struction; &c.

L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A., F.G.S. f _.. ,. _..

Assistant, Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Sidney J "lallage; Diaspore;
Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineralogical | Diopside; Dioptase.

Magazine.

L. V.* LUIGI VlLLARI.

Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Department). Formerly Newspaper Corre- niavnln Pra-
spondent in East of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906; Phil-S "
adelphia, 1907; and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town Dona.
and Country; Fire and Sword in the Caucasus; &c.

M- A. C. MAURICE ARTHUR CANNEY, M.A. f

Assistant Lecturer in Semitic Languages in the University of Manchester. 1 Dorner.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi

M. Br. Miss MARGARET BRYANT. JDryden (in part); Dumas.

M. F. SIR MICHAEL FOSTER, K.C.B., D C.L., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

See the biographical article: FOSTER, SIR M. -| Du Bois-Reymond.

M. G. D. RT. HON. SIR MOUNTSTUART ELPHINSTONE GRANT-DUFF, G.C.S.I., F.R.S.

(1829-1906).

M.P. for the Elgin Burghs, 1857-1881. Under-Secretary of State for India, 1868-
1874. Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, 1880-1881. Governor of Madras, .,
1881-1886. President of the Royal Geographical Society, 1889-1893. President
of the Royal Historical Society, 1892-1899. Author of Studies in European Politics;
Notes from a Diary ; &c.

Derby, 14th Earl of.

M. Ha. MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.Sc., F.L S.

Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. Author of Protozoa (in Cambridge -j Dinoflagellata.
Natural History) ; and papers for various scientific journals. [

M. Ja. MORRIS JASTROW, Jr., PH.D. f£a.

Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Author of •< vJL-n,
Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c. L •BgaDanl-

M. 0. B. C. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. [

Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birming- -i Doris.
ham University, 1905-1908. L

N. M. NORMAN MCLEAN, M.A. f

Fellow, Lecturer and Librarian of Christ's College, Cambridge. University Lecturer J njonvsil
in Aramaic. Examiner for the Oriental Languages Tripos, and the Theological 1
Tripos, at Cambridge. L

N. M. B. NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER. f Education- United States

See the biographical article: BUTLER, N. M. \

N. W. T. NORTHCOTE WHITBRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. I" Demonology;

Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the J Divination*
Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and \ TW.II. r»M
Marriage in Australia; &c. I DOU> Dreams-

0. J. R. H. OSBERT JOHN RADCLIFFE HOWARTH, M.A. f Denmark: Geography and

Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1901. Assistant Secretary of the"! Statistics (in part)
British Association. L

Dnieper (in part) ; Dniester

nnnrn«pT«f *h

Don Cossacks, Territory of the

(tn part); Dvina (in part);
Echmiadzin (in part).

P. C. M. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, F.R.S., M.A., D.Sc., LL.D. f

Secretary to the Zoological Society cf London. University Demonstrator in
Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891..) Dog (in part)
Lecturer on Biology at Charing Cross Hospital, 1892-1894; at London Hospital, I
1894. Examiner in Biology to the Royal College of Physicians, 1892-1896, 1901-
1903. Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903.

f Derby, 7th Earl of;

P. C. Y. PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE M.A. I Digby Slr Everard;

Magdalen College, Oxford. j Digby> sir

P. Gi. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT. D.

Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J R
Reader in Comparative Philology. Late Secretary of the Cambridge Philological 1
Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology ; &c.

P. G. K. PAUL GEORGE KONODY. f

Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of The Artist. 1 Donatello.
Author of Ths Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c. I

R. LORD RAYLEIGH.

See the biographical article : RAYLEIGH, 3RD BARON.

R. A. S. M. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. f

St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explora- J Diptych,
tion Fund.

R. C. J. SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB., LITT.D., D.C.L. f n«n - »h

See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD C. \UM ies<

R. D. M. R. D. MlLNER. f lit.*.*-.. /• • A

Formerly Assistant, U.S. Department of Agriculture. \ uie s Vn Part)-

R. H. D.* ROBERT HENRY DAVIS. f

Managing Director, Siebe, Gorman & Co., Ltd., Submarine Engineers, London. -| Divers and Diving Apparatus.
Author of A Diving Manual; &c.

R. I. P. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. • f Earwig.

Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. \

R. J. RICHARD JORDAN. f Drau!,hts (in *n.rt\

Draughts Champion of Scotland, 1896, and of the world, 1896 seq. \ "

R. J. H. RONALD JOHN McNEiLL, M.A. f Driving-

Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's •{ r>,,_i,n <,.* r.,,.1 „;
Gazette, London. I Durham, 1st Earl of.

xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. r niniro. nolnhln-

Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J „

Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; The Deer of] Dormouse; Dugong;

all Lands ; &c. L Duiker; Edentata.

R. Ma. REV. ROBERT MACKINTOSH, D.D. f

Professor of Christian Ethics and Apologetics, Lancashire Independent College. „
Lecturer on the Philosophy of Religion, University of Manchester. Author of
Christ and the Jewish Law ; &c. 1.

R. M'L. ROBERT M'LACHLAN, F.R.S. | _ ,.

Editor of the Entomologists' Monthly Magazine. \ "ragon-ny (in part).

R. N. B. ROBERT -NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). f Denmark: Medieval and

Assistant Librarian, British Museum 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the Modern History
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, -\ n ff _.
1613 to 1725 ; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1460 u*»ewny; IMUgosz;
to 1796; &c. I Dolgoruki; Dozsa.

R. P. S. R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. r

Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past- I Dome; Door;
President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, -j Doorway;
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's Earlv Enplfch Pprinri
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c.

S. A. C. STANLEY ARTHUR COOK. /•

Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and
formerly Fellow, Gonyille and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and j
Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Council of Royal Asiatic Society, 1904- -j Edom.
1905. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses and Code
of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient
Palestine; &c.

ISCSeTthe biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, IST EARL OF. | Du VerSier de Hauranne.

St H. LORD ST HELIER (SIR FRANCIS HENRY JEUNE), P.C., K.C.B., G.C.B. (1843-1905). I"

President of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court oH Divorce.
Justice, 1892-1905. Honorary Fellow of Hertford College, Oxford. L

S. C. SIDNEY COLVIN, LL.D. f Dttrer.

See the biographical article : COLVIN, S. \

S. D. H. S. D. HOPKINSON. -I Dividend.

S. K. STEN KONOW, Pn.D. f

Prof esspr of Indian Philology in the University of Christiania. Officier del' Academic I
Franchise. Author of Stamavidhana brdhmana; The Karpuramanjan; volumes •{ Dravidian.
ori Tibeto-Burman languages; Munda and Dravidian; " Marathi Bhil " in The
Linguistic Survey of India.

S. N. SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D. / Eclipse (in part);

See the biographical article : NEWCOMB, SIMON. I Ecliptic.

T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT., F.S.A.

Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Corresponding Member
of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ -j Eboli.
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1897. Author of The Classical Topo-
graphy of the Roman Campagna ; &c.

T. A. I. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D.

Trinity College, Dublin.

T. F. T. THOMAS FREDERICK TOUT, M.A. f

Professor of Medieval and Modern History in the University of Manchester. I Edward L, II., III.;
Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford. Author of Edward I. ; The Empire ] Edward The Black Prince.
and Papacy ; &c.

T. K. C. REV. THOMAS KELLY CHEYNE, M.A., D.D. J~ _ .

See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K. \ Baen-

T. L. H. SIR THOMAS LITTLE HEATH, K.C.B., D.Sc. f

Assistant Secretary to the Treasury. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- I nionhantos
bridge. Author of Diophantos of Alexandria; Editor of The Thirteen Books of\
Euclid's Elements; &c.

T. M. F. THOMAS McCALL FALLOW, M.A., F.S.A. f

Formerly Editor of the Antiquary. Author of Memorials of Old Yorkshire ; -j Easter.
Cathedral Churches of Ireland ; &c. [

T. Se. THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A.

Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges Dickens;
(University of London). Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of 4 nostoievskv
Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson;
Joint Author of The Bookman History of English Literature ; &c.

T. W. R. D. T. W. RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D.

Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester. Professor of Pali and Buddhist Devadatta-
Literature, University College, London, 1882-1904. President of the Pali Text J "~v **'
Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal Asiatic DnammapSla.
Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the Buddhists; Early
Buddhism; Buddhist India; Dialogues of the Buddha; &c. I

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

Xlll

V.T.

W. A.

W. A. B. C.

VLADIMIR TCHERTKOFF.

Editor of The Free Age Press. Literary Representative of Leo Tolstoy. Author of -| DoukhobOFS.

Christian Martyrdom in Russia ; &c.
WILLIAM ARCHER.

See the biographical article Archer, William.

REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. (Bern). ,

Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's Dolomites, The;
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of < Dornbirn;
the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in Durance;
History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889; &c. I Ebel J G

•j Drama (Recent English).
f Digne;

W. A. P.
W. A. S. H.

W. B.
W. E. B.

WALTER ALISON

M.A.

f Diplomacy; Dispensation;

Donation nf
"OI LHOn °l

W. E. D.

W. P. Sh.
W. F. W.

W. G. P. P.
W. Hy.
W. H.*

W. H. Ma.
W. L. G.
W. M.

W. IVl* K.

W. N. S.

Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College,
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c.

WILLIAM ALBERT SAMUEL HEWINS, M.A.

Secretary of the Tariff Commission. Formerly Director of the London School
of Economics. Teacher of Modern Economic History in the University of
London, 1902-1903. Tooke Professor of Economic Science and Statistics at King's'
College, London, 1897-1903. Author of Imperialism and its Probable Effect on the
Commercial Policy of the United Kingdom ; &c.

WALTER BAXENDALE.

Kennel Editor of the Field.

REV. WILLIAM EMERY BARNES, M.A., D.D.

Hulsean Professor of Divinity, Cambridge. Fellow and Hon. Chaplain of Peter-
house, Cambridge. Examining Chaplain to the_Bishop of London. Joinl Editor
of Journal of Theological Studies, 1899-1901. Formerly Leclurer in Hebrew, -
Clare College, and Leclurer in Hebrew and Divinily, Peterhouse. Author of The
Canonical and Uncanonical Gospels', The Peshitta Text of Chronicles; The Psalms
in the Peshitta Version ; Genuineness of Isaiah ; &c.

WILLIAM ERNEST DALBY, M.A., M.lNST.C.E., M.I.M.E., A.M.lNSx.N.A.

Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering al the City and Guilds of London
Institute Central Technical College, South Kensington. Formerly University -\ Dynamometer.
Demonstrator in the Engineering Department, Cambridge. Author of The Balanc-
ing of Engines ; Valves and Valve Gear Mechanism ;&c.

WILLIAM FLEETWOOD SHEPPARD, M.A.

Senior Examiner to the Board of Education.
Cambridge. Senior Wrangler, 1884.

Dragon; Duke;
I Eastern Question, The.

Economics.

Dog (in part).

Ecclesiasticus.

Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, -I Differences, Calculus of.

WALTER FRANCIS WILLCOX, LL.B., PH.D. [

Chief Statistician, United States Census Bureau. Professor of Social Science and

Statistics, Cornell University. Member of the American Social Science Association J Divorce: United States.
and Secretary of the American Economical Association. [Author of The Divorce
Problem: A Study in Statistics; Social Statistics of the United States; &c.

SIR WALTER GEORGE FRANK PHILLIMORE, BART., D.C.L., LL.D. f

Judge of the King's Bench Division. President of International Law Association,

1905. Author of Book of Church Law. Editor of 2nd editi9n of Phillimore's } Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction.
Ecclesiastical Law; yd edition of vol. iv. of Phillimore's International Law; &c. [

WILLIAM HENRY. r

Founder and Chief Secretary to the Royal Life Saying Society. Associate of the
Order of St John of Jerusalem. Joint Author of Swimming, (Badminton Library) ; "
&c.

Drowning and Life Saving.

WALTER HUNTER, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., F.G.S.

Consulting Engineer for Waterworks to Crown Agents for the Colonies. Member
of Council of Institute of Civil Engineers. Silver Medallist, Royal Society of Arts. \
Originator of Staines Scheme of Storage Reservoirs. Has reported on Waterworks
at Accra, Secconder and Lagos; also on Rand Water Supply.

WILLIAM HENRY MAXWELL, A.M.I.C.E. f

Borough and Waterworks Engineer, Tunbridge Wells. Formerly President of
Institute of Sanitary Engineers, London. Author of Refuse Destructors; &c. "
Joint Editor of Encyclopaedia of Municipal and Sanitary Engineering.

WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A.

Professorial Queen'ss University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly Beit Lecturer in

anil
,.

Hydraulic Engineering.

Destructors.

rrotessor at yueen s university, Kingston, Canada, hormerly Beit Lecturer in I n«w.i«e«M. ict
Colonial History at Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy Council, Colonial 1 uorcne •» lsl
series; Canadian Constitutional Development (in collaboration).

L

WILLIAM MINTO, M.A.

See the biographical article: MINTO, WILLIAM.

WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.

See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL.

Dry den (in part).

("Dole!; Domenichino;
t Dyce, William; Eastlake.

WILLIAM NAPIER SHAW, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. f"

Director of the Meteorological Office. Reader in Meteorology in the University of
London. President of Permanent International Meteorological Committee. I
Member of Meteorological Council, 1897-1905. Hon. Fellow of Emmanuel College, 1
Cambridge. Senior Tutor, 1890-1899. Joint Author of Text Book of Practical
Physics; &c.

XIV

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

W. 0. A.

W. R. E. H.

W. R. L.

W. S. J.

W. W.

W. W. R.*

WILBUR OLIN ATWATER, PH.D. (1844-1907).

Formerly Professor of Chemistry, Wesleyan University, U.S.A. Special Agent of H Dietetics (in part).
the United States Department of Agriculture in charge of Nutrition Investigations. L

WILLIAM RICHARD EATON HODGKINSON, PH.D., F.R.S. I"

Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ordnance College, Woolwich. Formerly J
Professor of Chemistry andlPhysics, R.M.A., Woolwich. Part author of Valentin- 1
Hodgkinson's Prqctical Chemistry ; &c. I

W. R. LETHABY, F.S.A.

Principal of the Central School of Arts and Crafts under the London County Council.
Author of Architecture, Mysticism and Myth; &c.

WILLIAM STANLEY JEVONS, LL.D.

See the biographical article: JEVONS, WILLIAM STANLEY.

WILLIAM WALLACE.

See the biographical article: WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897).

Design.

: De Morgan.

1 Descartes.

WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC.THEOL. / n , c , .

Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. \ uon' &ynoa OI-

PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES

Democratic Party.

Democritus.

Derbyshire.

Desmoulins.

Detroit.

Devonshire.

De Witt, John.

Diabetes.

Diamond Necklace.

Dice.

Dictionary.

Didache.

Dietary.

Dietrich of Bern.

Digitalis.

Dijon.

Dionysius.

Diphtheria.

Distress.

Dittersdorf, Karl D. von.

Divining-rod.

Dockyards.

Doge.

Dominoes.

Donatists.

Donegal.

Dorset, Earls, Marquesses

and Dukes of.
Dorsetshire.
Douglas: Family.
Dover.
Down.

Dragoman.

Drainage of Land.

Drake, Sir Francis.

Dresden.

Dropsy.

Drummond of Hawthornden.

Drunkenness.

Dualism.

Dublin.

Dunbar.

Dundee, Viscount.

Dundee: City.

Dundonald.

Duns Scotus.

Durban.

Durham.

Dutch East India Company.

Dutch West India Company.

Dwarf.

Dyaks.

Dysentery.

Dyspepsia.

Earth.

Eastern Bengal and Assam,

East India Company.

Ebionites.

Ecarte".

Ecclesiastical Law.

Eclecticism.

Edgeworth.

Edinburgh.

Edinburghshire.

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME VIII

DEMIJOHN, a glass bottle or jar with a large round body and
narrow neck, encased in wicker-work and provided with handles.
The word is also used of an earthenware jar, similarly covered
with wicker. The capacity of a demijohn varies from two to
twelve gallons, but the common size contains five gallons.
According to the New English Dictionary the word is an adapta-
tion of a French Dame Jeanne, or Dame Jane, an application
of a personal name to an object which is not uncommon; cf. the
use of " Toby " for a particular form of jug and the many uses
of the name " Jack."

DEMISE, an Anglo-French legal term (from the Fr. demettre,
Lat. dimiltere, to send away) for a transfer of an estate, especially
by lease. The word has an operative effect in a lease implying a
covenant for " quiet enjoyment " (see LANDLORD AND TENANT).
The phrase " demise of the crown " is used in English law to
signify the immediate transfer of the sovereignty, with all its
attributes and prerogatives, to the successor without any inter-
regnum in accordance with the maxim " the king never dies."
At common law the death of the sovereign eo facto dissolved
parliament, but this was abolished by the Representation of the
People Act 1867, §51. Similarly the common law doctrine that
all offices held under the crown determined at its demise has
been negatived by the Demise of the Crown Act 1901. "Demise"
is thus often used loosely for death or decease.

DEMIURGE (Gr. d-rjfuovpyos, from Sixties, of or for the people,
and epyov, work), a handicraftsman or artisan. In Homer the
word has a wide application, including not only hand-workers
but even heralds and physicians. In Attica the demiurgi formed
one of the three classes (with the Eupatridae and the geomori,
georgi or agroeci) into which the early population was divided
(cf . Arist. Ath. Pol. xiii. 2). They represented either a class of the
whole population, or, according to Busolt, a commercial nobility
(see EUPATRIDAE). In the sense of " worker for the people "
the word was used throughout the Peloponnese, with the excep-
tion of Sparta, and in many parts of Greece, for a higher
magistrate. The demiurgi among other officials represent Elis
and Mantineia at the treaty of peace between Athens, Argos, Elis
andMantineiain42OB.c. (Thuc. v. 47). In the Achaean League
(q.v.) the name is given to ten elective officers who presided
over the assembly, and Corinth sent " Epidemiurgi " every year
to Potidaea, officials who apparently answered to the Spartan
harmosts. In Plato dijfuovpybs is the name given to the " creator
of the world " (Timaeus, 40) and the word was so adopted by
the Gnostics (see GNOSTICISM).

DEMMIN, a town of Germany, kingdom of Prussia, on the
navigable river Peene (which in the immediate neighbourhood
receives the Trebel and the Tollense), 72 m. W.N.W. of Stettin,
on the Berlin-Stralsund railway. Pop. (1905) 12,541. It has
manufactures of textiles, besides breweries, distilleries and
tanneries, and an active trade in corn and timber,
vm — i

The town is of Slavonian origin and of considerable antiquity,
and was a place of importance in the time of Charlemagne. It
was besieged by a German army in 1 148, and captured by Henry
the Lion in 1164. In the Thirty Years' War Demmin was the
object of frequent conflicts, and even after the peace of West-
phalia was taken and retaken in the contest between the electoral
prince and the Swedes. It passed to Prussia in 1720, and its
fortifications were dismantled in 1759. In 1807 several engage-
ments took place in the vicinity between the French and Russians.

DEMOCHARES (c. 355-275 B.C.), nephew of Demosthenes,
Athenian orator and stateman, was one of the few distinguished
Athenians in the period of decline. He is first heard of in 322,
when he spoke in vain against the surrender of Demosthenes
and the other anti-Macedonian orators demanded by Antipater.
During the next fifteen years he probably lived in exile. On the
restoration of the democracy by Demetrius Poliorcetes in 307
he occupied a prominent position, but was banished in 303
for having ridiculed the decree of Stratocles, which contained
a fulsome eulogy of Demetrius. He was recalled in 298, and
during the next four years l fortified and equipped the city with
provisions and ammunition. In 296 (or 295) he was again
banished for having concluded an alliance with the Boeotians,
and did not return until 287 (or 286). In 280 he induced the
Athenians to erect a public monument in honour of his uncle with
a suitable inscription. After his death (some five years later)
the son of Demochares proposed and obtained a decree (Plutarch,
Vitae decent oratomm,p. 851) that a statue should be erected in
his honour, containing a record of his public services, which seem
to have consisted in a reduction of public expenses, a more
prudent management of the state finances (after his return in
287) and successful begging missions to the rulers of Egypt and
Macedonia. Although a friend of the Stoic Zeno, Demochares
regarded all other philosophers as the enemies of freedom, and
in 306 supported the proposal of one Sophocles, advocating their
expulsion from Attica. According to Cicero (Brutus, 83) Demo-
chares was the author of a history of his own times, written in
an oratorical rather than a historical style. As a speaker
he was noted for his freedom of language (Parrhesiastes, Seneca,
De ira, iii. 23) . He was violently attacked by Timaeus, but found
a strenuous defender in Polybius (xii. 13).

See also Plutarch, Demosthenes, 30, Demetrius, 24, Vitae decem
oralorum, p. 847; J. G. Droysen's essay on Demochares in Zeil-
schriftfiir die Altertumswissenschaft (1836), Nos. 20, 21.

DEMOCRACY (Gr. SrifioKparia, from Sij/uos, the people, ije.
the commons, and KP&.TOS, rule), in political science, that form
of government in which the people rules itself, either directly,
as in the small city-states of Greece, or through representatives.
According to Aristotle, democracy is the perverted form of the

1 For the " four years' war " and the chronological questions in-
volved, see C. W. Muller, Frag. Hist. Graec. ii. 445.

DEMOCRATIC PARTY

third form of government, which he called TroXireta, " polity "
or " constitutional government," the rule of the majority of the
free and equal citizens, as opposed to monarchy and aristocracy,
the rule respectively of an individual and of a minority consist-
ing of the best citizens (see GOVERNMENT and ARISTOCRACY).
Aristotle's restriction of " democracy " to bad popular govern-
ment, i.e. mob-rule, or, as it has sometimes been called,
" ochlocracy " (oxAos, mob), was due to the fact that the
Athenian democracy had in his day degenerated far below the
ideals of the 5th century, when it reached its zenith under Pericles.
Since Aristotle's day the word has resumed its natural meaning,
but democracy in modern times is a very different thing from
what it was in its best days in Greece and Rome. The Greek
states were what are known as " city-states," the characteristic
of which was that all the citizens could assemble together in the
city at regular intervals for legislative and other purposes. This
sovereign assembly of the people was known at Athens as the
Ecclesia (q.v.), at Sparta as the Apella (q.v.), at Rome variously
as the Comitia Centuriata or the Concilium Plebis (see COMITIA).
Of representative government in the modern sense there is
practically no trace in Athenian history, though certain of the
magistrates (see STRATEGUS) had a quasi-representative char-
acter. Direct democracy is impossible except in small states.
In the second place the qualification for citizenship was rigorous;
thus Pericles restricted citizenship to those who were the sons of
an Athenian father, himself a citizen, and an Athenian mother
(e£ &n<i>div iurroiv) . This system excluded not only all the slaves,
who were more numerous than the free population, but also
resident aliens, subject allies, and those Athenians whose descent
did not satisfy this criterion (T<$ yivei /ii) Kadapoi). The Athenian
democracy, which was typical in ancient Greece, was a highly
exclusive form of government.

With the growth of empire and nation states this narrow
parochial type of democracy became impossible. The population
became too large and the distance too great for regular assemblies
of qualified citizens. The rigid distinction of citizens and non-
citizens was progressively more difficult to maintain, and new
criteria of citizenship came into force. The first difficulty has
been met by various forms of representative government. The
second problem has been solved in various ways in different
countries; moderate democracies have adopted a low property
qualification, while extreme democracy is based on the exten-
sion of citizenship to all adult persons with or without dis-
tinction of sex. The essence of modern representative govern-
ment is that the people does not govern itself, but periodically
elects those who shall govern on its behalf (see GOVERNMENT;
REPRESENTATION) .

DEMOCRATIC PARTY, originally DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN
PARTY, the oldest of existing political parties in the United States.
Its origin lay in the principles of local self-government and
repugnance to social and political aristocracy established as
cardinal tenets of American colonial democracy, which by the
War of Independence, which was essentially a democratic move-
ment, became the basis of the political institutions of the nation.
The evils of lax government, both central and state, under the
Confederation caused, however, a marked anti-democratic
reaction, and this united with the temperamental conservatism
of the framers of the constitution of 1787 hi the shaping of that
conservative instrument. The influences and interests for and
against its adoption took form in the groupings of Federalists
and Anti-Federalists, and these, after the creation of the new
government, became respectively, in underlying principles, and,
to a large extent, in personnel, the Federalist party (q.v.) and
the Democratic-Republican party.1 The latter, organized by
Thomas Jefferson in opposition to the Federalists dominated by
Alexander Hamilton, was a real party by 1 792. The great service
of attaching to the constitution a democratic bill of rights be-
longs to the Anti-Federalists or Democratic-Republican party,
although this was then amorphous. The Democratic-Republican
party gained full control of the government, save the judiciary,

1 The orefix " Democratic " was not used by Jefferson; it became
established, however, and official.

in 1801, and controlled it continuously thereafter until 1825.
No political " platforms " were then known, but the writings
of Jefferson, who dominated his party throughout this period,
take the place of such. His inaugural address of 1801 is a famous
statement of democratic principles, which to-day are taken for
granted only because, through the party organized by him to
secure their success, they became universally accepted as the
ideal of American institutions. In all the colonies, says John
Adams, " a court and a country party had always contended ";
Jefferson's followers believed sincerely that the Federalists were
a new court party, and monarchist. Hence they called themselves
" Republicans " as against monarchists, — standing also, incident-
ally, for states' rights against the centralization that monarchy
(or any approach to it) implied; and " Democrats " as against
aristocrats, — standing for the " common rights of Englishmen,"
the " rights of man," the levelling of social ranks and the widen-
ing of political privileges. In the early years of its history — and
during the period of the French Revolution and afterwards —
the Republicans sympathized with the French as against the
British, the Federalists with the British as against the French.

Devotion to abstract principles of democracy and liberty, and
in practical politics a strict construction of the constitution,
in order to prevent an aggrandizement of national power at the
expense of the states (which were nearer popular control) or the
citizens, have been permanent characteristics of the Democratic
party as contrasted with its principal opponents; but neither
these nor any other distinctions have been continuously or
consistently true throughout its long course.2 After 1801 the
commercial and manufacturing nationalistic3 elements of the
Federalist party,being now dependent on Jefferson for protection,
gradually went over to the Republicans, especially after the War
of 1812; moreover, administration of government naturally
developed in Republican ranks a group of broad-constructionists.
These groups fused, and became an independent party.4 They
called themselves National Republicans, while the Jacksonian
Republicans soon came to be known simply as Democrats.6
Immediately afterward followed the tremendous victory of the
Jacksonians in 1828, — a great advance in radical democracy
over the victory of 1800. In the interval the Federalist party
had disappeared, and practically the entire country, embracing
Jeffersonian democracy, had passed through the school of the
Republican party. It had established the power of the " people "
in the sense of that word in present-day American politics. Bills
of rights in every state constitution protected the citizen; some
state judges were already elective; very soon the people came
to nominate their presidential candidates in national conven-
tions, and draft their party platforms through their conven-
tion representatives.* After the National Republican scission
the Democratic party, weakened thereby in its nationalistic
tendencies, and deprived of the leadership of Jackson, fell
quickly under the control of its Southern adherents and became
virtually sectional in its objects. Its states' rights doctrine was
turned to the defence of slavery. In thus opposing anti-slavery
sentiment — inconsistently, alike as regarded the " rights of man "
and constitutional construction, with its original and permanent

2 Under the rubric of " strict construction " fall the greatest
struggles in the party's history: those over the United States Bank,
over tariffs — for protection or for " revenue "only — over "internal
improvements," over issues of administrative economy in pro-
viding for the " general welfare," &c. The course of the party
has frequently been inconsistent, and its doctrines have shown,
absolutely considered, progressive latitudinarianism.

8 " Nationalistic " is used here and below, not in the sense of a
general nationalistic spirit, such as that of Jackson, but to indicate
the centralizing tendency of a broad construction of constitutional
powers in behalf of commerce and manufactures.

4 Standing for protective tariffs, internal improvements, &c.

5 It should be borne in mind, however, that the Democratic party
of Jackson was not strictly identical with the Democratic- Republican
party of Jefferson, — and some writers date back the origin of the
present Democratic party only to 1828-1829.

8 The Democratic national convention of 1832 was preceded by an
Anti-Masonic convention of 1830 and by the National-Republican
convention of 1831 ; but the Democratic platform of 1840 was the
first of its kind.

DEMOCRITUS

principles — it lost morale and power. As a result of the contest
over Kansas it became fatally divided, and in 1860 put forward
two presidential tickets: one representing the doctrine of
Jefferson Davis that the constitution recognized slave-property,
and therefore the national government must protect slavery in
the territories; the other representing Douglas's doctrine that
the inhabitants of a territory might virtually exclude slavery by
" unfriendly legislation." The combined popular votes for the
two tickets exceeded that cast by the new, anti-slavery Republican
party (the second of the name) for Lincoln; but the election was
lost. During the ensuing Civil War such members of the party
as did not become War Democrats antagonized the Lincoln
administration, and in 1864 made the great blunder of pronounc-
ing the war " a failure." Owing to Republican errors in recon-
struction and the scandals of President Grant's administration,
the party gradually regained its strength and morale, until,
having largely subordinated Southern questions to economic
issues, it cast for Tilden for president in 1876 a popular vote
greater than that obtained by the Republican candidate, Hayes,
and gained control of the House of Representatives. The
Electoral Commission, however, made Hayes president, and the
quiet acceptance of this decision by the Democratic party did
it considerable credit.

Since 1877 the Southern states have been almost solidly
Democratic; but, except on the negro question, such unanimity
among Southern whites has been, naturally, factitious; and by
no means an unmixed good for the party. Apart from the
" Solid South," the period after 1875 is characterized by two
other party difficulties. The first was the attempt from 1878 to
1896 to "straddle" the silver issue;1 the second, an attempt
after 1896 to harmonize general elements of conservatism and
radicalism within the party. In 1896 the South and West gained
control of the organization, and the national campaigns of
1896 and 1900 were fought and lost mainly on the issue of
" free silver," which, however, was abandoned before 1904.
After 1898 " imperialism," to which the Democrats were hostile,
became another issue. Finally, after 1896, there became very
apparent in the party a tendency to attract the radical elements
of society in the general re-alignment of parties taking place
on industrial-social issues; the Democratic party apparently
attracting, in this readjustment, the " radicals " and the
" masses " as in the time of Jefferson and Jackson. In this
process, in the years 1896-1900, it took over many of the principles
and absorbed, in large part, the members of the radical third-
party of the " Populists," only to be confronted thereupon by the
growing strength of Socialism, challenging it to a farther radical
widening of its programme. From 1860 to 1908 it elected but a
single president (Grover Cleveland, 1885-1889 and 1893-1897) .2
All American parties accepted long ago in theory " Jeffersonian
democracy "; but the Democratic party has been " the political
champion of those elements of the [American] democracy which
are most democratic. It stands nearest the people."3 It may
be noted that the Jeffersonian Republicans did not attempt to
democratize the constitution itself. The choice of a president
was soon popularized, however, in effect; and the popular
election of United States senators is to-day a definite Demo-
cratic tenet.4

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For an exposition of the party's principles see
Thomas Jefferson, Writings, ed. by P. L. Ford (10 vols., New York,
1892-1899); J. P. Foley (ed.), The Jeffersonian Cyclopaedia (New
York, 1900) ; and especially the Campaign Text-Books of more recent

1 The attitude of the Republican party was no less inconsistent
and evasive.

1 It controlled the House of Representatives from 1874 to 1894
except in 1880-1882 and 1888-1890; but except for a time in
Cleveland^ second term, there were never simultaneously a
Democratic president and a Democratic majority in Congress.

1 Professor A. D. Morse in International Monthly, October 1000.
He adds, " It^has done more to Americanize the foreigner than all
other parties." (It is predominant in the great cities of the country.)

4 In connexion with the prevalent popular tendency to regard the
president as a people's tribune, it may be noted that a strong pre-
sidential veto is, historically, peculiarly a Democratic contribution,
owing to the history of Jackson's (compare Cleveland's) adminis-
tration.

times, usually issued by the national Democratic committee in
alternate years, and M. Carey, The Democratic Speaker's Hand-
book (Cincinnati, 1868). For a hostile criticism of the party, see
W. D.Jones, Mirror of Modern Democracy; History cf the Democratic
Party from 1825 to /S<5i(New York, 1864) ; Jonathan Norcross,History
of Democracy Considered as a Party-Name and a Political Organisa-
tion (New York, 1883); J. H. Patton, The Democratic Party: Its
Political History and Influence (New York, 1884). Favourable
treatises are R. H. Gillet, Democracy in the United States (New York,
1868); and George Fitch, Political Facts: an Historical Text-Book
of the Democratic and Other Parties (Baltimore, 1884). See also,
for general political history, Thomas H. Benton, Thirty Years' View
(2 vols., New York, 1854-1856, and later editions) ; James G. Elaine,
Twenty Years of Congress (2 vols., Norwich, Conn., 1884-1893);
S. S. Cox, Three Decades of Federal Legislation (Providence, 1885);
S. P. Orth, Five American Politicians: a Study in the Evolution of
American Politics (Cleveland, 1906), containing sketches of four
Democratic leaders — Burr, De Witt Clinton.Van Buren and Douglas;

{. Maoy, Party Organization and Machinery (New York, 1904);
. H. Hopkins, History of Political Parties in the United States
(New York, 1900); E. S. Stanwood, History of the Presidency
(last ed., Boston, 1904); I. P. Gordy, History of Political Parties, \.
(New York, 1900); H. J. Ford, Rise and Growth of American Politics
(New York, 1898) ; Alexander Johnston, History of American Politics
(New York, 1900, and later editions); C. E. Merriam, A History
of American Political Theories (New York, 1903), containing
chapters on the Jeffersonian and the Jacksonian Democracy;
and James A. Woodburn, Political Parties and Partv Problems in
the United States (New York, 1903).

DEMOCRITUS, probably the greatest of the Greek physical
philosophers, was a native of Abdera in Thrace, or as some say
— probably wrongly — of Miletus (Diog. Laert. ix. 34). Our
knowledge of his life is based almost entirely on tradition of an
untrustworthy kind. He seems to have been born about 470 or
460 B.C., and was, therefore, an older contemporary of Socrates.
He inherited a considerable property, which enabled him to
travel widely in the East in search of information. In Egypt
he settled for seven years, during which he studied the mathe-
matical and physical systems of the ancient schools. The
extent to which he was influenced by the Magi and the Eastern
astrologists is a matter of pure conjecture. He returned from
his travels impoverished; one tradition says that he received
500 talents from his fellow-citizens, and that a public funeral was
decreed him. Another tradition states that he was regarded as
insane by the Abderitans, and that Hippocrates was summoned
to cure him. Diodorus Siculus tells us that he died at the age
of ninety; others make him as much as twenty years older.
His works, according to Diogenes Laertius, numbered seventy-
two, and were characterized by a purity of style which com-
pares favourably with that of Plato. The absurd epithet, the
" laughing philosopher," applied to him by some unknown and
very superficial thinker, may possibly have contributed in
some measure to the fact that his importance was for centuries
overlooked. It is interesting, however, to notice that Bacon
(De Principiis) assigns to him his true place in the history of
thought, and points out that both in his own day and later
" in the times of Roman learning " he was spoken of in terms
of the highest praise. In the variety of his knowledge, and in
the importance of his influence on both Greek and modern
speculation he was the Aristotle of the sth century, while the
sanity of his metaphysical theory has led many to regard him
as the equal, if not the superior, of Plato.

His views may be treated under the following heads: —
i. The Atoms and Cosmology (adopted in part at least from
the doctrines of Leucippus, though the relations between the
two are hopelessly obscure). While agreeing with the Eleatics
as to the eternal sameness of Being (nothing can arise out of
nothing; nothing can be reduced to nothing), Democritus
followed the physicists in denying its oneness and immobility.
Movement and plurality being necessary to explain the pheno-
mena of the universe and impossible without space (not-Being),
he asserted that the latter had an equal right with Being
to be considered existent. Being is the Full (irMjoes, plenum) ;
not-Being is the Void (Kev6v, vacuum) , the infinite space in which
moved tire infinite number of atoms into which the single Being
of the Eleatics was broken up. These atoms are eternal and
invisible; absolutely small, so small that their size cannot be

DEMOGEOT— DEMOGRAPHY

diminished (hence the name OTOJUOS, " indivisible "); absolutely
full and incompressible, they are without pores and entirely fill
the space they occupy; homogeneous, differing only in figure
(as A from N), arrangement (as AN from NA), position (as N is
Z on its side), magnitude (and consequently in weight, although
some authorities dispute this). But while the atoms thus differ
in quantity, their differences of quality are only apparent, due
to the impressions caused on our senses by different configurations
and combinations of atoms. A thing is only hot or cold, sweet
or bitter, hard or soft by convention (vonqi); the only things
that exist in reality (erej;) are the atoms and the void. Locke's
distinction between primary and secondary qualities is here
anticipated. Thus, the atoms of water and iron are the same,
but those of the former, being smooth and round, and therefore
unable to hook on to one another, roll over and over like small
globes, whereas the atoms of iron, being rough, jagged and
uneven, cling together and form a solid body. Since all
phenomena are composed of the same eternal atoms (just as a
tragedy and a comedy contain the same letters) it may be said
that nothing comes into being or perishes in the absolute sense
of the words (cf. the modern "indestructibility of matter " and
" conservation of energy ") , although the compounds of the atoms
are liable to increase and decrease, appearance and disappearance
— in other words, to birth and death. As the atoms are eternal
and uncaused, so is motion; it has its origin in a preceding
motion, and so on ad infinitum. For the Love and Hate of
Empedocles and the Nous (Intelligence) of Anaxagoras, Demo-
critus substituted fixed and necessary laws (not chance; that is
a misrepresentation due chiefly to Cicero). Everything can be
explained by a purely mechanical (but not fortuitous) system,
in which there is no room for the idea of a providence or an
intelligent cause working with a view to an end. The origin of
the universe was explained as follows. An infinite number of
atoms was carried downwards through infinite space. The
larger (and heavier), falling with greater velocity, overtook and
collided with the smaller (and lighter), which were thereby forced
upwards. This caused various lateral and contrary movements,
resulting in a whirling movement (Sivrf) resembling the rotation
of Anaxagoras, whereby similar atoms were brought together
(as in the winnowing of grain) and united to form larger bodies
and worlds. Atoms and void being infinite in number and
extent, and motion having always existed, there must always
have been an infinite number of worlds, all consisting of similar
atoms, in various stages of growth and decay.

2. The Soul. — Democritus devoted considerable attention to
the structure of the human body, the noblest portion of which
he considered to be the soul, which everywhere pervades it, a
psychic atom being intercalated between two corporeal atoms.
Although, in accordance with his principles, Democritus was
bound to regard the soul as material (composed of round,
smooth, specially mobile atoms, identified with the fire-atoms
floating in the air), he admitted a distinction between it and the
body, and is even said to have looked upon it as something
divine. These all-pervading soul atoms exercise different functions
in different organs; the head is the seat of reason, the heart of
anger, the liver of desire. Life is maintained by the inhalation
of fresh atoms to replace those lost by exhalation, and when
respiration, and consequently the supply of atoms, ceases, the
result is death. It follows that the soul perishes with, and in the
same sense as, the body.

3. Perception. — Sensations are the changes produced in the
soul by external impressions, and are the result of contact, since
every action of one body (and all representations are corporeal
phenomena) upon another is of the nature of a shock. Certain
emanations (awoltpoai, biropfroiai) or images (elScoXa), consisting of
subtle atoms, thrown off from the surface of an object, penetrate
the body through the pores. On the principle that like acts upon
like, the particular senses are only affected by that which
resembles them. We see by means of the eye alone, and hear by
means of the ear alone, these organs being best adapted to receive
the images or sound currents. The organs are thus merely
conduits or passages through which the atoms pour into the soul.

The eye, for example, is damp and porous, and the act of seeing
consists in the reflection of the image (Sei/ctXoc) mirrored on the
smooth moist surface of the pupil. To the interposition of air
is due the fact that all visual images are to some extent blurred.
At the same time Democritus distinguished between obscure
(axoTtfj) cognition, resting on sensation alone, and genuine
(yvT\<r'ai) , which is the result of inquiry by reason, and is con-
cerned with atoms and void, the only real existences. This
knowledge, however, he confessed was exceedingly difficult to
attain.

It is in Democritus first that we find a real attempt to explain
colour. He regards black, red, white and green as primary.
White is characteristically smooth, i.e. casting no shadow, even,
flat; black is uneven, rough, shadowy and so on. The other
colours result from various mixtures of these four, and are
infinite in number. Colour itself is not objective; it is found not
in the ultimate plenum and vacuum, but only in derived objects
according to their physical qualities and relations.

4. Theology. — The system of Democritus was altogether anti-
theistic. But, although he rejected the notion of a deity taking
part in the creation or government of the universe, he yielded
to popular prejudice so far as to admit the existence of a class
of beings, of the same form as men, grander, composed of very
subtle atoms, less liable to dissolution, but still mortal, dwelling
in the upper regions of air. These beings also manifested them-
selves to man by means of images in dreams, communicated with
him, and sometimes gave him an insight into the future. Some
of them were benevolent, others malignant. According to
Plutarch, Democritus recognized one god under the form of a
fiery sphere, the soul of the world, but this idea is probably
of later origin. The popular belief in gods was attributed by
Democritus to the desire to explain extraordinary phenomena
(thunder, lightning, earthquakes) by reference to superhuman
agency.

5. Ethics. — Democritus's moral system — the first collection of
ethical precepts which deserves the name — strongly resembles
the negative side of the system of Epicurus. The summum
bonum is the maximum of pleasure with the minimum of pain.
But true pleasure is not sensual enjoyment; it has its principle
in the soul. It consists not in the possession of wealth or flocks
and herds, but in good humour, in the just disposition and con-
stant tranquillity of fthe soul. Hence the necessity of avoiding
extremes; too much and too little are alike evils. True happi-
ness consists in taking advantage of what one has and being
content with it (see ETHICS).

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Fragments edited by F. Mullach (1843) with
commentary and in his Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum, i.(l86o).
See also H. Putter and L. Preller, Historia philosophiae (chap. i. ad
fin.)\ P. Lafaist (Lafaye), Dissertation sur la philosophic ato-
mistique (1833); L. Liard, De Democrito philosopho (Paris, 1873);
H. C. Liepmann, Die Leucipp-Democritischen Atome (Leipzig, 1886) ;
F.A.Lange, Geschichte des Materialismus (Eng.trans. by E.C.Thomas,
1877); G. Hart, Zur Seelen- und Erkennlnislekre des Democritus
(Leipzig, 1886); P. Natorp, Die Ethika des Demokritos (Marburg,
1893) ; A. Dyroff, Demokntstudien (Leipzig, 1899) ; among general
works C. A. Brandis, Gesch. d. Entwickelungen d. griech. Philosophie
(Bonn, 1862-1864); Ed. Zeller, Pre-Socratic Philosophy (Eng.trans.,
London, 1881); for his theory of sense-perception see especially
J. I. Beare, Greek Theories of Elementary Cognition (Oxford, 1906).

DEMOGEOT, JACQUES CLAUDE (1808-1894), French man
of letters, was born in Paris on the sth of July 1808. He was
professor of rhetoric at the Iyc6e Saint Louis, and subsequently
assistant professor at the Sorbonne. He wrote many detached
papers on various literary subjects, and two reports on
secondary education in England and Scotland in collaboration
with H. Montucci. His reputation rests on his excellent Histoire
de la litterature franc.aise depuis ses origines jusqu'a nos jours
(1851), which has passed through many subsequent editions.
He was also the author of a Tableau de la litterature fran$aise au
XVII' siecle (1859), and of a work (3 vols., 1880-1883) on the
influence of foreign literatures on the development of French
literature. He died in Paris in 1894.

DEMOGRAPHY (from Gr. Sijfia*, people, and ypa<j>tu>, to
write), the science which deals with the statistics of health and

DEMOIVRE— DEMONOLOGY

disease, of the physical, intellectual, physiological and economical
aspects of births, marriages and mortality. The first to employ
the word was Achille Guillard in his tUments de statistique
humaine ou demographic comparee (1855), but the meaning which
he attached to it was merely that of the science which treats
of the condition, general movement and progress of population
in civilized countries, i.e. little more than what is comprised in
the ordinary vital statistics, gleaned from census and registra-
tion reports. The word has come to have a much wider meaning
and may now be defined as that branch of statistics which deals
with the life-conditions of peoples.

DEMOIVRE, ABRAHAM (1667-1754), English mathematician
of French extraction, was born at Vitry, in Champagne, on the
26th of May 1667. He belonged to a French Protestant family,
and was compelled to take refuge in England at the revocation of
the edict of Nantes, in 1685. Having laid the foundation of his
mathematical studies in France, he prosecuted them further in
London, where he read public lectures on natural philosophy for
his support. The Principia mathematical of Sir Isaac Newton,
which chance threw in his way, caused him to prosecute his
studies with vigour, and he soon became distinguished among
first-rate mathematicians. He was among the intimate personal
friends of Newton, and his eminence and abilities secured his
admission into the Royal Society of London in 1697, and after-
wards into the Academies of Berlin and Paris. His merit was
so well known and acknowledged by the Royal Society that they
judged him a fit person to decide the famous contest between
Newton and G. W. Leibnitz (see INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS).
The life of Demoivre was quiet and uneventful. His old age was
spent in obscure poverty, his friends and associates having
nearly all passed away before him. He died at London, on the
27th of November 1754.

The Philosophical Transactions contain several of his papers. He
also published some excellent works, such as Miscellanea analytica
de seriebus et quadraturis (1730), in 4to. This contained some elegant
and valuable improvements on then existing methods, which have
themselves, however, long been superseded. But he has been more
generally known by his Doctrine of Chances, or Method of Calculating
the Probabilities of Events at Play. This work was first printed in
1618, in 4to, and dedicated to Sir Isaac Newton. It was reprinted in
1738, with great alterations and improvements; and a third edition
was afterwards published with additions in 1756. He also published
a Treatise on Annuities (1725), which has passed through several
revised and corrected editions.

See C. Hutton, Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary (1815).
For Demoivre' s Theorem see TRIGONOMETRY: Analytical.

DEMONETIZATION, a term employed in monetary science in
two different senses, (a) The depriving or divesting of a metal
of its standard monetary value. From 1663 to 1717 silver was
the standard of value in England and gold coins passed at their
market value. The debasement and underrating of the silver
coinage insensibly brought about the demonetization of silver
in England as a standard of value and the substitution of gold.
During the latter half of the igth century, the tremendous
depreciation of silver, owing to its continually increasing pro-
duction, and consequently the impossibility of preserving any
ratio of stability between it and gold, led to the abandonment or
demonetization of the metal as a standard and to its use merely
as token money, (b) The withdrawal of coin from circulation, as,
for example, in England that of all pre- Victorian gold coins under
the provisions of the Coinage Act 1889, and the royal proclama-
tion of the 22nd of November 1890.

DEMONOLOGY (Aatjuwc, demon, genius, spirit), the branch
of the science of religions which relates to superhuman beings
which are not gods. It deals both with benevolent beings which
have no circle of worshippers or so limited a circle as to be below
the rank of gods, and with malevolent beings of all kinds. It may
be noted that the original sense of " demon " was a benevolent
being; but in English the name now connotes malevolence; in
German it has a neutral sense, e.g. Korndamonen. Demons,
when they are regarded as spirits, may belong to either of the
classes of spirits recognized by primitive animism (<?.».); that is
to say, they may be human, or non-human, separable souls, or
discarnate spirits which have never inhabited a body; a sharp

distinction is often drawh between these two classes, notably
by the Melanesians, the West Africans and others; the Arab
jinn, for example, are not reducible to modified human souls;
at the same time these classes are frequently conceived as pro-
ducing identical results, e.g. diseases.

Under the head of demons are classified only such spirits as
are believed to enter into relations with the human race; the
term therefore includes (i) human souls regarded as genii or
familiars, (2) such as receive a cult (for which see ANCESTOR
WORSHIP), and (3) ghosts or other malevolent revenants;
excluded are souls conceived as inhabiting another world. But
just as gods are not necessarily spiritual, demons may also be
regarded as corporeal; vampires for example are sometimes
described as human heads with appended entrails, which issue
from the tomb to attack the living during the night watches.
The so-called Spectre Huntsman of the Malay Peninsula is said
to be a man who scours the firmament with his dogs, vainly
seeking for what he could not find on earth — a buck mouse-deer
pregnant with male offspring; but he seems to be a living man;
there is no statement that he ever died, nor yet that he is a
spirit. The incubus and succubus of the middle ages are some-
times regarded as spiritual beings; but they were held to give
very real proof of their bodily existence. It should, however,
be remembered that primitive peoples do not distinguish clearly
between material and immaterial beings.

Prevalence of Demons. — According to a conception of the
world frequently found among peoples of the lower cultures,
all the affairs of life are supposed to be under the control of
spirits, each ruling a certain element or even object, and them-
selves in subjection to a greater spirit. Thus, the Eskimo are
said to believe in spirits of the sea, earth and sky, the winds,
the clouds and everything in nature. Every cove of the seashore,
every point, every island and prominent rock has its guardian
spirit. All are of the malignant type, to be propitiated only by
acceptable offerings from persons who desire to visit the locality
where it is supposed to reside. A rise in culture often results in
an increase in the number of spiritual beings with whom man
surrounds himself. Thus, the Koreans go far beyond the
Eskimo and number their demons by thousands of billions;
they fill the chimney, the shed, the living-room, the kitchen,
they are on every shelf and jar; in thousands they waylay
the traveller as he leaves his home, beside him, behind him,
dancing in front of him, whirring over his head, crying out
upon him from air, earth and water. \

Especially complicated was the ancient Babylonian demon-
ology; all the petty annoyances of life — a sudden fall, a headache,
a quarrel — were set down to the agency of fiends; all the stronger
emotions — love, hate, jealousy and so on — were regarded as the
work of demons; in fact so numerous were they, that there were
special fiends for various parts of the human body — one for the
head, another for the neck, and so on. Similarly in Egypt at the
present day the jinn are believed to swarm so thickly that it is
necessary to ask their permission before pouring water on the
ground, lest one should accidentally be soused and vent his
anger on the offending human being. But these beliefs are far
from being confined to the uncivilized; Greek philosophers like
Porphyry, no less than the fathers of the Church, held that the
world was pervaded with spirits; side by side with the belief in
witchcraft, we can trace through the middle ages the survival of
primitive animistic views; and in our own day even these beliefs
subsist in unsuspected vigour among the peasantry of the more
uneducated European countries. In fact the ready acceptance
of spiritualism testifies to the force with which the primitive
animistic way of looking at things appealed to the white races
in the middle of the last century.

Character of Spiritual World. — The ascription of malevolence
to the world of spirits is by no means universal. In West Africa
the Mpongwe believe in local spirits, just as do the Eskimo; but
they are regarded as inoffensive in the main; true, the passer-
by must make some trifling offering as he nears their place of
abode; but it is only occasionally that mischievous acts, such as
the throwing down of a tree on a passer-by, are, in the view of the

DEMONOLOGY

natives, perpetuated by the Ombuiri. So too, many of the spirits
especially concerned with the operations of nature are conceived
as neutral or even benevolent; the European peasant fears the
corn-spirit only when he irritates him by trenching on his domain
and taking his property by cutting the corn; similarly, there is
no reason why the more insignificant personages of the pantheon
should be conceived as malevolent, and we find that the Petara
of the Dyaks are far from indiscriminating and malignant, though
disease and death are laid at their door.

Classification. — Besides the distinctions of human and non-
human, hostile and friendly, the demons in which the lower races
believe are classified by them according to function, each class
with a distinctive name, with extraordinary minuteness, the list
in the case of the Malays running to several score. They have,
for example, a demon of the waterfall, a demon of wild-beast
tracks, a demon which interferes with snares for wild-fowl, a
baboon demon, which takes possession of dancers and causes them
to perform wonderful feats of climbing, &c. But it is impossible
to do more than deal with a few types, which will illustrate the
main features of the demonology of savage, barbarous and semi-
civilized peoples.

(a) Natural causes, either of death or of disease, are hardly,
if at all, recognized by the uncivilized; everything is attributed
to spirits or magical influence of some sort. The spirits which
cause disease may be human or non-human and their influence is
shown in more than one way; they may enter the body of the
victim (see POSSESSION), and either dominate his mind as well
as his body, inflict specific diseases, or cause pains of various
sorts. Thus the Mintra of the Malay Peninsula have a demon
corresponding to every kind of disease known to them; the
Tasmanian ascribed a gnawing pain to the presence within him
of the soul of a dead man, whom he had unwittingly summoned
by mentioning his name and who was devouring his liver; the
Samoan held that the violation of a food tabu would result in the
animal being formed within the body of the offender and cause
his death. The demon theory of disease is still attested by some
of our medical terms; epilepsy (Gr. ^riAjj^ts, seizure) points
to the belief that the patient is possessed. As a logical conse-
quence of this view of disease the mode of treatment among
peoples in the lower stages of culture is mainly magical; they
endeavour to propitiate the evil spirits by sacrifice, to expel them
by spells, &c. (see EXORCISM) , to drive them away by blowing, &c. ;
conversely we find the Khonds attempt to keep away smallpox
by placing thorns and brushwood in the paths leading to places
decimated by that disease, in the hope of making the disease
demon retrace his steps. This theory of disease disappeared
sooner than did the belief in possession; the energumens
(evepyovufvoi) of the early Christian church, who were under
the care of a special clerical order of exorcists, testify to a belief
in possession; but the demon theory of disease receives no recog-
nition; the energumens find their analogues in the converts
of missionaries in China, Africa and elsewhere. Another way in
which a demon is held to cause disease is by introducing itself into
the patient's body and sucking his blood; the Malays believe
that a woman who dies in childbirth becomes a langsuir and
sucks the blood of children; victims of the lycanthrope are
sometimes said to be done to death in the same way; and it is
commonly believed in Africa that the wizard has the power of
killing people in this way, probably with the aid of a familiar.

(6) One of the primary meanings of dainuv is that of genius
or familiar, tutelary spirit; according to Hesiod the men of the
golden race became after death guardians or watchers over
mortals. The idea is found among the Romans also; they
attributed to every man a genius who accompanied him through
life. A Norse belief found in Iceland is that the fylgia, a genius
in animal form, attends human beings; and these animal
guardians may sometimes be seen fighting; in the same way the
Siberian shamans send their animal familiars to do battle instead
of deciding their quarrels in person. The animal guardian re-
appears in the nagual of Central America (see article TOTEMISM),
the yunbeai of some Australian tribes, the manitou of the
Red Indian and the bush soul of some West African tribes;

among the latter the link between animal and human being
is said to be established by the ceremony of the blood bond.
Corresponding to the animal guardian of the ordinary man, we
have the familiar of the witch or wizard. All the world over it is
held that such people can assume the form of animals; some-
times the power of the shaman is held to depend on his being
able to summon his familiar; among the Ostiaks the shaman's
coat was covered with representations of birds and beasts; two
bear's claws were on his hands; his wand was covered with
mouse-skin; when he wished to divine he beat his drum till a
black bird appeared and perched on his hut; then the shaman
swooned, the bird vanished, and the divination could begin.
Similarly the Greenland angekok is said to summon his torngak
(which may be an ancestral ghost or an animal) by drumming;
he is heard by the bystanders to carry on a conversation and
obtain advice as to how to treat diseases, the prospects of good
weather and other matters of importance. The familiar, who is
sometimes replaced by the devil, commonly figured in witchcraft
trials; and a statute of James I. enacted that all persons invok-
ing an evil spirit or consulting, covenanting with, entertaining,
employing, feeding or rewarding any evil spirit should be guilty
of felony and suffer death. In modern spiritualism the familiar
is represented by the " guide," corresponding to which we have
the theosophical " guru."

(c) The familiar is sometimes an ancestral spirit, and here we
touch the fringe of the cult of the dead (see also ANCESTOR
WORSHIP). Especially among the lower races the dead are
regarded as hostile; the Australian avoids the grave even of a
kinsman and elaborate ceremonies of mourning are found amongst
most primitive peoples, whose object seems to be to rid the living
of the danger they run by association with the ghost of the dead.
Among the Zulu the spirits of the dead are held to be friendly or
hostile, just as they were in life; on the Congo a man after death
joins the good or bad spirits according as his life has been good
or bad. Especially feared among many peoples are the souls
of those who have committed suicide or died a violent death;
the woman who dies in childbed is held to become a demon of
the most dangerous kind; even the unburied, as restless, dis-
satisfied spirits, are more feared than ordinary ghosts. Naturally
spirits of these latter kinds are more valuable as familiars than
ordinary dead men's souls. We find many recipes for securing
their aid. In the Malay Peninsula the blood of a murdered man
must be put in a bottle and prayers said over; after seven days
of this worship a sound is heard and the operator puts his finger
into the bottle for the polong, as the demon is called, to suck;
it will fly through the air in the shape of an exceedingly diminutive
female figure, and is always preceded by its pet, the pelesit, in
the shape of a grasshopper. In Europe a similar demon is said
to be obtainable from a cock's egg. In South Africa and India,
on the other hand, the magician digs up a dead body, especially
of a child, to secure a familiar. The evocation of spirits, especially
in the form of necromancy, is an important branch of the demon-
ology of many peoples; and the peculiarities of trance medium-
ship, which seem sufficiently established by modern research,
go far to explain the vogue of this art. It seems to have been
common among the Jews, and the case of the witch of Endor is
narrated in a way to suggest something beyond fraud; in the
book of magic which bears the name of Dr Faustus may be found
many of the formulae for raising demons; in England may be
mentioned especially Dr Dee as one of the most famous of those
who claimed before the days of modern spiritualism (q.v.) to
have intercourse with the unseen world and to summon demons
at his will. Sometimes the spirits were summoned to appear
as did the phantoms of the Greek heroes to Odysseus; some-
times they were called to enter a crystal (see CRYSTAL-GAZING) ;
sometimes they are merely asked to declare the future or com-
municate by moving external objects without taking a visible
form; thus among the Karens at the close of the burial cere-
monies the ghost of the dead man, which is said to hover round
till the rites are completed, is believed to make a ring swing
round and snap the string from which it hangs.

(d) The vampire is a particular form of demon which calls for

DEMONOLOGY

some notice. In the Malay Peninsula, parts of Polynesia, &c.,
it is conceived as a head with attached entrails, which issues, it
may be from the grave, to suck the blood of living human beings.
According to the Malays a penanggalan (vampire) is a living
witch, and can be killed if she can be caught; she is especially
feared in houses where a birth has taken place and it is the
custom to hang up a bunch of thistle in order to catch her; she
is said to keep vinegar at home to aid her in re-entering her own
body. In Europe the Slavonic area is the principal seat of
vampire beliefs, and here too we find, as a natural development,
that means of preventing the dead from injuring the living have
been evolved by the popular mind. The corpse of the vampire,
which may often be recognized by its unnaturally ruddy and
fresh appearance, should be staked down in the grave or its head
should be cut off; it is interesting to note that the cutting off of
heads of the dead was a neolithic burial rite.

(e) The vampire is frequently blended in popular idea with
the Poltergeist (q.ii.) or knocking spirit, and also with the werwolf
(see LYCANTHROPY).

(/) As might be expected, dream demons are very common;
in fact the word " nightmare " (A.S. mar, spirit, elf) preserves
for us a record of this form of belief, which is found right down
to the lowest planes of culture. The Australian, when he suffers
from an oppression in his sleep, says that Koin is trying to throttle
him; the Caribs say that Maboya beats them in their sleep;
and the belief persists to this day in some parts of Europe;
horses too are said to be subject to the persecutions of demons,
which ride them at night. Another class of nocturnal demons
are the incubi and succubi, who are said to consort with human
beings in their sleep; in the Antilles these were the ghosts of the
dead; in New Zealand likewise ancestral deities formed liaisons
with females; in the Samoan Islands the inferior gods were
regarded as the fathers of children otherwise unaccounted for;
the Hindus have rites prescribed by which a companion nymph
may be secured. The question of the real existence of incubi and
succubi, whom the Romans identified with the fauns, was gravely
discussed by the fathers of the church ; and in 1418 Innocent VIII.
set forth the doctrine of lecherous demons as an indisputable
fact; and in the history of the Inquisition and of trials for witch-
craft may be found the confessions of many who bore witness
to their reality. In the Anatomy of Melancholy Burton assures
us that they were never more numerous than in A.D. 1600.

(g) Corresponding to the personal tutelary spirit (supra, b) we
have the genii of buildings and places. The Romans celebrated
the birthday of a town and of its genius, just as they celebrated
that of a man; and a snake was a frequent form for this kind of
demon; when we compare with this the South African belief that
the snakes which are in the neighbourhood of the kraal are the
incarnations of the ancestors of the residents, it seems probable
that some similar idea lay at the bottom of the Roman belief; to
this day in European folklore the house snake or toad, which lives
in the cellar, is regarded as the " life index " or other self of the
father of the house; the death of one involves the death of the
other, according to popular belief. The assignment of genii to
buildings and gates is connected with an important class of
sacrifices; in order to provide a tutelary spirit, or to appease
chthonic deities, it was often the custom to sacrifice a human
being or an animal at the foundation of a building; sometimes we
find a similar guardian provided for the frontier of a country or of
a tribe. The house spirit is, however, not necessarily connected
with this idea. In Russia the domovoi (house spirit) is an
important personage in folk-belief; he may object to certain
kinds of animals, or to certain colours in cattle; and must,
generally speaking, be propitiated and cared for. Corresponding
to him we have the drudging goblin of English folklore.

(h) It has been shown above how the animistic creed postulates
the existence of all kinds of local spirits, which are sometimes
tied to their habitats, sometimes free to wander. Especially
prominent in Europe, classical, medieval and modern, and in
East Asia, is the spirit of the lake, jiver, spring, or well, often
conceived as human, but also in the form of a bull or horse; the
term Old Nick may refer to the water-horse Nok. Less specialized

in their functions are many of the figures of modern folklore,
some of whom have perhaps replaced some ancient goddess,
e.g. Frau Holda; others, like the Welsh Pwck, the Lancashire
boggarts or the more widely found Jack-o'-Lantern (Will o' the
Wisp), are sprites who do no more harm than leading the
wanderer astray. The banshee is perhaps connected with
ancestral or house spirits; the Wild Huntsman, the Gabriel
hounds, the Seven Whistlers, &c., are traceable to some actual
phenomenon; but the great mass of British goblindom cannot
now be traced back to savage or barbarous analogues. Among
other local sprites may be mentioned the kobolds or spirits of the
mines. The fairies (see FAIRY), located in the fairy knolls by the
inhabitants of the Shetlands, may also be put under this head.

(i) The subject of plant souls is referred to in connexion with
animism (q.v.); but certain aspects of this phase of belief
demand more detailed treatment. Outside the European area
vegetation spirits of all kinds seem to be conceived, as a rule, as
anthropomorphic; in classical Europe, and parts of the Slavonic
area at the present day, the tree spirit was believed to have the
form of a goat, or to have goats' feet.

Of special importance in Europe is the conception of the
so-called " corn spirit "; W. Mannhardt collected a mass of
information proving that the life of the corn is supposed to exist
apart from the corn itseli and to take the form, sometimes of an
animal, sometimes of a man or woman, sometimes of a child.
There is, however, no proof that the belief is animistic in the
proper sense. The animal which popular belief identified with
the corn demon is sometimes killed in the spring in order to
mingle its blood or bones with the seed; at harvest- time it is
supposed to sit in the last corn and the animals driven out from it
are sometimes killed; at others the reaper who cuts the last ear
is said to have killed the " wolf " or the " dog," and sometimes
receives the name of " wolf " or " dog " and retains it till the next
harvest. The corn spirit is also said to be hiding in the barn till
the corn is threshed, or it may be said to reappear at midwinter,
when the farmer begins to think of his new year of labour and
harvest. Side by side with the conception of the corn spirit as
an animal is the anthropomorphic view of it; and this element
must have predominated in the evolution of the cereal deities
like Demeter; at the same time traces of the association of gods
and goddesses of corn with animal embodiments of the corn spirit
are found.

(;') In many parts of the world, and especially in Africa, is
found the conception termed the " otiose creator "; that is to
say, the belief in a great deity, who is the author of all that exists
but is too remote from the world and too high above terrestrial
things to concern himself with the details of the universe. As
a natural result of this belief we find the view that the operations
of nature are conducted by a multitude of more or less obedient
subordinate deities; thus, in Portuguese West Africa the
Kimbunda believe in Suku-Vakange, but hold that he has com-
mitted the government of the universe to innumerable kilulu
good and bad; the latter kind are held to be far more numerous,
but Suku-Vakange is said to keep them in order by occasionally
smiting them with his thunderbolts; were it not for this, man's
lot would be insupportable.

Sometimes the gods of an older religion degenerate into the
demons of the belief which supersedes it. A conspicuous example
of this is found in the attitude of the Hebrew prophets to the gods
of the nations, whose power they recognize without admitting
their claim to reverence and sacrifice. The same tendency is seen
in many early missionary works and is far from being without
influence even at the present day. In the folklore of European
countries goblindom is peopled by gods and nature-spirits of an
earlier heathendom. We may also compare the Persian dens
with the Indian devas.

Expulsion of Demons. — In connexion with demonology mention
must be made of the custom of expelling ghosts, spirits or evils
generally. Primitive peoples from the Australians upwards
celebrate, usually at fixed intervals, a driving out of hurtful
influences. Sometimes, as among the Australians, it is merely
the ghosts of those who have died in the year which are thus

8

DE MORGAN

driven out; from this custom must be distinguished another,
which consists in dismissing the souls of the dead at the close of
the year and sending them on their journey to the other world;
this latter custom seems to have an entirely different origin and
to be due to love and not fear of the dead. In other cases it is
believed that evil spirits generally or even non-personal evils
such as sins are believed to be expelled. In these customs
originated perhaps the scapegoat, some forms of sacrifice (q.v.)
and other cathartic ceremonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Tylor, Primitive Culture; Frazer, Golden Bough;
Skeat, Malay Magic; Bastian, Der Mensch in der Geschichte;
Callaway, Religion of the Amazulu; Hild, Etude sur les demons;
Welcker, Griechische Gotterlehre, i. 731; Trans. Am. Phil. Soc.
xxvi. 79; Calmet, Dissertation sur les esprits; Maury, La Magie;
L. W. King, Babylonian Magie; Lenormant, La Magie chez les
Chaldeens; R. C. Thompson, Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia;
Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie ; Roskoff , Geschichte des Teufels ; Sibly,
Illustration of the Occult Sciences; Scott, Demonology; Pitcairn,
Scottish Criminal Trials; Jewish Quarterly Rev. viii. 576, &c. ;
Horst, Zauberbibliothek; Jewish Encyclopedia, s.v. " Demonology."
See also bibliography to POSSESSION, ANIMISM and other articles.

(N. W. T.)

DE MORGAN, AUGUSTUS (1806-1871), English mathema-
tician and logician, was born in June 1806, at Madura, in the
Madras presidency. His father, Colonel John De Morgan, was
employed in the East India Company's service, and his grand-
father and great-grandfather had served under Warren Hastings.
On the mother's side he was descended from JamesDodson,F.R.S.,
author of the Anti-logarithmic Canon and other mathematical
works of merit, and a friend of Abraham Demoivre. Seven
months after the birth of Augustus, Colonel De Morgan brought
his wife, daughter and infant son to England, where he left
them during a subsequent period of service in India, dying in
1 8 1 6 on his way home.

Augustus De Morgan received his early education in several
private schools, and before the age of fourteen years had learned
Latin, Greek and some Hebrew, in addition to acquiring much
general knowledge. At the age of sixteen years and a half he
entered Trinity College, Cambridge, and studied mathematics,
partly under the tuition of Sir G. B. Airy. In 1825 he gained a
Trinity scholarship. De Morgan's love of wide reading some-
what interfered with his success in the mathematical tripos, in
which he took the fourth place in 1827. He was prevented from
taking his M.A. degree, or from obtaining a fellowship, by his
conscientious objection to signing the theological tests then
required from masters of arts and fellows at Cambridge.

A career in his own university being closed against him, he
entered Lincoln's Inn ; but had hardly done so when the establish-
ment, in 1828, of the university of London, in Gower Street,
afterwards known as University College, gave him an opportunity
of continuing his mathematical pursuits. At the early age of
twenty-two he gave his first lecture as professor of mathematics
in the college which he served with the utmost zeal and success
for a third of a century. His connexion with the college, indeed,
was interrupted in 1831, when a disagreement with the governing
body caused De Morgan and some other professors to resign their
chairs simultaneously. When, in 1836, his successor was acci-
dentally drowned, De Morgan was requested to resume the
professorship.

In 1837 he married Sophia Elizabeth, daughter of William
Frend, a Unitarian in faith, a mathematician and actuary in
occupation, a notice of whose life, written by his son-in-law,
will be found in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society (vol. v.). They settled in Chelsea (30 Cheyne Row), where
in later years Mrs De Morgan had a large circle of intellectual
and artistic friends.

As a teacher of mathematics De Morgan was unrivalled. He
gave instruction in the form of continuous lectures delivered
extempore from brief notes. The most prolonged mathematical
reasoning, and the most intricate formulae, were given with
almost infallible accuracy from the resources of his extraordinary
memory. De Morgan's writings, however excellent, give little
idea of the perspicuity and elegance of his viva voce expositions,
which never failed to fix the attention of all who were worthy

of hearing him. Many of his pupils have distinguished them-
selves, and, through Isaac Todhunter and E. J. Routh, he had
an important influence on the later Cambridge school. For
thirty years he took an active part in the business of the Royal
Astronomical Society, editing its publications, supplying obituary
notices of members, and for eighteen years acting as one of the
honorary secretaries. He was also frequently employed as con-
sulting actuary, a business in which his mathematical powers,
combined with sound judgment and business-like habits, fitted
him to take the highest place.

De Morgan's mathematical writings contributed powerfully
towards the progress of the science. His memoirs on the
" Foundation of Algebra," in the ;th and 8th volumes of the
Cambridge Philosophical Transactions, contain some of the most
important contributions which have been made to the philosophy
of mathematical method; and Sir W. Rowan Hamilton, in the
preface to his Lectures on Quaternions, refers more than once to
those papers as having led and encouraged him in the working
out of the new system of quaternions. The work on Trigon-
ometry and Double Algebra (1849) contains in the latter part a
most luminous and philosophical view of existing and possible
systems of symbolic calculus. But De Morgan's influence on
mathematical science in England can only be estimated by a
review of his long series of publications, which commence, in
1828, with a translation of part of Bourdon's Elements of Algebra,
prepared for his students. In 1830 appeared the first edition of
his well-known Elements of Arithmetic, which did much to raise
the character of elementary training. It is distinguished by a
simple yet thoroughly philosophical treatment of the ideas of
number and magnitude, as well as by the introduction of new
abbreviated processes of computation, to which De Morgan
always attributed much practical importance. Second and third
editions were called for in 1832 and 1835; a sixth edition was
issued in 1876. De Morgan's other principal mathematical
works were The Elements of Algebra (1835), a valuable but some-
what dry elementary treatise; the Essay on Probabilities (1838),
forming the iO7th volume of Lardner's Cyclopaedia, which forms
a valuable introduction to the subject; and The Elements of
Trigonometry and Trigonometrical Analysis, preliminary to the
Differential Calculus (1837). Several of his mathematical works
were published by the Society for the Diffusfon of Useful Know-
ledge, of which De Morgan was at one time an active member.
Among these may be mentioned the Treatise on the Differential
and Integral Calculus (1842); the Elementary Illustrations of the
Differential and Integral Calculus, first published in 1832, but
often bound up with the larger treatise; the essay, On the Study
and Difficulties of Mathematics (1831); and a brief treatise on
Spherical Trigonometry (1834). By some accident the work on
probability in the same series, written by Sir J. W. Lubbock and
J. Drinkwater-Bethune, was attributed to De Morgan, an error
which seriously annoyed his nice sense of bibliographical accuracy.
For fifteen years he did all in his power to correct the mistake,
and finally wrote to The Times to disclaim the authorship. (See
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xxvi.
p. 1 1 8.) Two of his most elaborate treatises are to be found in the
Encyclopaedia metropolitana, namely the articles on the Calculus
of Functions, and the Theory of Probabilities. DeMorgan's minor
mathematical writings were scattered over various periodicals.
A list of these and other papers will be found in the Royal
Society's Catalogue, which contains forty-two entries under the
name of De Morgan.

In spite, however, of the excellence and extent of his mathe-
matical writings, it is probably as a logical reformer that De
Morgan will be best remembered. In this respect he stands
alongside of his great contemporaries Sir W. R. Hamilton and
George Boole, as one of several independent discoverers of the
all-important principle of the quantification of the predicate.
Unlike most mathematicians, De Morgan always laid much stress
upon the importance of logical training. In his admirable papers
upon the modes of teaching arithmetic and geometry, originally
published in the Quarterly Journal of Education (reprinted in The
Schoolmaster, vol ii.), he remonstrated against the neglect of

DE MORGAN

logical doctrine. In 1839 he produced a small work called First
Notions of Logic, giving what he had found by experience to be
much wanted by students commencing with Euclid. In October
1846 he completed the first of his investigations, in the form of a
paper printed in the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical
Society (vol. viii. No. 29). In this paper the principle of the
quantified predicate was referred to, and there immediately
ensued a memorable controversy with Sir W. R. Hamilton regard-
ing the independence of De Morgan's discovery, some communi-
cations having passed between them in the autumn of 1846. The
details of this dispute will be found in the original pamphlets,
in the Athenaeum and in the appendix to De Morgan's Formal
Logic. Suffice it to say that the independence of De Morgan's
discovery was subsequently recognized by Hamilton. The eight
forms of proposition adopted by De Morgan as the basis of his
system partially differ from those which Hamilton derived
from the quantified predicate. The general character of De
Morgan's development of logical forms was wholly peculiar and
original on his part.

Late in 1847 De Morgan published his principal logical treatise,
called Formal Logic, or the Calculus of Inference, Necessary and
Probable. This contains a reprint of the First Notions, an elabor-
ate development of his doctrine of the syllogism, and of the
numerical definite syllogism, together with chapters of great
interest on probability, induction, old logical terms and fallacies.
The severity of the treatise is relieved by characteristic touches
of humour, and by quaint anecdotes and allusions furnished from
his wide reading and perfect memory. There followed at
intervals, in the years 1850, 1858, 1860 and 1863, a series of four
elaborate memoirs on the " Syllogism," printed in volumes ix.
and x. of the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions. These
papers taken together constitute a great treatise on logic,
in which he substituted improved systems of notation, and
developed a new logic of relations, and a new onymatic system
of logical expression. In 1860 De Morgan endeavoured to render
their contents better known by publishing a Syllabus of a
Proposed System of Logic, from which may be obtained a good
idea of his symbolic system, but the more readable and interesting
discussions contained in the memoirs are of necessity omitted.
The article " Logic " in the English Cyclopaedia (1860) completes
the list of his logical publications.

Throughout his logical writings De Morgan was led by the idea
that the followers of the two great branches of exact science,
logic and mathematics, had made blunders, — the logicians in
neglecting mathematics, and the mathematicians in neglecting
logic. He endeavoured to reconcile them, and in the attempt
showed how many errors an acute mathematician could detect
in logical writings, and how large a field there was for discovery.
But it may be doubted whether De Morgan's own system,
" horrent with mysterious spiculae," as Hamilton aptly described
it, is fitted to exhibit the real analogy between quantitative and
qualitative reasoning, which is rather to be sought in the logical
works of Boole.

Perhaps the largest part, in volume, of De Morgan's writings re-
mains still to be briefly mentioned ; it consists of detached articles
contributed to various periodical or composite works. During the
years 1833—1843 he contributed very largely to the first edition of
the Penny Cyclopaedia, writing chiefly on mathematics, astronomy,
physics and biography. His articles of various length cannot be
less in number than 850, and they have been estimated to constitute
a sixth part of the whole Cyclopaedia, of which they formed perhaps
the most valuable portion. He also wrote biographies of Sir Isaac
Newton and Edmund Halley for Knight's British Worthies, various
notices of scientific men for the Gallery of Portraits, and for the un-
completed Biographical Dictionary of the Useful Knowledge Society,
and at least seven articles in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman
Biography. Some of De Morgan's most interesting and useful minor
writings are to be found in the Companions to the British Almanack, to
which he contributed without fail one article each year from 1831 up
to 1857 inclusive. In these carefully written papers he treats a great
variety of topics relating to astronomy, chronology, decimal coinage,
life assurance, bibliography and the history of science. Most of
them are as valuable now as when written.

Among De Morgan's miscellaneous writings may be mentioned his
Explanation of the Gnomonic Projection of the Sphere, 1836, including
a description of the maps of the stars, published by the Useful Know-

ledge Society ; his Treatise on the Globes, Celestial and Terrestrial,lB45,
and his remarkable Book of Almanacks (2nd edition, 1871), which
contains a series of thirty-five almanacs, so arranged with indices of
reference, that the almanac for any year, whether in old style or new,
from any epoch, ancient or modern, up to A. D. 2000, may be found
without difficulty, means being added for verifying the almanac and
also for discovering the days of new and full moon from 2000 B. C. up
to A. D. 2000. De Morgan expressly draws attention to the fact that
the plan of this book was that of L. B. Francoeur and J. Ferguson,
but the plan was developed by one who was an unrivalled master of
all the intricacies of chronology. The two best tables of logarithms,
the small five-figure tables of the Useful Knowledge Society (1839 and
1857), and Shroen's Seven Figure-Table (5th ed., 1865), were printed
under De Morgan's superintendence. Several works edited by him
will be found mentioned in the British Museum Catalogue. He made
numerous anonymous contributions through a long series of years
to the Athenaeum, and to Notes and Queries, and occasionally to
The North British Review, Macmillan's Magazine, &c.

Considerable labour was spent by De Morgan upon the subject
of decimal coinage. He was a great advocate of the pound and mil
scheme. His evidence on this subject was sought by the Royal
Commission, and, besides constantly supporting the Decimal
Association in periodical publications, he published several separate
pamphlets on the subject.

One marked characteristic of De Morgan was his intense and yet
reasonable love of books. He was a true bibliophile and loved to
surround himself, as far as his means allowed, with curious and rare
books. He revelled in all the mysteries of watermarks, title-pages,
colophons, catch-words and the like; yet he treated bibliography
as an important science. As he himself wrote, " the most worthless
book of a bygone day is a record worthy of preservation; like a
telescopic star, its obscurity may render it unavailable for most
purposes; but it serves, in hands which know how to use it, to de-
termine the places of more important bodies." His evidence before
the Royal Commission on the British Museum in 1850 (Questions
5704*-58i5,* 6481-6513, and 8966-8967), should be studied by all
who would comprehend the principles of bibliography or the art of
constructing a catalogue, his views on the latter subject correspond-
ing with those carried out by Panizzi in the British Museum Catalogue.
A sample of De Morgan's bibliographical learning is to be found in
his account of Arithmetical Books, from the Invention of Printing
(1847), and finally in his Budget of Paradoxes. This latter work
consists of articles most of which were originally published in the
Athenaeum, describing the various attempts which have been made
to invent a perpetual motion, to square the circle, or to trisect the
angle ; but De Morgan took the opportunity to include many curious
bits gathered from his extensive reading, so that the Budget, as re-
printed by his widow (1872), with much additional matter prepared
by himself, forms a remarkable collection of scientific ana. De
Morgan's correspondence with contemporary scientific men was very
extensive and full of interest. It remains unpublished, as does also
a large mass of mathematical tracts which he prepared for the use
of his students, treating all parts of mathematical science, and
embodying some of the matter of his lectures. De Morgan's library
was purchased by Lord Overstone, and presented to the university
of London.

In 1866 his life became clouded by the circumstances which led
him to abandon the institution so long the scene of his labours.
The refusal of the council to accept the recommendation of the
senate, that they should appoint an eminent Unitarian minister
to the professorship of logic and mental philosophy, revived all
De Morgan's sensitiveness on the subject of sectarian freedom;
and, though his feelings were doubtless excessive, there is no
doubt that gloom was thrown over his life, intensified in 1867 by
the loss of his son George Campbell De Morgan, a young man of
the highest scientific promise, whose name, as De Morgan
expressly wished, will long be connected with the London
Mathematical Society, of which he was one of the founders.
From this time De Morgan rapidly fell into ill-health, previously
almost unknown to him, dying on the i8th of March 1871. An
interesting and truthful sketch of his life will be found in the
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society for the gth of
February 1872, vol. xxii. p. 112, written by A. C. Ranyard, who
says, " He was the kindliest, as well as the most learned of men —
benignant to every one who approached him, never forgetting the
claims which weakness has on strength."

De Morgan left no published indications of his opinions on
religious questions, in regard to which he was extremely reticent.
He seldom or never entered a place of worship, and declared that
he could not listen to a sermon, a circumstance perhaps due to
the extremely strict religious discipline under which he was
brought up. Nevertheless there is reason to believe that he

IO

DEMOSTHENES

was of a deeply religious disposition. Like M. Faraday and
Sir I. Newton he entertained a confident belief in Provi-
dence, founded not on any tenuous inference, but on personal
feeling. His hope of a future life also was vivid to the last.

It is impossible to omit a reference to his witty sayings, some
specimens of which are preserved in Dr Sadler's most interesting
Diary of Henry Crabb Robinson (1869), which also contains a
humorous account of H. C. R. by De Morgan. It may be
added that De Morgan was a great reader and admirer of
Dickens; he was also fond of music, and a fair performer on
the flute. (W. S. J.)

His son, WILLIAM FREND DE MORGAN (b. i§39), first became
known in artistic circles as a potter, the " De Morgan " tiles
being remarkable for his rediscovery of the secret of some beauti-
ful colours and glazes. But later in life he became even better
known to the literary world by his novels, Joseph Vance (1906),
Alice for Short (1907), Somehow Good (1908) and It Never Can
Happen Again (1909), in which the influence of Dickens and of
his own earlier family life were conspicuous.

DEMOSTHENES, the great Attic orator and statesman, was
born in 384 (or 383) B.C. His father, who bore the same name,
was an Athenian citizen belonging to the deme of Paeania. His
mother, Cleobule, was the daughter of Gylon, a citizen who had
been active in procuring the protection of the kings of Bosporus
for the Athenian colony of Nymphaeon in the Crimea, and whose
wife was a native of that region. On these grounds the adversaries
of Demosthenes, in after-days, used absurdly to taunt him with
a traitorous or barbarian ancestry. The boy had a bitter fore-
taste of life. He was seven years old when his father died,
leaving property (in a manufactory of swords, and another of
upholstery) worth about £3500, which, invested as it seems to
have been (20% was not thought exorbitant), would have
yielded rather more than £600 a year. £300 a year was a very
comfortable income at Athens, and it was possible to live decently
on a tenth of it. Nicias, a very rich man, had property equivalent,
probably, to not more than £4000 a year. Demosthenes was born
then, to a handsome, though not a great fortune. But his
guardians — two nephews of his father, Aphobus and Demophon,
and one Therippides — abused their trust, and handed over to
Demosthenes, when he came of age, rather less than one-seventh
of his patrimony, perhaps between £50 and £60 a year.
Demosthenes, after studying with Isaeus (q.v.) — then the great
master of forensic eloquence and of Attic law, especially in will
cases ' — brought an action against Aphobus, and gained a verdict
for about £2400. But it does not appear that he got the money;
and, after some more fruitless proceedings against Onetor,
the brother-in-law of Aphobus, the matter was dropped, — not,
however, before his relatives had managed to throw a public
burden (the equipment of a ship of war) on their late ward,
whereby his resources were yet further straitened. He now
became a professional writer of speeches or pleas (\oyoy pa<tx>s)
for the law courts, sometimes speaking himself. Biographers
have delighted to relate how painfully Demosthenes made him-
self a tolerable speaker, — how, with pebbles in his mouth, he
tried his lungs against the waves, how he declaimed as he ran up
hill, how he shut himself up in a cell, having first guarded himself
against a longing for the haunts of men by shaving one side of
his head, how he wrote out Thucydides eight times, how he was
derided by the Assembly and encouraged by a judicious actor who
met him moping about the Peiraeus. He certainly seems to have
been the reverse of athletic (the stalwart Aeschines upbraids him
with never having been a sportsman), and he probably had some
sort of defect or impediment in his speech as a boy. Perhaps the
most interesting fact about his work for the law courts is that
he seems to have continued it, in some measure, through the most
exciting parts of his great political career. The speech for
Phormio belongs to the same year as the plea for Megalopolis.
The speech against Boeotus " Concerning the Name " comes
between the First Philippic and the First Olynthiac. The speech
against Pantaenetus comes between the speech " On the Peace "
and the Second Philippic.

1 See Jebb's Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeos, vol. ii. p. 267 f.

The political career of Demosthenes, from his first direct
contact with public affairs in 355 B.C. to his death in 322, has
an essential unity. It is the assertion, in successive
forms adapted to successive moments, of unchanging Pollacal
principles. Externally, it is divided into the chap- "eec^"'
ter which precedes and the chapter which follows
Chaeronea. But its inner meaning, the secret of its indomitable
vigour, the law which harmonizes its apparent contrasts, cannot
be understood unless it is regarded as a whole. Still less can it
be appreciated in all its large wisdom and sustained self-mastery
if it is viewed merely as a duel between the ablest champion and
the craftiest enemy of Greek freedom. The time indeed came
when Demosthenes and Philip stood face to face as representative
antagonists in a mortal conflict. But, for Demosthenes, the
special peril represented by Philip, the peril of subjugation to
Macedon, was merely a disastrous accident. Philip happened
to become the most prominent and most formidable type of a
danger which was already threatening Greece before his baleful
star arose. As Demosthenes said to the Athenians, if the
Macedonian had not existed, they would have made another
Philip lor themselves. Until Athens recovered something of its
old spirit, there must ever be a great standing danger, not for
Athens only, but for Greece, — the danger that sooner or later, in
some shape, from some quarter — no man could foretell the hour,
the manner or the source — barbarian violence would break up
the gracious and undefiled tradition of separate Hellenic life.

What was the true relation of Athens to Greece ? The answer
which he gave to this question is the key to the life of
Demosthenes. Athens, so Demosthenes held, was the natural
head of Greece. Not, however, as an empress holding subject
or subordinate cities in a dependence more or less compulsory.
Rather as that city which most nobly expressed the noblest
attributes of Greek political existence, and which, by her pre-
eminent gifts both of intellect and of moral insight, was primarily
responsible, everywhere and always, for the maintenance of those
attributes in their integrity. Wherever the cry of the oppressed
goes up from Greek against Greek, it was the voice of Athens
which should first remind the oppressor that Hellene differed
from barbarian in postponing the use of force to the persuasions
of equal law. Wherever a barbarian hand offered wrong to any
city of the Hellenic sisterhood, it was the arm of Athens which
should first be stretched forth in the holy strength of Apollo the
Averter. Wherever among her own children the ancient loyalty
was yielding to love of pleasure or of base gain, there, above all,
it was the duty of Athens to see that the central hearth of Hellas
was kept pure. Athens must never again seek " empire " in the
sense which became odious under the influence of Cleon and
Hyperbolus, — when, to use the image of Aristophanes, the allies
were as Babylonian slaves grinding in the Athenian mill. Athens
must never permit, if she could help it, the re-establishment of
such a domination as Sparta exercised in Greece from the battle
of Aegospotami to the battle of Leuctra. Athens must aim
at leading a free confederacy, of which the members should be
bound to her by their own truest interests. Athens must seek
to deserve the confidence of all Greeks alike.

Such, in the belief of Demosthenes, was the part which Athens
must perform if Greece was to be safe. But reforms must be
effected before Athens could be capable of such a part. The evils
to be cured were different phases of one malady. Athens had
long been suffering from the profound decay of public spirit.
Since the early years of the Peloponnesian War, the separation
of Athenian society from the state had been growing more and
more marked. The old type of the eminent citizen, who was at
once statesman and general, had become almost extinct. Politics
were now managed by a small circle .of politicians. Wars were
conducted by professional soldiers whose troops were chiefly
mercenaries, and who were usually regarded by the politicians
either as instruments or as enemies. The mass of the
citizens took no active interest in public affairs. But, ^^
though indifferent to principles, they had quickly sensi-
tive partialities for men, and it was necessary to keep them in
good humour. Pericles had introduced the practice of giving a

DEMOSTHENES

ii

small bounty from the treasury to the poorer citizens, for the pur-
pose of enabling them to attend the theatre at the great festivals,
— in other words, for the purpose of bringing them under the
concentrated influence of the best Attic culture. A provision
eminently wise for the age of Pericles easily became a mischief
when the once honourable name of " demagogue " began to
mean a flatterer of the mob. Before the end of the Pelopon-
nesian War the festival-money (theoricon) was abolished. A few
years after the restoration of the democracy it was again intro-
duced. But until 354 B.C. it had never been more than a gratuity,
of which the payment depended on the treasury having a surplus.
In 354 B.C. Eubulus became steward of the treasury. He was
an able man, with a special talent for finance, free from all taint
of personal corruption, and sincerely solicitous for the honour
of Athens, but enslaved to popularity, and without principles
of policy. His first measure was to make the festival-money a
permanent item in the budget. Thenceforth this bounty was in
reality very much what Demades afterwards called it, — the
cement (xoXXa) of the democracy.

Years before the danger from Macedon was urgent, Demos-
thenes had begun the work of his life, — the effort to lift the spirit
Forensic °^ Athens, to revive the old civic loyalty, to rouse the
speeches city into taking that place and performing that part
la public which her own welfare as well as the safety of Greece
causes, prescribed. His formally political speeches must never
be considered apart from his forensic speeches in public causes.
The Athenian procedure against the proposer of an unconstitu-
tional law — i.e. of a law incompatible with existing laws — had a
direct tendency to make the law court, in such cases, a political
arena. The same tendency was indirectly exerted by the
tolerance of Athenian juries (in the absence of a presiding expert
like a judge) for irrelevant matter, since it was usually easy for a
speaker to make capital out of the adversary's political ante-
cedents. But the forensic speeches of Demosthenes for public
causes are not only political in this general sense. They are
documents, as indispensable as the Olynthiacs or Philippics,
for his own political career. Only by taking them along with the
formally political speeches, and regarding the whole as one
unbroken series, can we see clearly the full scope of the task
which he set before him, — a task in which his long resistance to
Philip was only the most dramatic incident, and in which his
real achievement is not to be measured by the event of
Chaeronea.

A forensic speech, composed for a public cause, opens the
political career of Demosthenes with a protest against a signal
abuse. In 355 B.C., at the age of twenty-nine, he wrote the
speech " Against Androtion." This combats on legal grounds a
proposal that the out-going senate should receive the honour of a
golden crown. In its larger aspect, it is a denunciation of the
corrupt system which that senate represented, and especially of
the manner in which the treasury had been administered by
Aristophon. In 354 B.C. Demosthenes composed and spoke the
oration " Against Leptines," who had effected a slender saving
for the state by the expedient of revoking those hereditary
exemptions from taxation which had at various times been
conferred in recognition of distinguished merit. The descendants
of Harmodius and Aristogeiton alone had been excepted from
the operation of the law. This was the first time that the voice
of Demosthenes himself had been heard on the public concerns
of Athens, and the utterance was a worthy prelude to the career
of a statesman. He answers the advocates of the retrenchment
by pointing out that the public interest will not ultimately be
served by a wholesale violation of the public faith. In the same
year he delivered his first strictly political speech, " On the Navy
Boards " (Symmories). The Athenians, irritated by the support
which Artaxerxes had lately given to the revolt of their allies,
and excited by rumours of his hostile preparations, were feverishly
eager for a war with Persia. Demosthenes urges that such an
enterprise would at present be useless; that it would fail to unite
Greece; that the energies of the city should be reserved for a real
emergency; but that, before the city can successfully cope with
any war, there must be a better organization of resources, and,

first of all, a reform of the navy, which he outlines with character-
istic lucidity and precision.

Two years later (352 B.C.) he is found dealing with a more
definite question of foreign policy. Sparta, favoured by the
depression of Thebes in the Phocian War, was threatening
Megalopolis. Both Sparta and Megalopolis sent embassies to
Athens. Demosthenes supported Megalopolis. The ruin of
Megalopolis would mean, he argued, the return of Spartan
domination in the Peloponnesus. Athenians must not favour
the tyranny of any one city. They must respect the rights of all
the cities, and thus promote unity based on mutual confidence.
In the same year Demosthenes wrote the speech " Against
Timocrates," to be spoken by the same Diodorus who had before
prosecuted Androtion, and who now combated an attempt to
screen Androtion and others from the penalties of embezzlement.
The speech " Against Aristocrates," also of 352 B.C., reproves that
foreign policy of feeble makeshifts which was now popular at
Athens. The Athenian tenure of the Thracian Chersonese partly
depended for its security on the good-will of the Thracian prince
Cersobleptes. Charidemus, a soldier of fortune who had already
played Athens false, was now the brother-in-law and the favourite
of Cersobleptes. Aristocrates proposed that the person of
Charidemus should be invested with a special sanctity, by the
enactment that whoever attempted his life should be an outlaw
from all dominions of Athens. Demosthenes points out that
such adulation is as futile as it is fulsome. Athens can secure
the permanence of her foreign possessions only in one way — by
being strong enough to hold them.

Thus, between 355 and 352, Demosthenes had laid down
the main lines of his policy. Domestic administration must be
purified. Statesmen must be made to feel that they
are responsible to the state, They must not be allowed
to anticipate judgment on their deserts by voting each
other golden crowns. They must not think to screen mis-
appropriation of public money by getting partisans to pass new
laws about state-debtors. Foreign policy must be guided by a
larger and more provident conception of Athenian interests.
When public excitement demands a foreign war, Athens must not
rush into it without asking whether it is necessary, whether it
will have Greek support, and whether she herself is ready for it.
When a strong Greek city threatens a weak one, and seeks to
purchase Athenian connivance with the bribe of a border-town,
Athens must remember that duty and prudence alike command
her to respect the independence of all Greeks. When it is pro-
posed, by way of insurance on Athenian possessions abroad, to
flatter the favourite of a doubtful ally, Athens must remember
that such devices will not avail a power which has no army
except on paper, and no ships fit to leave their moorings.

But the time had gone by when Athenians could have tranquil
leisure for domestic reform. A danger, calling for prompt action,
had at last come very near. For six years Athens had
been at war with Philip on account of his seizure of
Amphipolis. Meanwhile he had destroyed Potidaea Philip.
and founded Philippi. On the Thracian coasts he had
become master of Abdera and Maronea. On the Thessalian coast
he had acquired Methone. In a second invasion of Thessaly,
he had overthrown the Phocians under Onomarchus, and had
advanced to Thermopylae, to find the gates of Greece closed
against him by an Athenian force. He had then marched
to Heraeon on the Propontis, and had dictated a peace to
Cersobleptes. He had formed an alliance with Cardia, Perinthus
and Byzantium. Lastly, he had begun to show designs on the
great Confederacy of Olynthus, the more warlike Miletus of
the North. The First Philippic of Demosthenes was spoken in
351 B.C. The Third Philippic — the latest of the extant political
speeches — was spoken in 341 B.C. Between these he delivered
eight political orations, of which seven are directly concerned
with Philip. The whole series falls into two great divisions.
The first division comprises those speeches which were spoken
against Philip while he was still a foreign power threatening
Greece from without. Such are the First Philippic and the three
orations for Olynthus. The second division comprises the speeches

12

DEMOSTHENES

spoken against Philip when, by admission to the Amphictyonic
Council, he had now won his way within the circle of the Greek
states, and when the issue was no longer between Greece and
Macedonia, but between the Greek and Macedonian parties in
Greece. Such are the speech " On the Peace," the speech " On
the Embassy," the speech " On the Chersonese," the Second and
Third Philippics.

The First Philippic, spoken early in 351 B.C., was no sudden
note of alarm drawing attention to an unnoticed peril. On the
contrary, the Assembly was weary of the subject. For
PAfl/ fc, s*x Xears tne war w*tn Philip had been a theme of barren
talk. Demosthenes urges that it is time to do some-
thing, and to do it with a plan. Athens fighting Philip has fared,
he says, like an amateur boxer opposed to a skilled pugilist.
The helpless hands have only followed blows which a trained eye
should have taught them to parry. An Athenian force must be
stationed in the north, at Lemnos or Thasos. Of 2000 infantry
and 200 cavalry at least one quarter must be Athenian citizens
capable of directing the mercenaries.

Later in the same year Demosthenes did another service to the
cause of national freedom. Rhodes, severed by its own act from
the Athenian Confederacy, had since 355 been virtually subject
to Mausolus, prince (Svvaarrp) of Caria, himself a tributary of
Persia. Mausolus died in 351, and was succeeded by his widow
Artemisia. The democratic party in Rhodes now appealed to
Athens for help in throwing off the Carian yoke. Demosthenes
supported their application in his speech " For the Rhodians."
No act of his life was a truer proof of statesmanship. He failed.
But at least he had once more warned Athens that the cause of
political freedom was everywhere her own, and that, wherever
that cause was forsaken, there a new danger was created both for
Athens and for Greece.

Next year (350) an Athenian force under Phocion was sent to
Euboea, in support of Plutarchus, tyrant of Eretria, against the
faction of Cleitarchus. Demosthenes protested against
spending strength, needed for greater objects, on the
local quarrels of a despot. Phocion won a victory at
Tamynae. But the " inglorious and costly war " entailed an
outlay of more than £12,000 on the ransom of captives alone,
and ended in the total destruction of Athenian influence through-
out Euboea. That island was now left an open field for the
intrigues of Philip. Worst of all, the party of Eubulus not only
defeated a proposal, arising from this campaign, for applying the
festival-money to the war-fund, but actually carried a law making
it high treason to renew the proposal. The degree to which
political enmity was exasperated by the Euboean War may be
judged from the incident of Midias, an adherent of Eubulus,
and a type of opulent rowdyism. Demosthenes was choragus
of his tribe, and was wearing the robe of that sacred office at
the great festival in the theatre of Dionysus, when Midias struck
him on the face. The affair was eventually compromised. The
speech " Against Midias " written by Demosthenes for the trial
(in 349) was neither spoken nor completed, and remains, as few
will regret, a sketch.

It was now three years since, in 352, the Olynthians had sent
an embassy to Athens, and had made peace with their only sure
ally. In 350 a second Olynthian embassy had sought
and obtained Athenian help. The hour of Olynthus
had indeed come. In 349 Philip opened war against
the Chalcidic towns of the Olynthian League. The First and
Second Olynthiacs of Demosthenes were spoken in that year in
support of sending one force to defend Olynthus and another to
attack Philip. " Better now than later," is the thought of the
First Olynthiac: The Second argues that Philip's strength is
overrated. The Third — spoken in 348 — carries us into the midst
of action.1 It deals with practical details. The festival-fund
must be used for the war. The citizens must serve in person.

1 It is generally agreed that the Third Olynthiac is the latest ; but
the question of the order of the First and Second has been much
discussed. See Grote (History of Greece, chap. 88, appendix), who
prefers the arrangement ii. i. iii., and Blass, Die attische Beredsamkeit,
iii. p. 319.

Euboean
War.

Olyn-
thiacs.

A few months later, Olynthus and the thirty-two towns of the
confederacy were swept from the earth. Men could walk over
their sites, Demosthenes said seven years afterwards, without
knowing that such cities had existed. It was now certain that
Philip could not be stopped outside of Greece. The question
was, What point within Greece shall he be allowed to reach?

Eubulus and his party, with that versatility which is the
privilege of political vagueness, now began to call for a congress
of the allies to consider the common danger. They found a
brilliant interpreter in Aeschines, who, after having been a tragic
actor and a clerk to the assembly, had entered political life with
the advantages of a splendid gift for eloquence, a fine presence,
a happy address, a ready wit and a facile conscience. While
his opponents had thus suddenly become warlike, Demosthenes
had become pacific. He saw that Athens must have time to
collect strength. Nothing could be gained, meanwhile, by going
on with the war. Macedonian sympathizers at Athens, of whom
Philocrates was the chief, also favoured peace. Eleven envoys,
including Philocrates, Aeschines, and Demosthenes, were sent
to Philip in February 346 B.C. After a debate at Athens, peace
was concluded with Philip in April. Philip on the one Peace
hand, Athens and her allies on the other, were to keep between
what they respectively held at the time when the peace phll'P aad
was ratified. But here the Athenians made a fatal
error. Philip was bent on keeping the door of Greece open.
Demosthenes was bent on shutting it against him. Philip was
now at war with the people of Halus in Thessaly. Thebes had
for ten years been at war with Phocis. Here were two distinct
chances for Philip's armed intervention in Greece. But if the
Kalians and the Phocians were included in the peace, Philip
could not bear arms against them without violating the peace.
Accordingly Philip insisted that they should not be included.
Demosthenes insisted they should be included. They were
not included. The result followed speedily. The same envoys
were sent a second time to Philip at the end of April 346 for
the purpose of receiving his oaths in ratification of the peace.
It was late in June before he returned from Thrace to Pella — thus
gaining, under the terms, all the towns that he had taken mean-
while. He next took the envoys with him through Thessaly to
Thermopylae. There — at the invitation of Thessalians and
Thebans — he intervened in the Phocian War. Phalaecus
surrendered. Phocis was crushed. Philip took its
place in the Amphictyonic Council, and was thus p£%Jfaa
established as a Greek power in the very centre, at the war.
sacred hearth, of Greece. The right of precedence in
consultation of the oracle (irponavrdo.) was transferred from
Athens to Philip. While indignant Athenians were clamouring for
the revocation of the peace, Demosthenes upheld it in his speech
" On the Peace " in September. It ought never to have been
made on such terms, he said. But, having been made, it had
better be kept. " If we went to war now, where should we find
allies? And after losing Oropus, Amphipolis, Cardia, Chios, Cos,
Rhodes, Byzantium, shall we fight about the shadow of Delphi?"

During the eight years between the peace of Philocrates and
the battle of Chaeronea, the authority of Demosthenes steadily
grew, until it became first predominant and then paramount. He
had, indeed, a melancholy advantage. Each year his argument
was more and more cogently enforced by the logic of facts. In
344 he visited the Peloponnesus for the purpose of counteracting
Macedonian intrigue. Mistrust, he told the Peloponnesian
cities, is the safeguard of free communities against tyrants.
Philip lodged a formal complaint at Athens. Here, as elsewhere,
the future master of Greece reminds us of Napoleon on the eve of
the first empire. He has the same imperturbable and persuasive
effrontery in protesting that he is doing one thing at the moment
when his energies are concentrated on doing the opposite.
Demosthenes replied in the Second Philippic. " If," he
said, " Philip is the friend of Greece, we are doing
wrong. If he is the enemy of Greece, we are doing
right. Which is he? I hold him to be our enemy, because
everything that he has hitherto done has benefited himself and
hurt us." The prosecution of Aeschines for malversation on the

Second
Philippic.

DEMOSTHENES

Third
Philippic.

embassy (commonly known as De falsa legalione), which was
brought to an issue in the following year, marks the moral
strength of the position now held by Demosthenes. When the
gravity of the charge and the complexity of the evidence are
considered, the acquittal of Aeschines by a narrow majority
must be deemed his condemnation. The speech " On the
Affairs of the Chersonese " and the Third Philippic were the
crowning efforts of Demosthenes. Spoken in the same year,
341 B.C., and within a short space of each other, they must be
taken together. The speech " On the Affairs of the Chersonese "
regards the situation chiefly from an Athenian point of view.
" If the peace means," argues Demosthenes, " that Philip can
seize with impunity one Athenian possession after another, but
that Athenians shall not on their peril touch aught that belongs
to Philip, where is the line to be drawn? We shall go to war, I
am told, when it is necessary. If the necessity has not come

yet, when will it come? " The Third Philippic surveys

a wider horizon. It ascends from the Athenian to the

Hellenic view. Philip has annihilated Olynthus and
the Chalcidic towns. He has ruined Pbocis. He has frightened
Thebes. He has divided Thessaly. Euboea and the Pelo-
ponnesus are his. His power stretches from the Adriatic to
the Hellespont. Where shall be the end? Athens is the last
hope of Greece. And, in this final crisis, Demosthenes was the
embodied energy of Athens. It was Demosthenes who went to
Byzantium, brought the estranged city back to the Athenian
alliance, and snatched it from the hands of Philip. It was
Demosthenes who, when Philip had already seized Elatea,
hurried to Thebes, who by his passionate appeal gained one last
chance, the only possible chance, for Greek freedom, who broke
down the barrier of an inveterate jealousy, who brought Thebans
to fight beside Athenians, and who thus won at the eleventh
hour a victory for the spirit of loyal union which took away
at least one bitterness from the unspeakable calamity of
Chaeronea.

But the work of Demosthenes was not closed by the ruin of his
cause. During the last sixteen years of his life (338-322) he

rendered services to Athens not less important, and
'activity? perhaps more difficult, than those which he had

rendered before. He was now, as a matter of course,
foremost in the public affairs of Athens. In January 337, at the
annual winter Festival of the Dead in the Outer Ceramicus, he
spoke the funeral oration over those who had fallen at Chaeronea.
He was member of a commission for strengthening the fortifica-
tions of the city (reixorotos). He administered the festival-fund.
During a dearth which visited Athens between 330 and 326 he
was charged with the organization of public relief. In 324 he was
chief (Apxt0€wpos) of the sacred embassy to Olympia. Already,
in 336, Ctesiphon had proposed that Demosthenes should receive
a golden crown from the state, and that his extraordinary merits
should be proclaimed in the theatre at the Great Dionysia. The
proposal was adopted by the senate as a bill (irpoftovKevna) ;
but it must be passed by the Assembly before it could become
an act (^(^wrpta). To prevent this, Aeschines gave notice, in 336,
that he intended to proceed against Ctesiphon for having proposed
an unconstitutional measure. For six years Aeschines avoided
action on this notice. At last, in 330, the patriotic party felt
strong enough to force him to an issue. Aeschines spoke the
speech " Against Ctesiphon," an attack on the whole public life
of Demosthenes. Demosthenes gained an overwhelming victory
for himself and for the honour of Athens in the most finished, the
most splendid and the most pathetic work of ancient eloquence
— the immortal oration " On the Crown."

In the winter of 325-324 Harpalus, the receiver-general of
Alexander in Asia, fled to Greece, taking with him 8000 mercen-

aries, and treasure equivalent to about a million and
Harpalus. a quarter sterling. On the motion of Demosthenes

he was warned from the harbours of Attica. Having
left his troops and part of his treasure at Taenarum, he again
present'ed himself at the Peiraeus, and was now admitted. He
spoke fervently of the opportunity which offered itself to those
who loved the freedom of Greece. All Asia would rise with Athens

to throw off the hated yoke. Fiery patriots like Hypereides were
in raptures. For zeal which could be bought Harpalus had other
persuasions. But Demosthenes stood firm. War with Alexander
would, he saw, be madness. It could have but one result, — some
indefinitely worse doom for Athens. Antipater and Olympias
presently demanded the surrender of Harpalus. Demosthenes
opposed this. But he reconciled the dignity with the loyalty of
Athens by carrying a decree that Harpalus should be arrested,
and that his treasure should be deposited in the Parthenon, to be
held in trust for Alexander. Harpalus escaped from prison. The
amount of the treasure, which Harpalus had stated as 700 talents,
proved to be no more than 350. Demosthenes proposed that the
Areopagus should inquire what had become of the other 350.
Six months, spent in party intrigues, passed before the Areo-
pagus gave hi their report (dwo^cuns). The report inculpated
nine persons. Demosthenes headed the list of the accused.
Hypereides was among the ten public prosecutors. Demos-
thenes was condemned, fined fifty talents, and, in default of
payment, imprisoned. After a few days he escaped from prison
to Aegina, and thence to Troezen. Two things in this obscure
affair are beyond reasonable doubt. First, that Demosthenes
was not bribed by Harpalus. The hatred of the Macedonian
party towards Demosthenes, and the fury of those vehement
patriots who cried out that he had betrayed their best oppor-
tunity, combined to procure his condemnation, with the help,
probably, of some appearances which were against him.
Secondly, it can hardly be questioned that, by withstanding the
hot-headed patriots at this juncture, Demosthenes did heroic
service to Athens.

Next year (323 B.C.) Alexander died. Then the voice of Demos-
thenes, calling Greece to arms, rang out like a trumpet. Early
in August 322 the battle of Crannon decided the
Lamian War against Greece. Antipater demanded, as
the condition on which he would refrain from besieging war.
Athens, the surrender of the leading patriots. De-
mades moved the decree of the Assembly by which Demosthenes,
Hypereides, and some others were condemned to death as
traitors. On the 2oth of Boedromion (September 16) Demos-
322, a Macedonian garrison occupied Munychia. It thenes
was a day of solemn and happy memories, a day con~
devoted, in the celebration of the Great Mysteries, to
sacred joy, — the day on which the glad procession of the Initiated
returned from Eleusis to Athens. It happened, however, to have
another association, more significant than any ironical contrast
for the present purpose of Antipater. It was the day on which,
thirteen years before, Alexander had punished the rebellion of
Thebes with annihilation.

The condemned men had fled to Aegina. Parting there from
Hypereides and the rest, Demosthenes went on to Calauria, a
small island off the coast of Argolis. In Calauria there
was an ancient temple of Poseidon, once a centre of
Minyan and Ionian worship, and surrounded with a
peculiar sanctity as having been, from time immemorial, an
inviolable refuge for the pursued. Here Demosthenes sought
asylum. Archias of Thurii, a man who, like Aeschines, had begun
life as a tragic actor, and who was now in the pay of Antipater,
soon traced the fugitive, landed in Calauria, and appeared before
the temple of Poseidon with a body of Thracian spearmen.
Plutarch's picturesque narrative bears the marks of artistic
elaboration. Demosthenes had dreamed the night before that
he and Archias were competing for a prize as tragic actors; the
house applauded Demosthenes; but his chorus was shabbily
equipped, and Archias gained the prize. Archias was not the
man to stick at sacrilege. In Aegina, Hypereides and the others
had been taken from the shrine of Aeacus. But he hesitated to
violate an asylum so peculiarly sacred as the Calaurian temple.
Standing before its open door, with his Thracian soldiers around
him, he endeavoured to prevail on Demosthenes to quit the holy
precinct. Antipater would be certain to pardon him. Demos-
thenes sat silent, with his eyes fixed on the ground. At last, as
the emissary persisted in his bland persuasions, he looked up and
said, — " Archias, you never moved me by your acting, and you

demned.

DEMOSTHENES

will not move me now by your promises." Archias lost his temper,
and began to threaten. " Now," rejoined Demosthenes, " you
speak like a real Macedonian oracle; before you were acting.
Wait a moment, then, till 1 write to my friends." With these
words, Demosthenes withdrew into the inner part of the temple,
— still visible, however, from the entrance. He took out a roll of
paper, as if he were going to write, put the pen to his mouth, and
bit it, as was his habit in composing. Then he threw his head
back, and drew his cloak over it. The Thracian spearmen, who
were watching him from the door, began to gibe at his cowardice.
_ .. Archias went in to him, encouraged him to rise,

repeated his old arguments, talked to him of reconcilia-
tion with Antipater. By this time Demosthenes felt that the
poison which he had sucked from the pen was beginning to work.
He drew the cloak from his face, and looked steadily at Archias.
" Now you can play the part of Creon in the tragedy as soon as
you like," he said, " and cast forth my body unburied. But I,
O gracious Poseidon, quit thy temple while I yet live; Antipater
and his Macedonians have done what they could to pollute it."
He moved towards the door, calling to them to support his
tottering steps. He had just passed the altar of the god, when he
fell, and with a groan gave up the ghost (October 322 B.C.).

As a statesman, Demosthenes needs no epitaph but his own
words in the speech " On the Crown," — / say that, if the event had

been manifest to the whole world beforehand, not even then
character. ou&ht Athens to have forsaken this course, if Athens had

any regard for her glory, or for her past, or for the ages to
come. The Persian soldier in Herodotus, following Xerxes to
foreseen ruin, confides to his fellow-guest at the banquet that the
bitterest pain which man can know is TroXXet <t>poveovra nr/Stvos
Kparktiv, — complete, but helpless, prescience. In the grasp of a
more inexorable necessity, the champion of Greek freedom was
borne onward to a more tremendous catastrophe than that which
strewed the waters of Salamis with Persian wrecks and the field of
Plataea with Persian dead; but to him, at least, it was given to
proclaim aloud the clear and sure foreboding that filled his soul,
to do all that true heart and free hand could do for his cause, and,
though not to save, yet to encourage, to console and to ennoble.
As the inspiration of his life was larger and higher than the mere
courage of resistance, so his merit must be regarded as standing
altogether outside and above the struggle with Macedon. The
great purpose which he set before him was to revive the public
spirit, to restore the political vigour, and to re-establish the
Panhellenic influence of Athens, — never for her own advantage
merely, but always in the interest of Greece. His glory is, that
while he lived he helped Athens to live a higher life. Wherever
the noblest expressions of her mind are honoured, wherever the
large conceptions of Pericles command the admiration of states-
men, wherever the architect and the sculptor love to dwell on the
masterpieces of Ictinus and Pheidias, wherever the spell of ideal
beauty or of lofty contemplation is exercised by the creations of
Sophocles or of Plato, there it will be remembered that the spirit
which wrought in all these would have passed sooner from among
men, if it had not been recalled from a trance, which others were
content to mistake for the last sleep, by the passionate breath of
Demosthenes.

The orator in whom artistic genius was united, more perfectly
than in any other man, with moral enthusiasm and with intel-
Orato lectual grasp, has held in the modern world the same

rank which was accorded to him in the old; but he
cannot enjoy the same appreciation. Macaulay's ridicule has
rescued from oblivion the criticism which pronounced the
eloquence of Chatham to be more ornate than that of Demos-
thenes, and less diffuse than that of Cicero. Did the critic, asks
Macaulay, ever hear any speaking that was less ornamented than
that of Demosthenes, or more diffuse than that of Cicero? Yet
the critic's remark was not so pointless as Macaulay thought
it. Sincerity and intensity are, indeed, to the modern reader,
the most obvious characteristics of Demosthenes. His style is,
on the whole, singularly free from what we are accustomed to
regard as rhetorical embellishment. Where the modern orator
would employ a wealth of imagery, or elaborate a picture in

exquisite detail, Demosthenes is content with a phrase or a
word. Burke uses, in reference to Hyder Ali, the same image
which Demosthenes uses in reference to Philip. " Compounding
all the materials of fury, havoc, desolation, into one black cloud,
he hung for a while on the declivity of the mountains. Whilst
the authors of all these evils were idly and stupidly gazing on this
menacing meteor, which darkened all their horizon, it suddenly
burst, and poured down the whole of its contents upon the plains
of the Carnatic." Demosthenes forbears to amplify. " The
people gave their voice, and the danger which hung upon our
borders went by like a cloud." To our modern feeling, the
eloquence of Demosthenes exhibits everywhere a general stamp
of earnest and simple strength. But it is well to remember the
charge made against the style of Demosthenes by a contempo-
rary Greek orator, and the defence offered by the best Greek
critic of oratory. Aeschines reproached the diction of Demos-
thenes with excess of elaboration and adornment (irepitpyia).
Dionysius, in reply, admits that Demosthenes does at times
depart from simplicity, — that his style is sometimes elaborately
ornate and remote from the ordinary usage. But, he adds,
Demosthenes adopts this manner where it is justified by the
elevation of his theme. The remark may serve to remind us of
our modern disadvantage for a full appreciation of Demosthenes.
The old world felt, as we do, his moral and mental greatness, his
fire, his self-devotion, his insight. But it felt also, as we can
never feel, the versatile perfection of his skill. This it was that
made Demosthenes unique to the ancients. The ardent patriot,
the far-seeing statesman, were united in his person with the con-
summate and unapproachable artist. Dionysius devoted two
special treatises to Demosthenes, — one on his language and style
(Xecrads TOJTOS) , the other on his treatment of subject-matter
(irpaynariKos Torres). The latter is lost. The former is one of
the best essays in literary criticism which antiquity has
bequeathed to us. The idea which it works out is that Demos-
thenes has perfected Greek prose by fusing in a glorious harmony
the elements which had hitherto belonged to separate types.
The austere dignity of Antiphon, the plain elegance of Lysias,
the smooth and balanced finish of that middle or normal char-
acter which is represented by Isocrates, have come together in
Demosthenes. Nor is this all. In each species he excels the
specialists. He surpasses the school of Antiphon in perspicuity,
the school of Lysias in verve, the school of Isocrates in variety, in
felicity, in symmetry, in pathos, in power. Demosthenes has at
command all the discursive brilliancy which fascinates a festal
audience. He has that power of concise and lucid narration, of
terse reasoning, of persuasive appeal, which is required by the
forensic speaker. His political eloquence can worthily image
the majesty of the state, and enforce weighty counsels with lofty
and impassioned fervour. A true artist, he grudged no labour
which could make the least part of his work more perfect.
Isocrates spent ten years on the Panegyricus. After Plato's
death, a manuscript was found among his papers with the first
eight words of the Republic arranged in several different orders.
What wonder, then, asks the Greek critic, if the diligence of
Demosthenes was no less incessant and minute? " To me,"
he says, " it seems far more natural that a man engaged in com-
posing political discourses, imperishable memorials of his power,
should neglect not even the smallest details, than that the
veneration of painters and sculptors, who are darkly showing
forth their manual tact and toil in a corruptible material, should
exhaust the refinements of their art on the veins, on the feathers,
on the down of the lip, and the like niceties."

More than half of the sixty-one speeches extant under the name
of Demosthenes are certainly or probably spurious. The results
to which the preponderance of opinion leans are given works.
in the following table. Those marked a were already
rejected or doubted in antiquity; those marked m, first in
modern times:1

1 The dates agree in the main with those given by A. D. Schafer
in Demosthenes und seine Zeit (2nd ed., 1885-1887), and by F. Blass
in Die attische Beredsamkeit (1887-1898), who regards thirty-three
(or possibly thirty-five) of the speeches as genuine.

DEMOSTHENES

I. DELIBERATIVE SPEECHES.

GENUINE.

Or. 14. On the Navy Boards . . 354 B.C.

Or. 1 6. For the People of Megalopolis . 352 „

Or. 4. First Philippic . 351 „

Or. 15. For the Rhodians . 351 „

Or. i. First Olynthiac . 349

Or. 2. Second Olynthiac . 349

Or. 3. Third Olynthiac . 348

Or. 5. On the Peace . 346

Or. 6. Second Philippic . 344

Or. 8. On the Affairs of the Chersonese 341

Or. 9. Third Philippic . . . 341

SPURIOUS.

(a) Or. 7. On Halonnesus (by Hegesippus) . . 342 B.C.
Rhetorical Forgeries.

(a) Or. 17. On the Treaty with Alexander.

(a) Or. 10. Fourth Philippic.

(TO) Or. II. Answer to Philip's Letter.1

(m) Or. 12. Philip's Letter.

(m) Or. 13. On the Assessment (oinrfu).

II. FORENSIC SPEECHES.
A. IN PUBLIC CAUSES.

GENUINE.

Or. 22. In (KOTA) Androtionem . 355 B.C.

Or. 20. Contra (irp6s) Leptinem 354 „

Or. 24. In Timocratem . 352 ,,

Or. 23. In Aristocratem . 352 „

Or. 21. In Midiam . . 349 „

Or. 19. On the Embassy . 343 • „

Or. 18. On the Crown . 330 „

SPURIOUS.

(a) Or. 58. In Theocrinem ..... 339 B.C.
(a) Or. 25, 26. In Aristogitona I. and II. (Rhetorical forgeries).

B. IN PRIVATE CAUSES.

GENUINE.

Or. 27, 28. In Aphobum I. et II. . 364 B.C.

(m) Or. 30, 31. Contra Onetora I. et II. . 362 „

Or. 41. Contra Spudiam . . . ? „

(m) Or. 55. Contra Calliclem . . ?

Or. 54. In Cononem. . . . 356 ,,

Or. 36. Pro Phormione . . . 352 ,,

(m) Or. 39. Contra Boeotum de Nomine . 350 ,,

Or. 37. Contra Pantaenetum . . 346-5 ,,

(m) Or. 38. Contra Nausimachum et Diopithem ?

SPURIOUS.
(The first eight of the following are given by Schafer to Apollodorus.)

.
after

(TO) Or. 52. Contra Callippum.
(a) Or. 53. Contra Nicostratum .
(a) Or. 49. Contra Timotheum .
(TO) Or. 50. Contra Polyclem .
(a) Or. 47. In Evergum et Mnesibulum
(m) Or. 45, 46. In Stephanum I. et II.
(a) Or. 59. In Neaeram . . 349[343~o, Blass]

(TO) -Or. 51. OntheTrierarchicCrown(by Cephiso-
dotus?)

369-8 B.C.

368

362

357

356

351

(TO) Or. 43. Contra Macartatum
(TO) Or. 48. In Olympiodorum.
(TO) Or. 44. Contra Leocharem.

,,_
300-359

after

343

(a) Or. 35. Contra Lacritum .... 341 „

(a) Or. 42. Contra Phaenippum ... ?

(m) Or. 32. Contra Zenothemin ... ?

(TO) Or. 34. Contra Phormionem ... ?

(TO) Or. 29. Contra Aphobum pro Phano

(a) Or. 40. Contra Boeotum de Dote . . 347 „

(TO) Or. 57. Contra Eubulidem . . . 346-5 ,,

(TO) Or. 33. Contra Apaturium . . ?

(a) Or. 56. In Dionysodorum . not before 322-1 „

Or. 60 (imT&<t>ios) and Or. 61 (4poiT«6s) are works of rhetor-
icians. The six epistles are also forgeries; they were used by the
composer of the twelve epistles which bear the name of Aeschines.
The 56 irpoolfua, exordia or sketches for political speeches, are by
various hands and of various dates.2 They are valuable as being
compiled from Demosthenes himself, or from other classical models.

The ancient fame of Demosthenes as an orator can be compared
only with the fame of Homer as a poet. Cicero, with generous
appreciation, recognizes Demosthenes as the standard of perfec-
tion. Dionysius, the closest and most penetrating of his ancient
critics, exhausts the language of admiration in showing how

1 Or. ii and 12 are probably both by Anaximenes of Lampsacus.
1 According to Blass, the second and third epistles and the exordia
are genuine.

Demosthenes united and elevated whatever had been best in
earlier masters of the Greek idiom. Hermogenes, in his works
on rhetoric, refers to Demosthenes as 6 p^rwp, the Literary
orator. The writer of the treatise On Sublimity knows history of
no heights loftier than those to which Demosthenes
has risen. From his own younger contemporaries,
Aristotle and Theophrastus, who founded their theory of rhetoric
in large part on his practice, down to the latest Byzantines, the
consent of theorists, orators, antiquarians, anthologists, lexico-
graphers, offered the same unvarying homage to Demosthenes.
His work busied commentators such as Xenon, Minucian,
Basilicus, Aelius, Theon, Zosimus of Gaza. Arguments to his
speeches were drawn up by rhetoricians so distinguished as
Numenius and Libanius. Accomplished men of letters, such as
Julius Vestinus and Aelius Dionysius, selected from his writings
choice passages for declamation or perusal, of which fragments
are incorporated in the miscellany of Photius and the lexicons
of Harpocration, Pollux and Suidas. It might have been
anticipated that the purity of a text so widely read and so
renowned would, from the earliest times, have been guarded with
jealous care. The works of the three great dramatists had been
thus protected, about 340 B.C., by a standard Attic recension.
But no such good fortune befell the works of Demosthenes.
Alexandrian criticism was chiefly occupied with poetry. The
titular works of Demosthenes were, indeed, registered, with
those of the other orators, in the catalogues (PTJTOPIKOI irlvoxts)
of Alexandria and Pergamum. But no thorough attempt was
made to separate the authentic works from those spurious works
which had even then become mingled with them. Philosophical
schools which, like the Stoic, felt the ethical interest of Demos-
thenes, cared little for his language. The rhetoricians who
imitated or analysed his style cared little for the criticism of his
text. Their treatment of it had, indeed, a direct tendency to
falsify it. It was customary to indicate by marks those passages
which were especially useful for study or imitation. It then
became a rhetorical exercise to recast, adapt or interweave such
passages. Sopater, the commentator on Hermogenes, wrote on
/i€Ta/3oXai xoi utrairoiriffta T&V &t\iuxj8ivovs \upiuv, " adap-
tations or transcripts of passages in Demosthenes." Such
manipulation could not but lead to interpolations or confusions
in the original text. Great, too, as was the attention bestowed
on the thought, sentiment and style of Demosthenes, compara-
tively little care was bestowed on his subject-matter. He was
studied more on the moral and the formal side than on the real
side. An incorrect substitution of one name for another, a reading
which gave an impossible date, insertions of spurious laws or
decrees, were points which few readers would stop to notice.
Hence it resulted that, while Plato, Thucydides and Demos-
thenes were the most universally popular of the classical prose-
writers, the text of Demosthenes, the most widely used perhaps
of all, was also the least pure. His more careful students at
length made an effort to arrest the process of corruption.
Editions of Demosthenes based on a critical recension, and called
'ArrLKiava (avriypatjia), came to be distinguished from the
vulgates, or oynuSea ec&fcmJ.

Among the extant manuscripts of Demosthenes — upwards of
170 in number — one is far superior, as a whole, to the rest. This
is Parisinus S 2934, of the loth century. A com-
parison of this MS. with the extracts of Aelius,
Aristeides and Harpocration from the Third Philippic
favours the view that it is derived from an 'AmKt.av6v, whereas
the SrjjuajSets ec56<T«s, used by Hermogenes and by the
rhetoricians generally, have been the chief sources of our other
manuscripts. The collation of this manuscript by Immanuel
Bekker first placed the textual criticism of Demosthenes on a
sound footing. Not only is this manuscript nearly free from
interpolations, but it is the sole voucher for many excellent
readings. Among the other MSS., some of the most important
are — Marcianus 416 F, of the loth (or nth) century, the basis
of the Aldine edition; Augustanus I. (N 85), derived from the
last, and containing scholia to the speeches on the Crown and the
Embassy, by Ulpian, with some by a younger writer, who was

i6

DEMOTIC— DEMPSTER

Scholia.

perhaps Moschopulus; Parisinus T ; Antverpiensis fl — the last
two comparatively free from additions. The fullest authority
on the MSS. is J. T. Vomel, Notitia codicum Demosth., and
Prolegomena Critica to his edition published at Halle (1856-1857),
pp. 175-178.'

The extant scholia on Demosthenes are for the most part poor.
Their staple consists of Byzantine erudition; and their value
depends chiefly on what they have preserved of older
criticism. They are better than usual for the Ilept
are^avov, Kara Tt/JOKparous; best for the Ilepi irapairptcr-
(Setas. The Greek commentaries ascribed to Ulpian are especially
defective on the historical side, and give little essential aid.
Editions:— C. W. Miiller, in Oral. Alt. ii. (1847-1858); Scholia
Graeca in Demosth. ex cod. aucta et emendata (Oxon., 1851; in
W. Dindorf's ed.).

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Editio princeps (Aldus, Venice, 1504); J. J.
Reiske (with notes of J. Wolf, J. Taylor, J. Markland, &c., 177°-
1775); revised edition of Reiske by G. H. Schafer (1823-1826);
I. Bekker, in Oratores Attici (1823-1824), the first edition based on
codex S (see above); W. S. Dobson (1828); J. G. Baiter and
H. Sauppe (1850); W. Dindorf (in Teubner series, 1867, 4th ed. by
F. Blass, 1885-1889); H. Omont, facsimile edition of codex S
(1892-1893) ; S. H. Butcher in Oxford Scriptor'um Classicorum
Bibliotheca (1003 foil.); W. Dindorf (9 vols., Oxford, 1846-1851),
with notes of previous commentators and Greek scholia ; R. Whiston
(political speeches) with introductions and notes (1859-1868). For
a select list of the numerous English and foreign editions and trans-
lations of separate speeches see J. B. Mayor, Guide to the Choice of
Classical Books (1885, suppt. 1896). Mention may here be made of
De corona by W. W. Goodwin (1901, ed. min., 1904) ; W. H. Simcox
(1873, with Aeschines In Ctesiphontem) ; and P. E. Matheson
(1899); Leptines by J. E. Sandys (1890); De falsa legatione by
R. Shilleto (4th ed., 1874) ; Select Private Orations by J. E. Sandys and
F. A. Paley ford ed., 1898, 1896) ; Midias by W. W. Goodwin (1906).
C. R. Kennedy's complete translation is a model of scholarly finish,
and the appendices on Attic law, &c., are of great value. There are
indices to Demosthenes by J. Reiske (ed. G. H. Schafer, 1823);
S. Preuss (1892). Among recent papyrus finds are fragments of a
special lexicon to the Aristocratea and a commentary by Didymus
(ed. H. Diels and W. Schubart, 1904). Illustrative literature: A. D.
Schafer, Demosthenes und seine Zeit (2nd ed., 1885-1887), a masterly
and exhaustive historical work; F. Blass, Die attische Beredsamkeit
(1887-1898); W. J. Brodribb, " Demosthenes " in Ancient Classics
for English Readers (1877) ; S. H. Butcher, Introduction to the Study
of Demosthenes (1881); C. G. Bohnecke, Demosthenes, Lykurgos,
Hyperides, und ihr Zeitalter (1864); A. Bouille, Histoire de Demos-
thene (2nd ed., 1868) ; J. Girard, Etudes sur I'eloquence attique (1874) ;
M. Croiset, Des idees morales dans VEloquence politique de Demos-
thene (1874); A. Hug, Demosthenes als politischer Denker (1881);
L. Bredit, L'Eloquence politique en Grece (2nd ed., 1886) ; A. Bougot,
Rivalite d'Eschine et Demosthene (1891). For fuller bibliographical
information consult R. Nicolai, Griechische Literaturgeschichte
(1881); W. Engelmann, Scriptores Graeci (1881); G. Hiittner in
C. Bursian's Jahresbencht, li. (1889). (R. C. J.)

DEMOTIC (Gr. STIHOTIKOS, of or belonging to the people), a
term, meaning popular, specially applied to that cursive script
of the ancient Egyptian language used for business and literary
purposes, — for the people. It is opposed to " hieratic " (Gr.
iepanKos, of or belonging to the priests), the script, an abridged
form of the hieroglyphic, used in transcribing the religious texts.
(See WRITING, and EGYPT: II., Andent,D. Langttageand Writing.)

DEMOTICA, or DIMOTICA, a town of European Turkey, in the
vilayet of Adrianople; on the Maritza valley branch of the
Constantinople-Salonica railway, about 35 m. S. of Adrianople.
Pop. (1905) about 10,000. Demotica is built at the foot of a
conical hill on the left bank of the river Kizildeli, near its junction
with the Maritza. It was formerly the seat of a Greek arch-
bishop, and besides the ancient citadel and palace on the summit
of the hill contains several Greek churches, mosques and public
baths. In the middle ages, when it was named Didymotichos,
it was one of the principal marts of Thrace; in modern times
it has regained something of its commercial importance, and
exports pottery, linen, silk and grain. These goods are sent
to Deddagatch for shipment. Demotica was the birthplace of the

1 See also H. Usener in Nachrichten von der Konigl. Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Gottingen, p. 188 (1892) ; J. H. Lipsius, " Zur Text-
critik des Demosthenes " in Berichte . . . der Konigl. Sachsischen
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften (1893) with special reference to the
papyrus finds at the end of the 19th century; E. Bethe, Demosthenis
scriptorum corpus (1893).

Turkish sultan Bayezid I. (1347); after the battle of Poltava,
Charles XII. of Sweden resided here from February 1713 to
October 1714.

DEMPSTER, THOMAS (1570-1625), Scottish scholar and
historian, was born at Cliftbog, Aberdeenshire, the son of
Thomas Dempster of Muresk, Auchterless and Killesmont,
sheriff of Banff and Buchan. According to his own account,
he was the twenty -fourth of twenty-nine children, and was early
remarkable for precocious talent. He obtained his early educa-
tion in Aberdeenshire, and at ten entered Pembroke Hall,
Cambridge; after a short while he went to Paris, and, driven
thence by the plague, to Louvain, whence by order of the pope
he was transferred with several other Scottish students to the
papal seminary at Rome. Being soon forced by ill health to
leave, he went to the English college at Douai, where he remained
three years and took his M.A. degree. While at Douai he wrote
a scurrilous attack on Queen Elizabeth, which caused a riot
among the English students. But, if his truculent character
was thus early displayed, his abilities were no less conspicuous;
and, though still in his teens, he became lecturer on the
Humanities at Tournai, whence, after but a short stay, he returned
to Paris, to take his degree of doctor of canon law, and become
regent of the college of Navarre. He soon left Paris for Toulouse,
which in turn he was forced to leave owing to the hostility of the
city authorities, aroused by his violent assertion of university
rights. He was now elected professor of eloquence at the
university or academy of Nimes, but not without a murderous
attack upon him by one of the defeated candidates and his
supporters, followed by a suit for libel, which, though he ulti-
mately won his case, forced him to leave the town. A short
engagement in Spain, as tutor to the son of Marshal de Saint Luc,
was terminated by another quarrel; and Dempster now returned
to Scotland with the intention of asserting a claim to bis father's
estates. Finding his relatives unsympathetic, and falling into
heated controversy with the Presbyterian clergy, he made no
long stay, but returned to Paris, where he remained for seven
years, becoming professor in several colleges successively. At
last, however, his temporary connexion with the college de
Beauvais was ended by a feat of arms which proved him as stout
a fighter with his sword as with his pen; and, since his victory
was won over officers of the king's guard, it again became
expedient for him to change his place of residence. The dedica-
tion of his edition of Rosinus' Antiquitatum Romanorum corpus
absolutissimum to King James I. had won him an invitation
to the English court; and in 1615 he went to London. His
reception by the king was flattering enough; but his hopes of
preferment were dashed by the opposition of the Anglican clergy
to the promotion of a papist. He left for Rome, where, after a
short imprisonment on suspicion of being a spy, he gained the
favour of Pope Paul V., through whose influence with Cosimo II.,
grand duke of Tuscany, he was appointed to the professorship of
the Pandects at Pisa. He had married while in London, but ere
long had reason to suspect his wife's relations with a certain
Englishman. Violent accusations followed, indignantly repudi-
ated; a diplomatic correspondence ensued, and a demand was
made, and supported by the grand duke, for an apology, which
the professor refused to make, preferring rather to lose his chair.
He now set out once more for Scotland, but was intercepted by
the Florentine cardinal Luigi Capponi, who induced him to
remain at Bologna as professor of Humanity. This was the most
distinguished post in the most famous of continental universities,
and Dempster was now at the height of his fame. Though his
Roman Antiquities and Scotia illustrior had been placed on the
Index pending correction, Pope Urban VIII. made him a knight
and gave him a pension. He was not, however, to enjoy his
honours long. His wife eloped with a student, and Dempster,
pursuing the fugitives in the heat of summer, caught a fever, and
died at Bologna on the 6th of September 1625.

Dempster owed his great position in the history of scholarship
to his extraordinary memory, and to the versatility which made
him equally at home in philology, criticism, law, biography and
history. His style is, however, often barbarous; and the obvious

DEMURRAGE— DENBIGH

defects of his works are due to his restlessness and impetuosity
and to a patriotic and personal vanity which led him in Scottish
questions into absurd exaggerations, and in matters affecting
his own life into an incurable habit of romancing. The besl
known of his works is the Hisloria ecclesiastica gentis Scotorum
(Bologna, 1627). In this book he tries to prove that Bernard
(Sapiens), Alcuin, Boniface and Joannes Scotus Erigena were
all Scots, and even Boadicea becomes a Scottish author. This
criticism is not applicable to his works on antiquarian subjects,
and his edition of Benedetto Accolti's De bello a Christianis
contra barbaros (1623) has great merits.

A portion of his Latin verse is printed in the first volume (pp. 306-
354) of Delitiae poetarum Scotorum (Amsterdam, 1637).

DEMURRAGE (from "demur," Fr. demeurer, to delay,
derived from Lat. mora), in the law of merchant shipping, the
sum payable by the freighter to the shipowner for detention of
the vessel in port beyond the number of days allowed for the
purpose of loading or unloading (see AFFREIGHTMENT: under
Charter-parties). The word is also used in railway law for the
charge on detention of trucks; and in banking for the charge
per ounce made by the Bank of England in exchanging coin
or notes for bullion.

DEMURRER (from Fr. demeurer, to delay, Lat. morari), in
English law, an objection taken to the sufficiency, in point of
law, of the pleading or written statement of the other side. In
equity pleading a demurrer lay only against the bill, and not
against the answer; at common law any part of the pleading
could be demurred to. On the passing of the Judicature Act
of 1875 the procedure with respect to demurrers in civil cases
was amended, and, subsequently, by the Rules of the Supreme
Court, Order XXV. demurrers were abolished and a more
summary process for getting rid of pleadings which showed
no reasonable cause of action or defence was adopted, called
proceedings in lieu of demurrer. Demurrer in criminal cases
still exists, but is now seldom resorted to. Demurrers are still
in constant use in the United States. See ANSWER; PLEADING.
DENAIN, a town of northern France in the department of
Nord, 8 m. S.W. of Valenciennes by steam tramway. A mere
village in the beginning of the igth century, it rapidly increased
from 1850 onwards, and, according to the censusof 1906, possessed
22,845 inhabitants, mainly engaged in the coal mines and iron-
smelting works, to which it owes its development. There are
also breweries, manufactories of machinery, sugar and glass.
A school of commerce and industry is among the institutions.
Denain has a port on the left bank of the Scheldt canal. Its
vicinity was the scene of the decisive victory gained in 1712 by
Marshal Villars over the allies commanded by Prince Eugene;
and the battlefield is marked by a monolithic monument
inscribed with the verses of Voltaire: —

" Regardez dans Denain I'audacieux Villars

Disputant le tonnerre a 1'aigle des Cesars."
DENBIGH, WILLIAM FEILDING, IST EARL OF (d. 1643), son
of Basil Feilding1 of Newnham Paddox in Warwickshire, and
of Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Walter Aston, was educated
at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and knighted in 1603. He
married Susan, daughter of Sir George Villiers, sister of the
future duke of Buckingham, and on the rise of the favourite
received various offices and dignities. He was appointed custos
rotulorum of Warwickshire, and master of the great wardrobe
in 1622, and created baron and viscount Feilding in 1620, and
earl of Denbigh on the I4th of September 1622. He attended
Prince Charles on the Spanish adventure, served as admiral in
the unsuccessful expedition to Cadiz in 1625, and commanded the
disastrous attempt upon Rochelle in 1628, becoming the same
year a member of the council of war, and in 1633 a member of the
council of Wales. In 1631 Lord Denbigh visited the East. On
the outbreak of the Civil War he served under Prince Rupert

1 Th£ descent of the Feildings from the house of Habsburg, through
the counts of Laufenburg and Rheinfelden, long considered authentic,
and immortalized by Gibbon, has been proved to have been based on
forged documents. See J. H. Round, Peerage and Family History

and was present at Edgehill. On the 3rd of April 1643 during
Rupert's attack on Birmingham he was wounded and died from
the effects on the 8th, being buried at Monks Kirby in Warwick-
shire. His courage, unselfishness and devotion to duty are much
praised by Clarendon.

See E. Lodge, Portraits (1850), iv. 113; J. Nichols, Hist of
Leicestershire (1807), iv. pt. I, 273; Hist. MSS. Comm Ser. 4th Rep.
app. 254 ; Cat. of State Papers, Dom. ; Studies in Peerage and Family
History, by J. H. Round (1901), 216.

His eldest son, BASIL FEILDING, 2nd earl of Denbigh (c. i6o8->
1675), was educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. He was
summoned to the House of Lords as Baron Feilding in March
1629. After seeing military service in the Netherlands he was
sent in 1634 by Charles I. as ambassador to Venice, where he
remained for five years. When the Civil War broke out Feilding,
unlike the other members of his family, ranged himself among
the Parliamentarians, led a regiment of horse at Edgehill, and,
having become earl of Denbigh in April 1643, was made com-
mander-in-chief of the Parliamentary army in Warwickshire and
the neighbouring counties, and lord-lieutenant of Warwickshire.
During the year 1644 he was fairly active in the field, but in some
quarters he was distrusted and he resigned his command after
the passing of the self-denying ordinance in April 1645. At
Uxbridge in 1645 Denbigh was one of the commissioners appointed
to treat with the king, and he undertook a similar duty at
Carisbrooke in 1647. Clarendon relates how at Uxbridge
Denbigh declared privately that he regretted the position in
which he found himself, and expressed his willingness to serve
Charles I. He supported the army in its dispute with the
parliament, but he would take no part in the trial of Charles I.
Under the government of the commonwealth Denbigh was a
member of the council of state, but his loyalty to his former
associates grew lukewarm, and gradually he came to be regarded
as a royalist. In 1664 the earl was created Baron St Liz.
Although four times married he left no issue when he died on the
28th of November 1675.

His titles devolved on his nephew WILLIAM FEILDING (1640-
1685), son and heir of his brother George (created Baron Feilding
of Lecaghe, Viscount Callan and earl of Desmond), and the
earldom of Desmond has been held by his descendants to the
present day in conjunction with the earldom of Denbigh.

DENBIGH (Dinbych), a municipal and (with Holt, Ruthin
and Wrexham) contributory parliamentary borough, market
town and county town of Denbighshire, N. Wales, on branches
of the London & North Western and the Great Western railways.
Pop. (1901) 6438. Denbigh Castle, surrounding the hill with a
double wall, was built, in Edward I.'s reign, by Henry de Lacy,
earl of Lincoln, from whom the town received its first charter.
The outer wall is nearly a mile round; over its main gateway is a
niche with a figure representing, possibly, Edward I., but more
probably, de Lacy. Here, in 1645, after the defeat of Rowton
Moor, Charles I. found shelter, the castle long resisting the
Parliamentarians, and being reduced to ruins by his successor.
The chief buildings are the Carmelite Priory (ruins dating
Derhaps from the i3th century); a Bluecoat school (1514); a
:ree grammar school (1527); an orphan girl school (funds left by
Thomas Howel to the Drapers' Co., in Henry VII. 's reign);
the town hall (built in 1572 by Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester,
enlarged and restored in 1780); an unfinished church (begun
Leicester); a market hall (with arcades or "rows," such as
:hose of Chester or Yarmouth); and the old parish church of
St Marcella. The streams near Denbigh are the Clwyd and
Elwy. The inhabitants of Denbigh are chiefly occupied in
he timber trade, butter-making, poultry-farming, bootmaking,
:anning and quarrying (lime, slate and paving-stones). The
jorough of Denbigh has a separate commission of the peace, but
no separate court of quarter sessions. The town has long been
known as a Welsh publishing centre, the vernacular newspaper,
Barter, being edited and printed here. Near Denbigh, at
Jodelwyddan, &c., coal is worked.

The old British tower and castle were called Castell caled
'ryn yn Rhds, the " castle of the hard hill in Rh6s." Din in

i8

DENBIGHSHIRE— DENDERA

Dinbych means a fort. There is a goblin well at the castle.
Historically, David (Dafydd), brother of the last Llewelyn, was
here (act. Edward I.) perhaps on a foray; also Henry Lacy, who
built the castle (aet. Edward I.), given to the Mortimers and to
Leicester (under Edward III. and Elizabeth, respectively).

DENBiaHSHIRE (Dinbych), a county of N. Wales, bounded
N. by the Irish Sea, N.E. by Flint and Cheshire, S.E. by Flint
and Shropshire, S. by Montgomery and Merioneth, and W. by
Carnarvon. Area, 662 sq. m. On the N. coast, within the
Denbighshire borders and between Old Colwyn and Llandulas,
is a wedge of land included in Carnarvonshire, owing to a change
in the course of the Conwy stream. (Thus, also, Llandudno is
partly in the Bangor, and partly in the St Asaph, diocese.) The
surface of Denbighshire is irregular, and physically diversified.
In the N.W. are the bleak Hiraethog (" longing ") hills, sloping W.
to the Conwy and E. to the Clwyd. In the N. are Colwyn and
Abergele bays, on the S. the Yspytty (Lat. Hospitium) and
Llangwm range, between Denbigh and Merioneth. From this
watershed flow the Elwy, Aled, Clywedog, Merddwr and Alwen,
tributaries of the Clwyd, Conwy and Dee (Dyfrdwy). Some of
the valleys contrast agreeably with the bleak hills, e.g. those
of the Clwyd and Elwy. The portion lying between Ruabon
(Rhiwabon) hills and the Dee is agricultural and rich in minerals;
the Berwyn to Offa's Dyke (Wdl Of a) is wild and barren,
except the Tanat valley, Llansilin and Ceiriog. One feeder of
the Tanat forms the Pistyll Rhaiadr (waterspout fall), another
rises in Llyncaws (cheese pool) under Moel Sych (dry bare-hill),
the highest point in the county. Aled and Alwen are both lakes
and streams.

Geology. — The geology of the county is full of interest, as it
develops all the principal strata that intervenes between the
Ordovician and the Triassic series. In the Ordovician district, which
extends from the southern boundary to the Ceiriog, the Llandeilo
formation of the eastern slopes of the Berwyn and the Bala beds of
shelly sandstone are traversed east and west by bands of intrusive
felspathic porphyry and ashes. The same formation occurs just
within the county border at Cerrig-y-Druidion, Langum, Bettys-y-
coed and in the Fairy Glen. Northwards from the Ceiriog to the
limestone fringe at Llandrillo the Wenlock shale of the Silurian
covers the entire mass of the Hiraethog and Clwydian hills, but
verging on its western slopes into the Denbighshire grit, which may
be traced southward in a continuous line from the mouth of the
Conway as far as Llanddewi Ystrad Enni in Radnorshire, near
Pentre-Voelas and Conway they are abundantly fossiliferous. On its
eastern slope a narrow broken band of the Old Red, or what may be
a conglomeratic basement bed of the Carboniferous Limestone series,
crops up along the Vale of Clwyd and in Eglwyseg. Resting upon this
the Carboniferous Limestone extends from Llanymynach, its extreme
southern point, to the Cyrnybrain fault, and there forks into two
divisions that terminate respectively in the Great Orme's Head and
in Talargoch, and are separated from each other by the denuded
shales of the Moel Famma range. In the Vale of Clwyd the jimestone
underlies the New Red Sandstone, and in the eastern division it is
itself overlaid by the Millstone Grit of Ruabon and Minera, and by
a long reach of the Coal Measures which near Wrexham are 4j m.
in breadth. Eastward of these a broad strip of the red marly beds
succeeds, formerly considered to be Permian but now regarded as
belonging to the Coal Measures, and yet again between this and the
Dee the ground is occupied — as in the Vale of Clwyd — by the New
Red rocks. As in the other northern counties of Wales, the whole
of the lower ground is covered more or less thickly with glacial drift.
On the western side of the Vale of Clwyd, at Cefn and Plas Heaton,
the caves, which are a common feature in such limestone districts,
have yielded the remains of the rhinoceros, mammoth, hippopotamus
and other extinct mammals.

Coal is mined from the Coal Measures, and from the limestone
below, lead with silver and zinc ores have been obtained. Valuable
fireclays and terra-cotta marls are also taken from the Coal Measures
about Wrexham.

The uplands being uncongenial for corn, ponies, sheep and
black cattle are reared, for fattening in the Midlands of England
and sale in London. Oats and turnips, rather than wheat,
barley and potatoes, occupy the tilled land. The county is
fairly wooded. There are several important farmers' clubs (the
Denbighshire and Flintshire, the vale of Conway, the Cerrig y
druidion, &c.). The London & North- Western railway (Holyhead
line), with the Conway and Clwyd valleys branches, together
with the lines connecting Denbigh with Ruabon (Rhiwabon),
via Ruthin and Corwen, Wrexham with Connah's Quay (Great

Central) and Rhosllanerchrhugog with Glyn Ceiriog (for the Great
Western and Great Central railways) have opened up the county.
Down the valley of Llangollen also runs the Holyhead road from
London, well built and passing thro ugh fine scenery. At Nantglyn
paving flags are raised, at Rhiwfelen (near Llangollen) slabs and
slates, and good slates are also obtained at Glyn Ceiriog. There
is plenty of limestone, with china stone at Brymbo. Cefn
Rhiwabon yields sandstone (for hones) and millstone grit.
Chirk, Ruabon and Brymbo have coal mines. The great Minera
is the principal lead mine. There is much brick and pottery clay.
The Ceiriog valley has a dynamite factory. Llangollen and
Llansantffraid (St Bridgit's) have woollen manufactures.

The area of the ancient county is 423,499 acres, with a popula-
tion in 1901 of 129,942. The area of the administrative county
is 426,084 acres. The chief towns are: Wrexham, a mining
centre and N. Wales . military centre, with a fine church;
Denbigh; Ruthin, where assizes are held (here are a grammar
school, a warden and a 13th-century castle rebuilt); Llangollen
and Llanrwst; and Holt, with an old ruined castle. The
Denbigh district of parliamentary boroughs is formed of:
Denbigh (pop. 6483), Holt (1059), Ruthin (2643), and Wrexham
(14,966). The county has two parliamentary divisions. The
urban districts are: Abergele and Pensarn (2083), Colwyn Bay
and Colwyn (8689), Llangollen (3303), and Llanrwst (2645).
Denbighshire is in the N. Wales circuit, assizes being held
at Ruthin. Denbigh and Wrexham boroughs have separate
commissions of the peace, but no separate quarter-session courts.
The ancient county, which is in the diocese of St Asaph, contains
seventy-five ecclesiastical parishes and districts and part of a
parish.

The county was formed, by an act of Henry VIII., out of the
lordships of Denbigh, Ruthin (Rhuthyn), Rhos and Rhyfoniog,
which are roughly the Perfeddwlad (midland) between Conway
and Clwyd, and the lordships of Bromfield, Yale (Idl, open land)
and Chirkland, the old possessions of Gruffydd ap Madoc,
arglwydd (lord) of Dinas Bran. Cefn (Elwy Valley) limestone
caves hold the prehistoric hippopotamus, elephant, rhinoceros,
lion, hyena, bear, reindeer, &c.; Plas Heaton cave, the glutton;
Pont Newydd, felstone tools and a polished stone axe (like that
of Rhosdigre) ; Carnedd Tyddyn Bleiddian, " platycnemic
(skeleton) men of Denbighshire " (like those of Perthi Chwareu).
Clawdd Coch has traces of the Romans; so also Penygaer
and Penbarras. Roman roads ran from Deva (Chester; to
Segontium (Carnarvon) and from Deva to Mons Henri (Tomen
y mur). To their period belong the inscribed Gwytherin and
Pentrefoelas (near Bettws-y-coed) stones. The Valle Crucis
" Eliseg's pillar " tells of Brochmael and tKe Cairlegion (Chester)
struggle against ^Ethelfrith's invading Northumbrians, A.D. 613,
while Offa's dike goes back to the Mercian advance. Near
and parallel to Offa's is the shorter and mysterious Watt's
dike. Chirk is the only Denbighshire castle comparatively
untouched by time and still occupied. Ruthin has cloisters;
Wrexham, the Brynffynnon " nunnery "; and at both are
collegiate churches. Llanrwst, Gresford and Derwen boast
rood lofts and screens; Whitchurch and Llanrwst, portrait
brasses and monuments; Derwen, a churchyard cross; Gresford
and Llanrhaiadr (Dyffryn Clwyd) , stained glass. Near Abergele,
known for its sea baths, is the ogof (or cave), traditionally the
refuge of Richard II. and the scene of his capture by Bolingbroke
in 1399.

See J. Williams, Denbigh (1856), and T. F. Tout, Welsh Shires.

DENDERA, a village in Upper Egypt, situated in the angle
of the great westward bend of the Nile opposite Kena. Here
was the ancient city of Tentyra, capital of the Tentyrite nome, the
sixth of Upper Egypt, and the principal seat of the worship of
Hathor [Aphrodite] the cow-goddess of love and joy. The old
Egyptian name of Tentyra was written Tn-t (Ant), but the pro-
nunciation of it is unknown: in later days it was 'In-t-t-ntr-t,
" ant of the goddess," pronounced Ni-tent6ri, whence Ttvrvpa,
Tevrupis. The temple of Hathor was built in the ist century B.C.,
being begun under the later Ptolemies (Ptol. XIII.) and finished
by Augustus, but much of the decoration is later. A great

DENDROCOMETES— DENE-HOLES

rectangular enclosure of crude bricks, measuring about 900 X 850
ft., contains the sacred buildings: it was entered by two stone
gateways, in the north and the east sides, built by Domitian.
Another smaller enclosure lies to the east with a gateway also
of the Roman period.

The plan of the temple may be supposed to have included a
colonnaded court in front of the present facade, and pylon towers
at the entrance; but these were never built, probably for lack
of funds. The building, which is of sandstone, measures about
300 ft. from front to back, and consists of two oblong rectangles;
the foremost, placed transversely to the other, is the great
hypostyle hall or pronaos, the broadest and loftiest part of the
temple, measuring 135 ft. in width, and comprising about one-
third of the whole structure; the facade has six columns with
heads of Hathor, and the ceiling is supported by eighteen great
columns. The second rectangle contains a small hypostyle hall
with six columns, and the sanctuary, with their subsidiary
chambers. The sanctuary is surrounded by a corridor into which
the chambers open: on the west side is an apartment forming a
court and kiosk for the celebration of the feast of the New
Year, the principal festival of Dendera. On the roof of the
temple, reached by two staircases, are a pavilion and several
chambers dedicated to the worship of Osiris. Inside and out,
the whole of the temple is covered with scenes and inscriptions
in crowded characters, of ceremonial and religious import; the
decoration is even carried into a remarkable series of hidden
passages and chambers or crypts made in the solid walls for the
reception of its most valuable treasures. The architectural style
is dignified and pleasing in design and proportions. The interior
of the building has been completely cleared: from the outside,
however, its imposing effect is quite lost, owing to the mounds
of rubbish amongst which it is sunk. North-east of the entrance
is a " Birth House " for the cult of the child Harsemteu, and
behind the temple a small temple of Isis, dating from the reign
of Augustus. The original foundation of the temple must date
back to a remote time: the work of some of the early builders
is in fact referred to in the inscriptions on the present structure.
Petrie's excavation of the cemetery behind the temple enclosures
revealed burials dating from the fourth dynasty onwards, the
most important being mastables of the period from the sixth
to the eleventh dynasties; many of these exhibited a peculiar
degradation of the contemporary style of sculpture.

The zodiacs of the temple of Dendera gave rise to a consider-
able literature before their late origin was established by
Champollion in 1822: one of them, from a chamber on the roof,
was removed in 1820 to the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris.
Figures of the celebrated Cleopatra VI. occur amongst the
sculptures on the exterior of the temple, but they are purely
conventional, without a trace of portraiture. Horus of Edfu,
the enemy of the crocodiles and hippopotami of Set, appears
sometimes as the consort of Hathor of Dendera. The skill
displayed by the Tentyrites in capturing the crocodile is referred
to by Strabo and other Greek writers. Juvenal, in his seventeenth
satire, takes as his text a religious riot between the Tentyrites
and the neighbouring Ombites, in the course of which an unlucky
Ombite was torn to pieces and devoured by the opposite party.
The Ombos in question is not the distant Ombos south of Edfu,
where the crocodile was worshipped; Petrie has shown that
opposite Coptos, only about 15 m. from Tentyra, there was
another Ombos, venerating the hippopotamus sacred to Set.

See A. Mariette, Denderah (5 vols. atlas and text, 1869-1880);
W. M. F. Petrie, Denderah (1900) ; Nagada and Dallas (1896).

(F. LL. G.)

DENDROCOMETES (so named by F. Stein), a genus of
suctorian Infusoria, characterized by the repeatedly branched
attached body; each of the lobes of the body gives off a few
retractile tentacles. It is parasitic on the gills of the so-called
freshwater shrimp Gammarus pulex.

For its conjugation see Sydney H. HicksOn, in Quarterly Journ. of
Microsc. Science, vol xlv. (1902), p. 325.

DENE-HOLES, the name given to certain caves or excavations
in England, which have been popularly supposed to be due to the

Danes or some other of the early northern invaders of the country.
The common spelling " Dane hole " is adduced as evidence of
this, and individual names, such as Vortigern's Caves at Margate,
and Canute's Gold Mine near Bexley, naturally follow the same
theory. The word, however, is probably derived from the Anglo-
Saxon den, a hole or valley. There are many underground
excavations in the south of the country, also found to some extent
in the midlands and the north, but true dene-holes are found
chiefly in those parts of Kent and Essex along the lower banks
of the Thames. With one exception there are no recorded
specimens farther east than those of the Grays Thurrock district,
situated in Hangman's Wood, on the north, and one near
Rochester on the south side of the river.

The general outline of the formation of these caves is invariably
the same. The entrance is a vertical shaft some 3 ft. in diameter
falling, on an average, to a depth of 60 ft. The depth is regulated,
obviously, by the depth of the chalk from the surface, but,
although chalk could have been obtained close at hand within
a few feet, or even inches, from the surface, a depth of from
45 to 80 ft., or more, is a characteristic feature. It is believed
that dene-holes were also excavated in sand, but as these would
be of a perishable nature there are no available data of any
value. The shaft, when the chalk is reached, widens out into a
domed chamber with a roof of chalk some 3 ft. thick. The walls
frequently contract somewhat as they near the floor. As a rule
there is only one chamber, from 16 to 18 ft. in height, beneath
each shaft. From this excessive height it has been inferred that
the caves were not primarily intended for habitations or even
hiding-places. In some cases the chamber is extended, the roof
being supported by pillars of chalk left standing. A rare specimen
of a twin-chamber was discovered at Gravesend. In this case
the one entrance served for both caves, although a separate
aperture connected them on the floor level. Where galleries
are found connecting the chambers, forming a bewildering
labyrinth, a careful scrutiny of the walls usually reveals evidence
that they are the work of a people of a much later period than
that of the chambers, or, as they become in these cases, the
halls of the galleries.

Isolated specimens have been discovered in various parts of
Kent and Essex, but the most important groups have been found
at Grays Thurrock, in the districts of Woolwich, Abbey V/ood
and Bexley, and at Gravesend. Those at Bexley and Grays
Thurrock are the most valuable still existing.

It is generally found that the tool work on the root or ceiling
is rougher than that on the walls, where an upright position
could be maintained. Casts taken of some of the pick-holes
near the roof show that, in all probability, they were made
by bone or horn picks. And numerous bone picks have been
discovered in Essex and Kent. These pick-holes are amongst
the most valuable data for the study of dene-holes, and have
assisted in fixing the date of their formation to pre-Roman
times. Very few relics of antiquarian value have been discovered
in any of the known dene-holes which have assisted in fixing the
date or determining the uses of these prehistoric excavations.
Pliny mentions pits sunk to a depth of a hundred feet, " where
they branched out like the veins of mines." This has been used
in support of the theory that dene-holes were wells sunk for the
extraction of chalk; but no known dene-hole branches out in this
way. Chretien de Troyes has a passage on underground caves in
Britain which may have reference to dene-holes, and tradition of
the I4th century treated the dene-holes of Grays as the fabled
gold mines of Cunobeline (or Cymbeline) of the ist century.

Vortigern's Caves at Margate are possibly dene-holes which
have been adapted by later peoples to other purposes; and
excellent examples of various pick-holes may be seen on different
parts of the walls.

Local tradition in some cases traces the use of these caves to
the smugglers, and, when it is remembered that illicit traffic was
common not only on the coast but in the Thames as far up the
river as Barking Creek, the theory is at least tenable that these
ready-made hiding-places, difficult of approach and dangerous
to descend, were so utilized.

20

DENGUE— DENHAM

There are three purposes for which dene-holes may have been
originally excavated: (a) as hiding-places or dwellings, (b) draw-
wells for the extraction of chalk for agricultural uses, and (c) store-
houses for grain . For several reasons it is unlikely that they were
used as habitations, although they may have been used occasion-
ally as hiding-places. Other evidence has shown that it is
equally improbable that they were used for the extraction of
chalk. The chief reasons against this theory are that chalk
could have been obtained outcropping close by, and that every
trace of loose chalk has been removed from the vicinity of the
holes, while known examples of chalk draw-wells do not descend
to so great a depth. The discovery of a shallow dene-hole, about
14 ft. below the surface, at Stone negatives this theory still
further. The last of the three possible uses for which these
prehistoric excavations were designed is usually accepted as
the most probable. Silos, or underground storehouses, are well
known in the south of Europe and Morocco. It is supposed that
the grain was stored in the ear and carefully protected from
damp by straw. A curious smoothness of the roof of one of the
chambers of the Gravesend twin-chamber dene-hole has been put
forward as additional evidence in support of this theory. One
other theory has been advanced, viz. that the excavations were
made in order to get flints for implements, but this is quite
impossible, as a careful examination of a few examples will show.

Further reference may be made to Essex Dene-holes by T. V. Holmes
and W. Cole; fo The Archaeological Journal (1882); the Transac-
tions of the Essex Field Club; Archaeologia Cantiana, &c.; Dene-
holes by F. W. Reader, in Old Essex, ed. A. C. Kelway (1908).

(A.J.P.)

DENGUE (pronounced deng-ga), an infectious fever occurring
in warm climates. The symptoms are a sudden attack of fever,
accompanied by rheumatic pains in the joints and muscles with
severe headache and erythema. After a few days a crisis is
reached and an interval of two or three days is followed by a
slighter return of fever and pain and an eruption resembling
measles, the most marked characteristic of the disease. The
disease is rarely fatal, death occurring only in cases of extreme
weakness caused by old age, infancy or other illness. Little is
known of the aetiology of " dengue." The virus is probably
similar to that of other exanthematous fevers and communicated
by an intermediary culex. The disease is nearly always epidemic,
though at intervals it appears to be pandemic and in certain
districts almost endemic. The area over which the disease ranges
may be stated generally to be between 32° 47' N. and 23° 23' S.
Throughout this area " dengue " is constantly epidemic. The
earliest epidemic of which anything is known occurred in 1779-
1780 in Egypt and the East Indies. The chief epidemics have
been those of 1824-1826 in India, and in the West Indies and
the southern states of North America, of 1870-1875, extending
practically over the whole of the tropical portions of the East and
reaching as far as China. In 1888 and 1889 a great outbreak
spread along the shores of the Aegean and over nearly the whole
of Asia Minor. Perhaps " dengue " is most nearly endemic in
equatorial East Africa and in the West Indies. The word has
usually been identified with the Spanish dengue, meaning stiff or
prim behaviour, and adopted in the West Indies as a name suit-
able to the curious cramped movements of a sufferer from the
disease, similar to the name " dandy-fever " which was given to
it by the negroes. According to the New English Dictionary
(quoting Dr Christie in The Glasgow Medical Journal, September
1881), both " dengue " and " dandy " are corruptions of the
Swahili word dinga or denga, meaning a sudden attack of cramp,
the Swahili name for the disease being ka-dinga pepo.

See Sir Patrick Manson, Tropical Diseases; a Manual of Diseases
of Warm Climates (1903).

DENHAM, DIXON (1786-1828), English traveller in West
Central Africa, was born in London on the ist of January 1786.
He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School, and was articled
to a solicitor, but joined the army in 1811. First in the 23rd
Royal Welsh Fusiliers, and afterwards in the 54th foot, he served
in the campaigns in Portugal, Spain, France and Belgium, and
received the Waterloo medal. In 1821 he volunteered to join
Dr Oudney and Hugh Clapperton (?.».), who had been sent by the

British government via Tripoli to the central Sudan. He joined
the expedition at Murzuk in Fezzan. Finding the promised
escort not forthcoming, Denham, whose energy was boundless,
started for England to complain of the " duplicity " of the pasha
of Tripoli. The pasha, alarmed, sent messengers after him with
promises to meet his demands. Denham, who had reached
Marseilles, consented to return, the escort was forthcoming, and
Murzuk was regained in November 1822. Thence the expedition
made its way across the Sahara to Bornu, reached in February
1823. Here Denham, against the wish of Oudney and Clapperton,
accompanied a slave-raiding expedition into the Mandara high-
lands south of Bornu. The raiders were defeated, and Denham
barely escaped with his life. When Oudney and Clapperton set
out, December 1823, for the Hausa states, Denham remained
behind. He explored the western, south and south-eastern
shores of Lake Chad, and the lower courses of the rivers Waube,
Logone and Shari. In August 1824, Clapperton having returned
and Oudney being dead, Bornu was left on the return journey
to Tripoli and England. In December 1826 Denham, promoted
lieutenant-colonel, sailed for Sierra Leone as superintendent of
liberated Africans. In 1828 he was appointed governor of Sierra
Leone, but after administering the colony for five weeks died of
fever at Freetown on the 8th of May 1828.

See Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central
Africa in the years 1822-1824 (London, 1826), the greater part of
which is written by Denham ; The Story of Africa, vol. i. chap. xiii.
(London, 1892), by Dr Robert Brown.

DENHAM, SIR JOHN (1615-1669), English poet, only son of
Sir John Denham (1550-1639), lord chief baron of the exchequer
in Ireland, was born in Dublin in 1615. In 1617 his father
became baron of the exchequer in England, and removed to
London with his family. In Michaelmas term 1631 the future
poet was entered as a gentleman commoner at Trinity College,
Oxford. He removed in 1634 to Lincoln's Inn, where he was, says
John Aubrey, a good student, but not suspected of being a wit.
The reputation he had gained at Oxford of being the " dream-
ingest young fellow " gave way to a scandalous reputation for
gambling. In 1634 he married Ann Cotton, and seems to have
lived with his father at Egham, Surrey. In 1636 he wrote his
paraphrase of the second book of the Aeneid (published in 1656
as The Destruction of Troy, with an excellent verse essay on the
art of translation). About the same time he wrote a prose tract
against gambling, The Anatomy of Play (printed 1651), designed
to assure his father of his repentance, but as soon as he came into
his fortune he squandered it at play. It was a surprise to every-
one when in 1642 he suddenly, as Edmund Waller said, " broke
out like the Irish rebellion, three score thousand strong, when no
one was aware, nor in the least expected it," by publishing The
Sophy, a tragedy in five acts, the subject of which was drawn
from Sir Thomas Herbert's travels. At the beginning of the Civil
War Denham was high sheriff for Surrey, and was appointed
governor of Farnham Castle. He showed no military ability, and
speedily surrendered the castle to the parliament. He was sent
as a prisoner to London, but was soon permitted to join the king
at Oxford.

In 1642 appeared Cooper's Hill, a poem describing the Thames
scenery round his home at Egham. The first edition was
anonymous: subsequent editions show numerous alterations,
and the poem did not assume its final form until 1655. This
famous piece, which was Pope's model for his Windsor Forest, was
not new in theme or manner, but the praise which it received was
well merited by its ease and grace. Moreover Denham expressed
his commonplaces with great dignity and skill. He followed the
taste of the time in his frequent use of antithesis and metaphor,
but these devices seem to arise out of the matter, and are not
of the nature of mere external ornament. At Oxford he wrote
many squibs against the roundheads. One of the few serious
pieces belonging to this period is the short poem " On the Earl
of Stafford's Trial and Death."

From this time Denham was much in Charles I.'s confidence.
He was entrusted with the charge of forwarding letters to and
from the king when he was in the custody of the parliament, a

DENIA— DENIS, SAINT

21

duty which he discharged successfully with Abraham Cowley, but
in 1648 he was suspected by the Parliamentary authorities, and
thought it wiser to cross the Channel. He helped in the removal
of the young duke of York to Holland, and for some time he
served Queen Henrietta Maria in Paris, being entrusted by her
with despatches for Holland. In 1650 he was sent to Poland in
company with Lord Crofts to obtain money for Charles II. They
succeeded in raising £10,000. After two years spent at the exiled
court in Holland, Denham returned to London and being quite
without resources, he was for some time the guest of the earl of
Pembroke at Wilton. In 1655 an order was given that Denham
should restrict himself to some place of residence to be selected
by himself at a distance of not less than 20 m. from London;
subsequently he obtained from the Protector a licence to live at
Bury St Edmunds, and in 1658 a passport to travel abroad with
the earl of Pembroke. At the Restoration Denham's services
were rewarded by the office of surveyor-general of works. His
qualifications as an architect were probably slight, but it is safe
to regard as grossly exaggerated the accusations of incompetence
and peculation made by Samuel Butler in his brutal " Panegyric
upon Sir John Denham's Recovery from his Madness." He
eventually secured the services of Christopher Wren as deputy-
surveyor. In 1660 he was also made a knight of the Bath>

In 1665 he married for the second time. His wife, Margaret,
daughter of Sir William Brooke, was, according to the comte de
Gramont, a beautiful girl of eighteen. She soon became known
as the mistress of the duke of York, and the scandal, according
to common report, shattered the poet's reason. While Denham
was recovering, his wife died, poisoned, it was said, by a cup of
chocolate. Some suspected the duchess of York of the crime,
but the Comte de Gramont says that the general opinion was
that Denham himself was guilty. No sign of poison, however,
was found in the examination after Lady Denham's death.
Denham survived her for two years, dying at his house near
Whitehall in March 1669. He was buried on the 23rd in West-
minster Abbey. In the last years of his life he wrote the bitter
political satires on the shameful conduct of the Dutch War entitled
" Directions to a Painter," and " Fresh Directions," continuing
Edmund Waller's " Instructions to a Painter." The printer of
these poems, with which were printed one by Andrew Marvell,
was sentenced to stand in the pillory. In 1667 Denham wrote his
beautiful elegy on Abraham Cowley.

Denham's poems include, beside those already given, a verse
paraphrase of Cicero's Cato major, and a metrical version of the
Psalms. As a writer of didactic verse, he was perhaps too highly
praised by his immediate successors. Dryden called Copper's Hill
" the exact standard of good writing," and Pope in his Windsor
Forest called him " majestic Denham. ' His collected poems with a
dedicatory epistle to Charles II. appeared in 1668. Other editions
followed, and they are reprinted in Chalmers' (1810) and other col-
lections of the English poets. His political satires were printed with
some of Rochester's and Marvell's in Bibliotheca curiosa, vol. i.
(Edinburgh, 1885).

D^NIA, a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of Alicante;
on the Mediterranean Sea, at the head of a railway from Car-
cagente. Pop. ( i goo) 1 2 ,43 1 . Denia occupies the seaward slopes
of a hill surmounted by a ruined castle, and divided by a narrow
valley on the south from the limestone ridge of Mongo (2500 ft.),
which commands a magnificent view of the Balearic Islands and
the Valencian coast. The older houses of Denia are characterized
by their flat Moorish roofs (azoteas) and view-turrets (mir adores) ,
while fragments of the Moorish ramparts are also visible near the
harbour; owing, however, to the rapid extension of local com-
merce, many of the older quarters were modernized at the
beginning of the 2oth century. Nails, and woollen, linen and
esparto grass fabrics are manufactured here; and there is a
brisk export trade in grapes, raisins and onions, mostly consigned
to Great Britain or the United States. Baltic timber and
British coal are largely imported. The harbour bay, which is
well lighted and sheltered by a breakwater, contains only a small
space of deep water, shut in by deposits of sand on three sides.
In 1904 it accommodated 402 vessels of 175,000 tons; about
half of which were small fishing craft, and coasters carrying
agricultural produce to Spanish and African ports.

Denia was colonized by Greek merchants from Emporiae
(Ampurias in Catalonia), or Massilia (Marseilles), at a very early
date; but its Greek name of Hemeroskopeion was soon super-
seded by the Roman Dianium. In the ist century B.C., Sertorius
made it the naval headquarters of his resistance to Rome; and,
as its name implies, it was already famous for its temple of Diana,
built in imitation of that at Ephesus. The site of this temple can
be traced at the foot of the castle hill. D6nia was captured by
the Moors in 713, and from 1031 to 1253 belonged successively to
the Moorish kingdoms of Murcia and Valencia. According to an
ancient but questionable tradition, its population rose at this
period to 50,000, and its commerce proportionately increased.
After the city was retaken by the Christians in 1253, its pros-
perity dwindled away, and only began to revive in the igth
century. During the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14),
Denia was thrice besieged; and in 1813 the citadel was held for
five months by the French against the allied British and Spanish
forces, until the garrison was reduced to 100 men, and compelled
to surrender, on honourable terms.

DENIKER, JOSEPH (1852- ) French naturalist and
anthropologist, was born of French parents at Astrakhan, Russia,
on the 6th of March 1852. After receiving his education at the
university and technical institute of St Petersburg, he adopted
engineering as a profession, and in this capacity travelled ex-
tensively in the petroleum districts of the Caucasus, in Central
Europe, Italy and Dalmatia. Settling at Paris in 1876, he
studied at the Sorbonne, where he took his degree in natural
science. In 1888 he was appointed chief librarian of the Natural
History Museum, Paris. Among his many valuable ethnological
works mention may be made of Recherches anatomiques et embryo-
logiques sur les singes anthropoides (1886); £lude sur les Kal-
mouks (1883); Les Ghiliaks (1883); and Races et peuples de la
lerre (1900). He became one of the chief editors of the Diction-
naire de g&ographie uniiierselle, and published many papers in the
anthropological and zoological journals of France.

DENILIQUIN, a municipal town of Townsend county, New
South Wales, Australia, 534 m. direct S.W. of Sydney, and 195 m.
by rail N. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 2644. The business of
the town is chiefly connected with the interests of the sheep
and cattle farmers of the Riverina district, a plain country, in
the main pastoral, but suited in some parts for cultivation.
Deniliquin has a well-known public school.

DENIM (an abbreviation of serge de Nimes), the name origin-
ally given to a kind of serge. It is now applied to a stout twilled
cloth made in various colours, usually of cotton, and used for
ovcrnlls &c

DENINA, CARLO GIOVANNI MARIA (1731-1813), Italian
historian, was born at Revello, Piedmont, in 1731, and was
educated at Saluzzo and Turin. In 1753 he was appointed to the
chair of humanity at Pignerol, but he was soon compelled by the
influence of the Jesuits to retire from it. In 1756 he graduated
as doctor in theology, and began authorship with a theological
treatise. Promoted to the professorship of humanity and rhetoric
in the college of Turin, he published (1769-1772) his Delle re-
voluzioni d'ltalia, the work on which his reputation is mainly
founded. Collegiate honours accompanied the issue of its
successive volumes, which, however, at the same time multiplied
his foes and stimulated their hatred. In 1782, at Frederick the
Great's invitation, he went to Berlin, where he remained for many
years, in the course of which he published his Vie et regne de
Frederic II (Berlin, 1788) and La Prusse litteraire sous Frederic
II (3 vols., Berlin, 1790-1791). His Delle revoluzioni della
Germania was published at Florence in 1804, in which year he
went to Paris as the imperial librarian, on the invitation of
Napoleon. At Paris he published in 1 805 his Tableau de la Haute
Italie, et des Alpes qui I'entourent. He died there on the 5th of
December 1813.

DENIS (DiONYSius) , SAINT, first bishop of Paris, patron saint
of France. According to Gregory of Tours (Hist. Franc, i. 30),
he was sent into Gaul at the time of the .emperor Decius. He
suffered martyrdom at the village of Catulliacus, the modern St
Denis. His tomb was situated by the side of the Roman road,

22

DENIS, J. N. C. M.— DENIZLI

where rose the priory of St-Denis-de-l'Estr€e, which existed
until the i8th century. In the sth century the clergy of the
diocese of Paris built a basilica over the tomb. About 625
Dagobert, son of Lothair II., founded in honour of St Denis, at
some distance from the basilica, the monastery where the greater
number of the kings of France have been buried. The festival of
St Denis is celebrated on the gth of October. With his name are
already associated in the Martyrologium Hieronymianum the
priest Rusticus and the deacon Eleutherius. Other traditions — •
of no value — are connected with the name of St Denis. A false
interpretation of Gregory of Tours, apparently dating from 724,
represented St Denis as having received his mission from Pope
Clement, and as having suffered martyrdom under Domitian
(81-96). Hilduin, abbot of St-Denis in the first half of the gth
century, identified Denis of Paris with Denis (Dionysius) the
Areopagite (mentioned in Acts xviii. 34), bishop of Athens
(Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. iii.4. io,iv. 23.3), and naturally attributed
to him the celebrated writings of the pseudo-Areopagite. St
Denis is generally represented carrying his head in his hands.

See Acta Sanctorum, Octobris, iv. 696-987; Bibliolheca hagio-
graphica graeca, p. 37 (Brussels, 1895); Bibiiotheca hagiographica
latina. No. 2171-2203 (Brussels, 1899); J. Havet, Les Origines de
Saint-Denis, in his collected works, i. 191-246 (Paris, 1896) ; Cahier,
Caracteristiques des saints, p. 761 (Paris, 1867). (H. DE.)

DENIS, JOHANN NEPOMUK COSMAS MICHAEL (1720-1800),
Austrian poet, was born at Scharding on the Inn, on the 27th
of September 1729. He was brought up by the Jesuits, entered
their order, and in 1759 was appointed professor in the
Theresianum in Vienna, a Jesuit college. In 1784, after the
suppression of the college, he was made second custodian of
the court library, and seven years later became chief librarian.
He died on the 2gth of September 1800. A warm admirer of
Klopstock, he was one of the leading members of the group of
so-called " bards "; and his original poetry, published under the
title Die Lieder Sineds des Barden (1772), shows all the extrava-
gances of the " bardic " movement. He is best remembered
as the translator of Ossian (1768-1769; also published together
with his own poems in 5 vols. as Ossians und Sineds Lieder, 1784).
More important than either his original poetry or his translations
were his efforts to familiarize the Austrians with the literature
of North Germany; his Sammlung kurzerer Gedichle aus den
neitern Dichtern Deutschlands, 3 vols. (1762-1766), was in this
respect invaluable. He has also left a number of bibliographical
compilations, Grundriss der Bibliographic und Bucherkunde
(1774), Grundriss der Literaturgeschichte (1776), Einleitung in
die Bucherkunde (1777) and Wiens Buchdruckergeschichle bis 1560
(1782).

Ossians und Sineds Lieder have not been reprinted since 1791 ; but
a selection of his poetry edited by R. Hamel will be found in vol.
48 (1884) of Kiirschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur. His Litera-
rischer NacUass was published by J. F. von Retzer in 1802 (2 vols.).
See P. von Hofmann-Wellenhof, Michael Denis (1881).

DENISON, GEORGE ANTHONY (1805-1896), English church-
man, brother of John Evelyn Denison (1800-1873; speaker of
the House of Commons 1857-1872; Viscount Ossington), was
born at Ossington, Notts, on the nth of December 1805, and
educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford. In 1828 he was
elected fellow of Oriel; and after a few years there as a tutor,
during which he was ordained and acted as curate at Cuddesdon,
he became rector of Broadwindsor, Dorset (1838). He became
a prebendary of Sarum in 1841 and of Wells in 1849. In 1851
he was preferred to the valuable living of East Brent, Somerset,
and in the same year was made archdeacon of Taunton. For
many years Archdeacon Denison represented the extreme Hjgh
Tory party not only in politics but in the Church, regarding
all " progressive " movements in education or theology as
abomination, and vehemently repudiating the " higher criticism "
from the days of Essays and Reviews (1860) to those of Lux
Mundi (1800). In 1853 he resigned his position as examining
chaplain to the bishop of Bath and Wells owing to his pronounced
eucharistic views. A suit on the complaint of a neighbouring
clergyman ensued and after various complications Denison was
condemned by the archbishops' court at Bath (1856); but on

appeal the court of Arches and the privy council quashed this
judgment on a technical plea. The result was to make Denison
a keen champion of the ritualistic school. He edited The Church
and State Review (1862-1865). Secular state education and the
" conscience clause " were anathema to him. Until the end of
his life he remained a protagonist in theological controversy and
a keen fighter against latitudinarianism and liberalism; but the
sharpest religious or political differences never broke his personal
friendships and his Christian charity. Among other things for
which he will be remembered was his origination of harvest
festivals. He died on the 2ist of March 1896.

DENISON, GEORGE TAYLOR (1839- ), Canadian soldier
and publicist, was born in Toronto on the 3ist of August 1839.
In 1861 he was called to the bar, and was from 1865-1867 a
member of the city council. From the first he took a prominent
part in the organization of the military forces of Canada, becom-
ing a lieutenant-colonel in the active militia in 1866. He saw
active service during the Fenian raid of 1866, and during the
rebellion of 1885. Owing to his dissatisfaction with the conduct
of the Conservative ministry during the Red River Rebellion in
1869-70, he abandoned that party, and in 1872 unsuccessfully
contested Algoma in the Liberal interest. Thereafter he remained
free from party ties. In 1877 he was appointed police magistrate
of Toronto. Colonel Denison was one of the founders of the
" Canada First " party, which did much to shape the national
aspirations from 1870 to 1878, and was a consistent supporter
of imperial federation and of preferential trade between Great
Britain and her colonies. He became a member of the Royal
Society of Canada, and was president of the section dealing with
English history and literature. The best known of his military
works is his History of Modern Cavalry (London, 1877), which
was awarded first prize by the Russian government in an open
competition and has been translated into German, Russian and
Japanese. In 1900 he published his reminiscences under the
title of Soldiering in Canada.

DENISON, a city of Grayson county, Texas, U.S.A., about
i\ m. from the S. bank of the Red river, about 70 m. N. of Dallas.
Pop. (1890) 10,958; (1900) 11,807, of whom 2251 were negroes;
(1910 census) 13,632. It is served by the Houston & Texas
Central, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Texas & Pacific, and
the St Louis & San Francisco ('Frisco System) railways, and is
connected with Sherman, Texas, by an electric line. Denison
is the seat of the Gate City business college (generally known
as Harshaw Academy), and of St Xavier's academy (Roman
Catholic). It is chiefly important as a railway centre, as a
collecting and distributing point for the fruit, vegetables, hogs
and poultry, and general farming products of the surrounding
region, and as a wholesale and jobbing market for the upper
Red river valley. It has railway repair shops, and among its
manufactures are cotton-seed oil, cotton, machinery and foundry
products, flour, wooden-ware, and dairy products. In 1905 its
factory products were valued at $1,234,956, 47-0 % more than
in 1900. Denison was settled by Northerners at the time of
the construction of the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railway to
this point in 1872, and was named in honour of George Denison
(1822-1876), a director of the railway; it became a city in 1891,
and in 1907 adopted the commission form of government.

DENIZEN (derived through the Fr. from Lat. de intus, " from
within," i.e. as opposed to "foreign"), an alien who obtains
by letters patent (ex donatione regis) certain of the privileges of
a British subject. He cannot be a member of the privy council
or of parliament, or hold any civil or military office of trust, or
take a grant of land from the crown. The Naturalization Act
1870 provides that nothing therein contained shall affect the
grant of any letters of denization by the sovereign.

DENIZLI (anc. Laodicea (q.v.) ad Lycuni), chief town of a
sanjak of the Aidin vilayet of Asia Minor, altitude 1167 ft.
Pop. about 17,000. It is beautifully situated at the foot of Baba
Dagh (Mt. Salbacus), on a tributary of the Churuk Su (Lycus),
and is connected by a branch line with the station of Gonjeli
on the Smyrna-Dineir railway. It took the place of Laodicea
when that town was deserted during the wars between the

DENMAN— DENMARK

Byzantines and Seljuk Turks, probably between 1158 and 1174.
It had become a fine Moslem city in the I4th century, and was
then called Ladik, being famous for the woven and embroidered
products of its Greek inhabitants. The delightful gardens of
Denizli have obtained for it the name of the "Damascus of
Anatolia."

DENMAN, THOMAS, IST BARON (1779-1854), English judge,
was born in London, the son of a well-known physician, on the
23rd of July 1779. He was educated at Eton and St John's
College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1800. Soon after
leaving Cambridge he married; and in 1806 he was called to the
bar at Lincoln's Inn, and at once entered upon practice. His
success was rapid, and in a few years he attained a position at
the bar second only to that of Brougham and Scarlett (Lord
Abinger). He distinguished himself by his eloquent defence of
the Luddites; but his most brilliant appearance was as one of
the counsel for Queen Caroline. His speech before the Lords
was very powerful, and some competent judges even considered
it not inferior to Brougham's. It contained one or two daring
passages, which made the king his bitter enemy, and retarded
his legal promotion. At the general election of 1818 he was
returned M.P. for Wareham, and at once took his seat with the
Whig opposition. In the following year he was returned for
Nottingham, for which place he continued to sit till his elevation
to the bench in 1832. His liberal principles had caused his
exclusion from office till in 1822 he was appointed common
Serjeant by the corporation of London. In 1830 he was made
attorney-general under Lord Grey's administration. Two years
later he was made lord chief justice of the King's Bench, and
in 1834 he was raised to the peerage. As a judge he is most
celebrated for his decision in the important privilege case of
Stockdale v. Hansard (9 Ad. & El. I.; n Ad. & El. 253), but
he was never ranked as a profound lawyer. In 1850 he resigned
his chief justiceship and retired into private life. He died on
the 26th of September 1854, his title continuing in the direct line.

The HON. GEORGE DENMAN (1810-1896), his fourth son, was
also a distinguished lawyer, and a judge of the Queen's Bench
from 1872 till his death in 1896.

See Memoir of Thomas, first Lord Denman, by Sir Joseph Arnould
(2 vols., 1873) ; E. Manson, Builders of our Law (1904).

DENMARK (Danmark), a small kingdom of Europe, occupying
part of a peninsula and a group of islands dividing the Baltic
and North Seas, in the middle latitudes of the eastern coast.
The kingdom lies between 54° 33' and 57° 45' N. and between
8° 4' 54" and 12° 47' 25* E., exclusive of the island of Bornholm,
which, as will be seen, is not to be included in the Danish archi-
pelago. The peninsula is divided between Denmark and Germany
(Schleswig-Holstein). The Danish portion is the northern and
the greater, and is called Jutland (Dan. Jylland). Its northern
part is actually insular, divided from the mainland by the
Limf jord or Liimf jord, which communicates with the North Sea
to the west and the Cattegat to the east, but this strait, though
broad and possessing lacustrine characteristics to the west, has
only very narrow entrances. The connexion with the North Sea
dates from 1825. The Skagerrack bounds Jutland to the north
and north-west. The Cattegat is divided from the Baltic by the
Danish islands, between the east coast of the Cimbric peninsula
in the neighbourhood of the German frontier and south-western
Sweden.

There is little variety in the surface of Denmark. It is
uniformly low, the highest elevation in the whole country, the
Himmelbjerg near Aarhus in eastern Jutland, being little more
than 500 ft. above the sea. Denmark, however, is nowhere low
in the sense in which Holland is; the country is pleasantly
diversified, and rises a little at the coast even though it remains
flat inland. The landscape of the islands and the south-eastern
part of Jutland is rich in beech-woods, corn fields and meadows,
and even the minute islets are green and fertile. In the western
and northern districts of Jutland this condition gives place to a
wide expanse of moorland, covered with heather, and ending
towards the sea in low whitish-grey cliffs. There is a certain
charm even about these monotonous tracts, and it cannot be

said that Denmark is wanting hi natural beauty of a quiet
order. Lakes, though small, are numerous; the largest are the
Arreso and the Esromso in Zealand, and the chain of lakes in
the Himmelbjerg region, which are drained by the largest river
hi Denmark, the Gudenaa, which, however, has a course not
exceeding 80 m. Many of the meres, overhung with thick beech-
woods, are extremely beautiful. The coasts are generally low
and sandy; the whole western shore of Jutland is a succession
of sand ridges and shallow lagoons, very dangerous to shipping.
In many places the sea has encroached; even in the igth
century entire villages were destroyed, but during the last
twenty years of the century systematic efforts were made to
secure the coast by groynes and embankments. A belt of sand
dunes, from 500 yds. to 7 m. wide, stretches along the whole of
this coast for about 200 m. Skagen, or the Skaw, a long, low,
sandy point, stretches far into the northern sea, dividing the
Skagerrack from the Cattegat. On the western side the coast is
bolder and less inhospitable; there are several excellent havens,
especially on the islands. The coast is nowhere, however, very
high, except at one or two points hi Jutland, and at the eastern
extremity of Moen, where limestone cliffs occur.

Continental Denmark is confined wholly to Jutland, the
geographical description of which is given under that heading.
Out of the total area of the kingdom, 14,829 sq. m., Jutland,
including the small islands adjacent to it, covers 9753 sq. m., and
the insular part of the kingdom (including Bornholm), 5076 sq. m.
The islands may be divided into two groups, consisting of the
two principal islands Fiinen and Zealand, and the lesser islands
attendant on each. Fiinen (Dan. Fyen), in form roughly an oval
with an axis from S.E. to N.W. of 53 m., is separated from
Jutland by a channel not half a mile wide hi the north, but
averaging 10 m. between the island and the Schleswig coast, and
known as the Little Belt. Fiinen, geologically a part of southern
Jutland, has similar characteristics, a smiling landscape of
fertile meadows, the typical beech-forests clothing the low hills
and the presence of numerous erratic blocks, are the superficial
signs of likeness. Several islands, none of great extent, lie off
the west coast of Fiinen in the Little Belt; off the south, how-
ever, an archipelago is enclosed by the long narrow islands of
Aero (16 m. in length) and Langeland (32 m.), including in a
triangular area of shallow sea the islands of Taasinge, Avernako,
Dreio, Turo and others. These aie generally fertile and well
cultivated. Aeroskjobing and Rudkjobing, on Aero and
Langeland respectively, are considerable ports. On Langeland is
the great castle of Tranekjaer, whose record dates from the i3th
century. The chief towns of Fiinen itself are all coastal. Odense
is the principal town, lying close to a great inlet behind the
peninsula of Hindsholm on the north-east, known as Odense
Fjord. Nyborg on the east is the port for the steam-ferry to
Korsor hi Zealand; Svendborg picturesquely overlooks the
southern archipelago; Faaborg on the south-west lies on a
fjord of the same name; Assens, on the west, a port for the
crossing of the Little Belt into Schleswig, still shows traces of
the fortifications which were stormed by John of Ranzau in
1535; Middelfart is a seaside resort near the narrowest reach
of the Little Belt; Bogense is a small port on the north coast.
All these towns are served by railways radiating from Odense.
The strait crossed by the Nyborg- Korsor ferry is the Great Belt
which divides the Fiinen from the Zealand group, and is con-
tinued south by the Langelands Belt, which washes the straight
eastern shore of that island, and north by the Samso Belt,
named from an island 15 m. in length, with several large villages,
which lies somewhat apart from the main archipelago.

Zealand, or Sealand (Dan. Sjaelland), measuring 82 m. N.
to S. by 68 E. to W. (extremes), with its fantastic coast-line
indented by fjords and projecting into long spits or promontories,
may be considered as the nucleus of the kingdom, inasmuch as it
contains the capital, Copenhagen, and such important towns as
Roskilde, Slagelse, Korsor, Naestved and Elsinore (Helsingor).
Its topography is described in detail under ZEALAND. Its
attendant islands lie mainly to the south and are parts of itself,
only separated by geologically recent troughs. The eastern

DENMARK

[GEOGRAPHY

coast of Moen is rocky and bold. It is recorded that this island
formed three separate isles in noo, and the village of Borre, now
2 m. inland, was the object of an attack by a fleet from Liibeck
in 1510. On Falster is the port of Nykjobing, and from Gjedser,
the extreme southern point of Denmark, communication is
maintained with Warnemiinde in Germany (29 m.). From
Nykjobing a bridge nearly one-third of a mile long crosses to
Laaland, at the west of which is the port of Nakskov; the other
towns are the county town of Maribo with its fine church of the
I4th century, Saxkjobing and Rodby. The island of Bornholm
lies 86 m. E. of the nearest point of the archipelago, and as it
belongs geologically to Sweden (from which it is distant only
22 m.) must be considered to be physically an appendage rather
than an internal part of the kingdom of Denmark.

Geology. — The surface in Denmark is almost everywhere
formed by the so-called Boulder Clay and what the Danish
geologists call the Boulder Sand. The former, as is well known,
owes its origin to the action of ice on the mountains of Norway
in the Glacial period. It is unstratified; but by the action of
water on it, stratified deposits have been formed, some of clay,
containing remains of arctic animals, some, and very extensive
ones, of sand and gravel. This boulder sand forms almost every-
where the highest hills, and besides, in the central part of Jutland,
a wide expanse of heath and moorland apparently level, but really
sloping gently towards the west. The deposits of the boulder
formation rest generally on limestone of the Cretaceous period,
which in many places comes near the surface and forms cliffs
on the sea-coast. Much of the Danish chalk, including the well-
known limestone of Faxe, belongs to the highest or " Danian "
subdivision of the Cretaceous period. In the south-western
parts a succession of strata, described as the Brown Coal or
Lignite formations, intervenes between the chalk and the boulder
clay; its name is derived from the deposits of lignite which occur
in it. It is only on the island of Bornholm that older formations
come to light. This island agrees in geological structure with the
southern part of Sweden, and forms, in fact, the southernmost
portion of the Scandinavian system. There the boulder clay
lies immediately on the primitive rock, except in the south-western
corner of the island, where a series of strata appear belonging to
the Cambrian, Silurian, Jurassic and Cretaceous formations, the
true Coal formation, &c., being absent. Some parts of Denmark
are supposed to have been finally raised out of the sea towards
the close of the Cretaceous period; but as a whole the country
did not appear above the water till about the close of the Glacial
period. The upheaval of the country, a movement common to a
large part of the Scandinavian peninsula, still continues, though
slowly, north-east of a line drawn in a south-easterly direction
from Nissumfjord on the west coast of Jutland, across the island
of Fyen, a little south of the town of Nyborg. Ancient sea-
beaches, marked by accumulations of seaweed, rolled stones,
&c., have been noticed as much as 20 ft. above the present level.
But the upheaval does not seem to affect all parts equally.
Even in historic times it has vastly changed the aspect and
configuration of the country.

Climate, Flora, Fauna. — The climate of Denmark does not
differ materially from that of Great Britain in the same latitude;
but whilst the summer is a little warmer, the winter is colder, so
that most of the evergreens which adorn an English garden in the
winter cannot be grown in the open in Denmark. During thirty
years the annual mean temperature varied from 43-88° F. to
46-22° in different years and different localities, the mean
average for the whole country being 45-14°. The islands have,
upon the whole, a somewhat warmer climate than Jutland. The
mean temperatures of the four coldest months, December to
March, are 33-26°, 31-64°, 31-82°, and 33-98° respectively, or for
the whole winter 32-7°; that of the summer, June to August,
59-2°, but considerable irregularities occur. Frost occurs on an
average on twenty days in each of the four winter months, but
only on two days in either October or May. A fringe of ice
generally lines the greater part of the Danish coasts on the eastern
side for some time during the winter, and both the Sound and the
Great Belt are at times impassable on account of ice. In some

winters the latter is sufficiently firm and level to admit of sledges
passing between Copenhagen and Malmo. The annual rainfall
varies between 21-58 in. and 27-87 in. in different years and
different localities. It is highest on the west coast of Jutland;
while the small island of Anholt in the Cattegat has an annual
rainfall of only 15-78 in. More than half the rainfall occurs
from July to November, the wettest month being September, with
an average of 2-95 in.; the driest month is April, with an
average of 1-14 in. Thunderstorms are frequent in the summer.
South-westerly winds prevail from January to March, and from
September to the end of the year. In April the east wind, which
is particularly searching, is predominant, while westerly winds
prevail from May to August. In the district of Aalborg, in the
north of Jutland, a cold and dry N.W. wind called skai prevails
in May and June, and is exceedingly destructive to vegetation;
while along the west coast of the peninsula similar effects are
produced by a salt mist, which carries its influence from 15 to
30 m. inland.

The flora of Denmark presents greater variety than might
be anticipated in a country of such simple physical structure.
The ordinary forms of the north of Europe grow freely in the mild
air and protected soil of the islands and the eastern coast; while
on the heaths and along the sandhills on the Atlantic side there
flourish a number of distinctive species. The Danish forest is
almost exclusively made up of beech, a tree which thrives better
in Denmark than in any other country of Europe. The oak and
ash are now rare, though in ancient times both were abundant
in the Danish islands. The elm is also scarce. The almost
universal predominance of the beech is by no means of ancient
origin, for in the first half of the I7th century the oak was still
the characteristic Danish tree. No conifer grows in Denmark
except under careful cultivation, which, however, is largely
practised in Jutland (<?.».). But again, abundant traces of
ancient extensive forests of fir and pine are found in the numerous
peat bogs which supply a large proportion of the fuel locally used.
In Bornholm, it should be mentioned, the flora is more like that
of Sweden; not the beech, but the pine, birch and ash are the
most abundant trees.

The wild animals and birds of Denmark are those of the rest
of central Europe. The larger quadrupeds are ah1 extinct; even
the red deer, formerly so abundant that in a single hunt in
Jutland in 1593 no less than 1600 head of deer were killed, is now
only to be met with in preserves. In the prehistoric " kitchen-
middens " (kjokkenmodding) and elsewhere, however, vestiges are
found which prove that the urochs, the wild boar, the beaver,
the bear and the wolf all existed subsequently to the arrival of
man. The usual domestic animals are abundantly found in
Denmark, with the exception of the goat, which is uncommon.
The sea fisheries are of importance. Oysters are found in some
places, but have disappeared from many localities, where their
abundance in ancient times is proved by their shell moulds on the
coast. The Gudenaa is the only salmon river in Denmark.

Population. — The population of Denmark in 1901 was
2,449,540. It was 929,001 in 1801, showing an increase during
the century in the proportion of i to 2-63. In 1901 the average
density of the population of Denmark was 165-2 to the square
mile, but varied much in the different parts. Jutland showed
an average of only 109 inhabitants per square mile, whilst on the
islands, which had a total population of 1,385,537, the average
stood at 272-95, owing, on the one hand, to the fact that large
tracts in the interior of Jutland are almost uninhabited, and on
the other to the fact that the capital of the country, with its pro-
portionately large population, is situated on the island of Zealand.
The percentages of urban and rural population are respectively
about 38 and 62. A notable movement of the population to the
towns began about the middle of the igth century, and increased
until very near its end. It was stronger on the islands, where the
rural population increased by 5-3 % only in eleven years, whereas
in Jutland the increase of the rural population between 1890 and
1901 amounted to 12-0%. Here, however, peculiar circum-
stances contributed to the increase, as successful efforts have
been made to render the land fruitful by artificial means. The

S K A G EIR K A G-K

DENMARK

Scale. 1:1.800.000

Longitude East 10 of Greenwich Q

Emery Walker &c.

INDUSTRIES]

DENMARK

Danes are a yellow-haired and blue-eyed Teutonic race of
middle stature, bearing traces of their kinship with the northern
Scandinavian peoples. Their habits of life resemble those of the
North Germans even more than those of the Swedes. The in-
dependent tenure of the land by a vast number of small farmers,
who are their own masters, gives an air of carelessness, almost of
truculence, to the well-to-do Danish peasants. They are gener-
ally slow of speech and manner, and somewhat irresolute, but
take an eager interest in current politics, and are generally fairly
educated men of extreme democratic principles. The result of
a fairly equal distribution of wealth is a marked tendency towards
equality in social intercourse. The townspeople show a bias in
favour of French habits and fashions. The separation from
the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which were more than
half German, intensified the national character; the Danes are
intensely patriotic; and there is no portion of the Danish
dominions except perhaps in the West Indian islands, where
a Scandinavian language is not spoken. The preponderance of
the female population over the male is approximately as 1052 to
1000. The male sex remains in excess until about the twentieth
year, from which age the female sex preponderates in increasing
ratio with advancing age. The percentage of illegitimacy is high
as a whole, although in some of the rural districts it is very low.
But in Copenhagen 20 % of the births are illegitimate. Between
the middle and the end of the ipth century the rate of mortality
decreased most markedly for all ages. During the last decade of
the century it ranged between 19-5 per thousand in 1891 and
15-1 in 1898 (17-4 in 1900). Emigration for some time in the
1 9th century at different periods, both in its early part and towards
its close, seriously affected the population of Denmark. But in
the last decade it greatly diminished. Thus in 1892 the number
of emigrants to Transatlantic places rose to 10,422 but in 1900
it was only 3570. The great bulk of them go to the United States;
next in favour is Canada.

Communications. — The roads of Denmark form an extensive
and well-maintained system. The railway system is also fairly
complete, the state owning about three-fifths of the total mileage,
which amounts to some 2000. Two lines enter Denmark from
Schleswig across the frontier. The main Danish lines are as
follows. From the frontier a line runs east by Fredericia, across
the island of Fiinen by Odense and Nyborg, to Korsor on Zealand,
and thence by Roskilde to Copenhagen. The straits between
Fredericia and Middelfart and between Nyborg and Korsor are
crossed by powerful steam-ferries which are generally capable of
conveying a limited number of railway wagons. This system is
also in use on the line which runs south fromRoskilde to the island
of Falster, from the southernmost point of which, Gjedser, ferry-
steamers taking railway cars serve Warnemiinde in Germany.
The main lines in Jutland run (a) along the eastern side north
from Fredericia by Horsens, Aarhus, Randers, Aalborg and
Hjorring, to Frederikshavn, and (b) along the western side from
Esbjerg by Skjerne and Vemb, and thence across the peninsula
by Viborg to Langaa on the eastern line. The lines are generally
of standard gauge (4 ft. 8J in.), but there is also a considerable
mileage of light narrow-gauge railways. Besides the numerous
steam-ferries which connect island and island, and Jutland with
the islands, and the Gjedser-Warnemiinde route, a favourite
passenger line from Germany is that between Kiel and Korsor,
while most of the German Baltic ports have direct connexion with
Copenhagen. With Sweden communications are established by
ferries across the Sound between Copenhagen and Malmo and
Landskrona, and between Elsinore (Helsingor) and Helsingborg.
The postal department maintains a telegraph and telephone
service.

Industries. — The main source of wealth in Denmark is agri-
culture, which employs about two-fifths of the entire population.
Most of the land is freehold and cultivated by the owner himself,
and comparatively little land is let on lease except very large
holdings and glebe farms. The independent small farmer
(bonder) maintains a hereditary attachment to his ancestral
holding. There is also a class of cottar freeholders (Junster).
Fully 74 % of the total area of the country is agricultural land.

Of this only about one-twelfth is meadow land. The land under
grain crops is not far short of one-half the remainder, the principal
crops being oats, followed by barley and rye in about equal
quantities, with wheat about one-sixth that of barley and hardly
one-tenth that of oats, Beet is extensively grown. During the
last forty years of the igth century dairy -farming was greatly
developed in Denmark, and brought to a high degree of perfection
by the application of scientific methods and the best machinery,
as well as by the establishment of joint dairies. The Danish
government has assisted this development by granting money
for experiments and by a rigorous system of inspection for the
prevention of adulteration. The co-operative system plays an
important part in the industries of butter-making, poultry-farm-
ing and the rearing of swine.

Rabbits, which are not found wild in Denmark, are bred for
export. Woods cover fully 7 % of the area, and their preserva-
tion is considered of so much importance that private owners are
under strict control as regards cutting of timber. The woods
consist mostly of beech, which is principally used for fuel, but
pines were extensively planted during the igth century. Allusion
has been made already to the efforts to plant the extensive heaths
in Jutland (q.v.) with pine-trees.

Agriculture. — Rates and taxes on land are mostly levied ac-
cording to a uniform system of assessment, the unit of which is
called a Tonde Hartkorn. The Td. Htk., as it is usually abbrevi-
ated, has further subdivision, and is intended to correspond to
the same value of land throughout the country. The Danish
measure for land is a Tonde Land (Td. L.), which is equal to i -363
statute acres. Of the best ploughing land a little over 6 Td. L.,
or about 8 acres, go to a Td. Htk., but of unprofitable land a Td.
Htk. may represent 300 acres or more. On the islands and in the
more fertile part of Jutland the average is about 10 Td. L., or
13! acres. Woodland, tithes, &c., are also assessed to Td. Htk.
for fiscal purposes. In the island of Bornholm, the assessment
is somewhat different, though the general state of agricultural
holdings is the same as in other parts. The selling value of land
has shown a decrease in modern times on account of the agri-
cultural depression. A homestead with land assessed less than
i Td. Htk. is legally called a Huus or Sled, i.e. cottage, whilst
a farm assessed at i Td. Htk. or more is called Gaard, i.e. farm.
Farms of between i and 1 2 Td. Htk. are called Bondergaarde, or
peasant farms, and are subject to the restriction that such a hold-
ing cannot lawfully be joined to or entirely merged into another.
They may be subdivided, and portions may be added to another
holding, but the homestead, with a certain amount of land, must
be preserved as a separate holding for ever. The seats of the
nobility and landed gentry are called Herregaarde. The peasants
hold about 73 % of all the land according to its value. As regards
their size about 30 % are assessed from i to 4 Td. Htk. ; about
33% from 4 to 8 Td. Htk.; the remainder at about 8 Td. Htk.
An annual sum is voted by parliament out of which loans are
granted to cottagers who desire to purchase small freehold plots.

The fishery along the coasts of Denmark is of some importance
both on account of the supply of food obtained thereby for the
population of the country, and on account of the export; but the
good fishing grounds, not far from the Danish coast, particularly
in the North Sea, are mostly worked by the fishing vessels of other
nations, which are so numerous that the Danish government is
obliged to keep gun-boats stationed there in order to prevent
encroachments on territorial waters.

Other Industries. — The mineral products of Denmark are
unimportant. It is one of the poorest countries of Europe in
this particular. It is rich, however, in clays, while in the island
of Bornholm there are quarries of freestone and marble. The
factories of Denmark supply mainly local needs. The largest are
those engaged in the construction of engines and iron ships. The
manufacture of woollens and cotton, the domestic manufacture
of linen in Zealand, sugar refineries, paper mills, breweries, and
distilleries may also be mentioned. The most notable manu-
facture is that of porcelain. The nucleus of this industry was a
factory started in 1772, by F. H. Muller, for the making of china
out of Bornholm clay. In 1779 it passed into the hands of the

DENMARK

[GOVERNMENT

state, and has remained there ever since, though there are
also private factories. Originally the Copenhagen potters
imitated the Dresden china made at Meissen, but they later pro-
duced graceful original designs. The creations of Thorvaldsen
have been largely repeated and imitated in this ware. Trade-
unionism flourishes in Denmark, and strikes are of frequent
occurrence.

Commerce. — Formerly the commercial legislation of Denmark
was to such a degree restrictive that imported manufactures had
to be delivered to the customs, where they were sold by public
auction, the proceeds of which the importer received from the
custom-houses after a deduction was made for the duty. To this
restriction, as regards foreign intercourse, was added a no less
injurious system of inland duties impeding the commerce of the
different provinces with each other. The want of roads also,
and many other disadvantages, tended to keep down the develop-
ment of both commerce and industry. During the ipth century,
however, several commercial treaties were concluded between
Denmark and the other powers of Europe, which made the
Danish tariff more regular and liberal.

The vexed question, of many centuries' standing, concerning
the claim of Denmark to levy dues on vessels passing through the
Sound (q.v.), was settled by the abolition of the dues in 1857.
The commerce of Denmark is mainly based on home production
and home consumption, but a certain quantity of goods is im-
ported with a view to re-exportation, for which the free port and
bonded warehouses at Copenhagen give facilities. In modern
times the value of Danish commerce greatly increased, being
doubled in the last twenty years of the igth century, and ex-
ceeding a total of fifty millions sterling. The value of export is
exceeded as a whole by that of import in the proportion, roughly,
of i to i -35. By far the most important articles of export may be
classified as articles of food of animal origin, a group which covers
the vast export trade in the dairy produce, especially butter, for
which Denmark is famous. The value of the butter for export
reaches nearly 40% of the total value of Danish exports. A
small proportion of the whole is imported chiefly from Russia
(also Siberia) and Sweden and re-exported as of foreign origin.
The production of margarine is large, but not much is exported,
margarine being largely consumed in Denmark instead of
butter, which is exported. Next to butter the most important
article of Danish export is bacon, and huge quantities of eggs
are also exported. Exports of less value, but worthy of special
notice, are vegetables and wool, bones and tallow, also dairy
machinery, and finally cement, the production of which is a
growing industry. The classes of articles of food of animal
origin, and living animals, are the only ones of which the
exportation exceeds the importation; with regard to all other
goods, the reverse is the case. In the second of these classes the
most important export is home-bred horned cattle. The trade
in live sheep and swine, which was formerly important, has mostly
been converted into a dead-meat trade. A proportionally large
importation of timber is caused by the scarcity of native timber
suitable for building purposes, the plantations of firs and pines
being insufficient to produce the quantity required, and the
quality of the wood being inferior beyond the age of about forty
years. The large importation of coal, minerals and metals, and
goods made from them is likewise caused by the natural poverty
of the country in these respects.

Denmark carries on its principal import trade with Germany,
Great Britain and the United States of America, in this order,
the proportions being about 30, 20 and 16% respectively of the
total. Its principal export trade is with Great Britain, Germany
and Sweden, the percentage of the whole being 60, 18 and 10.
With Russia, Norway and France (in this order) general trade is
less important, but still large. A considerable proportion of
Denmark's large commercial fleet is engaged in the carrying
trade between foreign, especially British, ports.

Under a law of the 4th of May 1907 it was enacted that the
metric system of weights and measures should come into official
use in three years from that date, and into general use in
five years.

Money and Banking. — Theunit of the Danish monetarysystem,
as of the Swedish and Norwegian, is the krone (crown), equal to
is. ijd., which is divided into 100 ore; consequently 75 ore are
equal to one penny. Since 1873 gold has been the standard, and
gold pieces of 20 and 10 kroner are coined, but not often met with,
as the public prefers bank-notes. The principal bank is the
National Bank at Copenhagen, which is the only one authorized
to issue notes. These are of the value of 10, 50, 100 and 500 kr.
Next in importance are the Danske Landmands Bank, the
Handels Bank and the Private Bank, all at Copenhagen. The
provincial banks are very numerous; many of them are at the
same time savings banks. Their rate of interest, with few ex-
ceptions, is 3^ to 4%. There exist, besides, in Denmark several
mutual loan associations (Kreditforeninger) , whose business is
the granting of loans on mortgage. Registration of mortgages
is compulsory in Denmark, and the system is extremely simple, a
fact which has been of the greatest importance for the improve-
ment of the country. There are comparatively large institutions
for insurance of all kinds in Denmark. The largest office for life
insurance is a state institution. By law of the gth of April 1891
a system of old-age pensions was established for the benefit of
persons over sixty years of age.

Government. — Denmark is a limited monarchy, according to
the law of 1849, revised in 1866. The king shares his power with
the parliament (Rigsdag), which consists of two chambers, the
Landsihing and the Folkething, but the constitution contains no
indication of any difference in their attributes. The Landsthing,
or upper house, however, is evidently intended to form the con-
servative element in the constitutional machinery. While the
114 members of the Folkething (House of Commons) are elected
for three years in the usual way by universal suffrage, 12 out of
the 66 members of the Landsthing are life members nominated
by the crown. The remaining 54 members of the Landsthing are
returned for eight years according to a method of proportionate
representation by a body of deputy electors. Of these deputies
one-half are elected in the same way as members of the Folke-
thing, without any property qualification for the voters; the
other half of the deputy electors are chosen in the towns by those
who during the last preceding year were assessed on a certain
minimum of income, or paid at least a certain amount in rates
and taxes. In the rural districts the deputy electors returned by
election are supplemented by an equal number of those who have
paid the highest amounts in taxes and county rate"- together.
In this manner a representation is secured for fairly large
minorities, and what is considered a fair share of influence on
public affairs given to those who contribute the most to the needs
of the state. The franchise is held byevery male who has reached
his thirtieth year, subject to independence of public charity and
certain other circumstances. A candidate for either house of the
Rigsdag must have passed the age of twenty-five. Members are
paid ten kroner each day of the session and are allowed travelling
expenses. The houses meet each year on the first Monday in
October. The constitutional theory of the Folkething is that of
one member for every 16,000 inhabitants. The Faeroe islands,
which form an integral part of the kingdom of Denmark in the
wider sense, are represented in the Danish parliament, but not
the other dependencies of the Danish crown, namely Iceland,
Greenland and the West Indian islands of St Thomas, St John
and St Croix. The budget is considered by the Folkething at the
beginning of each session. The revenue and expenditure average
annually about £4,700,000. The principal items of revenue are
customs and excise, land and house tax, stamps, railways, legal
fees, the state lottery and death duties. A considerable reserve
fund is maintained to meet emergencies. The public debt is
about £13,500,000 and is divided into an internal debt, bearing
interest generally at 3^%, and a foreign debt (the larger), with
interest generally at 3%. The revenue and expenditure of the
Faeroes are included in the budget for Denmark proper, but
Iceland and the West Indies have their separate budgets. The
Danish treasury receives nothing from these possessions; on the
contrary, Iceland receives an annual grant, and the West Indian
islands have been heavily subsidized by the Danish finances to

ADMINISTRATION]

DENMARK

27

assist the sugar industry. The administration of Greenland
(q.v.) entails an annual loss which is posted on the budget of the
ministry of finances. The state council (Statsraad) includes the
presidency of the council and ministries of war, and marine,
foreign affairs, the interior, justice, finance, public institution and
ecclesiastical, agriculture and public works. ,

Local Government. — For administrative purposes the country is
divided into eighteen counties (Amter, singular Ami), as follows,
(i) Covering the islands of Zealand and lesser adjacent islands,
Copenhagen, Frederiksborg, Holbaek, Soro, Praesto. (2) Cover-
ing the islands of Laaland and Falster, Maribo. (3) Covering
Fttnen, Langeland and adjacent islets, Svendborg, Odense.
(4) On the mainland, Hjorring, Aalborg, Thisted, Ringkjobing,
Viborg, Randers, Aarhus, Vejle, Ribe. (5) Bornholm. The
principal civil officer in each of these is the Amtmand. Local
affairs are managed by the Amslraad and Sogneraad, correspond-
ing to the English county council and parish council. These
institutions date from 1841, but they have undergone several
modifications since. The members of these councils are elected
on a system similar to that applied to the elections for the
Landsthing. The same is the case with the provincial town
councils. That of Copenhagen is elected by those who are rated
on an income of at least 400 kroner (£22). The burgomasters are
appointed by the crown, except at Copenhagen, where they are
elected by the town council, subject to royal approbation. The
financial position of the municipalities in Denmark is generally
good. The ordinary budget of Copenhagen amounts to about
£1,100,000 a year.

Justice. — For the administration of justice Denmark is
divided into herreds or hundreds; as, however, they are mostly
of small extent, several are generally served by one judge
(herredsfoged) ; the townships are likewise separate jurisdictions,
each with a byfoged. There are 126 such local judges, each of
whom deals with all kinds of cases arising in his district, and
is also at the head of the police. There are two intermediary
Courts of Appeal (Overrel), one in Copenhagen, another in
Viborg; the Supreme Court of Appeal (Hojesteret) sits at Copen-
hagen. In the capital the different functions are more divided.
There is also a Court of Commerce and Navigation, on which
leading members of the trading community serve as assessors.
In the country, Land Commissions similarly constituted deal with
many questions affecting agricultural holdings. A peculiarity
of the Danish system is that, with few exceptions, no civil cause
can be brought before a court until an attempt has been made
at effecting an amicable settlement. This is mostly done by
so-called Committees of Conciliation, but in some cases by the
court itself before commencing formal judicial proceedings. In
this manner three-fifths of all the causes are settled, and many
which remain unsettled are abandoned by the plaintiffs.
Sanitary matters are under the control of a Board of Health.
The whole country is divided into districts, in each of which a
medical man is appointed with a salary, who is under the obliga-
tion to attend to poor sick and assist the authorities in medical
matters, inquests, &c. The relief of the poor is well organized,
mostly on the system of out-door relief. Many workhouses have
been established for indigent persons capable of work. There are
also many almshouses and similar institutions.

Army and Navy. — The active army consists of a life guard
battalion and 10 infantry regiments of 3 battalions each, infantry,
5 cavalry regiments of 3 squadrons each, 12 field batteries (now
re-armed with a Krupp Q.F. equipment), 3 battalions of fortress
artillery and 6 companies of engineers, with in addition various
local troops and details. The peace strength of permanent
troops, without the annual contingent of recruits, is about
13,500 officers and men, the annual contingent of men trained
two or three years with the colours about 22,500, and the annual
contingent of special reservists (men trained for brief periods)
about 17,000. Thus the number of men maintained under arms
(without calling up the reserves) is as high as 75,000 during
certain periods of the year and averages nearly 60,000. Reservists
who have definitively left the colours are recalled for short
refresher trainings, the number of men so trained in 1907 being

about 80,000. The field army on a war footing, without depot
troops, garrison troops and reservists, would be about 50,000
strong, but by constituting new cadres at the outbreak of war
and calling up the reserves it could be more than doubled, and as
a matter of fact nearly 1 20,000 men were with the colours in the
manoeuvre season in 1907. The term of service is eight years in
the active army and its reserves and eight years in the second
line. The armament of the infantry is the Krag-jorgensen of
•314 in. calibre, model 1889, that of the field artillery a 7-5 cm.
Krupp Q.F. equipment, model 1902. The navy consists of 6
small battleships, 3 coast defence armour-clads, 5 protected
cruisers, 5 gun-boats, and 24 torpedo craft.

Religion. — The national or state church of Denmark is officially
styled " Evangelically Reformed," but is popularly described
as Lutheran. The king must belong to it. There is complete
religious toleration, but though most of the important Christian
communities are represented their numbers are very small. The
Mormon apostles for a considerable time made a special raid upon
the Danish peasantry and a few hundreds profess this faith.
There are seven dioceses, Fiinen, Laaland and Falster, Aarhus,
Aalborg, Viborg and Ribe, while the primate is the bishop
of Zealand, and resides at Copenhagen, but his cathedral is at
Roskilde. The bishops have no political function by reason of
their office, although they may, and often do, take a prominent
part in politics. The greater part of the pastorates comprise
more than one parish. The benefices are almost without excep-
tion provided with good residences and glebes, and the tithes, &c.,
generally afford a comfortable income. The bishops have fixed
salaries in lieu of tithes appropriated by the state.

Education and Arts. — The educational system of Denmark is
maintained at a high standard. The instruction in primary schools
is gratuitous. Every child is bound to attend the parish school at
least from the seventh to the thirteenth year, unless the parents
can prove that it receives suitable instruction in other ways.
The schools are under the immediate control of school boards
appointed by the parish councils, but of which the incumbent of
the parish is ex-officio member; superior control is exercised by
the Amtmand, the rural dean, and the bishop, under the Minister
for church and education. Secondary public schools are provided
in towns, in which moderate school fees are paid. There are also
public grammar-schools. Nearly all schools are day-schools.
There are only two public schools, which, though on a much
smaller scale, resemble the great English schools, namely,
those of Soro and Herlufsholm, both founded by private munifi-
cence. Private schools are generally under a varying measure
of public control. The university is at Copenhagen (<?.».).
Amongst numerous other institutions for the furtherance of
science and training of various kinds may be mentioned the large
polytechnic schools; the high school for agriculture and veter-
inary art; the royal library; the royal society of sciences;
the museum of northern antiquities; the society of northern
antiquaries, &c. The art museums of Denmark are not consider-
able, except the museum of Thorvaldsen, at Copenhagen, but
much is done to provide first-rate training in the fine arts and
their application to industry through the Royal Academy of Arts,
and its schools. Finally, it may be mentioned that a sum
proportionately large is available from public funds and regular
parliamentary grants for furthering science and arts by temporary
subventions to students, authors, artists and others of insufficient
means, in order to enable them to carry out particular works, to
profit by foreign travel, &c. The principal scientific societies
and institutions are detailed under COPENHAGEN. During the
earlier part of the igth century not a few men could be mentioned
who enjoyed an exceptional reputation in various departments
of science, and Danish scientists continue to contribute their full
share to the advancement of knowledge. The society of sciences,
that of northern antiquaries, the natural history and the botani-
cal societies, &c., publish their transactions and proceedings,
but the Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift, of which 14 volumes with
259 plates were published (1861-1884), and which was in the
foremost rank in its department, ceased with the death in
1884 of the editor, the distinguished zoologist, I. C. Schiodte.

28

DENMARK

[HISTORY

Another extremely valuable publication of wide general interest,
the Meddelelser om Gronland, is published by the commission for
the exploration of Greenland. What may be called the modern
" art " current, with its virtues and vices, is as strong in Denmark
as in England. Danish sculpture will be always famous, if only
through the name of Thorvaldsen. In architecture the prevailing
fashion is a return to the style of the first half of the 1 7th century,
called the Christian IV. style; but in this branch of art no
marked excellence has been obtained.

AUTHORITIES. — J. P. Trap, Statistisk Topographisk Beskrivelse af
Kongeriget Danmark (Copenhagen, 1859-1860, 3 vols., 2nd ed., 1872-
1879); ». Falbe-Hansen and W. Scharling, Danmarks Statistik
(Copenhagen, 1878-1891, 6 vols.). (Various writers) Vort Folk i
del nittende Aarhundrede (Copenhagen, 1899 et seq.), illustrated;
J. Carlsen, H. Olrik and C. N. Starcke, Le Danemark (Copenhagen,
1900), 700 pp.; illustrated, published in connexion with the Paris
Exhibition. Statistisk Aarbog (1896, &c.). Annual publication,
and other publications of Statens Statistiske Bureau, Copenhagen ;
Annuaire meteorologique, Danish Meteorological Institution, Copen-
hagen; E. Loffler, Ddnemarks Natur and Volk (Copenhagen, 1905);
Margaret Thomas, Denmark Past and Present (London, 1902).

(C. A. G.;O. J. R. H.)
HISTORY

Ancient. — Our earliest knowledge of Denmark is derived
from Pliny, who speaks of three islands named " Skandiai," a
name which is also applied to Sweden. He says nothing about
the inhabitants of these islands, but tells us more about the
Jutish peninsula, or Cimbric Chersonese as he calls it. He
places the Saxons on the neck, above them the Sigoulones,
Sabaliggoi and Kobandoi, then the Chaloi, then above them the
Phoundousioi, then the Charondes and finally the Kimbroi.
He also mentions the three islands called Alokiai, at the northern
end of the peninsula. This would point to the fact that the
Limfjord was then open at both ends, and agree with Adam of
Bremen (iv. 16), who also speaks of three islands called Wendila,
Morse and Thud. The Cimbri and Charydes are mentioned in
the Monumentum Ancyranum as sending embassies to Augustus
in A.D. 5. The Promontorium Cimbrorum is spoken of in Pliny,
who says that the Sinus Codanus lies between it and Mons
Saevo. The latter place is probably to be found in the high-
lying land on the N.E. coast of Germany, and the Sinus Codanus
must be the S.W. corner of the Baltic, and not the whole sea.
Pomponius Mela says that the Cimbri and Teutones dwelt on the
Sinus Codanus, the latter also in Scandinavia (or Sweden). The
Romans believed that these Cimbri and Teutones were the same
as those who invaded Gaul and Italy at the end of the 2nd century
B.C. The Cimbri may probably be traced in the province of
Aalborg, formerly known as Himmerland; the Teutones, with
less certainty, may be placed in Thyth or Thyland, north of the
Limfjord. No further reference to these districts is found till
towards the close of the migration period, about the beginning of
the 6th century, when the Heruli (q.v.), a nation dwelling in or
near the basin of the Elbe, were overthrown by the Langobardi.
According to Procopius (Bellum Gothicum, ii. 15), a part of them
made their way across the " desert of the Slavs," through the
lands of the Warni and the Danes to Thoule (i.e. Sweden). This
is the first recorded use of the name " Danes." It occurs again
in Gregory of Tours (Historiae Francorum, iii. 3) in connexion
with an irruption of a Gotish (loosely called Danish) fleet into the
Netherlands (c. 520). From this time the use of the name is
fairly common. The heroic poetry of the Anglo-Saxons may
carry the name further back, though probably it is not very
ancient, at all events on the mainland.

According to late Danish tradition Denmark now consisted
of Vitheslaeth (i.e. Zealand, Moen, Falster and Laaland),
Jutland (with Fyen) and Skaane. Jutland was acquired by
Dan, the eponymous ancestor of the Danes. He also won
Skaane, including the modern provinces of Halland, Kristianstad,
Malmohus and Blekinge, and these remained part of Denmark
until the middle of the I7th century. These three divisions
always remained more or less distinct, and the Danish kings had
to be recognized at Lund, Ringsted and Viborg, but Zealand
was from time immemorial the centre of government, and Lejre
was the royal seat and national sanctuary. According to tradition

this dates from the time of Skioldr, the eponymous ancestor of the
Danish royal family of Skioldungar. He was a son of Othin and
husband of the goddess Gefjon, who created Zealand. Anglo-
Saxon tradition also speaks of Scyld (i.e. Skioldr), who was
regarded as the ancestor of both the Danish and English royal
families, and it represented him as coming as a child of unknown
origin in a rudderless boat. There can be little doubt that from
a remote antiquity Zealand had been a religious sanctuary,
and very probably the god Nerthus was worshipped here by the
Angli and other tribes as described in Tacitus (Germania, c. 40).
The Lejre sanctuary was still in existence in the time of Thietmar
of Merseburg (i. 9), at the beginning of the nth century.

In Scandinavian tradition the next great figure is Fr65e the
peace-king, but it is not before the sth century that we meet with
the names of any kings which can be regarded as definitely
historical. In Beowulf we hear of a Danish king Healfdene,
who had three sons, Heorogar, Hrothgar and Halga. The hero
Beowulf comes to the court of Hrothgar from the land of the
Gotar, where Hygelac is king. This Hygelac is undoubtedly to
be identified with the Chochilaicus, king of the Danes (really
Gotar) who, as mentioned above, made a raid against the Franks
c. 520. Beowulf himself won fame in this campaign, and by the
aid of this definite chronological datum we can place the reign
of Healfdene in the last half of the 5th century, and that of
Hrothgar's nephew Hrothwulf, son of Halga, about the middle
of the 6th century. Hrothgar and Halga correspond to Saxo's
Hroar and Helgi, while Hrothwulf is the famous Rolvo or
Hrolfr Kraki of Danish and Norse saga. There is probably some
historical truth in the story that Heoroweard or HiorvarSr was
responsible for the death of Hrolfr Kraki. Possibly a still earlier
king of Denmark was Sigarr or Sigehere, who has won lasting
fame from the story of his daughter Signy and her lover
HagbarSr.

From the middle of the 6th to the beginning of the Sth century
we know practically nothing of Danish history. There are
numerous kings mentioned in Saxo, but it is impossible to identify
them historically. We have mention at the beginning of the
8th century of a Danish king Ongendus (cf. O. E. Ongen^eow)
who received a mission led by St Willibrord, and it was probably
about this time that there flourished a family of whom tradition
records a good deal. The founder of this line was Ivarr VitSfaSmi
of Skaane, who became king of Sweden. His daughter AuSr
married one Hroerekr and became the mother of Haraldr
Hilditonn. The genealogy of Haraldr is given differently in Saxo,
but there can be no doubt of his historical existence. In his time
it is said that the land was divided into four kingdoms — Skaane,
Zealand, Fyen and Jutland. After a reign of great splendour
Haraldr met his death in the great battle of Bravalla (Bravik in
Ostergotland), where he was opposed by his nephew Ring, king
of Sweden.

The battle probably took place about the year 750. Fifty
years later the Danes begin to be mentioned with comparative
frequency in continental annals. From 777-798 we have mention
of a certain Sigifridus as king of the Danes, and then in 804 his
name is replaced by that of one Godefridus. This Godefridus
is the Godefridus-Guthredus of Saxo, and is to be identified also
with GuSroSr the Yngling, king in Vestfold in Norway. He came
into conflict with Charlemagne, and was preparing a great
expedition against him when he was killed by one of his own
followers (c. 810). He was succeeded by his brother Hemmingus,
but the latter died in 812 and there was a disputed succession.
The two claimants were " Sigefridus nepos Godefridi regis "
and " Anulo nepos Herioldi quondam regis " (i.e. probably
Haraldr Hilditonn). A great battle took place in which both
claimants were slam, but the party of Anulo (O.N. Ali) were
victorious and appointed as kings Anulo's brothers Herioldus
and Reginfridus. They soon paid a visit to Vestfold, " the
extreme district of their realm, whose peoples and chief men were
refusing to be made subject to them," and on their return had
trouble with the sons of Godefridus. The latter expelled them
from their kingdom, and in 814 Reginfridus fell in a vain attempt
to regain it. Herioldus now received the support of the emperor,

HISTORY]

DENMARK

29

and after several unsuccessful attempts a compromise was
effected in 819 when the parties agreed to share the realm.
In 820 Herioldus was baptized at Mainz and received from the
emperor a grant of Riustringen in N.E. Friesland. In 827 he
was expelled from his kingdom, but St Anskar, who had been sent
with Herioldus to preach Christianity, remained at his post. In
836 we find one Horic as king of the Danes; he was probably
a son of Godefridus. During his reign there was trouble with
the emperor as to the overlordship of Frisia. In the meantime
Herioldus remained on friendly terms with Lothair and received
a further grant of Walcheren and the neighbouring districts.
In 850 Horic was attacked by his own nephews and compelled
to share the kingdom with them, while in 852 Herioldus was
charged with treachery and slain by the Franks. In 854 a revo-
lution took place in Denmark itself. Horic's nephew Godwin,
returning from exile with a large following of Northmen, over-
threw his uncle in a three days' battle in which all members
of the royal house except one boy are said to have perished.
This boy now became king as " Horicus junior." Of his reign
we know practically nothing. The next kings mentioned are
Sigafrid and Halfdane, who were sons of the great Viking leader
Ragnarr LoSbrok. There is also mention of a third king named
Godefridus. The exact chronology and relationship of these
kings it is impossible to determine, but we know that Healfdene
died in Scotland in 877, while Godefridus was treacherously
slain by Henry of Saxony in 885. During these and the next
few years there is mention of more than one king of the names
Sigefridus and Godefridus: the most important event associated
with their names is that two kings Sigefridus and Godefridus fell
in the great battle on the Dyle in 891.

We now have the names of several kings, Heiligo, Olaph (of
Swedish origin), and his sons Chnob and Gurth. Then come a
Danish ruler Sigeric, followed by Hardegon, son of Swein, coming
from Norway. At some date after 916 we find mention of one
" Hardecnuth Urm " ruling among the Danes. Adam of Bremen,
from whom these details come, was himself uncertain whether
" so many kings or rather tyrants of the Danes ruled together or
succeeded one another at short intervals." Hardecnuth Urm
is to be identified with the famous Gorm the old, who married
Thyra Danmarkarbot: their son was Harold Bluetooth.

(A. Mw.)

Medieval and Modern. — Danish history first becomes authentic
at the beginning of the gth century. The Danes, the southern-
most branch of the Scandinavian family, referred to by Alfred
(c. 890) as occupying Jutland, the islands and Scania, were, in
777, strong enough to defy the Frank empire by harbouring
its fugitives. Five years later we find a Danish king, Sigfrid,
among the princes who assembled at Lippe in 782 to make
their submission to Charles the Great. About the same
time Willibrord, from his see at Utrecht, made an unsuccessful
attempt to convert the " wild Danes." These three salient
facts are practically the sum of our knowledge of early Danish
history previous to the Viking period. That mysterious upheaval,
most generally attributed to a love of adventure, stimulated by
the pressure of over-population, began with the ravaging of
Lindisfarne in 793, and virtually terminated with the establish-
ment of Rollo in Normandy (911). There can be little doubt
that the earlier of these expeditions were from Denmark, though
the term Northmen was originally applied indiscriminately to all
these terrible visitants from the unknown north. The rovers
who first chastened and finally colonized southern England and
Normandy were certainly Danes.

The Viking raids were one of the determining causes of the

establishment of the feudal monarchies of western Europe,

but the un tameable freebooters were themselves finally

Coa~. , subdued by the Church. At first sight it seems curious

version of ,-,,..

the Danes, that Christianity should have been so slow to reach
Denmark. But we must bear in mind that one very
important consequence of the Viking raids was to annihilate the
geographical remoteness which had hitherto separated Denmark
from the Christian world. Previously to 793 there lay between
Jutland and England a sea which no keel had traversed within

the memory of man. The few and peaceful traders who explored
those northern waters were careful never to lose sight of the
Saxon, Frisian and Prankish shores during their passage. Nor
was communication with the west by land any easier. For genera-
tions the obstinately -heathen Saxons had lain, a compact and
impenetrable mass, between Scandinavia and the Frank empire,
nor were the measures adopted by Charles the Great for the
conversion of the Saxons to the true faith very much to the
liking of their warlike Danish neighbours on the other side.
But by the time that Charles had succeeded in " converting "
the Saxons, the Viking raids were already at their height, and
though generally triumphant, necessity occasionally taught the
Northmen the value of concessions. Thus it was the desire
to secure his Jutish kingdom which induced Harold Klak, in
826, to sail up the Rhine to Ingelheim, and there accept
baptism, with his wife, his son Godfred and 400 of his suite,
acknowledging the emperor as his overlord, and taking back
with him to Denmark the missionary monk Ansgar. Ansgar
preached in Denmark from 826 to 861, but it was not till after
the subsidence of the Viking raids that Adaldag, archbishop
of Hamburg, could open a new and successful mission, which
resulted in the erection of the bishoprics of Schleswig, Ribe and
Aarhus (c. 948), though the real conversion of Denmark must be
dated from the baptism of King Harold Bluetooth (960).

Meanwhile the Danish monarchy was attempting to aggrandize
itself at the expense of the Germans, the Wends who then
occupied the Baltic littoral as far as the Vistula, and
the other Scandinavian kingdoms. Harold Bluetooth expansion,
(940-986) subdued German territory south of the
Eider, extended the Danevirke, Denmark's great line of defensive
fortifications, to the south of Schleswig and planted the military
colony of Julin or Jomsborg, at the mouth of the Oder. Part of
Norway was first seized after the united Danes and Swedes had
defeated and slain King Olaf Trygvesson at the battle of Svolde
(1000); and between 1028 and 1035 Canute the Great added the
whole kingdom to his own ; but the union did not long survive
him. Equally short-lived was the Danish dominion in England,
which originated in a great Viking expedition of King Sweyn I.

The period between the death of Canute the Great and the
accession of Valdemar I. was a troublous time for Denmark.
The k'' gdom was harassed almost incessantly, and Consollda-
more chan once partitioned,by pretenders to the throne, tloa of the
who did not scruple to invoke the interference of the ^j^rine
neighbouring monarchs, and even of the heathen vaide-
Wends, who established themselves for a time on mars,
the southern islands. Yet, throughout this chaos, one I1S7~
thing made for future stability, and that was the
growth and consolidation of a national church, which culmin-
ated in the erection of the archbishopric of Lund (c. 1104) and
the consequent ecclesiastical independence of Denmark. The
third archbishop of Lund was Absalon (1128-1201), Denmark's
first great statesman, who so materially assisted Valdemar I.
(1157-1182) and Canute VI. (1182-1202) to establish the
dominion of Denmark over the Baltic, mainly at the expense
of the Wends. The policy of Absalon was continued on a still
vaster scale by Valdemar II. (1202-1241), at a time when the
German kingdom was too weak and distracted to intervene to
save its seaboard; but the treachery of a vassal and the loss of
one great battle sufficed to plunge this unwieldy, unsubstantial
empire in the dust. (See VALDEMAR I., II., and ABSALON.)

Yet the age of the Valdemars was one of the most glorious in
Danish history, and it is of political importance as marking a
turning-point. Favourable circumstances had, from the first,
given the Danes the lead in Scandinavia. They held the richest
and therefore the most populous lands, and geographically
they were nearer than their neighbours to western civilization.
Under the Valdemars, however, the ancient patriarchal system
was merging into a more complicated development, of separate
estates. The monarchy, now dominant, and far wealthier than
before, rested upon the support of the great nobles, many of
whom held their lands by feudal tenure, and constituted the
royal Raod, or council. The clergy, fortified by royal privileges,

DENMARK

[HISTORY

had also risen to influence; but celibacy and independence of the
civil courts tended to make them mo*e and more of a separate
caste. Education was spreading. Numerous Danes, lay as well
as clerical, regularly frequented the university of Paris. There
were signs too of the rise of a vigorous middle class, due to the
extraordinary development of the national resources (chiefly
the herring fisheries, horse-breeding and cattle-rearing) and the
foundation of gilds, the oldest of which, the Edslag of Schleswig,
dates from the early iath century. The bonder, or yeomen, were
prosperous and independent, with well-defined rights. Danish
territory extended over 60,000 sq. kilometres, or nearly double
its present area; the population was about 700,000; and 160,000
men and 1400 ships were available for national defence.

On the death of Valdemar II. a period of disintegration ensued.
Valdemar's son, Eric Plovpenning, succeeded him as king; but

his near kinsfolk also received huge appanages, and
Period of family discords led to civil wars. Throughout the
aoa.t<>S!ra' X3th and Part of tke ^th century, the struggle raged

between the Danish kings and the Schleswig dukes;
and of six monarchs no fewer than three died violent deaths.
Superadded to these troubles was a prolonged struggle for
supremacy between the popes and the crown, and, still more
serious, the beginning of a breach between the kings and nobles,
which had important constitutional consequences. The prevalent
disorder had led to general lawlessness, in consequence of which
the royal authority had been widely extended; and a strong
opposition gradually arose which protested against the abuses
of this authority. In 1282 the nobles extorted from King Eric
Clipping the first Haandfoestning, or charter, which recognized
the Danehof, or national assembly, as a regular branch of the
administration and gave guarantees against further usurpations.
Christopher II. (1319-1331) was constrained to grant another
charter considerably reducing the prerogative, increasing the
privileges of the upper classes, and at the same time reducing the
burden of taxation. But aristocratic licence proved as mischiev-
ous as royal incompetence; and on the death of Christopher II.
the whole kingdom was on the verge of dissolution. Eastern
Denmark was in the hands of one magnate; another magnate
held Jutland and Fiinen in pawn; the dukes of Schleswig were
practically independent of the Danish crown; the Scandian pro-
vinces had (1332) surrendered themselves to Sweden.

It was reserved for another Valdemar (Valdemar IV., q.v.) to
reunite and weld together the scattered members of his heritage.
vaide- His long reign (1340-1375) resulted in the re-establish-
mariv., ment of Denmark as the great Baltic power. It is al&>

a very interesting period of her social and constitutional

development. This great ruler, who had to fight, year
after year, against foreign and domestic foes, could, nevertheless,
always find time to promote the internal prosperity of his much
afflicted country. For the dissolution of Denmark, during the
long anarchy, had been internal as well as external. The whole
social fabric had been convulsed and transformed. The monarchy
had been undermined. The privileged orders had aggrandized
themselves at the expense of the community. The yeoman class
had sunk into semi-serfdom. In a word, the natural cohesion of
the Danish nation had been loosened and there was no security
for law and justice. To make an end of this universal lawlessness
Valdemar IV. was obliged, in the first place, to re-establish the
royal authority by providing the crown with a regular and certain
income. This he did by recovering the alienated royal demesnes
in every direction, and from henceforth the annual landgilde, or
rent, paid by the royal tenants, became the monarch's principal
source of revenue. Throughout his reign Valdemar laboured
incessantly to acquire as much land as possible. Moreover, the
old distinction between the king's private estate and crown
property henceforth ceases; all such property was henceforth
regarded as the hereditary possession of the Danish crown.

The national army was also re-established on its ancient
footing. Not only were the magnates sharply reminded that they
held their lands on military tenure, but the towns were also made
to contribute both men and ships, and peasant levies, especially
archers, were recruited from every parish. Everywhere indeed

Valdemar intervened personally. The smallest detail was not
beneath his notice. Thus he invented nets for catching wolves
and built innumerable water-mills, " for he would not let the
waters run into the sea before they had been of use to the
community. ' ' Under such a ruler law and order were speedily re-
established. The popular tribunals regained their authority, and
a supreme court of justice, Del Kongelige Retterting, presided over
by Valdemar himself, not only punished the unruly and guarded
the prerogatives of the crown, but also protected the weak and
defenceless from the tyranny of the strong. Nor did Valdemar
hesitate to meet his people hi public and periodically render an
account of his stewardship. He voluntarily resorted to the old
practice of summoning national assemblies, the so-called Danehof.
At the first of these assemblies held at Nyborg, Midsummer Day
1314, the bishops and councillors solemnly promised that the
commonalty should enjoy all the ancient rights and privileges
conceded to them by Valdemar II., and the wise provision that
the Danehof should meet annually considerably strengthened its
authority. The keystone to the whole constitutional system was
" King Valdemar's Charter " issued in May 1360 at the Rigsmode,
or parliament, held at Kalundborg in May 1360. This charter
was practically an act of national pacification, the provisions
of which king and people together undertook to enforce for the
benefit of the commonweal.

The work of Valdemar was completed and consolidated by
his illustrious daughter Margaret (1375-1412), whose crowning
achievement was the Union of Kalmar (1397), whereby
she sought to combine the three northern kingdoms Tl" v"ioa
into a single state dominated by Denmark. In any ^^*tmar<
case Denmark was bound to be the only gainer by
the Union. Her population was double that of the two other
kingdoms combined, and neither Margaret nor her successors
observed the stipulations that each country should retain its own
laws and customs and be ruled by natives only. In both Norway
and Sweden, therefore, the Union was highly unpopular. The
Norwegian aristocracy was too weak, however, seriously to
endanger the Union at any time, but Sweden was, from the
first, decidedly hostile to Margaret's whole policy. Nevertheless
during her lifetime the system worked fairly well; but her pupil
and successor, Eric of Pomerania, was unequal to the burden
of empire and embroiled himself both with his neighbours and
his subjects. The Hanseatic League, whose political ascendancy
had been shaken by the Union, enraged by Eric's efforts to bring
in the Dutch as commercial rivals, as well as by the establish-
ment of the Sound tolls, materially assisted the Holsteiners in
their twenty-five years' war with Denmark (1410-35), and
Eric VII. himself was finally deposed (1439) in favour of his
nephew, Christopher of Bavaria.

The deposition of Eric marks another turning-point in Danish
history. It was the act not of the people but of the Rigsrood
(Senate), which had inherited the authority of the drouth Ot
ancient Danehof and, after the death of Margaret, the power
grew steadily in power at the expense of the crown. ofihe
As the government grew more and more aristocratic,
the position of the peasantry steadily deteriorated. It is under
Christopher that we first hear, for instance, of the Vornedskab, or
patriarchal control of the landlords over their tenants, a system
which degenerated into rank slavery. In Jutland, too, after
the repression, in 1441, of a peasant rising, something very like
serfdom was introduced.

On the death of Christopher III. without heirs, in 1448, the
Rigsraad elected his distant cousin, Count Christian of Oldenburg,
king; but Sweden preferred Karl Knutsson (Charles
" VIII."), while Norway finally combined with Den- Break-up
mark, at the conference of Halmstad, in a double
election which practically terminated the Union,
though an agreement was come to that the survivor of the two
kings should reign over all three kingdoms. Norway, subse-
quently, threw in her lot definitively with Denmark. Dissensions
resulting in interminable civil wars had, even before the Union,
exhausted the resources of the poorest of the three northern
realms; and her ruin was completed by the ravages of the Black

HISTORY]

DENMARK

Death, which wiped out two-thirds of her population. Unfortu-
nately, too, for Norway's independence, the native gentry had
gradually died out, and were succeeded by immigrant Danish
fortune-hunters; native burgesses there were none, and the
peasantry were mostly thralls; so that, excepting the clergy,
there was no patriotic class to stand up for the national
liberties.

Far otherwise was it in the wealthier kingdom of Sweden. Here
the clergy and part of the nobility were favourable to the Union;
but the vast majority of the people hated it as a foreign usurpa-
tion. Matters were still further complicated by the continual
interference of the Hanseatic League; and Christian I. (1448-
1481) and Hans (1481-1513), whose chief merit it is to have
founded the Danish fleet, were, during the greater part of their
reigns, only nominally kings of Sweden. Hans also received
in fief the territory of Dietmarsch from the emperor, but, in
attempting to subdue the hardy Dietmarschers, suffered a
crushing defeat in which the national banner called " Danebrog "
fell into the enemy's hands ( 1 500) . Moreover, this defeat led to a
successful rebellion in Sweden, and a long and ruinous war with
Lubeck, terminated by the peace of Malmo, 1512. It was during
this war that a strong Danish fleet dominated the Baltic for the
first time since the age of the Valdemars.

On the succession of Hans's son, Christian II. (1513-1523),
Margaret's splendid dream of a Scandinavian empire seemed,
finally, about to be realized. The young king, a man
//**««" °^ character and genius, had wide views and original
1523. ideas. Elected king of Denmark and Norway, he suc-

ceeded in subduing Sweden by force of arms; but
he spoiled everything at the culmination of his triumph by the
hideous crime and blunder known as the Stockholm massacre,
which converted the politically divergent Swedish nation into the
irreconcilable foe of the unional government (see CHRISTIAN
II.). Christian's contempt of nationality in Sweden is the more
remarkable as in Denmark proper he sided with the people
against the aristocracy, to his own undoing in that age of privilege
and prejudice. His intentions, as exhibited to his famous
Landelove (National Code), were progressive and enlightened to
an eminent degree; so much so, indeed, that they mystified
the people as much as they alienated the patricians; but his
actions were often of revolting brutality, and his whole career
was vitiated by an incurable double-mindedness which provoked
general distrust. Yet there is no doubt that Christian II. was
a true patriot, whose ideal it was to weld the three northern
kingdoms into a powerful state, independent of all foreign
influences, especially of German influence as manifested in the
commercial tyranny of the Hansa League. His utter failure was
due, partly to the vices of an undisciplined temperament, and
partly to the extraordinary difficulties of the most inscrutable
period of European history, when the shrewdest heads were at
fault and irreparable blunders belonged to the order of the day.
That period was the period of the Reformation, which profoundly
affected the politics of Scandinavia. Christian II. had always
subordinated religion to politics, and was Papist or Lutheran
according to circumstances. But, though he treated the Church
more like a foe than a friend and was constantly at war with the
Curia, he retained the Catholic form of church worship and never
seems to have questioned the papal supremacy. On the flight of
Christian II. and the election of his uncle, Frederick I. (1523-
Frederkk X533)> tne Church resumed her jurisdiction and every-
I.,1523- thing was placed on the old footing. The newly
1533. The elected and still insecure German king at first remained
ao'a""*' neutral; but in tne autumn of 1525 the current of
Lutheranism began to run so strongly in Denmark as
to threaten to whirl away every opposing obstacle. This novel
and disturbing phenomenon was mainly due to the zeal and
eloquence of the ex-monk Hans Tausen and his associates, or
disciples, Peder Plad and Sadolin; and, in the autumn of 1526,
Tausen was appointed one of the royal chaplains. The three
ensuing years were especially favourable for the Reformation,
as during that time the king had unlooked-for opportunities for
filling the vacant episcopal sees with men after his own heart,

and at heart he was a Lutheran. The reformation movement in
Denmark was further promoted by Schleswig-Holstein influence.
Frederick's eldest son Duke Christian had, since 1527, resided at
Haderslev, where he collected round him Lutheran teachers
from Germany, and made his court the centre of the propaganda
of the new doctrine. On the other hand, the Odense Recess of
the 20th of August 1527, which put both confessions on a footing
of equality, remained unrepealed; and so long as it remained in
force, the spiritual jurisdiction of the bishops, and, consequently,
their authority over the " free preachers " (whose ambition
convulsed all the important towns of Denmark and aimed
at forcibly expelling the Catholic priests from their churches)
remained valid, to the great vexation of the reformers. The
inevitable ecclesiastical crisis was still further postponed by the
superior stress of two urgent political events — Christian II. 's
invasion of Norway (1531) and the outbreak, in 1533, of
" Grevens fejde," or " The Count's War " (1534-36), no
the count in question being Christopher of Oldenburg, Count'*
great-nephew of King Christian I., whom Lubeck and War,
her allies, on the death of Frederick I., raised up lj?3~
against Frederick's son Christian III. The Catholic
party and the lower orders generally took the part of Count
Christopher, who acted throughout as the nominee of the captive
Christian II., while the Protestant party, aided by the Holstein
dukes and Gustavus Vasa of Sweden, sided with Christian III.
The war ended with the capture of Copenhagen by the forces of
Christian III., on the 2pth of July 1536, and the triumph of so
devoted a Lutheran sealed the fate of the Roman Catholic
Church in Denmark, though even now it was necessary for the
victorious king to proceed against the bishops and their friends
by a coup d'itat, engineered by his German generals the Rantzaus.
The Recess of 1536 enacted that the bishops should forfeit their
temporal and spiritual authority, and that all their property
should be transferred to the crown for the good of the common-
wealth. In the following year a Church ordinance, based upon
the canons of Luther, Melanchthon and Bugenhagen, was drawn
up, submitted to Luther for his approval, and promulgated on
the 2nd of September 1537. On the same day seven " super-
intendents," including Tausen and Sadolin, all of whom had
worked zealously for the cause of the Reformation, were
consecrated in place of the dethroned bishops. The position of
the superintendents and of the reformed church generally was
consolidated by the Articles of Ribe in 1542, and the constitution
of the Danish church has practically continued the same to the
present day. But Catholicism could not wholly or immediately
be dislodged by the teaching of Luther. It had struck deep
roots into the habits and feelings of the people, and traces of its
survival were distinguishable a whole century after the triumph
of the Reformation. Catholicism lingered longest in the cathedral
chapters. Here were to be found men of ability proof against
the eloquence of Hans Tausen or Peder Plad and quite capable
of controverting their theories — men like Povl Helgesen, for
instance, indisputably the greatest Danish theologian of his day,
a scholar whose voice was drowned amidst the clash of conflicting
creeds.

Though the Reformation at first did comparatively little for
education,1 and the whole spiritual life of Denmark was poor and
feeble in consequence for at least a generation after-
wards, the change of religion was of undeniable, if the K*_°
temporary, benefit to the state from the political formation.
point of view. The enormous increase of the royal
revenue consequent upon the confiscation of the property of the
Church could not fail to increase the financial stability of the
monarchy. In particular the suppression of the monasteries
benefited the crown in two ways. The old church had, indeed,
frequently rendered the state considerable financial aid, but such
voluntary assistance was, from the nature of the case, casual
and arbitrary. Now, however, the state derived a fixed and
certain revenue from the confiscated lands; and the possession

1 It is true the university was established on the 9th of September
1537. but its influence was of very gradual growth and small at
first.

DENMARK

[HISTORY

of immense landed property at the same time enabled the
crown advantageously to conduct the administration. The
gross revenue of the state is estimated to have risen threefold.
Before the Reformation the annual revenue from land averaged
400,000 bushels of corn; after the confiscations of Church
property it averaged 1,200,000 bushels. The possession of a
full purse materially assisted the Danish government in its
domestic administration, which was indeed epoch-making. It
enabled Christian III. to pay off his German mercenaries
immediately after the religious coup d'etat of 1536. It enabled
him to prosecute shipbuilding with such energy that, by. 1550,
the royal fleet numbered at least thirty vessels, which were
largely employed as a maritime police in the pirate-haunted
Baltic and North Seas. It enabled him to create and
remunerate adequately a capable official class, which proved
its efficiency under the strictest supervision, and ultimately
produced a whole series of great statesmen and admirals like
Johan Friis, Peder Oxe, Herluf Trolle and Peder Skram. It is
not too much to say that the increased revenue derived from the
appropriation of Church property, intelligently applied, gave
Denmark the hegemony of the North during the
latter Part of Christian III.'s reign, the whole reign
of of Frederick II. and the first twenty-five years of the

Denmark, reign of Christian IV., a period embracing, roughly
speaking, eighty years ( 1 544- 1626). Within this period
Denmark was indisputably the leading Scandinavian
power. While Sweden, even after the advent of Gustavus Vasa,
was still of but small account in Europe, Denmark easily held
her own in Germany and elsewhere, even against Charles V., and
was important enough, in 1553, to mediate a peace between the
emperor and Saxony. Twice during this period Denmark and
Sweden measured their strength in the open field, on the first
occasion in the " Scandinavian Seven Years' War" (1562-70),
on the second in the " Kalmar War" (1611-13), and on both
occasions Denmark prevailed, though the temporary advantage
she gained was more than neutralized by the intense feeling of
hostility which the unnatural wars, between the two kindred
peoples of Scandinavia, left behind them. Still, the fact remains
that, for a time, Denmark was one of the great powers of Europe.
Frederick II., in his later years (1571-1588), aspired to the
dominion of all the seas which washed the Scandinavian coasts,
and before he died he was able to enforce the rule that all foreign
ships should strike their topsails to Danish men-of-war as a token
of his right to rule the northern seas. Favourable political
circumstances also contributed to this general acknowledgment
of Denmark's maritime greatness. The power of the Hansa had
gone; the Dutch were enfeebled by their contest with Spain;
England's sea-power was yet in the making; Spain, still the
greatest of the maritime nations, was exhausting her resources
in the vain effort to conquer the Dutch. Yet more even than to
felicitous circumstances, Denmark owed her short-lived greatness
to the great statesmen and administrators whom Frederick II.
succeeded in gathering about him. Never before, since the age
of Margaret, had Denmark been so well governed, never before
had she possessed so many political celebrities nobly emulous for
the common good.

Frederick II. was succeeded by his son Christian IV. (April 4,
1588), who attained his majority on the i7th of August 1596, at
Denmark ^e age of nineteen. The realm which Christian IV. was
at the ac- to govern had undergone great changes within the last
cession of two generations. Towards the south the boundaries of
^v^isss ^e Danish state remained unchanged. Levensaa and
the Eider still separated Denmark from the Empire.
Schleswig was recognized as a Danish fief, in contradistinc-
tion to Holstein, which owed vassalage to the Empire. The
" kingdom " stretched as far as Kolding and Skedborg, where
the " duchy " began; and this duchy since its amalgamation
with Holstein by means of a common Landtag, and especially
since the union of the dual duchy with the kingdom on almost
equal terms in 1533, was, in most respects, a semi-independent
state. Denmark, moreover, like Europe in general, was, politic-
ally, on the threshold of a transitional period. During the whole

course of the i6th century the monarchical form of government
was in every large country, with the single exception of Poland,
rising on the ruins of feudalism. The great powers of the late
i6th and early ryth centuries were to be the strong, highly
centralized, hereditary monarchies, like France, Spain and
Sweden. There seemed to be no reason why Denmark also should
not become a powerful state under the guidance of a powerful
monarchy, especially as the sister state of Sweden was developing
into a great power under apparently identical conditions. Yet,
while Sweden was surely ripening into the dominating power of
northern Europe, Denmark had as surely entered upon a period
of uninterrupted and apparently incurable decline. What was
the cause of this anomaly ? Something of course must be allowed
for the superior and altogether extraordinary genius of the great
princes of the house of Vasa; yet the causes of the decline
of Denmark lay far deeper than this. They may roughly be
summed up under two heads: the inherent weakness of an
elective monarchy, and the absence of that public spirit which
is based on the intimate alliance of ruler and ruled. Whilst
Gustavus Vasa had leaned upon the Swedish peasantry, in other
words upon the bulk of the Swedish nation, which was and
continued to be an integral part of the Swedish body-politic,
Christian III. on his accession had crushed the middle and lower
classes in Denmark and reduced them to political insignificance.
Yet it was not the king who benefited by this blunder. The
Danish monarchy since the days of Margaret had continued to be
purely elective; and a purely elective monarchy at that stage of
the political development of Europe was a mischievous anomaly.
It signified in the first place that the crown was not the highest
power in the state, but was subject to the aristocratic Rigsraad,
or council of state. The Rigsraad was the permanent owner of the
realm and the crown-lands; the king was only their temporary
administrator. If the king died before the election of his
successor, the Rigsraad stepped into the king's place. Moreover,
an elective monarchy implied that, at every fresh succession, the
king was liable to be bound by a new Haandfaestning, or charter.
The election itself might, and did, become a mere formality;
but the condition precedent of election, the acceptance of
the charter, invariably limiting the royal authority, remained a
reality. This period of aristocratic rule, which dates practically
from the accession of Frederick I. (1523), and lasted for nearly
a century and a half, is known in Danish history as Adelsvaelde,
or rule of the nobles.

Again, the king was the ruler of the realm, but over a very
large portion of it he had but a slight control. The crown-lands
and most of the towns were under his immediate jurisdiction,
but by the side of the crown-lands lay the estates of the nobility,
which already comprised about one-half of the superficial area
of Denmark, and were in many respects independent of the central
government both as regards taxation and administration. In a
word, the monarchy had to share its dominion with the nobility;
and the Danish nobility in the i6th century was one of the most
exclusive and selfish aristocracies in Europe, and already far
advanced in decadence. Hermetically sealing itself from any
intrusion from below, it deteriorated by close and constant inter-
marriage; and it was already, both morally and intellectually,
below the level of the rest of the nation. Yet this very aristo-
cracy, whose claim to consideration was based not upon its own
achievements but upon the length of its pedigrees, insisted upon
an amplification of its privileges which endangered the economical
and political interests of the state and the nation. The time was
close at hand when a Danish magnate was to demonstrate that he
preferred the utter ruin of his country to any abatement of his
own personal dignity.

All below the king and the nobility were generally classified
together as " subjects." Of these lower orders the clergy stood
first in the social scale. As a spiritual estate, indeed, it had
ceased to exist at the Reformation, though still represented in the
Rigsdag or diet. Since then too it had become quite detached
from the nobility, which ostentatiously despised the teaching
profession. The clergy recruited themselves therefore from
the class next below them, and looked more and more to the

HISTORY]

DENMARK

33

crown for help and protection as they drew apart from
the gentry, who, moreover, as dispensers of patronage, lost no
opportunity of appropriating church lands and cutting down
tithes.

The burgesses had not yet recovered from the disaster of
" Grevens fejde"; but while the towns had become more
dependent on the central power, they had at the same time been
released from their former vexatious subjection to the local mag-
nates, and could make their voices heard in the Rigsdag, where
they were still, though inadequately, represented. Within the
Estate of Burgesses itself, too, a levelling process had begun.
The old municipal patriciate, which used to form the connecting
link between the bourgeoisie and the nobility, had disappeared,
and a feeling of common civic fellowship had taken its place.
All this tended to enlarge the political views of the burgesses, and
was not without its influence on the future. Yet, after all, the
prospects of the burgesses depended mainly on economic con-
ditions; and in this respect there was a decided improvement,
due to the increasing importance of money and commerce all
over Europe, especially as the steady decline of the Hanse towns
immediately benefited the trade of Denmark-Norway; Norway
by this time being completely merged in the Danish state,
and ruled from Copenhagen. There can, indeed, be no doubt
that the Danish and Norwegian merchants at the end of the
i6th century flourished exceedingly, despite the intrusion and
competition of the Dutch and the dangers to neutral shipping
arising from the frequent wars between England, Spain and
the Netherlands.

At the bottom of the social ladder lay the peasants, whose
condition had decidedly deteriorated. Only in one respect had
they benefited by the peculiar conditions of the i6th century:
the rise in the price of corn without any corresponding rise in the
land-tax must have largely increased their material prosperity.
Yet the number of peasant-proprietors had diminished, while
the obligations of the peasantry generally had increased; and,
still worse, their obligations were vexatiously indefinite, varying
from year to year and even from month to month. They
weighed especially heavily on the so-called Ugedasmaend, who
were forced to work two or three days a week in the demesne
lands. This increase of villenage morally depressed the peasantry,
and widened still further the breach between the yeomanry and
the gentry. Politically its consequences were disastrous. While
in Sweden the free and energetic peasant was a salutary power
in the state, which he served with both mind and plough, the
Danish peasant was sinking to the level of a bondman. While
the Swedish peasants were well represented in the Swedish
Riksdag, whose proceedings they sometimes dominated, the
Danish peasantry had no political rights or privileges what-
ever.

Such then, briefly, was the condition of things in Denmark
when, in 1 588, Christian IV. ascended the throne. Where so much
was necessarily uncertain and fluctuating, there was
iv S1S88- room f°r an almost infinite variety of development.
1648. Much depended on the character and personality of

the young prince who had now taken into his hands
the reins of government, and for half a century was to guide the
destinies of the nation. In the beginning of his reign the hand
of the young monarch, who was nothing if not energetic, made
itself felt in every direction. The harbours of Copenhagen,
Elsinore and other towns were enlarged; many decaying towns
were abolished and many new ones built under more promising
conditions, including Christiania, which was founded in August
1624, on the ruins of the ancient city of Oslo. Various attempts
were also made to improve trade and industry by abolishing the
still remaining privileges of the Hanseatic towns, by promoting
a wholesale immigration of skilful and well-to-do Dutch traders
and handicraftsmen into Denmark under most favourable
conditions, by opening up the rich fisheries of the Arctic seas,
and by establishing joint-stock chartered companies both in the
East and the West Indies. Copenhagen especially benefited by
Christian IV.'s commercial policy. He enlarged and embellished
it, and provided it with new harbours and fortifications; in short,

did his best to make it the worthy capital of a great empire.
But it was in the foreign policy of the government that the royal
influence was most perceptible. Unlike Sweden, Denmark had
remained outside the great religious-political movements which
were the outcome of the Catholic reaction; and the peculiarity
of her position made her rather hostile than friendly to the other
Protestant states. The possession of the Sound enabled her to
close the Baltic against the Western pcwers; the possession of
Norway carried along with it the control of the rich fisheries
which were Danish monopolies, and therefore a source of irrita-
tion to England and Holland. Denmark, moreover, was above
all things a Scandinavian power. While the territorial expansion
of Sweden in the near future was a matter of necessity, Denmark
had not only attained, but even exceeded, her natural limits.
Aggrandizement southwards, at the expense of the German
empire, was becoming every year more difficult; and in every
other direction she had nothing more to gain. Nay, more,
Denmark's possession of the Scanian provinces deprived Sweden
of her proper geographical frontiers. Clearly it was Denmark's
wisest policy to seek a close alliance with Sweden in their common
interests, and after the conclusion of the " Kalmar War " the
two countries did remain at peace for the next thirty-one years.
But the antagonistic interests of the two countries in Germany
during the Thirty Years' War precipitated a fourth contest
between them (1643-45), in which Denmark would have been
utterly ruined but for the heroism of King Christian IV. and his
command of the sea during the crisis of the struggle. Even so,
by the peace of Bromsebro (February 8, 1645)
Denmark surrendered the islands of Oesel and Gotland /osseg „/
and the provinces of Jemteland and Herjedal (in territory.
Norway) definitively, and Halland for thirty years.
The freedom from the Sound tolls was by the same treaty also
extended to Sweden's Baltic provinces.

The peace of Bromsebro was the first of the long series
of treaties, extending down to our own days, which mark the
progressive shrinkage of Danish territory into an irreducible
minimum. Sweden's appropriation of Danish soil had begun,
and at the same time Denmark's power of resisting the encroach-
ments of Sweden was correspondingly reduced. The Danish
national debt, too, had risen enormously, while the sources of
future income and consequent recuperation had diminished
or disappeared. The Sound tolls, for instance, in consequence of
the treaties of Bromsebro and Kristianopel (by the latter treaty
very considerable concessions were made to the Dutch) had sunk
from 400,000 to 140,000 rix-dollars. The political influence of
the crown, moreover, had inevitably been weakened, and the
conduct of foreign affairs passed from the hands of the king
into the hands of the Rigsraad. On the accession
of Frederick III. (1648-1670) moreover, the already IIL> '

>

diminished royal prerogative was still further curtailed 1670.
by the Haandfaestning, or charter, which he was
compelled to sign. Fear and hatred of Sweden, and the never
abandoned hope of recovering the lost provinces, animated king
and people alike; but it was Denmark's crowning misfortune
that she possessed at this difficult crisis no statesman of the first
rank, no one even approximately comparable with such com-
petitors as Charles X. of Sweden or the " Great Elector "
Frederick William of Brandenburg. From the very beginning
of his reign Frederick III. was resolved upon a rupture at the
first convenient opportunity, while the nation was, if possible,
even more bellicose than the king. The apparently insuperable
difficulties of Sweden in Poland was the feather that turned the
scale; on the ist of June 1657, Frederick III. signed the manifesto
justifying a war which was never formally declared and brought
Denmark to the very verge of ruin. The extraordinary details
of this dramatic struggle will be found elsewhere (see FREDERICK
III., king of Denmark, and CHARLES X., king of Sweden) ;
suffice it to say that by the peace of Roskilde
(February 26, 1658), Denmark consented to cede the
three Scanian provinces, the island of Bornholm and less.
the Norwegian provinces of Baahus and Trondhjem;
to renounce all anti-Swedish alliances and to exempt all Swedish

5

34

DENMARK

[HISTORY

llshed,
1660.

vessels, even when carrying foreign goods, from all tolls. These
terrible losses were somewhat retrieved by the subsequent
treaty of Copenhagen (May 27, 1660) concluded by the Swedish
regency with Frederick III. after the failure of Charles X.'s
second war against Denmark, a failure chiefly owing to the
heroic defence of the Danish capital (1658-60). By this treaty
Treaty of Sweden gave back the province of Trondhjem and the
Copeo- isle of Bornholm and released Denmark from the most
hagea, onerous of the obligations of the treaty of Roskilde.
In fact the peace of Copenhagen came as a welcome
break in an interminable series of disasters and humiliations.
Anyhow, it confirmed the independence of the Danish state.
On the other hand, if Denmark had emerged from the war with
her honour and dignity unimpaired, she had at the same time
tacitly surrendered the dominion of the North to her Scandi-
navian rival.

But the war just terminated had important political conse-
quences, which were to culminate in one of the most curious and
Hereditary interesting revolutions of modern history. In the first
monarchy place, it marks the termination of the Adelsvaelde, or
estab- rule of the nobility. By their cowardice, incapacity,
egotism and treachery during the crisis of the struggle,
the Danish aristocracy had justly forfeited the respect
of every other class of the community, and emerged from the
war hopelessly discredited. On the other hand, Copenhagen,
proudly conscious of her intrinsic importance and of her inestim-
able services to the country, whom she had saved from annihilation
by her constancy, now openly claimed to have a voice in public
affairs. Still higher had risen the influence of the crown. The
courage and resource displayed by Frederick III. in the extremity
of the national danger had won for " the least expansive of
monarchs " an extraordinary popularity.

On the loth of September 1660, the Rigsdug, which was to
repair the ravages of the war and provide for the future, was
opened with great ceremony in the Riddersaal of the castle
of Copenhagen. The first bill laid before the Estates by the
government was to impose an excise tax on the principal articles
of consumption, together with subsidiary taxes on cattle, poultry,
&c., in return for which the abolition of all the old direct taxes
was promised. The nobility at first claimed exemption from
taxation altogether, while the clergy and burgesses insisted upon
an absolute equality of taxation. There were sharp encounters
between the presidents of the contending orders, but the position
of the Lower Estates was considerably prejudiced by the dissen-
sions of its various sections. Thus the privileges of the bishops
and of Copenhagen profoundly irritated the lower clergy and
the unprivileged towns, and made a cordial understanding
impossible, till Hans Svane, bishop of Copenhagen, and Hans
Nansen the burgomaster, who now openly came forward as the
leader of the reform movement, proposed that the privileges
which divided the non-noble Estates should be abolished. In
accordance with this proposal, the two Lower Estates, on the
i6th of September, subscribed a memorandum addressed to the
Rigsraad, declaring their willingness to renounce their privileges,
provided the nobility did the same; which was tantamount to a
declaration that the whole of the clergy and burgesses had made
common cause against the nobility. The opposition so formed
took the name of the " Conjoined Estates." The presentation
of the memorial provoked an outburst of indignation. But the
nobility soon perceived the necessity of complete surrender.
On the 30th of September the First Estate abandoned its former
standpoint and renounced its privileges, with one unimportant
reservation.

The struggle now seemed to be ended, and the financial
question having also been settled, the king, had he been so
minded, might have dismissed the Estates. But the still more
important question of reform was now raised. On the I7th of
September the burgesses introduced a bill proposing a new
constitution, which was to include local self-government in the
towns, the abolition of serfdom, and the formation of a national
army. It fell to the ground for want of adequate support; but
another proposition, the fruit of secret discussion between the

king and his confederates, which placed all fiefs under the control
of the crown as regards taxation, and provided for selling and
letting them to the highest bidder, was accepted by the Estate
of burgesses. The significance of this ordinance lay in the fact
that it shattered the privileged position of the nobility, by
abolishing the exclusive right to the possession of fiefs. What
happened next is not quite clear. Our sources fail us, and we are
at the mercy of doubtful rumours and more or less unreliable
anecdotes. We have a vision of in trigues, mysterious conferences,
threats and bribery, dimly discernible through a shifting mirage
of tradition.

The first glint of light is a letter, dated the 23rd of September,
from Frederick III. to Svane and Nansen, authorizing them to
communicate the arrangements already made to reliable men,
and act quickly, as " if the others gain time they may possibly
gain more." The first step was to make sure of the city train-
bands: of the garrison of Copenhagen the king had no doubt.
The headquarters of the conspirators was the bishop's palace
near Vor Frue church, between which and the court messages
were passing continually, and where the document to be adopted
by the Conjoined Estates took its final shape. On the 8th of
October the two burgomasters, Hans Nansen and Kristoffer
Hansen, proposed that the realm of Denmark should be made
over to the king as a hereditary kingdom, without prejudice to
theprivilegesof the Estates ; whereupon they proceeded to Brewer's
Hall, and informed the Estate of burgesses there assembled
of what had been done. A fiery oration from Nansen dissolved
some feeble opposition; and simultaneously Bishop Svane
carried the clergy along with him. The so-called " Instrument,"
now signed by the Lower Estates, offered the realm to the king
and his house as a hereditary monarchy, by way of thank-offering
mainly for his courageous deliverance of the kingdom during
the war; and the Rigsraad and the nobility were urged to
notify the resolution to the king, and desire him to maintain
each Estate in its due privileges, and to give a written counter-
assurance that the revolution now to be effected was for the sole
benefit of the state. Events now moved forward rapidly. On
the loth of October a deputation from the clergy and burgesses
proceeded to the Council House where the Rigsraad were de-
liberating, to demand an answer to their propositions. After
a tumultuous scene, the aristocratic Raad rejected the " Instru-
ment " altogether, whereupon the deputies of the commons pro-
ceeded to the palace and were graciously received by the king,
who promised them an answer next day. The same afternoon
the guards in the streets and on the ramparts were doubled; on
the following morning the gates of the city were closed, powder
and bullets were distributed among the city train-bands, who
were bidden to be in readiness when the alarm bell called them,
and cavalry was massed on the environs of the city. The same
afternoon the king sent a message to the Rigsraad urging them
to declare their views quickly, as he could no longer hold himself
responsible for what might happen. After a feeble attempt
at a compromise the Raad gave way. On the I3th of October
it signed a declaration to the effect that it associated itself
still with the Lower Estates in the making over of the kingdom,
as a hereditary monarchy, to his majesty and his heirs male and
female. The same day the king received the official communi-
cation of this declaration and the congratulation of the burgo-
masters. Thus the ancient constitution was transformed; and
Denmark became a monarchy hereditary in Frederick III. and
his posterity.

But although hereditary sovereignty had been introduced, the
laws of the land had not been abolished. The monarch was
specifically now a sovereign over-lord, but he had not been
absolved from his obligations towards his subjects. Hereditary
sovereignty per se was not held to signify unlimited dominion,
still less absolutism. On the contrary, the magnificent gift of
the Danish nation to Frederick III. wa? made under express
conditions. The " Instrument " drawn up by the Lower
Estates implied the retention of all their rights; and the king,
in accepting the gift of a hereditary crown, did not repudi-
ate the implied inviolability of the privileges of the donors.

HISTORY]

DENMARK

35

Unfortunately everything had been left so vague, that it was
an easy matter for ultra-royalists like Svane and Nansen to
ignore the privileges of the Estates, and even the Estates
themselves.

On the 1 4th of October a committee was summoned to the
palace to organize the new government. The discussion turned
mainly upon two points, (i) whether a new oath of homage should
be taken to the king, and (2) what was to be done with the
Haandfaestning or royal charter. The first point was speedily
decided in the affirmative, and, as to the second, it was ultimately
decided that the king should be released from his oath and the
charter returned to him ; but a rider was added suggesting that
he should, at the same time, promulgate a Recess providing for
his own and his people's welfare. Thus Frederick III. was not
left absolutely his own master; for the provision regarding a
Recess, or new constitution, showed plainly enough that such
a constitution was expected, and, once granted, would of course
have limited the royal power.

It now only remained to execute the resolutions of the com-
mittee. On the 1 7th of October the charter, which the king had
sworn to observe twelve years before, was solemnly handed back
to him at the palace, Frederick III. thereupon promising to rule
as a Christian king to the satisfaction of all the Estates of the
realm. On the following clay the king, seated on the topmost
step of a lofty tribune surmounted by a baldaquin, erected in the
midst of the principal square of Copenhagen, received the public
homage of his subjects of all ranks, in the presence of an immense
concourse, on which occasion he again promised to rule " as a
Christian hereditary king and gracious master," and, " as soon as
possible, to prepare and set up " such a constitution as should
secure to his subjects a Christian and indulgent sway. The
ceremony concluded with a grand banquet at the palace. After
dinner the queen and the clergy withdrew; but the king remained.
An incident now occurred which made a strong impression on all
present. With a brimming beaker in his hand, Frederick III.
went up to Hans Nansen, drank with him and drew him aside.
They communed together in a low voice for some time, till the
burgomaster, succumbing to the influence of his potations,
fumbled his way to his carriage with the assistance of some of
his civic colleagues. Whether Nansen, intoxicated by wine
and the royal favour, consented on this occasion to sacrifice the
privileges of his order and his city, it is impossible to say; but
it is significant that, from henceforth, we hear no more of the
Recess which the more liberal of the leaders of the lower
orders had hoped for when they released Frederick III. from
the obligations of the charter.

We can follow pretty plainly the stages of the progress from
a limited to an absolute monarchy. By an act dated the icth
Establish- °^ JanuarY 1661, entitled " Instrument, or pragmatic
meat of sanction," of the king's hereditary right to the king-
absolute doms of Denmark and Norway, it was declared that
all the prerogatives of majesty.'and " all regalia as an
absolute sovereign lord," had been made over to the king. Yet,
even after the issue of the " Instrument," there was nothing,
strictly speaking, to prevent Frederick III. from voluntarily
conceding to his subjects some share in the administration.
Unfortunately the king was bent upon still further emphasizing
the plenitude of his power. At Copenhagen his advisers were
busy framing drafts of a Lex Regia Perpetua ; and the one
which finally won the royal favour was the famous Kongelov, or
" King's Law."

This document was in every way unique. In the first place
it is remarkable for its literary excellence. Compared with the
barbarous macaronic jargon of the contemporary official language
it shines forth as a masterpiece of pure, pithy and original
Danish. Still more remarkable are the tone and tenor of this
royal law. The Kongelov has the highly dubious honour of being
the one written law in the civilized world which fearlessly carries
out absolutism to the last consequences. The monarchy is de-
clared to owe its origin to the surrender of the supreme authority
by the Estates to the king. The maintenance of the indivisi-
bility of the realm and of the Christian faith according to the

Augsburg Confession, and the observance of the Kongelov itself,
are now the sole obligations binding upon the king. The supreme
spiritual authority also is now claimed; and it is expressly stated
that it becomes none to crown him ; the moment he ascends the
throne, crown and sceptre belong to him of right. Moreover,
par. 26 declares guilty of llse-majestt whomsoever shall in any
way usurp or infringe the king's absolute authority. In the
following reign the ultra-royalists went further still. In their
eyes the king was not merely autocratic, but sacrosanct. Thus
before the anointing of Christian V. on the 7th of June 1671, a
ceremony by way of symbolizing the new autocrat's humble
submission to the Almighty, the officiating bishop of Zealand
delivered an oration in which he declared that the king was God's
immediate creation, His vicegerent on earth, and that it was the
bounden duty of all good subjects to serve and honour the
celestial majesty as represented by the king's terrestrial majesty.
The Kongelov is dated and subscribed the I4th of November
1665, but was kept a profound secret, only two initiated persons
knowing of its existence until after the death of Frederick III.,
one of them being Kristoffer Gabel, the king's chief intermediary
during the revolution, and the other the author and custodian
of the Kongelov, Secretary Peder Schumacher, better known as
Griffenfeldt. It is significant that both these confidential agents
were plebeians.

The revolution of 1660 was certainly beneficial to Norway.
With the disappearance of the Rigsraad, which, as representing
the Danish crown, had hitherto exercised sovereignty Effa^ of
over both kingdoms, Norway ceased to be a subject the revoiu-
principality. The sovereign hereditary king stood in tloa of
exactly the same relations to both kingdoms; and 1660'
thus, constitutionally, Norway was placed on an equality with
Denmark, united with but not subordinate to it. It is clear
that the majority of the Norwegian people hoped that the
revolution would give them an administration independent
of the Danish government; but these expectations were not
realised. Till the cessation of the Union in 1814, Copenhagen
continued to be the headquarters of the Norwegian administra-
tion; both kingdoms had common departments of state; and
the common chancery continued to be called the Danish chancery.
On the other hand the condition of Norway was now greatly
improved. In January 1661 a land commission was appointed
to investigate the financial and economical conditions of the
kingdoms; the fiefs were transformed into counties; the nobles
were deprived of their immunity from taxation; and in July
1662 the Norwegian towns received special privileges, including
the monopoly of the lucrative timber trade.

The Enevaelde, or absolute monarchy, also distinctly benefited
the whole Danish state by materially increasing its reserve of
native talent. Its immediate consequence was to throw open
every state appointment to the middle classes; and the middle
classes of that period, with very few exceptions, monopolized the
intellect and the energy of the nation. New blood of the best
quality nourished and stimulated the whole body politic. Ex-
pansion and progress were the watchwords at home, and abroad
it seemed as if Denmark were about to regain her
former position as a great power. This was especially
the case during the brief but brilliant administration
of Chancellor Griffenfeldt. Then, if ever, Denmark
had the chance of playing once more a leading part in inter-
national politics. But Griffenfeldt's difficulties, always serious,
were increased by the instability of the European situation,
depending as it did on the ambition of Louis XIV. Resolved to
conquer the Netherlands, the French king proceeded, first of all,
to isolate her by dissolving the Triple Alliance. (See SWEDEN
and GRIFFENFELDT.) In April 1672 a treaty was concluded
between France and Sweden, on condition that France should not
include Denmark in her system of alliances without the consent
of Sweden. This treaty showed that Sweden weighed more in
the French balances than Denmark. In June 1672 a French
army invaded the Netherlands; whereupon the elector of
Brandenburg contracted an alliance with the emperor Leopold,
to which Denmark was invited to accede; almost simultaneously

DENMARK

[HISTORY

the States-General began to negotiate for a renewal of the recently
expired Dano-Dutch alliance.

In these circumstances it was as difficult for Denmark to
remain neutral as it was dangerous for her to make a choice.
a'liance with France would subordinate her to

Denmark

in the Sweden ; an alliance with the Netnerlands would expose
Great her to an attack from Sweden. The Franco-Swedish
wZr"1"' alliance left Griffenfeldt no choice but to accede to the
opposite league, for he saw at once that the ruin of the
Netherlands would disturb the balance of power in the north by
giving an undue preponderance to England and Sweden. But
Denmark's experience of Dutch promises in the past was not
reassuring; so, while negotiating at the Hague for a renewal of
the Dutch alliance, he at the same time felt his way at Stockholm
towards a commercial treaty with Sweden. His Swedish mission
proved abortive, but, as he had anticipated, it effectually acceler-
ated the negotiations at the Hague, and frightened the Dutch
into unwonted liberality. In May 1673 a treaty of alliance was
signed by the ambassador of the States-General at Copenhagen,
whereby the Netherlands pledged themselves to pay Denmark
large subsidies in return for the services of 10,000 men and
twenty warships, which were to be held in readiness in case the
United Provinces were attacked by another enemy besides
France. Thus, very dexterously, Griffenfeldt had succeeded in
gaining his subsidies without sacrificing his neutrality.

His next move was to attempt to detach Sweden from France;
but, Sweden showing not the slightest inclination for a rapproche-
ment, Denmark was compelled to accede to the anti-French
league, which she did by the treaty of Copenhagen, of January
1674, thereby engaging to place an army of 20,000 in the field
when required; but here again Griffenfeldt safeguarded himself
to some extent by stipulating that this provision was not to be
operative till the allies were attacked by a fresh enemy. When,
in December 1674, a Swedish army invaded Prussian Pomerania,
Denmark was bound to intervene as a belligerent, but Griffen-
feldt endeavoured to postpone this intervention as long as
possible; and Sweden's anxiety to avoid hostilities with her
southern neighbour materially assisted him to postpone the evil
day. He only wanted to gain time, and he gained it. To the last
he endeavoured to avoid a rupture with France even if he broke
with Sweden; but he could not restrain for ever the foolish
impetuosity of his own sovereign, Christian V., and his fall in
the beginning of 1676 not only, as he had foreseen, involved
Denmark in an unprofitable war, but, as his friend and disciple,
Jens Juel, well observed, relegated her henceforth to the humiliat-
ing position of an international catspaw. Thus at the peace of
Fontainebleau (September 2, 1679) Denmark, which had borne
the brunt of the struggle in the Baltic, was compelled by the
inexorable French king to make full restitution to Sweden, the
treaty between the two northern powers being signed at Lund
on the 26th of September. Freely had she spent her blood and
her treasure, only to emerge from the five years' contest exhausted
and empty-handed.

By the peace of Fontainebleau Denmark had been sacrificed
to the interests of France and Sweden; forty-one years later she
was sacrificed to the interests of Hanover and Prussia by the
peace of Copenhagen (1720), which ended the Northern War so
far as the German powers were concerned. But it would not
have terminated advantageously for them at all, had not the
powerful and highly efficient Danish fleet effectually prevented
the Swedish government from succouring its distressed German
provinces, and finally swept the Swedish fleets out of the northern
waters. Yet all the compensation Denmark received for her
inestimable services during a whole decade was 600,000 rix-
dollars! The bishoprics of Bremen and Verden, the province of
Farther Pomerania and the isle of Riigen which her armies had
actually conquered, and which had been guaranteed to her by a
whole catena of treaties, went partly to the upstart electorate
of Hanover and partly to the upstart kingdom of Prussia, both of
which states had been of no political importance whatever at the
beginning of the war of spoliation by which they were, ultimately,
to profit so largely and so cheaply.

The last ten years of the reign of Christian V.'s successor,
Frederick IV. (1690-1730), were devoted to the nursing and
development of the resources of the country, which had
suffered only less severely than Sweden from the effects
of the Great Northern War. The court, seriously pious,
did much for education. A wise economy also contri-
buted to reduce the national debt within manageable limits, and
in the welfare of the peasantry Frederick IV. took a deep interest.
In 1722 serfdom was abolished in the case of all peasants in the
royal estates born after his accession.

The first act of Frederick's successor, Christian VI. (1730-1746),
was to abolish the national militia, which had been an intoler-
able burden upon the peasantry; yet the more pressing
agrarian difficulties were not thereby surmounted, chrlstlaa
as had been hoped. The price of corn continued ij46?3°~
to fall; the migration of the peasantry assumed
alarming proportions; and at last, " to preserve the land " as
well as to increase the defensive capacity of the country, the
national militia was re-established by the decree of the 4th of
February 1733, which at the same time bound to the soil all
peasants between the age of nine and forty. Reactionary as the
measure was it enabled the agricultural interest, on which the
prosperity of Denmark mainly depended, to tide over one of the
most dangerous crises in its history; but certainly the position
of the Danish peasantry was never worse than during the reign
of the religious and benevolent Christian VI.

Under the peaceful reign of Christian's son and successor,
Frederick V. (1746-1766), still more was done for commerce,
industry and agriculture. To promote Denmark's
carrying trade, treaties were made with the Barbary
States, Genoa and Naples; and the East Indian
Trading Company flourished exceedingly. On the
other hand the condition of the peasantry was even worse under
Frederick V. than it had been under Christian VI., the Stavns-
baand, or regulation which bound all males to the soil, being
made operative from the age of four. Yet signs of a coming
amelioration were not wanting. The theory of the physiocrats
now found powerful advocates in Denmark; and after 1755, when
the press censorship was abolished so far as regarded political
economy and agriculture, a thorough discussion of the whole
agrarian question became possible. A commission appointed
in 1757 worked zealously for the repeal of many agricultural
abuses; and several great landed proprietors introduced heredi-
tary leaseholds, and abolished the servile tenure.

Foreign affairs during the reigns of Frederick V. and Christian
VI. were left in the capable hands of J. H. E. Bernstorff, who
aimed at steering clear of all foreign complications and preserving
inviolable the neutrality of Denmark. This he succeeded in
doing, in spite of the Seven Years' War and of the difficulties
attending the thorny Gottorp question in which Sweden and
Russia were equally interested. The same policy was victori-
ously pursued by his nephew and pupil Andreas Bernstorff, an
even greater man than the elder Bernstorff, who controlled the
foreign policy of Denmark from 1773 to 1778, and again from
1784 till his death in 1797. The period of the younger
Bernstorff synchronizes with the greater part of the
long reign of Christian VII. (1766-1808), one of the
most eventful periods of modern Danish history. The
king himself was indeed a semi-idiot, scarce responsible for his
actions, yet his was the era of such striking personalities as
the brilliant charlatan Struensee, the great philanthropist and
reformer C. D. F. Reventlow, the ultra-conservative Ove
Hoegh-Guldberg, whose mission it was to repair'the damage done
by Struensee, and that generation of alert and progressive spirits
which surrounded the young crown prince Frederick, whose first
act, on taking his seat in the council of state, at the age of
sixteen, on the 4th of April 1784, was to dismiss Guldberg.

A fresh and fruitful period of reform now began, lasting till
nearly the end of the century, and interrupted only by the brief
but costly war with Sweden in 1788. The emancipation of
the peasantry was now the burning question of the day, and
the whole matter was thoroughly ventilated. Bernstorff and the

HISTORY]

DENMARK

37

crown prince were the most zealous advocates of the peasantry
in the council of state; but the honour of bringing the whole
peasant question within the range of practical politics un-
doubtedly belongs to C. D. F. Reventlow (<?.».). Nor was the
reforming principle limited to the abolition of serfdom. In 1788
the corn trade was declared free; the Jews received civil rights;
and the negro slave trade was forbidden. In 1796 a special
ordinance reformed the whole system of judicial procedure,
making it cheaper and more expeditious; while the toll ordinance
of the ist of February 1797 still further extended the principle
of free trade. Moreover, until two years after Bernstorff's death
in 1797, the Danish press enjoyed a larger freedom of speech than
the press of any other absolute monarchy in Europe, so much so
that at last Denmark became suspected of favouring Jacobin
views. But in September 1799 under strong pressure from
the Russian emperor Paul, the Danish government forbade
anonymity, and introduced a limited censorship.

It was Denmark's obsequiousness to Russia which led to the
first of her unfortunate collisions with Great Britain. In 1800
Denmark tne Danis!l government was persuaded by the tsar
and Great to accede to the second Armed Neutrality League,
Britain la which Russia had just concluded with Prussia and
theNapo- Sweden. Great Britain retaliated by laying an
^art embargo on the vessels of the three neutral powers,
and by sending a considerable fleet to the Baltic under
the command of Parker and Nelson. Surprised and unprepared
though they were, the Danes, nevertheless, on the 2nd of April
1801, offered a gallant resistance; but their fleet was destroyed,
their capital bombarded, and, abandoned by Russia, they were
compelled to submit to a disadvantageous peace.

The same vain endeavour of Denmark to preserve her neutrality
led to the second breach with England. After the peace of Tilsit
there could be no further question of neutrality. Napoleon had
determined that if Great Britain refused to accept Russia's
mediation, Denmark, Sweden and Portugal were to be forced to
close their harbours to her ships and declare war against her.
It was the intention of the Danish government to preserve its
neutrality to the last, although, on the whole, it preferred an
alliance with Great Britain to a league with Napoleon, and was
even prepared for a breach with the French emperor if he pressed
her too hardly. The army had therefore been assembled in
Holstein, and the crown prince regent was with it. But the
British government did not consider Denmark strong enough to
resist France, and Canning had private trustworthy information
of the designs of Napoleon, upon which he was bound to act. He
sent accordingly a fleet, with 30,00x3 men on board, to the Sound
to compel Denmark, by way of security for her future conduct,
to unite her fleet with the British fleet. Denmark was offered
an alliance, the complete restitution of her fleet after the war, a
guarantee of all her possessions, compensation for all expenses,
and even territorial aggrandizement.

Dictatorially presented as they were, these terms were liberal
and even generous; and if a great statesman like Bernstorff
had been at the head of affairs in Copenhagen, he would, no
doubt, have accepted them, even if with a wry face. But the
prince regent, if a good patriot, was a poor politician, and
invincibly obstinate. When, therefore, in August 1807, Gambier
arrived in the Sound, and the English plenipotentiary Francis
James Jackson, not perhaps the most tactful person that could
have been chosen, hastened to Kiel to place the British demands
before the crown prince, Frederick not only refused to negotiate,
but ordered the Copenhagen authorities to put the city in the best
state of defence possible. Taking this to be tantamount to a
declaration of war, on the i6th of August the British army
landed at Vedback; and shortly afterwards the Danish capital
was invested. Anything like an adequate defence was hopeless;
Loss of a bombardment began which lasted from the 2nd of
Norway. September till the sth of September, and ended with
tne caP!tulat'on °f tne city and the surrender of the
fleet intact, the prince regent having neglected to give
orders for its destruction. After this Denmark, unwisely, but
not unnaturally, threw herself into the arms of Napoleon and

continued to be his faithful ally till the end of the war. She was
punished for her obstinacy by being deprived of Norway, which
she was compelled to surrender to Sweden by the terms of the
treaty of Kiel (1814), on the I4th of January, receiving by way
of compensation a sum of money and Swedish Pomerania, with
Riigen, which were subsequently transferred to Prussia in ex-
change for the duchy of Lauenburg and 2,000,000 rix-dollars.

On the establishment of the German Confederation in 1815,
Frederick VI. acceded thereto as duke of Holstein, but refused
to allSw Schleswig to enter it, on the ground that Schleswig was
an integral part of the Danish realm.

The position of Denmark from 1815 to 1830 was one of great
difficulty and distress. The loss of Norway necessitated consider-
able reductions of expenditure, but the economies
actually practised fell far short of the requirements of
the diminished kingdom and its depleted exchequer;
while the agricultural depression induced by the enormous fall in
the price of corn all over Europe caused fresh demands upon
the state, and added 10,000,000 rix-dollars to the national debt
before 1835. The last two years of the reign of Frederick VI.
(1838-1839) were also remarkable for the revival of political life,
provincial consultative assemblies being established for Jutland,
the Islands, Schleswig and Holstein, by the ordinance of the 28th
of May 1831. But these consultative assemblies were regarded
as insufficient by the Danish Liberals, and during the last years
of Frederick VI. and the whole reign of his successor, Christian
VIII. (1839-1848), the agitation for a free constitution,
both in Denmark and the duchies, continued to grow
in strength, in spite of press prosecutions and other
repressive measures. The rising national feeling in Beginnings
Germany also stimulated the separatist tendencies otthe
of the duchies; and " Schleswig-Holsteinism," as fioiste^n^
it now began to be called, evoked in Denmark the Question.
counter-movement known as Eiderdansk-polilik,
i.e. the policy of extending Denmark to the Eider and
obliterating German Schleswig, in order to save Schleswig
from being absorbed by Germany. This division of national
sentiment within the monarchy, complicated by the ap-
proaching extinction of the Oldenburg line of the house of
Denmark, by which, in the normal course under the Salic law,
the succession to Holstein would have passed away from the
Danish crown, opened up the whole complicated Schleswig-
Holstein Question with all its momentous consequences. (See
ScHLESWic-HoLSTEiN QUESTION.) Within the monarchy itself,
during the following years, " Schleswig-Holsteinism " and
" Eiderdanism " faced each other as rival, mutually exacerbating
forces; and the efforts of succeeding governments to solve the
insoluble problem broke down ever on the rock of nationalist
passion and the interests of the German powers. The unionist
constitution, devised by Christian VIII., and pro- uaioaist
mulgated by his successor, Frederick VII. ( 1 848-1 863) , constita-
on the 28th of January 1848, led to the armed inter- Honor
vention of Prussia, at the instance of the new German I84S' aaa
parliament at. Frankfort; and, though with the help
of Russian and British diplomacy, the Danes were
ultimately successful, they had to submit, in 1851, to the
government of Holstein by an international commission consisting
of three members, Prussian, Austrian and Danish respectively.

Denmark, meanwhile, had been engaged in providing herself
with a parliament on modern lines. The constitutional rescript
of the 28th of January 1848 had been withdrawn in favour of an
electoral law for a national assembly, of whose 152 members
38 were to be nominated by the king and to form an Upper
House (Landsting) , while the remainder were to be elected by
the people and to form a popular chamber (Folkeiing). The
Bondevenlige, or philo-peasant party, which objected to the king's
right of nomination and preferred a one-chamber system, now
separated from the National Liberals on this point. But the
National Liberals triumphed at the general election; fear of
reactionary tendencies finally induced the Radicals to accede to
the wishes of the majority; and on the sth of June 1849 the new
constitution received the royal sanction.

DENMARK

[HISTORY

At this stage Denmark's foreign relations prejudicially affected
her domestic politics. The Liberal Eiderdansk party was for
Qermaay dividing Schleswig into three distinct administrative
»ad the belts, according as the various nationalities predomin-
Danish ated (language rescripts of i85i),butGermansentiment
duchies. was Opp0se({ to anv such settlement and, still worse,
the great continental powers looked askance on the new Danish
constitution as far too democratic. The substance of the notes
embodying the exchange of views, in 1851 and 1852, between the
German great powers and Denmark, was promulgated, dn the
28th of January 1852, in the new constitutional decree which,
together with the documents on which it was founded, was known

as the Conventions of 1851 and 1852. Under this

onven- arrangement each part of the monarchy was to have

1852? local autonomy, with a common constitution for

common affairs. Holstein was now restored to
Denmark, and Prussia and Austria consented to take part in the
conference of London, by which the integrity of Denmark was
upheld, and the succession to the whole monarchy settled on
Prince Christian, youngest son of Duke William of Schleswig-
Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg, and husband of Louise of
Hesse, the niece of King Christian VIII. The " legitimate "
heir to the duchies, under the Salic law, Duke Christian of
Sonderburg-Augustenburg, accepted the decision of the London
conference in consideration of the purchase by the Danish
government of his estates in Schleswig.

On the 2nd of October 1855 was promulgated the new common
constitution, which for two years had been the occasion of a

fierce contention between the Conservatives and the
Constitu- Racjicais. it proved no more final than its predecessors.
isss. The representatives of the duchies in the new common

Rigsraod protested against it, as subversive of the Con-
ventions of 1851 and 1852; and their attitude had the support
of the German powers. In 1857, Carl Christian Hall (q.v.) became
prime minister. After putting off the German powers by seven
years of astute diplomacy, he realized the impossibility of carrying
out the idea of a common constitution and, on the 3oth of March
1862, a royal proclamation was issued detaching Holstein as far
as possible from the common monarchy. Later in the year he

introduced into the Rigsraad a common constitution
tio'not"' f°r Denmark and Schleswig, which was carried through
1863 and and confirmed by the council of state on the I3th of
accession November 1863. It had not, however, received the

royal assent when the death of Frederick VII. brought

the " Protocol King " Christian IX. to the throne.
Placed between the necessity of offending his new subjects or
embroiling himself with the German powers, Christian chose the
remoter evil and, on the i8th of November, the new constitution
became law. This once more opened up the whole question in an
acute form. Frederick, son of Christian of Augustenburg, refus-
ing to be bound by his father's engagements, entered Holstein
and, supported by the Estates and the German diet, proclaimed
himself duke. The events that followed: the occupation of the

duchies by Austria and Prussia, the war of 1864,

gallantly fought by the Danes against overwhelming
War of odds, and the astute diplomacy by which Bismarck
1864, and succeeded in ultimately gaining for Prussia the seaboard
cess/ooo/ SQ essential for her maritime power, are dealt with
duchies. elsewhere (see ScHLESwic-HoLSTEiN QUESTION). For

Denmark the question was settled when, by the peace
of Vienna (October 30, 1864), the duchies were irretrievably
lost to her. At the peace of Prague, which terminated the
Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Napoleon III. procured the in-
sertion in the treaty of paragraph v., by which the northern
districts of Schleswig were to be reunited to Denmark when the
majority of the population by a free vote should so desire; but
when Prussia at last thought fit to negotiate with Denmark
on the subject, she laid down conditions which the Danish
government could not accept. Finally, in 1878, by a separate
agreement between Austria and Prussia, paragraph v. was
rescinded.

The salient feature of Danish politics during subsequent years

of Chris
tlan IX.

was the struggle between the two Tings, the Folketing or Lower
House, and the Landsting, or Upper House of the
Rigsdag. This contest began in 1872, when a com- 2^"""
bination of all the Radical parties, known as the struggles
" United Left," passed a vote of want of confidence l"Dea-
against the government and rejected the budget, ^j£J* sla<*
Nevertheless, the ministry, supported by the Landsting,
refused to resign; and the crisis became acute when, in 1875,
J. B. Estrup became prime minister. Perceiving that the coming
struggle would be essentially a financial one, he retained the
ministry of finance in his own hands; and, strong in the support
of the king, the Landsting, and a considerable minority in the
country itself, he devoted himself to the double task of establish-
ing the political parity of the Landsting with the Folketing and
strengthening the national armaments, so that, in the event of
a war between the European great powers, Denmark might be
able to defend her neutrality.

The Left was willing to vote 30,000,000 crowns for
extraordinary military expenses, exclusive of the fortifications
of Copenhagen, on condition that the amount should be raised
by a property and income tax; and, as the elections of 1875 had
given them a majority of three-fourths in the popular chamber,
they spoke with no uncertain voice. But the Upper House
steadily supported Estrup, who was disinclined to accept any
such compromise. As an agreement between the two houses on
the budget proved impossible, a provisional financial decree was
issued on the i2th of April 1877, which the Left stigmatized as a
breach of the constitution. But the difficulties of the ministry
were somewhat relieved by a split in the Radical party, still
further accentuated by the elections of 1879, which enabled
Estrup to carry through the army and navy defence bill and
the new military penal code by leaning alternately upon one or
the other of the divided Radical groups.

After the elections of 1881, which brought about the reamalga-
mation of the various Radical sections, the opposition presented
a united front to the government, so that, from 1882 onwards,
legislation was almost at a standstill. The elections of 1884
showed clearly that the nation was also now on the side of the
Radicals, 83 out of the 102 members of the Folketing belonging
to the opposition. Still Estrup remained at his post. He had
underestimated the force of public opinion, but he was conscienti-
ously convinced that a Conservative ministry was necessary to
Denmark at this crisis. When therefore the Rigsdag rejected
the budget, he advised the king to issue another provisional
financial decree. Henceforth, so long as the Folketing refused to
vote supplies, the ministry regularly adopted these makeshifts.
In 1886 the Left, having no constitutional means of dismissing
the Estrup ministry, resorted for the first time to negotiations;
but it was not till the ist of April 1894 that the majority of the
Folketing could arrive at an agreement with the government and
the Landsting as to a budget which should be retrospective and
sanction the employment of the funds so irregularly obtained for
military expenditure. The whole question of the provisional
financial decrees was ultimately regularized by a special resolution
of the Rigsdag; and the retirement of the Estrup ministry in
August 1894 was the immediate result of the compromise.

In spite of the composition of 1894, the animosity between
Folketing and Landsting continues to characterize Danish politics,
and the situation has been complicated by the division of both
Right and Left into widely divergent groups. The elections of
1895 resulted in an undeniable victory of the extreme Radicals;
and the budget of 1895-1896 was passed only at the last moment
by a compromise. The session of 1896-1897 was remarkable for
a rapprochement between the ministry and the " Left Reform
Party," caused by the secessions of the " Young Right," which led
to an unprecedented event in Danish politics— the voting of the
budget by the Radical Folketing and its rejection by the Conserva-
tive Landsting in May 1897; whereupon the ministry resigned
in favour of the moderate Conservative Horring cabinet, which
induced the Upper House to pass the budget. The elections of
1898 were a fresh defeat for the Conservatives, and in the autumn
session of the same year, the Folketing, by a crushing majority of

LITERATURE]

DENMARK

39

85 to 12, rejected the military budget. The ministry was
saved by a mere accident — the expulsion of Danish agitators
from North Schleswig by the German government, which evoked
a passion of patriotic protest throughout Denmark, and united
all parties, the war minister declaring in the Folketing, during
the debate on the military budget (January 1899), that the
armaments of Denmark were so far advanced that any great
power must think twice before venturing to attack her. The
chief event of the year 1899 was the great strike of 40,000
artisans, which cost Denmark 50,000,000 crowns, and brought
about a reconstruction of the cabinet in order to bring in, as
minister of the interior, Ludwig Ernest Bramsen, the great
specialist in industrial matters, who succeeded (September 2-4)
in bringing about an understanding between workmen and
employers. The session 1900-1901 was remarkable for the
further disintegration of the Conservative party still in office
(the Sehested cabinet superseded the Horring cabinet on the
27th of April 1900) and the almost total paralysis of parliament,
caused by the interminable debates on the question of taxation
reform. The crisis came in 1901. Deprived of nearly all its
supporters in the Folketing, the Conservative ministry resigned,
and King Christian was obliged to assent to the formation of
a " cabinet of the Left " under Professor Deuntzer. Various
reforms were carried, but the proposal to sell the Danish islands
in the West Indies to the United States fell through. During
these years the relations between Denmark and the German
empire improved, and in the country itself the cause of social
democracy made great progress. In January 1906 King Christian
ended his long reign, and was succeeded by his son Frederick VIII.
At the elections of 1996 the government lost its small absolute
majority, but remained in power with support from the Moderates
and Conservatives. It was severely shaken, however, when
Herr A. Alberti, who had been minister of justice since 1901,
and was admitted to be the strongest member of the cabinet, was
openly accused of nepotism and abuse of the power of his position.
These charges gathered weight until the minister was forced to
resign in July 1908, and in September he was arrested on a charge
of forgery in his capacity as director of the Zealand Peasants'
Savings Bank. The ministry, of which Herr Jens Christian
Christensen was head, was compelled to resign in October. The
effect of these revelations was profound not only politically, but
also economically; the important export trade in Danish butter,
especially, was adversely affected, as Herr Alberti had been
interested in numerous dairy companies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — I. GENERAL HISTORY. Danmarks Riges
Historic (Copenhagen, 1897-1905); R. Nisbet Bain, Scandinavia
(Cambridge, 1905); H. Weitemeyer, Denmark (London, 1901);
Adolf Ditlev Jorgensen, Historiske Afhandlinger (Copenhagen, 1898) ;
ib. Fortaellinger af Nordens Historic (Copenhagen, 1892). II. EARLY
AND MEDIEVAL HISTORY. Saxo, GestaDanorum (Strassburg, 1886) ;
Repertorium diplomaticum regni Danici mediaevalis (Copenhagen,
1894); Ludvig Holberg, Konge og Danehof (Copenhagen, 1895);
Poul Frederik Barford, Danmarks Historie 1319-1536 (Copenhagen,
1885); ib. 1536-1670 (Copenhagen, 1891). III. i6TH TO 19111
CENTURY. Philip P. Munch, Kobstadstyrelsen i Danmark (Copen-
hagen, 1900) ; Peter Edvard Holm, Danmark Norges indre Historie,
1660-1720 (Copenhagen, 1885-1886); ib. Danmark Norges Histoiie,
1720-1814 (Copenhagen, 1891-1894); Soren Bloch Thrige, Dan-
marks Historie i vort Aarhundrede (Copenhagen, 1888); Marcus
Rubin, Frederick VI.' s Tid fra Kielerfreden (Copenhagen, 1895) ;
Christian Frederick von Holten, Erinnerungen; Der deutsch-danische
Krieg (Stuttgart, 1900) ; Niels Peter Jensen, Den anden slesvigske
Krig (Copenhagen, 1900); S. N. Mouritsen, Vor Forfatnings Historie
(Copenhagen, 1894) : Carl Frederik Vilhelm Mathildus Rosenberg,
Danmarkfi Aaret 1848 (Copenhagen, 1891). See also the special
bibliographies appended to the biographies of the Danish kings
and statesmen. (R. N. B.)

LITERATURE

The present language of Denmark is derived directly from
the same source as that of Sweden, and the parent of both is the
old Scandinavian (see SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES). In Iceland
this tongue, with some modifications, has remained in use, and
until about noo it was the literary language of the whole of
Scandinavia. The influence of Low German first, and High
German afterwards, has had the effect of drawing modern Danish
constantly farther from this early type. The difference began to

show itself in the I2th century. R. K. Rask, and after him
N. M. Petersen, have distinguished four periods in the develop-
ment of the language. The first, which has been called Oldest
Danish, dating from about noo and 1250, shows a slightly
changed character, mainly depending on the system of inflections.
In the second period, that of Old Danish, bringing us down to
1400, the change of the system of vowels begins to be settled,
and masculine and feminine are mingled in a common gender.
An indefinite article has been formed, and in the conjugation of
the verb a great simplicity sets in. In the third period, 1400-
1 530, the influence of German upon the language is supreme, and
culminates in the Reformation. The fourth period, from 1530 to
about 1680, completes the work of development, and leaves the
language as we at present find it.

The earliest work known to have been written in Denmark was
a Latin biography of Knud the Saint, written by an English monk
/Elnoth, who was attached to the church of St Alban in Odense
where King Knud was murdered. Denmark produced several
Latin writers of merit. Anders Sunesen (d. 1228) wrote a long
poem in hexameters, Hexaemeron, describing the creation.
Under the auspices of Archbishop Absalon the monks of Soro
began to compile the annals of Denmark, and at the end of the
1 2th century Svend Aagesen, a cleric of Lund, compiled from
Icelandic sources and oral tradition his Compendiosa historia
regum Daniae. The great Saxo Grammaticus (q.ii.) wrote his
Historia Danica under the same patronage.

It was not till the i6th century that literature began to be
generally practised in the vernacular in Denmark. The oldest
laws which are still preserved date from the beginning of the i3th
century, and many different collections are in existence.1 A
single work detains us in the I3th century, atreatise en medicine3
by Henrik Harpestreng, who died in 1 244. The first royal edict
written in Danish is dated 1386; and the Act of Union at Kalmar,
written in 1397, is the most important piece of the vernacular of
the I4th century. Between 1300 and 1500, however, it is sup-
posed that the Kjaempeviser, or Danish ballads, a large collection
of about 500 epical and lyrical poems, were originally composed,
and these form the most precious legacy of the Denmark of the
middle ages, whether judged historically or poetically. We know
nothing of the authors of these poems, which treat of the heroic
adventures of the great warriors and lovely ladies of the chivalric
age in strains of artless but often exquisite beauty. Some of the
subjects are borrowed in altered form from the old mythology,
while a few derive from Christian legend, and many deal with
national history. The language in which we receive these ballads,
however, is as late as the i6th or even the i7th century, but it
is believed that they have become gradually modernized in the
course of oral tradition. The first attempt to collect the ballads
was made in 1591 by Anders Sorensen Vedel (1542-1616), who
published 100 of them. Peder Syv printed 100 more in 1695.
In 1812-1814 an elaborate collection in five volumes appeared
at Christiania, edited by W. H. F. Abrahamson, R. Nyerup
and K. M. Rahbek. Finally, Svend Grundtvig produced an
exhaustive edition, Danmarks gamle Folkeviser (Copenhagen,
1853-1883, 5 vols.), which was supplemented (1891) by A. Olrik.

In 1490, the first printing press was set up at Copenhagen, by
Gottfried of Gemen, who had brought it from Westphalia; and
five years later the first Danish book was printed. This was the
famous Rimkronike3; a history of Denmark in rhymed Danish
verse, attributed by its first editor to Niels (d. 1481), a monk of
the monastery of Soro. It extends to the death of Christian I.,
in 1481, which may be supposed to be approximately the date
of the poem. In 1479 the university of Copenhagen had been
founded. In 1506 the same Gottfried of Gemen published a
famous collection of proverbs, attributed to Peder Laale.
Mikkel, priest of St Alban's Church in Odense, wrote three sacred
poems, The Rose-Garland of Maiden Mary, The Creation and

1 Collected as Samling af gamle danske Love (5 vols., Copenhagen,
1821-1827).

2 Henrik Harpestraengs Laegebog (ed. C. Molbech, Copenhagen,
1826).

3 Ed. C. Molbech (Copenhagen, 1825).

DENMARK

[LITERATURE

Human Life, which came out together in 1514, shortly before
his death. The popular Lucidarius also appeared in the vulgar
tongue.

These few productions appeared along with innumerable works
in Latin, and dimly heralded a Danish literature. It was the
Reformation that first awoke the living spirit in the popular
tongua. Christiern Pedersen (<?.».; 1480-1554) was the first man
of letters produced in Denmark. He edited and published, at
Paris in 1514, the Latin text of the old chronicler, Saxo Gram-
maticus; he worked up in their present form the beautiful half-
mythical stories of Karl Magnus (Charlemagne) and Holger
Danske (Ogier the Dane). He further translated the
Psalms of David and the New Testament, printed in 1529, and
finally — in conjunction with Bishop Peder Palladius — the Bible,
which appeared in 1550. Hans Tausen, the bishop of Ribe
(1494-1561), continued Pedersen's work, but with far less
literary talent. He may, however, be considered as the greatest
orator and teacher of the Reformation movement. He wrote a
number of popular hymns, partly original, partly translations;
translated the Pentateuch from the Hebrew; and published
(1536) a collection of sermons embodying the reformed doctrine
and destined for the use of clergy and laity.

The Catholic party produced one controversialist of striking
ability, Povel Helgesen1 (b. c. 1480), also known as Paulus
Eliae. He had at first been inclined to the party of reform,
but when Luther broke definitely with the papal authority he
became a bitter opponent. His most important. polemical work
is an answer (1528) to twelve questions on the religious question
propounded by Gustavus I. of Sweden. He is also supposed to be
the author of the Skiby Chronicle? in which he does not confine
himself to the duties of a mere annalist, but records his personal
opinion of people and events. Vedel, by the edition of the
Kjaempeviser which is mentioned above, gave an immense
stimulus to the progress of literature. He published an excellent
translation of Saxo Grammaticus in 1575. The first edition of
a Danish Reineke Fucks, by Herman Weigere, appeared at
Liibeck in 1555, and the first authorized Psalter in 1559. Arild
Huitfeld wrote Chronicle of the Kingdom of Denmark, printed in
ten volumes, between 1595 and 1604.

There are few traces of dramatic effort in Denmark before
the Reformation; and many of the plays of that period may be
referred to the class of school comedies. Hans Sthen, a lyrical
poet, wrote a morality entitled Kortvending (" Change of For-
tune "), which is really a collection of monologues to be delivered
by students. The anonymous Ludus de Sancto Kanuto 3 (c. 1 530)
which in spite of its title, is written in Danish, is the earliest
Danish national drama. The burlesque drama assigned to
Christian Hansen, The Faithless Wife, is the only one of its
kind that has survived. But the best of these old dramatic
authors was a priest of Viborg, Justesen Ranch (1539-1607),
who wrote Kong Salomons Hylding (" The Crowning of King
Solomon ") (1585), Samsons Faengsel (" The Imprisonment of
Samson "), which includes lyrical passages which have given it
claims to be considered the first Danish opera, and a farce, Karrig
Niding (" The Miserly Miscreant "). Beside these works Ranch
wrote a famous moralizing poem, entitled " A new song, of the
nature and song of certain birds, in which many vices are pun-
ished, and many virtues praised." Peder Clausen4 (1545-1614),
a Norwegian by birth and education, wrote a Description of
Norway, as well as an admirable translation of Snorri Sturlason's
Heimskringla, published ten years after Clausen's death. The
father of Danish poetry, Anders Kristensen Arrebo (1587-1637),
was bishop of Trondhjem, but was deprived of his see for im-
morality. He was a poet of considerable genius, which is most
brilliantly shown in an imitation of Du Bartas's Divine Semaine,

1 See Povel Eliesens danske Skrifler (Copenhagen, 1855, &c.),
edited by C. E. Secher.

1 See Monumenta historiae Danicae (ed. H. Rordam, vol. i., 1873).

"Ed. Sophus Birket Smith (Copenhagen, 1868), who also edited
the comedies ascribed to Chr. Hansen as De tre aeldste danske
Skuespil (1874), and the works of Ranch (1876).

* His works were edited by Gustav Storm (Christiania, 1877-
1879).

the Hexaemeron, a poem on the creation, in six books, which did
not appear till 1661. He also made a translation of the Psalms.

He was followed by Anders Bording (1619-1677), a cheerful
occasional versifier, and by Thoger Reenberg (1656-1742), a poet
of somewhat higher gifts, who lived on into a later age. Among
prose writers should be mentioned the grammarian Peder Syv,6
(1631-1702); Bishop Erik Pontoppidan (1616-1678), whose
Grammatica Danica, published in 1668, is the first systematic
analysis of the language; Birgitta Thott (1610-1662), a lady
who translated Seneca (1658); and Leonora Christina Ulfeld,
daughter of Christian IV., who has left a touching account of
her long imprisonment in her Jammer sminde. Ole Worm (1588-
1654), a learned pedagogue and antiquarian, preserved in his
Danicorum monumentorum libri sex (Copenhagen, 1643) the
descriptions of many antiquities which have since perished or
been lost.

In two spiritual poets the advancement of the literature of
Denmark took a further step. Thomas Kingo 6 (1634-1703) was
the first who wrote Danish with perfect ease and grace. He was
a Scot by descent, and retained the vital energy of his ancestors
as a birthright. In 1677 he became bishop in Funen, where
he died in 1703. His Winter Psalter (1689), and the so-called
Kingo's Psalter (1699), contained brilliant examples of lyrical
writing, and an employment of language at once original and
national. Kingo had a charming fancy, a clear sense of form and
great rapidity and variety of utterance. Some of his very best
hymns are in the little volume he published in 1681, and hence
the old period of semi-articulate Danish may be said to close with
this eventful decade, which also witnessed the birth of Holberg.
The other great hymn- writer was Hans Adolf Brorson (1694-
1764), who published in 1740 a great psalm-book at the king's
command, in which he added his own to the best of Kingo's.
Both these men held high posts in the church, one being bishop
of Fiinen and the other of Ribe; but Brorson was much inferior
to Kingo in genius. With these names the introductory period
of Danish literature ends. The language was now formed, and
was being employed for almost all the uses of science and philo-
sophy.

Ludvig Holberg (q.v.; 1684-1754) may be called the founder
of modern Danish literature. His various works still retain their
freshness and vital attraction. As an historian his style was terse
and brilliant, his spirit philosophical, and his data singularly
accurate. He united two unusual gifts, being at the same time
the most cultured man of his day, and also in the highest degree
a practical person, who clearly perceived what would most rapidly
educate and interest the uncultivated. In his thirty-three
dramas, sparkling comedies in prose, more or less in imitation of
Moliere, he has left his most important positive legacy to litera-
ture. Nor in any series of comedies in existence is decency so
rarely sacrificed to a desire for popularity or a false sense of wit.

Holberg founded no school of immediate imitators, but his
stimulating influence was rapid and general. The university
of Copenhagen, which had been destroyed by fire in 1728, was
reopened in 1742, and under the auspices of the historian Hans
Gram (1685-1748), who founded the Danish Royal Academy of
Sciences, it inspired an active intellectual life. Gram laid the
foundation of critical history in Denmark. He brought to bear
on the subject a full knowledge of documents and sources. His
best work lies in his annotated editions of the older chroniclers.
In 1744 Jakob Langebek (1710-1775) founded the Society for
the Improvement of the Danish Language, which opened the field
of philology. He began the great collection of Scriptores rerum
Danicarum medii aevi (9 vols., Copenhagen, 1772-1878). In
jurisprudence Andreas Hoier (1690-1739) represented the new
impulse, and in zoology Erik Pontoppidan (q.v.), the younger.
This last name represents a lifelong activity in many branches
of literature. From Holberg's college of Sort), two learned
professors, Jens Schelderup Sneedorff ( 1 7 24- 1 7 64) and Jens Kraft
(1720-1765), disseminated the seeds of a wider culture. All
these men were aided by the generous and enlightened patronage

6 See Fr. W. Horn, Peder Syv (Copenhagen, 1878).
6 See A. C. L. Heiberg, Thomas Kingo (Odense, 1852).

LITERATURE]

DENMARK

of Frederick V. A little later on, the German poet Klopstock
settled in Copenhagen, bringing with him the prestige of his great
reputation, and he had a strong influence in Germanizing
Denmark. He founded, however, the Society for the Fine Arts,
and had it richly endowed. The first prize offered was won by
Christian Braumann Tullin (1728-1765) for his beautiful poem
of May-day. Tullin, a Norwegian by birth, represents the first
accession of a study of external nature in Danish poetry ; he was
an ardent disciple of the English poet Thomson. Christian
Falster (1690-1752) wrote satires of some merit, but most of his
work is in Latin. The New Heroic Poems of Jorgen Sorterup are
notable as imitations of the old folk-literature. Ambrosius Stub 1
(1705-1758) was a lyrist of great sweetness, born before his due
time, whose poems, not published till 1771, belong to a later age
than their author.

The Lyrical Revival. — Between 1742 and 1749, that is to say,
at the very climax of the personal activity of Holberg, several
poets were born, who were destined to enrich the language with
its first group of lyrical blossoms. Of these the two eldest,
Wessel and Ewald, were men of extraordinary genius, and
destined to fascinate the attention of posterity, not only by the
brilliance of their productions, but by the suffering and brevity
of their lives. Johannes Ewald (q.v.; 1743-1781) was not only
the greatest Danish lyrist of the i8th century, but he had few
rivals in the whole of Europe. As a dramatist, pure and simple,
his bird-like instinct of song carried him too often into a sphere
too exalted for the stage; but he has written nothing that is
not stamped with the exquisite quality of distinction. Johan
Herman Wessel2 (1742-1785) excited even greater hopes in his
contemporaries, but left less that is immortal behind him. After
the death of Holberg, the affectation of Gallicism had reappeared
in Denmark; and the tragedies of Voltaire, with their stilted
rhetoric, were the most popular dramas of the day. Johan
Nordahl Brun (1745-1816), a young writer who did better things
later on, gave the finishing touch to the exotic absurdity by
bringing out a wretched piece called Zarina, which was hailed by
the press as the first original Danish tragedy, although Ewald's
exquisite RolfKrage, which truly merited that title, had appeared
two years before. Wessel, who up to that time had only been
known as the president of a club of wits, immediately wrote
Love without Stockings (1772), in which a plot of the most abject
triviality is worked out in strict accordance with the rules of
French tragedy, and in most pompous and pathetic Alexandrines.
The effect of this piece was magical; the Royal Theatre ejected
its cuckoo-brood of French plays, and even the Italian opera.
It was now essential that every performance should be national,
and in the Danish language. To supply the place of the opera,
native musicians, and especially J. P. E. Hartmann, set the
dramas of Ewald and others, and thus the Danish school of
music originated. Johan Nordahl Brun's best work is to be
found in his patriotic songs and his hymns. He became bishop
of Bergen in 1803.

Of the other poets of the revival the most important were born
in Norway. Nordahl Brun, Claus Frimann (1746-1829), Claus
Fasting (1746-1791), who edited a brilliant aesthetic journal, The
Critical Observer, Christian H. Pram3 (1756-1821), author of
Staerkodder, a romantic epic, based on Scandinavian legend, and
Edvj>.rd Storm (1749-1794), were associates and mainly fellow-
students at Copenhagen, where they introduced a style peculiar
to themselves, and distinct from that of the true Danes. Their
lyrics celebrated the mountains and rivers of the magnificent
country they had left; and, while introducing images and
scenery unfamiliar to the inhabitants of monotonous Denmark,
they enriched the language with new words and phrases. This
group of writers is now claimed by the Norwegians as the founders
of a Norwegian literature; but their true place is certainly among
the Danes, to whom they primarily appealed. They added

1 His collected works were edited by Fr. Barford (Copenhagen,
5th ed., 1879).

_2Wessel's Digte (3rd ed., 1895) are edited by J. Levin, with a
biographical introduction.

3 A biography by his friend, K. L. Rahbek, is prefixed to a selection
of his poetry (6 vols., 1824-1829).

nothing to the development of the drama, except in the person
of N. K. Bredal (1733-1778), who became director of the Royal
Danish Theatre, and the writer of some mediocre plays.

To the same period belong a few prose writers of eminence.
Werner Abrahamson (1744-1812) was the first aesthetic critic
Denmark produced. Johan Clemens Tode (1736-1806) was
eminent in many branches of science, but especially as a medical
writer. Ove Mailing (1746-1829) was an untiring collector of
historical data, which he annotated in a lively style. Two
historians of more definite claim on our attention are Peter
Frederik Suhm (1728-1798), whose History of Denmark (n vols.,
Copenhagen, 1782-1812,) contains a mass of original material,
and Ove Guldberg (1731-1808). In theology Christian Bastholm
(1740-1819) and Nicolai Edinger Balle (1744-1816), bishop of
Zealand, a Norwegian by birth, demand a reference. But the
only really great prose-writer of the period was the Norwegian,
Niels Treschow (1751-1833), whose philosophical works are
composed in an admirably lucid style, and are distinguished
for their depth and originality.

The poetical revival sank in the next generation to a more
mechanical level. The number of writers of some talent was very
great, but genius was wanting. Two intimate friends, Jonas
Rein (1760-1821) and Jens Zetlitz (1761-1821), attempted, with
indifferent success, to continue the tradition of the Norwegian
group. Thomas Thaarup (1740-1821) was a fluent and eloquent
writer of occasional poems, and of homely dramatic idylls. The
early death of Ole Samsoe (1759-1796) prevented the develop-
ment of a dramatic talent that gave rare promise. But while
poetry languished, prose, for the first time, began to flourish
in Denmark. Knud Lyne Rahbek (1760-1830) was a pleasing
novelist, a dramatist of some merit, a pathetic elegist, and a witty
song-writer; he was also a man full of the literary instinct, and
through a long life he never ceased to busy himself with editing
the works of the older poets, and spreading among the people a
knowledge of Danish literature through his magazine, Minerva,
edited in conjunction with C. H. Pram. Peter Andreas Heiberg
(1758-1841) was a political and aesthetic critic of note. Hewas
exiled from Denmark in company with another sympathizer with
the principles of the French Revolution, Malte Conrad Brunn
(1775-1826), who settled in Paris, and attained a world-wide
reputation as a geographer. O. C. Olufsen (1764-1827) was a
writer on geography, zoology and political economy. Rasmus
Nyerup (1759-1829) expended an immense energy in the compila-
tion of admirable works on the history of language and literature.
From 1 7 78 to his death he exercised a great power in the statistical
and critical departments of letters. The best historian of this
period, however, was Engelstoft (1774-1850), and the most
brilliant theologian Bishop Mynster (1775-1854). In the annals
of modern science Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851) is a name
universally honoured. He explained his inventions and described
his discoveries in language so lucid and so characteristic that he
claims an honoured place in the literature of the country of whose
culture, in other branches, he is one of the most distinguished
ornaments.

On the threshold of the romantic movement occurs the name
of Jens Baggesen (q.v.; 1764-1826), a man of great genius,
whose work was entirely independent of the influences around
him. Jens Baggesen is the greatest comic poet that Denmark
has produced; and as a satirist and witty lyrist he has no rival
among the Danes. In his hands the difficulties of the language
disappear; he performs with the utmost ease extraordinary
tours de force of style. His astonishing talents were wasted on
trifling themes and in a fruitless resistance to the modern spirit
in literature.

Romanticism. — With the beginning of the I9th century the new
light in philosophy and poetry, which radiated from Germany
through all parts of Europe, found its way into Denmark also.
In scarcely any country was the result so rapid or so brilliant.
There arose in Denmark a school of poets who created for them-
selves a reputation in all parts of Europe, and would have done
honour to any nation or any age. The splendid cultivation of
metrical art threw other branches into the shade; and the epoch

DENMARK

[LITERATURE

of which we are about to speak is eminent above all for mastery
over verse. The swallow who heralded the summer was a
German by birth, Adolph Wilhelm Schack von Staffeldt1 (1769-
1826), who came over to Copenhagen from Pomerania, and
prepared the way for the new movement. Since Ewald no one
had written Danish lyrical verse so exquisitely as Schack von
Staffeldt, and the depth and scientific precision of his thought
won him a title which he has preserved, of being the first philo-
sophic poet of Denmark. The writings of this man are the
deepest and most serious which Denmark had produced, and at
his best he yields to no one in choice and skilful use of expression.
This sweet song of Schack von Staffeldt's, however, was early
silenced by the louder choir that one by one broke into music
around him. It was Adam Gottlob Ohlenschlager (q.ii.; 1779-
1850), the greatest poet of Denmark, who was to bring about
the new romantic movement. In 1802 he happened to meet the
young Norwegian Henrik Steffens (1773-1845), who had just
returned from a scientific tour in Germany, full of the doctrines
of Schelling. Under the immediate direction of Steffens,
Ohlenschlager began an entirely new poetic style, and destroyed
all his earlier verses. A new epoch in the language began, and the
rapidity and matchless facility of the new poetry was the wonder
of Steffens himself. The old Scandinavian mythology lived in the
hands of Ohlenschlager exactly as the classical Greek religion was
born again in Keats. He aroused in his people the slumbering
sense of their Scandinavian nationality.

The retirement of Ohlenschlager comparatively early in life,
left the way open for the development of his younger con-
temporaries, among whom several had genius little inferior to
his own. Steen Steensen Blicher (1782-1848) was a Jutlander,
and preserved all through life the characteristics of his sterile and
sombre fatherland. After a struggling youth of great poverty,
he published, in 1807-1809, a translation of Ossian; in 1814 a
volume of lyrical poems; and in 1817 he attracted considerable
attention by his descriptive poem of The Tour in Jutland. His
real genius, however, did not lie in the direction of verse; and
his first signal success was with a story, A Village Sexton's Diary,
in 1824, which was rapidly followed by other tales, descriptive of
village life in Jutland, for the next twelve years. These were
collected in five volumes (1833-1836). His masterpiece is a collec-
tion of short stories, called The Spinning Room. He also produced
many national lyrics of great beauty. But it was Blicher's use of
patois which delighted his countrymen with a sense of freshness
and strength. They felt as though they heard Danish for the first
time spoken in its fulness. The poet Aarestrup (in 1 848) declared
that Blicher had raised the Danish language to the dignity of
Icelandic. Blicher is a stern realist, in many points akin to
Crabbe, and takes a singular position among the romantic
idealists of the period, being like them, however, in the love of
precise and choice language, and hatred of the mere common-
places of imaginative writing.2

Nikolai Frederik Severin Grundtvig (q.v.; 1783-1872), like
Ohlenschlager, learned the principles of the German romanticism
from the lips of Steffens. He adopted the idea of introducing the
Old Scandinavian element into art, and even into life, still more
earnestly than the older poet. Bernhard Severin Ingemann
(q.v.; 1789-1862) contributed to Danish literature historical
romances in the style of Sir Walter Scott. Johannes Carsten
Hauch (q.v.; 1790-1872) first distinguished himself as a disciple
of Ohlenschlager, and fought under him in the strife against the
old school and Baggesen. But the master misunderstood the
disciple; and the harsh repulse of Ohlenschlager silenced Hauch
for many years. He possessed, however, a strong and fluent
genius, which eventually made itself heard in a multitude of
volumes, poems, dramas and novels. All that Hauch wrote is
marked by great qualities, and by distinction; he had a native
bias towards the mystical, which, however, he learned to keep
in abeyance.

1 See F. L. Liebenberg, Schack Staff eldts samlede Digte (2 vols.,
Copenhagen, 1843), and Samlinger til Schack Staff eldts Levnet (4 vols.,
1846-1851).

* Blicher's Tales were edited by P. Hansen (3 vols., Copenhagen,
1871), and his Poems in 1870.

Johan Ludvig Heiberg (q.v.; 1791-1860) was a critic who
ruled the world of Danish taste for many years. His mother,
the Baroness Gyllembourg-Ehrensvard (q.v.; 1773-1856), wrote
a large number of anonymous novels. Her knowledge of life,
her sparkling wit and her almost faultless style, make these
short stories masterpieces of their kind.

Christian Hviid Bredahl (1784-1860) produced six volumes
of Dramatic Scenes3 (1810-1833) which, in spite of their many
brilliant qualities, were little appreciated at the time. Bredahl
gave up literature in despair to become a peasant farmer, and
died in poverty.

Ludvig Adolf Bodtcher (1793-1874) wrote a single volume of
lyrical poems, which he gradually enlarged in succeeding editions.
He was a consummate artist in verse, and his impressions are
given with the most delicate exactitude of phrase, and in a very
fine strain of imagination. He was a quietist and an epicurean,
and the closest parallel to Horner in the literature of the North.
Most of Bodtcher's poems deal with Italian life, which he learned
to know thoroughly during a long residence in Rome. He was
secretary to Thorwaldsen for a considerable time.

Christian Winther (q.v.; 1796-1876) made the island of
Zealand his loving study, and that province of Denmark belongs
to him no less thoroughly than the Cumberland lakes belong
to Wordsworth. Between the latter poet and Winther there
was much resemblance. He was, without compeer, the greatest
pastoral lyrist of Denmark. His exquisite strains, in which pure
imagination is blended with most accurate and realistic descrip-
tions of scenery and rural life, have an extraordinary charm not
easily described.

The youngest of the great poets born during the last twenty
years of the i8th century was Henrik Hertz (q.v.; 1797-1870).
As a satirist and comic poet he followed Baggesen, and hi all
branches of the poetic art stood a little aside out of the main
current of romanticism. He introduced into the Danish literature
of his time inestimable elements of lucidity and purity. In his
best pieces Hertz is the most modern and most cosmopolitan of
the Danish writers of his time.

It is noticeable that all the great poets of the romantic period
lived to an advanced age. Their prolonged literary activity —
for some of them, like Grundtvig, were busy to the last — had a
slightly damping influence on their younger contemporaries, but
certain names in the next generation have special prominence.
Hans Christian Andersen (q.v.; 1805-1875) was the greatest of
modern fabulists. In 1835 there appeared the first collection of
his Fairy Tales, and won him a world-wide reputation. Almost
every year from this time forward until near his death he published
about Christmas time one or two of these unique stories, so delicate
in their humour and pathos, and so masterly in their simplicity.
Carl Christian Bagger (1807-1846) published volumes in 1834
and 1836 which gave promise of a great future, — a promise
broken by his early death. Frederik Paludan-Muller (q.v.;
1809-1876) developed, as a poet, a magnificent career, which
contrasted in its abundance with his solitary and silent life as a
man. His mythological or pastoral dramas, his great satiric
epos of Adam Homo (1841-1848), his comedies, his lyrics, and
above all his noble philosophic tragedy of Kalanus, prove the
immense breadth of his compass, and the inexhaustible riches
of his imagination. C. L. Emil Aarestrup (1800-1856) published
in 1838 a volume of vivid erotic poetry, but its quality was
only appreciated after his death. Edvard Lembcke (1815-1897)
made himself famous as the admirable translator of Shakespeare,
but the incidents of 1864 produced from him some volumes of
direct and manly patriotic verse.

The poets completely ruled the literature of Denmark during
this period. There were, however, eminent men in other depart-
ments of letters, and especially in philology. Rasmus Christian
Rask (1787-1832) was one of the most original and gifted linguists
of his age. His grammars of Old Frisian, Icelandic and Anglo-
Saxon were unapproached in his own time, and are still admirable.
Niels Matthias Petersen (1791-1862), a disciple of Rask, was the
author of an admirable History of Denmark in the Heathen

* Edited (3 vols., and ed., 1855, Copenhagen) by F. L. Liebenberg.

LITERATURE]

DENMARK

43

Antiquity, and the translator of many of the sagas. Martin
Frederik Arendt (1773-1823), the botanist and archaeologist,
did much for the study of old Scandinavian records. Christian
Molbech (1783-1857) was a laborious lexicographer, author of
the first good Danish dictionary, published in 1833. In Joachim
Frederik Schouw ( 1 789-185 2) , Denmark produced a very eminent
botanist, author of an exhaustive Geography of Plants. In later
years he threw himself with zeal into politics. His botanical
researches were carried on by Frederik Liebmann (1813-1856).
The most famous zoologist contemporary with these men was
Salomon Dreier (1813-1842).

The romanticists found their philosopher in a most remarkable
man, Soren Aaby Kierkegaard (1813-1855), one of the most
subtle thinkers of Scandinavia, and the author of some brilliant
philosophical and polemical works. A learned philosophical
writer, not to be compared, however, for genius or originality to
Kierkegaard, was Frederik Christian Sibbern (1785-1872). He
wrote a dissertation On Poetry and Art (3 vols., 1853-1869) and
The Contentsjtf a MS. from the Year 2133 (3 vols., 1858-1872).

Among novelists who were not also poets was Andreas Nikolai
de Saint-Aubain (1798-1865), who, under the pseudonym of
Carl Bernhard, wrote a series of charming romances. Mention
must also be made of two dramatists, Peter Thun Feorsom
(i777-i8i7),who produced an excellent translation of Shakespeare
(1807-1816), and Thomas Overskou (1798-1873), author of a long
series of successful comedies, and of a history of the Danish
theatre (5 vols., Copenhagen, 1854-1864).

Other writers whose names connect the age of romanticism
with a later period were Meyer Aron Goldschmidt (1819-1887),
author of novels and tales; Herman Frederik Ewald (1821-1908),
who wrote a long series of historical novels; Jens Christian
Hostrup (1818-1892), a writer of exquisite comedies; and the
miscellaneous writer Erik Bogh (1822-1899). In zoology,
J. J. S. Steenstrup (1813-1898); in philology, J. N. Madvig
(1804-1886) and his disciple V. Thomsen (b. 1842); in anti-
quarianism, C. J. Thomsen (1788-1865) and J. J. Asmussen
Worsaae (1821-1885); and in philosophy, Rasmus Nielsen
(1809-1884) and Hans Brochner (1820-1875), deserve mention.

The development of imaginative literature in Denmark became
very closely defined during the latter half of the igth century.
The romantic movement culminated in several poets of great
eminence, whose deaths prepared the way for a new school.
In 1874 Bodtcher passed away, in 1875 Hans Christian Andersen,
in the last week of 1876 Winther, and the greatest of all, Frederik
Paludan-Miiller. The field was therefore left open to the
successors of those idealists, and in 1877 the reaction began to
be felt. The eminent critic, Dr Georg Brandes (q.v.), had long
foreseen the decline of pure romanticism, and had advocated a
more objective and more exact treatment of literary phenomena.
Accordingly, as soon as all the great planets had disappeared,
a new constellation was perceived to have risen, and all the stars
in it had been lighted by the enthusiasm of Brandes. The new
writers were what he called Naturalists, and their sympathies
were with the latest forms of exotic, but particularly of French
literature. Among these fresh forces three immediately took
place as leaders — Jacobsen, Drachmann and Schandorph. In
J. P. Jacobsen (q.v.; 1847-1885) Denmark was now taught
to welcome the greatest artist in prose which she has ever pos-
sessed; his romance of Marie Grubbe led off the new school "with
a production of unexampled beauty. But Jacobsen died young,
and the work was really carried out by his two companions. Holger
Drachmann (q.v.; 1846-1908) began life as a marine painter;
and a first little volume of poems, which he published in 1872,
attracted slight attention. In 1877 he came forward again with
one volume of verse, another of fiction, a third of travel; in each
he displayed great vigour and freshness of touch, and he rose at
one leap to the highest position among men of promise. Drach-
mann retained his place, without rival, as the leading imaginative
writer in Denmark. For many years he made the aspects of
life at sea his particular theme, and he contrived to rouse the
patriotic enthusiasm of the Danish public as it had never been
roused before. His various and unceasing productiveness, his

freshness and vigour, and the inexhaustible richness of his lyric
versatility, early brought Drachmann to the front and kept him
there. Meanwhile prose imaginative literature was ably sup-
ported by Sophus Schandorph (1836-1901), who had been entirely
out of sympathy with the idealists, and had taken no step while
that school was in the ascendant. In 1876, in his fortieth year,
he was encouraged by the change in taste to publish a volume
of realistic stories, Country Life, and in 1878 a novel, Without a
Centre. He has some relation with Guy de Maupassant as a close
analyst of modern types of character, but he has more humour. He
has been compared with such Dutch painters of low life as Teniers.
His talent reached its height in the novel called Little Folk (1880),
a most admirable study of lower middle-class life in Copenhagen.
He was for a while, without doubt, the leading living novelist,
and he went on producing works of great force, in which, however,
a certain motonony is apparent. The three leaders had meanwhile
been joined by certain younger men who took a prominent
position. Among these Karl Gjellerup and Erik Skram were the
earliest. Gjellerup (b. 1857), whose first works of importance
date from 1878, was long uncertain as to the direction of his
powers; he was poet, novelist, moralist and biologist in one;
at length he settled down into line with the new realistic school,
and produced in 1882 a satirical novel of manners which had a
great success, The Disciple of the Teutons. Erik Skram (b. 1847)
had in 1879 written a solitary novel, Gertrude Coldbjornsen,
which created a sensation, and was hailed by Brandes as ex-
actly representing the " naturalism " which he desired to see
encouraged; but Skram has written little else of importance.
Other writers of reputation in the naturalistic school were
Edvard Brandes (b. 1847), and Herman Bang (b. 1858). Peter
Nansen (b. 1861) has come into wide notoriety as the author,
in particularly beautiful Danish, of a series of stories of a
pronouncedly sexual type, among which Maria (1894) has been
the most successful. Meanwhile, several of the elder generation,
unaffected by the movement of realism, continued to please the
public. Three lyrical poets, H. V. Kaalund (1818-1885), Carl
Ploug (1813-1894) and Christian Richardt (1831-1892), of very
great talent, were not yet silent, and among the veteran novelists
were still active H. F. Ewald and Thomas Lange (1829-1887).
Ewald's son Carl (1856-1908) achieved a great name as a novelist,
but did his most characteristic work in a series of books for
children, in which he used the fairy tale, in the manner of Hans
Andersen, as a vehicle for satire and a theory of morals. During
the whole of this period the most popular writer of Denmark was
J. C. C. Brosboll (1816-1900), who wrote, under the pseudonym
Cant Etlar, a vast number of tales. Another popular novelist
was Vilhelm Bergsoe (b. 1835), author of In the Sabine Mountains
(1871), and other romances. Sophus Bauditz(b. 1850) persevered
in composing novels which attain a wide general popularity.
Mention must be made also of the dramatist Christian Molbech
(1821-1888).

Between 1885 and 1892 there was a transitional period in
Danish literature. Up to that time all the leaders had been
united in accepting the naturalistic formula, which was combined
with an individualist and a radical tendency. In 1885, however,
Drachmann, already the recognized first poet of the country,
threw off his allegiance to Brandes, denounced the exotic|tradition,
declared himself a Conservative, and took up a national and
patriotic attitude. He was joined a little later by Gjellerup, while
Schandorph remained stanchly by the side of Brandes. The camp
was thus divided. New writers began to make their appearance,
and, while some of these were stanch to Brandes, others were
inclined to hold rather with Drachmann. Of the authors who
came forward during this period of transition, the strongest
novelist proved to be Hendrik Pontoppidan (b. 1857). In some
of his books he reminds the reader of Turgeniev. Pontoppidan
published in 1 898 the first volume of a great novel entitled Lykke-
Per, the biography of a typical Jutlander named Per Sidenius,
a work to be completed in eight volumes. From 1893 to 1909 no
great features of a fresh kind revealed themselves. The Danish
public, grown tired of realism, and satiated with pathological
phenomena, returned to a fresh study of their own national

44

DENNERY— DENNIS

characteristics. The cultivation of verse, which was greatly dis-
couraged in the eighties, returned. Drachmann was supported by
excellent younger poets of his school. J. J. Jorgensen (b. 1866),
a Catholic decadent, was very prolific. Otto C. Fonss (b. 1853)
published seven little volumes of graceful lyrical poems in praise
of gardens and of farm-life. Andreas Dolleris (b. 1850), of Vejle,
showed himself an occasional poet of merit. Alfred Ipsen (b. 1852)
must also be mentioned as a poet and critic. Valdemar Rb'rdam,
whose The Danish Tongue was the lyrical success of 1901, may
also be named. Some attempts were made to transplant
the theories of the symbolists to Denmark, but without signal
success. On the other hand, something of a revival of naturalism
is to be observed in the powerful studies of low life admirably
written by Karl Larsen (b. 1860).

The drama has long flourished in Denmark. The principal
theatres are liberally open to fresh dramatic talent of every kind,
and the great fondness of the Danes for this form of entertain-
ment gives unusual scope for experiments in halls or private
theatres; nothing is too eccentric to hope to obtain somewhere
a fair hearing. Drachmann produced with very great success
several romantic dramas founded on the national legends. Most
of the novelists and poets already mentioned also essayed the
stage, and to those names should be added these of Einar
Christiansen (b. 1861), Ernst von der Recke (b. 1848), Oskar
Benzon (b. 1856) and Gustav Wied (b. 1838).

In theology no names were as eminent as in the preceding
generation, in which such writers as H. N. Clausen (1793-1877),
and still more Hans Lassen Martensen (1808-1884), lifted the
prestige of Danish divinity to a high point. But in history the
Danes have been very active. Karl Ferdinand Allen (181 1-1871)
began a comprehensive history of the Scandinavian kingdoms
(5 vols., 1864-1872). Jens Peter Trap (1810-1885) concluded
his great statistical account of Denmark in 1879. The i6th
century was made the subject of the investigations of Troels
Lund (?.».). About 1880 several of the younger historians
formed the plan of combining to investigate and publish the
sources of Danish history; in this the indefatigable Johannes
Steenstrup (b. 1844) was prominent. The domestic history of
the country began, about 1885, to occupy the attention of
Edvard Holm (b. 1833), O. Nielsen and the veteran P. Frederik
Barfod (1811-1896). The naval histories of G. Liitken attracted
much notice. Besides the names already mentioned, A. D.
J6rgensen (1840-1897), J. Fredericia (b. 1849), Christian Erslev
(b. 1852) and Vilhelm Mollerup have all distinguished them-
selves in the excellent school of Danish historians. In 1896 an
elaborate composite history of Denmark was undertaken by some
leading historians (pub. 1897-1905). In philosophy nothing has
recently been published of the highest value. Martensen's Jakob
Bohme (1881) belongs to an earlier period. H. Hoffding (b. 1843)
has been the most prominent contributor to psychology. His
Problems of Philosophy and his Philosophy of Religion were
translated into English in 1906. Alfred Lehmann (b. 1858) has,
since 1896, attracted a great deal of attention by his sceptical
investigation of psychical phenomena. F. Ronning has written
on the history of thought in Denmark. In the criticism of art,
Julius Lange (1838-1896), and later Karl Madsen, have done
excellent service. In literary criticism Dr Georg Brandes is
notable for the long period during which he remained pre-
dominant. His was a steady and stimulating presence, ever
pointing to the best in art and thought, and his influence on
his age was greater than that of any other Dane.

AUTHORITIES. — R. Nyerup, Den danske Digtekunsts Historie
(1800-1808), and Almindeligt Literaturlexikon (1818-1820); N. M.
Petersen, Literaturhistorie (2nd ed., 1867-1871, 5 vols.); Oyerskpu,
Den danske Skueplads (1854-1866, 5 vols.), with a continuation
(2 vols., 1873-1876) by E Collin; Chr. Bruun, Bibliotheca Danica
(3 vols., 1872-1896) ; Bricka, Dansk biografisk Lexikon (1887-1901) ;
J. Paludan, Danmarks Literatur i Middelalderen (Copenhagen, 1896) ;
P. Hansen, Illustreret Dansk Literaturhistorie (3 vols., 1901-1902);
F. W. Horn, History of the Scandinavian North from the most ancient
times to the present (English translation by Rasmus B. Anderson
(Chicago, 1 884), with bibliographical appendix by Thorwald Solberg) ;
Ph. Schweitzer, Geschichte der Skandinavischen Litteratur (3 pts.,
Leipzig, 1886-1889), forming vol. viii. of the Geschichte der Welt-

litteratur. See also Brandes, Kritiker og Portraiter (1870); Brandes,
Danske Dilgere (1877); Marie Herzfeld, Die Skandinavische
Litteratur und ihre Tendenzen (Berlin and Leipzig, 1898) ; Hjalmar
Hjorth Boyesen, Essays on Scandinavian Literature (London, 1895);
Edmund Gosse, Studies in the Literature of Northern Europe (newed.,
London, 1883); Vilhelm Andersen, Litteraturbilleder (Copenhagen,
1903); A. P. J. Schener, Kortfattet Indledning til Romantikkus
Periode i Danmarks Litteratur (Copenhagen, 1894). (E. G.)

DENNERY, or D'ENNERY, ADOLPHE (1811-1899), French
dramatist and novelist, whose real surname was PHILIPPE, was
born in Paris on the I7th of June 1811. He obtained his first
success in collaboration with Charles Desnoyer in Emile, ou le
fils d'un pair de France (1831), a drama which was the first of a
series of some two hundred pieces written alone or in collaboration
with other dramatists.' Among the best of them may be
mentioned Gaspard Hauser (1838) with Anicet Bourgeois; Les
Bohemiens de Paris (1842) with Eugene Grange; with Mallian,
Marie-Jeanne, ou la femme du peuple (1845), in which Madame
Dorval obtained a great success; La Case d'Oncle Tom (1853);
Les Deux Orphelines (1875), perhaps his best piece, with Eugene
Cormon. He wrote the libretto^for Gounod's Tribut de Zamora
(1881); with Louis Gallet and Edouard Blan he composed the
book of Massenet's Cid (1885); and, again in collaboration with
Eugene Cormon, the books of Auber's operas, Le Premier Jour de
bonheur (1868) and Reve d' amour (1869). He prepared for the
stage Balzac's posthumous comedy Mercadet ou le faiseur,
presented at the Gymnase theatre in 1851. Reversing the usual
order of procedure, Dennery adapted some of his plays to the form
of novels. He died in Paris in 1899.

DENNEWITZ, a village of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Brandenburg, near Juterbog, 40 m. S.W. from Berlin. It is
memorable as the scene of a decisive battle on the 6th of
September 1813, in which Marshal Ney, with an army of 58,000
French, Saxons and Poles, was defeated with great loss by 50,000
Prussians under Generals Billow (afterwards Count Billow of
Dennewitz) and Tauentzien. The site of the battle is marked by
an iron obelisk.

DENNIS, JOHN (1657-1734), English critic and dramatist, the
son of a saddler, was born in London in 1657. He was educated
at Harrow School and Caius College, Cambridge, where he took
his B.A. degree in 1679. In the next year he was fined and dis-
missed from his college for having wounded a fellow-student with
a sword. He was, however, received at Trinity Hall, where he
took his M.A. degree in 1683. After travelling in France and
Italy, he settled in London, where he became acquainted with
Dryden, Wycherley and others; and being made temporarily
independent by inheriting a small fortune, he devoted himself to
literature. The duke of Marlborough procured him a place as one
of the queen's waiters in the customs with a salary of £ 1 20 a year.
This he afterwards disposed of for a small sum, retaining, at the
suggestion of Lord Halifax, a yearly charge upon it for a long
term of years. Neither the poems nor the plays of Dennis are of
any account, although one of his tragedies, a violent attack on
the French in harmony with popular prejudice, entitled Liberty
Asserted, was produced with great success at Lincoln's Inn
Fields in 1704. His sense of his own importance approached
mania, and he is said to have desired the duke of Marlborough to
have a special clause inserted in the treaty of Utrecht to secure
him from French vengeance. Marlborough pointed out that
although he had been a still greater enemy of the French nation,
he had no fear for his own security. This tale and others of a
similar nature may well be exaggerations prompted by his
enemies, but the infirmities of character and temper indicated in
them were real. Dennis is best remembered as a critic, and Isaac
D 'Israeli, who took a by no means favourable view of Dennis,
said that some of his criticisms attain classical rank. The
earlier ones, which have nothing of the rancour that afterwards
gained him the nickname of " Furius," are the best. They are
Remarks . . . (1696), on Blackmore's epic of Prince Arthur;
Letters upon Several Occasions written by and between Mr Dryden,
Mr Wycherley, Mr Moyle, Mr Gangrene and Mr Dennis, published
by Mr Dennis (1696); two pamphlets in reply to Jeremy
Collier's Short View; The Advancement and Reformation of

DENOMINATION— DENOTATION

45

Modern Poetry (1701), perhaps his most important work ;
The Grounds of Criticism in Poetry (i 704), in which he argued that
the ancients owed their superiority over the moderns in poetry
to their religious attitude; an Essay upon Publick Spirit . . .
(1711), in which he inveighs against luxury, and servile imitation
of foreign fashions and customs; and Essay on the Genius and
Writings of Shakespeare in three Letters (1712).

Dennis had been offended by a humorous quotation made
from his works by Addison, and published in 1713 Remarks upon
Colo. Much of this criticism was acute and sensible, and it is
quoted at considerable length by Johnson in his Life of Addison,
but there is no doubt that Dennis was actuated by personal
jealousy of Addison's success. Pope replied in The Narrative
of Dr Robert N orris, concerning the strange and deplorable frenzy
of John Dennis . . . (1713). This pamphlet was full of personal
abuse, exposing Dennis's foibles, but offering no defence of Cato.
Addison repudiated any connivance in this attack, and in-
directly notified Dennis that when he did answer his objections,
it would be without personalities. Pope had already assailed
Dennis in 1711 in the Essay on Criticism, as Appius. Dennis
retorted by Reflections, Critical and Satirical . . . , a scurrilous
production in which he taunted Pope with his deformity, saying
among other things that he was " as stupid and as venomous as
a hunch-backed toad." He also wrote in 1717 Remarks upon
Mr Pope's Translation of Homer . . . and A True Character of
Mr Pope. He accordingly figures in the Dunciad, and in a
scathing note in the edition of 1729 (bk. i. i. 106) Pope quotes
his more outrageous attacks, and adds an insulting epigram
attributed to Richard Savage, but now generally ascribed to
Pope. More pamphlets followed, but Dennis's day was over. He
outlived his annuity from the customs, and his last years were
spent in great poverty. Bishop Atterbury sent him money, and
he received a small sum annually from Sir Robert Walpole.
A benefit performance was organized at the Haymarket
(December 18, 1733) on his behalf. Pope wrote for the occasion
an ill-natured prologue which Gibber recited. Dennis died within
three weeks of this performance, on the 6th of January 1734.

His other works include several plays, for one of which, Appius
and Virginia (1709), he invented a new kind of thunder. He wrote
a curious Essay on the Operas after the Italian Manner (1706), main-
taining that opera was the outgrowth of effeminate manners, and
should, as such, be suppressed. His Works were published in 1702,
Select Works ... (2 vols.) in 1718, and Miscellaneous Tracts, the first
volume only of which appeared, in 1727. For accounts of Dennis
see Gibber's Lives of the Poets, vol. iv. ; Isaac D'Israeli's essays on
Pope and Addison in the Quarrels of Authors, and " On the Influence
of a Bad Temper in Criticism " in Calamities of Authors; and
numerous references in Pope's Works.

DENOMINATION (Lat. denominare, to give a specific name
to), the giving of a specific name to anything, hence the name or
designation of a person or thing, and more particularly of a class
of persons or things; thus, in arithmetic, it is applied to a unit
in a system of weights and measures, currency or numbers. The
most general use of " denomination " is for a body of persons
holding specific opinions and having a common name, especially
with reference to the religious opinions of such a body. More
particularly the word is used of the various " sects " into which
members of a common religious faith may be divided. The term
" denominationalism " is thus given to the principle of emphasiz-
ing the distinctions, rather than the common ground, in the faith
held by different bodies professing one sort of religious belief.
This use is particularly applied to that system of religious
education which lays stress on the principle that children
belonging to a particular religious sect should be publicly taught
in the tenets of their belief by members belonging to it and under
the general control of the ministers of the denomination.

DENON, DOMINIQUE VIVANT, BARON DE (1747-1825),
French artist and archaeologist, was born at Chalon-sur-Saone
on the 4th of January 1747. He was sent to Paris to study law,
but he showed a decided preference for art and literature, and
soon gave up his profession. In his twenty-third year he pro-
duced a comedy, Le Bon Pere, which obtained a succes d'estime, as
he had already won a position in society by his agreeable manners
and exceptional conversational powers. He became a favourite

of Louis XV., who entrusted him with the collection and arrange-
ment of a cabinet of medals and antique gems for Madame de
Pompadour, and subsequently appointed him attache to the
French embassy at St Petersburg. On the accession of Louis
XVI. Denon was transferred to Sweden; but he returned, after
a brief interval, to Paris with the ambassador M. de Vergennes,
who had been appointed foreign minister. In 1775 Denon was
sent on a special mission to Switzerland, and took the oppor-
tunity of visiting Voltaire at Ferney. He made a portrait of the
philosopher, which was engraved and published on his return to
Paris. His next diplomatic appointment was to Naples, where
he spent seven years, first as secretary to the embassy and after-
wards as charge d'affaires. He devoted this period to a careful
study of the monuments of ancient art, collecting many specimens
and making drawings of others. He also perfected himself in
etching and mezzotinto engraving. The death of his patron,
M. de Vergennes, in 1787, led to his recall, and the rest of his life
was given mainly to artistic pursuits. On his return to Paris
he was admitted a member of the Academy of Painting. After
a brief interval he returned to Italy, living chiefly at Venice.
He also visited Florence and Bologna, and afterwards went to
Switzerland. While there he heard that his property had been
confiscated, and his name placed on the list of the proscribed, and
with characteristic courage he resolved at once to return to Paris.
His situation was critical, but he was spared, thanks to the
friendship of the painter David, who obtained for him a com-
mission to furnish designs for republican costumes. When the
Revolution was over, Denon was one of the band of eminent men
who frequented the house of Madame de Beauharnais. Here he
met Bonaparte, to whose fortunes he wisely attached himself.
At Bonaparte's invitation he joined the expedition to Egypt, and
thus found the opportunity of gathering the materials for his most
important literary and artistic work. He accompanied General
Desaix to Upper Egypt, and made numerous sketches of the
monuments of ancient art, sometimes under the very fire of the
enemy. The results were published in his Voyage dans la basse
el la haute Egypte (2 vols. fol., with 141 plates, Paris, 1802), a
work which crowned his reputation both as an archaeologist
and as an artist. In 1804 he was appointed by Napoleon to the
important office of director-general of museums, which he filled
until the restoration in 1815, when he had to retire. He was a
devoted friend of Napoleon, whom he accompanied in his ex-
peditions to Austria, Spain and Poland, taking sketches with his
wonted fearlessness on the various battlefields, and advising the
conqueror in his choice of spoils of art from the various cities
pillaged. After his retirement he began an illustrated history of
ancient and modern art, in which he had the co-operation of
several skilful engravers. He died at Paris on the 27th of April
1825, leaving the work unfinished. It was published posthu-
mously, with an explanatory text by Amaury Duval, under the
title Monuments des arts du dessin chez les peuples tant anciens
que modernes, recueillis par Vivant Denon (4 vols. fol., Paris, 1829) .
Denon was the author of a novel, Point de lendemain (1777), of
which further editions were printed in 1812, 1876 and 1879.

See J. Renouvier, Histoire de I'art pendant la Revolution; A. de la
Fizeliere, L'CEuvre originate de Vivant-Denon (2 vols., Paris, 1872-
1873); Roger Portallis, Les Dessinateurs d' illustrations au XVIII'
siecle; D. H. Beraldi, Les Craveurs d' illustrations au XVIII" siecle.

DENOTATION (from Lat. denotare, to mark out, specify), in
logic, a technical term used strictly as the correlative of Con-
notation, to describe one of the two functions of a concrete term.
The concrete term " connotes " attributes and " denotes " all
the individuals which, as possessing these attributes, constitute
the genus or species described by the term. Thus " cricketer "
denotes the individuals who play cricket, and connotes the
qualities or characteristics by which these individuals are marked.
In this sense, in which it was first used by J. S. Mill, Denotation
is equivalent to Extension, and Connotation to Intension. It is
clear that when the given term is qualified by a limiting adjective
the Denotation or Extension diminishes, while the Connotation
or Intension increases; e.g. a generic term like "flower" has a
larger Extension, and a smaller Intension than " rose ": " rose "

46

DENS— DENSITY

than " moss-rose." In more general language Denotation
is used loosely for that which is meant or indicated by a word,
phrase, sentence or even an action. Thus a proper name or
even an abstract term is said to have Denotation. (See
CONNOTATION.)

DENS, PETER (1690-1775), Belgian Roman Catholic theo-
logian, was born at Boom near Antwerp. Most of his life was
spent in the archiepiscopal college of Malines, where he was for
twelve years reader in theology and for forty president. His
great work was the Theologia moralis el dogmatica, a compendium
in catechetical form of Roman Catholic doctrine and ethics
which has been much used as a students' text-book. Dens died
on the isth of February 1775.

DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick), in physics, the mass or quantity
of matter contained in unit volume of any substance: this is the
absolute density; the term relative density or specific gravity
denotes the ratio of the mass of a certain volume of a substance
to the mass of the same volume of some standard substance.
Since the weights used in conjunction with a balance are really
standard masses, the word " weight " may be substituted for
the word " mass " in the preceding definitions; and we may
symbolically express the relations thus: — If M be the weight of
substance occupying a volume V, then the absolute density
A = M/V; and if m, mi be the weights of the substance and
of the standard substance which occupy the same volume, the
relative density or specific gravity S = m\m\, or more generally
if tm\ be the weight of a volume v of the substance, and mi the
weight of a volume i\ of the standard, then S = rrm\lm\v. In the
numerical expression of absolute densities it is necessary to
specify the units of mass and volume employed; while in the case
of relative densities, it is only necessary to specify the standard
substance, since the result is a mere number. Absolute densities
are generally stated in the C.G.S. system, i.e. as grammes per
cubic centimetre. In commerce, however, other expressions are
met with, as, for example, " pounds per cubic foot " (used for
woods, metals, &c.), " pounds per gallon," &c. The standard
substances employed to determine relative densities are: water
for liquids and solids, and hydrogen or atmospheric air for gases;
oxygen (as 16) is sometimes used in this last case. Other
standards of reference may be used in special connexions; for
example, the Earth is the usual unit for expressing the relative
density of the other members of the solar system. Reference
should be made to the article GRAVITATION for an account of the
methods employed to determine the " mean density of the earth."

In expressing the absolute or relative density of any substance,
it is necessary to specify the conditions for which the relation
holds: in the case of gases, the temperature and pressure of the
experimental gas (and of the standard, in the case of relative
density) ; and in the case of solids and liquids, the temperature.
The reason for this is readily seen; if a mass M of any gas
occupies a volume V at a temperature T (on the absolute scale)
and a pressure P, then its absolute density under these conditions
is A = M/V; if now the temperature and pressure be changed to
Ti and PI, the volume Vi under these conditions is VPT/PiTi,
and the absolute density is MPiT/VPTi. It is customary to re-
duce gases to the so-called " normal temperature and pressure,"
abbreviated to N.T.P., which is o° C. and 760 mm.

The relative densities of gases are usually expressed in terms
of the standard gas under the same conditions. The density
gives very important information as to the molecular weight,
since by the law of Avogadro it is seen that the relative density
is the ratio of the molecular weights of the experimental and
standard gases. In the case of liquids and solids, comparison
with water at 4° C., the temperature of the maximum density of
water; at o° C., the zero of the Centigrade scale and the freezing-
point of water; at 15° and 18°, ordinary room-temperatures;
and at 25°, the temperature at which a thermostat may be
conveniently maintained, are common in laboratory practice.
The temperature of the experimental substance may or may not
be the temperature of the standard. In such cases a bracketed
fraction is appended to the specific gravity, of which the numer-
ator and denominator are respectively the temperatures of the

M

substance and of the standard; thus 1-093 (°e/4°) means that
the ratio of the weight of a definite volume of a substance at o°
to the weight of the same volume of water 4° is 1-093. It may
be noted that if comparison be made with water at 4°, the relative
density is the same as the absolute density, since the unit of mass
in the C.G.S. system is the weight of a cubic centimetre of water
at this temperature. In British units, especially in connexion
with the statement of relative densities of alcoholic liquors for
Inland Revenue purposes, comparison is made with water at
62° F. (16-6 C.); a reason for this is that the gallon of water
is defined by statute as weighing 10 Ib at 62° F., and hence the
densities so expressed admit of the ready conversion of volumes
to weights. Thus if d be the relative density, then lod represents
the weight of a gallon in Ib. The brewer has gone a step further
in simplifying his expressions by multiplying the density by 1000,
and speaking of the difference between the density so expressed
and 1000 as " degrees of gravity " (see BEER).

PRACTICAL DETERMINATION OF DENSITIES

The methods for determining densities may be divided into two
groups according as hydrostatic principles are employed or not. In
the group where the principles of hydrostatics are not employed the
method consists in determining the weight and volume of a certain
quantity of the substance, or the weights of equal
volumes of the substance and of the standard. In
the case of solids we may determine the volume in
some cases by direct measurement — this gives at the
best a very rough and ready value ; a better method
is to immerse the body in a fluid (in which it must
sink and be insoluble) contained in a graduated
glass, and to deduce its volume from the height to
which the liquid rises. The weight may be directly
determined by the balance. The ratio " weight to
volume " is the absolute density. The separate
determination of the volume and mass of such
substances as gunpowder, cotton-wool, soluble sub-
stances, &c., supplies the only means of determining
their densities. The stereometer of Say, which was
greatly improved by Regnault and further modified
by Kopp, permits an accurate determination of the
volume of a given mass of any such substance. In
its simplest form the instrument consists of a glass
tube PC (fig. l), of uniform bore, terminating in a
cup PE, the mouth of which can be rendered air-
tight by the plate of glass E. The substance whose
volume is to be determined is placed in the cup PE,
and the tube PC is immersed in the vessel of mercury
D, until the mercury reaches the mark P. The plate
E is then placed on the cup, and the tube PC raised
until the surface of the mercury in the tube stands
at M, that in the vessel D being at C, and the
height MC is measured. Let k denote this height,
and let PM be denoted by /. Let u represent the
volume of air in the cup before the body was inserted,
v the volume of the body, a the area of the horizontal FiG. t. — Say's
section of the tube PC, and h the height of the Stereometer.
mercurial barometer. Then, by Boyle's law
(u—v+al) (h—k) = (u—v)h, and therefore v — u—al(h—k)/k.

The volume u may be determined by repeating the experiment
when only air is in the cup. In this case t>=o, and the equation
becomes (u+al1) (h — kl) = uh, whence u=al1(h — k1)/kl. Substituting
this value in the expression for v , the volume of the body inserted in
the cup becomes known. The chief errors to which the stereometer
is liable are (l) variation of temperature and atmospheric pressure
during the experiment, and (2) the presence of moisture which dis-
turbs Boyle's law.

The method of weighing equal volumes is particularly applicable
to the determination of the relative densities of liquids. It consists
in weighing a glass vessel (i) empty, (2) filled with the liquid, (3)
filled with the standard substance. Calling the weight of the empty
vessel w, when filled with the liquid W, and when filled with the
standard substance Wi , it is obvious that W — to, and Wi — w,
are the weights of equal volumes of the liquid and standard,
and hence the relative density is (W— a>)/(Wi— w).

Many forms of vessels have been devised. The com
moner type of " specific gravity bottle " consists of a thin
glass bottle (fig. 2) of a capacity varying from 10 to 100 cc., ,
fitted with an accurately ground stopper, which is vertically
perforated by a fine hole. The bottle is carefully cleansed
by washing with soda, hydrochloric acid and distilled
water, and then dried by heating in an air bath or by blow-
ing in warm air. It is allowed to cool and then weighed. FIG. 2.
The bottle is then filled with distilled water, and brought
to a definite temperature by immersion in a thermostat, and the
stopper inserted. It is removed from the thermostat, and carefully

DENSITY

47

XJ

FIG. 3.

wiped. After cooling it is weighed. The bottle is again cleaned and
dried, and the operations repeated with the liquid under examina-
tion instead of water. Numerous modifications of this bottle are in
use. For volatile liquids, a flask provided with a long neck which
carries a graduation and is fitted with a well-ground stopper is
recommended. The bringing of the liquid to the mark is effected
by removing the excess by means of a capillary. In many forms a
thermometer forms part of the apparatus.

Another type of vessel, named the Sprengel tube or pycnometer
(Gr. jrwcvAs, dense), is shown in fig. 3. It consists of a cylindrical
tube of a capacity ranging from 10 to 50 cc., provided at the upper
end with a thick-walled capillary bent as shown on the left of the
figure. From the bottom there leads
" another fine tube, bent upwards, and
then at right angles so as to be at the
same level as the capillary branch. This
tube bears a graduation. A loop of plati-
num wire passed under these tubes serves
to suspend the vessel from the balance
arm. The manner of cleansing, &c., is
the same as in the ordinary form. The
vessel is filled by placing the capillary
in a vessel containing the liquid and
gently aspirating. Care must be taken
that no air bubbles are enclosed. The
liquid is adjusted to the mark by
withdrawing any excess from the capillary end by a strip of
bibulous paper or by a capillary tube. Many variations of this
apparatus are in use; in one of the commonest there are two
cylindrical chambers, joined at the bottom, and each provided
at the top with fine tubes bent at right angles ; sometimes the inlet
and outlet tubes are provided with caps.

The specific gravity bottle may be used to determine the relative
density of a solid which is available in small fragments, and is insoluble
in the standard liquid. The method involves three operations: —
(i) weighing the solid in air (W), (2) weighing the specific gravity
bottle full of liquid (Wi), (3) weighing the bottle containing the solid
and filled up with liquid (W2). It is readily seen that W+Wi-W2 is
the weight of the liquid displaced by the solid, and therefore is the
weight of an equal volume of liquid; hence the relative density is
W/fW+Wi-Wa).

The determination of the absolute densities of gases can only be
effected with any high degree of accuracy by a development of this
method. As originated by Regnault, it consisted in filling a large
glass globe with the gas by alternately exhausting with an air-pump
and admitting the pure and dry gas. The flask was then brought to
o° by immersion in melting ice, the pressure of the gas taken, and
the stop-cock closed. The flask is removed from the ice, allowed to
attain the1 temperature of the room,«and then weighed. The flask
is now partially exhausted, transferred to the cooling bath, and after
standing the pressure of the residual gas is taken by a manometer.
The flask is again brought to room-temperature, and re-weighed.
The difference in the weights corresponds to the volume of gas at a
pressure equal to the difference of the recorded pressures. The
volume of the flask is determined by weighing empty and filled with
water. This method has been refined by many experimenters,
among whom we may notice Morley and Lord Rayleigh. Morley
determined the densities of hydrogen and oxygen in the course of
his classical investigation of the composition of water. The method
differed from Regnault's inasmuch as the flask was exhausted to an
almost complete vacuum, a performance rendered possible by the high
efficiency of the modern air-pump. The actual experiment necessi-
tates the most elaborate precautions, for which reference must be
made to Morley's original papers in the Smithsonian Contributions
to Knowledge (1895), or to M. Travers, The Study of Gases. Lord
Rayleigh has made many investigations of the absolute densities of
gases, one of which, namely on atmospheric and artificial nitrogen,
undertaken in conjunction with Sir William Ramsay, culminated in
the discovery of argon (g.ti.). He pointed put in 1888 (Proc. Roy.
Soc. 43, p. 361) an important correction which had been overlooked
by previous experimenters with Regnault's method, viz. the change
in volume of the experimental globe duetoshrinkage under diminished
pressure; this may be experimentally determined and amounts to
between 0-04 and 0-16 % of the volume of the globe.

Related to the determination of the density of a gas is the deter-
mination of the density of a vapour, i.e. matter which at ordinary
temperatures exists as a solid or liquid. This subject owes its
importance in modern chemistry to the fact that the vapour density,
when hydrogen is taken as the standard, gives perfectly definite
information as to the molecular condition of the compound, since
twice the vapour density equals the molecular weight of the
compound. Many methods have been devised. In historical order
we may briefly enumerate the following: — in 1811, Gay-Lussac
volatilized a weighed quantity of liquid, which must be readily
volatile, by letting it rise up a short tube containing mercury and
standing inverted in a vessel holding the same metal. This method
was developed by Hofmann in 1868, who replaced the short tube
of Gay-Lussac by an ordinary barometer tube, thus effecting the
volatilization in a Torricellian vacuum. In 1826 Dumas devised a
method suitable for substances of high boiling-point ; this consisted

in its essential point in vaporizing the substance in a flask made of
suitable material, sealing it when full of vapour, and weighing. This
method is very tedious in detail. H. Sainte-Claire Deville and
L. Tropst made it available for specially high temperatures by
employing porcelain vessels, sealing them with the oxyhydrogen
blow-pipe, and maintaining a constant temperature by a vapour
bath of mercury (350°), sulphur (440°), cadmium (860°) and zinc
(1040°). In 1878 Victor Meyer devised his air-expulsion method.

Before discussing the methods now used in detail, a summary of
the conclusions reached by Victor Meyer in his classical investiga-
tions in this field as to the applicability of the different methods will
be given:

(1) For substances which do not boil higher than 260° and have
vapours stable for 30° above the boiling-point and which do not
react on mercury, use Victor Meyer's "mercury expulsion method."

(2) For substances boiling between 260° and 420°, and which do
not react on metals, use Meyer's " Wood's alloy expulsion method."

(3) For substances boiling at higher temperatures, or for any
substance which reacts on mercury, Meyer's " air expulsion method '
must be used. It is to be noted, however, that this method is
applicable to substances of any boiling-point (see below).

(4) For substances which can be vaporized only under diminished
pressure, several methods may be used, (a) Hofmann's is the best
if the substance volatilizes at below 310°, and does not react on
mercury; otherwise (b) Demuth and Meyer's, Eykman's, Schall's, or
other methods may be used.

i. Meyer's " Mercury Expulsion " Method. — A small quantity of
the substance is weighed into a tube, of the form shown in fig. 4,
which has a capacity of about 35 cc., provided with a capillary tube
at the top, and a bent tube about 6 mm. in diameter at the bottom.
The vessel is completely filled with mercury, the capillary
sealed, and the vessel weighed. The vessel is then lowered
into a jacket containing vapour at a known temperature
which is sufficient to volatilize the substance. Mercury is
expelled, and when this expulsion ceases, the vessel is
removed, allowed to cool, and weighed. It is necessary to
determine the pressure exerted on the vapour by the
mercury in the narrow limb; this is effected by opening
the capillary and inclining the tube until the mercury just
reaches the top of the narrow tube; the difference between FIG. 4.
the height of the mercury in the wide tube and the top of
the narrow tube represents the pressure due to the mercury column,
and this must be added to the barometric pressure in order to
deduce the total pressure on the vapour.

The result is calculated by means of the formula :
n W( i +q<)X 7,980,000

in which W = weight of substance taken; / = temperature of vapour
bath; 0 = 0-00366 = temperature coefficient of gases; p = baro-
metric pressure; p\ — height of mercury column in vessel; s =
vapour tension of mercury at t° ; m = weight of mercury contained in
the vessel; mi = weight of mercury left in vessel after heating;
(S = coefficient of expansion of glass = -0000303 ; y = coefficient of
expansion of mercury =0-00018 (0-00019 above 240°) (see Ber. 1877,
10, p. 2068; 1886, 19, p. 1862).

2. Meyer's Wood's Alloy Expulsion Method. — This method is a
modification of the one just described. The alloy used is composed
of 15 parts of bismuth, 8 of lead, 4 of tin and 3 of cadmium; it
melts at 70°, and can be experimented with as readily as mercury.
The cylindrical vessel is replaced by a globular one, and the pressure
on the vapour due to the column of alloy in the side tube is readily
reduced to millimetres of mercury since the specific gravity of the
alloy at the temperature of boiling sulphur, 444° (at which the
apparatus is most frequently used), is two-thirds of

that of mercury (see Ber. 1876, 9, p. 1220).

3. Meyer's Air Expulsion Method. — The simplicity,
moderate accuracy, and adaptability of this method
to every class of substance which can be vaporized
entitles it to rank as one of the most potent methods
in analytical chemistry; its invention is indissolubly
connected with the name of Victor M eyer, being termed
" Meyer's method " to the exclusion of his other
original methods. It consists in determining the
air expelled from a vessel by the vapour of a given
quantity of the substance. The apparatus is shown
in fig. 5. A long tube (a) terminates at the bottom in
a cylindrical chamber of about 100-150 cc. capacity.
The top is fitted with a rubber stopper, or in some
forms with a stop-cock, while a little way down there
is a bent delivery tube (b). To use the apparatus, the
long tube is placed in a vapour bath (c) of the requisite
temperature, and after the air within the tube is in
equilibrium, the delivery tube is placed beneath the
surface of the water in a pneumatic trough, the rubber
stopper pushed home, and observation made as to FIG. 5.
whether any more air is being expelled. If this be not

so, a graduated tube (d) is filled with water, and inverted over the
delivery tube. The rubber stopper is removed and the experimental
substance introduced, and the stopper quickly replaced to the same
extent as before. Bubbles are quickly disengaged and collect in the

48

DENSITY

graduated tube. Solids may be directly admitted to the tube from
a weighing bottle, while liquids are conveniently introduced by
means of small stoppered bottles, or, in the case of exceptionally
volatile liquids, by means of a bulb blown on a piece of thin
capillary tube, the tube being sealed during the weighing operation,
and the capillary broken just before transference to the ap-
paratus. To prevent the bottom of the apparatus being knocked
out by the impact of the substance, a layer of sand, asbestos or
sometimes mercury is placed in the tube. To complete the experi-
ment, the graduated tube containing the expelled air is brought
to a constant and determinate temperature and pressure, and this
volume is the volume which the given weight of the substance
would occupy if it were a gas under the same temperature and
pressure. The vapour density is calculated by the following formula :
— _ W(l + aQ X 587,780

in which W = weight of substance taken, V = volume of air expelled,
a — 1/273 = -003665, t and p = temperature and pressure at which
expelled air is measured, and s = vapour pressure of water at t°.

By varying the material of the bulb, this apparatus is rendered
available for exceptionally high temperatures. Vapour baths of iron
are used in connexion with boiling anthracene (335°), anthraquinone
e^ (368°),sulphur(444°),phosphoruspentasulphide(5i8°);

molten lead may also be used. For higher tempera-
tures the bulb of the vapour density tube is made of
porcelain or platinum, and is heated in a gas furnace.

(40) Hofmann's Method. — Both the modus operandi
and apparatus employed in this method particularly
recommend its use for substances which do not react
on mercury and which boil in a vacuum at below 310°.
The apparatus (fig. 6) consists of a barometer tube,
containing mercury and standing in a bath of the same
metal, surrounded by a vapour jacket. The vapour is
circulated through the jacket, and the height of the
mercury read by a cathetometer or otherwise. The sub-
stance is weighed into a small stoppered bottle, which
is then placed beneath the mouth of the barometer tube.
It ascends the tube, the substance is rapidly volatilized,
and the mercury column is depressed ; this depression
is read off. It is necessary to know the volume of the
tube above the second level ; this may most efficiently
be determined by calibrating the tube prior to its use.
Sir T. E. Thorpe employed a barometer tube 96 cm.
long, and determined the volume from the closed end
for a distance of about 35 mm. by weighing in mercury ;
below this mark it was calibrated in the ordinary way so that a scale
reading gave the volume at once. The calculation is effected by the
following formulae: —

1-0036650

FIG. 6.

0-0012934 XVXB

*,__ lit

',+*

1+0-00018/1 \i +0-00018/2 1+0-00018*
in which w = weight of substance taken; / = temperature of vapour
jacket ; V = volume of vapour at / ; h = height of barometer reduced
to o°; /; =temperature of air; hi = height of mercury column below
vapour jacket; fe = temperature of mercury column not heated by
vapour; hi = height of mercury column within vapour jacket; s =
vapour tension of mercury at /°. The vapour tension of mercury
need not be taken into account when water is used in the jacket.

(46) Demuth and Meyer's Method. — The principle of this method
is as follows: — In the ordinary air expulsion method, the vapour
always mixes to some extent with the air in the tube, and this in-
volves a reduction of the pressure of the vapour. It is obvious that
this reduction may be increased by accelerating the diffusion of the
vapour. This may be accomplished by using a vessel with a some-
what wide bottom, and inserting the substance so that it may be
volatilized very rapidly, as, for example, in tubes of Wood's alloy,
_ and by filling the tube with hydrogen. (For further

details see Ber. 23, p. 311.)

We may here notice a modification of Meyer's
r-*, process in which the increase of pressure due to the
*• •* volatilization of the substance, and not the volume
of the expelled air, is measured. This method has
been developed by J. S. Lumsden (Jcurn. Chem.
Soc. 1903, 83, p. 342), whose apparatus is shown
diagrammatically in fig. 7. The vaporizing bulb
A has fused about it a jacket B, provided with a
condenser c. Two side tubes are fused on to the
neck of A : the lower one leads to a mercury mano-
meter M, and to the air by means of a cock C ; the
upper tube is provided with a rubber stopper
through which a glass rod passes — this rod serves
FlG. 7. to support the tube containing the substance to be
experimented upon, and so avoids the objection to
the practice of withdrawing the stopper of the tube, dropping the
substance in, and reinserting the stopper. To use the apparatus, a
liquid of suitable boiling-point is placed in the jacket and brought
to the boiling-point. All parts of the apparatus are open to the air,
and the mercury in the manometer is adjusted so as to come to a

fixed mark a. The substance is now placed on the support already
mentioned, and the apparatus closed to the air by inserting the
cork at D and turning the cock C. By turning or withdrawing
the support the substance enters the bulb; and! during its vapori-
zation the free limb of the manometer is raised so as to maintain
the mercury at a. When the volatilization is quite complete, the
level is accurately adjusted, and the difference of the levels of the
mercury gives the pressure exerted by the vapour. To calculate the
result it is necessary to know the capacity of the apparatus to the
mark a, and the temperature of the jacket.

Methods depending on the Principles of Hydrostatics. — Hydro-
statical principles can be applied to density determinations in four
typical ways: (l) depending upon the fact that the heights of liquid
columns supported by the same pressure vary inversely as the
densities of the liquids ; (2) depending upon the fact that a body which
sinks in a liquid loses a weight equal to the weight of liquid which
it displaces; (3) depending on the fact that a body remains sus-
pended, neither floating nor sinking, in a liquid of exactly the same
density; (4) depending on the fact that a floating body is immersed
to such an extent that the weight of the fluid displaced equals the
weight of the body.

1. The method of balancing columns is of limited use. Two forms
are recognized. In one, applicable only to liquids which do not mix,
the two liquids are poured into the limbs of a U tube. The heights
of the columns above the surface of junction of the liquids are in-
versely proportional to the densities of the liquids. In the second
form, named after Robert Hare (1781-1858), professor of chemistry
at the university of Pennsylvania, the liquids are drawn or aspirated
up vertical tubes which have their lower ends placed in reservoirs
containing the different liquids, and their upper ends connected to a
common tube which is in communication with an aspirator for
decreasing the pressure within the vertical tubes. The heights to
which the liquids rise, measured in each case by the distance between
the surfaces in the reservoirs and in the tubes, are inversely pro-
portional to the densities.

2. The method of " hydrostatic weighing " is one of the most
important. The principle may be thus stated : the solid is weighed
in air, and then in water. If W be the weight in air, and Wi the
weight in water, then Wi is always less than W, the difference W-W,
representing the weight of the water displaced, i.e. the weight of a
volume of water equal to that of the solid. Hence W/(W-Wi) is the
relative density or specific gravity of the body. The principle is
readily adapted to the determination of the relative densities of two
liquids, for it is obvious that if W be the weight of a solid body in air,
Wi and W2 its weights when immersed in the liquids, then W-Wi
and W-Wz are the weights of equal volumes of the liquids, and
therefore the relative density is the quotient (W-Wi)/(W-Ws).
The determination in the case of solids lighter than water is effected
by the introduction of a sinker i.e. a body which when affixed to the
light solid causes it to sink. I" W be the weight of the experimental
solid in air, w the weight of the sinker in water, and Wi the weight of
the solid plus sinker in water, then the relative density is given by
W/(W+w-Wi). In practice the solid or plummet is suspended
from the balance arm by a fibre — silk, platinum, &c. — and carefully
weighed. A small stool is then placed over the balance pan, and on
this is placed a beaker of distilled water so that the solid is totally
immersed. Some balances are provided with a " specific gravity
pan," i.e. a pan with short suspending arms, provided with a hook
at the bottom to which the fibre may be attached ; when this is so,
the stool is unnecessary. Any air bubbles are removed from the
surface of the body by brushing with a camel-hair brush; if the
solid be of a porous nature it is desirable to boil it for some time in
water, thus expelling the air from its interstices. The weighing is
conducted in the usual way by vibrations, except when the weight
be small ; it is then advisable to bring the pointer to zero, an opera-
tion rendered necessary by the damping due to the adhesion of water
to the fibre. The temperature and pressure of the air and water
must also be taken.

There are several corrections of the formula A = W/(W-Wi)
necessary to the accurate expression of the density. Here we can
only summarize the points of the investigation. It may be assumed
that the weighing is made with brass weights in air at /° and p mm.
pressure. To determine the true weight in vacua at o°, account
must be taken of the different buoyancies, or losses of true weight,
due to the different volumes of the solids and weights. Similarly
in the case of the weighing in water, account must be taken of the
buoyancy of the weights, and also, if absolute densities be required,
of the density of water at the temperature of the experiment. In a
form of great accuracy the absolute density A(o°/4°) is given by

A(o°/4°) = (poW-5Wi)/(W-Wi),

in which W is the weight of the body in air at t° and p mm. pressure,
Wi the weight in water, atmospheric conditions remaining very
nearly the same ; p is the density of the water in which the body is
weighed, a is (l+o/°) in which a is the coefficient of cubical
expansion of the body, and S is the density of the air at t°, p mm.
Less accurate formulae are A = p W/(W-Wi), the factor involving
the density of the air, and the coefficient of the expansion of the
solid being disregarded, and A = W/(W-Wi), in which the density
of water is taken as unity. Reference may be made to J. Wade and
R. W. Merriman, Journ. Chem. Soc. 1909, 95, p. 2174.

DENTATUS

49

FIG. 8.

The determination of the density of a liquid by weighing a
plummet in air, and in the standard and experimental liquids,

has been put into a very
convenient laboratory form
by means of the apparatus
known as a Westphal balance
' (fig. 8). It consists of a steel-
yard mounted on a fulcrum;
one arm carries at its extrem-
ity a heavy bob and pointer,
the latter moving along a scale
affixed to the stand and serv-
ing to indicate when the beam
is in its standard position.
The other arm is graduated
in ten divisions and carries
riders — bent pieces of wire of
determined weights — and at
its extremity a hook from
which the glass plummet is
suspended. To complete the
apparatus there is a glass jar which serves to hold the liquid
experimented with. The apparatus is so designed that when the
plummet is suspended in air, the index of the beam is at the zero
of the scale; if this be not so, then it is adjusted by a levelling
screw. The plummet is now placed in distilled water at 15°, and the
beam brought to equilibrium by means of a rider, which we shall call
I, hung on a hook; other riders are provided, ^th and ji0th respec-
tively of I. To determine the density of any liquid it is only neces-
sary to suspend the plummet in the liquid, and to bring the beam
to its normal position by means of the riders; the relative density is
read off directly from the riders.

3. Methods depending on the free suspension of the solid in a
liquid of the same density have been especially studied by Retgers
and Gossner in view of their applicability to density determinations
of crystals. Two typical forms are in use; in one a liquid is pre-
pared in which the crystal freely swims, the density of the liquid
being ascertained by the pycnometer or other methods; in the other
a liquid of variable density, the so-called " diffusion column," is
prepared, and observation is made of the level at which the particle
comes to rest. The first type is in commonest use; since both
necessitate the use of dense liquids, a summary of the media of most
value, with their essential properties, will be given.

Acetylene tetrabromide, C2H2Br<, which is very conveniently
prepared by passing acetylene into cooled bromine, has a density
of 3-001 at 6° C. It is highly convenient, since it is colourless,
odourless, very stable and easily mobile. It may be diluted with
benzene or toluene.

Methylene iodide, CH2I2, has a density of 3-33, and may be diluted
with benzene. Introduced by Brauns in 1886, it was recommended
by Retgers. Its advantages rest on its high density and mobility;
its main disadvantages are its liability to decomposition, the
originally colourless liquid becoming dark owing to the separation of
iodine, and its high coefficient of expansion. Its density may be
raised to 3-65 by dissolving iodoform and iodine in it.

Thoulct s solution, an aqueous solution of potassium and mercuric
iodides (potassium iodo-mercurate), introduced by Thoulet and
subsequently investigated by V. Goldschmidt, has a density of
3-196 at 22-9°. It is almost colourless and has a small coefficient of
expansion; its hygroscopic properties, its viscous character, and
its action on the skin, however, militate against its use. A. Duboin
(Compt. rend., 1905, p. 141) has investigated the solutions of mercuric
iodide in other alkaline iodides; sodium iodo-mercurate solution has
a density of 3-46 at 26°, and gives with an excess of water a dense
precipitate of mercuric iodide, which dissolves without decomposition
in alcohol; lithium iodo-mercurate solution has a density of 3-28
at 25-6°; and ammonium iodo-mercurate solution a density of
2-98 at 26°.

Rohrbach's solution, an aqueous solution of barium and mercuric
iodides, jntroduced by Carl Rohrbach, has a density of 3-588.

Klein's solution, an aqueous solution of cadmium borotungstate,
2Cd(OH)2-B2O3-9WCVi6H2O, introduced by D. Klein, has a
density up to 3-28. The salt melts in its water of crystallization at
75°, and the liquid thus obtained goes up to a density of 3-6.

Silver -thallium nitrate^, TIAg(NO3)2, introduced by Retgers, melts
at 75° to form a clear liquid of density 4-8; it may be diluted with
water.

The method of using these liquids is in all cases the same; a
particle is dropped in; if it floats a diluent is added and the mixture
well stirred. This is continued until the particle freely swims,
and then the density of the mixture is determined by the ordinary
methods (see MINERALOGY).

In_the "diffusion column" method, a liquid column uniformly
varying in density from about 3-3 to I is prepared by pouring a little
methylene iodide into a long test tube and adding five times as much
benzene. The tube is tightly corked to prevent evaporation, and
allowed to stand for some hours. The density of the column at any
level is determined by means of the areometrical beads proposed by
Alexander Wilson (1714-1786), professor of astronomy at Glasgow
University. These are hollow glass beads of variable density;

they may be prepared by melting off pieces of very thin capillary
tubing, and determining the density in each case by the method just
previously described. To use the column, the experimental fragment
is introduced, when it takes up a definite position. By successive
trials two beads, of known density, say dt, d,, are obtained, one of
which floats above, and the other below, the test crystal; the
distances separating the beads from the crystal are determined by
means of a scale placed behind the tube. If the bead of density d\
be at the distance I, above the crystal, and that of d, at ^ below,
it is obvious that if the density of the column varies uniformly, then
the density of the test crystal is (dJ/2+<Wi)/(A+/2).

Acting on a principle quite different from any previously dis-
cussed is the capillary hydrometer or staktometer of Brewster,
which is based upon the difference in the surface tension and
density of pure water, and of mixtures of alcohol and water in varying
proportions.

If a drop of water be allowed to form at the extremity of a fine
tube, it will go on increasing until its weight overcomes the surface
tension by which it clings to the tube, and then it will
fall. Hence any impurity which diminishes the surface
tension of the water will diminish the size of the drop
(unless the density is proportionately diminished).
According to Quincke, the surface tension of pure water
in contact with air at 20° C. is 8 1 dynes per linear centi-
metre, while that of alcohol is only 25-5 dynes; and a
small percentage of aldohol produces much more than a
proportional decrease in the surface tension when added
to pure water. The capillary hydrometer consists simply
of a small pipette with a bulb in the middle of the stem,
the pipette terminating in a very fine capillary point.
The instrument being filled with distilled water, the
number of drops required to empty the bulb and
portions of the stem between two marks m and n (fig. 9)
on the latter is carefully counted, and the experiments
repeated at different temperatures. The pipette having
been carefully dried, the process is repeated with pure
alcohol or with proof spirits, and the strength of any
admixture of water and spirits is determined from the
corresponding number of drops, but the formula generally pJG „
given is not based upon sound data. Sir David Brewster Brewster's
found with one of these instruments that the number Stakto-
of drops of pure water was 734, while of proof spirit, meter
sp. gr. 920, the number was 2117.

REFERENCES. — Density and density determinationsarediscussed in
all works on practical physics; reference may be made to B. Stewart
and W. W. Haldane Gee, Practical Physics, vol. i. (1901); Kohl-
rausch, Practical Physics; Ostwald, Physico- Chemical Measure-
ments. The density of gases is treated in M. W. Travers, The Ex-
perimental Study of Gases (1901) ; and vapour density determinations
in Lassar-Cohn's Arbeitsmeihoden fur organisch-chemische Labora-
tctien (1901), and Manual of Organic Chemistry (1896), and in
H. Biltz, Practical Methods for determining Molecular Weights
(1899). (C. E.*)

DENTATUS, MANIUS CURIUS, Roman general, conqueror of
the Samnites and Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, was born of humble
parents, and was possibly of Sabine origin. He is said to have
been called Dentatus because he was born with his teeth already
grown (Pliny, Nat. Hist. vii. 15). Except that he was tribune of
the people, nothing certain is known of him until his first consul-
ship in 290 B.C. when, in conjunction with his colleague
P. Cornelius Rufinus, he gained a decisive victory over the
Samnites, which put an end to a war that had lasted fifty years.
He also reduced the revolted Sabines to submission; a large
portion of their territory was distributed among the Roman
citizens, and the most important towns received the citizenship
without the right of voting for magistrates (cimlas sine sufragio).
With the proceeds of the spoils of the war Dentatus cut an
artificial channel to carry off the waters of Lake Velinus, so as to
drain the valley of Reate. In 275, after Pyrrhus had returned
from Sicily to Italy, Dentatus (again consul) took the field
against him. The decisive engagement took place near Bene-
ventum in the Campi Arusini, and resulted in the total defeat of
Pyrrhus. Dentatus celebrated a magnificent triumph, in which
for the first time a number of captured elephants were exhibited.
Dentatus was consul for the third time in 274, when he finally
crushed the Lucanians and Samnites, and censor in 272. In the
latter capacity he began to build an aqueduct to carry the waters
of the Anio into the city, but died (270) before its completion.
Dentatus was looked upon as a model of old Roman simplicity
and frugality. According to the well-known anecdote, when the
Samnites sent ambassadors with costly presents to induce him
to exercise his influence on their behalf in the senate, they found

DENTIL— DENTISTRY

him sitting on the hearth and preparing his simple meal of roasted
turnips. He refused their gifts, saying that earthen dishes were
good enough for him, adding that he preferred ruling those who
possessed gold to possessing it himself. It is also said that he
died so poor that the state was obliged to provide dowries for his
daughters. But these and similar anecdotes must be received
with caution, and it should be remembered that what was a
competence in his day would have been considered poverty by
the Romans of later times.

Livy, epitome, 11-14; Polybius ii. 19; Eutropius ii. 9, 14;
Florus i. 18 ; Val. Max. iv. 3, 5, vi. 3, 4 ; Cicero, De senectute, 16 ;
Juvenal xi. 78 ; Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 25.

DENTIL (from Lat. dens, a tooth), in architecture, a small
tooth-shaped block used as a repeating ornament in the bed-
mould of a cornice. Vitruvius (iv. 2) states that the dentil
represents the end of a rafter (asser) ; and since it occurs in its
most pronounced form in the Ionic temples of Asia Minor, the
Lycian tombs and the porticoes and tombs of Persia, where
it represents distinctly the reproduction in stone of timber
construction, there is but little doubt as to its origin. The earliest
example is that found on the tomb of Darius, c. 500 B.C., cut in the
rock in which the portico of his palace is reproduced. Its first
employment in Athens is in the cornice of the caryatid portico
or tribune of the Erechtheum (480 B.C.). When subsequently
introduced into the bed-mould of the cornice of the choragic
monument of Lysicrates it is much smaller in its dimensions.
In the later temples of Ionia, as in the temple of Priene, the larger
scale of the dentil is still retained. As a general rule the pro-
jection of the dentil is equal to its width, and the intervals
between to half the width. In some cases the projecting band
has never had the sinkings cut into it to divide up the dentils,
as_in the Pantheon at Rome, and it is then called a dentil-band.
The dentil was the chief decorative feature employed in the bed-
mould by the Romans and the Italian Revivalists. In the porch
of the church of St John Studius at Constantinople, the dentil
and the interval between are equal in width, and the interval
is splayed back from top to bottom; this is the form it takes in
what is known as the" Venetian dentil," which was copied from
the Byzantine dentil in Santa Sophia, Constantinople. There,
however, it no longer formed part of a bed-mould: its use at
Santa Sophia was to decorate the projecting moulding enclosing
the encrusted marbles, and the dentils were cut alternately on
both sides of the moulding. The Venetian dentil was also intro-
duced as a label round arches and as a string course.

DENTISTRY (from Lat. dens, a tooth), a special department
of medical science, embracing the structure, function and
therapeutics of the mouth and its contained organs,
sketchf* specifically the teeth, together with their surgical and
prosthetic treatment. (For the anatomy of the teeth
see TEETH.) As a distinct vocation it is first alluded to by
Herodotus (500 B.C.). There are evidences that at an earlier
date the Egyptians and Hindus attempted to replace lost teeth
by attaching wood or ivory substitutes to adjacent sound teeth
by means of threads or wires, but the gold fillings reputed to
have been found in the teeth of Egyptian mummies have upon
investigation been shown to be superficial applications of gold
leaf for ornamental purposes. The impetus given to medical
study in the Grecian schools by the followers of Aesculapius
and especially Hippocrates (500 to 400 B.C.) developed among the
practitioners of medicine and surgery considerable knowledge of
.dentistry. Galen (A.D. 131) taught that the teeth were true bones
existing before birth, and to him is credited the belief that the
upper canine teeth receive branches from the nerve which supplies
the eye, and hence should be called " eye-teeth." Abulcasis
(loth cent. A.D.) describes the operation by which artificial crowns
are attached to adjacent sound teeth. Vesalius (1514), Ambroise
Par6, J. J. Scaliger, T. Kerckring, M. Malpighi, and lesser
anatomists of the same period contributed dissertations which
threw some small amount of light upon the structure and
functions of the teeth. The operation of transplanting teeth is
usually attributed to John Hunter (1728-1793), who practised it
extensively, and gave to it additional prominence by transplanting

a human tooth to the comb of a cock, but the operation was
alluded to by Ambroise Par6 (1509-1590), and there is evidence
to show that it was practised even earlier. A. von Leeuwenhoek
in 1678 described with much accuracy the tubular structure of
the dentine, thus making the most important contribution to
the subject which had appeared up to that time. Until the latter
part of the i8th century extraction was practically the only
operation for the cure of toothache.

The early contributions of France exerted a controlling influ-
ence upon the development of dental practice. UrbainHe'mard,
surgeon to the cardinal Georges of Arm^gnac, whom Dr Blake
(1801) calls an ingenious surgeon and a great man, published in
1582 his Researches upon the Anatomy of the Teeth, their Nature
and Properties. Of Hemard, M. Fauchard says: " This surgeon
had read Greek and Latin authors, whose writings he has judici-
ously incorporated in his own works." In 1728 Fauchard, who
has been called the father of modern dentistry, published his
celebrated work, entitled Le Chirurgien Dentiste ou traite des
dents. The preface contains the following statement as to the
existing status of dental art and science in France, which might
have been applied with equal truth to any other European
country: — " The most celebrated surgeons having abandoned
this branch of surgery, or having but little cultivated it, their
negligence gave rise to a class of persons who, without theoretic
knowledge or experience, and without being qualified, practised
it at hazard, having neither principles nor system. It was only
since the year 1 700 that the intelligent in Paris opened their eyes
to these abuses, when it was provided that those who intended
practising dental surgery should submit to an examination by
men learned in all the branches of medical science, who should
decide upon their merits." After the publication of Fauchard 's
work the practice of dentistry became more specialized and
distinctly separated from medical practice, the best exponents
of the art being trained as apprentices by practitioners of ability,
who had acquired their training in the same way from their
predecessors. Fauchard suggested porcelain as an improvement
upon bone and ivory for the manufacture of artificial teeth, a
suggestion which he obtained from R. A. F. de Reaumur, the
French savant and physicist, who was a contributor to the royal
porcelain manufactory at Sevres. Later, Duchateau, an apothe-
cary of St Germain, made porcelain teeth, and communicated his
discovery to the Academy of Surgery in 1 7 76, but kept the process
secret. Du Bois Ch6mant carried the art to England, and the
process was finally made public by M. Du Bois Foucou. M. Fonzi
improved the art to such an extent that the Athenaeum of Arts
in Paris awarded him a medal and crown (March 14, 1808).

In Great Britain the igth century brought the dawning of
dental science. The work of Dr Blake in 1801 on the anatomy
of the teeth was distinctly in advance of anything previously
written on the subject. Joseph Fox was one of the first members
of the medical profession to devote himself exclusively to dentistry,
and his work is a repository of the best practice of his time.
The processes described, though comparatively crude, involve
principles in use at the present time. Thomas Bell, the successor
of Fox as lecturer on the structure and disease of the teeth at
Guy's Hospital, published his well-known work in 1829. About
this period numerous publications on dentistry made their appear-
ance, notably those of Koecker, Johnson and Waite, followed
somewhat later by the admirable work of Alexander Nasmyth
(1839). By this time Cuvier, Serres, Rousseau, Berlin, Herissant
and others in France had added to the knowledge of human
and comparative dental anatomy, while M. G. Retzius, of Sweden,
and E. H. Weber, J. C. Rosenmuller, Schreger, J. E. von Purkinje,
B. Fraenkel and J. Miiller in Germany were carrying forward the
same lines of research. The sympathetic nervous relationships
of the teeth with other parts of the body, and the interaction of
diseases of the teeth with general pathological conditions, were
clearly established. Thus a scientific foundation was laid, and
dentistry came to be practised as a specialty of medicine. Certain
minor operations, however, such as the extraction of teeth and
the stopping of caries in an imperfect way, were still practised by
barbers, and the empirical practice of dentistry, especially of

DENTISTRY

those operations which were almost wholly mechanical, had
developed a considerable body of dental artisans who, though
without medical education in many cases, possessed a high
degree of manipulative skill. Thus there came to be two classes
of practitioners, the first regarding dentistry as a specialty of
medicine, the latter as a distinct and separate calling.

In America representatives of both classes of dentists began
to arrive from England and France about the time of the Revolu-
tion. Among these were John Wooffendale (1766), a student of
Robert Berdmore of Liverpool, surgeon-dentist to George III.;
James Gardette (1778), a French physician and surgeon; and
Joseph Lemaire (1781), a French dentist who went out with the
army of Count Rochambeau. During the winter of 1781-1782,
while the Continental army was in winter quarters at Providence,
Rhode Island, Lemaire found time and opportunity to practise
his calling, and also to instruct one or two persons, notably
Josiah Flagg, probably the first American dentist. Dental
practice was thus established upon American soil, where it has
produced such fertile results.

Until well into the igth century apprenticeship afforded the
only means of acquiring a knowledge of dentistry. 'The profits
derived from the apprenticeship system fostered secrecy and
quackery among many of the early practitioners; but the more
liberal minded and better educated of the craft developed an
increasing opposition to these narrow methods. In 1837 a local
association of dentists was formed in New York, and in
J^4° a nati°nal association, The American Society of
Dental Surgeons, the object of which was " to advance
the science by free communication and interchange of senti-
ments." The first dental periodical in the world, The American
Journal of Dental Science, was issued in June 1839, and in
November 1840 was established the Baltimore College of Dental
Surgery, the first college in the world for the systematic education
of dentists. Thus the year 1830-1840 marks the birth of the
three factors essential to professional growth in dentistry. All
this, combined with the refusal of the medical schools to furnish
the desired facilities for dental instruction, placed dentistry for
the time being upon a footing entirely separate from general
medicine. Since then the curriculum of study preparatory to
dental practice has been systematically increased both as to" its
content and length, until in all fundamental principles it is
practically equal to that required for the training of medical
specialists, and in addition includes the technical subjects
peculiar to dentistry. In England, and to some extent upon
the continent, the old apprenticeship system is retained as an
adjunct to the college course, but it is rapidly dying out, as it has
already done in America. Owing to the regulation by law of the
educational requirements, the increase of institutions devoted
to the professional training of dentists has been rapid in all
civilized countries, and during the past twenty years especially
so in the United States. Great Britain possesses upwards of
twelve institutions for dental instruction, France two, Germany
and Switzerland six, all being based upon the conception that
dentistry is a department of general medicine. In the United
States there were in 1878 twelve dental schools, with about
700 students; in 1907 there were fifty-seven schools, with 6919
students. Of these fifty-seven schools, thirty-seven are depart-
ments of universities or of medical institutions, and there is a
growing tendency to regard dentistry from its educational aspect as
a special department of the general medical and surgical practice.
Recent studies have shown that besides being an important
part of the digestive system, the mouth sustains intimate re-
lationship with the general nervous system, and is important as
the portal of entrance for the majority of the bacteria that cause
specific diseases. This fact has rendered more intimate the
relations between dentistry and the general practice of medicine,
and has given a powerful impetus to scientific studies in dentistry.
Through the researches of Sir J. Tomes, Mummery,
Hopewell Smith, Williams and others in England,
O. Hertwig, Weil and Rose in Germany, Andrews, Sudduth
and Black in America, the minute anatomy and embryology of
the dental tissues have been worked out with great fulness and

Research.

precision. In particular, it has been demonstrated that certain
general systemic diseases have a distinct oral expression. Through
their extensive nervous connexions with the largest of the cranial
nerves and with the sympathetic nervous system, the teeth
frequently cause irritation resulting in profound reflex nervous
phenomena, which are curable only by removal of the local tooth
disorder. Gout, lithaemia, scurvy, rickets, lead and mercurial
poisoning, and certain forms of chronic nephritis, produce dental
and oral lesions which are either pathognomonic or strongly
indicative of their several constitutional causes, and are thus of
great importance in diagnosis. The most important dental re-
search of modern times is that which was carried out by Professor
W. D. Miller of Berlin (1884) upon the cause of caries of the teeth,
a disease said to affect the human race more extensively than any
other. Miller demonstrated that, as previous observers had
suspected, caries is of bacterial origin, and that acids play an
important r61e in the process. The disease is brought about by
a group of bacteria which develop in the mouth, growing natur-
ally upon the debris of starchy or carbohydrate food, producing
fermentation of the mass, with lactic acid as the end product.
The lactic acid dissolves the mineral constituent of the tooth
structure, calcium phosphate, leaving the organic matrix of the
tooth exposed. Another class of germs, the peptonising and
putrefactive bacteria, then convert the organic matter into liquid
or gaseous end products. The accuracy of the conclusions ob-
tained from his analytic research was synthetically proved, after
the manner of Koch, by producing the disease artificially. Caries
of the teeth has been shown to bear highly important relation to
more remote or systemic diseases. Exposure and death of the
dental pulp furnishes an avenue of entrance for disease-producing
bacteria, by which invasion of the deeper tissues may readily
take place, causing necrosis, tuberculosis, actinomycosis,
phlegmon and other destructive inflammations, certain of which,
affecting the various sinuses of the head, have been found to
cause meningitis, chronic empyema, metastatic abscesses in
remote parts of the body, paralysis, epilepsy and insanity.

Operative Dentistry. — The art of dentistry is usually divided
arbitrarily into operative dentistry, the purpose of which is to
preserve as far as possible the teeth and associated tissues, and
prosthetic dentistry, the purpose of which is to supply the loss of
teeth by artificial substitutes. The filling of carious
cavities was probably first performed with lead, sug-
gested apparently by an operation recorded by Celsus
(100 B.C.), who recommended that frail or decayed teeth be
stuffed with lead previous to extraction, in order that they might
not break under the forceps. The use of lead as a filling was
sufficiently prevalent in France during the I7th century to bring
into use the word plombage, which is still occasionally applied in
that country to the operation of filling. Gold as a filling material
came into general use about the beginning of the igth century.1
The earlier preparations of gold were so impure as to be virtually
without cohesion, so that they were of use only in cavities which
had sound walls for its retention. In the form of rolls or tape it
was forced into the previously cleaned and prepared cavity, con-
densed with instruments under heavy hand pressure, smoothed
with files, and finally burnished. Tin foil was also used to a
limited extent and by the same method. Improvements in the
refining of gold for dental use brought the product to a fair degree
of purity, and, about 1855, led to the invention by Dr Robert
Arthur of Baltimore of a method by which it could be welded
firmly within the cavity. The cohesive properties of the foil
were developed by passing it through an alcohol flame, which
dispelled its surface contaminations. The gold was then welded
piece by piece into a homogeneous mass by plugging instruments
with serrated points. In this process of cold- weld ing, the mallet,
hitherto in only limited use, was found more efficient than hand
pressure, and was rapidly developed. The primitive mallet of
wood, ivory, lead or steel, was supplanted by a mallet in which

1 The filling of teeth with gold foil is recorded in the oldest known
book'pn dentistry, Artzney Buchlein, published anonymously in 1530,
in which the operation is quoted from Mesue (A.D. 857), physician to
the caliph Haroun al-Raschid.

DENTISTRY

a hammer was released automatically by a spring condensed by
pressure of the operator's hand. Then followed mallets operated
by pneumatic pressure, by the dental engine, and finally by the
electro-magnet, as utilized in 1867 by Bonwill. These devices
greatly facilitated the operation, and made possible a partial
or entire restoration of the tooth-crown in conformity with
anatomical lines.

The dental engine in its several forms is the outgrowth of the
simple drill worked by the hand of the operator. It is used in
removing decayed structure and for shaping the cavity for
inserting the filling. From time to time its usefulness has been
extended, so that it is now used for finishing fillings and polishing
them, for polishing the teeth, removing deposits from them and
changing their shapes. Its latest development, the dento- surgical
engine, is of heavier construction and is adapted to operations
upon all of the bones, a recent addition to its equipment being the
spiral osteotome of Cryer, by which, with a minimum shock to
the patient, fenestrae of any size or shape in the brain-case may
be made, from a simple trepanning operation to the more ex-
tensive openings required in intra-cranial operations. The rotary
power' may be supplied by the foot of the operator, or by
hydraulic or electric motors. The rubber dam invented by
S. C. Barnum of New York (1864) provided a means for protecting
the field of operations from the oral fluids, and extended the scope
of operations even to the entire restoration of tooth-crowns with
cohesive gold foil. Its value has been found to be even greater
than was at first anticipated. In all operations involving the
exposed dental pulp or the pulp-chamber and root-canals, it is
the only efficient method of mechanically protecting the field of
operation from invasion by disease-producing bacteria.

The difficulty and annoyance attending the insertion of gold,
its high thermal conductivity, and its objectionable colour have
led to an increasing use of amalgam, guttapercha, and cements
of zinc oxide mixed with zinc chloride or phosphoric acid.
Recently much attention has been devoted to restorations with
porcelain. A piece of platinum foil of -ooi inch thickness is
burnished and pressed into the cavity, so that a matrix is pro-
duced exactly fitting the cavity. Into this matrix is placed a
mixture of powdered porcelain and water or alcohol, of the colour
to match the tooth. The mass is carefully dried and then fused
until homogeneous. Shrinkage is counteracted by additions of
porcelain powder, which are repeatedly fused until the whole
exactly fills the matrix. After cooling, the matrix is stripped
away and the porcelain is cemented into the cavity. When the
cement has hardened, the surface of the porcelain is ground
and polished to proper contour. If successfully made, porcelain
fillings are scarcely noticeable. Their durability remains to be
tested.

Until recent times the exposure of the dental pulp inevitably
led to its death and disintegration, and, by invasion of bacteria
via the pulp canal, set up an inflammatory process
Dental which eventually caused the loss of the entire tooth.
A rational system of therapeutics, in conjunction with
proper antiseptic measures, has made possible both
the conservative treatment of the dental pulp when exposed, and
the successful treatment of pulp-canals when the pulp has been
devitalized either by design or disease. The conservation of the
exposed pulp is affected by the operation of capping. In capping
a pulp, irritation is allayed by antiseptic and sedative treatment,
and a metallic cap, lined with a non-irritant sedative paste, is
applied under aseptic conditions immediately over the point
of pulp exposure. A filh'ng of cement is superimposed, and this,
after it has hardened, is covered with a metallic or other suitable
filling. The utility of arsenious acid for devitalizing the dental
pulp was discovered by J. R. Spooner of Montreal, and first
published in 1836 by his brother Shear jashub in his Guide to
Sound Teeth. The painful action of arsenic upon the pulp was
avoided by the addition of various sedative drugs, — morphia,
atropia, iodoform, &c., — and its use soon became universal. Of
late years it is being gradually supplanted by immediate surgical
extirpation under the benumbing effect of cocaine salts. By the
use of cocaine also the pain incident to excavating and shaping

of cavities in tooth structure may be controlled, especially when
the cocaine is driven into the dentine by means of an electric
current. To fill the pulp-chamber and canals of teeth after loss
of the pulp, all organic remains of pulp tissue should be removed
by sterilization, and then, in order to prevent the entrance of
bacteria, and consequent infection, the canals should be perfectly
filled. Upon the exclusion of infection depends the future
integrity and comfort of the tooth. Numberless methods have
been invented for the operation. Pulpless teeth are thus pre-
served through long periods of usefulness, and even those remains
of teeth in which the crowns have been lost are rendered com-
fortable and useful as supports for artificial crowns, and as
abutments for assemblages of crowns, known as bridge-work.

The discoloration of the pulpless tooth through putrefactive
changes in its organic matter were first overcome by bleaching
it with chlorine. Small quantities of calcium hypochlorite are
packed into the pulp-chamber and moistened with dilute acetic
acid; the decomposition of the calcium salt liberates chlorine in
situ, which restores the tooth to normal colour in a short time.
The cavity is afterwards washed out, carefully dried, lined with a
light-coloured cement and filled. More efficient bleaching agents
of recent introduction are hydrogen dioxide in a 25% solution
or a saturated solution of sodium peroxide; they are less irritating
and much rnore convenient in application. Unlike chlorine,
these do not form soluble metallic salts which may subsequently
discolour the tooth. Hydrogen dioxide may be carried into the
tooth structure by the electric current. In which case a current
of not less than forty volts controlled by a suitable graduated
resistance is applied with the patient in circuit, the anode being a
platinum-pointed electrode hi contact with the dioxide solution
in the tooth cavity, and the cathode a sponge or plate electrode
in contact with the hand or arm of the patient. The current is
gradually turned on until two or three milliamperes are indicated
by a suitable ammeter. The operation requires usually twenty to
thirty minutes.

Malposed teeth are not only unsightly but prone to disease, and
may be the cause of disease in other teeth, or of the associated
tissues. The impairment of function which their abnormal
position causes has been found to be the primary cause of
disturbances of the general bodily health; for example, enlarged
tonsils, chronic pharyngitis and nasal catarrh, indigestion
and malnutrition. By the use of springs, screws, vulcanized
caoutchouc bands, elastic ligatures, &c., as the case may require,
practically all forms of dental irregularity may be corrected, even
such protrusions and retrusions of the front teeth as cause great
disfigurement of the facial contour.

The extraction of teeth, an operation which until quite recent
times was one of the crudest procedures in minor surgery, has
been reduced to exactitude by improved instruments,
designed with reference to the anatomical relations of
the teeth and their alveoli, and therefore adapted to the
several classes of teeth. The operation has been rendered painless
by the use of anaesthetics. The anaesthetic generally employed
is nitrous oxide, or laughing-gas, the use of which was discovered
in 1844 by Horace Wells, a dentist of Hartford, Conn., U.S.A.
Chloroform and ether, as well as other general anaesthetics, have
been employed in extensive operations because of their more pro-
longed effect; but chloroform, especially, is dangerous, owing to
its effect upon the heart, which in many instances has suddenly
failed during the operation. Ether, while less manageable than
nitrous oxide, has been found to be practically devoid of danger.
The local injection of solutions of cocaine and allied anaesthetics
into the gum-tissue is extensively practised; but is attended with
danger, from the toxic effects of an overdose upon the heart, and
the local poisonous effect upon the tissues, which lead in numerous
cases to necrosis and extensive sloughing.

Dental Prosthesis. — The fastening of natural teeth or carved
substitutes to adjoining sound teeth by means of thread or wire
preceded their attachment to base-plates of carved xrt/flcfa,
wood, bone or ivory, which latter method was practised teeth.
until the introduction of swaged metallic plates. Where
the crown only of a tooth or those of several teeth were lost, the

DENTISTRY

53

restoration was effected by engrafting upon the prepared root a
suitable crown by means of a wooden or metallic pivot. When
possible, the new crown was that of a corresponding sound tooth
taken from the mouth of another individual; otherwise an
artificial crown carved from bone or ivory, or sometimes from the
tooth of an ox, was used. To replace entire dentures a base-plate
of carved hippopotamus ivory was constructed, upon which were
mounted the crowns of natural teeth, or later those of porcelain.
The manufacture of a denture of this character was tedious and
uncertain, and required much skill. The denture was kept in
place by spiral springs attached to the buccal sides of the appliance
above and below, which caused pressure upon both jaws, necessi-
tating a constant effort upon the part of the unfortunate wearer.
to keep it in place. Metallic swaged plates were introduced in
the latter part of the i8th century. An impression of the gums
was taken in wax, from which a cast was made in plaster of
Paris. With this as a model, a metallic die of brass or zinc was
prepared, upon which the plate of gold or silver was formed, and
then swaged into contact with the die by means of a female die or
counter-die of lead. The process is essentially the same to-day,
with the addition of numerous improvements in detail, which
have brought it to a high degree of perfection. The discovery, by
Gardette of Philadelphia in 1800, of the utility of atmospheric
pressure in keeping artificial dentures in place led to the abandon-
ment of spiral springs. A later device for enhancing the stability
is the vacuum chamber, a central depression in the upper surface
of the plate, which, when exhausted of air by the wearer, materi-
ally increases the adhesion. The metallic base-plate is used also
for supporting one or more artificial teeth, being kept in place
by metallic clasps fitting to, and partially surrounding, adjacent
sound natural teeth, the plate merely covering the edentulous
portion of the alveolar ridge. It may also be kept in place by
atmospheric adhesion, in which case the palatal vault is included,
and the vacuum chamber is utilized in the palatal portion to
increase the adhesion.

In the construction usually practised, porcelain teeth are
attached to a gold base-- date by means of stay-pieces of gold,
perforated to receive the platinum pins baked in the body of the
tooth. The stay-pieces or backings are then soldered to the pins
and to the plate by means of high-fusing gold solder. The teeth
used may be single or in sections, and may be with or without
an extension designed in form and colour to imitate the gum of
the aveolar border. Even when skillfully executed, the process is
imperfect in that the jointing of the teeth to each other, and
their adaptation to the base-plate, leaves crevices and recesses,
in which food debris and oral secretions accumulate. To obviate
these defects the enamelled platinum denture was devised.
Porcelain teeth are first attached to a swaged base-plate of pure
platinum by a stay-piece of the same metal soldered with pure
gold, after which the interstices between the teeth are filled, and
the entire surface of the plate, excepting that in contact with the
palate and alveolar border, is covered with a porcelain paste
called the body, which is modelled to the normal contour of the
gums, and baked in a muffle furnace until vitrified. It is then
enamelled with a vitreous enamel coloured in imitation of the
colour of the natural gum, which is applied and fired as before,
the result being the most artistic and hygienic denture known.
This is commonly known as the continuous gum method. Origin-
ating in France in the early part of the igth century, and variously
improved by several experimenters, it was brought to its present
perfection by Dr John Allen of New York about 1846-1847.
Dentures supported upon cast bases of metallic alloys and of
aluminium have been employed as substitutes for the more
expensive dentures of gold and platinum, but have had only a
limited use, and are less satisfactory.

Metallic bases were used exclusively as supports for artificial
dentures until in 1855-1856 Charles Goodyear, jun., patented in
England a process for constructing a denture upon vulcanized
caoutchouc as a base. Several modifications followed, each the
subject of patented improvements. Though the cheapness and
simplicity of the vulcanite base has led to its abuse in incom-
petent hands, it has on the whole been productive of much

benefit. It has been used with great success as a means of
attaching porcelain teeth to metallic bases of gold, silver and
aluminium. It is extensively used also in correcting irregular
positions of the teeth, and for making interdental splints in the
treatment of fractures of the jaws. For the mechanical correction
of palatal defects causing imperfection of deglutition and speech,
which comes distinctly within the province of the prosthetic
dentist, the vulcanite base produces the best-known apparatus.
Two classes of palatal mechanism are recognized — the obturator,
a palatal plate, the function of which is to close perforations
or clefts in the hard palate, and the artificial velum, a movable
attachment to the obturator or palatal plate, which closes the
opening in the divided natural velum and, moving with it,
enables the wearer to close off the nasopharynx from the oral
cavity in the production of the guttural sounds. Vulcanite is
also used for extensive restorations of the jaws after surgical
operations or loss by disease, and in the majority of instances
wholly corrects the deformity.

For a time vulcanite almost supplanted gold and silver as
a base for artificial denture, and developed a generation of
practitioners deficient in that high degree of skill necessary
to the construction of dentures upon metallic bases.
The recent development of crown-and-bridge work methods.
has brought about a renaissance, so that a thorough
training is more than ever necessary to successful practice in
mechanical dentistry. The simplest crown is of porcelain, and is
engrafted upon a sound natural tooth-root by means of a metallic
pin of gold or platinum, extending into the previously enlarged
root-canal and cemented in place. In another type of crown the
point between the root-end and the abutting crown-surface is
encircled with a metallic collar or band, which gives additional
security to the attachment and protects the joints from fluids
or bacteria. Crowns of this character are constructed with a
porcelain facing attached by a stay-piece or backing of gold to a
plate and collar, which has been previously fitted to the root-end
like a ferrule, and soldered to a pin which projects through the
ferrule into the root-canal. The contour of the lingual surface of
the crown is made of gold, which is shaped to conform to the
anatomical lines of the tooth. The shell-crown consists of a
reproduction of the crown entirely of gold plate, filled with
cement, and driven over the root-end, which it closely encircles.
The two latter kinds of crowns may be used as abutments for
the support of intervening crowns in constructing bridge-work.
When artificial crowns are supported not by natural tooth-roots
but by soldering them to abutments, they are termed dummies.
The number of dummies which may be supported upon a given
number of roots depends upon the position and character of the
abutments, the character of the alveolar tissues, the age, sex and
health of the patient, the character of the occlusion or bite, and
the force exerted in mastication. In some cases a root will not
properly support more than one additional crown; in others
an entire bridge denture has been successfully supported upon
four well-placed roots. Two general classes of bridge-work are
recognized, namely, the fixed and the removable. Removable
bridge-work, though more difficult to construct, is preferable, as
it can be more thoroughly and easily cleansed. When properly
made and applied to judiciously selected cases, the bridge
denture is the most artistic and functionally perfect restoration
of prosthetic dentistry.

The entire development of modern dentistry dates from the
igth century, and mainly from its latter half. Beginning with a
few practitioners and no organized professional basis, educational
system or literature, its practitioners are to be found in all
civilized communities, those in Great Britain numbering about
5000; in the United States, 27,000; France, 1600, of whom
376 are graduates; German Empire, qualified practitioners
(Zahnarzte) , 1400; practitioners without official qualification,
4100. Its educational institutions are numerous and well
equipped. It possesses a large periodical and standard litera-
ture in all languages. Its practice is regulated by legislative
enactment in all countries the same as is medical practice.
The business of manufacturing and selling dentists' supplies

54

DENTON— DENVER

represents an enormous -industry, in which millions of capital
are invested.

AUTHORITIES. — W. F. Litch, American System of Dentistry;
Julius Scheff, jun., Handbuch der Zahnheilkunde; Charles J. Essig,
American Text-Book of Prosthetic Dentistry; Tomes, Dental Anatomy
and Dental Surgery; W. D. Miller, Microorganisms of the Human
Mouth; Hopewell Smith, Dental Microscopy; H. H. Burchard,
Dental Pathology, Therapeutics and Pharmacology; F. J. S. Gorgas,
Dental Medicine; E. H. Angle, Treatment of Malocclusion of the
Teeth and Fractures of the Maxillae ; G. Evans, A Practical Treatise
on Artificial Crown-and-Bridge Work and Porcelain Dental Art;
C. N. Johnson, Principles and Practice of Filling Teeth, American
Text-Book of Operative Dentistry (3rd ed., 1905); Edward C. Kirk,
Principles and Practice of Operative Dentistry (2nd ed., 1905);
J. S. Marshall, American Text-Book of Prosthetic Dentistry (edited by
C. R. Turner; 3rd ed., 1907). (E. C. K.)

DENTON, an urban district in the Gorton parliamentary
division of Lancashire, England, 4^ m. N.E. from Stockport, on
the London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 14,934. In
the township are reservoirs for the water supply of Manchester,
with a capacity of 1,860,000,000 gallons. The manufacture of
felt hats is the leading industry. Coal is extensively mined in
the district.

DENVER, the capital of Colorado, U.S.A., the county-seat
of Denver county, and the largest city between Kansas City,
Missouri, and the Pacific coast, sometimes called the " Queen
City of the Plains." Pop. (1870) 4759; (1880) 35,629; (1890)
106,713; (1900), 133,859, of whom 25,301 were foreign-born
and 3923 were negroes; (1910 census) 213,381. Of the
25,301 foreign-born in 1900, 5114 were Germans; 3485, Irish;
3376, Swedes; 3344, English; 2623, English-Canadian;
1338, Russians; and 1033, Scots. Denver is an important
railway centre, being served by nine railways, of which the
chief are the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe; the Chicago,
Burlington & Quincy; the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific;
the Denver & Rio Grande; the Union Pacific; and the
Denver, North-Western & Pacific.

Denver lies on the South Platte river, at an altitude exactly
i m. above the sea, about ism. from the E. base of the Rocky
mountains, which stretch along the W. horizon from N. to S.
in an unbroken chain of some 175 m. Excursions may be made
in all directions into the mountains, affording beautiful scenery
and interesting views of the mining camps. Various peaks are
readily accessible from Denver: Long's Peak (14,271 ft.), Gray's
Peak (14,341 ft.), Torrey Peak (14,336 ft.), Mt. Evans (14,330 ft.),
Pike's Peak (14,108 ft.), and many others of only slightly less
altitudes. The streets are excellent, broad and regular. The
parks are a fine feature of the city; by its charter a fixed
percentage of all expenditures for public improvements must be
used to purchase park land. Architectural variety and solidity
are favoured in the buildings of the city by a wealth of beautiful
building stones of varied colours (limestones, sandstones, lavas,
granites and marbles), in addition to which bricks and Roman
tiles are employed. The State Capitol, built of native granite and
marble (1887-1895, cost $2,500,000), is an imposing building.
Noteworthy also are the Denver county court house; the hand-
some East Denver high school; the Federal building, containing
the United States custom house and post office; the United
States mint; the large Auditorium, in which the Democratic
National convention met in 1908; a Carnegie library (1908)
and the Mining Exchange; and there are various excellent
business blocks, theatres, clubs and churches. Denver has an
art museum and a zoological museum. The libraries of the city
contain an aggregate of some 300,000 volumes. Denver is the
seat of the Jesuit college of the Sacred Heart (1888; in the
suburbs); and the university of Denver (Methodist, 1889), a
co-educational institution, succeeding the Colorado Seminary
(founded in 1864 by John Evans), and consisting of a college
of liberal arts, a graduate school, Chamberlin astronomical
observatory and a preparatory school — these have buildings
in University Park — and (near the centre of the city) the
Denver and Gross College of Medicine, the Denver law school, a
college of music in the building of the old Colorado Seminary, and
a Saturday college (with classes specially for professional men).

The prosperity of the city depends on that of the rich mining
country about it, on a very extensive wholesale trade, for which
its situation and railway facilities admirably fit it, and on its
large manufacturing and farming interests. The value of
manufactures produced in 1900 was $41,368,698 (increase
1890-1900, 41-5 %). The value of the factory product for 1905,
however, was 3-3 % less than that for 1900, though it represented
36-6 % of the product of the state as a whole. The principal
industry is the smelting and refining of lead, and the smelting
works are among the most interesting sights of the city. The
value of the ore reduced annually is about $10,000,000. Denver
has also large foundries and machine shops, flour and grist mills,
and slaughtering and meat-packing establishments. Denver is
the central live-stock market of the Rocky Mountain states. The
beet sugar, fruit and other agricultural products of the sur-
rounding and tributary section were valued in 1906 at about
$20,000,000. The assessed valuation of property in the city in
1905 was $115,338,920 (about the true value), and the bonded
debt $1,079,595.

At Denver the South Platte is joined by Cherry Creek, and
here in October 1858 were established on opposite sides of the
creek two bitterly rival settlements, St Charles and Auraria; the
former was renamed almost immediately Denver, after General
J. W. Denver (1818-1892), ex-governor of Kansas (which then
included Colorado), and Auraria was absorbed. Denver had
already been incorporated by a provisional local (extra legal)
" legislature," and the Kansas legislature gave a charter to a
rival company which the Denver people bought out. A city
government was organized in December 1859; and continued
under a reincorporation effected by the first territorial legislature
of 1861. This body adjourned from Colorado City, nominally
the capital, to Denver, and in 1862 Golden was made the seat of
government. In 1868 Denver became the capital, but feeling in
the southern counties was then so strong against Denver that
provision was made for a popular vote on the situation of the
capital five years after Colorado should become a state. This
popular vote confirmed Denver in 1881. Until 1870, when it
secured a branch railway from the Union Pacific line at Cheyenne
(Wyoming), the city was on one side of the transcontinental travel-
routes. The first road was quickly followed by the Kansas
Pacific from Kansas City (1870, now also part of the Union
Pacific), the Denver & Rio Grande (1871), the Burlington system
(1882), the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe (1887), and other roads
which have made Denver's fortune. In April 1859 appeared the
first number of The Rocky Mountain News. The same year a
postal express to Leavenworth, Kansas (10 days, letters 25 cents
an ounce) was established; and telegraph connexion with Boston
and New York ($9 for 10 words) in 1863. A private mint was
established in 1 860. In the 'seventies all the facilities of a modern
city — gas, street-cars, water-works, telephones — were intro-
duced. Much the same might be said of a score of cities in the
new West, but none is a more striking example than Denver of
marvellous growth. The city throve on the freighting trade of
the mines. In 1864 a tremendous flood almost ruined it, and
another flood in 1878, and a famous strike in Denver and
Leadville in 1879-1880 were further, but only momentary,
checks to its prosperity. As in every western city, particularly
those in mining regions whose sites attained speculative values,
Denver had grave problems with " squatters " or " land-
jumpers "in her early years; and there was the usual gambling
and outlawry, sometimes extra-legally repressed by vigilantes.
Settled social conditions, however, soon established themselves.
In 1880 there was a memorable election riot under the guise of
an anti-Chinese demonstration. In the decade 1870-1880 the
population increased 648-7%. The 'eighties were notable
for great real estate activity, and the population of the city
creased 199-5% from J88o to 1890. In 1882-1884 three
successive annual exhibits of a National Mining and Industrial
Exposition were held. After 1890 growth was slower but
continuous. In 1902 a city-and-county of Denver was created
with extensive powers of framing its own charter, and in
1904 a charter was adopted. The constitution of the state was

DEODAND— DEPARTMENT

55

framed by a convention that sat at Denver from December 1875
to March 1876; various territorial conventions met here; and
here W. J. Bryan was nominated in 1908 for the presidency.

DEODAND (Lat. Deodandum, that which is to be given to God),
in English law, was a personal chattel (any animal or thing)
which, on account of its having caused the death of a human
being, was forfeited to the king for pious uses. Blackstone, while
tracing in the custom an expiatory design, alludes to analogous
Jewish and Greek laws,1 which required that what occasions a
man's death should be destroyed. In such usages the notion of
the punishment of an animal or thing, or of its being morally
affected from having caused the death of a man, seems to be
implied. The forfeiture of the offending instrument in no way
depends on the guilt of the owner. This imputation of guilt to
inanimate objects or to the lower animals is not inconsistent with
what we know of the ideas of uncivilized races. In English law,
deodands came to be regarded as mere forfeitures to the king, and
the rules on which they depended were not easily explained by
any key in the possession of the old commentators. The law
distinguished, for instance, between a thing in motion and a thing
standing still. If a horse or other animal in motion killed a
person, whether infant or adult, or if a cart ran over him, it was
forfeited as a deodand. On the other hand, if death were caused
by falling from a cart or a horse at rest, the law made the chattel
a deodand if the person killed were an adult, but not if he
were below the years of discretion. Blackstone accounts for the
greater severity against things in motion by saying that in such
cases the owner is more usually at fault, an explanation which
is doubtful in point of fact, and would certainly not account
for other instances of the same tendency. Thus, where a man's
death is caused by a thing not in motion, that part only which is
the immediate cause is forfeited, as " if a man be climbing up the
wheel of a cart, and is killed by falling from it, the wheel alone is
a deodand"; whereas, if the cart were in motion, not only the
wheel but all that moves along with it (as the cart and the
loading) are forfeited. A similar distinction is to be found in
Britton. Where a man is killed by a vessel at rest the cargo is not
deodand; where the vessel is under sail, hull and cargo are both
deodand. For the distinction between the death of a child and the
death of an adult Blackstone accounts by suggesting that the child
" was presumed incapable of actual sin, and therefore needed no
deodand to purchase propitiatory masses; but every adult who
died in actual sin stood in need of such atonement, according to
the humane superstition of the founders of the English law." Sir
Matthew Hale's explanation was that the child could not take
care of himself, whereon Blackstone asks why the owner should
save his forfeiture on account of the imbecility of the child, which
ought to have been an additional reason for caution. The
finding of a jury was necessary to constitute a deodand, and the
investigation of the value of the instrument by which death was
caused occupied an important place among the provisions of
early English criminal law. It became a necessary part of an
indictment to state the nature and value of the weapon employed
— as, that the stroke was given by a certain penknife, of the value
of sixpence — so that the king might have his deodand. Accidents
on the high seas did not cause forfeiture, being beyond the domain
of the common law; but it would appear that in the case of
ships in fresh water the law held good. The king might grant his
right to deodands to another. In later times these forfeitures
became extremely unpopular; and juries, with the connivance
of judges, found deodands of trifling value, so as to defeat the
inequitable claim. At last, by an act of 1 846 they were abolished,
the date noticeably coinciding with the introduction of railways
and modern steam-engines.

DE06ARH, the name of several towns of British India, (i) A
town in the Santal Parganas district of Bengal. Pop. (1901)
8838. It is famous for a group of twenty-two temples dedicated
to Siva, the resort of numerous pilgrims. It is connected with
the East Indian railway by a steam tramway, 5 m. in length.

'"Compare also the rule of the Twelve Tables, by which an animal
which had inflicted mischief might be surrendered in lieu of com-
pensation.

(2) The headquarters of the Bamra feudatory state in Bengal;
58 m. by road from the Bamra Road station on the Bengal-
Nagpur railway. Pop. (1901) 5702. The town, which is well
laid out, with parks and gardens, and pleasantly situated in a
hollow among hills, rapidly increased in population under the
enlightened administration of the raja, Sir Sudhal Rao, K.C.I.E.
(b. 1860). It has a state-supported high school affiliated to
Calcutta University, with a chemical and physical laboratory.

(3) The chief town of the Deogarh estate in the state of Udaipur,
Rajputana, about 68 m. N.N.E. of the city of Udaipur. It is
walled, and contains a fine palace. Pop. (1901) 5384. The
holder of the estate is styled raivat, and is one of the first-class
nobles of Mewar. (4) Deogarh Fort, the ancient Devagiri or
Deoeiri (see DAULATABAD).

DEOLS, a suburb of the French town of Chateauroux, in the
department of Indre. Pop. (1906) 2337. Deols lies to the
north of Chateauroux, from which it is separated by the Indre.
It preserves a fine Romanesque tower and other remains of the
church of a famous Benedictine abbey, the most important in
Berry, founded in 917 by Ebbes the Noble, lord of Deols. A
gateway flanked by towers survives from the old ramparts of
the town. The parish church of St Stephen (i5th and i6th
centuries) has a Romanesque facade and a crypt containing the
ancient Christian tomb of St Ludre and his father St Leocade, who
according to tradition were lords of the town in the 4th century.
There are also interesting old paintings of the loth century
representing the ancient abbey. The pilgrimage to the tomb of
St Ludre gave importance to Deols, which under the name of
Vicus Dolensis was in existence in the Roman period. In 468
the Visigoths defeated the Gauls there, the victory carrying with
it the supremacy over the district of Berry. In the middle ages
the head of the family of D6ols enjoyed the title of prince and
held sway over nearly all Lower Berry, of which the town itself
was the capital. In the loth century Raoul of Deols gave his
castle to the monks of the abbey and transferred his residence
to Chateauroux. For centuries this change did not affect the
prosperity of the place, which was maintained by the prestige
of its abbey. But the burning of the abbey church by the
Protestants during the religious wars and in 1622 the suppression
of the abbey by the agency of Henry II., prince of Conde and of
Deols, owing to the corruption of the monks, led to its decadence.

DEPARTMENT (Fr. department, from dtpartir, to separate
into parts), a division. The word is used of the branches of the
administration in a state or municipality; in Great Britain it
is applied to the subordinate divisions only of the great offices
and boards of state, such as the bankruptcy department of the
Board of Trade, but in the United States these subordinate
divisions are known as " bureaus," while " department " is used
of the eight chief branches of the executive.

A particular use of the word is that for a territorial division
of France, corresponding loosely to an English county. Previous
to the French Revolution, the local unit in France was the
province, but this division was too closely bound up with the
administrative mismanagement of the old regime. Accordingly,
at the suggestion of Mirabeau, France was redivided on entirely
new lines, the thirty-four provinces being broken up into eighty-
three departments (see FRENCH REVOLUTION). The idea was
to render them as nearly as possible equal to a certain average
of size and population, though this was not always adhered to.
They derived their names principally from rivers, mountains
or other prominent geographical features. Under Napoleon the
number was increased to one hundred and thirty, but in 1815 it
was reduced to eighty-six. In 1860 three new departments were
created out of the newly annexed territory of Savoy and Nice. In
1871 three departments (Bas-Rhin, Haut-Rhin and Moselle)
were lost after the German war. Of the remains of the Haut-
Rhin was formed the territory of Belfort, and the fragments of
the Moselle were incorporated in the department of Meurthe,
which was renamed Meurthe-et-Moselle, making the number
at present eighty-seven. For a complete list of the departments
see FRANCE. Each department is presided over by an officer
called a prefect, appointed by the government, and assisted by a

DE PERE— DEPORTATION

prefectorial council (conseil de prefecture). The departments are
subdivided into arrondissements, each in charge of a sub-prefect.
Arrondissements are again subdivided into cantons, and these
into communes, somewhat equivalent to the English parish
(see FRANCE: Local Government).

DE PERE, a city of Brown county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on both
sides of the Fox river, 6 m. above its mouth, and 109 m. N. of
Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) 3625; (1900) 4038, of whom 1025
were foreign-born; (1905, state census) 4523. It is served by
the Chicago & North- Western and Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul
railways, by interurban electric lines and by lake and river
steamboat lines, it being the head of lake navigation on the Fox
river. Two bridges here span the Fox, which is from f m. to % m.
in width. It is a shipping and transfer point and has paper
mills, machine shops, flour mills, sash, door and blind factories,
a launch and pleasure-boat factory, and knitting works, cheese
factories and dairies, brick yards and grain elevators. There is
an excellent water-power. De Pere is the seat of St Norbert's
college (Roman Catholic, 1902) and has a public library. North
of the city is located the state reformatory. On the coming
of the first European, Jean Nicolet, who visited the place in
1634-1635, De Pere was the site of a polyglot Indian settlement
of several thousand attracted by the fishing at the first rapids of
the Fox river. Here in 1670 Father Claude Allouez established
the mission of St Francis Xavier, the second in what is now
Wisconsin. From the name Rapid.es des Peres, which the French
applied to the place, was derived the name De Pere. Here
Nicolas Perrot, the first French commandant in the North- West,
established his headquarters, and Father Jacques Marquette
wrote the journal of his journey to the Mississippi. A few
miles south of the city lived for many years Eleazer Williams
(c. 1 787-1857), the alleged " lost dauphin " Louis XVII. of France
and an authority on Indians, especially Iroquois. De Pere was
incorporated as a village in 1857, and was chartered as a city
in 1883.

DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL (1834- ), American
lawyer and politician, was born in Peekskill, New York, on the
23rd of April 1834, of a Huguenot family (originally Du Puis or
De Puy). He graduated at Yale in 1856, entered politics as a
Whig — his father had been a Democrat — was admitted to the
bar in 1858, was a member of the New York Assembly in
1861-1862, and was secretary of state of New York state in
1864-1865. He refused a nomination to be United States
minister to Japan, and through his friendship with Cornelius and
William H. Vanderbilt in 1866 became attorney for the New York
& Harlem railway, in 1869 was appointed attorney of the newly
consolidated New York Central & Hudson river railway, of which
he soon became a director, and in 1875 was made general counsel
for the entire Vanderbilt system of railways. He became second
vice-president of the New York Central & Hudson river in 1869
and was its president in 1885-1898, and in- 1898 was made
chairman of the board of directors of the Vanderbilt system. In
1872 he joined the Liberal-Republican movement, and was
nominated and defeated for the office of lieutenant-governor of
New York. In 1888 in the National Republican convention he
was a candidate for the presidential nomination, but withdrew
his name in favour of Benjamin Harrison, whose offer to him in
1889 of tne portfolio of state he refused. In 1899 he was elected
United States senator from New York state, and in 1904 was
re-elected for the term ending in 1911. His great personal
popularity, augmented by his ability as an orator, suffered
considerably after 1905, the inquiry into life insurance company
methods by a committee of the state legislature resulting in
acute criticism of his actions as a director of the Equitable Life
Assurance Society and as counsel to Henry B. Hyde and his
son. Among his best-known orations are that delivered at
the unveiling of the Bartholdi statue of Liberty enlightening
the World (1886), an address at the Washington Centennial in
New York (1889), and the Columbian oration at the dedication
ceremonies of the Chicago World's Fair (1892).

DEPILATORY (from Lat. depilare, to pull out the pilus or
hair), any substance, preparation or process which will remove

superfluous hair. For this purpose caustic alkalis, alkaline earths
and also orpiment (trisulphide of arsenic) are used, the last being
somewhat dangerous. No application is permanent in its effect,
as the hair always grows again. The only permanent method,
which is, however, painful, slow in operation and likely to leave
small scars, is by the use of an electric current for the destruction
of the follicles by electrolysis.

DEPORTATION, or TRANSPORTATION, a system of punishment
for crime, of which the essential factor is the removal of the
criminal to a penal settlement outside his own country. It is to
be distinguished from mere -expulsion (q.v.) from a country,
though the term " deportation " is now used in that sense in
English law under the Aliens Act 1905 (see ALIEN). Strictly,
the deportation or transportation system has ceased to exist in
England, though the removal or exclusion of undesirable persons
from British territory, under various Orders in Council, is possible
in places subject to the Foreign Jurisdiction Acts, and in the case
of criminals under the Extradition Acts.

Earlier British Transportation System. — At a time when the
British statute-book bristled with capital felonies, when the pick-
pocket or sheep-stealer was hanged out of hand, when Sir Samuel
Romilly, to whose strenuous exertions the amelioration of the
penal code is in a great measure due, declared that the laws
of England were written in blood, another and less sanguinary
penalty came into great favour. The deportation of criminals
beyond the seas grew naturally out of the laws which prescribed
banishment for certain offences. The Vagrancy Act of Elizabeth's
reign contained in it the germ of transportation, by empowering
justices in quarter sessions to banish offenders and order
them to be conveyed into such parts beyond the seas as should
be assigned by the privy council. Full effect was given to this
statute in the next reign, as is proved by a letter of James I.
dated 1619, in which the king directs " a hundred
dissolute persons " to be sent to Virginia. Another
act of similar tenor was passed in the reign of
Charles II.; in which the term " transportation "
appears to have been first used. A further and more systematic
development of the system of transportation took place in
1617, when an act was passed by which offenders who had
escaped the death penalty were handed over to contractors,
who engaged to transport them to the American colonies.
These contractors were vested with a property in the
labour of the convicts for a certain term, generally from
seven to fourteen years, and this right they frequently sold.
Labour in those early days was scarce in the new settlements;
and before the general adoption of negro slavery there was a
keen competition for felon hands. An organized system
of kidnapping prevailed along the British coasts; young lads
were seized and sold into what was practically white slavery in
the American plantations. These malpractices were checked, but
the legitimate traffic in convict labour continued, until it was
ended peremptorily by the revolt of the American colonies and
the achievement of their independence in 1776.*

The British legislature, making a virtue of necessity, discovered
that transportation to the colonies was bound to be attended by
various inconveniences, particularly by depriving the kingdom of
many subjects whose labour might be useful to the community;
and an act was accordingly passed which provides that convicts
sentenced to transportation might be employed at haid labour
at home. At the same time the consideration of some scheme
for their disposal was entrusted to three eminent public men —
Sir William Blackstone, Mr Eden (afterwards Lord Auckland)
and John Howard. The result of their labours was an act for the
establishment of penitentiary houses, dated 1778. This act is of
peculiar importance. It contains the first public enunciation of a
general principle of prison treatment, and shows that even at that
early date the system since nearly universally adopted was fully
understood. The. object in view was thus stated. It was hoped
" by sobriety, cleanliness and medical assistance, by a regular
series of labour, by solitary confinement during the intervals of
work and by due religious instruction to preserve and amend

1 See J. C. Ballagh, While Servitude in Virginia (Baltimore, 1895.)

DEPORTATION

57

the health of the unhappy offenders, to inure them to habits of
industry, to guard them from pernicious company, to accustom
them to serious reflection and to teach them both the principles
and practice of every Christian and moral duty." The experience
of succeeding years has added little to these the true principles
of penal discipline; they form the basis of every species of prison
system carried out since the passing of an act of 1779.

No immediate action was taken by the committee appointed.
Its members were not in accord as to the choice of site. One was
for Islington, another for Limehouse; Howard only stipulated
for some healthy place well supplied with water and conveniently
situated for supervision. He was strongly of opinion that the
penitentiary should be built by convict labour. Howard withdrew
from the commission, and new members were appointed, who
were on the eve of beginning the first penitentiary when the
discoveries of Captain Cook in the South Seas turned the attention
of the government towards these new lands. The vast territories
Australian °f Australasia promised an unlimited field for convict
penal colonization, and for the moment the scheme for
setae- penitentiary houses fell to the ground. Public opinion

***• generally preferred the idea of establishing penal
settlements at a distance from home. " There was general
confidence," says Merivale in his work on colonization, " in the
favourite theory that the best mode of punishing offenders was
that which removed them from the scene of offence and tempta-
tion, cut them off by a great gulf of space from all their former
connexions, and gave them the opportunity of redeeming past
crimes by becoming useful members of society." These views so
far prevailed that an expedition consisting of nine transports
and two men-of-war, the " first fleet " of Australian annals, sailed
in March 1787 for New South Wales. This first fleet reached
Botany Bay in January 1 788, but passed on and landed at Port
Jackson, where it entered and occupied Sydney harbour. From
that time forward convicts were sent in constantly increasing
numbers from England to the Antipodes. Yet the early settle-
ment at Sydney had not greatly prospered. The infant colony
had had a bitter struggle for existence. It had been hoped that
the community would raise its own produce and speedily become
self-supporting. But the soil was unfruitful; the convicts knew
nothing of farming. All lived upon rations sent out from home;
and when convoys with relief lingered by the way famine stared
all in the face. The colony was long a penal settlement and
nothing more, peopled only by two classes, convicts and their
masters; criminal bondsmen on the one hand who had forfeited
their independence and were bound to labour without wages for the
state, on the other officials to guard and exact the due perform-
ance of tasks. A few free families were encouraged to emigrate,
but they were lost in the mass they were intended to leaven,
swamped and outnumbered by the convicts, shiploads of whom
continued to pour in year after year. When the influx increased,
difficulties as to their employment arose. Free settlers were too
few to give work to more than a small proportion. Moreover, a
new policy was in the ascendant, initiated by Governor Macquarie,
who considered the convicts and their rehabilitation his chief
care, and steadily discouraged the irrfmigration of any but those
who " came out for their country's good." The great bulk of the
convict labour thus remained in government hands.

This period marked the first phase in the history of transporta-
tion. The penal colony, having triumphed over early dangers
and difficulties, was crowded with convicts in a state of semi-
freedom, maintained at the public expense and utilized in the
development of the latent resources of the country. The methods
employed by Governor Macquarie were not, perhaps, invariably
the best; the time was hardly ripe as yet for the erection of
palatial buildings in Sydney, while the congregation of the work-
men in large bodies tended greatly to their demoralization. But
some of the works undertaken and carried out were of incalculable
service to the young colony; and its early advance in wealth and
prosperity was greatly due to the magnificent roads, bridges and
other facilities of inter-communication for which it was indebted
to Governor Macquarie. As time passed the criminal sewage
flowing from the Old World to the New greatly increased in

volume under milder and more humane laws. Many now escaped
the gallows, and much of the overcrowding of the gaols at home
was caused by the gangs of convicts awaiting transhipment to
the Antipodes. They were packed off, however, with all con-
venient despatch, and the numbers on government hands in the
colonies multiplied exceedingly, causing increasing embarrass-
ment as to their disposal. Moreover, the expense of the Australian
convict establishments was enormous.

Some change in system was inevitable, and the plan of " assign-
ment" was introduced; in other words, that of freely lending the
convicts to any who would relieve the authorities of the burden-
some charge. By this time free settlers were arriving
in greater number, invited by a different and more ^*^°"
liberal policy than that of Governor Macquarie. system.
Inducements were especially offered to persons
possessed of capital to assist in the development of the country.
Assignment developed rapidly; soon eager competition arose for
the convict hands that had been at first so reluctantly taken.
Great facilities existed for utilizing them on the wide areas of
grazing land and on the new stations in the interior. A pastoral
life, without temptations and contaminating influences, was well
suited for convicts. As the colony grew richer and more populous,
other than agricultural employers became assignees, and numer-
ous enterprises were set on foot. The trades and callings which
minister to the needs of all civilized communities were more and
more largely pursued. There was plenty of work for skilled
convicts in the towns, and the services of the more intelligent
were highly prized. It was a great boon to secure gratis the
assistance of men specially trained as clerks, book-keepers or
handicraftsmen. Hence all manner of intrigues and manoeuvres
were afoot on the arrival of drafts and there was a scramble for
the best hands. Here at once was a palpable flaw in the system
of assignment. The lot of the convict was altogether unequal.
Some, the dull, unlettered and unskilled, were drafted up country
to heavy manual labour at which they remained, while clever
expert rogues found pleasant, congenial and often profitable
employment in the towns. The contrast was very marked from
the first, but it became the more apparent when in due course it
was seen that some were still engaged in irksome toil, while others
who had come out by the same ship had already attained to
affluence and ease. For the latter transportation was no punish-
ment, but often the reverse. It meant too often transfer to a new
world under conditions more favourable to success, removed from
the keener competition of the old. By adroit management, too,
convicts often obtained the command of funds, the product of
nefarious transactions at home, which wives or near relatives or
unconvicted accomplices presently brought out to them. It was
easy for the free new-comers to secure the assignment of their
convict friends; and the latter, although still nominally servants
and in the background, at once assumed the real control.
Another system productive of much evil was the employment of
convict clerks in positions of trust in various government offices;
convicts did much of the legal work of the colony; a convict was
clerk to the attorney general; others were schoolmasters and
were entrusted with the education of youth.

Under a system so anomalous and uncertain the main object
of transportation as a method of penal discipline and repression
was in danger of being quite overlooked. Yet the state
could not entirely abdicate its functions, although it
surrendered to a great extent the care of criminals to system.
private persons. It had established a code of penalties
for the coercion of the ill-conducted, while it kept the
worst perforce in its own hands. The master was always at
liberty to appeal to the strong arm of the law. A message carried
to a neighbouring magistrate, often by the culprit himself, brought
down the prompt retribution of the lash. Convicts' might be
flogged for petty offences, for idleness, drunkenness, turbulence,
absconding and so forth. At the out-stations some show of
decorum and regularity was observed, although the work done
was generally scanty and the convicts were secretly given to all
manner of evil courses. The town convicts were worse, because
they were far less controlled. They were nominally under the

DEPORTATION

surveillance and supervision of the police, which amounted to
nothing at all. They came and went, and amused themselves
after working hours, so that Sydney and all the large towns were
hotbeds of vice and immorality. The masters as a rule made
no attempt to watch over their charges; many of them were
absolutely unfitted to do so, being themselves of low character,
" emancipists " frequently, old convicts conditionally pardoned
or who had finished their terms. No effort was made to prevent
the assignment of convicts to improper persons; every applicant
got what he wanted, even though his own character would not
bear inspection. All whom the masters could not manage — the
incorrigible upon whom the lash and bread and water had been
tried in vain — were returned to government charge. These, in
short, comprised the whole of the refuse of colonial convictdom.
Every man who could not agree with his master, or who was
to undergo a penalty greater than flogging or less than capital
punishment, came back to government and was disposed of in
one of three ways, (i) the road parties, (2) the chain gang, or (3) the
penal settlements, (i) In the first case, the convicts might be
kept in the vicinity of the towns or marched about the country
according to the work in hand; the labour was severe, but, owing
to inefficient supervision, never intolerable; the diet was ample
and there was no great restraint upon independence within
certain wide limits. To the slackness of control over the road
parties was directly traceable the frequent escape of desperadoes,
who, defying recapture, recruited the gangs of bushrangers
which were a constant terror to the whole country. In (2) the
chain or iron gangs, as they were sometimes styled, discipline was
far more rigorous. It was maintained by the constant presence
of a military guard, and when most efficiently organized the gang
was governed by a military officer who was also a magistrate.
The work was really hard, the custody close — in hulk, stockaded
barrack or caravan; the first was at Sydney, the second in the
interior, the last when the undertaking required constant change
of place. All were locked up from sunset to sunrise; all wore
heavy leg irons; and all were liable "to immediate flagellation.
The convict " scourger " was one of the regular officials attached
to every chain gang. (3) The third and ultimate receptacle was
the penal settlement, to which no offenders were transferred till
all other methods of treatment had failed. These were terrible
cesspools of iniquity, so bad that it seemed, to use the words of
one who knew them well, that " the heart of a man who went to
them was taken from him and he was given that of a beast."
The horrors accumulated at Norfolk Island, Moreton Bay, Port
Arthur and Tasman's Peninsula are almost beyond description.
The convicts herded together in them were soon utterly degraded
and brutalized; . no wonder that reckless despair took possession
of them, that death on the gallows for murder purposely com-
mitted, or the slow terror from starvation following escape into
surrounding wilds was often welcomed as a relief.

The stage which transportation was now reaching and the
actual condition of affairs in the Australian colonies about this
period do not appear to have been much understood in England.
Earnest and thoughtful men might busy themselves with prison
discipline at home, and the legislature might watch with peculiar
interest the results obtained from the special treatment of a
limited number of selected offenders in Millbank penitentiary.
But for the great mass of criminality deported to a distant shore
no very active concern was shown. The country for a long time
seemed satisfied with transportation. Portions of the system
might be open to criticism. Thus the Commons committee of
1832 freely condemned the hulks at Woolwich and other arsenals
in which a large number of convicts were kept while waiting
embarkation. It was reported that the indiscriminate associa-
tion of prisoners in them produced more vice, profaneness and
demoralization than in the ordinary prisons. After dark the
wildest orgies went on unchecked — dancing, fighting, gambling,
singing and so forth; it was easy to get drink and tobacco and
to see friends from outside. The labour hours were short and
the tasks light; "altogether the situation of the convict in
the hulks," says the report, " cannot be considered penal; it is
a state of restriction, but hardly of punishment."

But no objection was raised to transportation. It was con-
sidered by this same committee " a most valuable expedient
in the system of secondary punishment." They only thought it
necessary to suggest that exile should be preceded by a period
of severe probationary punishment in England, a proposal
which was reiterated later on and actually adopted. It was in
the country most closely affected that dissatisfaction first began
to find voice. Already in 1832 the most reputable sections of
Australian society were beginning to murmur grievously. Trans-
portation had fostered the growth of a strong party — that
representing convict views— and these were advocated boldly in
unprincipled prints. This party, constantly recruited
from the emancipists and ticket-of-leave holders, A"*tr*u"t
gradually grew very numerous, and threatened soon fans'.
to swamp the honest and untainted parts of the
community. As years passed the prevalence of crime, and the
universally low tone of morality due to the convict element,
became more and more in the ascendant. At length in 1835
Judge Burton made a loud protest, and in a charge to the grand
jury of Sydney plainly intimated that transportation must cease.
While it existed, he said, the colonies could never rise to their
proper position; they could not claim free institutions. This
bold but forcible language commanded attention. It was speedily
echoed in England, and particularly by Archbishop Whately,
who argued that transportation failed in all the leading requisites
of any system of secondary punishment. Transportation
exercised no salutary terror in offenders; it was no longer exile to
an unknown inhospitable region, but to one flowing with milk and
honey, whither innumerable friends and associates had gone
already. The most glowing descriptions came back of the wealth
which any clever fellow might easily amass; stories were told
and names mentioned of those who had made ample fortunes in
Australia in a few years. As a matter of fact the convicts, or at
least large numbers of them, had prospered exceedingly. Some
had incomes of twenty, thirty, everrforty thousand pounds a year.
The deteriorating effects of the system were plainly manifest on
the surface from the condition of the colony, — the profligacy of
the towns, the scant reprobation of crimes and those who had
committed them. Down below, in the openly sanctioned slavery
called assignment, in the demoralizing chain gangs and in the
inexpressibly horrible penal settlements, were more abundant
and more awful proofs of the general wickedness and corruption.
Moreover these appalling results were accompanied by colossal
expenditure. The cost of the colonial convict establishments,
with the passages out, amounted annually to upwards of
£300,000; another £100,000 was expended on the military
garrisons; and various items brought the whole outlay to about
half a million per annum. It may be argued that this was not a
heavy price to pay for peopling a continent and laying the founda-
tions of a vast Australasian empire. But that empire could never
have expanded to its present dimensions if it had depended on
convict immigration alone. There was a point, too, at which
all development, all progress, would have come to a full stop
had it not been relieved of its stigma as a penal colony.

That point was reachefl between 1835 and 1840, when a
powerful party came into existence in New South Wales, pledged
to bring about the abandonment of transportation. A strongly
hostile feeling was also gaining ground in England. In 1837
a new committee of the House of Commons had
made a patient and searching investigation into the
meritsand demerits of the system and freely condemned meat.
it. The government had no choice but to give way;
it could not ignore the protests of the colonists, backed up by
such an authoritative expression of opinion. In 1840 orders were
issued to suspend the deportation of criminals to New South
Wales. But what was to become of the convicts? It was
impossible to keep them at home. The hulks which might have
served had also failed; the faultiness of their internal manage-
ment had been fully proved. The committee had recommended
the erection of more penitentiaries. But the costly experiment
of Millbank had been barren of results. The model prison at
Pentonville, in process of construction under the pressure of a

DEPORTATION

59

movement towards prison reform, could offer but limited accom-
modation. A proposal was put forward to construct convict
barracks in the vicinity of the great arsenals; but this, which
contained really the germ of the present British penal system,
was premature. The government in this dilemma steered a
middle course and resolved to adhere to transportation, but under
a greatly modified and it was hoped much improved form. The
colony of Van Diemen's Land, younger and less self-reliant than
its neighbour, had also endured convict immigration but had
made no protest. It was resolved to direct the whole stream
of deportation upon Van Diemen's Land, which was thus con-
stituted one vast colonial prison. The main principle of the new
system was one of probation; hence its name. All convicts were
to pass through various stages and degrees of punishment accord-
ing to their conduct and character. Some general depot was
needed where the necessary observation could be made, and it
was found at Millbank penitentiary. Thence boys were sent
to the prison for juveniles at Parkhurst; the most promising
subjects among the adults were selected to undergo the experi-
mental discipline of solitude and separation at Pentonville; less
hopeful cases went to the hulks; and all adults alike passed on to
the Antipodes. Fresh stages awaited the convict on his arrival
at Van Diemen's Land. The first was limited to " lifers " and
colonial convicts sentenced a second time. It consisted in deten-
tion at one of the penal stations, either Norfolk Island or Tasman's
Peninsula, where the disgraceful conditions already described
continued unchanged to the very last. The second stage received
the largest number, who were subjected in it to gang labour,
working under restraint in various parts of the colony. These
probation stations, as they were called, were intended to inculcate
habits of industry and subordination; they were provided with
supervisors and religious instructors; and had they not been
tainted by the vicious virus brought to them by others arriving
from the penal stations, they might have answered their purpose
for a time. But they became as bad as the worst of the penal
settlements and contributed greatly to the breakdown of the
whole system. The third stage and the first step towards freedom
was the concession of a pass which permitted the convict to be
at large under certain conditions to seek work for himself; the
fourth was a ticket-of-leave, the possession of which allowed him
to come and go much as he pleased; the fifth and last was
•absolute pardon, with the prospects of rehabilitation.

This scheme seemed admirable on paper; yet it failed com-
pletely when put into practice. Colonial resources were quite

unable to bear the pressure. Within two or three years
°abandoa- ^an Diemen's Land was inundated with convicts.
meat. Sixteen thousand were sent out in four years; the

average annual number in the colony was about
30,000, and this when there were only 37,000 free settlers.
Half the whole number of convicts remained in government
hands and were kept in the probation gangs, engaged upon public
works of great utility; but the other half, pass-holders
and ticket-of-leave men in a state of semi-freedom, could
get little or no employment. The supply greatly exceeded the
demand; there were no hirers of labour. Had the colony been as
large and as prosperous as its neighbour it could scarcely have
absorbed the glut of workmen; but it was really on the verge
of bankruptcy — its finances were embarrassed, its trades and
industries at a standstill. But not only were the convicts idle;
they were utterly depraved. It was soon found that the system
which kept large bodies always together had a most pernicious
effect upon their moral condition. " The congregation of
criminals in large batches without adequate supervision meant
simply wholesale, widespread pollution," as was said at the time.
These ever-present and constantly increasing evils forced the
government to reconsider its position; and in 1846 transporta-
tion to Van Diemen's Land was temporarily suspended for a
couple of years, during which it was hoped some relief might be
afforded. The formation of a new convict colony in North
Australia had been contemplated; but the project, warmly
espoused by Mr Gladstone, then under-secretary of state for the
colonies, was presently abandoned; and it now became clear

that no resumption of transportation was possible. The measures
taken to substitute other methods of secondary punishment are
set forth in the article PRISON (q.v.).

France. — France adopted deportation for criminals as far back
as 1763, when a penal colony was founded in French Guiana and
failed disastrously. An expedition was sent there, composed
of the most evil elements of the Paris population
and numbering 14,000, all of whom died. .The practice.
attempt was repeated in 1766 and with the same
miserable result. Other failures are recorded, the worst being
the scheme of the philanthropist Baron Milius, who in 1823
planned to form a community on the banks of the Mana (French
Guiana) by the marriage of exiled convicts and degraded women,
which resulted in the most ghastly horrors. The principle of
deportation was then formally condemned by publicists and
government until suddenly in 1854 it was reintroduced into the
French penal code with many high-sounding phrases. Splendid
results were to be achieved in the creation of rich colonies afar,
and the regeneration of the criminal by new openings in a new
land. The only outlet available at the moment beyond the sea
was French Guiana, and it was again to be utilized despite its
pestilential climate. Thousands were exiled, more than half to
find certain death; none of the penal settlements prospered.
No return was made by agricultural development, farms and
plantations proved a dead loss under the unfavourable conditions
of labour enforced in a malarious climate and unkindly soil, and
it was acknowledged by French officials that the attempt to
establish a penal colony on the equator was utterly futile.
Deportation to Guiana was not abandoned, but instead of native-
born French exiles, convicts of subject races, Arabs, Anamites
and Asiatic blacks, were sent exclusively, with no better success
as regards colonization.

In 1864, however, it was possible to divert the stream else-
where. New Caledonia in the Australian Pacific was annexed to
France in 1853. Ten years later it became a new settlement for
convict emigrants. A first 'shipload was disembarked in 1864 at
Noumea, and the foundations of the city laid. Prison buildings
were the first erected and were planted upon the island of Nou,
a small breakwater to the Bay of Noumea. Outwardly all went
well under the fostering care of the authorities. The population
steadily increased; an average total of 600 in 1867 rose in the
following year to 1554. In 1874 the convict population exceeded
5000; in 1880 it had risen to 8000; the total reached 9608
at the end of December 1883. But from that time forward the
numbers transported annually fell, for it was found that this
South Pacific island, with its fertile soil and fairly temperate
climate, by no means intimidated the dangerous classes; and
the French administration therefore resumed deportation of
French-born whites to Guiana, which was known as notoriously
unhealthy and was likely to act as a more positive deterrent.
The authorities divided their exiles between the two outlets,
choosing New Caledonia for the convicts who gave some promise
of regeneration, and sending criminals with the worst antecedents
and presumably incorrigible to the settlements on the equator.
This was in effect to hand over a fertile colony entirely to
criminals. Free immigration to New Caledonia was checked, and
the colony became almost exclusively penal. The natural growth
of a prosperous colonial community made no advance, and
convict labour did little to stimulate it, the public works, essential
for development, and construction of roads were neglected; there
was no extensive clearance of lands, no steady development of
agriculture. From 1898 simple deportation practically ceased,
but the islands were full of convicts already sent, and they still
received the product of the latest invention in the criminal code
known as " relegation," a punishment directed against the
recidivist or incorrigible criminal whom no penal retribution
had hitherto touched and whom the French law felt justified
in banishing for ever to the " back of beyond." A certain
period of time spent in a hard labour prison preceded relegation,
but the convicts on arrival were generally unfitted to assist in
colonization. They were for the most part decadent, morally
and physically; their labour was of no substantial value to

6o

DEPOSIT— DEPRETIS

colonists or themselves, and there was small hope of profitable
result when they gained conditional liberation, with a concession
of colonial land and a possibility of rehabilitation by their own
efforts abroad, for by their sentence they were forbidden to hope
for return to France. The punishment of relegation was not
long in favour, the number of sentences to it fell year after year,
and it has now been practically abandoned.

Other Countries. — Penal exile has been practised by some other
countries as a method of secondary punishment. Russia since
1823 has directed a stream of offenders, mainly political, upon
Siberia, and at one time the yearly average sent was 18,000. The
Siberian exile system, the horrors of which cannot be exaggerated,
belongs only in part to penitentiary science, but it was very
distinctly punitive and aimed at regeneration of the individual
and the development of the soil by new settlements. Although
the journey was made mostly on foot and not by sea transport,
the principle of deportation (or more exactly of removal) was
the essence of the system. The later practice, however, has been
exactly similar to transportation as originated by England and
afterwards followed by France. The penal colonization of the
island of Sakhalin reproduced the preceding methods, and the
Russian convicts were conveyed by ships through the Suez
Canal to the Far East. Sakhalin was hopefully intended as an
outlet for released convicts and their rehabilitation by their own
efforts, precisely in the manner tried in Australia and New
Caledonia. The result repeated previous experiences. There was
land to reclaim, forests to cut down, marshes to drain, everything
but a temperate climate and a good will of the felon labourers to
create a prosperous colony. But the convicts would not work; a
few sought to win the right to occupy a concession of soil, but the
bulk were pure vagabonds, wandering to and fro in search of food.
The agricultural enterprise was a complete failure. The wrong
sites for cultivation were chosen, the labourers were unskilled and
they handled very indifferent tools. Want amounting to constant
starvation was a' constant rule; the rations were insufficient and
unwholesome, very little meat eked out with salt fish and with
entire absence of vegetables. The general tone of morals was
inconceivably low, and a universal passion for alcohol and card-
playing prevailed. According to one authority the life of the
convicts at Sakhalin was a frightful nightmare, " a mixture of
debauchery and innocence mixed with real sufferings and almost
inconceivable privations, corrupt in every one of its phases."
The prisons hopelessly ruined all who entered them, all classes
were indiscriminately herded together. It is now generally
allowed that deportation, as practised, had utterly failed, the
chief reasons being the unmanageable numbers sent and the
absence of outlets for their employment, even at great
cost.

The prisons on Sakhalin have been described as hotbeds of
vice; the only classification of prisoners is one based on the length
of sentence. Some imperfect attempt is made to separate those
waiting trial from the recidivist or hardened offender, but too
often the association is indiscriminate. Prison discipline is
generally slack and ineffective, the staff of warders, from ill-
judged economy, too weak to supervise or control. The officers
themselves are of inferior stamp, drunken, untrustworthy, over-
bearing, much given to " trafficking " with the prisoners, accept-
ing bribes to assist escape, quick to misuse and oppress their
charges. Crime of the worst description is common.

Italy has practised deportation in planting various agricultural
colonies upon the islands to be found on her coast. They
were meant to imitate the intermediate prisons of the Irish
system, where prisoners might work out their redemption, when
provisionally released. Two were established on the islands
of Pianoso and Gorgona, and there were settlements made
on Monte Christo and Capraia. They were used also to give
effect to the system of enforced residence or domicilio
coatlo.

Portugal also has tried deportation to the African colony
of Angola on a small scale with some success, and combined
it with free emigration. The settlers have been represented as
well disposed towards the convicts, gladly obtaining their

services or helping them in the matter of security. The
convict element is orderly, and, although their treatment is
" pen repressive et relativement debonnaire," few commit offences.

The Andaman Islands have been utilized by the Indian
government since the mutiny (1857) for the deportation of
heinous criminals (see ANDAMAN ISLANDS).

AUTHORITIES. — Captain A. Phillip, R.N., The Voyage of Governor
Phillip to New South Wales (1790); David Collins, Account of the
English Colony of New South Wales (1798); Archbishop Whately,
Remarks on Transportation (1834); Herman Merivale, Colonization
and Colonies (1841); d'Haussonville, Etablissements penitenliaires
en France et aux colonies (1875) ; George Griffith, In a Prison Land;
Cuche, Science et legislation penitentiaire (1905); Hawes, The Utter-
most East (1906). (A. G.)

DEPOSIT (Lat. depositum, from deponere, to lay down, to put
in the care of), anything laid down or separated; as in geology,
any mass of material accumulated by a natural agency (see
BED), and in chemistry, a precipitate or matter settling from
a solution or suspension. In banking, a deposit may mean,
generally, a sum of money lodged in a bank without regard to
the conditions under which it is held, but more specially money
lodged with a bank on " deposit account " and acknowledged by
the banker by a " deposit receipt " given to the depositor. It is
then not drawn upon by cheque, usually bears interest at a rate
varying from time to time, and can only be withdrawn after fixed
notice. Deposit is also used in the sense of earnest or security
for the performance of a contract. In the law of mortgage the
deposit of title-deeds is usual as a security for the repayment of
money advanced. Such a deposit operates as an equitable
mortgage. In the law of contract, deposit or simple bailment is
delivery or bailment of goods in trust to be kept without recom-
pense, and redelivered on demand (see BAILMENT).

DEPOT (from the Fr. depSt, Lat. depositum, laid down; the
French accent marks are usually dispensed with in English), a
place where things may be stored or deposited, such as a furniture
or forage depot, the accumulation of military stores, especially
in the theatre of operatior s. In America the word is used of a
railway station, whether for passengers or goods; in Great
Britain on railways the word, when in use, is applied to goods
stations. A particular military application is to a depot, situated
as a rule in the centre of the recruiting district of the regiment or
other unit, where recruits are received and undergo the necessary
preliminary training before joining the active troops. Such
depots are maintained in peace time by all armies which have to
supply distant or oversea garrisons; in an army raised by com-
pulsory service and quartered in its own country, the regiments
are usually stationed in their own districts, and on their taking
the field for war leave behind a small nucleus for the formation
and training of drafts to be sent out later. These nucleus troops
are generally called depot troops.

DEPRETIS, AGOSTINO (1813-1887), Italian statesman, was
born at Mezzana Corte, in the province of Stradella on the 3ist
of January 1813. From early manhood a disciple of Mazzini
and affiliated to the Giovane Italia, he took an active part in the
Mazzinian conspiracies and was nearly captured by the Austrians
while smuggling arms into Milan. Elected deputy in 1848, he
joined the Left and founded the journal II Diritto, but held
no official position until appointed governor of Brescia in 1859.
In 1860 he went to Sicily on a mission to reconcile the policy of
Cavour (who desired the immediate incorporation of the island
in the kingdom of Italy) with that of Garibaldi, who wished to
postpone the Sicilian plebiscite until after the liberation of Naples
and Rome. Though appointed pro-dictator of Sicily by Garibaldi,
he failed in his attempt. Accepting the portfolio of public works
in the Rattazzi cabinet in 1862, he served as intermediary in
arranging with Garibaldi the expedition which ended disastrously
at Aspromonte. Four years later, on the outbreak of war against
Austria, he entered the Ricasoli cabinet as minister of marine,
and, by maintaining Admiral Persano in command of the fleet,
contributed to the defeat of Lissa. His apologists contend,
however, that, as an inexperienced civilian, he could not have
made sudden changes in naval arrangements without disorganiz-
ing the fleet, and that in view of the impending hostilities he was

DEPTFORD— DE QUINCEY

61

obliged to accept the dispositions of his predecessors. Upon the
death of Rattazzi in 1873, Depretis became leader of the Left,
prepared the advent of his party to power, and was called upon
to form the first cabinet of the Left in 1876. Overthrown by
Cairoli in March 1878 on the grist-tax question, he succeeded,
in the following December, in defeating Cairoli, became again
premier, but on the 3rd of July 1879 was once more overturned
by Cairoli. In November 1879 he, however, entered the Cairoli
cabinet as minister of the interior, and in May 1881 succeeded to
the premiership, retaining that office until his death on the 29th of
July 1887. During the long interval he recomposed his cabinet
four times, first throwing out Zanardelli and Baccarini in order
to please the Right, and subsequently bestowing portfolios upon
Ricotti, Robilant and other Conservatives, so as to complete the
political process known as " trasformismo." A few weeks before
his death he repented of his transformist policy, and again in-
cluded Crispi and Zanardelli in his cabinet. During his long term
of office he abolished the grist tax, extended the suffrage, com-
pleted the railway system, aided Mancini in forming the Triple
Alliance, and initiated colonial policy by the occupation of
Massawa; but, at the same time, he vastly increased indirect
taxation, corrupted and destroyed the fibre of parliamentary
parties, and, by extravagance in public works, impaired the
stability of Italian finance.

DEPTFORD, a south-eastern metropolitan borough of London,
England, bounded N. by Bermondsey, E. by the river Thames
and Greenwich, S. by Lewisham and W. by Camberwell. Pop.
(1901) 110,398. The name is connected with a ford over the
Ravensbourne, a stream entering the Thames through Deptford
Creek. The borough comprises only the parish of Deptford
St Paul, that of Deptford St Nicholas being included in the
borough of Greenwich. Deptford is a district of poor streets,
inhabited by a large industrial population, employed in engineer-
ing and other riverside works. On the river front, extending
into the borough of Greenwich, are the royal victualling yard
and the site of the old Deptford dockyard. The first supplies the
navy with provisions, medicines, furniture, &c., manufactured or
stored in the large warehouses here. The dockyard ceased to be
used in 1869, and was filled up and converted into a foreign cattle
market by the City Corporation. Of public buildings the most
noteworthy are St Paul's church (1730), of classic design; the
municipal buildings; and the hospital for master mariners,
maintained by the corporation of the Trinity House, which was
founded at Deptford, the old hall being pulled down in 1787.
Other institutions are the Goldsmiths' Polytechnic Institute,
New Cross; and the South-eastern fever hospital. A mansion
known as Sayes Court, taken down in 1729, was the residence of
the duke of Sussex in the reign of Elizabeth; it was occupied in
the following century by John Evelyn, author of Sylva, and by
Peter the Great during his residence in England in 1698. The
site of its gardens is occupied by Deptford Park of n acres.
Another open space is Telegraph Hill (9! acres). The parlia-
mentary borough of Deptford returns one member. The borough
council consists .of a mayor, 6 aldermen, and 36 councillors.
Area, 1562-7 acres.

DEPUTY ((through the Fr. from a Late Lat. use of deputare, to
cut off, allot; putare having the original sense of to trim, prune),
one appointed to act or govern instead of another; one who
exercises an office in another man's right, a substitute; in
representative government a member of an elected chamber. In
general, the powers and duties of a deputy are those of his
principal (see also REPRESENTATION), but the extent to which he
may exercise them is dependent upon the power delegated to him.
He may be authorized to exercise the whole of his principal's
office, in which case he is a general deputy, or to act only in
some particular matter or service, when he is termed a special
deputy. In the United Kingdom various officials are specifically
empowered by statute to appoint deputies to act for them
under certain circumstances. Thus a clerk of the peace, in case
of illness, incapacity or absence, may appoint a fit person to act
as his deputy. While judges of the supreme court cannot act by
deputy, county court judges and recorders can, in cases of illness

or unavoidable absence, appoint deputies. So can registrars of
county courts and returning officers at elections.

DE QUINCEY, THOMAS (1785-1859), English author, was born
at Greenheys, Manchester, on the isth of August 1785. He was
the fifth child in a family of eight (four sons and four daughters'*
His father, descended from a Norman family, was a merchant,
who left his wife and six children a clear income of £1600 a
year. Thomas was from infancy a shy, sensitive child, with a
constitutional tendency to dreaming by night and by day; and,
under the influence of an elder brother, a lad " whose genius for
mischief amounted to inspiration," who died in his sixteenth year,
he spent much of his boyhood in imaginary worlds of their own
creating. The amusements and occupations of the whole family,
indeed, seem to have been mainly intellectual; and in De
Quincey's case, emphatically, " the child was father to the man."
" My life has been," he affirms in the Confessions, " on the whole
the life of a philosopher; from my birth I was made an intellectual
creature, and intellectual in the highest sense my pursuits and
pleasures have been." From boyhood he was more or less in
contact with a polished circle; his education, easy to one of
such native aptitude, was sedulously attended to. When he
was in his twelfth year the family removed to Bath, where he was
sent to the grammar school, at which he remained for about two
years; and for a year more he attended another public school at
Winkfield, Wiltshire. At thirteen he wrote Greek with ease; at
fifteen he net only composed Greek verses in lyric measures, but
could converse in Greek fluently and without embarrassment; one
of his masters said of him, " that boy could harangue an Athenian
mob better than you or I could address an English one."
Towards the close of his fifteenth year he visited Ireland, with
a companion of his own age, Lord Westport, the son of Lord
Altamont, an Irish peer, and spent there in residence and travel
some months of the summer and autumn of the year 1800, —
being a spectator at Dublin of " the final ratification of the
bill which united Ireland to Great Britain." On his return
to England, his mother having now settled at St John's
Priory, a residence near Chester, De Quincey was sent
to the Manchester grammar school, mainly in the hope of
securing one of the school exhibitions to help his expenses at
Oxford.

Discontented with the mode in which his guardians conducted
his education, and with some view apparently of forcing them to
send him earlier to college, he left this school after less than
a year's residence — ran away, in short, to his mother's house.
There his mother's brother, Colonel Thomas Penson, made an
arrangement for him to have a weekly allowance, on which he
might reside at some country place in Wales, and pursue his
studies, presumably till he could go to college. From Wales,
however, after brief trial, " suffering grievously from want of
books," he went off as he had done from school, and hid himself
from guardians and friends in the world of London. And now, as
he says, commenced " that episode, or impassioned parenthesis
of my life, which is comprehended in The Confessions of an
English Opium Eater." This London episode extended over a
year or more; his money soon vanished, and he was in the
utmost poverty; he obtained shelter for the night in Greek
Street, Soho, from a moneylender's agent, and spent his days
wandering in the streets and parks; finally the lad was recon-
ciled to his guardians, and in 1803 was sent to Worcester College,
Oxford, being by this time about nineteen. It was in the course
of his second year at Oxford that he first tasted opium, — having
taken it to allay neuralgic pains. De Quincey's mother had
settled at Weston Lea, near Bath, and on one of his visits
to Bath, De Quincey made the acquaintance of Coleridge; he
took Mrs Coleridge to Grasmere, where he became personally
acquainted with Wordsworth.

After finishing his career of five years at college in 1808 he
kept terms at the Middle Temple; but in 1809 visited the
Wordsworths at Grasmere, and in the autumn returned to
Dove Cottage, which he had taken on a lease. His choice was
of course influenced partly by neighbourhood to Wordsworth,
whom he early appreciated, — having been, he says, the only man

DE QUINCEY

in all Europe who quoted Wordsworth so early as 1802. His
friendship with Wordsworth decreased within a few years, and
when in 1834 De Quincey published in Tail's Magazine his
reminiscences of the Grasmere circle, the indiscreet references to
the Wordsworths contained in the article led to a complete
cessation of intercourse. Here also he enjoyed the society and
friendship of Coleridge, Southey and especially of Professor
Wilson, as in London he had of Charles Lamb and his circle. He
continued his classical and other studies, especially exploring the
at that time almost unknown region of German literature, and
indicating its riches to English readers. Here also, in 1816, he

married Margaret Simpson, the " dear M " of whom a

charming glimpse is accorded to the reader of the Confessions;
his family came to be five sons and three daughters.

For about a year and a half he edited the Westmoreland Gazette.
He left Grasmere for London in the early part of 1820. The
Lambs received him with great kindness and introduced him to
the proprietors of the London Magazine. It was in this journal
in 1821 that the Confessions appeared. De Quincey also con-
tributed to Blackwood, to Knight's Quarterly Magazine, and later
to Tail's Magazine. His connexion with Blackwood took him to
Edinburgh in 1828, and he lived there for twelve years, contribut-
ing from time to time to the Edinburgh Literary Gazette. His
wife died in 1837, and the family eventually settled at Lasswade,
but from this time De Quincey spent his time in lodgings in
various places, staying at one place until the accumulation of
papers filled the rooms, when he left them in charge of the
landlady and wandered elsewhere. After his wife's death he gave
way for the fourth time in his life to the opium habit, but in 1844
he reduced his daily quantity by a tremendous effort to six
grains, and never again yielded. He died in Edinburgh on the
8th of December 1859, and is buried in the West Churchyard.

During nearly fifty years De Quincey lived mainly by his pen.
His patrimony seems never to have been entirely exhausted,
and his habits and tastes were simple and inexpensive; but he
was reckless in the use of money, and had debts and pecuniary
difficulties of all sorts. There was, indeed, his associates affirm,
an element of romance even in his impecuniosity, as there was in
everything about him; and the diplomatic and other devices
by which he contrived to keep clear of clamant creditors, while
scrupulously fulfilling many obligations, often disarmed ani-
mosity, and converted annoyance into amusement. The famous
Confessions of an English Opium Eater was published in a small
volume in 1822, and attracted a very remarkable degree of
attention, not simply by its personal disclosures, but by the
extraordinary power of its dream-painting. No other literary
man of his time, it has been remarked, achieved so high and
universal a reputation from such merely fugitive efforts. The
only works published separately (not in periodicals) were a novel,
Klosterheim (1832), and The Logic of Political Economy (1844).
After his works were brought together, De Quincey's reputation
was not merely maintained, but extended. For range of thought
and topic, within the limits of pure literature, no like amount of
material of such equality of merit proceeded from any eminent
writer of the day. However profuse and discursive, De Quincey
is always polished, and generally exact — a scholar, a wit, a man of
the world and a philosopher, as well as a genius. He looked upon
letters as a noble and responsible calling; in his essay on Oliver
Goldsmith he claims for literature the rank not only of a fine art,
but of the highest and most potent of fine arts; and as such he
himself regarded and practised it. He drew a broad distinction
between " the literature of knowledge and the literature of power,"
asserting that the function of the first is to teach, the function of
the second to move, — maintaining that the meanest of authors
who moves has pre-eminence over all who merely teach, that
the literature of knowledge must perish by supersession, while the
literature of power is " triumphant for ever as long as the language
exists in which it speaks." It is to this class of motive literature
that De Quincey's own works essentially belong; it is by virtue
of that vital element of power that they have emerged from the
rapid oblivion of periodicalism, and live in the minds of later
generations. But their power is weakened by their volume.

De Quincey fully defined his own position and claim to dis-
tinction in the preface to his collected works. These he divides
into three classes: — "first, that class which proposes primarily
to amuse the reader," such as the Narratives, Autobiographic
Sketches, &c.; " second, papers which address themselves purely
to the understanding as an insulated faculty, or do so primarily,"
such as the essays on Essenism, the Caesars, Cicero, &c.; and
finally, as a third class, " and, in virtue of their aim, as a far
higher class of compositions," he ranks those " modes of im-
passioned prose ranging under no precedents that I am aware
of in any literature," such as the Confessions and Suspiria de
Profundis. The high claim here asserted has been questioned;
and short and isolated examples of eloquent apostrophe, and
highly wrought imaginative description, have been cited from
Rousseau and other masters of style; but De Quincey's power
of sustaining a fascinating and elevated strain of " impassioned
prose " is allowed to be entirely his own. Nor, in regard to his
writings as a whole, will a minor general claim which he makes be
disallowed, namely, that he " does not write without a thoughtful
consideration of his subject," and also with novelty and freshness
of view. " Generally," he says, " I claim (not arrogantly, but
with firmness) the merit of rectification applied to absolute errors,
or to injurious limitations of the truth." Another obvious
quality of all his genius is its overflowing fulness of allusion and
illustration, recalling his own description of a great philosopher
or scholar — " Not one who depends simply on an infinite memory,
but also on an infinite and electrical power of combination,
bringing together from the four winds, like the angel of the
resurrection, what else were dust from dead men's bones into the
unity of breathing life." It is useless to complain of his having
lavished and diffused his talents and acquirements over so vast
a variety of often comparatively trivial ana passing topics.
The world must accept gifts from men of genius as they offer
them; circumstance and the hour often rule their form. Those
influences, no less than the idiosyncrasy of the man, determined
De Quincey to the illumination of such matter for speculation
as seemed to lie before him; he was not careful to search out
recondite or occult themes, though these he did not neglect, — a
student, a scholar and a recluse, he was yet at the same time a
man of the world, keenly interested in the movements of men and
in the page of history that unrolled itself before htm day by day.
To the discussion of things new, as readily as of things old, aided
by a capacious, retentive and ready memory, which dispensed
with reference to printed pages, he brought also the exquisite
keenness and subtlety of his highly analytic and imaginative
intellect, the illustrative stores of his vast and varied erudition,
and that large infusion of common sense which preserved him
from becoming at any time a mere doctrinaire, or visionary. If
he did not throw himself into any of the great popular contro-
versies or agitations of the day, it was not from any want of
sympathy with the struggles of humanity or the progress of
the race, but rather because his vocation was to apply to such
incidents of his own time, as to like incidents of all history, great
philosophical principles and tests of truth and power. In politics,
in the party sense of that term, he would probably have been
classed as a Liberal Conservative or Conservative Liberal — at
one period of his life perhaps the former, and at a later the latter.
Originally, as we have seen, his surroundings were aristocratic,
in his middle life his associates, notably Wordsworth, Southey
and Wilson, were all Tories; but he seems never to have held the
extreme and narrow views of that circle. Though a flavour of
high breeding runs through his writings, he has no vulgar sneers
at the vulgar. As he advanced in years his views became more
and more decidedly liberal, but he was always as far removed
from Radicalism as from Toryism, and may be described as a
philosophical politician, capable of classification under no definite
party name or colour. Of political economy he had been an
early and earnest student, and projected, if he did not so far
proceed with, an elaborate and systematic treatise on the science,
of which all that appears, however, are his fragmentary Dialogues
on the system of Ricardo, published in the London Magazine in
1824, and The Logic of Political Economy (1844). But political

DE QUINCEY

and economic problems largely exercised his thoughts, and his
historical sketches show that he is constantly alive to their
interpenetrating influence. The same may be said of his bio-
graphies, notably of his remarkable sketch of Dr Parr. Neither
politics nor economics, however, exercised an absorbing influence
on his mind, — they were simply provinces in the vast domain of
universal speculation through which he ranged " with unconfined
wings." How wide and varied was the region he traversed a
glance at the titles of the papers which make up his collected —
or more properly, selected— works (for there was much matter
of evanescent interest not reprinted) sufficiently shows. Some
things in his own line he has done perfectly; he has written
many pages of magnificently mixed argument, irony, humour
and eloquence, which, for sustained brilliancy, richness, subtle
force and purity of style and effect, have simply no parallels;
and he is without peer the prince of dreamers. The use of opium
no doubt stimulated this remarkable faculty of reproducing in
skilfully selected phrase the grotesque and shifting forms of that
" cloudland, gorgeous land," which opens to the sleep-closed eye.

To the appreciation of De Quincey the reader must bring an
imaginative faculty somewhat akin to his own — a certain general
culture, and large knowledge of books, and men and things.
Otherwise much of that slight and delicate allusion that gives
point and colour and charm to his writings will be missed; and
on this account the full enjoyment and comprehension of De
Quincey must always remain a luxury of the literary and in-
tellectual. But his skill in narration, his rare pathos, his wide
sympathies, the pomp of his dream-descriptions, the exquisite
playfulness of his lighter dissertations, and his abounding
though delicate and subtle humour, commend him to a larger
class. Though far from being a professed humorist — a char-
acter he. would have shrunk from — there is no more expert
worker in a sort of half-veiled and elaborate humour and
irony than De Quincey; but he employs those resources for
the most part secondarily. Only in one instance has he given
himself up to them unreservedly and of set purpose,
namely, in the famous " Essay on Murder considered as one
of the Fine Arts," published in Blackwood, — an effort which,
admired and admirable though it be, is also, it must be
allowed, somewhat strained. His style, full and flexible, pure
and polished, is peculiarly his own; yet it is not the style of a
mannerist,— its charm is, so to speak, latent; the form never
obtrudes; the secret is only discoverable by analysis and study.
It consists simply in the reader's assurance of the writer's
complete mastery over all the infinite applicability and resources
of the English language. Hence involutions and parentheses,
" cycle on epicycle," evolve themselves into a stately clearness
and harmony; and sentences and paragraphs, loaded with
suggestion, roll on smoothly and musically, without either
fatiguing or cloying — rather, indeed, to the surprise as well as
delight of the reader; for De Quincey is always ready to indulge
hi feats of style, witching the world with that sort of noble
horsemanship which is as graceful as it is daring.

It has been complained that, in spite of the apparently full
confidences of the Confessions and Autobiographic Sketches,
readers are left in comparative ignorance, biographically speaking,
of the man De Quincey. Two passages in his Confessions afford
sufficient clues to this mystery. In one he describes himself
" as framed for love and all gentle affections," and in another
confesses to the " besetting infirmity " of being " too much of an
eudaemonist." " I hanker," he says, " too much after a state of
happiness, both for myself and others; I cannot face misery,
whether my own or not, with an eye of sufficient firmness, and
am little capable of surmounting present pain for the sake of
any recessionary benefit." His sensitive disposition dictated the
ignoring in his writings of traits merely personal to himself, as
well as his ever-recurrent resort to opium as a doorway of escape
from present ill; and prompted those habits of seclusion, and
that apparently capricious abstraction of himself from the society
not only of his friends, but of his own family, in which he from
time to time persisted. He confessed to occasional accesses of
an almost irresistible impulse to flee to the labyrinthine shelter

of some great city like London or Paris, — there to dwell solitary
amid a multitude, buried by day in the cloister-like recesses of
mighty libraries, and stealing away by night to some obscure
lodging. Long indulgence in seclusion, and in habits of study the
most lawless possible in respect of regular hours or any con-
siderations of health or comfort, — the habit of working as pleased
himself without regard to the divisions of night or day, of times
of sleeping or waking, even of the slow procession of the seasons,
had latterly so disinclined him to the restraints, however slight,
of ordinary social intercourse, that he very seldom submitted
to them. On such rare occasions, however, as he did appear,
perhaps at some simple meal with a favoured friend, or in later
years in his own small but refined domestic circle, he was the most
charming of guests, hosts or companions. A short and fragile,
but well-prcportioned frame; a shapely and compact head; a
face beaming with intellectual light, with rare, almost feminine
beauty of feature and complexion; a fascinating courtesy of
manner; and a fulness, swiftness and elegance of silvery
speech, — such was the irresistible " mortal mixture of earth's
mould " that men named De Quincey. He possessed in a high
degree what James Russell Lowell called " the grace of perfect
breeding, everywhere persuasive, and nowhere emphatic "; and
his whole aspect and manner exercised an undefinable attraction
over every one, gentle or simple, who came within its influence;
for shy as he was, he was never rudely shy, making good his
boast that he had always made it his " pride to converse familiarly
more socratico with all human beings — man, woman and child " —
looking on himself as a catholic creature standing in an equal
relation to high and low, to educated and uneducated. He would
converse with a peasant lad or a servant girl in phrase as choice,
and sentences as sweetly turned, as if his interlocutor were his
equal both in position and intelligence; yet without a suspicion
of pedantry, and with such complete adaptation of style and topic
that his talk charmed the humblest as it did the highest that
listened to it. His conversation was not a monologue; if he had
the larger share, it was simply because his hearers were only too
glad that it should be so; he would listen with something like
deference to very ordinary talk, as if the mere fact of the speaker
being one of the same company entitled him to all consideration
and respect. The natural bent of his mind and disposition, and
his life-long devotion to letters, to say nothing of his opium
eating, rendered him, it must be allowed, regardless of ordinary
obligations in life — domestic and pecuniary — to a degree that
would have been culpable in any less singularly constituted
mind. It was impossible to deal with or judge De Quincey
by ordinary standards — not even his publishers did so. Much
no doubt was forgiven him, but all that needed forgiveness
is covered by the kindly veil of time, while his merits as a master
in English literature are still gratefully acknowledged.1 ,

[BIBLIOGRAPHY. — In r853 De Quincey began to prepare an edition
of his works, Selections Grave and Gay. Writings Published and Un-
published (14 vols., Edinburgh, 1853-1860), followed by a second
edition (1863-1871) with notes by James Hogg and two additional
volumes ; a further supplementary volume appeared in 1878. The
first comprehensive edition, however, was printed in America
(Boston, 20 vols., 1850-1855); and the "Riverside" edition
(Boston and New York, 12 vols., 1877) is still fuller. The standard
English edition is The Collected Writings of Thomas De Quincey (14
vols., Edinburgh, 1889-1 890), edited by David Masson, whoalsowrote
his biography (1881) for the " English Men of Letters " series. The
Uncollected Writings of Thomas De Quincey (London, 2 vols., 1890)
contains a preface and annotations by James Hogg ; The Posthumous
Writings of Thomas De Quincey (2 vols., 1891-1893) were edited by
A. H. Japp (" H. A. Page "), who wrote the standard biography,
Thomas De Quincey: his Life and Writings (London, 2 vols., and ed.,
1879), and De Quincey Memorials (2 vols., 1891). See also Arvede
Barine, Nevroses (Pans, 1898) ; Sir L. Stephen, Hours in a Library;
H. S. Salt, De Quincey (1904) ; and De Quincey and his Friends (1895),
a collection edited by James Hogg, which includes essays by Dr Hill
Burton and Shadworth Hodgson.] (J. R. F.)

1 The above account has been corrected and amplified in some
statements of fact for this edition. Its original author, John Ritchie
Findlay (1824-1898), proprietor of The Scotsman newspaper, and the
donor of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery in Edinburgh, had
been intimate with De Quincey, and in 1886 published his Personal
Recollections of him.

DERA GHAZI KHAN— DERBY, EARLS OF

DERA GHAZI KHAN, a town and district of British India,
in the Punjab. In 1001 the town had a population of 21,700.
There are several handsome mosques in the native quarter. It
commands the direct approaches to the Baluch highlands by
Sakki Sarwar and Fort Monro. For many years past both the
town and cantonment have been threatened by the erosion of
the river Indus. The town was founded at the close of the 1 5th
century and named after Ghazi Khan, son of Haji Khan, a
Baluch chieftain, who after holding the country for the Langah
sultans of Multan had made himself independent. Together
with the two other deras (settlements), Dera Ismail Khan and
Dera Fateh Khan, it gave its name to the territorial area locally
and historically known as Derajat, which after many vicissitudes
came into the possession of the British after the Sikh War, in 1849,
and was divided into the two districts of Dera Ghazi Khan and
Dera Ismail Khan.

The DISTRICT or DERA GHAZI KHAN contains an area of
5306 sq. m. The district is a long narrow strip of country,
198 m. in length, sloping gradually from the hills which form
its western boundary to the river Indus on the east. Below
the hills the country is high and arid, generally level, but some-
tunes rolling in sandy undulations, and much intersected by hill
torrents, 201 in number. With the exceptions of two, these
streams dry up after the rains, and their influence is only felt for
a few miles below the hills. The eastern portion of the district is
at a level sufficiently low to benefit by the floods of the Indus. A
barren tract intervenes between these zones, and is beyond the
reach of the hill streams on the one hand and of the Indus on the
other. Although liable to great extremes of temperature, and
to a very scanty rainfall, the district is not unhealthy. The
population in 1001 was 471,149, the great majority being Baluch
Mahommedans. The principal exports are wheat and indigo.
The only manufactures are for domestic use. There is no railway
in the district, and only 29 m. of metalled road. The Indus,
which is nowhere bridged within the district, is navigable by
native boats. The geographical boundary between the Pathan
and Baluch races in the hills nearly corresponds with the northern
limit of the district. The frontier tribes on the Dera Ghazi Khan
border include the Kasranis, Bozdars, Khosas, Lagharis,
Khetvans, Gurchanis, Mazaris, Mariris and Bugtis. The chief
of these are described under their separate names.

DERA ISMAIL KHAN, a town and district hi the Derajat
division of the North- West Frontier Province of India. The town
is situated near the right bank of the Indus, which is here crossed
by a bridge of boats during half the year. In 1901 it had a
population of 31,737. It takes its name from Ismail Khan, a
Baluch chief who settled here towards the end of the I5th century,
and whose descendants ruled for 300 years. The old town was
swept away by a flood in 1823, and the present town stands 4 m.
back from the permanent channel of the river. The native quarters
are well laid out, with a large bazaar for Afghan traders. It is the
residence of many Mahommedan gentry. The cantonment accom-
modates abou t a brigade of troops. There is considerable through
trade with Afghanistan by the Gomal Pass, and there are local
manufactures of cotton cloth scarves and inlaid wood-work.

The DISTRICT OF DERA ISMAIL KHAN contains an area of 3403
sq. m. It was formerly divided into two almost equal portions
by the Indus, which intersected it from north to south. To the
west of the Indus the characteristics of the country resemble
those of Dera Ghazi Khan. To the east of the present bed of the
river there is a wide tract known as the Kachi, exposed to river
action. Beyond this, the country rises abruptly, and a barren,
almost desert plain stretches eastwards, sparsely cultivated, and
inhabited only by nomadic tribes of herdsmen. In 1901 ths
trans-Indus tract was allotted to the newly formed North- West
Frontier Province, the cis-Indus tract remaining in the Punjab
jurisdiction. The cis-Indus portions of the Dera Ismail Khan
and Bannu districts now comprise the new Punjab district, of
Mianiwali. In 1001 the population was 252,379. chiefly Pathan
and Baluch Mahommedans. Wheat and wool are exported.

The Indus is navigable by native boats throughout its course
of 120 m. within the district, which is the borderland of Pathan

and Baluch tribes, the Pathan element predominating. The chief
frontier tribes are the Sheranis and Ustaranas.

DERBENT, or DERBEND, a town of Russia, Caucasia, in the
province of Daghestan, on the western shore of the Caspian,
153 m. by rail N.W. of Baku, in 42° 4' N. and 48° 15' E. Pop.
(1873) 15,739; (1897) 14,821. It occupies a narrow strip of
land beside the sea, from which it climbs up the steep heights
inland to the citadel of Naryn-kaleh, and is on all sides except
towards the east surrounded by walls built of porous limestone.
Its general aspect is Oriental, owing to the flat roofs of its two-
storeyed houses and its numerous mosques. The environs are
occupied by vineyards, gardens and orchards, in which madder,
saffron and tobacco, as well as figs, peaches, pears and other
fruits, are cultivated. Earthenware, weapons and silk and cotton
fabrics are the principal products of the manufacturing industry.
To the north of the town is the monument of the Kirk-lar, or
" forty heroes," who fell defending Daghestan against the Arabs
in 728; and to the south lies the seaward extremity of the
Caucasian wall (50 m. long), otherwise known as Alexander's
wall, blocking the narrow pass of the Iron Gate or Caspian Gates
(Portae Albanae or Portae Caspiae). This, when entire, had a
height of 29 ft. and a thickness of about 10 ft., and with its iron
gates and numerous watch-towers formed a valuable defence of
the Persian frontier. Derbent is usually identified with Albana,
the capital of the ancient Albania. The modern name, a Persian
word meaning " iron gates," came into use in the end of the 5th
or the beginning of the 6th century, when the city was refounded
by Kavadh of the Sassanian dynasty of Persia. The walls and
the citadel are believed to belong to the time of Kavadh's son,
Khosrau (Chosroes) Anosharvan. In 728 the Arabs entered into
possession, and established a principality in the city, which they
called Bab-el-Abwab (" the principal gate "), Bab-el-Khadid
(" the iron gate "), and Seraill-el-Dagab (" the golden throne ").
The celebrated caliph, Harun-al-Rashid, lived hi Derbent at
different times, and brought it into great repute as a seat of the
arts and commerce. In 1220 it was captured by the Mongols,
and in the course of the succeeding centuries it frequently changed
masters. In 1722 Peter the Great of Russia wrested the town
from the Persians, but in 1 736 the supremacy of Nadu- Shah was
again recognized. In 1 796 Derbent was besieged by the Russians,
and in 1813 incorporated with the Russian empire.

DERBY, EARLS OF. The ist earl of Derby was probably
Robert de Ferrers (d. 1139), who is said by John of Hexham to
have been made an earl by King Stephen after the battle of
the Standard in 1138. Robert and his descendants retained
the earldom until 1266, when Robert (c. I24O-C. 1279), probably
the 6th earl, having taken a prominent part in the baronial
rising against Henry III., was deprived of his lands and practi-
cally of his title. These earlier earls of Derby were also known
as Earls Ferrers, or de Ferrers, from their surname; as earls
of Tutbury from their residence; and as earls of Nottingham
because this county was a lordship under their rule. The large
estates which were taken from Earl Robert in 1266 were given
by Henry III. in the same year to his son, Edmund, earl of
Lancaster; and Edmund's son, Thomas, earl of Lancaster,
called himself Earl Ferrers. In 1337 Edmund's grandson,
Henry (c. 1290-1361), afterwards duke of Lancaster, was created
earl of Derby, and this title was taken by Edward III.'s son,
John of Gaunt, who had married Henry's daughter, Blanche.
John of Gaunt's son and successor was Henry, earl of Derby,
who became king as Henry IV. in 1399.

In October 1485 Thomas, Lord Stanley, was created earl of
Derby, and the title has since been retained by the Stanleys,
who, however, have little or no connexion with the county
of Derby. Thomas also inherited the sovereign lordship of the
Isle of Man, which had been granted by the crown in 1406 to
his great-grandfather, Sir John Stanley; and this sovereignty
remained in possession of the earls of Derby till 1736, when it
passed to the duke of Atholl.

The earl of Derby is one of the three " catskin earls," the others
being the earls of Shrewsbury and Huntingdon. The term
" catskin " is possibly a corruption of quatre-skin, derived from

DERBY, EARLS OF

the fact that in ancient times the robes of an earl (as depicted
in some early representations) were decorated with four rows of
ermine, as in the robes of a modern duke, instead of the three
rows to which they were restricted in later centuries. The three
" catskin "earldoms are the only earldoms now in existence which
date from creations prior to the i?th century. (A. W. H.*)

THOMAS STANLEY, ist earl of Derby (c. 1435-1504), was
the son of Thomas Stanley, who was created Baron Stanley in
1456 and died in 1459. His grandfather, Sir John Stanley
(d. 1414), had founded the fortunes of his family by marrying
Isabel Lathom, the heiress of a great estate in the hundred of West
Derby in Lancashire; he was lieutenant of Ireland in 1380-1391,
and again in 1399-1401, and in 1405 received a grant of the
lordship of Man from Henry IV. The future earl of Derby was
a squire to Henry VI. in 1454, but not long afterwards married
Eleanor, daughter of the Yorkist leader, Richard Neville, earl of
Salisbury. At the battle of Blore Heath in August 1459 Stanley,
though close at hand with a large force, did not join the royal
army, whilst his brother William fought openly for York. In
1461 Stanley was made chief justice of Cheshire by Edward IV.,
but ten years later he sided with his brother-in-law Warwick in
the Lancastrian restoration. Nevertheless, after Warwick's fall,
Edward made Stanley steward of his household. Stanley served
with the king in the French expedition of 1475, and with Richard
of Gloucester in Scotland in 1482. About the latter date he
married, as his second wife, Margaret Beaufort, mother of the
exiled Henry Tudor. Stanley was one of the executors of
Edward IV., and was at first loyal to the young king Edward V.
But he acquiesced in Richard's usurpation, and retaining his
office as steward avoided any entanglement through his wife's
share in Buckingham's rebellion. He was made constable of
England in succession to Buckingham, and granted possession of
his wife's estates with a charge to keep her in some secret place at
home. Richard could not well afford to quarrel with so powerful
a noble, but early in 1485 Stanley asked leave to retire to his
estates in Lancashire. In the summer Richard, suspicious of his
continued absence, required him to send his eldest son, Lord
Strange, to court as a hostage. After Henry of Richmond had
landed, Stanley made excuses for not joining the king ; for his
son's sake he was obliged to temporize, even when his brother
William had been publicly proclaimed a traitor. Both the
Stanleys took the field; but whilst William was in treaty
with Richmond, Thomas professedly supported Richard. On
the morning of Bosworth (August 22), Richard summoned
Stanley to join him, and when he received an evasive reply
ordered Strange to be executed. In the battle it was William
Stanley who turned the scale in Henry's favour, but Thomas,
who had taken no part in the fighting, was the first to salute the
new king. Henry VII. confirmed Stanley in all his offices, and on
the 27th of October created him earl of Derby. As husband of
the king's mother Derby held a great position, which was not
affected by the treason of his brother William in February 1495.
In the following July the earl entertained the king and queen
with much state at Knowsley. Derby died on the zgth of July
1504. Strange had escaped execution in 1485, through neglect to
obey Richard's orders; but he died before his father in 1497, and
his son Thomas succeeded as second earl. An old poem called
The Song of the Lady Bessy, which was written by a retainer of
the Stanleys, gives a romantic story of how Derby was enlisted
by Elizabeth of York in the cause of his wife's son.

For fuller narratives see I. Gairdner's Richard III. and J. H.
Ramsay's Lancaster and York; also Seacome's Memoirs of the
House of Stanley (1741). (C. L. K.)

EDWARD STANLEY, 3rd earl of Derby (1508-1572), was a
son of Thomas Stanley, 2nd earl and grandson of the ist earl,
and succeeded to the earldom on his father's death in May 1521.
During his minority Cardinal Wolsey was his guardian, and as
soon as he came of age he began to take part in public life, being
often in the company of Henry VIII. He helped to quell the
rising in the north of England known as the Pilgrimage of Grace
in 1536; but remaining true to the Roman Catholic faith he
disliked and opposed the religious changes made under Edward
vni. — 3

VI. During Mary's reign the earl was more at ease, but under
Elizabeth his younger sons, Sir Thomas (d. 1 576) and Sir Edward
Stanley (d. 1609), were concerned in a plot to free Mary, queen of
Scots, and he himself was suspected of disloyalty. However, he
kept his numerous dignities until his death at Lathom House,
near Ormskirk, on the 24th of October 1572.

Derby's first wife was Katherine, daughter of Thomas Howard,
duke of Norfolk, by whom he had, with other issue, a son Henry,
the 4th earl (c. 1531-1593), who was a member of the council of
the North, and like his father was lord-lieutenant of Lancashire.
Henry was one of the commissioners who tried Mary, queen of
Scots, and was employed by Elizabeth on other high under-
takings both at home and abroad. He died on the 25th of
September 1593. His wife Margaret (d. 1596), daughter of
Henry Clifford, 2nd earl of Cumberland, was descended through
the Brandons from King Henry VII. Two of his sons, Ferdinando
(c. 1559-1594), and William (c. 1561-1642), became in turn the
5th and 6th earls of Derby. Ferdinando, the 5th ear! (d. 1594),
wrote verses, and is eulogized by the poet Spenser under the name
of Amyntas. (A. W. H.*)

JAMES STANLEY, 7th earl of Derby (1607-1651), sometimes
styled the Great Earl of Derby, eldest son of William, 6th
earl, and Elizabeth de Vere, daughter of Edward, i7th earl of
Oxford, was born at Knowsley on the 3ist of January 1607.
During his father's life he was known as Lord Strange. After
travelling abroad he was chosen member of parliament for
Liverpool in 1625, was created knight of the Bath on the occasion
of Charles's coronation in 1626, and was joined with his father
the same year as lieutenant of Lancashire and Cheshire and
chamberlain of Chester, and in the administration of the Isle of
Man, being appointed subsequently lord-lieutenant of North
Wales. On the 7th of March 1628 he was called up to the House
of Lords as Baron Strange. He took no part in the political
disputes between king and parliament and preferred country
pursuits and the care of his estates to court or public life. Never-
theless when the Civil War broke out in 1642, Lord Strange
devoted himself to the king's cause. His plan of securing
Lancashire at the beginning and raising troops there, which
promised success, was however discouraged by Charles, who was
said to be jealous of his power and royal lineage and who com-
manded his presence at Nottingham. His subsequent attempts
to recover the county were unsuccessful. He was unable to get
possession of Manchester, was defeated at Chowbent and Lowton
Moor, and in 1643 after gaining Preston failed to take Bolton and
Lancaster castles. Finally, after successfully beating off Sir
William Brereton's attack on Warrington, he was defeated at
Whalley and withdrew to York, Warrington in consequence
surrendering to the enemy's forces. In June he left for the Isle
of Man to attend to affairs there, and in the summer of 1644 he
took part in Prince Rupert's successful campaign in the north,
when Lathom House, where Lady Derby had heroically resisted
the attacks of the besiegers, was relieved, and Bolton Castle
taken. He followed Rupert to Marston Moor, and after the
complete defeat of Charles's cause in the north withdrew to the
Isle of Man, where he held out for the king and offered an asylum
to royalist fugitives. His administration of the island imitated
that of Strafford in Ireland. It was strong rather than just. He
maintained order, encouraged trade, remedied some abuses, and
defended the people from the exactions of the church; but he
crushed opposition by imprisoning his antagonists, and aroused a
prolonged agitation by abolishing the tenant-right and introduc-
ing leaseholds. In July 1649 he refused scornfully terms offered
to him by Ireton. By the death of his father on the 29th of
September 1642 he had succeeded to the earldom, and on the
1 2th of January 1650 he obtained the Garter. He was chosen by
Charles II. to command the troops of Lancashire and Cheshire,
and on the isth of August 1651 he landed at Wyre Water in
Lancashire in support of Charles's invasion, and met the king
on the 1 7th. Proceeding to Warrington he failed to obtain
the support of the Presbyterians through his refusal to take the
Covenant, and on the 25th was totally defeated at Wigan, being
severely wounded and escaping with difficulty. He joined

66

DERBY, EARLS OF

Charles at Worcester; after the battle on the 3rd of September
he accompanied him to Boscobel, and while on his way north
alone was captured near Nantwich and given quarter. He was
tried by court-martial at Chester on the 2gth of September, and
on the ground that he was a traitor and not a prisoner of war
under the act of parliament passed in the preceding month,
which declared those who corresponded with Charles guilty of
treason, his quarter was disallowed and he was condemned to
death. When his appeal for pardon to parliament was rejected,
though supported by Cromwell, he endeavoured to escape; but
was recaptured and executed at Bolton on the isth of October
1651. He was buried in Ormskirk church. Lord Derby was a
man of deep religious feeling and of great nobility of character,
who though unsuccessful in the field served the king's cause with
single-minded purpose and without expectation of reward. His
political usefulness was handicapped in the later stages of the
struggle by his dislike of the Scots, whom he regarded as guilty
of the king's death and as unfit instruments of the restoration.
According to Clarendon he was " a man of great honour and clear
courage," and his defects the result of too little knowledge of
the world. Lord Derby left in MS. " A Discourse concerning the
Government of the Isle of Man " (printed in the Stanley Papers
and in F. Peck's Desiderata Curiosa, vol. ii.) and several volumes
of historical collections, observations, devotions (Stanley Papers)
and a commonplace book. He married on the 26th of June 1626
Charlotte de la Tremoille (1590-1664), daughter of Claude, due
de Thouars, and granddaughter of William the Silent, prince
of Orange, by whom besides four daughters he had five sons, of
whom the eldest, Charles (1628-1672), succeeded him as 8th earl.
Charles's two sons, William, the pth earl (c. 1655-1702), and
James, the icth earl (1664-1736), both died without sons, and
consequently, when James died in February 1736, his titles and
estates passed to Sir Edward Stanley (1680-1776), a descendant
of the ist earl. From him the later earls were descended, the
1 2th earl (d. 1834) being his grandson.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Article in Diet, of Nat. Biog. with authorities
and article in same work on Charlotte Stanley, countess of Derby;
the Stanley Papers, with the too laudatory memoir by F. R. Haines
(Chetham Soc. publications, vols. 62, 66, 67, 70) ; Memoires, by De
Lloyd (1668), 572; State Trials, v. 293-324; Notes & Queries, viii.
Ser. iii. 246; Seacombe's House of Stanley] Clarendon's Hist, of
the Rebellion; Gardiner's Hist, of the Civil War and Protectorate;
The Land of Home Rule, by Spencer Walpole (1893); Hist, of
the Isle of Man, by A. W. Moore (1900); Manx Soc. publications,
vols. 3, 25, 27. (P. C. Y.)

EDWARD GEOFFREY SMITH STANLEY, i4th earl of Derby (1799-
1869), the " Rupert of Debate," born at Knowsley in Lanca-
shire on the 29th of March 1799, grandson of the I2th earl and
eldest son of Lord Stanley, subsequently (1834) i3th earl of Derby
(1775-1851). He was educated at Eton and at Christ Church,
Oxford, where he distinguished himself as a classical scholar,
though he took no degree. In 1819 he obtained the Chancellor's
prize for Latin verse, the subject being " Syracuse." He gave
early promise of his future eminence as an orator, and in his youth
he used to practise elocution under the instruction of Lady
Derby, his grandfather's second wife, the actress, Elizabeth
Farren. In 1820 he was returned for Stockbridge in Hampshire,
one of the nomination boroughs whose electoral rights were
swept away by the Reform Bill of 1832, Stanley being a warm
advocate of their destruction.

His maiden speech was delivered early in the session of 1824 in
the debate on a private bill for lighting Manchester with gas. On
the 6th of May 1824 he delivered a vehement and eloquent speech
against Joseph Hume's motion for a reduction of the Irish Church
establishment, maintaining in its most conservative form the
doctrine that church property is as sacred as private property.
From this time his appearances became frequent; and he soon
asserted his place as one of the most powerful speakers in the
House. Specially noticeable almost from the first was the skill
he displayed in reply. Macaulay, in an essay published in 1834,
remarked that he seemed to possess intuitively the faculty which
in most men is developed only by long and laborious practice. In
the autumn of 1824 Stanley went on an extended tour through

Canada and the United States in company with Mr Labo-uchere,
afterwards Lord Taunton, and Mr Evelyn Denison, afterwards
Lord Ossington. In May of the following year he married the
second daughter of Edward Bootle-Wilbraham, created Baron
Skelmersdale in 1828, by whom he had a family of two sons
and one daughter who survived.

At the general election of 1826 Stanley renounced his connec-
tion with Stockbridge, and became the representative of the
borough of Preston, where the Derby influence was paramount.
The change of seats had this advantage, that it left him free to
speak against the system of rotten boroughs, which he did with
great force during the Reform Bill debates, without laying himself
open to the charge of personal inconsistency as the representative
of a place where, according to Gay, cobblers used to " feast three
years upon one vote." In 1827 he and several other distinguished
Whigs made a coalition with Canning on the defection of the more
unyielding Tories, and he commenced his official life as under-
secretary for the colonies, but the coalition was broken up by
Canning's death in August. Lord Goderich succeeded to the
premiership, but he never was really in power, and he resigned
his place after the lapse of a few months. During the succeeding
administration of the duke of Wellington (1828-1830), Stanley
and those with whom he acted were in opposition. His robust
and assertive Liberalism about this period seemed curious after-
wards to a younger generation who knew him only as the very
embodiment of Conservatism.

By the advent of Lord Grey to power in November 1830,
Stanley obtained his first opportunity of showing his capacity for
a responsible office. He was appointed to the chief secretary-
ship of Ireland, a position in which he found ample scope
for both administrative and debating skill. On accepting
office he had to vacate his seat for Preston and seek re-election;
and he had the mortification of being defeated by the Radical
" orator " Hunt. The contest was a peculiarly keen one, and
turned upon the question of the ballot, which Stanley refused to
support. He re-entered the House as one of the members for
Windsor, Sir Hussey Vivian having resigned in his favour. In 1 83 2
he again changed his seat, being returned for North Lancashire.

Stanley was one of the most ardent supporters of Lord Grey's
Reform Bill. Of this no other proof is needed than his frequent
parliamentary utterances, which were fully in sympathy with the
popular cry " The bill, the whole bill, and nothing but the bill."
Reference may be made especially to the speech he delivered on
the 4th of March 1831 on the adjourned debate on the second
reading of the bill, which was marked by all the higher qualities
of his oratory. Apart from his connexion with the general policy
of the government, Stanley had more than enough to have
employed all his energies in the management of his own depart-
ment. The secretary of Ireland has seldom an easy task; Stanley
found it one of peculiar difficulty. The country was in a very
unsettled state. The just concession that had been somewhat
tardily yielded a short time before in Catholic emancipation
had excited the people to make all sorts of demands, reasonable
and unreasonable. Undaunted by the fierce denunciations of
O'Connell, who styled him Scorpion Stanley, he discharged with
determination the ungrateful task of carrying a coercion bill
through the House. It was generally felt that O'Connell,
powerful though he was, had fairly met his match in Stanley,
who, with invective scarcely inferior to his own, evaded no
challenge, ignored no argument, and left no taunt unanswered.
The title " Rupert of Debate " is peculiarly applicable to him
in connexion with the fearless if also often reckless method of
attack he showed in his parliamentary war with O'Connell.
It was first applied to him, however, thirteen years later by Sir
Edward Bulwer Lytton in The New Timon: —

" One after one the lords of time advance ;
Here Stanley meets — here Stanley scorns the glance!
The brilliant chief, irregularly great,
Frank, haughty, rash, — the Rupert of debate."

The best answer, however, which he made to the attacks of the
great agitator was not the retorts of debate, effective though
these were, but the beneficial legislation he was instrumental in

DERBY, EARLS OF

67

passing. He introduced and carried the first national education
act for Ireland, one result of which was the remarkable and to
many almost incredible phenomenon of a board composed
of Catholics, Episcopalians and Presbyterians harmoniously
administering an efficient education scheme. He was also chiefly
responsible for the Irish Church Temporalities Act, though the
bill was not introduced into parliament until after he had quitted
the Irish secretaryship for another office. By this measure two
archbishoprics and eight bishoprics were abolished, and a remedy
was provided for various abuses connected with the revenues of
the church. As originally introduced, the bill contained a clause
authorizing the appropriation of surplus revenues to non-
ecclesiastical purposes. This had, however, been strongly opposed
from the first by Stanley and several other members of the
cabinet, and it was withdrawn by the government before the
measure reached the Lords.

In 1833, just before the introduction of the Irish Church
Temporalities Bill, Stanley had been promoted to be secretary
for the colonies with a seat in the cabinet. In this position it fell
to his lot to carry the emancipation of the slaves to a successful
practical issue. The speech which he delivered on introducing
the biU for freeing the slaves in the West Indies, on the i4th of
May 1833, was one of the finest specimens of his eloquence.

The Irish Church question determined more than one turning-
point in his political career. The most important occasion on
which it did so was in 1834, when the proposal of the government
to appropriate the surplus revenues of the church to educational
purposes led to his secession from the cabinet, and, as it proved,
his complete and final separation from the Whig party. In the
former of these steps he had as his companions Sir James Graham,
the earl of Ripon and the duke of Richmond. Soon after it
occurred, O'Connell, amid the laughter of the House, described
the secession in a couplet from Canning's Loves of the Triangles: —
" Still down thy steep, romantic Ashbourne, glides
The Derby dilly carrying six insides."

Stanley was not content with marking his disapproval by the
simple act of withdrawing from the cabinet. He spoke against the
bill to which he objected with a vehemence that showed the
strength of his feeling in the matter, and against its authors with
a bitterness that he himself is understood to have afterwards
admitted to have been unseemly towards those who had so
recently been his colleagues. The course followed by the govern-
ment was " marked with all that timidity, that want of dexterity,
which led to the failure of the unpractised shoplifter." His late
colleagues were compared to "thimble-riggers at a country fair,"
and their plan was "petty larceny, for it had not the redeeming
qualities of bold and open robbery."

In the end of 1834, Lord Stanley, as he was now styled by
courtesy, his father having succeeded to the earldom in October,
was invited by Sir Robert Peel to join the short-lived Con-
servative ministry which he formed after the resignation of Lord
Melbourne. Though he declined the offer for reasons stated in a
letter published in the Peel memoirs, he acted from that date
with the Conservative party, and on its next accession to power,
in 1841, he accepted the office of colonial secretary, which he had
held under Lord Grey. His position and his temperament alike,
however, made him a thoroughly independent supporter of any
party to which he attached himself. When, therefore, the injury
to health arising from the late hours in the Commons led him
in 1844 to seek elevation to the Upper House in the right of his
father's barony, Sir Robert Peel, in acceding to his request, had
the satisfaction of at once freeing himself from the possible effects
of his " candid friendship " in the House, and at the same time
1 greatly strengthening the debating power on the Conservative
side in the other. If the premier in taking this step had any
presentiment of an approaching difference on a vital question, it
was not long in being realized. When Sir Robert Peel accepted
the policy of free trade in 1846, the breach between him and Lord
Stanley was, as might have been anticipated from the antecedents
of the latter, instant and irreparable. Lord Stanley at once
asserted himself as the uncompromising opponent of that policy,
and he became the recognized leader of the Protectionist party,

having Lord George Bentinck and Disraeli for his lieutenants
in the Commons. They did all that could be done in a case in
which the logic of events was against them, though Protection
was never to become more than their watchword.

It is one of the peculiarities of English politics, however, that
a party may come into power because it is the only available one
at the time, though it may have no chance of carrying the very
principle to which it owes its organized existence. Such was the
case when Lord Derby, who had succeeded to the earldom on the
death of his father in June 1851, was called upon to form his first
administration in February 1852. He was in a minority, but the
circumstances were such that no other than a minority govern-
ment was possible, and he resolved to take the only available
means of strengthening his position by dissolving parliament and
appealing to the country at the earliest opportunity. The appeal
was made in autumn, but its result did not materially alter the
position of parties. Parliament met in November, and by the
middle of the following month the ministry had resigned in
consequence of their defeat on Disraeli's budget. For the six
following years, during Lord. Aberdeen's "ministry of all the
talents " and Lord Palmerston's premiership, Lord Derby
remained at the head of the opposition, whose policy gradually
became more generally Conservative and less distinctively
Protectionist as the hopelessness of reversing the measures
adopted in 1846 made itself apparent. In 1855 he was asked to
form an administration after the resignation of Lord Aberdeen,
but failing to obtain sufficient support, he declined the task. It
was in somewhat more hopeful circumstances that, after the
defeat of Lord Palmerston on the Conspiracy Bill in February
1858, he assumed for the second time the reins of government.
Though he still could not count upon a working majority, there
was a possibility of carrying on affairs without sustaining defeat,
which was realized for a full session, owing chiefly to the dexterous
management of Mr Disraeli in the Commons. The one rock
ahead was the question of reform, on which the wishes of the
country were being emphatically expressed, but it was not so
pressing as to require to be immediately dealt with. During the
session of 1858 the government contrived to pass two measures
of very considerable importance, one a bill to remove Jewish
disabilities, and the other a bill to transfer the government of
India from the East India Company to the crown. Next year
the question of parliamentary reform had to be faced, and,
recognizing the necessity, the government introduced a bill
at the opening of the session, which, in spite of, or rather in
consequence of, its " fancy franchises," was rejected by the
House, and, on a dissolution, rejected also by the country. A
vote of no confidence having been passed in the new parliament
on the loth of June, Lord Derby at once resigned.

After resuming the leadership of the Opposition Lord Derby
devoted much of the leisure the position afforded him to the
classical studies that had always been congenial to him. It was
his reputation for scholarship as well as his social position that
had led in 1852 to his appointment to the chancellorship of the
university of Oxford, in succession to the duke of Wellington ;
and perhaps a desire to justify the possession of the honour on
the former ground had something to do with his essays in the
field of authorship. His first venture was a poetical version of the
ninth ode of the third book of Horace, which appeared in Lord
Ravensworth's collection of translations of the Odes. In 1862 he
printed and circulated in influential quarters a volume entitled
Translations of Poems Ancient and Modern, with a very modest
dedicatory letter to Lord Stanhope, and the words " Not
published " on the title-page. It contained, besides versions of
Latin, Italian, French and German poems, a translation of the
first book of the Iliad. The reception of this volume was such as
to encourage him to proceed with the task he had chosen as his
magnum opus, the translation of the whole of the Iliad, which
accordingly appeared in 1864.

During the seven years that elapsed between Lord Derby's
second and third administrations an industrial crisis occurred
in his native county, which brought out very conspicuously his
public spirit and his philanthropy. The destitution in Lancashire

68

DERBY, EARLS OF

caused by the stoppage of the cotton-supply in consequence of the
American Civil War, was so great as to threaten to overtax the
benevolence of the country. That it did not do so was probably
due to Lord Derby more than to any other single man. From the
first he was the very life and soul of the movement for relief. His
personal subscription, munificent though it was, represented the
least part of his service. His noble speech at the meeting in
Manchester in December 1862, where the movement was initiated,
and his advice at the subsequent meetings of the committee,
which he attended very regularly, were of the very highest value
in stimulating and directing public sympathy. His relations
with Lancashire had always been of the most cordial description,
notwithstanding his early rejection by Preston; but it is not
surprising that after the cotton famine period the cordiality
passed into a warmer and deeper feeling, and that the name of
Lord Derby was long cherished in most grateful remembrance
by the factory operatives.

On the rejection of Earl Russell's Reform Bill in 1866, Lord
Derby was for the third time entrusted with the formation of a
cabinet. Like those he had previously formed it was destined to
be short-lived, but it lived long enough to settle on a permanent
basis the question that had proved fatal to its predecessor. The
" education " of the party that had so long opposed all reform to
the point of granting household suffrage was the work of another;
but Lord Derby fully concurred in, if he was not the first to
suggest, the statesmanlike policy by which the question was
disposed of in such a way as to take it once for all out of the region
of controversy and agitation. The passing of the Reform Bill was
the main business of the session 1867. The chief debates were, of
course, in the Commons, and Lord Derby's failing powers pre-
vented him from taking any large share in those which took place
in the Lords. His description of the measure as a " leap in the
dark " was eagerly caught up, because it exactly represented the
common opinion at the time, — the most experienced statesmen,
while they admitted the granting of household suffrage to be a
political necessity, being utterly unable to foresee what its effect
might be on the constitution and government of the country.

Finding himself unable, from declining health, to encounter
the fatigues of another session, Lord Derby resigned office early
in 1868. The step he had taken was announced in both Houses
on the evening of the 2$th of February, and warm tributes of
admiration and esteem were paid by the leaders of the two great
parties. He yielded the entire leadership of the party as well
as the premiership to Disraeli. His subsequent appearances in
public were few and unimportant. It was noted as a consistent
close to his political life that his last speech in the House of Lords
should have been a denunciation of Gladstone's Irish Church Bill
marked by much of his early fire and vehemence. A few months
later, on the 23rd of October 1869, he died at Knowsley.

Sir Archibald Alison, writing of him when he was in the zenith
of his powers, styles him " by the admission of all parties the
most perfect orator of his day." Even higher was the opinion of
Lord Aberdeen, who is reported by The Times to have said that
no one of the giants he had listened to in his youth, Pitt, Fox,
Burke or Sheridan, " as a speaker, is to be compared with our
own Lord Derby, when Lord Derby is at his best." (W.B.S.)

EDWARD HENRY STANLEY, isth earl of Derby (1826-
1893), eldest son of the i4th earl, was educated at Rugby
and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took a high degree
and became a member of the society known as the Apostles. In
March 1848 he unsuccessfully contested the borough of Lancaster,
and then made a long tour in the West Indies, Canada and the
United States. During his absence he was elected member for
King's Lynn, which he represented till October 1869, when he
succeeded to the peerage. He took his place, as a matter of
course, among the Conservatives, and delivered his maiden speech
in May 1850 on the sugar duties. Just before, he had made a
very brief tour in Jamaica and South America. In 1852 he went
to India, and while travelling in that country he was appointed
under-secretary for foreign affairs in his father's first administra-
tion. From the outset of his career he was known to be a most
Liberal Conservative, and in 1855 Lord Palmerston offered him

the post of colonial secretary. He was much tempted by the
proposal, and hurried down to Knowsley to consult his father,
who called out when he entered the room, "Hallo, Stanley!
what brings you here ? — Has Dizzy cut his throat, or are you
going to be married ? " When the object of his sudden appear-
ance had been explained, the Conservative chief received the
courteous suggestion of the prime minister with anything but
Favour, and the offer was declined. In his father's second
administration Lord Stanley held, at first, the office of secretary
for the colonies, but became president of the Board of Control on
the resignation of Lord EUenborough. He had the charge of the
India Bill of 1858 in the House of Commons, became the first
secretary of state for India, and left behind him in the India
Office an excellent reputation as a man of business. After the
revolution in Greece and the disappearance of King Otho, the
people most earnestly desired to have Queen Victoria's second
son, Prince Alfred, for their king. He declined the honour, and
they then took up the idea that the next best thing they could
do would be to elect some great and wealthy English noble, not
concealing the hope that although they might have to offer him
a Civil List he would decline to receive it. Lord Stanley was the
prime favourite as an occupant of this bed of thorns, and it has
been said that he was actually offered the crown. That, however,
is not true; the offer was never formally made. After the fall of
the Russell government in 1866 he became foreign secretary in
his father's third administration. He compared his conduct in
that great post to that of a man floating down a river and fending
off from his vessel, as well as he could, the various obstacles it
encountered. He thought that that should be the normal
attitude of an English foreign minister, and probably under the
circumstances of the years 1866-1868 it was the right one. He
arranged the collective guarantee of the neutrality of Luxemburg
in 1867, negotiated a convention about the " Alabama," which,
however, was not ratified, and most wisely refused to take any
part in the Cretan troubles. In 1874 he again became foreign
secretary in Disraeli's government. He acquiesced in the
purchase of the Suez Canal shares, a measure then considered
dangerous by many people, but ultimately most successful; he
accepted the Andrassy Note, but declined to accede to the Berlin
Memorandum. His part in the later phases of the Russo-Turkish
struggle has never been fully explained, for with equal wisdom
and generosity he declined to gratify public curiosity at the cost
of some of his colleagues. A later generation will know better
than his contemporaries what were the precise developments of
policy which obliged him to resign. He kept himself ready to
explain in the House of Lords the course he had taken if those
whom he had left challenged him to do so, but from that course
theyconsistently.refrained. Already in October i879itwas clear
enough that he had thrown in his lot with the Liberal party, but
it was not till March 1880 that he publicly announced this change
of allegiance. He did not at first take office in the second
Gladstone government, but became secretary for the colonies in
December 1882, holding this position till the fall of that govern-
ment in the summer of 1885. In 1886 the old Liberal party was
run on the rocks and went to pieces. Lord Derby became a
Liberal Unionist, and took an active part in the general manage-
ment of that party, leading it in the House of Lords till 1801,
when Lord Hartington became duke of Devonshire. In 1892 he
presided over the Labour Commission, but his health never
recovered an attack of influenza which he had in 1891, and he
died at Knowsley on the 2ist of April 1893.

During a great part of Lord Derby's life he was deflected from
his natural course by the accident of his position as the son of the
leading Conservative statesman of the day. From first to last *
he was at heart a moderate Liberal. After making allowance,
however, for this deflecting agency, it must be admitted that in
the highest quality of the statesman, " aptness to be right," he
was surpassed by none of his contemporaries, or — if by anybody
— by Sir George Cornewall Lewis alone. He would have been
more at home in a state of things which did not demand from its
leading statesman great popular power; he had none of those
" isms " and " prisms of fancy " which stood in such good stead

DERBY

69

some of his rivals. He had another defect besides the want
of popular power. He was so anxious to arrive at right con-
clusions that he sometimes turned and turned and turned a
subject over till the time for action had passed. One of his best
lieutenants said of him in a moment of impatience: " Lord
Derby is like the God of Hegel: ' Er setzt sich, er verneint sich,
er verneint seine Negation.' " His knowledge, acquired both
from books and by the ear, was immense, and he took every
opportunity of increasing it. He retained his old university
habit of taking long walks with a congenial companion, even in
London, and although he cared but little for what is commonly
known as society — the society of crowded rooms and fragments
of sentences — he very much liked conversation. During the
many years in which he was a member of " The Club " he was
one of its most assiduous frequenters, and his loss was acknow-
ledged by a formal resolution. His talk was generally grave, but
every now and then was lit up by dry humour. The late Lord
Arthur Russell once said to him, after he had been buying some
property in southern England: " So you still believe in land,
Lord Derby." " Hang it," he replied, " a fellow must believe in
something! " He did an immense deal of work outside politics.
He was lord rector of the University of Glasgow from 1868 to
1871, and later held the same office in that of Edinburgh. From
1875 to 1893 he was president of the Royal Literary Fund, and
attended most closely to his duties then. He succeeded Lord
Granville as chancellor of the University of London in 1891, and
remained in that position till his death. He lived much in
Lancashire, managed his enormous estates with great skill, and
did a great amount of work as a local magnate. He married in
1870 Maria Catharine, daughter of the 5th earl de la Warr, and
widow of the 2nd marquess of Salisbury.

The earl left no children and he was succeeded as i6th earl
by his brother Frederick Arthur Stanley (1841-1908), who had
been made a peer as Baron Stanley of Preston in 1886. He was
secretary of state for war and for the colonies and president of
the board of trade; and was governor-general of Canada from
1888 to 1893. He died on the i4th of June 1908, when his eldest
son, Edward George Villiers Stanley, became earl of Derby. As
Lord Stanley the latter had been member of parliament for the
West Houghton division of Lancashire from 1892 to 1906; he
was financial secretary to the War Office from 190x5 to 1903, and
postmaster-general from 1903 to 1905.

The best account of the I5th Lord Derby is that which was
prefixed by W. E. H. Lecky, who knew him very intimately,
to the edition of his speeches outside parliament, published in
1894. (M. G. D.)

DERBY, a city of New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A.,
coextensive with the township of Derby, about 10 m. W. of New
Haven, at the junction of the Housatonic and Naugatuck rivers.
Pop. (1900) 7930 (2635 foreign-born); (1910) 8991. It is served
by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and by
interurban electric railways. In Derby there are an opera house,
owned by the city, and a public library. Across the Housatonic
is the borough of Shelton (pop. 1910, 4807), which is closely
related, socially and industrially, to Derby, the two having a
joint board of trade. Adjoining Derby on the N. along the
Naugatuck is Ansonia. Derby, Ansonia and Shelton form one of
the most important manufacturing communities in the etate;
although their total population in 1900 (23,448) was only 2-9%
of the state's population, the product of their manufactories was
7-4% of the total manufactured product of Connecticut. Among
the manufactures of Derby are pianos and organs, woollen goods,
pins, keys, dress stays, combs, typewriters, corsets, hosiery, guns
and ammunition, and foundry and machine-shop products.
Derby was settled in 1642 as an Indian trading post under the
name Paugasset, and received its present name in 1675. The
date of organization of the township is unknown. Ansonia was
formed from a part of Derby in 1889. In 1893 the borough of
Birmingham, on the opposite side of the Naugatuck, was annexed
to Derby, and Derby was chartered as a city. In the i8th
century Derby was the centre of a thriving commerce with the
West Indies. Derby is the birthplace of David Humphreys

(1752-1818), a soldier, diplomatist and writer, General
Washington's aide and military secretary from 1780 until the
end of the War of Independence, the first minister of the
United States to Portugal (1790-1797) and minister to Spain in
1797-1802, and one of the " Hartford Wits."

See Samuel Orcutt and Ambrose Beardsley, History of the Old
Town of Derby (Springfield, 1880); and the Town Records of Derby
from 1655 to 1710 (Derby, 1901).

DERBY, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough,
and the county town of Derbyshire, England, 128$ m. N.N.W.
of London by the Midland railway; it is also served by the
Great Northern railway. Pop. (1891) 94,146; (1901) 114,848.
Occupying a position almost in the centre of England, the town
is situated chiefly on the western bank of the river Derwent, on an
undulating site encircled with gentle eminences, from which flow
the Markeaton and other brooks. In the second half of the igth
century the prosperity of the town was enhanced by the establish-
ment of the head offices and principal workshops of the Midland
Railway Company. Derby possesses several handsome public
buildings, including the town hall, a spacious range of buildings
erected for the postal and inland revenue offices, the county hall,
corn exchange and market hall. Among churches may be
mentioned St Peter's a fine building principally of Perpendicular
date but with earlier portions; St Alkmund's with its lofty spire,
Decorated in style; St Andrew's, in the same style, by Sir G. G.
Scott; and All Saints', which contains a beautiful choir-screen,
good stained glass and monuments by L. F. Roubiliac, Sir
Francis Chantrey and others. The body of this church is in
classic style (1725), but the tower was built 1509-1527, and is one
of the finest in the midland counties, built in three tiers, and
crowned with battlements and pinnacles, which give it a total
height of 210 ft. The Roman Catholic church of St Mary is one
of the best examples of the work of A. W. Pugin. The Derby
grammar school, one of the most ancient in England, was placed
in 1 1 60 under the administration of the chapter of Darley Abbey,
which lay a little north of Derby. It occupies St Helen's House,
once the town residence of the Strutt family, and has been
enlarged in modern times, accommodating about 160 boys. The
Derby municipal technical college is administered by the corpora-
tion. Other institutions include schools of science and art,
public library, museum and art gallery, the Devonshire alms-
houses, a remodelled foundation inaugurated by Elizabeth,
countess of Shrewsbury, in the i6th century, and the town and
county infirmary. The free library and museum buildings,
together with a recreation ground, were gifts to the town from
M. T. Bass, M.P. (d. 1884), while an arboretum of seventeen
acres was presented to the town by Joseph Strutt in 1840.

Derby has been long celebrated for its porcelain, which
rivalled that of Saxony and France. This manufacture was
introduced about 1750, and although for a time partially
abandoned, it has been revived. There are also spar works where
the fluor-spar, or Blue John, is wrought into a variety of useful
and ornamental articles. The manufacture of silk, hosiery, lace
and cotton formerly employed a large portion of the population,
and there are still numerous silk mills and elastic web works.
Silk " throwing " or spinning was introduced into England in
1717 by John Lombe, who found out the secrets of the craft
when visiting Piedmont, and set up machinery in Derby. Other
industries include the manufacture of paint, shot, white and
red lead and varnish; and there are sawmills and tanneries.
The manufacture of hosiery profited greatly by the inventions
of Jedediah Strutt about 1750. In the northern suburb of
Littlechester, there are chemical and steam boiler works. The
Midland railway works employ a large number of hands. Derby
is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Southwell. The parlia-
mentary borough returns two members. The town is governed
by a mayor, sixteen aldermen and forty-two councillors. Area,
3449 acres.

Littlechester, as its name indicates, was the site of a Roman
fort or village; the site is in great part built over and the remains
practically effaced. Derby was known in the time of the
heptarchy as Northworthig, and did not receive the name of

DERBYSHIRE

Deoraby or Derby until after it was given up to the Danes by the
treaty of Wedmore and had become one of their five boroughs,
probably ruled in the ordinary way by an earl with twelve
" lawmen " under him. Being won back among the sweeping
conquests of iEthelflad, lady of the Mercians, in 91 7, it prospered
during the icth century, and by the reign of Edward the Con-
fessor there were 243 burgesses in Derby. However, by 1086 this
number had decreased to 100, while 103 " manses " which used
to be assessed were waste. In spite of this the amount rendered
by the town to the lord had increased from £24 to £30. The first
extant charter granted to Derby is dated 1 206 and is a grant of all
those privileges which the burgesses of Nottingham had in the
time of Henry I. and Henry II., which included freedom from toll,
a gild merchant, power to elect a provost at their will, and the
privilege of holding the town at the ancient farm with an increase
of £10 yearly. The charter also provides that no one shall dye
cloth within ten leagues of Derby except in the borough. A
second charter, granted by Henry III. in 1229, limits the power of
electing a provost by requiring that he shall be removed if he
be displeasing to the king. Henry III. also granted the burgesses
two other charters, one in 1225 confirming their privileges and
granting that the comitalus of Derby should in future be held on
Thursdays in the borough, the other in 1260 granting that no
Jew should be allowed to live in the town. In 1337 Edward III.
on the petition of the burgesses granted that they might have two
bailiffs instead of one. Derby was incorporated by James I. in
1611 under the name of the bailiffs and burgesses of Derby, but
Charles I. in 1637 appointed a mayor, nine aldermen, fourteen
brethren and fourteen capital burgesses. In 1680 the burgesses
were obliged to resign their charters, and received a new one,
which did not, however, alter the government of the town. Derby
has been represented in parliament by two members since 1295.
In the rebellion of 1745 the young Pretender marched with his
army as far south as Derby, where the council was held which
decided that he should return to Scotland instead of going on to
London.

Among early works on Derby are W. Hutton, History of Derby
(London, 1791); R. Simpson, History and Antiquities of Derby
(Derby, 1826).

DERBYSHIRE, a north midland county of England, bounded
N. and N.E. by Yorkshire, E. by Nottinghamshire, S.E. and S. by
Leicestershire, S. and S.W. by Staffordshire, and W. and N.W. by
Cheshire. The area is 1029- 5 sq. m. The physical aspect is much
diversified. The extreme south of the county is lacking in
picturesqueness, being for the most part level, with occasional
slight undulations. The Peak District of the north, on the other
hand, though inferior in grandeur to the mountainous Lake
District, presents some of the finest hill scenery in England,
deriving a special beauty from the richly wooded glens and
valleys, such as those of Castleton, Glossop, Dovedale and
Millersdale. The character of the landscape ranges from the wild
moorland of the Cheshire borders or the grey rocks of the Peak,
to the park lands and woods of the Chatsworth district. Some of
the woods are noted for their fine oaks, those at Kedleston, 3 m.
from Derby, ranking among the largest and oldest in the kingdom.
From the northern hills the streams of the county radiate.
Those of the north-west belong to the Mersey, and those of the
north-east to the Don, but all the others to the Trent, which, like
the Don, falls into the Humber. The principal river is the Trent,
which, rising in the Staffordshire moorlands, intersects the
southern part of Derbyshire, and forms part of its boundary
with Leicestershire. After the Trent the most important river
is the Derwent, one of its tributaries, which, taking its rise in the
lofty ridges of the High Peak, flows southward through a beautiful
valley, 'receiving a number of minor streams in its course, includ-
ing the Wye, which, rising near Buxton, traverses the fine
Millersdale and Monsal Dale. The other principal rivers are the
following: The Dane rises at the junction of the three counties,
Staffordshire, Cheshire and Derbyshire. The Goyt has its source
a little farther north, at the base of the same hill, and, taking a
N.N.E. direction, divides Derbyshire from Cheshire, and falls into
the Mersey. The Dove rises on the southern slope, and flows as

the boundary stream between Derbyshire and Staffordshire for
nearly its entire course. It receives several feeders, and falls into
the Trent near Repton. The Erewash is the boundary stream
between Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire. The Rother rises
about Baslow, and flows into Yorkshire, with a northerly course,
joining the Don. Besides the attractions of its scenery Derby-
shire possesses, in Buxton, Matlock and Bakewell, three
health resorts in much favour on account of their medicinal
springs.

The whole northward extension of the county is occupied by
the plateau of the Peak and other plateau-like summits, the
highest of which are of almost exactly similar elevation. Thus
in the extreme north Bleaklow Hill reaches 2060 ft., while
southward from this point along the axis of main elevation are
found Shelf Moss (2046 ft.), and Kinder Scout and other summits
of the Peak itself, ranging up to 2088 ft. This plateau-mass is
demarcated on the north and west by the vales of the Etherow
and Goyt, by the valley of the Derwent on the east, and in part
by that of its tributary the Noe on the south. The flanks of the
plateau are deeply scored by abrupt ravines, often known as
" cloughs " (an Anglo-Saxon word, cloh) watered by streams
which sometimes descend over precipitous ledges in picturesque
falls, such as the Kinder Downfall, formed by the brook of that
name v/hich rises on Kinder Scout. The most picturesque
cloughs are found on the south, descending to Edale, and on the
west. Edale is the upper part of the Noe valley, and the narrow
gorge at its head is exceedingly beautiful, as is the more gentle
scenery of the Vale of Hope, the lower part of the valley. In a
branch vale is situated Castleton (<?.».), with the ruined Peak
Castle or Castle of the Peak, and the Peak Cavern, Blue John
Mine and other caves. The upper Derwent valley, or Derwent
Dale, is narrow and well wooded. In it, near the village of
Derwent Chapel, is Derwent Hall, a fine old mansion formerly
a seat of the Newdigate family. On Derwent Edge, above the
village, are various peculiar rock formations, known by such
names as the Salt-cellar. Ashopton, another village lower down
the dale, is a favourite centre, and here the main valley is joined
by Ashop Dale, a bold defile in its upper part, penetrating the
heart of the Peak.

The well-known high road crossing the plateau from east to
west, between the lower Derwent valley, Bakewell, Buxton and
Macclesfield, shows the various types of scenery characteristic
of the limestone hill-country of Derbyshire south of the Peak
itself. The lower Derwent valley, about Chatsworth, Rowsley,
Darley and Matlock, is open, fertile and well wooded. The road
leads up the tributary valley of the Wye, which after Bakewell
quickly narrows, and in successive portions is known as Monsal
Dale, Millersdale (which the main road does not touch), Chee
Dale and Wye Dale. On the flanks of these beautiful dales bold
cliffs and bastions of limestone stand out among rich woods.
Near the mouth of the valley, about Stanton, the fantastic
effects of weathering on the limestone are especially well seen,
as in Rowtor Rocks and Robin Hood's Stride, and in the same
locality are a remarkable number of tumuli and other early
remains, and the Hermitage, a cave containing sacred carvings.
From Buxton the road ascends over the high moors, here open
and grassy in contrast to the heather of the Peak, and shortly
after crossing the county boundary, reaches the head of the pass
well known by the name of an inn, the Cat and Fiddle, at its
highest point, 1690 ft.

South of Buxton the elevations along the main axis decrease,
thus Axe Edge reaches 1600 ft., and this height is nowhere
exceeded as the hills sink to the plain valley of the Trent. The
dales and ravines which ramify among the limestone heights are
characteristic and beautiful, and the valley of the Dove (q.v.)
or Dovedale, on the border with Staffordshire, is as famous as
any of the northern dales. Swallow-holes or waterworn caverns
are common in many parts of the limestone region. The hills
east of the Derwent are nowhere so high as those to the west —
Margley Hill reaches 1793 ft., Howden Edge 1787 ft. and Der-
went Moors 1505 ft. The plateau type is maintained. The
valley of the Derwent provides the most attractive scenery in

DERBYSHIRE

the southern part of the county, from Matlock southward by
Heage, Belper and Duffield to Derby.

Geology. — Five well-contrasted types of scenery in Derbyshire are
clearly traceable to as many varieties of rock ; the bleak dry uplands
of the north and east, with deep-cut ravines and swift clear streams,
are due to the great mass of Mountain Limestone; round the lime-
stone boundary are the valleys with soft outlines in the Pendleside
Shales; these are succeeded by the rugged moorlands, covered with
heather and peat, which are due to the Millstone Grit series; east-
ward lies the Derbyshire Coalfield with its gently moulded grass-
covered hills; southward is the more level tract of red Triassic rocks.
The principal structural feature is the broad anticline, its axis running
north and south, which has brought up the Carboniferous Limestone ;
this uplifted region is the southern extremity of the Pennine Range.
The Carboniferous or " Mountain " Limestone is the oldest formation
in the county; its thickness is not known, but it is certainly over
2000 ft. ; it is well exposed in the numerous narrow gorges cut by the
Derwent and its tributaries and by the Dove on the Staffordshire
border. Ashwood Dale, Chee Dale, Millersdale, Monsal Dale and the
valley at Matlock are all flanked by abrupt sides of this rock. It is
usually a pale, thick-bedded rock, sometimes blue and occasionally,
as at Ashford, black. In some places, e.g. Thorpe Cloud, it is highly
fossiliferous, but it is usually somewhat barren except for abundant
crinoids and smaller organisms. It is polished in large slabs at
Ashford, where crinoidal, black and " rosewood " marbles are pro-
duced. Volcanic rocks, locally called " Toadstone,"_are represented
in the limestones by intrusive sills and flows of dolerite and by necks
of agglomerate, notably near Tideswell, Millersdale and Matlock.
Beds and nodules of chert are abundant in the upper parts of the
limestone; at Bakewell it is quarried for use in the Potteries. At
some points the limestone has been dolomitized ; near Bpnsall it has
been converted into a granular silicified rock. A series of black
shales with nodular limestones, the Pendleside series, rests upon the
Mountain Limestone on the east, south and north-west ; much of the
upper course of the Derwent has been cut through these soft beds.
Mam Tor, or the Shivering Mountain, is made of these shales. Next
in upward sequence is a thick mass of sandstones, grits and shales —
the Millstone Grit series. On the west side these extend from
Blacklow Hill to Axe Edge ; on the east, from Derwent Edge to near
Derby; outlying masses form the rough moorland on Kinder Scout
and the picturesque tors near Stanton-by-Youlgreave. A small
patch of Millstone Grit and Limestone occurs in the south of the
county about Melbourne and Ticknall. The Coal Measures repose
upon the Millstone Grit ; the largest area of these rocksliesonthe east,
where they are conterminous with the coalfields of Yorkshire and
Nottingham. A small tract, part of the Leicestershire coalfield, lies
in the south-east corner, and in the north-west corner a portion of the
Lancashire coalfield appears about New Mills and Whaley Bridge.
They yield valuable coals, clays, marls and ganister. East of
Bolsover, the Coal Measures are covered unconformably by the
Permian breccias and magnesian limestone. Flanking the hills
between Ashbourne and Quarndon are red beds of Bunter marl,
sandstone and conglomerate ; they also appear at Morley, east of the
Derwent, and again round the small southern coalfield. Most of the
southern part of the county is occupied by Keuper marls and sand-
stones, the latter yield good building stone; and at Chellaston the
gypsum beds in the former are excavated on a large scale. Much of
the Triassic area is covered superficially by glacial drift and alluvium
of the Trent. Local boulders as well as northern erratics are found
in the valley of the Derwent. The bones of Pleistocene mammals,
the rhinoceros, mammoth, bison, hyaena, &c., have been found at
numerous places, often in caves and fissures in the limestones, e.g. at
Castleton, Wirksworth and Creswell. At Doveholes the Pleiocene
Mastodon has been reported. Galena and other lead ores are
abundant in veins in the limestone, but they are now only worked on
a large scale at Mill Close, near Winster; calamine, zinc, blende,
barytes, calcite and fluor-spar are common. Apeculiar variety of the
last named, called " Blue John," is found only near Castleton; at
the same place occurs the remarkable elastic bitumen, " elaterite."
Limestone is quarried at Buxton, Millersdale and Matlock for lime,
fluxing and chemical purposes. Good sandstone is obtained from
the Millstone Grit at Stancliffe, Tansley and Whatstandwell. Cal-
careous tufa or travertine occurs in the valley of Matlock and else-
where, and in some places is still being deposited by springs. Large
pits containing deposits of white sand, clay and pebbles are found
in the limestone at Longcliff, Newhaven and Carsington.

Climate. — From the elevation which it attains in its northern
division the county is colder and is rainier than other midland
counties. Even in summer cold and thick fogs are often seen
hanging over the rivers, and clinging to the lower parts of the
hills, and hoar-frosts are by no means unknown even in June
and July. The winters in the uplands are generally severe, and
the rainfall heavy. At Buxton, at an elevation of about 1000 ft.,
the mean temperature in January is 34-9° F., and in July 57-5°,
the mean annual being 45-4°. These conditions contrast with
those at Derby, in the southern lowland, where the figures are

respectively 37-5°, 61-2° and 48-8°, while intermediate conditions
are found at Belper, 9 m. higher up the Derwent valley, where
the figures are 36-3°, 59-9° and 47'3°- The contrasts shown by
the mean annual rainfall are similarly marked. Thus at Wood-
head, lying high in the extreme north, it is 52-03 in., at Buxton
49-33 in., at Matlock, in the middle part of the Derwent valley,
35-2 in., and at Derby 24-35 m-

Agriculture. — A little over seven-tenths of the total area of
the county is under cultivation. Among the higher altitudes of
north Derbyshire, where the soil is poor and the climate harsh,
grain is unable to flourish, while even in the more sheltered parts
of this region the harvest is usually belated. In such districts
sheep farming is chiefly practised, and there is a considerable
area of heath pasture. Farther south, heavy crops of wheat,
turnips and other cereals and green crops are not uncommon,
while barley is cultivated about Repton and Gresley, and also in
the east of the county, in order to supply the Burton breweries.
A large part of the Trent valley is under permanent pasture,
being devoted to cattle-feeding and dairy-farming. This industry
has prospered greatly, and the area of permanent pasture
encroaches continually upon that of arable land. Derbyshire
cheeses are exported or sent to London in considerable quantities;
and cheese fairs are held in various parts of the county, as at
Ashbourne and Derby. A feature of the upland districts is the
total absence of hedges, and the substitution of limestone walls,
put together without any mortar or cement.

Other Industries. — The manufactures of Derbyshire are both
numerous and important, embracing silks, cotton hosiery, iron,
woollen manufactures, lace, elastic web and brewing. For many
of these this county has long been famous, especially for that of
silk, which is carried on to a large extent in Derby, as well as in
Belper and Duffield. Derby is also celebrated for its china, and
silk-throwing is the principal industry of the town. Elastic web
weaving by power looms is carried on to a great extent, and the
manufacture of lace and net curtains, gimp trimmings, braids
and cords. In the county town and neighbourhood are several
important chemical and colour works; and in various parts of
the county, as at Belper, Cromford, Matlock, Tutbury, are cotton-
spinning mills, as well as hosiery and tape manufactories. The
principal works of the Midland Railway Company are at Derby.
The principal mineral is coal. Ironstone is not extensively
wrought, but, on account of the abundant supply of coal, large
quantities are imported for smelting purposes. There are
smelting furnaces in several districts, as at Alfreton, Chesterfield,
Derby, Ilkeston. Besides lead, gypsum and zinc are raised, to
a small extent ; and for the quarrying of limestone Derbyshire is
one of the principal English counties. The east and the extreme
south-west parts are the principal industrial districts.

Communications. — The chief railway serving the county is the
Midland, the south, east and north being served by its main line
and branches. In the north-east and north the Great Central
system touches the county; in the west the North Staffordshire
and a branch of the London & North- Western ; while a branch of
the Great Northern serves Derby and other places in the south.
The Trent & Mersey canal crosses the southern part of the county,
and there is a branch canal (the Derby) connecting Derby with
this and with the Erewash canal, which runs north from the
Trent up the Erewash valley. From it there is a little-used
branch (the Cromford canal) to Matlock.

Population and Administration. — The area of the ancient
county is 658,885 acres, with a population in 1891 of 528,033,
and 1901 of 620,322. The area of the administrative county is
652,272 acres. The county contains six hundreds. The municipal
boroughs are Chesterfield (pop. 27,185), Derby, a county borough
and the county town (114,848), Glossop (21,526), Ilkeston
(25,384). The other urban districts are Alfreton (17,505),
Alvastonand Boulton(i279), Ashbourne (4039), Bakewell(285o),
Baslow and Bubnell (797), Belper (10,934), Bolsover (6844)
Bonsall (1360), Brampton and Walton (2698),Buxton-(io,i8i),
Clay Cross(83s8), Dronfield^Sog), Fairfield(2969), Heage(2889),
Heanor (16,249), Long Eaton (13,045), Matlock (5979), Matlock
Bath and Scarthin Nick (1819), Newbold and Dunston (5986),

DERBYSHIRE

New Mills (7773), North Barley (2756), Ripley (10,111),
South Barley (788), Swadlmcote (18,014), Whittington (9416),
Wirksworth (3807). Among other towns may be mentioned
Ashover (2426), Barlborough (2056), Chapel-en-le-Frith (4626),
Clowne (3896), Crich (3063), Killamarsh (3644), Staveiey (i 1,420),
Whitwell (3380). The county is in the Midland circuit, and
assizes are held at Berby. It has one court of quarter sessions
and is divided into fifteen petty sessional divisions . The boroughs
of Berby, Chesterfield and Glossop have separate commissions of
the peace, and that of Berby has also a separate court of quarter
sessions. The total number of civil parishes is 3 14. The county
is mainly in the diocese of Southwell, with small portions in the
dioceses of Peterborough and Lichfield, and contains 255 ecclesi-
astical parishes or districts. The parliamentary divisions of
the county are High Peak, North-Eastern, Chesterfield, Mid,
Ilkeston, Southern and Western, each returning one member,
while the parliamentary borough of Berby returns two members.

History, — The earliest English settlements in the district which
is now Berbyshire were those of the West Angles, who in the
course of their northern conquests in the 6th century pushed
their way up the valleys of the Berwent and the Bove, where they
became known as the Pecsaetan. Later the district formed the
northern division of Mercia, and in 848 the Mercian witenagemot
assembled at Repton. In the gth century the district suffered
frequently from the ravages of the Banes, who in 874 wintered at
Repton and destroyed its famous monastery, the burial-place of
the kings of Mercia. Berby under Guthrum was one of the five
Banish burghs, but in 917 was recovered by ^Ethelflaed. In 924
Edward the Elder fortified Bakewell, and in 942 Edmund
regained Berby, which had fallen under the Banish yoke.
Barrows of the Saxon period are numerous in Wirksworth
hundred and the Bakewell district, among the most remarkable
being White-low near Winster and Bower's-low near Tissington.
There are Saxon cemeteries at Stapenhill and Foremark Hall.

Berbyshire probably originated as a shire in the time of
/Ethelstan, but for long it maintained a very close connexion with
Nottinghamshire, and the Bomesday Survey gives a list of local
customs affecting the two counties alike. The two shire-courts
sat together for the Bomesday Inquest, and the counties were
united under one sheriff until the time of Elizabeth. The villages
of Appleby, Oakthorpe, Bonisthorpe, Stret.ton-en-le-Field,
Willesley, Chilcote and Measham were reckoned as part of
Berbyshire in 1086, although separated from it by the Leicester-
shire parishes of Over and Nether Seat.

The early divisions of the county were known as wapentakes,
five being mentioned in Bomesday, while 13th-century documents
mention seven wapentakes, corresponding with the six present
hundreds, except that Repton and Gresley were then reckoned as
separate divisions. In the i4th century the divisions were more
frequently described as hundreds, and Wirksworth alone retained
the designation wapentake until modern times. Ecclesiastically
the county constituted an archdeaconry in the diocese of
Lichfield, comprising the six deaneries of Berby, Ashbourne,
High Peak, Castillar, Chesterfield and Repington. In 1884 it
was transferred to the newly formed diocese of Southwell. The
assizes for Nottinghamshire and Berbyshire were held at
Nottingham until the reign of Henry III., when they were held
alternately at Nottingham and Berby until 1569, after which the
Berbyshire assizes were held at Berby. The court of the Honour
of Peverel, held at Basford in Nottinghamshire, which formerly
exercised jurisdiction in the hundreds of Scarsdale, the Peak and
Wirksworth- was abolished in 1849. The miners of Berbyshire
formed an independent community under the jurisdiction of
a steward and barmasters, who held two Barmote courts
(q.v.) every year. The forests of Peak and Buffield had their
separate courts and officers, the justice seat of the former being
in an extra-parochial part at equal distances from Castleton,
Tideswell and Bowden, while the pleas of Buffield Forest were
held at Tutbury. Both were disafforested in the I7th
century.

The greatest landholder in Berbyshire at the time of the
Bomesday Survey was Henry de Ferrers, who owned almost the

whole of the modern hundred of Appletree. The Ferrers estates
were forfeited by Robert, earl of Berby, in the reign of Henry III.
Another great Bomesday landholder was William Peverel, the
historic founder of Peak Castle, whose vast possessions were
known as the Honour of Peverel. In 1155 the younger Peverel
was disinherited for poisoning the earl of Chester, and his estates
forfeited to the crown. Few Englishmen retained estates of any
importance after the Conquest, but one, Elfin, an under-tenant
of Henry de Ferrers, not only held a considerable property but
was the ancestor of the Berbyshire family of Brailsford. The
families of Shirley and Gresley can also boast an unbroken descent
from Bomesday tenants.

Buring the rebellion of Prince Henry against Henry II. the
castles of Tutbury and Buffield were held against the king, and
in the civil wars of John's reign Bolsover and Peak Castles were
garrisoned by the rebellious barons. In the Barons' War of the
reign of Henry III. the earl of Berby was active in stirring up
feeling in the county against the king, and in 1266 assembled
a considerable force, which was defeated by the king's party at
Chesterfield. At the time of the Wars of the Roses discontent
was rife in Berbyshire, and riots broke out in 1443, but the county
did not lend active support to either party. On the outbreak of
the Civil War of the i7th century, the county at first inclined
to support the king, who received an enthusiastic reception
when he visited Berby in 1642, but by the close of 1643 Sir
John Cell of Hopton had secured almost the whole county for
the parliament. Berby, however, was always royalist in sym-
pathy, and did not finally surrender till 1646; in 1659 it rebelled
against Richard Cromwell, and in 1745 entertained the young
Pretender.

Berbyshire has always been mainly a mining and manufactur-
ing county, though the rich land in the south formerly produced
large quantities of corn. The lead mines were worked by the
Romans, and the Bomesday Survey mentions lead mines at
Wirksworth, Matlock, Bakewell, Ashford and Crich. Iron has
also been produced in Berbyshire from an early date, and coal
mines were worked at Norton and Alfreton in the beginning of the
1 4th century. The woollen industry flourished in the county
before the reign of John, when an exclusive privilege of dyeing
cloth was conceded to the burgesses of Berby. Thomas Fuller
writing in 1662 mentions lead, malt and ale as the chief products
of the county, and the Buxton waters were already famous in his
day. The i8th century saw the rise of numerous manufactures.
In 1718 Sir Thomas and John Lombe set up an improved silk-
throwing machine at Berby, and in 1758 Jedediah Strutt intro-
duced a machine for making ribbed stockings, which became
famous as the " Berby rib." In 1771 Sir Richard Arkwright set
up one of his first cotton mills in Cromford, and in 1787 there
were twenty-two cotton mills in the county. The Berby porcelain
or china manufactory was started about 1750.

From 1295 until the Reform Act of 1832 the county and town
of Berby each returned two members to parliament. From this
latter date the county returned four members in two divisions
until the act of 1868, under which it returned six members for
three divisions.

Antiquities. — Monastic remains are scanty, but there are
interesting portions of a priory incorporated with the school
buildings at Repton. The village church of Beauchief Abbey,
near Bronfield, is a remnant of an abbey founded c. 1175 by
Robert Fitzranulf . It has a stately transitional Norman tower,
and three fine Norman arches. Bale Abbey, near Berby, was
founded early in the I3th century for the Premonstratensian
order. The ruins are scanty, but the east window is preserved,
and the present church incorporates remains of the ancient rest-
house for pilgrims. The church has a peculiar music gallery,
entered from without. The abbey church contained famous
stained glass, and some of this is preserved in the neighbouring
church at Morley. Berbyshire is rich in ecclesiastical architecture
as a whole. The churches are generally of various styles. The
chancel of the church at Repton is assigned to the second half of
the loth century, though subsequently altered, and the crypt
beneath is supposed to be earlier still; its roof is supported by

DEREHAM— DERHAM

73

four round pillars, and it is approached by two stairways. Other
remains of pre-Conquest date are the chancel arches in the
churches of Marston Montgomery and of Sawley; and the
curiously carved font in Wilne church is attributed to the same
period. Examples of Norman work are frequent in doorways,
as in the churches of Allestree and Willington near Repton,
while a fine tympanum is preserved in the modern church of
Findern. There is a triple-recessed doorway, with arcade above,
in the west end of Bakewell church, and there is another fine
west doorway in Melbourne church, a building principally of the
late Norman period, with central and small western towers.
In restoring this church curious mural paintings were discovered.
At Steetley, near Worksop, is a small Norman chapel, with
apse, restored from a ruinous condition; Youlgrave church, a
building of much general interest, has Norman nave pillars and
a fine font of the same period, and Normanton church has a
peculiar Norman corbel table. The Early English style is on
the whole less well exemplified in the county, but Ashbourne
church, with its central tower and lofty spire, contains beautiful
details of this period, notably the lancet windows in the Cockayne
chapel.

The parish churches of Dronfield, Hathersage (with some
notable stained glass), Sandiacre and Tides well exemplify the
Decorated period; the last is a particularly stately and beautiful
building, with a lofty and ornate western tower and some good
early brasses. The churches of Dethic, Wirksworth and Chester-
field are typical of the Perpendicular period; that of Wirksworth
contains noteworthy memorial chapels, monuments and brasses,
and that of Chesterfield is celebrated for its crooked spire.

The remains of castles are few; the ancient Bolsover Castle is
replaced by a castellated mansion of the lyth century; of the
Norman Peak Castle near Castleton little is left; of Codnor
Castle in the Erewash valley there are picturesque ruins of the
I3th century. Among ancient mansions Derbyshire possesses
one of the most famous in England in Haddon Hall, of the
15th century. Wingfield manor house is a ruin dating from
the same century. Hardwick Hall is a very perfect example of
Elizabethan building; ruins of the old Tudor hall stand near by.
Other Elizabethan examples are Barlborough and Tissington
Halls.

The village of Tissington is noted for the maintenance of an
old custom, that of " well-dressing." On the Thursday before
Easter a special church service is celebrated, and the wells are
beautifully ornamented with flowers, prayers being offered at
each. The ceremony has been revived also in several other
Derbyshire villages.

See Davies, New Historical and Descriptive View of Derbyshire
(Helper, 181 1) ; D. Lysons, Magna Britannia, vol. v. (London, 1817) ;
Maunder, Derbyshire Miners' Glossary (Bakewell, 1824) ; R. Simpson,
Collection of Fragments illustrative of the History of Derbyshire (1826) ;
S. Glover, History and Gazetteer of the County of Derby, ed. T. Noble,
part i of vols. i. and ii. (Derby, 1831-1833) ; T. Bateman, Vestiges
of the Antiquities of Derbyshire (London, 1848); L. Jewitt, Ballads
and Songs of Derbyshire (London, 1867); J. C. Cox, Notes on the
Churches of Derbyshire (Chester, 1875), and Three Centuries of
Derbyshire Annals (2 vols., London, 1890); R. N. Worth, Derby, in
"Popular County Histories" (London, 1886); T. P. Yeatman,
Feudal History of the County of Derby (3 vols., London, 1886-1895) :
Victoria County History, Derbyshire. See also Notts and Derbyshire
Notes and Queries.

DEREHAM (properly EAST DEREHAM), a market town in the
Mid parliamentary division of Norfolk, England, 122 m. N.N.E.
from London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban
district (1901) 5545. The church of St Nicholas is a cruciform
Perpendicular structure with a beautiful central tower, and some
portions of earlier date. It contains a monument to William
Cowper, who came to live here in 1796, and the Congregational
chapel stands on the site of the house where the poet spent his
last days. Dereham is an important agricultural centre with
works for the manufacture of agricultural implements, iron
foundries and a malting industry.

DERELICT (from Lat. derelinquere, to forsake), in law,
property thrown away or abandoned by the owner in such a
manner as to indicate that he intends to make no further claim to

it. The word is used more particularly with respect to property
abandoned at sea (see WRECK), but it is also applied in other
senses; for example, land gained from the sea by receding of the
water is termed dereliction. Land gained gradually and slowly
by dereliction belongs to the owner of the adjoining land, but in
the case of sudden or considerable dereliction the land belongs to
the Crown. This technical use of the term " dereliction " is to
be distinguished from the more general modern sense, dere-
liction or abandonment of duty, which implies a culpable failure
or neglect in moral or legal obligation.

DERENBOUR6, JOSEPH (1811-1895), Franco-German
orientalist. He was a considerable force in the educational
revival of Jewish education in France. He made great contribu-
tions to the knowledge of Saadia, and planned a complete edition
of Saadia's works in Arabic and French. A large part of this
work appeared during his lifetime. He also wrote an Essai sur
I'histoire et la geographic de la Palestine (Paris, 1867). This was
an original contribution to the history of the Jews and Judaism
in the time of Christ, and has been much used by later writers on
the subject (e.g. by Schiirer). He also published in collaboration
with his son Hartwig, Opuscules et Iraites d'Abou-'l-Walid (with
translation, 1 880); Deux Versions hebraiques du livre de Kalilah
et Dimnah (1881), and a Latin translation of the same story
under the title Joannis de Capua directorium vitae humanae
(1889); Commentaire de Maimonide sur la Mischnah Seder
Tohorot (Berlin, 1886-1891); and a second edition of S. de
Sacy's Seances de Hariri. He died on the 29th of July 1895, at
Ems.

His son, HARTWIG DERENBOURG (1844-1908), was born in Paris
on the 1 7th of June 1844. He was educated at Gottingen and
Leipzig. Subsequently he studied Arabic at the Ecole des
Langues Orientales. In 1879 he was appointed professor of
Arabic, and in 1886 professor of Mahommedan Religion, at the
Ecole des Hautes Etudes in Paris. He collaborated with his
father in the great edition of Saadia and the edition of Abu-'l-
Walld, and also produced a number of important editions of
other Arabic writers. Among these are Le Lftwdn de Ndbiqa
Dhobyanl; Le Livre de Slbawaihi (2 vols., Paris, 1881-1889);
Chrestomathie elenientaire de I'arabe litteral (in collaboration with
Spiro, 1885; and ed., 1892); Ousdma ibn Mounkidh, un emir
syrien (1889); Ousdma ibn Mounkidh, preface du livre du baton
(with trans., 1887); Al-Fdkhrt (1895); Oumdra du Gemen
(1897), a catalogue of Arabic MSS. in the Escorial (vol. i.,
1884).

DERG, LOUGH, a lake of Ireland, on the boundary of the
counties Galway, Clare and Tipperary. It is an expansion of the
Shannon, being the lowest lake on that river, and is 23 m. long
and generally from i to 3 m. broad. It lies where the Shannon
leaves the central plain of Ireland and flows between the hills
which border the plain. While the northerly shores of the lake,
therefore, are flat, the southern are steep and picturesque, being
backed by theSlieveAughty,SlieveBernaghandArraMountains.
Ruined churches and fortresses are numerous on the eastern
shore, and on Iniscaltra Island are a round tower and remains of
five churches.

Another LOUGH DERG, near Pettigo in Donegal, though small,
is famous as the traditional scene of St Patrick's purgatory. In
the middle ages its pilgrimages had a European reputation, and
they are still observed annually by many of the Irish from June i
to August 15. The hospice, chapels, &c., are on Station Island,
and there is a ruined monastery on Saints' Island.

DERHAM, WILLIAM (1657-1735), English divine, was born at
Stoulton, near Worcester, on the 26th of November 1657. He was
educated at Blockley, in his native county, and at Trinity College,
Oxford. In 1682 he became vicar of Wargrave, in Berkshire;
and in 1689 he was preferred to the living of Upminster, in Essex.
In 1696 he published his Artificial Clockmaker, which went
through several editions. The best known of his subsequent
works are Physico-Theology, published in 1713; Astro- Theology,
1714; and Christo-Theology, 1730. The first two of these books
were Ideological arguments for the being and attributes of God,
and were used by Paley nearly a century later. In 1 702 Derham

74

D'ERLON— DEROULEDE

was elected fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1716 was made
a canon of Windsor. He was Boyle lecturer in 1711-1712. His
last work, entitled A Defence of the Church's Right in Leasehold
Estates, appeared in 1731. He died on the sth of April 1735.
Besides the works published in his own name, Derham, who
was keenly interested in natural history, contributed a variety
of papers to the Transactions of the Royal Society, revised the
Miscellanea Curiosa, edited the correspondence of John Ray and
Eleazar Albin's Natural History, and published some of the MSS.
of Robert Hooke, the natural philosopher.

D'ERLON, JEAN BAPTISTE DROUET, COUNT (1765-1844),
marshal of France, was born at Reims on the 2pth of July 1765.
He entered the army as a private soldier in 1782, was discharged
after five years' service, re-entered it in 1792, and rose rapidly to
the rank of an officer. From 1 794 to 1 796 he was aide-de-camp
to General Lefebvre. He did good service in the campaigns of
the revolutionary wars and in 1799 attained the rank of general
of brigade. In the campaign of that year he was engaged in
the Swiss operations under Massena. In 1800 he fought under
Moreau at Hohenlinden. As a general of division he took part in
Napoleon's campaigns of 1805 and 1806, and rendered excellent
service at Jena. He was next engaged under Lefebvre in the
siege of Danzig and negotiated the terms of surrender; after this
he rejoined the field army and fought at Friedland (1807),
receiving a severe wound. After this battle he was made grand
officer of the Legion of Honour, was created Count d'Erlon and
received a pension. For the next six years d'Erlon was almost
continuously engaged as commander of an army corps in the
Peninsular War, in which he added greatly to his reputation as a
capable general. At the pass of Maya in the Pyrenees he inflicted
a defeat upon Lord Hill's troops, and in the subsequent battles
of the 1814 campaign he distinguished himself further. After
the first Restoration he was named commander of the i6th
military division, but he was soon arrested for conspiring with
the Orleans party, to which he was secretly devoted. He escaped,
however, and gave in his adhesion to Napoleon, who had returned
from Elba. The emperor made him a peer of France, and gave
him command of the I. army corps, which formed part of the
Army of the North. In the Waterloo campaign d'Erlon's corps
formed part of Ney's command on the i6th of June, but, in
consequence of an extraordinary series of misunderstandings,
took part neither at Ligny nor at Quatre Bras (see WATERLOO
CAMPAIGN). He was not, however, held to account by Napoleon,
and as the latter's practice in such matters was severe to the
verge of injustice, it may be presumed that the failure was not
due to d'Erlon.

He was in command of the right wing of the French army
throughout the great battle of the i8th of June, and fought in
the closing operations around Paris. At the second Restoration
d'Erlon fled into Germany, only returning to France after the
amnesty of 1825. He was not restored to the service until the
accession of Louis Philippe, in whose interests he had engaged in
several plots and intrigues. As commander of the I2th military
division (Nantes), he suppressed the legitimist agitation in his
district and caused the arrest of the duchess of Berry (1832).
His last active service was in Algeria, of which country he was
made governor-general in 1834 at the age of seventy. He
returned to France after two years, and was made marshal of
France shortly before his death at Paris on the 25th of January

1844-

DERMOT MAC MURROUGH (d. 1171), Irish king of Leinster,
succeeded his father in the principality of the Hui Cinsellaigh
(1115) and eventually in the kingship of Leinster. The early
events of his life are obscure; but about 1152 we find him
engaged in a feud with O Ruairc, the lord of Breifne (Leitrim and
Cavan). Dermot abducted the wife of O Ruairc more with the
object of injuring his rival than from any love of the lady. The
injured husband called to his aid Roderic, the high king (aird-
righ) of Connaught; and in 1166 Dermot fled before this powerful
coalition to invoke the aid of England. Obtaining from Henry II.
a licence to enlist allies among the Welsh marchers, Dermot
secured the aid of the Clares and Geraldines. To Richard

Strongbow, earl of Pembroke and head of the house of Clare,
Dermot gave his daughter Eva in marriage; and on his death
was succeeded by the earl in Leinster. The historical importance
of Dermot lies in the fact that he was the means of introducing
the English into Ireland. Through his aid the towns of Water-
ford, Wexford and Dublin had already become English colonies
before the arrival of Henry II. in the island.

See The Song of Dermot and the Earl, an old French Poem (by M.
Regan?), ed. with trans, by G. H. Orpen, 1892; Kate Norgate,
England under the Angevin Kings, vol. ii. (H. W. C. D.)

DERNA (anc. Darnis- Zarine}, a town on the north coast of
Africa and capital of the eastern hah" of the Ottoman province
of Bengazi or Barca. Situated below the eastern butt of Jebel
Akhdar on a small but rich deltaic plain, watered by fine perennial
springs, it has a growing population and trade, the latter being
mainly in fruits grown in its extensive palm gardens, and in hides
and wool brought down by the nomads from the interior. If the
port Avere better there would be more rapid expansion. The bay
is open from N.W. round to S.E. and often inaccessible in winter
and spring, and the steamers of the Nav. Gen. Italiana sometimes
have to pass without calling. The population has recovered
from the great plague epidemic of 1821 and reached its former
figure of about 7000. A proportion of it is of Moorish stock, of
Andalusian origin, which emigrated in 1493; the descendants
preserve a fine facial type. The sheikhs of the local Bedouin
tribes have houses in the place, and a Turkish garrison of about
2 50 men is stationed in barracks. There is a lighthouse W. of the
bay. A British consular agent is resident and the Italians
maintain a vice-consul. The names Darnis and Zarine are
philologically identical and probably refer to the same place. No
traces are left of the ancient town except some rock tombs.
Darnis continued to be of some importance in early Moslem times
as a station on the Alexandria-Kairawan road, and has served
on more than one occasion as a base for Egyptian attacks on
Cyrenaica and Tripolitana. In 1805 the government of the
United States, having a quarrel with the dey of Tripoli on account
of piracies committed on American shipping, landed a force to
co-operate in the attack on Derna then being made by Sidi
Ahmet, an elder brother of the dey. This force, commanded by
William Eaton (<?.».), built a fort, whose ruins and rusty guns are
still to be seen, and began to improve the harbour; but its work
quickly came to an end with the conclusion of peace. After 1835
Derna passed under direct Ottoman control, and subsequently
served as the point whence the sultan exerted a precarious but
increasing control over eastern Cyrenaica and Marmarica. It is
now in communication by wireless telegraphy with Rhodes and
western Cyrenaica. It is the only town, or even large village,
between Bengazi and Alexandria (600 m.) (D. G. H.)

DEROULEDE, PAUL (1846- ), French author and poli-
tician, was born in Paris on the 2nd of September 1846. He
made his first appearance as a poet in the pages of the Revue
nationals, under the pseudonym of Jean Rebel, and in 1869 pro-
duced at the Theatre Francais a one-act drama in verse entitled
Juan Strenner. On the outbreak of the Franco-German War he
enlisted as a private, was wounded and taken prisoner at Sedan,
and sent to Breslau, but effected his escape. He then served
under Chanzy and Bourbaki, took part in the latter's disastrous
retreat to Switzerland, and fought against the Commune in Paris.
After attaining the rank of lieutenant, he was forced by an
accident to retire from the army. He published in 187 2 a number
of patriotic poems (Chants du soldat), which enjoyed unbounded
popularity. This was followed in 1875 by another collection,
Nowveaux Chants du soldat. In 1877 he produced a drama in
verse called L'Hetman, which derived a passing success from the
patriotic fervour of its sentiments. For the exhibition of 1 878 he
wrote a hymn, Vive la France, which was set to music by Gounod.
In 1880 his drama in verse, La Moiibite, which had been accepted
by the Theatre Franjais, was forbidden by the censor on religious
grounds. In 1882 M. Deroulede founded the Ligue des patriotes,
with the object of furthering France's " revanche " against
Germany. He was one of the first advocates of a Franco-Russian
alliance, and as early as 1883 undertook a journey to Russia for

DERRICK— DERVISH

75

the furtherance of that object. On the rise of General Boulanger,
M. Deroulede attempted to use the Ligue des palriotes, hitherto a
non-political organization, to assist his cause, but was deserted by
a great part of the league and forced to resign his presidency.
Nevertheless he used the section that remained faithful to him
with such effect that the government found it necessary in 1889
to decree its suppression. In the same year he was elected to the
chamber as member for Angouleme. He was expelled from the
chamber in 1890 for his disorderly interruptions during debate.
He did not stand at the elections of 1803, but was re-elected in
1898, and distinguished himself by his violence as a nationalist
and anti-Dreyfusard. After the funeral of President Faure, on
the 23rd of February 1899, he endeavoured to persuade General
Roget to lead his troops upon the Elysee. For this he was
arrested, but on being tried for treason was acquitted (May 31).
On the 1 2th of August he was again arrested and accused, together
with Andre Buffet, Jules Guerin and others, of conspiracy against
the republic. After a long trial before the high court, he was
sentenced, on the 4th of January 1900, to ten years' banishment
from France, and retired to San Sebastian. In 1901, he was
again brought prominently before the public by a quarrel with
his Royalist allies, which resulted in an abortive attempt to
arrange a duel with M. Buffet in Switzerland. In November
1905, however, the law of amnesty enabled him to return to
France.

Besides the works already mentioned, he published Le Sergent,
in the Thedtre de campagne (1880); De I' education nationale
(1882); Monsieur le Uhlan et les Irois couleurs (1884); Le
Premier grenadier de France; La Tour d'Auvergne (1886); Le
Lime de la ligue des palriotes (1887); Refrains militaires (1888);
Histoire d'amour (1890); a pamphlet entitled Desarmement?
(1891); Chants du paysan (1894); Poesies Militaires (1896) and
Messire du Guesclin, drame en vers (1895); La mart de Hoche.
Cinq actes en prose (1897); La Plus belle fitte du monde, conte
dialogue en vers libres (1898).

DERRICK, a sort of crane (<?.».); the name is derived from
that of a famous early 17th-century Tyburn hangman, and was
originally applied as a synonym.

DERRING-DO, valour, chivalrous conduct, or " desperate
courage," as it is denned by Sir Walter Scott. The word in its
present accepted substantival form is a misconstruction of the
verbal substantive dorryng or durring, daring, and do or don,
the present infinitive of " do," the phrase dorryng do thus
meaning " daring to do." It is used by Chaucer in Troylus,
and by Lydgate in the Chronicles of Troy. Spenser in the
Shepherd's Calendar first adapted derring-do as a substantive
meaning " manhood and chevalrie," and this use was revived
by Scott, through whom it came into vogue with writers of
romance.

DE RUYTER, MICHAEL ADRIANZOON (1607-1676), Dutch
naval officer, was born at Flushing on the 24th of March 1607.
He began his seafaring life at the age of eleven as a cabin boy,
and in 1636 was entrusted by the merchants of Flushing with
the command of a cruiser against the French pirates. In 1640 he
entered the service of the States, and, being appointed rear-
admiral of a fleet fitted out to assist Portugal against Spain,
specially distinguished himself at Cape St Vincent, on the 3rd of
November 1641. In the following year he left the service of the
States, and, until the outbreak of war with England in 1652, held
command of a merchant vessel. In 1653 a squadron of seventy
vessels was despatched against the English, under the command
of Admiral Tromp. Ruyter, who accompanied the admiral in
this expedition, seconded him with great skill and bravery in the
three battles which were fought with the English. He was after-
wards stationed in the Mediterranean, where he captured several
Turkish vessels. In 1659 he received a commission to join the
king of Denmark in his war with the Swedes. As a reward of
his services, the king of Denmark ennobled him and gave him
a pension. In 1661 he grounded a vessel belonging to Tunis,
released forty Christian slaves, made a treaty with the Tunisians,
and reduced the Algerine corsairs to submission. From his
achievements on the west coast of Africa he was recalled in 1665

to take command of a large fleet which had been organized
against England, and in May of the following year, after a long
contest off the North Foreland, he compelled the English to take
refuge in the Thames. On the 7th of June 1672 he fought a
drawn battle with the combined fleets of England and France, in
Southwold or Sole Bay, and after the fight he convoyed safely
home a fleet of merchantmen. His valour was displayed to equal
advantage in several engagements with the French and English
in the following year. In 1676 he was despatched to the assistance
of Spain against France in the Mediterranean, and, receiving
a mortal wound in the battle on the 2ist of April off Messina,
died on the 2gth at Syracuse. A patent by the king of Spain,
investing him with the dignity of duke, did not reach the fleet till
after his death. His body was carried to Amsterdam, where a
magnificent monument to his memory was erected by command
of the states-general.

See Life of De Ruyter by Brandt (Amsterdam, 1687), and by
Klopp (2nd ed., Hanover, 1858).

DERVISH, a Persian word, meaning "seeking doors," i.e.
" beggar," and thus equivalent to the Arabic faqir (fakir).
Generally in Islam it indicates a member of a religious fraternity,
whether mendicant or not; but in Turkey and Persia it indicates
more exactly a wandering, begging religious, called, in Arabic-
speaking countries, more specifically a faqir. With important
differences, the dervish fraternities may be compared to the
regular religious orders of Roman Christendom, while the Ulema
(q.v.) are, also with important differences, like the secular clergy.
The origin and history of the mystical life in Islam, which led to
the growth of the order of dervishes, are treated under SUFI'ISM.
It remains to treat here more particularly of (i) the dervish
fraternities, and (2) the Sufi hierarchy.

i. The Dervish Fraternities. — In the earlier times, the relation
between devotees was that of master and pupil. Those inclined
to the spiritual life gathered round a revered sheikh (murshid,
"guide," usladh, pir, "teacher"), lived with him, shared his
religious practices and were instructed by him. In time of
war against the unbelievers, they might accompany him to the
threatened frontier, and fight under his eye. Thus murabit,
" one who pickets his horse on a hostile frontier," has become
the marabout (q.v.) or dervish of French Algeria; and ribat, " a
frontier fort," has come to mean a monastery. The relation,
also, might be for a time only. The pupil might at any time
return to the world, when his religious education and training
were complete. On the death of the master the memory of his
life and sayings might go down from generation to generation,
and men might boast themselves as pupils of his pupils. Con-
tinuous corporations to perpetuate his name were slow in forming.
Ghazali himself, though he founded, taught and ruled a Sufi
cloister (khanqah) at Tus. left no order behind him. But 'Adi
al-Hakkari, who founded a cloister at Mosul and died about 1 163,
was long reverenced by the 'Adawite Fraternity, and in 1166
died 'Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani, from whom the Qadirite order
descends, one of the greatest and most influential to this day.
The troublous times of the break up of the Seljuk rule may have
been a cause in this, as, with St Benedict, the crumbling Roman
empire. Many existing fraternities, it is true, trace their origin
to saints of the third, second and even first Moslem centuries, but
that is legend purely. Similar is the tendency to claim all the
early pious Moslems as good Sufis; collections of Sufi biography
begin with the ten to whom Mahomet promised Paradise. So,
too, the ultimate origin of fraternities is assigned to either Ali
or Abu Bekr. and in Egypt all are under the rule of a direct
descendant of the latter.

To give a complete list of these fraternities is quite impossible.
Commonly, thirty-two are reckoned, but many have vanished
or have been suppressed, and there are sub-orders innumerable.
Each has a " rule " dating back to its founder, and a ritual which
the members perform when they meet together in their convent
(khanqah, zawiya, takya). This may consist simply in the repeti-
tion of sacred phrases, or it may be an elaborate performance,
such as the whirlings of the dancing dervishes, the Mevlevites,
an order founded by Jelal ud-Dln ar-Rumi, the author of the

76

DERWENT

great Persian mystical poem, the Mesnevi, and always ruled by
one of his descendants. Jelal ud-DIn was an advanced pantheist,
and so are the Mevlevites, but that seems only to earn them the
dislike of the Ulema, and not to affect their standing in Islam.
They are the most broad-minded and tolerant of all. There are
also the performances of the Rifa'ites or " howling dervishes."
In ecstasy they cut themselves with knives, eat live coals and
glass, handle red-hot iron and devour serpents. They profess
miraculous healing powers, and the head of the Sa'dites, a sub-
order, used, in Cairo, to ride over the bodies of his dervishes
without hurting them, the so-called Doseh (dausa). These
different abilities are strictly regulated. Thus, one sub-order
may eat glass and another may eat only serpents. Another
division is made by their attitude to the law of Islam. When a
dervish is in a state of ecstasy (majdhub), he is supposed to be
unconscious of the actions of his body. Reputed saints, therefore,
can do practically anything, as their souls will be supposed to be
out of their bodies and in the heavenly regions. They may not
only commit the vilest of actions, but neglect in general the
ceremonial and ritual law. This goes so far that in Persia and
Turkey dervish orders are classified as ba-shar', " with law," and
bi-shar', " without law." The latter are really antinomians, and
the best example of them is the Bakhtashite order, widely spread
and influential in Turkey and Albania and connected by legend
with the origin of the Janissaries. The Qalandarite order is known
to all from the " Calenders " of the Thousand and One Nights.
They separated from the Bakhtashites and are under obligation
of perpetual travelling. The Senussi (Senussia) were the last
order to appear, and are distinguished from the others by a
severely puritanic and reforming attitude and strict orthodoxy,
without any admixture of mystical slackness in faith or conduct.
Each order is distinguished by a peculiar garb. Candidates for
admission have to pass through a noviciate, more or less lengthy.
First comes the 'ahd, or initial covenant, in which the neophyte
or murtd, " seeker," repents of his past sins and takes the sheikh
of the order he enters as his guide (murshid) for the future.
He then enters upon a course of instruction and discipline, called
a " path " (tarlqa), on which he advances through diverse
" stations " (maqamdt) or " passes " ('aqabaf) of the spiritual life.
There is a striking resemblance here to the gnostic system, with
its seven Archon-guarded gates. On another side, it is plain that
the sheikh, along with ordinary instruction of the novice, also
hypnotizes him and causes him to see a series of visions, marking
his penetration of the divine mystery. The part that hypnosis
and autohypnosis, conscious and unconscious, has played here
cannot easily be overestimated. The Mevlevites seem to have
the most severe noviciate. Their aspirant has to labour as a lay
servitor of the lowest rank for 1001 days — called the kdrra kolak,
or " jackal " — before he can be received. For one day's failure
he must begin again from the beginning.

But besides these full members there is an enormous number
of lay adherents, like the tertiaries of the Franciscans. Thus,
nearly every religious man of the Turkish Moslem world is a lay
member of one order or another, under the duty of saying certain
prayers daily. Certain trades, too, affect certain orders. Most
of the Egyptian Qadirites, for example, are fishermen and, on
festival days, carry as banners nets of various colours. On this side,
the orders bear a striking resemblance to lodges of Freemasons
and other friendly societies, and points of direct contact have
even been alleged between the more pantheistic and antinomian
orders, such as the Bakhtashite, and European Freemasonry.
On another side, just as the dhikrs of the early ascetic mystics
suggest comparison with the class-meetings of the early
Methodists, so these orders are the nearest approach in Islam
to the different churches of Protestant Christendom. They are
the only ecclesiastical organization that Islam has ever known,
but it is a multiform organization, unclassified internally or
externally. They differ thus from the Roman monastic orders,
in that they are independent and self-developing, each going its
own way in faith and practice, limited only by the universal
conscience (ijma\ "agreement": see MAHOMMEDAN LAW) of
Islam. Strange doctrines and moral defects may develop, but

freedom is saved, and the whole people of Islam can be reached
and affected.

2. Saints and the §ufl Hierarchy. — That an elaborate doctrine
of wonder-working saints should have grown up in Islam may, at
first sight, appear an extreme paradox. It can, however, be
conditioned and explained. First, Mahomet left undoubted
loop-holes for a minor inspiration, legitimate and illegitimate.
Secondly, the Sufis, under various foreign influences, developed
these to the fullest. Thirdly, just as the Christian church has
absorbed much of the mythology of the supposed exterminated
heathen religions into its cult of local saints, so Islam, to an
even higher degree, has been overlaid and almost buried by
the superstitions of the peoples to which it has gone. Their
religious and legal customs have completely overcome the direct
commands of the Koran, the traditions from Mahomet and
even the " Agreement " of the rest of the Moslem world (see
MAHOMMEDAN LAW). The first step in this, it is true, was taken
by Mahomet himself wl*en he accepted the Meccan pilgrimage and
the Black Stone. The worship of saints, therefore, has appeared
everywhere in Islam, with an absolute belief in their miracles
and in the value of their intercession, living or dead.

Further, there appeared very early in Islam a belief that there
was always in existence some individual in direct intercourse
with God and having the right and duty of teaching and ruling
all mankind. This individual might be visible or invisible;
his right to rule continued. This is the basis of the Isma'ilite
and Shi'ite positions (see MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION and
MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS). The Sufis applied this idea of
divine right to the doctrine of saints, and developed it into the
Sufi hierarchy. This is a single, great, invisible organization,
forming a saintly board of administration, by which the invisible
government of the world is supposed to be carried on. Its head
is called the Qutb (Axis); he is presumably the greatest saint
of the time, is chosen by God for the office and given greater
miraculous powers and rights of intercession than any other saint
enjoys. He wanders through the world, often invisible and
always unknown, performing the duties of his office. Under
him there is an elaborate organization of walls, of different ranks
and powers, according to their sanctity and faith. The term -wall
is applied to a saint because of Kor. x. 63, " Ho! the walls of
God; there is no fear upon them, nor do they grieve," where
wall means " one who is near ," friend or favourite.

In the fraternities, then, all are dervishes, cloistered or lay;
those whose faith is so great that God has given them miraculous
powers — and there are many — are walls; begging friars are
fakirs. All forms of life — solitary, monastic, secular, celibate,
married, wandering, stationary, ascetic, free — are open. Their
theology is some form of Sufi'ism.

AUTHORITIES. — The bibliography of this subject is very large, and
the following only a selection: — (i) On Dervishes. In Egypt, Lane's
Modern Egyptians, chaps, x. xx., xxiv., xxv. ; in Turkey, D'Ohsson,
Tableau general de I'emp. othoman, ii. (Paris, 1790); Turkey in
Europe by " Odysseus " (London, 1900); in Persia, E. G. Browne,
A Year among the Persians (1893) ; in Morocco, T. H. Weir, Sheikhs
of Morocco (Edinburgh, 1904) ; B. Meakin, The Moors (London, 1902),
chap. xix. ; in Central Asia, all Vambery's books of travel and
history. In general, Hughes, Diet, of Islam, s.v. " Faqir "; Depont
and Cappolani, Les Confreries religieuses musulmanes (Alger, 1897) ;
J. P. Brown, The Dervishes, or Oriental Spiritualism (London, 1868).
(2) On Saints. I. Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien, ii. 277 ff.,
and " De 1'ascedsme aux premiers temps de 1'Islam " in Revue de
I'histoire des religions, I vol. xxxvii. pp. 134. ff. ; Lane, Modern
Egyptians, chap. x. ; Arabian Nights, chap. lit. note 63; Vollers in
Zeitsch. d. morgenldnd. Gesellsch. xliii. 115 ff. (D. B. MA.)

DERWENT (Celtic Dwr-gent, clear water), the name of several
English rivers, (i) The Yorkshire Derwent collects the greater
part of the drainage of the North Yorkshire moors, rising in their
eastern part. A southern head-stream, however, rises in the
Yorkshire Wolds near Filey, little more than a mile from the
North Sea, from which it is separated by a morainic deposit, and
thus flows in an inlan d direction. The early course of the Derwent
lies through a flat open valley between the North Yorkshire moors
and the Yorkshire Wolds, the upper part of which is known as
the Carrs, when the river follows an artificial drainage cut. It
receives numerous tributaries from the moors, then breaches the

DERWENTWATER

77

low hills below Malton in a narrow picturesque valley, and
debouches upon the central plain of Yorkshire. Its direction,
hitherto westerly and south-westerly from the Carrs, now becomes
southerly, and it flows roughly parallel to the Ouse, which it
joins near Barmby-on-the-Marsh, in the level district between.
Selby and the head of the Humber estuary, after a course,
excluding minor sinuosities, of about 70 m. As a tributary of
the Ouse it is included in the Humber basin. It is tidal up to
Sutton-upon-Derwent, ism. from the junction with the Ouse,
and is locked up to Malton, but the navigation is little used. A
canal leads east from the tidal water to the small market town of
Pocklington.

(2; The Derbyshire Derwent rises in Bleaklow Hill north of
the Peak and traverses a narrow dale, which, with those of such
tributary streams as the Noe, watering Hope Valley, and the Wye,
is famous for its beauty (see DERBYSHIRE). The Derwent flows
south past Chatsworth, Matlock and Belper and then, passing
Derby, debouches upon a low plain, and turns south-eastward,
with an extremely sinuous course, to join the Trent near Sawley.
Its length is about 60 m. It falls in all some 1700 ft. (from
Matlock 200 ft.), and no part is navigable, save certain reaches at
Matlock and elsewhere for pleasure boats.

(3) The Cumberland Derwent rises below Great End in the
Lake District, draining Spinkling and Sty Head tarns, and flows
through Borrowdale, receiving a considerable tributary from
Lang Strath. It then drains the lakes of Derwentwater and
Bassenthwaite, after which its course, hitherto N. and N.N.W.,
turns W. and W. by S. past Cockermouth to the Irish Sea
at Workington. The length is about 34 m., and the fall about
2000 ft. (from Derwentwater 244 ft.); the waters are usually
beautifully clear, and the river is not navigable. At a former
period this stream must have formed one large lake covering the
whole area which includes Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite;
between which a flat alluvial plain is formed of the deposits of
the river Greta, which now joins the Derwent from the east
immediately below Derwentwater, and the Newlands Beck,
which enters Bassenthwaite. In time of high flood this plain is
said to have been submerged, and the two lakes thus reunited.

(4) A river Derwent rises in the Pennines near the borders of
Northumberland and Durham, and, forming a large part of the
boundary between these counties, takes a north-easterly course
of 30 m. to the Tyne, which it joins 3 m. above Newcastle.

DERWENTWATER, EARL OF, an English title borne by the
family of Radclyffe, or Radcliffe, from 1688 to 1716 when the
3rd earl was attainted and beheaded, and claimed by his
descendants, adherents of the exiled house of Stewart, from .that
date until the death of the last male heir in 1814. Sir Francis
Radclyffe, 3rd baronet (1625-1697), was the lineal descendant of
Sir Nicholas Radclyffe, who acquired the extensive Derwent-
water estates in 1417 through his marriage with the heiress of
John de Derwentwater, and of Sir Francis Radclyffe, who was
made a baronet in 1619. In 1688 Sir Francis was created
Viscount Radclyffe and earl of Derwentwater by James II.,
and dying in 1697 was succeeded as 2nd earl by his eldest
son Edward (1655-1705), who had married Lady Mary Tudor
(d. 1726), a natural daughter of Charles II. The 2nd earl died
in 1705, and was succeeded by his eldest son James (1689-1716),
who was born in London on the 28th of June 1689, and was
brought up at the court of the Stewarts in France as companion
to Prince James Edward, the old Pretender. In 1710 he came
to reside on his English estates, and in July 1712 was married to
Anna Maria (d. 1723), daughter of Sir John Webb, baronet, of
Odstock, Wiltshire. Joining without any hesitation in the
Stewart rising of 1715, Derwentwater escaped arrest owing to the
devotion of his tenantry, and in October, with about seventy
followers, he joined Thomas Forster at Green-rig. Like Forster
the earl was lacking in military experience, and when the rebels
capitulated at Preston he was conveyed to London and im-
peached. Pleading guilty at his trial he was attainted and
condemned to death. Great efforts were made to obtain a
mitigation of the sentence, but the government was obdurate,
and Derwentwater was beheaded on Tower Hill on the 24th

of February 1716, declaring on the scaffold his devotion to the
Roman Catholic religion and to King James III. The earl was
very popular among his tenantry and in the neighbourhood of
his residence, Dilston Hall. His gallant bearing and his sad
fate have been celebrated in song and story, and the aurora
borealis, which shone with exceptional brightness on the night of
his execution, is known locally as " Lord Derwentwater's lights."
He left an only son John, who, in spite of his father's attainder,
assumed the title of earl of Derwentwater, and who died un-
married in 1731; and a daughter Alice Mary (d. 1760), who
married in 1732 Robert James, 8th Baron Petre (1713-1742).

On the death of John Radclyfle in 1731 his uncle Charles
(1693-1746), the only surviving son of the 2nd earl, took the
title of earl of Derwentwater. Charles Radclyffe had shared the
fate of his brother, the 3rd earl, at Preston in November 1715,
and had been condemned to death for high treason; but, more
fortunate than James, he had succeeded in escaping from prison,
and had joined the Stewarts on the Continent. In 1724 he
married Charlotte Maria (d. 1755), in her own right countess of
Newburgh, and after spending some time in Rome, he was
captured by an English ship in November 1745 whilst proceeding
to join Charles Edward, the young Pretender, in Scotland.
Condemned to death under his former sentence he was beheaded
on the 8th of December 1 746. His eldest son, James Bartholomew
(1725-1786), who had shared his father's imprisonment, then
claimed the title of earl of Derwentwater, and on his mother's
death in 1755 became 3rd earl of Newburgh. His only son
and successor, Anthony James (1757-1814), died without issue
in 1814, when the title became extinct de fafto as well as de
jure. Many of the forfeited estates in Northumberland and
Cumberland had been settled upon Greenwich Hospital, and in
1 749 a sum of £30,000 had been raised upon them for the benefit
of the earl of Newburgh. The present representative of the
Radclyffe family is Lord Petre, and in 1874 the bodies of the
first three earls of Derwentwater were reburied in the family vault
of the Petres at Thorndon, Essex.

In 1865 a woman appeared in Northumberland who claimed
to be a grand-daughter of the 4th earl and, as there were
no male heirs, to be countess of Derwentwater and owner of the
estates. She said the 4th earl had not died in 1731 but had
married and settled in Germany. Her story aroused some
interest, and it was necessary to eject her by force from Dilston
Hall.

See R. Patten, History of the Late Rebellion (London, 1717) ; W. S.
Gibson, Dilston Hall, or Memoirs of James Radcliffe, earl of Derwent-
water (London, 1848-1850) ; G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage
(Exeter, 1887-1 898) ; and Dictionary of National Biography, vol. xlvii.
(London, 1896).

DERWENTWATER, a lake of Cumberland, England, in the
northern part of the celebrated Lake District (q.v. for the physical
relations of the lake with the district at large). It is of irregular
figure, approaching to an oval, about 3 m. in length and from
J m. to i J m. in breadth. The greatest depth is 70 ft. The lake
is seen at one view, within an amphitheatre of mountains of
varied outline, overlooked by others of greater height. Several
of the lesser elevations near the lake are especially famous as
view-points, such as Castle Head, Walla Crag, Ladder Brow and
Cat Bells. The shores are well wooded, and the lake is studded
with several islands, of which Lord's Island, Derwent Isle and
St Herbert's are the principal. Lord's Island was the residence
of the earls of Derwentwater. St Herbert's Isle receives its name
from having been the abode of a holy man of that name mentioned
by Bede as contemporary with St Cuthbert of Fame Island in the
7th century. Derwent Isle, about six acres in extent, contains
a handsome residence surrounded by lawns, gardens and timber
of large growth. The famous Falls of Lodore, at the upper end
of the lake, consist of a series of cascades in the small Watendlath
Beck, which rushes over an enormous pile of protruding crags
from a height of nearly 200 ft. The " Floating Island " appears
at intervals on the upper portion of the lake near the mouth
of the beck. This singular phenomenon is supposed to owe its
appearance to an accumulation of gas, formed by the decay of

DES ADRETS— DESAULT

vegetable matter, detaching and raising to the surface the matted
weeds which cover the floor of the lake at this point. The river
Derwent (q.v.) enters the lake from the south and leaves it on the
north, draining it through Bassenthwaite lake, to the Irish Sea.
To the north-east of the lake lies the town of Keswick.

DES ADRETS, FRANCOIS DE BEAUMONT, BARON (c. 1512-
1587), French Protestant leader, was born in 1512 or 1513 at
the chateau of La Frette (Isere) . During the reign of Henry II. of
France he served with distinction in the royal army and became
colonel of the " legions " of Dauphine, Provence and Languedoc.
In 1562, however, he joined the Huguenots, not from religious
conviction but probably from motives of ambition and personal
dislike of the house of Guise. His campaign against the Catholics
in 1562 was eminently successful. In June of that year Des
Adrets was master of the greater part of DauphinS. But his
brilliant military qualities were marred by his revolting atrocities.
The reprisals he exacted from the Catholics after their massacres
of the Huguenots at Orange have left a dark stain upon his name.
The garrisons that resisted him were butchered with every cir-
cumstance of brutality, and at Montbrison, in Fores, he forced
eighteen prisoners to precipitate themselves from the top of the
keep. Having alienated the affections of the Huguenots by
his pride and violence, he entered into communication with the
Catholics, and declared himself openly in favour of conciliation.
On the loth of January 1563 he was arrested on suspicion by
some Huguenot officers and confined in the citadel of Nimes.
He was liberated at the edict of Amboise in the following March,
and, distrusted alike by Huguenots and Catholics, retired to the
chateau of La Frette, where he died, a Catholic, on the 2nd of
February 1587.

AUTHORITIES. — I. Roman, Documents inedits sur le baron des
Adrets (1878); and memoirs and histories of the time. See also
Guy Allard, Vie de Francois de Beaumont (1675) ; 1'abbe J. C. Martin,
Histoire politique et militaire de Francois de Beaumont (1803) ; Eugene
and Emile Haag, La France protestante (and ed., 1877 seq.).

DESAIX DE VEYGOUX, LOUIS CHARLES ANTOINE

(1768-1800), French general, was born of a noble though im-
poverished family. He received a military education at the
school founded by Marshal d'Effiat, and entered the French
royal army. During the first six years of his service the young
officer devoted himself assiduously to duty and the study of his
profession, and at the outbreak of the Revolution threw himself
whole-heartedly into the cause of liberty. In spite of the pressure
put upon him by his relatives, he refused to " emigrate," and
in 1792 is found serving on Broglie's staff. The disgrace of this
general nearly cost young Desaix his life, but he escaped the
guillotine, and by his conspicuous services soon drew upon
himself the favour of the Republican government. Like many
other members of the old ruling classes who had accepted the new
order of things, the instinct of command, joined to native ability,
brought Desaix rapidly to high posts. By 1794 he had attained
the rank of general of division. In the campaign of 1795 he
commanded Jourdan's right wing, and in Moreau's invasion of
Bavaria in the following year he held an equally important
command. In the retreat which ensued when the archduke
Charles won the battles of Amberg and Wtirzburg (see FRENCH
REVOLUTIONARY WARS) Desaix commanded Moreau's rearguard,
and later the fortress of Kehl, with the highest distinction, and
his name became a household word, like those of Bonaparte,
Jourdan, Hoche, Marceau and Kleber. Next year his initial
successes were interrupted by the Preliminaries of Leoben,
and he procured for himself a mission into Italy in order to
meet General Bonaparte, who spared no pains to captivate the
brilliant young general from the almost rival camps of Germany.
Provisionally appointed commander of the " Army of England,"
Desaix was soon transferred by Bonaparte to the expeditionary
force intended for Egypt. It was his division which bore the
brunt of the Mameluke attack at the battle of the Pyramids, and
he crowned his reputation by his victories over Murad Bey in
Upper Egypt. Amongst the fellaheen he acquired the significant
appellation of the " Just Sultan." When his chief handed over
the command to Kleber and prepared to return to France,

Desaix was one of the small party selected to accompany the
future emperor. But, from various causes, it was many months
before he could join the new Consul. The campaign of 1800 was
well on its way to the climax when Desaix at last reported
himself for duty in Italy. He was immediately assigned to the
command of a corps of two infantry divisions. Three days later
(June 14), detached, with Boudet's division, at Rivalta, he heard
the cannon of Marengo on his right. Taking the initiative he
marched at once towards the sound, meeting Bonaparte's staff
officer, who had come to recall him, half way on the route. He
arrived with Boudet's division at the moment when the Austrians
were victorious all along the line. Exclaiming, " There is yet
time to win another battlel" he led his three regiments straight
against the enemy's centre. At the moment of victory Desaix
was killed by a musket ball. Napoleon paid a just tribute to the
memory of one of the most brilliant soldiers of that brilliant time
by erecting the monuments of Desaix on the Place Dauphine and
the Place des Victoires in Paris.

See F. Martha-Beker, Comte de Mons, Le General L. C. A. Desaix
(Paris, 1852).

DESAUGIERS, MARC ANTOINE MADELEINE (1772-1827),
French dramatist and song-writer, son of Marc Antoine
Desaugiers, a musical composer, was born at Frejus (Var) on
the i7th of November 1772. He studied at the Mazarin college
in Paris, where he had for one of his teachers the critic Julien
Louis Geoffrey. He entered the seminary Saint Lazare with a
view to the priesthood, but soon gave up his intention. In his
nineteenth year he produced in collaboration with his father a
light opera (1791) adapted from the Medecin malgrelui of Moliere.

During the Revolution he emigrated to St Domingo, and during
the negro revolt he was made prisoner, barely escaping with his
life. He took refuge in the United States, where he supported
himself by teaching the piano. In 1797 he returned to his native
country, and in a very few years he became famous as a writer of
comedies, operas and vaudevilles, which were produced in rapid
succession at the Theatre des Varietes and the Vaudeville. He
also wrote convivial and satirical songs, which, though different
in character, can only worthily be compared with those of
Beranger. He was at one time president of the Caveau, a con-
vivial society whose members were then chiefly drawn from
literary circles. He had the honour of introducing Beranger as a
member. In 1815 Desaugiers succeeded Pierre Yves Barre as
manager of the Vaudeville, which prospered under his manage-
ment until, in 1820, the opposition of the Gymnase proved too
strong for him, and he resigned. He died in Paris on the 9th of
August 1827.

Among his pieces may be mentioned Le Valet d'emprunt ( i 807 ) ^
Monsieur Vaulour (181 1) ; and Le Rigne d'un terme et le terme d'un
regne, aimed at Napoleon.

An edition of Desaugiers' Chansons et Poesies diverses appeared in
1827. A new selection with a notice by Alfred de Bougy appeared
in 1858. See also Sainte-Beuve's Portraits contemporains, vol.v.

DESAULT, PIERRE JOSEPH (1744-1795), French anatomist
and surgeon, was born at Magny-Vernois (Haute Saone) on the
6th of February 1744. He was destined for the church, but his
own inclination was towards the study of medicine; and, after
learning something from the barber-surgeon of his native village,
he was settled as an apprentice in the military hospital of Belfort,
where he acquired some knowledge of anatomy and military
surgery. Going to Paris when about twenty years of age, he
opened a school of anatomy in the winter of 1766, the success
of which excited the jealousy of the established teachers and
professors, who endeavoured to make him give up his lectures.
In 1776 he was admitted a member of the corporation of
surgeons; and in 1782 he was appointed surgeon-major to the
hospital De la Chariti. Within a few years he was recognized
as one of the leading surgeons of France. The clinical school of
surgery which he instituted at the H6tel Dieu attracted great
numbers of students, not only from every part of France but also
from other countries; and he frequently had an audience of
about 600. He introduced many improvements into the practice
of surgery, as well as into the construction of various surgical

DES BARREAUX— DESCARTES

79

instruments. In 1791 he established a Journal de chirurgerie,
edited by his pupils, which was a record of the most interesting
cases that had occurred in his clinical school, with the remarks
which he had made upon them in the course of his lectures. But
in the midst of his labours he became obnoxious to some of the
revolutionists, and he was, on some frivolous charge, denounced
to the popular sections. After being twice examined, he was
seized on the 28th of May 1793, while delivering a lecture, carried
away from his theatre, and committed to prison in the Luxem-
bourg. In three days, however, he was liberated, and permitted
to resume his functions. He died in Paris on the ist of June 1795,
the story that his death was caused by poison being disproved
by the autopsy carried out by his pupil, M. F. X. Bichat. A
pension was settled on his widow by the republic. Together
with Francois Chopart (1743-1795) he published a Traite des
maladies chirurgicales (1779), and Bichat published a digest
of his surgical doctrines in CEuvres chirurgicales de Desault
(1798-1799).

DES BARREAUX, JACQUES VALLEE, SIEUR (1602-1673),
French poet, was born in Paris in 1602. His great-uncle,
Geoff roy-Vallee, had been hanged in 1574 for the authorship of
a book called Le Flfau de la joy. His nephew appears to have
inherited his scepticism, which on one occasion nearly cost him
his life. The peasants of Touraine attributed to the presence
of the unbeliever an untimely frost that damaged the vines,
and proposed to stone him. His authorship of the sonnet on
" P6nitence," by which he is generally known, has been disputed.
He had the further distinction of being the first of the lovers of
Marion Delorme. He died at Chalon-sur-Sa6ne on the 9th of
May 1673.

See Poesies de Des Barreaux (1904), edited by F. Lachevre.

DESBOROUGH, JOHN (1608-1680), English soldier and
politician, son of James Desborough of Eltisley, Cambridgeshire,
and of Elizabeth Hatley of Over, in the same county, was baptized
on the I3th of November 1608. He was educated for the law.
On the 23rd of June 1636 he married Eltisley Jane, daughter
of Robert Cromwell of Huntingdon, and sister of the future
Protector. He took an active part in the Civil War when it
broke out, and showed considerable military ability. In 1645 he
was present as major in the engagement at Langport on the loth
of July, at Hambleton Hill on the 4th of August, and on the loth
of September he commanded the horse at the storming of Bristol.
Later he took part in the operations round Oxford. In 1648
as colonel he commanded the forces at Great Yarmouth. He
avoided all participation in the trial of the king in June 1649,
being employed in the settlement of the west of England. He
fought at Worcester as major-general and nearly captured
Charles II. near Salisbury. After the establishment of the
Commonwealth he was chosen, on the lyth of January 1652, a
member of the committee for legal reforms. In 1653 he became
a member of the Protectorate council of state, and a com-
missioner of the treasury, and was appointed one of the four
generals at sea and a commissioner for the army and navy. In
1654 he was made constable of St Briavel's Castle in Gloucester-
shire. Next year he was appointed major-general over the west.
He had been nominated a member of Barebones' parliament
in 1653, and he was returned to the parliament of 1654 for
Cambridgeshire, and to that of 1656 for Somersetshire. In July
1657 he became a member of the privy council, and in 1658 he
accepted a seat in Cromwell's House of Lords. In spite of his
near relationship to the Protector's family, he was one of the
most violent opponents of the assumption by Cromwell of the
royal title, and after the Protector's death, instead of supporting
the interests and government of his nephew Richard Cromwell,
he was, with Fleetwood, the chief instigator and organizer of the
hostility of the army towards his administration, and forced him
by threats and menaces to dissolve his parliament in April 1659.
He was chosen a member of the council of state by the restored
Rump, and made colonel and governor of Plymouth, but pre-
senting with other officers a seditious petition from the army
council, on the 5th of October, was about a week later dismissed.
After the expulsion of the Rump by Fleetwood on the i3th of

October he was chosen by the officers a member of the new
administration and commissary-general of the horse. The new
military government, however, rested on no solid foundation, and
its leaders quickly found themselves without any influence.
Desborough himself became an object of ridicule, his regiment
even revolted against him, and on the return of the Rump he
was ordered to quit London. At the restoration he was excluded
from the act of indemnity but not included in the clause of pains
and penalties extending to life and goods, being therefore only
incapacitated from public employment. Soon afterwards he was
arrested on suspicion of conspiring to kill the king and queen,
but was quickly liberated. Subsequently he escaped to Holland,
where he engaged in republican intrigues. Accordingly he was
ordered home, in April 1666, on pain of incurring the charge of
treason, and obeying was imprisoned in the Tower till February
1667, when he was examined before the council and set free.
Desborough died in 1680. By his first wife, Cromwell's sister, he
had one daughter and seven sons; he married a second wife in
April 1658 whose name is unrecorded. Desborough was a good
soldier and nothing more; and his only conception of govern-
ment was by force and by the army. His rough person and
manners are the constant theme of ridicule in the royalist ballads,
and he is caricatured in Butler's Hudibras and in the Parable of
the Lien and Fox.

DESCARTES, RENE (1596-1650), French philosopher, was
born at La Haye, in Touraine, midway between Tours and
Poitiers, on the 3ist of March 1596, and died at Stockholm on the
nth of February 1650. The house where he was born is still
shown, and a mttairie about 3 m. off retains the name of
Les Cartes. His family on both sides was of Poitevin descent.
Joachim Descartes, his father, having purchased a commission
as counsellor in the parlement of Rennes, introduced the family
into that demi-noblesse of the robe which, between the bourgeoisie
and the high nobility, maintained a lofty rank in French society.
He had three children, a son who afterwards succeeded to his
father in the parlement, a daughter who married a M. du Crevis,
and Rene, after whose birth the mother died.

Descartes, known as Du Perron, from a small estate destined
for his inheritance, soon showed an inquisitive mind. From
1604 to 1612 he studied at the school of La Flfiche,
which Henry IV. had lately founded and endowed for
the Jesuits. He enjoyed exceptional privileges; his
feeble health excused him from the morning duties, and thus
early he acquired the habit of reflection in bed, which clung to
him throughout life. Even then he had begun to distrust the
authority of tradition and his teachers. Two years before he
left school he was selected as one of the twenty-four who went
forth to receive the heart of Henry IV. as it was borne to its
resting-place at La Fle'che. At the age of sixteen he went home
to his father, who was now settled at Rennes, and had married
again. During the winter of 1612 he completed his preparations
for the world by lessons in horsemanship and fencing; and then
started as his own master to taste the pleasures of Parisian life.
Fortunately he went to no perilous lengths; the worst we hear
of is a passion for gaming. Here, too, he made the acquaintance
of Claude Mydorge, one of the foremost mathematicians of France,
and renewed an early intimacy with Marin Mersenne (g.v.), now
Father Mersenne, of the order of Minim friars. The withdrawal
of Mersenne in 1614 to a post in the provinces was the signal for
Descartes to abandon social life and shut himself up for nearly
two years in a secluded house of the faubourg St Germain.
Accident betrayed the secret of his retirement; he was com-
pelled to leave his mathematical investigations, and to take part
in entertainments, where the only thing that chimed in with his
theorizing reveries was the music. French politics were at that
time characterized by violence and intrigue to such an extent
that Paris was no fit place for a student, and there was little
honourable prospect for a soldier. Accordingly, in May 1617,
Descartes set out for the Netherlands and took service in the
army of Prince Maurice of Orange. At Breda he enlisted as a
volunteer, and the first and only pay which he accepted he kept
as a curiosity through life. There was a lull in the war, and the

Early
years.

8o

DESCARTES

Netherlands was distracted by the quarrels of Gomarists and
Arminians. During the leisure thus arising, Descartes one day
had his attention drawn to a placard in the Dutch tongue; as
the language, of which he never became perfectly master, was
then strange to him, he asked a bystander to interpret it into
either French or Latin. The stranger, Isaac Beeckman, principal
of the college of Dort, offered to do so into Latin, if the inquirer
would bring him a solution of the problem, — for the advertise-
ment was one of those challenges which the mathematicians of
the age were accustomed to throw down to all comers, daring
them to discover a geometrical mystery known as they fancied
to themselves alone. Descartes promised and fulfilled; and a
friendship grew up between him and Beeckman — broken only
by the dishonesty of the latter, who in later years took credit for
the novelty contained in a small essay on music (Compendium
Musicae) which Descartes wrote at this period and entrusted to
Beeckman.1

After spending two years in Holland as a soldier in a period
of peace, Descartes, in July 1619, attracted by the news of
the impending struggle between the house of Austria and the
Protestant princes, consequent upon the election of the palatine
of the Rhine to the kingdom of Bohemia, set out for upper
Germany, and volunteered into the Bavarian service. The
winter of 1619, spent in quarters at Neuburg on the Danube, was
the critical period in his life. Here, in his warm room (dans un
poele), he indulged those meditations which afterwards led to the
Discourse of Method. It was here that, on the eve of St Martin's
day, he " was filled with enthusiasm, and discovered the founda-
tions of a marvellous science." He retired to rest with anxious
thoughts of his future career, which haunted him through the
night in three dreams that left a deep impression on his mind.
The date of his philosophical conversion is thus fixed to a day.
But as yet he had only glimpses of a logical method which should
invigorate the syllogism by the co-operation of ancient geometry
and modern algebra. For during the year that elapsed before he
left Swabia (and whilst he sojourned at Neuburg and Ulm), and
amidst his geometrical studies, he would fain have gathered some
knowledge of the mystical wisdom attributed to the Rosicrucians;
but the Invisibles, as they called themselves, kept their secret.
He was present at the battle of Weisser Berg (near Prague), where
the hopes of the elector palatine were blasted (November 8,
1620), passed the winter with the army in southern Bohemia,
and next year served in Hungaiy under Karl Bonaventura de
Longueval, Graf von Buquoy or Boucquoi (1571-1621). On the
death of this general Descartes quitted the imperial service, and
in July 1621 began a peaceful tour through Moravia, the borders
of Poland, Pomerania, Brandenburg, Holstein and Friesland,
from which he reappeared in February 1622 in Belgium, and
betook himself directly to his father's home at Rennes in
Brittany.

At Rennes Descartes found little to interest him; and, after
he had visited the maternal estate of which his father now put
him in possession, he went to Paris, where he found the Rosi-
crucians the topic of the hour, and heard himself credited with
partnership in their secrets. A short visit to Brittany enabled
him, with his father's consent, to arrange for the sale of his
property in Poitou. The proceeds were invested in such a way
at Paris as to bring him in a yearly income of between 6000 and
7000 francs (equal now to more than £500). Towards the end
of the year Descartes was on his way to Italy. The natural
phenomena of Switzerland, and the political complications in
the Valtellina, where the Catholic inhabitants had thrown off the
yoke of the Orisons and called in the Papal and Spanish troops
to their assistance, delayed him some time; but he reached
Venice in time to see the ceremony of the doge's wedlock with the
Adriatic. After paying his vows at Loretto, he came to Rome,
which was then on the eve of a year of jubilee — an occasion which
Descartes seized to observe the variety of men and manners which
the city then embraced within its walls. In the spring of 1625

1 It was only published after the author's death; and of it, besides
the French version, there exists an English translation " by a Person
of Quality."

he returned home by Mont Cenis, observing the avalanches,'
instead of, as his relatives hoped, securing a post in the French
army in Piedmont.

For an instant Descartes seems to have concurred in the plan
of purchasing a post at Chatellerault, but he gave up the idea,
and settled in Paris (June 1625), in the quarter where he had
sought seclusion before. By this time he had ceased to devote
himself to pure mathematics, and in company with his friends
Mersenne and Mydorge was deeply interested in the theory of
the refraction of light, and in the practical work of grinding
glasses of the best shape suitable for optical instruments. But
all the while he was engaged with reflections on the nature of
man, of the soul and of God, and for a while he remained invisible
even to his most familiar friends. But their importunity made a
hermitage in Paris impossible; a graceless friend even surprised
the philosopher in bed at eleven in the morning meditating and
taking notes. In disgust, Descartes started for the west to take
part in the siege of La Rochelle, and entered the city with the
troops (October 1628). A meeting at which he was present after
his return to Paris decided his vocation. He had expressed an
opinion that the true art of memory was not to be gained by
technical devices, but by a philosophical apprehension of things;
and the cardinal de Berulle, the founder of the Congregation of
the Oratory, was so struck by the tone of the remarks as to
impress upon the speaker the duty of spending his life in the
examination of truth. Descartes accepted the philosophic
mission, and in the spring of 1629 he settled in Holland. His
financial affairs he had entrusted to the care of the abbe Picot,
and as his literary and scientific representative he adopted
Mersenne.

Till 1649 Descartes lived in Holland. Thrice only did he
revisit France — in 1644, 1647 and 1648. The first of these
occasions was in order to settle family affairs after the death
of his father in 1640. The second brief visit, in 1647, partly on
literary, partly on family business, was signalized by the award
of a pension of 3000 francs, obtained from the royal bounty
by Cardinal Mazarin. The last visit in 1648 was less fortunate.
A royal order summoned him to France for new honours — an
additional pension and a permanent post — for his fame had by
this time gone abroad, and it was the age when princes sought to
attract genius and learning to their courts. But when Descartes
arrived, he found Paris rent asunder by the civil war of the
Fronde. He paid the costs of his royal parchment, and left
without a word of reproach. The only other occasions on which
he was out of the Netherlands were in 1630, when he made a
flying visit to England to observe for himself some alleged
magnetic phenomena, and in 1634, when he took an excursion
to Denmark.

During his residence in Holland he lived at thirteen different
places, and changed his abode twenty-four times. In the choice
of these spots two motives seem to have influenced him — the
neighbourhood of a university or college, and the amenities of
the situation. Among these towns were Franeker in Friesland,
Harderwyk, Deventer, Utrecht, Leiden, Amersfoort, Amster-
dam, Leeuwarden in Friesland. His favourite residences were
Endegeest, Egmond op den Hoef and Egmond the Abbey (west
of Zaandam).

The time thus spent seems to have been on the whole happy,
even allowing for warm discussions with the mathematicians
and metaphysicians of France, and for harassing controversies in
the Netherlands. Friendly agents — chiefly Catholic priests — were
the intermediaries who forwarded his correspondence from Dort,
Haarlem, Amsterdam and Leiden to his proper address, which he
kept completely secret; and Father Mersenne sent him objections
and questions. His health, which in his youth had been bad,
improved. " I sleep here ten hours every night," he writes
from Amsterdam, " and no care ever shortens my slumber."
" I take my walk every day through the confusion of a great
multitude with as much freedom and quiet as you could find in
your rural avenues."3 At his first coming to Franeker he
arranged to get a cook acquainted with French cookery; but,
i(Euvres, v. 255. '76. vi. 199.

DESCARTES

81

to prevent misunderstanding, it may be added that his diet was
mainly vegetarian, and that he rarely drank wine. New friends
gathered round him who took a keen interest in his researches.
Once only do we find him taking an interest in the affairs of his
neighbours, — to ask pardon from the government for a homicide.1
He continued the profession of his religion. Sometimes from
curiosity he went to the ministrations of anabaptists,2 to hear
the preaching of peasants and artisans. He carried few books
to Holland with him, but a Bible and the Summa of Thomas
Aquinas were amongst them.3 One of the recommendations of
Egmond the Abbey was the free exercise there allowed to the
Catholic religion. At Franeker his house was a small chateau,
" separated by a moat from the rest of the town, where the mass
could be said in safety." 4 And one motive in favour of accepting
an invitation to England lay in the alleged leanings of Charles I.
to the older church.

The best account of Descartes's mental history during his
life in Holland is contained in his letters, which extend over the
whole period, and are particularly frequent in the latter half.
The majority of them are addressed to Mersenne, and deal with
problems of physics, musical theory (in which he took a special
interest), and mathematics. Several letters between 1643 and
1649 are addressed to the princess Elizabeth, the eldest daughter
of the ejected elector palatine, who lived at The Hague, where her
mother maintained the semblance of a royal court. The princess
was obliged to quit Holland, but kept up a philosophical corre-
spondence with Descartes. It is to her that the Principles of
Philosophy were dedicated; and in her alone, according to
Descartes, were united those generally separated talents for
metaphysics and for mathematics which are so characteristically
co-operative in the Cartesian system. Two Dutch friends,
Constantijn Huygens (von Zuylichem), father of the more
celebrated Huygens, and Hoogheland, figure amongst the
correspondents, not to mention various savants, professors and
churchmen (particularly Jesuits).

His residence in the Netherlands fell in the most prosperous
and brilliant days of the Dutch state, under the stadtholdership
of Frederick Henry (1625-1647). Abroad its navigators mono-
polized the commerce of the world, and explored unknown seas;
at home the Dutch school of painting reached its acme in
Rembrandt (1607-1669); and the philological reputation of
the country was sustained by Grotius, Vossius and the elder
Heinsius. And yet, though Rembrandt's " Nightwatch " is dated
the very year after the publication of the Meditations, not a word
in Descartes breathes of any work of art or historical learning.
The contempt of aesthetics and erudition is characteristic of the
most typical members of what is known as the Cartesian school,
especially Malebranche. Descartes was not in any strict sense a
reader. His wisdom grew mainly out of his own reflections and
experiments. The story of his disgust when he found that
Queen Christina devoted some time every day to the study of
Greek under the tuition of Vossius is at least true in substance.5
It gives no evidence of science, he remarks, to possess a tolerable
knowledge of the Roman tongue, such as once was possessed by
the populace of Rome.6 In all his travels he studied only the
phenomena of nature and human life. He was a spectator
rather than an actor on the stage of the world. He entered the
army, merely because the position gave a vantage-ground from
which to make his observations. In the political interests which
these contests involved he took no part; his favourite disciple,
the princess Elizabeth, was the daughter of the banished king,
against whom he had served in Bohemia; and Queen Christina,
his second royal follower, was the daughter of Gustavus
Adolphus.

Thus Descartes is a type of that spirit of science to which
erudition and all the heritage of the past seem but elegant
trifling. The science of Descartes was physics in all its branches,
but especially as applied to physiology. Science, he says, may
be compared to a tree; metaphysics is the root, physics is the
trunk, and the three chief branches are mechanics, medicine and

1 CEuvres, viii. 59.
4 Ib. vi. 123.

2 76. viii. 173.
' Ib. x. 375.

3 Ib. viii. 181.
' Ib. ix. 6.

morals, — the three applications of our knowledge to the outward
world, to the human body, and to the conduct of life.7

Such then was the work that Descartes had in view in Holland.
His residence was generally divided into two parts — one his
workshop for science, the other his reception-room for society.
" Here are my books," he is reported to have told a visitor, as he
pointed to the animals he had dissected. He worked hard at his
book on refraction, and dissected the heads of animals in order to
explain imagination and memory, which he considered physical
processes.8 But he was not a laborious student. " I can say
with truth," he writes to the princess Elizabeth,9 " that the
principle which I have always observed in my studies, and which
I believe has helped me most to gain whatjtnowledge I have, has
been never to spend beyond a very few hours daily in thoughts
which occupy the imagination, and a very few hours yearly in
those which occupy the understanding, and to give all the rest of
my time to the relaxation of the senses and the repose of the
mind." But his expectations from the study of anatomy and
physiology went a long way. " The conservation of health,"
he writes in 1646, " has always been the principal end of my
studies."10 In 1629 he asks Mersenne to take care of himself
" till I find out if there is any means of getting a medical theory
based on infallible demonstrations, which is what I am now
inquiring." u Astronomical inquiries in connexion with optics,
meteorological phenomena, and, in a word, the whole field
of natural Jaws, excited his desire to explain them. His own
observation, and the reports of Mersenne, furnished his data. Of
Bacon's demand for observation and collection of facts he is
an imitator; and he wishes (in a letter of 1632) that " some one
would undertake to give a history of celestial phenomena after
the method of Bacon, and describe the sky exactly as it appears
at present, without introducing a single hypothesis." 12

He had several writings in hand during the early years of his
residence in Holland, but the main work of this period was a
physical doctrine of the universe which he termed The World.
Shortly after his arrival he writes to Mersenne that it will prob-
ably be finished in 1633, but meanwhile asks him not to disclose
the secret to his Parisian friends. Already anxieties appear as to
the theological verdict upon two of his fundamental views — the
infinitude of the universe, and the earth's rotation round the
sun. 13 But towards the end of year 1633 we find him writing as
follows: — " I had intended sending you my World as a New
Year's gift, and a fortnight ago I was still minded to send you a
fragment of the work, if the whole of it could not be transcribed
in time. But I have just been at Leyden and Amsterdam to
ask after Galileo's cosmical system as I imagined I had heard of
its being printed last year in Italy. I was told that it had been
printed, but that every copy had been at the same time burnt at
Rome, and that Galileo had been himself condemned to some
penalty." 14 He has also seen a copy of Galileo's condemnation
at Liege (September 20, 1633), with the words "although he
professes that the [Copernican] theory was only adopted by him
as a hypothesis." His friend Beeckman lent him a copy of
Galileo's work, which he glanced through in his usual manner
with other men's books; he found it good, and " failing more
in the points where it follows received opinions than where it
diverges from them." 15 The consequence of these reports of the
hostility of the church led him to abandon all thoughts of
publishing. The World was consigned to his desk; and although
doctrines in all essential respects the same constitute the physical
portion of his Principia, it was not till after the death of Descartes
that fragments of the work, including Le Monde, or ?, treatise on
light, and the physiological tracts L'Homme and La Formation du
fcelus, were given to the world by his admirer Claude Clerselier
(1614-1684) in 1664. Descartes was not disposed to be a
martyr; he had a sincere respect for the church, and had no
wish to begin an open conflict with established doctrines.

In 1636 Descartes had resolved to publish some specimens of
the fruits of his method, and some general observations on its

7 Ib. iii. 24.
10 Ib. ix. 341.
13 Ib. vi. 73.

8 Ib. vi. 234.
11 Ib. vi. 89.
14 Ib. vi. 239.

9 Ib. ix. 131.
w Ib. vi. 210.
16 Ib. vi. 248.

DESCARTES

nature which, under an appearance of simplicity, might sow the
good seed of more adequate ideas on the world and man. " I
should be glad," he says, when talking of a publisher,1 " if the
whole book were printed in good type, on good paper, and I
should like to have at least 200 copies for distribution. The book
will contain four essays, all in French, with the general title of
' Project of a Universal science, capable of raising our nature to
its highest perfection; also Dioptrics, Meteors and Geometry,
wherein the most curious matters which the author could select
as a proof of the universal science which he proposes are explained
in such a way that even the unlearned may understand them.' "
The work appeared anonymously at Leiden (published by Jean
Maire) in 1637, under the modest title of Essais philosophiques;
and the project of a universal science becomes the Discours de la
methode pour bien conduire sa raison et chercher la iifrite dans les
sciences. In 1644 it appeared in a Latin version, revised by
Descartes, as Specimina philosophica. A work so widely circu-
lated by the author naturally attracted attention, but in France
it was principally the mathematicians who took it up, and their
criticisms were more pungent than complimentary. Fermat,
Roberval and Desargues took exception in their various ways to
the methods employed in the geometry, and to the demonstra-
tions of the laws of refraction given in the Dioptrics and Meteors.
The dispute on the latter point between Fermat and Descartes
was continued, even after the philosopher's death, as late as
1662. In the youthful Dutch universities the effect of the essays
was greater.

The first public teacher of Cartesian views was Henri Renery,
a Belgian, who at Deventer and afterwards at Utrecht had

introduced the new philosophy which he had learned
Cart**0' from personal intercourse with Descartes. Renery
s/«n/sm. only survived five years at Utrecht, and it was reserved

for Heinrich Regius (van Roy) — who in 1638 had been
appointed to the new chair of botany and theoretical medicine
at Utrecht, and who visited Descartes at Egmond in order more
thoroughly to learn his views — to throw down the gauntlet to
the adherents of the old methods. With more eloquence than
judgment, he propounded theses bringing into relief the points
in which the new doctrines clashed with the old. The attack was
opened by Gisbert Voe't, foremost among the orthodox theo-
logical professors and clergy of Utrecht. In 1639 he published a
series of arguments against atheism, in which the Cartesian views
were not obscurely indicated as perilous for the faith, though no
name was mentioned. Next year he persuaded the magistracy
to issue an order forbidding Regius to travel beyond the received
doctrine. The magisterial views seem to have prevailed in the
professoriate, which formally in March 1642 expressed its dis-
approbation of the new philosophy as well as of its expositors.
As yet Descartes was not directly attacked. Voe't now issued,
under the name of Martin Schoock, one of his pupils, a pamphlet
with the title of Methodus novae philosophiae Renati Descartes, in
which atheism and infidelity were openly declared to be the effect
of the new teaching. Descartes replied to Voet directly in a letter,
published at Amsterdam in 1643. He was summoned before the
magistrates of Utrecht to defend himself against charges of
irreligion and slander. What might have happened we cannot
tell; but Descartes threw himself on the protection of the French
ambassador and the prince of Orange, and the city magistrates,
from whom he vainly demanded satisfaction in a dignified letter,2
were snubbed by their superiors. About the same time (April
1645) Schoock was summoned before the university of Groningen,
of which he was a member, and forthwith disavowed the more
abusive passages in his book. So did the effects of the odium
theologicum, for the meanwhile at least, die away.

In the Discourse of Method Descartes had sketched the main
points in his new views, with a mental autobiography which
Discourse m^S^ explain their origin, and with some suggestions
of Method, as to their applications. His second great work,
andMedi- Meditations on the First Philosophy, which had been
tatiocs. begun soon after his settlement in the Netherlands,
expounded in more detail the foundations of his system,
1 (Euvres, vi. 276. 2 76. ix. 250.

laying especial emphasis on the priority of mind to body, and on
the absolute and ultimate dependence of mind as well as body on
the existence of God. In 1640 a copy of the work in manuscript
was despatched to Paris, and Mersenne was requested to lay it
before as many thinkers and scholars as he deemed desirable,
with a view to getting their views upon its argument and doctrine.
Descartes soon had a formidable list of objections to reply to.
Accordingly, when the work was published at Paris in August
1641, under the title of Medilaliones de prima philosophia ubi de
Dei existentia et animae immortalitate (though it was in fact not
the immortality but the immateriality of the mind, or, as the
second edition described it, animae humanae a corpore distinctio,
which was maintained), the title went on to describe the larger
part of the book as containing various objections of learned
men, with the replies of the author. These objections in the first
edition are arranged under six heads: the first came from
Caterus, a theologian of Louvain; the second and sixth are
anonymous criticisms from various hands; whilst the third,
fourth and fifth belong respectively to Hobbes, Arnauld and
Gassendi. In the second edition appeared the seventh — objec-
tions from Pere Bourdin, a Jesuit teacher of mathematics in
Paris; and subsequently another set of objections, known
as those of Hyperaspistes, was included in the collection of
Descartes's letters. The anonymous objections are very much
the statement of common-sense against philosophy; those of
Caterus criticize the Cartesian argument from the traditional
theology of the church; those of Arnauld are an appreciative
inquiry into the bearings and consequences of the meditations
for religion and morality; while those. of Hobbes (q.v.) and
Gassendi — both somewhat senior to Descartes and with a
dogmatic system of their own already formed — are a keen assault
upon the spiritualism of the Cartesian position from a generally
" sensational " standpoint. The criticisms of the last two are
the criticisms of a hostile school of thought; those of Arnauld
are the difficulties of a possible disciple.

In 1644 the third great work of Descartes, the Principia
philosophiae, appeared at Amsterdam. Passing briefly over
the conclusions arrived at in the Meditations, it deals
in its second, third and fourth parts with the general cl *ia
principles of physical science, especially the laws of
motion, with the theory of vortices, and with the phenomena of
heat, light, gravity, magnetism, electricity, &c., upon the earth.
This work exhibits some curious marks of caution. Undoubtedly,
says Descartes, the world was in the beginning created in all its
perfection. "But yet as it is best, if we wish to understand the
nature of plants or of men, to consider how they may by degrees
proceed from seeds, rather than how they were created by God
in the beginning of the world, so, if we can excogitate some
extremely simple and comprehensible principles, out of which,
as if they were seeds, we can prove that stars, and earth and all
this visible scene could have originated, although we know full
well that they never did originate in such a way, we shall in that
way expound their nature far better than if we merely described
them as they exist at present."3 The Copernican theory is
rejected in name, but retained in substance. The earth, or other
planet, does not actually move round the sun; yet it is carried
round the sun in the subtle matter of the great vortex, where it
lies in equilibrium, — carried like the passenger in a boat, who may
cross the sea and yet not rise from his berth.

In 1647 the difficulties that had arisen at Utrecht were repeated
on a smaller scale at Leiden. There the Cartesian innovations
had found a patron in Adrian Heerebord, and were openly
discussed in theses and lectures. The theological professors took
the alarm at passages in the Meditations; an attempt to prove
the existence of God savoured, as they thought, of atheism and
heresy. When Descartes complained to the authorities of this
unfair treatment,4 the only reply was an order by which all
mention of the name of Cartesianism, whether favourable or
adverse, was forbidden in the university. This was scarcely
what Descartes wanted, and again he had to apply to the prince
of Orange, whereupon the theologians were asked to behave with
* Princip. L. iii. S. 45. * CEuvres, x. 26.

DESCARTES

civility, and the name of Descartes was no longer proscribed.
But other annoyances were not wanting from unfaithful disciples
and unsympathetic critics. The Instantiate of Gassendi appeared
at Amsterdam in 1644 as a reply to the reply which Descartes had
published of his previous objections; and the publication by
Heinrich Regius of his work on physical philosophy (Fundamenta
phy sices; 1646) gave the world to understand that he had ceased
to be a thorough adherent of the philosophy which he had so
enthusiastically adopted.

It was about 1648 that Descartes lost his friends Mersenne
and Mydorge by death. The place of Mersenne as his Parisian
representative was in the main taken by Claude Clerselier (the
French translator of the Objections and Responses), whom he had
become acquainted with in Paris. Through Clerselier .he came to
know Pierre Chanut, who in 1645 was sent as French ambassador
to the court of Sweden. Queen Christina was not yet twenty,
and took a lively if a somewhat whimsical interest in literary
and philosophical culture. Through Chanut, with whom she
was on terms of familiarity, she came to hear of Descartes, and a
correspondence which the latter nominally carried on with the
ambassador was in reality intended for the eyes of the queen.
The correspondence took an ethical tone. It began with a long
letter on love in all its aspects (February 1647),' a topic suggested
by Chanut, who had been discussing it with the queen; and this
was soon followed by another to Christina herself on the chief
good. An essay on the passions of the mind (Passions de I'dme),
which had been written originally for the princess Elizabeth,
in development of some ethical views suggested by the De vita
beata of Seneca, was enclosed at the same time for Chanut. It
was a draft of the work published in 1650 under the same title.
Philosophy, particularly that of Descartes, was becoming a
fashionable divertissement for the queen and her courtiers, and
it was felt that the presence of the sage himself was necessary
to complete the good work of education. An invitation to
the Swedish court was urged upon Descartes, and after much
hesitation accepted; a vessel of the royal navy was ordered
to wait upon him, and in September 1649 he left Egmond for
the north.

The position on which he entered at Stockholm was unsuited
for a man who wished to be his own master. The young queen
Death wanted Descartes to draw up a code for a proposed
academy of the sciences, and to give her an hour of
philosophic instruction every morning at five. She had already
determined to create him a noble, and begun to look out an estate
in the lately annexed possessions of Sweden on the Pomeranian
coast. But these things were not to be. His friend Chanut fell
dangerously ill; and Descartes, who devoted himself to attend
in the sick-room, was obliged to issue from it every morning in
the chill northern air of January, and spend an hour in the palace
library. The ambassador recovered, but Descartes fell a victim
to the same disease, inflammation of the lungs. The last time he
saw the queen was on the ist of February 1650, when he handed
to her the statutes he had drawn up for the proposed academy.
On the nth of February he died. The queen wished to bury him
at the feet of the Swedish kings, and to raise a costly mausoleum
in his honour; but these plans were overruled, and a plain
monument in the Catholic cemetery was all that marked the place
of his rest. Sixteen years after his death the French treasurer
d'Alibert made arrangements for the conveyance of the ashes to
his native land; and in 1667 they were interred in the church of
Ste Genevieve du Mont, the modern Pantheon. In 1819, after
being temporarily deposited in a stone sarcophagus in the court
of the Louvre during the Revolutionary epoch, they were
transferred to St Germain-des-Pres, where they now repose
between Montfaucon and Mabillon. A monument was raised
to his memory at Stockholm by Gustavus III.; and a modern
statue has been erected to him at Tours, with an inscription on
the pedestal: " Je pense, done je suis."

Descartes never married, and had little of the amorous in his
temperament. He has alluded to a childish fancy for a young
girl with a slight obliquity of vision; but he only mentions it
1 CEuvres, x. 3.

d propos of the consequent weakness which led him to associate
such a defect with beauty.2 In person he was small, with large
head, projecting brow, prominent nose, and eyes wide apart,
with black hair coming down almost to his eyebrows. His voice
was feeble. He usually dressed in black, with unobtrusive
propriety.

Philosophy. — The end of all study, says Descartes, in one of his
earliest writings, ought to be to guide the mind to form true and
sound judgments on every thing that may be presented to it.3
The sciences in their totality are but the intelligence of man;
and all the details of knowledge have no value save as they
strengthen the understanding. The mind is not for the sake of
knowledge, but knowledge for the sake of the mind. This is the
reassertion of a principle which the middle ages had lost sight of
— that knowledge, if it is to have any value, must be intelligence,
and not erudition.

But how is intelligence, as opposed to erudition, possible?
The answer to that question is the method of Descartes. That
idea of a method grew up with his study of geometry
and arithmetic, — the only branches of knowledge
which he would allow to be " made sciences." But
they did not satisfy his demand for intelligence. " I found in
them," he says, " different propositions on numbers of which,
after a calculation, I perceived the truth; as for the figures, I
had, so to speak, many truths put before my eyes, and many
others concluded from them by analogy; but it did not seem to me
that they told my mind with sufficient clearness why the things
were as I was shown, and by what means their discovery was
attained-"4 The mathematics of which he thus speaks included
the geometry of the ancients, as it had been handed down to the
modern world, and arithmetic with the developments it had
received in the direction of algebra. The ancient geometry, as we
know it, is a wonderful monument of ingenuity — a series of
tours de force, in which each problem to all appearance stands
alone, and, if solved, is solved by methods and principles peculiar
to itself. Here and there particular curves, for example, had
been obliged to yield the secret of their tangent; but the ancient
geometers apparently had no consciousness of the general
bearings of the methods which they so successfully applied.
Each problem was something unique; the elements of transition
from one to another were wanting; and the next step which
mathematics had to make was to find some method of reducing,
for instance, all curves to a common notation. When that was
found, the solution of one problem would immediately entail the
solution of all others which belonged to the same series as itself.

The arithmetical half of mathematics, which had been gradually
growing into algebra, and had decidedly established itself as such
in the Ad logisticen speciosam notae priores of Francois Vieta
(1540- 1 603), supplied to some extent the means of generalizing
geometry. And the algebraists or arithmeticians of the i6th
century, such as Luca Pacioli (Lucas de Borgo), Geronimo or
Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576), and Niccola Tartaglia (1506-
1559), had used geometrical constructions to throw light on
the solution of particular equations. But progress was made
difficult, in consequence of the clumsy and irregular nomenclature
employed. With Descartes the use of exponents as now employed
for denoting the powers of a quantity becomes systematic; and
without some such step by which the homogeneity of successive
powers is at once recognized, the binomial theorem could scarcely
have been detected. The restriction of the early letters of the
alphabet to known, and of the late letters to unknown, quantities
is also his work. In this and other details he crowns and com-
pletes, in a form henceforth to be dominant for the language
of algebra, the work of numerous obscure predecessors, such as
Etienne de la Roche, Michael Stifel or Stiefel (1487-1567), and
others.

Having thus perfected the instrument, his next step was to
apply it in such a way as to bring uniformity of method into the
isolated and independent operations of geometry. " I had no
intention,"6 he says in the Method, "of attempting to master all

2 76. x. 53. » Regulae, CEuvres, xi. 202.

4 CEuvres, xi. 219. » Disc, de methode, part ii.

DESCARTES

the particular sciences commonly called mathematics; but as I
observed that, with all differences in their objects, they agreed in
considering merely the various relations or proportions subsisting
among these objects, I thought it best for my purpose to consider
these relations in the most general form possible, without refer-
ring them to any objects in particular except such as would
most facilitate the knowledge of them. Perceiving further, that
in order to understand these relations I should sometimes have
to consider them one by one, and sometimes only to bear them in
mind or embrace them in the aggregate, I thought that, in order
the better to consider them individually, I should view them as
subsisting between straight lines, than which I could find no
objects more simple, or capable of being more distinctly repre-
sented to my imagination and senses; and on the other hand
that, in order to retain them in the memory or embrace an
aggregate of many, I should express them by certain characters,
the briefest possible." Such is the basis of the algebraical or
modern analytical geometry. The problem of the curves is
solved by their reduction to a problem of straight lines; and the
locus of any point is determined by its distance from two given
straight lines — the axes of co-ordinates. Thus Descartes gave
to modern geometry that abstract and general character in
which consists its superiority to the geometry of the ancients.
In another question connected with this, the problem of drawing
tangents to any curve, Descartes was drawn into a controversy
with Pierre (de) Fermat (1601-1663), Gilles Persone de Roberval
(1602-1675), and Girard Desargues (1593-1661). Fermat and
Descartes agreed in regarding the tangent to a curve as a secant
of that curve with the two points of intersection coinciding, while
Roberval regarded it as the direction of the composite movement
by which the curve can be described. Both these methods,
differing from that now employed, are interesting as preliminary
steps towards the method of fluxions and the differential calculus.
In pure algebra Descartes expounded and illustrated the general
methods of solving equations up to those of the fourth degree
(and believed that his method could go beyond), stated the law
which connects the positive and negative roots of an equation
with the changes of sign in the consecutive terms, and introduced
the method of indeterminate coefficients for the solution of
equations.1 These innovations have been attributed on in-
adequate evidence to other algebraists, e.g. William Oughtred
(1575-1660) and Thomas Harriot (1560-1621).

The Geometry of Descartes, unlike the other parts of his essays,
is not easy reading. It dashes at once into the middle of the
subjects with the examination of a problem which had baffled
the ancients, and seems as if it were tossed at the heads of
the French geometers as a challenge. An edition of it ap-
peared subsequently, with notes by his friend Florimond de
Beaune (1601-1652), calculated to smooth the difficulties of
the work. All along mathematics was regarded by Descartes
rather as the envelope than the foundation of his method; and
the " universal mathematical science " which he sought after
was only the prelude of a universal science of all-embracing
character.2

The method of Descartes rests upon the proposition that all
the objects of our knowledge fall into series, of which the members
are more or less known by means of one another. In
method* everv sucn series or group there is a dominant element,
simple and irresoluble, the standard on which the rest
of the series depends, and hence, so far as that group or series is
concerned, absolute. The other members of the group are relative
and dependent, and only to be understood as in various degrees
subordinate to the primitive conception. The characteristic by
which we recognize the fundamental element in a series is its
intuitive or self-evident character; it is given by " the evident
conception of a healthy and attentive mind so clear and distinct
that no doubt is left." * Having discovered this prime or absolute
member of the group, we proceed to consider the degrees in which
the other members enter into relation with it. Here deduction
comes into play to show the dependence of one term upon the
others; and, in the case of a long chain of intervening links, the

1 Geometric, book iii. * (Euvres, xi. 224. • Ib. xi. 212.

problem for intelligence is so to enunciate every element, and so
to repeat the connexion that we may finally grasp all the links
of the chain in one. In this way we, as it were, bring the causal
or primal term and its remotest dependent immediately together,
and raise a derivative knowledge into one which is primary and
intuitive. Such are the four points of Cartesian method: —
(i) Truth requires a clear and distinct conception of its object,
excluding all doubt; (2) the objects of knowledge naturally fall
into series or groups; (3) in these groups investigation must
begin with a simple and indecomposable element, and pass from
it to the more complex and relative elements; (4) an exhaustive
and immediate grasp of the relations and interconnexion of
these elements is necessary for knowledge in the fullest sense of
that word.?

" There is no question," he says in anticipation of Locke
and Kant, " more important to solve than that of knowing
what human knowledge is and how far it extends." " This is a
question which ought to be asked at least once in their lives by
all who seriously wish to gain wisdom. The inquirer will find
that the first thing to know is intellect, because on it depends the
knowledge of all other things. Examining next what immediately
follows the knowledge of pure intellect, he will pass in review all
the other means of knowledge, and will find that they are two
(or three) , the imagination and the senses (and the memory) . He
will therefore devote all his care to examine and distinguish
these three means of knowledge; and seeing that truth and error
can, properly speaking, be only in the intellect, and that the two
other modes of knowledge are only occasions, he will carefully
avoid whatever can lead him astray."6 This separation of
intellect from sense, imagination and memory is the cardinal
precept of the Cartesian logic; it marks off clear and distinct
(i.e. adequate and vivid) from obscure, fragmentary and
incoherent conceptions.

The Discourse of Method and the Meditations apply what the
Rules for the Direction of the Mind had regarded in particular
instances to our conceptions of the world as a whole. paaaa.
They propose, that is, to find a simple and indecom- mental
posable point, or absolute element, which gives to the principles
world and thought their order and systematization. O/P*//O"
The grandeur of this attempt is perhaps unequalled in sop y'
the annals of philosophy. The three main steps in the argument
are the veracity of our thought when that thought is true to
itself, the inevitable uprising of thought from its fragmentary
aspects in our habitual consciousness to the infinite and perfect
existence which God is, and the ultimate reduction of the material
universe to extension and local movement. There are the central
dogmas of logic, metaphysics and physics, from which start
the subsequent inquiries of Locke, Leibnitz and Newton. They
are also the direct antitheses to the scepticism of Montaigne and
Pascal, to the materialism of Gassendi and Hobbes, and to the
superstitious anthropomorphism which defaced the reawakening
sciences of nature. Descartes laid down the lines on which
modern philosophy and science were to build. But himself no
trained metaphysician, and unsusceptible to the lessons of history,
he gives but fragments of a system which are held together, not
by their intrinsic consistency, but by the vigour of his personal
conviction transcending the weaknesses and collisions of his
several arguments. " All my opinions," he says, " are so
conjoined, and depend so closely upon one another, that it would
be impossible to appropriate one without knowing them all."6
Yet every disciple of Cartesianism seems to disprove the dictum
by his example.

The very moment when we begin to think, says Descartes,
when we cease to be merely receptive, when we draw back and
fix our attention on any point whatever of our belief, — that
moment doubt begins. If we even stop for an instant to ask
ourselves how a word ought to be spelled, the deeper we ponder
that one word by itself the more hopeless grows the hesitation.
The doubts thus awakened must not be stifled, but pressed
systematically on to the point, if such a point there be, where
doubt confutes itself. The doubt as to the details is natural; it

*Disc. de methods, part. ii. 6 (Euvres, xi. 243. • Ib. vii. 381.

DESCARTES

is no less natural to have recourse to authority to silence the
doubt. The remedy proposed by Descartes is (while not neglect-
ing our duties to others, ourselves and God) to let doubt range
unchecked through the whole fabric of our customary convictions.
One by one they refuse to render any reasonable account of
themselves; each seems a mere chance, and the whole tends to
elude us like a mirage which some malignant power creates for
our illusion. Attacked in detail, they vanish one after another
into as many teasing spectra of uncertainty. We are seeking
from them what they cannot give. But when we have done our
worst in unsettling them, we come to an ultimate point in the fact
that it is we who are doubting, we who are thinking. We may
doubt that we have hands or feet, that we sleep or wake, and that
there is a world of material things around us; but we cannot

doubt that we are doubting. We are certain that we
ergosum. are thinking, and in so far as we are thinking we are.

Je pense, done je suis. In other words, the criterion
of truth is a clear and distinct conception, excluding all pos-
sibility of doubt.

The fundamental point thus established is the veracity of
consciousness when it does not go beyond itself, or does not
postulate something which is external to itself. At this point
Gassendi arrested Descartes and addressed his objections to him
as pure intelligence, — O mensi But even this mens, or mind, is
but a point — we have found no guarantee as yet for its continuous
existence. The analysis must be carried deeper, if we are to gain
any further conclusions.

Amongst the elements of our thought there are some which we
can make and unmake at our pleasure; there are others which
come and go without our wish; there is also a third class which is
of the very essence of our thinking, and which dominates our
conceptions. We find that sail our ideas of limits, sorrows and
weaknesses presuppose an infinite, perfect and ever-blessed
something beyond them and including them, — that all our ideas,
in all their series, converge to one central idea, in which they find
their explanation. The formal fact of thinking is what constitutes
our being; but this thought leads us back, when we consider its
concrete contents, to the necessary pre-supposition on which our
ideas depend, the permanent cause on which they and we as
conscious beings depend. We have therefore the idea of an in-
finite, perfect and all-powerful being — an idea which cannot be
the creation of ourselves, and must be given by some being who
really possesses all that we in idea attribute to him. Such a
being he identifies with God. But the ordinary idea of God can
scarcely be identified with such a conception. " The majority
of men," he says himself, " do not think of God as an infinite and
incomprehensible being, and as the sole author from whom all
things depend ; they go no further than the letters of his name." 1

" The vulgar almost imagine him as a finite thing."
ofaod. The God of Descartes is not merely the creator of

the material universe; he is also the father of all
truth in the intellectual world. " The metaphysical truths," he
says, " styled eternal have been established by God, and, like
the rest of his creatures, depend entirely upon him. To say that
these truths are independent of him is to speak of God as a
Jupiter or a Saturn, — to subject him to Styx and the Fates."2
The laws of thought, the truths of number, are the decrees of God.
The expression is anthropomorphic, no less than the dogma of
material creation; but it is an attempt to affirm the unity of the
intellectual and the material world. Descartes establishes a
philosophic monotheism, — by which the medieval polytheism of
substantial forms, essences and eternal truths fades away before
God, who is the ruler of the intellectual world no less than of the
kingdom of nature and of grace. *»)

To attach a dear and definite meaning to the Cartesian
-doctrine of God, to show how much of it comes from the Christian
theology and how much from the logic of idealism, how far the
conception of a personal being as creator and preserver mingles
with the pantheistic conception of an infinite and perfect some-
thing which is all in all, would be to go beyond Descartes
and to ask for a solution of difficulties of which he was
1CEuvres, vi. 132. tlb. vi. 109.

scarcely aware. It seems impossible to deny that the tendency
of his principles and his arguments is mainly in the line of a
metaphysical absolute, as the necessary completion and founda-
tion of all being and knowledge. Through the truthfulness of
that God as the author of all truth he derives a guarantee for our
perceptions in so far as these are clear and distinct. And it is in
guaranteeing the veracity of our clear and distinct conceptions
that the value of his deduction of God seems in his own estimate
to rest. All conceptions which do not poseess these two attri-
butes— of being vivid in themselves and discriminated from all
others — cannot be true. But the larger part of our conceptions
are in such a predicament. We think of things not in the abstract
elements of the things themselves, but in connexion with, and
in language which presupposes, other things. Ouuidea of body,
e.g., involves colour and weight, and yet when we try to think
carefully, and without assuming anything, we find that we cannot
attach any distinct idea to these terms when applied to body.
In truth therefore these attributes do not belong to body at all ;
and if we go on in the same way testing the received qualities of
matter, we shall find that in the last resort we understand nothing
by it but extension, with the secondary and derivative characters
of divisibility and mobility.

But it would again be useless to ask how extension as the
characteristic attribute of matter is related to mind which thinks,
and how God is to be regarded in reference to extension. The
force of the universe is swept up and gathered in God, who com-
municates motion to the parts of extension, and sustains that
motion from moment to moment; and in the same way the force
of mind has really been concentrated in God. Every moment one
expects to find Descartes saying with Hobbes that man's thought
has created God, or with Spinoza and Malebranche that it is God
who really thinks in the apparent thought of man. After all, the
metaphysical theology of Descartes, however essential in his own
eyes, serves chiefly as the ground for constructing his theory of
man and of the universe. His fundamental hypothesis relegates
to God all forces in their ultimate origin. Hence the world is
left open for the free play of mechanics and geometry. The dis-
turbing conditions of will, life and organic forces are eliminated
from the problem; he starts with the clear and distinct idea of
extension, figured and moved, and thence by mathematical laws
he gives a hypothetical explanation of all things. Such ex-
planationof physical phenomena is the main problemof Descartes,
and it goes on encroaching upon territories once supposed proper
to the mind. Descartes began with the certainty that we are
thinking beings; that region remains untouched; but up to its
very borders the mechanical explanation of nature reigns
unchecked.

The physical theory, in its earlier form in The World, and later
in the Principles of Philosophy (which the present account
follows), rests upon the metaphysical conclusions of the
Meditations. . It proposes to set forth the genesis of the theory*
existing universe from principles which can be plainly
understood, and according to the acknowledged laws of the trans-
mission of movement. The idea of force is one of those obscure
conceptions which originate in an obscure region, in the sense
of muscular power. The true physical conception is motion, the
ultimate ground of which is to be sought in God's infinite power.
Accordingly the quantity of movement in the universe, like its
mover, can neither increase nor diminish. The only circum-
stance which physics has to consider is the transference of move-
ment from one particle to another, and the change of its direction.
Man himself cannot increase the sum of motion; he can only alter
its direction. The whole conception of force may disappear from
a theory of the universe; and we can adopt a geometrical
definition of motion as the shifting of one body from the neigh-
bourhood of those bodies which immediately touch it, and which
are assumed to be at rest, to the neighbourhood of other bodies.
Motion, in short, is strictly locomotion, and nothing else.

Descartes has laid down three laws of nature, and seven
secondary laws regarding impact. The latter are to a large
extent incorrect. The first law affirms that every body, so far
as it is altogether unaffected by extraneous causes, always

86

DESCARTES

perseveres in the same state of motion or of rest; and the second
law that simple or elementary motion is always in a straight line.1
These doctrines of inertia, and of the composite character of
curvilinear motion, were scarcely apprehended even by Kepler
or Galileo; but they follow naturally from the geometrical
analysis of Descartes.

Extended body has no limits to its extent, though the power
of God has divided it in lines discriminating its parts in endless
ways. The infinite universe is infinitely full of matter. Empty
space, as distinguished from material extension, is a fictitious
abstraction. There is no such thing really as a vacuum, any
more than there are atoms or ultimate indivisible particles.
In both these doctrines of d, priori science Descartes has not
been subverted, but, if anything, corroborated by the results of
experimental physics; for the so-called atoms of chemical theory
already presuppose, from the Cartesian point of view, certain
aggregations of the primitive particles of matter. Descartes
regards matter as uniform in character throughout the universe;
he anticipates, as it were, from his own transcendental ground,
the revelations of spectrum analysis as applied to the sun and
stars. We have then to think of a full universe of matter
(and matter = extension) divided and figured with endless variety,
and set (and kept) in motion by God; and any sort of division,
figure and motion will serve the purposes of our supposition as
well as another. " Scarcely any supposition,"2 he says, " can be
made from which the same result, though possibly with greater
difficulty, might not be deduced by the same laws of nature; for
since, in virtue of these laws, matter successively assumes all the
forms of which it is capable, if we consider these forms in order,
we shall at one point or other reach the existing form of the world,
so that no error need here be feared from a false supposition."
As the movement of one particle in a closely -packed universe is
only possible if all other parts move simultaneously, so that
the last in the series steps into the place of the first; and as
the figure and division of the particles varies in each point in the
universe, there will inevitably at the same instant result through-
out the universe an innumerable host of more or less circular
movements, and of vortices or whirlpools of material particles
varying in size and velocity. Taking for convenience a limited
portion of the universe, we observe that in consequence
°f tne circular movement, the particles of matter have
their corners pared off by rubbing against each other;
and two species of matter thus arise, — one consisting of small
globules which continue their circular motion with a (centrifugal)
tendency to fly off from the centre as they swing round the axis
of rotation, while the other, consisting of the fine dust — the
filings and parings of the original particles — gradually becoming
finer and finer, and losing its velocity, tends (centripetally) to
accumulate in the centre of the vortex, which has been gradually
left free by the receding particles of globular matter. This finer
matter which collects in the centre of each vortex is the first
matter of Descartes — it constitutes the sun or star. The spherical
particles are the second matter of Descartes, and their tendency
to propel one another from the centre in straight lines towards the
circumference of each vortex is what gives rise to the phenomenon
of light radiating from the central star. This second matter is
atmosphere or firmament, which envelops and revolves around
the central accumulation of first matter.

A third form of matter is produced from the original particles.
As the small filings produced by friction seek to pass through
the interstices between the rapidly revolving spherical particles
in the vortex, they are detained and become twisted and chan-
nelled in their passage, and when they reach the edge of the inner
ocean of solar dust they settle upon it as the froth and foam
produced by the agitation of water gathers upon its surface.
These form what we term spots in the sun. In some cases they
come and go, or dissolve into an aether round the sun; but in
other cases they gradually increase until they form a dense crust
round the central nucleus. In course of time the star, with
its expansive force diminished, suffers encroachments from the
neighbouring vortices, and at length they catch it up. If the
1 Princip. part ii. 37. * 76. part iii. 47.

velocity of the decaying star be greater than that of any part of
the vortex which has swept it up, it will ere long pass out of the
range of that vortex, and continue its movement from one to
another. Such a star is a comet. But in other cases the en-
crusted star settles in that portion of the revolving vortex which
has a velocity equivalent to its own, and so continues to revolve
in the vortex, wrapped in its own firmament. Such a reduced and
impoverished star is a planet; and the several planets of our
solar system are the several vortices which from time to time have
been swept up by the central sun-vortex. The same considera-
tions serve to explain the moon and other satellites. They too
were once vortices, swallowed up by some other, which at a later
day fell a victim to the sweep of our sun.

Such in mere outline is the celebrated theory of vortices, which
for about twenty years after its promulgation reigned supreme
in science, and for much longer time opposed a tenacious resist-
ance to rival doctrines. It is one of the grandest hypotheses
which ever have been formed to account by mechanical processes
for the movements of the universe. While chemistry rests in the
acceptance of ultimate heterogeneous elements, the vortex-theory
assumed uniform matter through the universe, and reduced
cosmical physics to the same principles as regulate terrestrial
phenomena. It ended the old Aristotelian distinction between
the sphere beneath the moon and the starry spaces beyond.
It banished the spirits and genii, to which even Kepler had
assigned the guardianship of the planetary movements; and,
if it supposes the globular particles of the envelope to be the
active force in carrying the earth round the sun, we may
remember that Newton himself assumed an aether for somewhat
similar purposes. The great argument on which the Cartesians
founded their opposition to the Newtonian doctrine was that
attraction was an occult quality, not wholly intelligible by the
aid of mere mechanics. The Newtonian theory is an analysis of
the elementary movements which in their combination determine
the planetary orbits, and gives the formula of the proportions
according to which they act. But the Cartesian theory, like
the later speculations of Kant and Laplace, proposes to give a
hypothetical explanation of the circumstances and motions which
in the normal course of things led to the state of things required
by the law of attraction. In the judgment of D'Alembert the
Cartesan theory was the best that the observations of the age
admitted; and " its explanation of gravity was one of the most
ingenious hypotheses which philosophy ever imagined." That
the explanation fails in detail is undoubted: it does not account
for the ellipticity of the planets; it would place the sun, not in
one focus, but in the centre of the ellipse; and it would make
gravity directed towards the centre only under the equator.
But these defects need not blind us to the fact that this hypothesis
made the mathematical progress of Hooke, Borelli and Newton
much more easy and certain. Descartes professedly assumed a
simplicity in the phenomena which they did not present. But
such a hypothetical simplicity is the necessary step for solving
the more complex problems of nature. The danger lies not in
forming such hypotheses, but in regarding them as final, or as
more than an attempt to throw light upon our observation of
the phenomena. In doing what he did, Descartes actually
exemplified that reduction of the processes of nature to mere
transposition of the particles of matter, which in different ways
was a leading idea in the minds of Bacon, Hobbes and Gassendi.
The defects of Descartes lie rather in his apparently imperfect
apprehension of the principle of movements uniformly acceler-
ated which his contemporary Galileo had illustrated and insisted
upon, and in the indistinctness which attaches to his views of the
transmission of motion in cases of impact. It should be added
that the modern theory of vortex-atoms (Lord Kelvin's) to
explain the constitution of matter has but slight analogy with
Cartesian doctrine, and finds a parellel, if anywhere, in a
modification of that doctrine by Malebranche.

Besides the last two parts of the Principles of Philosophy, the
physical writings of Descartes include the Dioptrics and Meteors,
as well as passages in the letters. His optical investigations are
perhaps the subject in which he most contributed to the progress

DESCARTES

of science; and the lucidity of exposition which marks his
Dioptrics stands conspicuous even amid the generally luminous

style of his works. Its object is a practical one, to
'theories, determine by scientific considerations the shape of lens

best adapted to improve the capabilities of the tele-
scope, which had been invented not long before. The conclusions
at which he arrives have not been so useful as he imagined, in
consequence of the mechanical difficulties. But the investiga-
tion by which he reaches them has the merit of first prominently
publishing and establishing the law of the refraction of light.
Attempts have been made, principally founded on some remarks
of Huygens, to show that Descartes had learned the principles
of refraction from the manuscript of a treatise by Willebrord
Snell, but the facts are uncertain; and, so far as Descartes founds
his optics on any one, it is probably on the researches of Kepler.
In any case the discovery is to some extent his own, for his proof
of the law is founded upon the theory that light is the propagation
of the aether in straight lines from the sun or luminous body to
the eye (see LIGHT). Thus he approximates to the wave theory
of light, though he supposed that the transmission of light was
instantaneous. The chief of his other contributions to optics was
the explanation of the rainbow — an explanation far from com-
plete, since the unequal refrangibility of the rays of light was yet
undiscovered — but a decided advance upon his predecessors,
notably on the De radiis visus et lucis (1611) of Marc- Antonio
de Dominis, archbishop of Spalato.

If Descartes had contented himself with thus explaining the
phenomena of gravity, heat, magnetism, light and similar forces
by means of the molecular movements of his vortices, even such a
theory would have excited admiration. But he did not stop short
in the region of what is usually termed physics. Chemistry and
biology are alike swallowed up in the one science of physics, and
reduced to a problem of mechanism. This theory, he believed,
would afford an explanation of every phenomenon whatever, and
in nearly every department of knowledge he has given specimens
of its power. But the most remarkable and daring application
of the theory was to account for the phenomena of organic life,
especially in animals and man. " If we possessed a thorough
knowledge," he says,1 " of all the parts of the seed of any species
of animal (e.g. man), we could from that alone, by reasons entirely
mathematical and certain, deduce the whole figure and conforma-
tion of each of its members, and, conversely, if we knew several
peculiarities of this conformation, we could from these deduce
the nature of its seed." The organism in this way is regarded as
a machine, constructed from the particles of the seed, which in
virtue of the laws of motion have arranged themselves (always
under the governing power of God) in the particular animal shape
in which we see them. The doctrine of the circulation of the
blood, which Descartes adopted from Harvey, supplied additional
arguments in favour of his mechanical theory, and he probably
did much to popularize the discovery. A fire without light,
compared to the heat which gathers hi a haystack when the hay
has been stored before it was properly dry — heat, in short, as an
agitation of the particles — is the motive cause of the contraction
and dilatations of the heart. Those finer particles of the blood
which become extremely rarefied during this process pass off
in two directions — one portion, and the least important in the
theory, to the organs of generation, the other portion to the
cavities of the brain. There not merely do they serve to nourish
the organ, they also give rise to a fine ethereal flame or wind
through the action of the brain upon them, and thus form the
so-called " animal " spirits. From the brain these spirits are
conveyed through the body by means of the nerves, regarded by
Descartes as tubular vessels, resembling the pipes conveying the
water of a spring to act upon the mechanical apph'ances in an
artificial fountain. The nerves conduct the animal spirits to act
upon the muscles, and in their turn convey the impressions of
the organs to the brain.

Man and the animals as thus described are compared to
automata, and termed machines. The vegetative and sensitive
souls which the Aristotelians had introduced to break the leap
1 CEuvres, iv. 494.

Auto-

tnstism.

between inanimate matter and man are ruthlessly swept away;
only one soul, the rational, remains, and that is restricted to man.
One hypothesis supplants the various principles of
life; the rule of absolute mechanism is as complete in
the animal as in the cosmos. Reason and thought,
the essential quality of the soul, do not belong to the brutes;
there is an impassable gulf fixed between man and the lower
animals. The only sure sign of reason is the power of language —
i.e. of giving expression to general ideas; and language in that
sense is not found save in man. The cries of animals are but
the working of the curiously-contrived machine, in which, when
one portion is touched in a certain way, the wheels and springs
concealed in the interior perform their Work, and, it may be, a
note supposed to express joy or pain is evolved; but there is
no consciousness or feeling. " The animals act naturally and by
springs, like a watch." 2 " The greatest of all the prejudices we
have retained from our infancy is that of believing that the beasts
think."3 If the beasts can properly be said to see at all, " they
see as we do when our mind is distracted and keenly applied else-
where; the images of outward objects paint themselves on the
retina, and possibly even the impressions made in the optic nerves
determine our limbs to different movements, but we feel nothing
of it all, and move as if we were automata."4 The sentience of
the animal to the lash of his tyrant is not other than the sensi-
tivity of the plant to the influences of light and heat. It is not
much comfort to learn further from Descartes that " he denies
life to no animal, but makes it consist in the mere heat of the
heart. Nor does he deny them feeling in so far as it depends on
the bodily organs." 6

Descartes, with an unusual fondness for the letter of Scripture,
quotes oftener than once in support of this monstrous doctrine
the dictum, " the blood is the life "; and he remarks, with some
sarcasm possibly, that it is a comfortable theory for the eaters of
animal flesh. And the doctrine found acceptance among some
whom it enabled to get rid of the difficulties raised by Montaigne
and those who allowed more difference between animal and animal
than between the higher animals and man. It also encouraged
vivisection — a practice common with Descartes himself.6 The
recluses of Port Royal seized it eagerly, discussed automatism,
dissected living animals in order to show to a morbid curiosity
the circulation of the blood, were careless of the cries of tortured
dogs, and finally embalmed the doctrine in a syllogism of their
logic, — No matter thinks; every soul of beast is matter: there-
fore no soul of beast thinks.

But whilst all the organic processes in man go on mechani-
cally, and though by reflex action he may repel attack uncon-
sciously, still the first affirmation of the system was that man was
essentially a thinking being; and, while we retain this original
dictum, it must not be supposed that the mind is a mere spectator,
or like the boatman in the boat. Of course a unity of nature
is impossible between mind and body so described.
And yet there is a unity of composition, a unity so
close that the compound is " really one and in a sense and body.
indivisible." You cannot in the actual man .cut soul
and body asunder; they interpenetrate in every member. But
there is one point in the human frame — a point midway in the
brain, single and free, which may in a special sense be called the
seat of the mind. This is the so-called c narion, or pineal gland,
where in a minimized point the mind on one hand and the vital
spirits on the other meet and communicate. In that gland the
mystery of creation is concentrated; thought meets extension
and directs it; extension moves towards thought and is per-
ceived. Two clear and distinct ideas, it seems, produce an
absolute mystery. Mind, driven from the field of extension,
erects its last fortress in the pineal gland. In such a state of
despair and destitution there is no hope for spiritualism, save
in God; and Clauberg, Geulincx and Malebranche all take
refuge under the shadow of his wings to escape the tyranny of
extended matter.

In the psychology of Descartes there are two fundamental

2 Tb. ix. 426. ' Ib. x. 204. 4 76. vi. 339.

6 Ib. x. 208. 6 Ib. iv. 452 and 454.

88

DESCARTES

Psycho-
log}-.

modes of thought, — perception and volition. " It seems to me,"
he says, " that in receiving such and such an idea the mind is
passive, and that it is active only in volition; that its
ideas are put in it partly by the objects which touch the
senses, partly by the impressions in the brain, and
partly also by the dispositions which have preceded in the mind
itself and by the movements of its will." l The will, therefore,
as being more originative, has more to do with true or false
judgments than the understanding. Unfortunately, Descartes is
too lordly a philosopher to explain distinctly what either under-
standing or wfll may mean. But we gather that in two directions
our reason is bound up with bodily conditions, which make or mar
it, according as the will, or central energy of thought, is true to
itself or not. In the range of perception, intellect is subjected to
the material conditions of sense, memory and imagination; and
in infancy, when the will has allowed itself to assent precipitately
to the conjunctions presented to it by these material processes,
thought has become filled with obscure ideas. In the moral
sphere the passions or emotions (which Descartes reduces to the
six primitive forms of admiration, love, hatred, desire, joy and
sadness) are the perceptions or sentiments of the mind, caused and
maintained by some movement of the vital spirits, but specially
referring to the mind only. The presentation of some object of
dread, for example, to the eye has or may have a double effect.
On one hand the animal spirits " reflected " 2 from the image
formed on the pineal gland proceed through the nervous tubes to
make the muscles turn the back and lift the feet, so as to escape
the cause of the terror. Such is the reflex and mechanical
movement independent of the mind. But, on the other hand,
the vital spirits cause a movement in the gland by which the mind
perceives the affection of the organs, learns that something is to
be loved or hated, admired or shunned. Such perceptions dispose
the mind to pursue what nature dictates as useful. But the
estimate of goods and evils which they give is indistinct and
unsatisfactory. The office of reason is to give a true and distinct
appreciation of the values of goods and evils; or firm and
determinate judgments touching the knowledge of good and
evil are our proper arms against the influence of the passions.3
We are free, therefore, through knowledge: ex magna luce in
intellectu sequitur magna propensio in voluntate, and omnis peccans
est ignorans. " If we clearly see that what we are doing is wrong,
it would be impossible for us to sin, so long as we saw it in that
light."4 Thus the highest liberty, as distinguished from mere
indifference, proceeds from clear and distinct knowledge, and
such knowledge can only be attained by firmness and resolution,
i.e. by the continued exercise of the will. Thus in the perfection
of man, as in the nature of God, will and intellect must be united.
For thought, will is as necessary as understanding. And innate
ideas therefore are mere capacities or tendencies, — possibilities
wJiich apart from the will to think may be regarded as nothing
at all.

The Cartesian School. — The philosophy of Descartes fought its
first battles and gained its first triumphs in the country of his
adoption. In his lifetime his views had been taught in Utrecht
and Leiden. In the universities of the Netherlands and of lower
Germany? as yet free from the conservatism of the old-established
seats of learning, the new system gained an easy victory over
Aristotelianism, and, as it was adapted for lectures and exam-
inations, soon became almost as scholastic as the doctrines
it had supplanted. At Leiden, Utrecht, Groningen, Franeker,
Breda, Nimeguen, Harderwyk, Duisburg and Herborn, and at
the Catholic university of Louvain, Cartesianism was warmly
expounded and defended in seats of learning, of which many are
now left desolate, and by adherents whose writings have for the
most part long lost interest for any but the antiquary.

The Cartesianism of Holland was a child of the universities,

and its literature is mainly composed of commentaries upon

Holland **"e or'gmal texts, of theses discussed in the schools,

and of systematic expositions of Cartesian philosophy

for the benefit of the student. Three names stand out in this

1 CEuvres, ix. 166.
1 76. 48.

2 Passions de I'ame, 36.
4 CEuvres, ix. 170.

Cartesian professoriate, — Wittich, Clauberg and Geulincx. Chris-
toph Wittich (1625-1687), professor at Duisburg and Leiden,
is a representative of the moderate followers who professed
to reconcile the doctrines of their school with the faith of
Christendom and to refute the theology of Spinoza. Johann
Clauberg (q.v.) commented clause by clause upon the Meditations
of Descartes; but he specially claims notice for his work De
corporis et animae in homine conjunctione, where he maintains
that the bodily movements are merely procatarctic causes (i.e.
antecedents, but not strictly causes) of the mental action, and
sacrifices the independence of man to the omnipotence of God.
The same tendency is still more pronounced in Arnold Geulincx
(q.v.). With him the reciprocal action of mind and body is
altogether denied; they resemble two clocks, so made by the
artificer as to strike the same hour together. The mind can act
only upon itself; beyond that limit, the power of God must
intervene to make any seeming interaction possible between body
and soul. Such are the half-hearted attempts at consistency in
Cartesian thought, which eventually culminate in the pantheism
of Spinoza (see CARTESIANISM).

Descartes occasionally had not scrupled to interpret the
Scriptures according to his own tenets, while still maintaining,
when their letter contradicted him, that the Bible was not meant
to teach the sciences. Similar tendencies are found amongst his
followers. Whilst Protestant opponents put him in the list of
atheists like Vanini, and the Catholics held him as dangerous as
Luther or Calvin, there were zealous adherents who ventured to
prove the theory of vortices in harmony with the book of Genesis.
It was this rationalistic treatment of the sacred writings which
helped to confound the Cartesians with the allegorical school of
John Cocceius, as their liberal doctrines in theology justified the
vulgar identification of them with the heresies of Socinian and
Arminian. The chief names in this advanced theology connected
with Cartesian doctrines are Ludwig Meyer, the friend and editor
of Spinoza, author of a work termed Philosophia scripturae
inter pres (1666); Balthasar Bekker, whose World Bewitched
helped to discredit the superstitious fancies about the devil; and
Spinoza, whose Tractatus theologico-polilicus is in some respects
the classical type of rational criticism up to the present day.
Against this work and the Ethics of Spinoza the orthodox
Cartesians (who were in the majority), no less than sceptical
hangers-on like Bayle, raised an all but universal howl of repro-
bation, scarcely broken for about a century.

In France Cartesianism won society and literature before
it penetrated into' the universities. Clerselier (the friend of
Descartes and his literary executor), his son-in-law _
Rohault (who achieved that relationship through his
Cartesianism), and others, opened their houses for readings to
which the intellectual world of Paris — its learned professors
not more than the courtiers and the fair sex, — flocked to hear the
new doctrines explained, and possibly discuss their value. Grand
seigneurs, like the prince of Conde, the due de Nevers and the
marquis de Vardes, were glad to vary the monotony of their
feudal castles by listening to the eloquent rehearsals of Male-
branche or Regis. And the salons of Mme de Sevigne, of her
daughter Mme de Grignan, and of the duchesse de Maine for
a while gave the questions of philosophy a place among the topics
of polite society, and furnished to Moliere the occasion of his
Femmes savantes. The Chateau of the due de Luynes, the trans-
lator of the Meditations, was the home of a Cartesian club, that
discussed the questions of automatism and of the comoosition
of the sun from filings and parings, and rivalled Port Royal in
its vivisections. The cardinal de Retz in his leisurely age at
Commercy found amusement in presiding at disputations between
the more moderate Cartesians and Don Robert Desgabets, who
interpreted Descartes in an original way of his own. Though
rejected by the Jesuits, who found peripatetic formulae a faithful
weapon against the enemies of the church, Cartesianism was
warmly adopted by the Oratory, which saw in Descartes some-
thing of St Augustine, by Port Royal, which discovered a
connexion between the new system and Jansenism, and by some
amongst the Benedictines and the order of Ste Genevieve-

DESCARTES

89

The popularity which Cartesianism thus gained in the social
and literary circles of the capital was largely increased by the
labours of Pierre-Sylvain Regis (1632-1707). On his visit to
Toulouse in 1665, with a mission from the Cartesian chiefs, his
lectures excited boundless interest; ladies threw themselves
with zeal and ability into the study of philosophy; and Regis
himself was made the guest of the civic corporation. In 1671
scarcely less enthusiasm was roused in Montpellier; and in 1680
he opened a course of lectures at Paris, with such acceptance
that hearers had to take their seats in advance. Regis, by
removing the paradoxes and adjusting the metaphysics to the
popular powers of apprehension, made Cartesianism popular,
and reduced it to a regular system.

But a check was at hand. Descartes, in his correspondence
with the Jesuits, had shown an almost cringing eagerness to have
their powerful organization on his side. Especially he had
written to Pere Mesland, one of the order, to show how the
Catholic doctrine of the eucharist might be made compatible with
his theories of matter. But his undue haste to arrange matters
with the church only served to compromise him more deeply.
Unwise admirers and malicious opponents exaggerated the
theological bearings of his system in this detail; and the efforts
of the Jesuits succeeded in getting the works of Descartes, in
November 1663, placed upon the index of prohibited books, —
donee corriganlur. Thereupon the power of church and state
enforced by positive enactments the passive resistance of old
institutions to the novel theories. In 1667, the oration at the
interment was forbidden by royal order. In 1669, when the chair
of philosophy at the College Royal fell vacant, one of the four
selected candidates had to sustain a thesis against " the pretended
new philosophy of Descartes." In 1671 the archbishop of Paris,
by the king's order, summoned the heads of the university to
his presence, and enjoined them to take stricter measures against
philosophical novelties dangerous to the faith. In 1673 a decree
of the parlement against Cartesian and other unlicensed theories
was on the point of being issued, and was only checked injtime by
the appearance of a burlesque mandamus against the intruder
Reason, composed by Boileau and some of his brother-poets.
Yet in 1675 the university of Angers was empowered to repress
all Cartesian teaching within its domain, and actually appointed
a commission charged to look for such heresies in the theses and
the students' note-books of the college of Anjou belonging to
the Oratory. In 1677 the university of Caen adopted not less
stringent measures against Cartesianism. And so great was the
influence of the Jesuits, that the congregation of St Maur, the
canons of Ste Genevieve, and the Oratory laid their official ban
on the obnoxious doctrines. From the real or fancied rapproche-
ments between Cartesianism and Jansenism, it became for a
while impolitic, if not dangerous, to avow too loudly a preference
for Cartesian theories. Regis was constrained to hold back for
ten years his System of Philosophy; and when it did appear, in
1690, the name of Descartes was absent from the title-page.
There were other obstacles besides the mild persecutions of the
church. Pascal and other members of Port Royal openly
expressed their doubts about the place allowed to God in the
system; the adherents of Gassendi met it by resuscitating
atoms; and the Aristotelians maintained their substantial forms
as of old; the Jesuits argued against the arguments for the being
of God, and against the theory of innate ideas; whilst Pierre
Daniel Huet (16305-1721), bishop of Avranches, once aCartesian
himself, made a vigorous onslaught on the contempt in which his
former comrades held literature and history, and enlarged on the
vanity of all human aspirations after rational truth.

The greatest and most original of the French Cartesians was
Malebranche (q.v.). His Recherche de la v6rit£, in 1674, was the
baptism of the system into a theistic religion which borrowed
its imagery from Augustine; it brought into prominence the
metaphysical base which Louis Delaforge, Jacques Rohault and
Regis had neither cared for nor understood. But this doctrine
was a criticism and a divergence, no less than a consequence,
from the principles in Descartes; and it brought upon
Malebranche the opposition, not merely of the Cartesian

physicists, but also ot Arnauld, Fenelon and Bossuet, who found,
or hoped to find, in the Meditations, as properly understood,
an ally for theology. Popular enthusiasm, however, was with
Malebranche, as twenty years before it had been with Descartes;
he was the fashion of the day; and his disciples rapidly increased
both in France and abroad.

In 1705 Cartesianism was still subject to prohibitions from the
authorities; but in a project of new statutes, drawn up for the
faculty of arts at Paris in 1720, the Method and Meditations of
Descartes were placed beside the Organon and the Metaphysics
of Aristotle as text-books for philosophical study. And before
1725, readings, both public and private, were given from
Cartesian texts in some of the Parisian colleges. But when
this happened, Cartesianism was no longer either interesting
or dangerous; its theories, taught as ascertained and verified
truths, were as worthless as the systematic verbiage which
preceded them. Already antiquated, it could not resist the wit
and raillery with which Voltaire, in his Lettres sur les Anglais
(1728), brought against it the principles and results of Locke and
Newton. The old Cartesians, Jean Jacques Dortous de Mairan
(1678-1771) and especially Fontenelle, with his Theoris des
tourbillons (1752), struggled in vain to refute Newton by styling
attraction an occult quality. Fortunately the Cartesian method
had already done its service, even where the theories were
rejected. The Port Royalists, Pierre Nicole (1625-1695) and
Antoine Arnauld (1612-1694), had applied it to grammar and
logic; Jean Domat or Daumat (1625-1696) and Henri Francois
Daugesseau (1668-1751) to jurisprudence; Fontenelle, Charles
Perrault (1628-1703) and Jean Terrasson (1670-1750) to literary
criticism, and a worthier estimate of modern literature. Though
it never ceased to influence individual thinkers, it had handed on
to Condillac its popularity with the masses. A Latin abridgment
of philosophy, dated 1784, tells us that the innate ideas of
Descartes are founded on no arguments, and are now universally
abandoned. The ghost of innate ideas seems to be all that it
had left. _

In Germany a few Cartesian lecturers taught at Leipzig and
Halle, but the system took no root, any more than in Switzerland,
where it had a brief reign at Geneva after 1669. In aermaay.
Italy the effects were more permanent. What is
termed the iatro-mechanical school of medicine, with G. A.
Borelli (1608-1679) as its most notable name, entered in a way
on the mechanical study of anatomy suggested by Descartes, but
was probably much more dependent upon the positive researches
of Galileo. At Naples there grew up a Cartesian school, of which
the best known members are Michel Angelo Fardella (1650-1708)
and Cardinal Gerdil (1718-1802), both of whom, however,
attached themselves to the characteristic views of Malebranche.

In England Cartesianism took but slight hold. Henry More,
who had given it a modified sympathy in the lifetime of the
author, became its opponent in later years; and England.
Cudworth differed from it in most essential points.
Antony Legrand, from Douai, attempted to introduce it into
Oxford, but failed. He is the author of several works, amongst
others a system of Cartesian philosophy, where a chapter on
" Angels " revives the methods of the schoolmen. His chief
opponent was SamuelParker (1640- 1688), bishop of Oxford, who,
in his attack on the irreligious novelties of the Cartesian, treats
Descartes as a fellow-criminal in infidelity with Hobbes and
Gassendi. Rohault's version of the Cartesian physics was
translated into English; and Malebranche found an ardent
follower in John Norris (1667-1711). Of Cartesianism towards
the close of the I7th century the only remnants were an over-
grown theory of vortices, which received its death-blow from
Newton, and a dubious phraseology anent innate ideas, which
found a witty executioner in Locke.

For an account of the metaphysical doctrines of Descartes,
in their connexions with Malebranche and Spinoza, see
CARTESIANISM.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — I. Editions and Translations. — The collected
works of Descartes were published in Latin in 8 vols. at Amsterdam
(1670-1683), in 7 vols. at Frankfort (1697) and in 9 vols. by Elzevir

9°

DESCHAMPS

(1713); in French in 13 vols. (Paris, 172,1-1729), republished by
Victor Cousin (Paris, 1824-1826) in 11 vols., and again under the
authority of the minister of public instruction by C. Adam and
P. Tannery (1897 foil.). Theseinclude his so-called posthumous works.
The Rules for the Direction of the Mind, The Search for Truth by the
Light of Nature, and other .unimportant fragments, published (in
Latin) in 1701. In l859-i8'6o Foucher de C'areil published in two
parts some unedited writings of Descartes from copies taken by
Leibnitz from the original papers. Six editions of the Opera philo-
sophica appeared at Amsterdam between 1650 and 1678; a two-
volume edition at Leipzig in 1843; there are also French editions,
CEuvres phttosophiques, by A. Gamier, 3 vols. (1834-1835), and L.
Aime-Martin (1838) and CEuvres morales et philosophiques by Aime-
Martin with an introduction on life and works by Amedee Prevost
(Paris, 1855); CEuvres choisies (1850) by Jules Simon. A complete
French edition of the collected works was begun in the Romance
Library (1907 foil.). German translations by J. H. von Kirchmann
under the title Philosophische Werke (with biography, &c., Berlin,
1868; and ed , 1882-1891), by Kuno Fischer, Die Hauptschriften
zur Grundlegung seiner Philosophic (1863), with introduction by
Ludwig Fischer (1892). There are also numerous editions and trans-
lations of separate works, especially the Method, in French, German,
Italian, Spanish and Hungarian. There are English translations by
J Veitch, Method, Meditations and Selections from the Principles
(1850-1853; iithed., 1897; New York, 1899); by H. A. P. Torrey
(New York, 1892).

II. Biographical. — A. Baillet, La Vie de M. Des Cartes (Pans, 1691 ;
Eng. trans., 1692), exhaustive but uncritical; notices in the editions
of Gamier and Aime-Martin; A. Hoffmann, Rene Descartes (1905);
Elizabeth S. Haldane, Descartes, his Life and Times (1905), contain-
ing full bibliography ; A. Barbier, Rene Descartes, sa famille, son lieu
de naissance, &c. (1901)? Richard Lowndes, Rene Descartes, his
Life and Meditations (London, 1878) ; J. P. Mahaffy, Descartes (1902),
with an appendix on Descartes 's mathematical work by Frederick
Purser; Victor de Swarte, Descartes directeur spirituel (Paris, 1904),
correspondence with the Princess Palatine ; C. J. Jeannel, Descartes
et la princesse palatine (Paris, 1869); Lettres de M. Descartes, ed.
Claude Clerselier (1657). A usetul sketch of recent biographies is to
be found in The Edinburgh Review (July 1906).

III. Philosophy. — Beside the histories of philosophy, the article
CARTESIANISM, and the above works, consult J.B.Bqrdas-Demoulini
Le Cartesianisme (2nd ed., Paris, 1874); J. P. Damiron, Histoire de
la philosophie du X VII' siecle (Paris, 1846) ; C. B. Renouvier, Manuel
de philosophie moderne (Paris, 1842); V. Cousin, Fragments philo-
sophiques, vol. ii. (3rd ed., Paris, 1838), Fragments de philosophie
cartesienne (Paris, 1845), and in the Journal des savants (1860-1861) ;
F. Bouillier, Hist, de la philosophie cartesienne (Paris, 1854), 2 vols.,
and Hist, et critique de la revolution cartesienne (Paris, 1842) ; J. Millet,
Descartes, sa vie, ses travaux, ses decouvertes dvant 1637 (Paris,
1867), and Hist, de Descartes depuis 1637 (Paris, 1870); L. Liard,
Descartes (Paris, 1882); A. Fouillee, Descartes (Paris, 1893); Revue
de metaphysique et de morale (July, 1896, Descartes number) ; Norman
Smith, Studies in the Cartesian Philosophy (1902); R. Keussen,
Bewusstsein und Erkenntnis bei Descartes (1906); A. Kayserling,
Die Idee der Kausalitdt in den Lehren der Occasionalisten (1896);
J. Iverach, Descartes, Spinoza and the New Philosophy (1904);
R. Joerges, Die Lehre von den Empfindungen bei Descartes (1901);
Kuno Fischer, Hisi. of Mod. Phil. Descartes and his Schobl (Eng. trans.,
1887) ; B. Christiansen, Das Urteil bei Descartes (1902) ; E. Boutroux,
'' Descartes and Cartesianism " in Cambridge Modern History, vol.
iv. (1906), chap. 27, with a very full bibliography, pp. 950-953;
P. Natorp, Descartes' Erkenntnis stlieorie (Marburg, 1882); L. A.
Prevost-Paradol, Les Moralistes franc,ais (Paris, 1865) ; C. Schaar-
schmidt, Descartes und Spinoza' (Bonn, 1850); R. Adamson, The
Development of Modern Philosophy (Edinburgh, 1903); J. Miiller,
Der Begriff der sittlichen Unvollkommenheit bei Descartes und Spinoza
(1890); J. H. von Kirchmann, R. Descartes' Prinzipien der Philos.
(1863); G. Touchard, La Morale de Descartes (1898); Lucien Levy-
Bruhl, Hist, of Mod. Philos. in France (Eng. trans., 1899), PP- J-76-

IV. Science and Mathematics. — V. Cajori, History of Mathematics
(London, 1894) ; M. Cantor, Vorlesungen iiber die Geschichte der
Mathematik (Leipzig, 1894-1901); Sir Michael Foster, Hist, of
Physiol. during the Sixteenth, Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
(1901); Duboux, La Physique de Descartes (Lausanne, 1881); G.
H. Zeuthen, Geschichte der MatJiematik im 16. und 17. Jahrhunden
(1903); Chas\es,Aperc,u historique sur I'origine et le developpement
des methodes en geometrie (3rd ed., 1889). (W. W.; X.)

DESCHAMPS, (5MILE (1791-1871), French poet and man of
letters, was born at Bourges on the zoth of February 1791. The
son of a civil servant, he adopted his father's career, but as early
as 1812 he distinguished himself by an ode, La Paix conquise,
which won the praise of Napoleon. In 1818 he collaborated with
Henri de Latouche in two verse comedies, Selmours de Flotian
and Le Tour defaveur. He and his brother were among the most
enthusiastic disciples of the cenacle gathered round Victor Hugo
and in July 1823 Emile founded with his master the Muse
franqaise, which during the year of its existence was the soeciaJ

organ of the romantic party. His Etud es franc. aises et elrangeres
[1828) were preceded by a preface which may be regarded as
one of the manifestos of the romanticists. The versions oi
Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet (1839) and of Macbeth (1844),
important as they were in the history of the romantic movement,
were never staged. He was the author of several libretti, among
which may be mentioned the Romeo el Juliette of Berlioz. The
list of his more important works is completed by his two volumes
of stories, Cohtes physiologiques (1854) and Realites fantastiques
(1854). He died at Versailles in April 1871. His (Euvres
completes were published in 1872-1874 (6 vols.).

His brother, Antoine Francois Marie, known as ANTONY
DESCHAMPS, was born in Paris on the i2th of March 1800 and
died at Passy on the agth of October 1869. Like his brother,
he was an ardent romanticist, but his production was limited by
a nervous disorder, which has left its mark on his melancholy
work. He translated the Divina Commedia in 1829, and his
poems, Dernieres Paroles and Resignation, were republished with
his brother's in 1841.

DESCHAMPS, EUSTACHE, called MOREL (i346?-i4o6?),
French poet, was born at Vertus in Champagne about 1346. He
studied at Reims, where he is said to have received some lessons
in the art of versification from Guillaume de Machaut, who is
stated to have been his uncle. From Reims he proceeded about
1360 to the university of Orleans to study law and the seven
liberal arts. He entered the king's service as royal messenger
about 1367, and was sent on missions to Bohemia, Hungary and
Moravia. In 1372 he was made huissier d'armes to Charles V.
He received many other important offices, was bailli of Valois,
and afterwards of Senlis, squire to the Dauphin, and governor of
Fismes. In 1380 his patron, Charles V., died, and in the same
year the English burnt down his house at Vertus. In his child-
hood he had been an eye-witness of the English invasion of 1358;
he had been present at the siege of Reims and seen the march on
Chartres; he had witnessed the signing of the treaty of Bretigny;
he was now himself a victim of the English fury. His violent
hatred of the English found vent in numerous appeals to carry
the war into England, and in the famous prophecy * that England
would be destroyed so thoroughly that no one should be able
to point to her ruins. His own misfortunes and the miseries of
France embittered his temper. He complained continually of
poverty, railed against women and lamented the woes of his
country. His last years were spent on his Miroir de manage, a
satire of 13,000 lines against women, which contains some real
comedy. The mother-in-law of French farce has her prototype
in the Miroir.

The historical and patriotic poems of Deschamps are of much
greater value. He does not, like Froissart, cast a glamour over
the miserable wars of the time but gives a faithful picture of the
anarchy of France, and inveighs ceaselessly against the heavy
taxes, the vices of the clergy and especially against those who
enrich themselves at the expense of the people. The terrible
ballad with the refrain " Sa, de V argent; ia, de I'argent " is
typical of his work. Deschamps excelled in the use of the ballade
and the chant royal. In each of these forms he was the greatest
master of his time. In ballade form he expressed his regret for
the death of Du Guesclin, who seems to have been the only man
except his patron, Charles V., for whom he ever felt any admira-
tion. One of his ballades (No. 283) was sent with a copy of his
works to Geoffrey Chaucer, whom he addresses with the words: —

" Tu es d'amours mondains dieux en Albie
Et de la Rose en la terre Angelique."

Deschamps was the author of an Art poetique, with the title of
L'Art de dictier et de fere chancons, balades, wrelais et rondeaulx.
Besides giving rules for the composition of the kinds of verse
mentioned in the title he enunciates some curious theories on
poetry. He divides music into music proper and poetry. Music
proper he calls artificial on the ground that everyone could by
dint of study become a musician; poetry he calls natural because

1 " De la prophecie Merlin sur la destruction d'Angleterre qui doit
brief advenir " (CEuvres, No. 211).

DESCHANEL— DESCRIPTIVE POETRY

he says it is not an art that can be acquired but a gift. He lays
immense stress on the harmony of verse, because, as was the
fashion of his day, he practically took it for granted that all
poetry was to be sung.

The work of Deschamps marks an important stage in the history
of French poetry. With him and his contemporaries the long,
formless narrations of the trouveres give place to complicated and
exacting kinds of verse. He was perhaps by nature a moralist
and satirist rather than a poet, and the force and truth of his
historical pictures gives him a unique place in 14th-century
poetry. M. Raynaud fixes the date of his death in 1406, or at
latest, 1407. Two years earlier he had been relieved of his
charge as bailli of Senlis, his plain-spoken satires having made
him many enemies at court.

His (Euvres completes were edited (10 vols., 1878-1901) for the
Societe des anciens textes frangais by Queux de Saint-Hilaire and
Gaston Raynaud. A supplementary volume consists of an Introduc-
tion by G. Raynaud. See also Dr E. Hoeppner, Eustache Deschamps
(Strassburg, 1904).

DESCHANEL, PAUL EUGENE LOUIS (1856- ), French
statesman, son of Emile Deschanel (1819-1904), professor at the
College de France and senator, was born at Brussels, where his
father was living in exile (1851-1859), owing to his opposition to
Napoleon III. Paul Deschanel studied law, and began his career
as secretary to Deshayes de Marcere (1876), and to Jules Simon
(1876-1877). In October 1885 he was elected deputy for Eure
and Loire. From the first he took an important place in the
chamber, as one of the ,most notable orators of the Progressist
Republican group. In January 1 896 he was elected vice-president
of the chamber, and henceforth devoted himself to the struggle
against the Left, not only in parliament, but also in public
meetings throughout France. His addresses at Marseilles on the
a6th of October 1896, at Carmaux on the 27th of December 1896,
and at Roubaix on the loth of April 1897, were triumphs of clear
and eloquent exposition of the political and social aims of the
Progressist party. In June 1898 he was elected president of
the chamber, and was re-elected in 1901, but rejected in 1902.
Nevertheless he came forward brilliantly in 1904 and 1905 as a
supporter of the law on the separation of church and state. He
was elected a member of the French Academy in 1899, his most
notable works being Orateurs et hommes d'etat (1888), Figures
defemmts (1889), La Decentralization (1895), La Question sociale
(1898).

DES CLOIZEAUX, ALFRED LOUIS OLIVIER LEGRAND
(1817-1897), French mineralogist, was born at Beauvais, in the
department of Oise, on the i7th of October 1817. He became
professor of mineralogy at the Ecole Normale Superieure and
afterwards at the Musee d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris. He
studied the geysers of Iceland, and wrote also on the classification
of some of the eruptive rocks; but his main work consisted in the
systematic examination of the crystals of numerous minerals, in
researches on their optical properties and on the subject of polar-
ization. He wrote specially on the means of determining the
different felspars. He was awarded the Wollaston medal by the
Geological Society of London in 1886. He died in May 1897.
His best-known books are Lemons de cristallographie (1861);
Manuel de mineralogie (2 vols., Paris, 1862, 1874 and 1893).

DESCLOIZITE, a rare mineral species consisting of basic lead
and zinc vanadate, (Pb, Zn)2(OH)VO4, crystallizing in the ortho-
rhombic system and isomorphous with olivenite. It was dis-
covered by A. Damour in 1854, and named by him in honour
of the French mineralogist Des Cloizeaux. It occurs as small
prismatic or pyramidal crystals, usually forming drusy crusts
and stalaetitic aggregates; also as fibrous encrusting masses with
a mammillary surface. The colour is deep cherry-red to brown
or black, and the crystals are transparent or translucent with a
greasy lustre; the streak is orange-yellow to brown; specific
gravity 5-9 to 6-2; hardness 3^. A variety known as cupro-
descloizite is dull green in colour; it contains a considerable
amount of copper replacing zinc and some arsenic replacing
vanadium. Descloizite occurs in veins of lead ores in association
with pyromorphite, vanadinite, wulfenite, &c. Localities are

the Sierra de Cordoba in Argentina, Lake Valley in Sierra county,
New Mexico, Arizona, Phoenixville in Pennsylvania, and Kappel
(Eisen-Kappel) near Klagenfurt in Carinthia.

Other names which have been applied to this species are
vanadite, tritochorite and ramirite; the uncertain vanadates
:usynchite, araeoxene and dechenite are possibly identical
with it.

DESCRIPTIVE POETRY, the name given to a class of literature,
which may be defined as belonging mainly to the i6th, i7th and
1 8th centuries in Europe. From the earliest times, all poetry
which was not subjectively lyrical was apt to indulge in ornament
which might be named descriptive. But the critics of the
1 7th century formed a distinction between the representations
of the ancients and those of the moderns. We find Boileau
emphasizing the statement that, while Virgil paints, Tasso
describes. This may be a useful indication for us in defining not
what should, but what in practice has been called " descriptive
poetry." It is poetry in which it is not imaginative passion
which prevails, but a didactic purpose, or even something of the
instinct of a sublimated auctioneer. In other words, the land-
scape, or architecture, or still life, or whatever may be the object
of the poet's attention, is not used as an accessory, but is itself
the centre of interest. It is, in this sense, not correct to call
poetry in which description is only the occasional ornament of a
poem, and not its central subject, descriptive poetry. The land-
scape or still life must fill the canvas, or, if human interest is
introduced, that must be treated as an accessory. Thus, in the
Hero and Leander of Marlowe and in the Alastor of Shelley,
description of a very brilliant kind is largely introduced, yet
these are not examples of what is technically called " descriptive
poetry," because it is not the strait between Sestos and Abydos,
and it is not the flora of a tropical glen, which concentrates the
attention of the one poet or of the other, but it is an example of
physical passion in the one case and of intellectual passion in the
other, which is diagnosed and dilated on. On the other hand
Thomson's Seasons, in which landscape takes the central place,
and Drayton's Polyolbion, where everything is sacrificed to a
topographical progress through Britain, are strictly descriptive.

It will be obvious from this definition that the danger ahead
of all purely descriptive poetry is that it will lack intensity, that
it will be frigid, if not dead. Description for description's sake,
especially in studied verse, is rarely a vitalized form of literature.
It is threatened, from its very conception, with languor and
coldness; it must exercise an extreme art or be condemned to
immediate sterility. Boileau, with his customary intelligence,
was the first to see this, and he thought that the danger might be
avoided by care in technical execution. His advice to the poets
of his time was: —

" Soyez riches et pompeux dans vos descriptions ;

C'est-Ia qu'il faut des vers etaler 1'elegance,"
and: —

" De figure sans nombre 6gayez votre ouvrage ;

Que toute y fasse aux yeux une riante image,"

and in verses of brilliant humour he mocked the writer who,
too full of his subject, and describing for description's sake, will
never quit his theme until he has exhausted it : —
" Fuyez de ces auteurs 1'abondance sterile
Et ne vous chargez point d'un detail inutile."

This is excellent advice, but Boileau 's humorous sallies do not
quite meet the question whether such purely descriptive poetry
as he criticizes is legitimate at all.

In England had appeared the famous translation (1592-1611),
by Josuah Sylvester, of the Divine Weeks and Works of Du
Bartas, containing such lines as those which the juvenile Dryden
admired so much: —

" But when winter's keener breath began
To crystallize the Baltic ocean,
To glaze the lakes, and bridle up the floods,
Andperriwig with wool the bald-pate woods."

There was also the curious physiological epic of Phineas Fletcher,
The Purple Island (1633). But on the whole it was not until
French influences had made themselves felt on English poetry,

DESERT

that description, as Boileau conceived it, was cultivated as a
distinct art. The Cooper's Hill (1642) of Sir John Denham may
be contrasted with the less ambitious Penshurst of Ben Jonson,
and the one represents the new no less completely than the other
does the old generation. If, however, we examine Cooper's Hill
carefully, we perceive that its aim is after all rather philosophical
than topographical. The Thames is described indeed, but not
very minutely, and the poet is mainly absorbed in moral reflec-
tions. Marvell's long poem on the beauties of Nunappleton comes
nearer to the type. But it is hardly until we reach the iSth
century that we arrive, in English literature, at what is properly
known as descriptive poetry. This was the age in which poets,
often of no mean capacity, began to take such definite themes
as a small country estate (Pomfret's Choice, 1700), the cultivation
of the grape (Gay's Wine, 1708), a landscape (Pope's Windsor
Forest, 1713), a military manoeuvre (Addison's Campaign, 1704),
the industry of an apple-orchard (Philip's Cyder, 1708) or a piece
of topography (Tickell's Kensington Gardens, 1722), as the sole
subject of a lengthy poem, generally written in heroic or blank
verse. These tours de force were supported by minute efforts in
miniature-painting, by touch applied to touch, and were often
monuments of industry, but they were apt to lack personal
interest, and to suffer from a general and deplorable frigidity.
They were infected with the faults which accompany an artificial
style; they were monotonous, rhetorical and symmetrical, while
the uniformity of treatment which was inevitable to their plan
rendered them hopelessly tedious, if they were prolonged to any
great extent.

This species of writing had been cultivated to a considerable
degree through the preceding century, in Italy and (as the
remarks of Boileau testify) in France, but it was in England that
it reached its highest importance. The classic of descriptive
poetry, in fact, the specimen which the literature of the world
presents which must be considered as the most important and
the most successful, is TheSeasons (1726-1730) of James Thomson
(q.v.). In Thomson, for the first time, a poet of considerable
eminence appeared, to whom external nature was all sufficient,
and who succeeded in conducting a long poem to its close by a
single appeal to landscape, and to the emotions which it directly
evokes. Coleridge, somewhat severely, described The Seasons as
the work of a good rather than of a great poet, and it is an in-
disputable fact that, at its very best, descriptive poetry fails to
awaken the highest powers of the imagination. A great part of
Thomson's poem is nothing more nor less than a skilfully varied
catalogue of natural phenomena. The famous description of twi-
light in " the fading many-coloured woods" of autumn may be
taken as an example of the highest art to which purely descriptive
poetry has ever attained. It is obvious, even here, that the effect
of these rich and sonorous lines, in spite of the splendid effort
of the artist, is monotonous, and leads us up to no final crisis of
passion or rapture. Yet Thomson succeeds, as few other poets
of his class have succeeded, in producing nobly-massed effects
and comprehensive beauties such as were utterly unknown to his
predecessors. He was widely imitated in England, especially by
Armstrong, by Akenside, by Shenstone (in The Schoolmistress,
1742), by the anonymous author of Albania, 1737, and by
Goldsmith (in The Deserted Village, 1770). No better example
of the more pedestrian class of descriptive poetry could be found
than the last-mentioned poem, with its minute and Dutch-like
painting: —

" How often have I paused on every charm:
The sheltered cot, the cultivated farm;
The never-failing brook, the busy mill.
The decent church that topped the neighbouring hill:
The hawthorn-bush, with seats beneath the shade.
For talking age and whispering lovers made."

On the continent of Europe the example of Thomson was almost
immediately fruitful. Four several translations of The Seasons
into French contended for the suffrages of the public, and J. F.
de Saint-Lambert (1716-1803) imitated Thomson in Les Saisons
(1769), a poem which enjoyed popularity for half a century, and
of which Voltaire said that it was the or.ly one of its generation

which would reach posterity. Nevertheless, as Madame du
Deffand told Walpole, Saint-Lambert is " froid, fade et faux,"
and the same may be said of J. A. Roucher (1745-1794), who
wrote Les Mois in 1779, a descriptive poem famous in its
day. The Abbe Jacques Delille (1738-1813), perhaps the most
ambitious descriptive poet who has ever lived, was treated
as a Virgil by his contemporaries; he published Les Georgiques
in 1769, Les Jardins in 1782, and L'Homme des champs in 1803,
but he went furthest in his brilliant, though artificial, Trois
regnes de la nature (1809), which French critics have called the
masterpiece of this whole school of descriptive poetry. Delille,
however, like Thomson before him, was unable to avoid mono-
tony and want of coherency. Picture follows picture, and no
progress is made. The satire of Marie Joseph Chenier, in his
famous and witty Discours sur les poemes descriptifs, brought
the vogue of this species of poetry to an end.

In England, again, Wordsworth, who treated the genius of
Thomson with unmerited severity, revived descriptive poetry
in a form which owed more than Wordsworth realized to the
model of The Seasons. In The Excursion and The Prelude, as
well as in many of his minor pieces, Wordsworth's philosophical
and moral intentions cannot prevent us from perceiving the
large part which pure description takes; and the same may be
said of much of the early blank verse of S. T. Coleridge. Since
their day, however, purely descriptive poetry has gone more and
more completely out of fashion, and its place has been taken by
the richer and director effects of such prose as that of Ruskin
in English, or 'of Fromentin and Pierre Loti in French. It is
almost impossible in descriptive verse to obtain those vivid
and impassioned appeals to the imagination which are of the
very essence of genuine poetry, and it is unlikely that descrip-
tive poetry, as such, will again take a prominent place in living
literature. (E. G.)

DESERT, a term somewhat loosely employed to describe those
parts of the land surface of the earth which do not produce
sufficient vegetation to support a human population. Few areas
of large extent in any part of the world are absolutely devoid of
vegetation, and the transition from typical desert conditions is
often very gradual and ill-defined. (" Desert " comes from Lat.
deserere, to abandon; distinguish " desert," merit, and " dessert,"
fruit eaten after dinner, from de and servier, to serve.)

Deserts are conveniently divided into two classes according
to the causes which give rise to the desert conditions. In " cold
deserts " the want of vegetation is wholly due to the prevailing
low temperature, while in " hot deserts " the surface is uroro-
ductive because, on account of high temperature and deficient
rainfall, evaporation is largely in excess of precipitation. Cold
deserts accordingly occur in high latitudes (see TUNDRA and
POLAR REGIONS). Hot desert conditions are primarily found
along the tropical belts of high atmospheric pressure in which the
conditions of warmth and dryness are most fully realized, and on
their equatorial sides, but the zonal arrangement is considerably
modified in some regions by the monsoonal influence of elevated
land. Thus we have in the northern hemisphere the Sahara
desert, the deserts of Arabia, Iran, Turan, Takla Makan and
Gobi, and the desert regions of the Great Basin in North
America; and in the southern hemisphere the Kalahari desert
in Africa, the desert of Australia, and the desert of Atacama in
South America. Where the line of elevated land runs east and
west, as in Asia, the desert belt tends to be displaced into higher
latitudes, and where the line runs north and south, as in Africa,
America and Australia, the desert zone is cut through on the
windward side of the elevation and the arid conditions intensified
on the lee side. Desert conditions also arise from local causes,
as in the case of the Indian desert situated in a region inaccessible
to either of the two main branches of the south-west monsoon.

Although rivers rising in more favoured regions may traverse
deserts on their way to the sea, as in the case of the Nile and the
Colorado, the fundamental physical condition of an arid area is
that it contributes nothing to the waters of the ocean. The rain-
fall chiefly occurs in violent cloudbursts, and the soluble matter
in the soil is carried down by intermittent streams to salt lakes

DESERTION— DESFORGES

93

around which deposits are formed as evaporation takes place.
The land forms of a desert are exceedingly characteristic. Surface
erosion is chiefly due to rapid changes of temperature through a
wide range, and to the action of wind transferring sand and dust,
often in the form of " dunes " resembling the waves of the sea.
Dry valleys, narrow and of great depth, with precipitous sides,
and ending in " cirques," are probably formed by the intense
action of the occasional cloud-bursts.

When water can be obtained and distributed over an arid
region by irrigation, the surface as a rule becomes extremely
productive. Natural springs give rise to oases at intervals and
make the crossing of large deserts possible. Where a river crosses
a desert at a level near that of the general surface, irrigation can
be carried on with extremely profitable results, as has been done
in the valley of the Nile and in parts of the Great Basin of North
America; in cases, however, where the river has cut deeply and
flows far below the general surface, irrigation is too expensive.
Much has been done in parts of Australia by means of artesian
wells.

For a general account of deserts see Professor Johannes Walther,
Das Gesetz der Wustcnbildimg (Berlin, 1900), in which many references
to other original authorities will be found. (H. N. D.)

DESERTION, the act of forsaking or abandoning; more
particularly, the wilful abandonment of an employment or of
duty, in violation of a legal or moral obligation.

The offence of naval or military desertion is constituted when
a man absents himself with the intention either of not returning
or of escaping some important service, such as embarkation for
foreign service, or service in aid of the civil power. In the
United Kingdom desertion has always been recognized by the
civil law, and until 1827 (7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 28) was a felony
punishable by death. It was subsequently dealt with by the
various Mutiny Acts, which were replaced by the Army Act
1881, renewed annually by the Army (Annual) Act. By § 12
of the act every person subject to military law who deserts or
attempts to desert, or who persuades or procures any person to
desert, shall, on conviction by court martial, if he committed the
offence when on active service or under orders for active service,
be liable to suffer death, or such less punishment as is mentioned
in the act. When the offence is committed under any other
circumstances, the punishment for the first offence is imprison-
ment, and for the second or any subsequent offence penal servi-
tude or such less punishment as is mentioned in the act. § 44
contains a scale of punishments, and §§ 175-184 an enumeration
of persons subject to military law. By § 153 any person who
persuades a soldier to desert or aids or assists him or conceals him
is liable, on conviction, to be imprisoned, with or without hard
labour, for not more than six months. § 154 makes provision
for the apprehension of deserters. § 161 lays down that where a
soldier has served continuously in an exemplary manner for not
less than three years in any corps of regular forces he is not to be
tried or punished for desertion which has occurred before the
commencement of the three years. Desertion from the regular
forces can only be tried by a military court, but in the case of the
militia and reserve forces desertion can be tried by a civil court.
The Army Act of 1881 made a welcome distinction between
actual desertion, as defined at the commencement of this article,
and the quitting one regiment in order to enlist in another. This
offence is now separately dealt with as fraudulent enlistment;
formerly, it was termed "desertion and fraudulent enlistment,"
and the statistics of desertion proper were consequently and
erroneously magnified. The gross total of desertions in the
British Army in an average year (1903-1904) was nearly 4000,
or 1-4% of the average strength of the army, but owing to men
rejoining from desertion, fraudulent enlistment, &c., the net loss
was no more than 1286, i.e. less than -5%. The army of the
United States suffers very severely from desertion, and very few
deserters rejoin or are recaptured (see Journal of the Roy. United
Service Inst., December 1905, p. 1469). In the year 1900-1901,
3110 men deserted (4-3% of average strength); in 1001-1902,
4667 (or 5-9%); in 1904-1905,6353 (o'r 6-8%); and in 1905-1906,
6258 out of less than 60,000 men, or 7-4%.

In all armies desertion while on actire service is punishable
by death; on the continent of Europe, owing to the system of
compulsory service, desertion is infrequent, and takes place
usually when the deserter wishes to leave his country altogether.
It was formerly the practice in the English army to punish a man
convicted of desertion by tattooing on him the letter " D " to
prevent his re-enlistment, but this has been long abandoned in
deference to public opinion, which erroneously adopted the idea
that the " marking " was effected by red-hot irons or in some
other manner involving torture. The Navy Discipline Act 1866,
and the Naval Deserters Act 1847, contain similar provisions to
the Army Act of 1881 for dealing with desertions from the navy.
In the United States navy the term " straggling " is applied to
absence without leave, where the probability is that the person
does not intend to desert. The United States government offers
a monetary reward of between $20 and $30 for the arrest and
delivery of deserters from the army and navy.

In the British merchant service the offence of desertion is
defined as the abandonment of duty by quitting the ship before
the termination of the engagement, without justification, and
with the intention of not returning.

Desertion is also the term applied to the act by which a man
abandons his wife and children, or either of them. Desertion of
a wife is a matrimonial, offence; under the Matrimonial Causes
Act 1857, a decree of judicial separation may be obtained in
England by either husband or wife on the ground of desertion,
without cause, for two years and upwards (see also DIVORCE).

For the desertion of children see CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO;
INFANT. (T. A. I.)

DBS ESSARTS, EMMANUEL ADOLPHE (1839- ), French
poet and man of letters, was born at Paris on the sth of Febru-
ary 1839. His father, Alfred Stanislas Langlois des Essarts
(d. 1893), was a Poet an(i novelist of considerable reputation.
The son was educated at the Ecole Normale Superieure, and
became a teacher of rhetoric and finally professor of literature
at Dijon and at Clermont. His works are: Poesies parisiennes
(1862), a volume of light verse on trifling subjects ; Les Elevations
(1864), philosophical poems; Origines de la poesie lyrique en
France au XVI' siede (i%i $) ; Du geniede Chateaubriand (1876) ;
Poemes de la Revolution (1879); Pallas Athene (1887); Portraits
de maitres (1888), &c.

DESFONTAINES, REN6 LOUICHE (1750-1833), French
botanist, was born at Tremblay (lle-et-Vilaine) on the i4th of
February 1750. After graduating in medicine at Paris, he was
elected a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1783. In the
same year he set out for North Africa, on a scientific exploring
expedition, and on his return two years afterwards brought with
him a large collection of plants, animals, &c., comprising, it is
said, 1600 species of plants, of which about 300 were described
for the first time. In 1786 he was nominated to the post of
professor at the Jardin des Plantes, vacated in his favour by his
friend, L. G. Lemonnier. His great work, Flora Atlanlica she
historia plantarum quae in Allanle, agro Tunetano el Algeriensi
crescunt, was published in 2 vols. 4to in 1 798, and he produced in
1804 a Tableau de I'ecole botanique du museum d'histoire naturelle
de Paris, of which a third edition appeared in 1831, under the
new title Catalogus plantarum horti regii Parisiensis. He was
also the author of many memoirs on vegetable anatomy and
physiology, descriptions of new genera and species, &c., one
of the most important being a " Memoir on the Organization of
the Monocotyledons." He died at Paris on the 1 6th of November
1833. His Barbary collection was bequeathed to the Museum
d'Histoire Naturelle, and his general collection passed into the
hands of the English botanist, Philip Barker Webb.

DESFORGES, PIERRE JEAN BAPTISTE CHOUDARD (1746-
(1806), French dramatist and man of letters, natural son of Dr
Antoine Petit, was born in Paris on the isth of September 1746.
He was educated at the College Mazarin and the College de
Beauvais.and at his father's desire began the study of medicine.
Dr Petit's death left him dependent on his own resources, and
after appearing on the stage of the Comedie Italienne in Paris
he joined a troupe of wandering actors, whom he served in the

94

DESGARCINS— DESIDERIO DA SETTIGNANO

capacity of playwright. He married an actress, and the two
spent three years in St Petersburg, where they were well received.
In 1782 he produced at the Comedie Italienne an adaptation of
Fielding's novel with the title Tom Jones a Londres. His first
great success was achieved with L'&preuve villageoise (1785)
to the music of Gretry. La Femme jalouse, a five-act comedy in
verse (1785), Jocnnde (1790) for the music of Louis Jaden, Les
£poux divorces (1799), a comedy, and other pieces followed.
Desforges was one of the first to avail himself of the new facilities
afforded under the Revolution for divorce and re-marriage.
The curious record of his own early indiscretions in Le Poete, ou
mimoires d'un homme de lettres ecrits par lui-meme (4 vols., 1798)
is said to have been undertaken at the request of Madame
Desforges. He died in Paris on the I3th of August 1806.

DESGARCINS, MAGDELEINE MARIE [LOUISE] (1769-1797),
French actress, was born at Mont Dauphin (Hautes Alpes). In
her short career she became one of the greatest of French tragedi-
ennes, the associate of Talma, with whom she nearly always
played. Her debut at the Comedie Francaise occurred on the
24th of May 1788, in Bajazet, with such success that she was at
once made sociftaire. She was one of the actresses who left the
Comedie Francaise in 1791 for the house in the rue Richelieu,
soon to become the Theatre de la Republique, and there her
triumphs were no less — in King Lear, Othello, La Harpe's
Melanie el Virginie, &c. Her health, however, failed, and she
died insane, in Paris, on the 27th of October 1797.

DESHAYES, GERARD PAUL (1795-1875), French geologist
and conchologist, was born at Nancy on the I3th of May 1797,
his father at that time being professor of experimental physics
in the ficole Centrale of the department of la Meurthe. He
studied medicine at Strassburg, and afterwards took the degree
of bachelier es lettres in Paris in 1821; but he abandoned the
medical profession in order to devote himself to natural history.
For some time he gave private lessons on geology, and subse-
quently became professor of natural history in the Museum
d'Histoire Naturelle. He was distinguished for his researches on
the fossil mollusca of the Paris Basin and of other Tertiary areas.
His studies on the relations of the fossil to the recent species led
him as early as 1829 to conclusions somewhat similar to those
arrived at by Lyell, to whom Deshayes rendered much assistance
in connexion with the classification of the Tertiary system into"
Eocene, Miocene and Pliocene. He was one of the founders of
the Societe Geologique de France. In 1839 he began the publica-
tion of his TraM elemcntaire de conchyliologie, the last part
of which was not issued until 1858. In the same year (1839) he
went to Algeria for the French Government, and spent three
years in explorations in that country. His principal work, which
resulted from the collections he made, Mollusques de VAlgirie,
was issued (incomplete) in 1848. In 1870 the Wollaston medal
of the Geological Society of London was awarded to him. He
died at Boran on the 9th of June 1875. His publications included
Description des coquilles fossiles des environs de Paris (2 vols.
and atlas, 1824-1837); Description des animaux sans vertebres
decouverts dans le bassin de Paris (3 vcls. and atlas, 1856-1866) ;
Catalogue des mollusques de I'ilede la Reunion (1863).

DESHOULIERES, ANTOINETTE DU LIGIER DE LA GARDE
(1638-1694), French poet, was born in Paris on the ist of January
1638. She was the daughter of Melchior du Ligier, sieur de la
Garde, maitre d'hoiel to the queens Marie de' Medici and Anne
of Austria. She received a careful and very complete education,
acquiring a knowledge of Latin, Spanish and Italian, and study-
ing prosody under the direction of the poet Jean Hesnault.
At the age of thirteen she married Guillaume de Boisguerin,
seigneur Deshoulieres, who followed the prince of Conde as
lieutenant-colonel of one of his regiments to Flanders about a
year after the marriage. Madame Deshoulieres returned for a time
to the house of her parents, where she gave herself to writing
poetry and studying the philosophy of Gassendi. She rejoined
her husband at Rocroi, near Brussels, where, being distinguished
for her personal beauty, she became the object of embarrassing
attentions on the part of the prince of Conde. Having made
herself obnoxious to the government by her urgent demand for

the arrears of her husband's pay, she was imprisoned in the
chateau of Wilworden. After a few months she was freed by her
husband, who attacked the chateau at the head of a small band
of soldiers. An amnesty having been proclaimed, they returned
to France, where Madame Deshoulieres soon became a conspicu-
ous personage at the court of Louis XIV. and in literary society.
She won the friendship and admiration of the most eminent
literary men of the age — some of her more zealous flatterers
even going so far as to style her the tenth muse and the
French Calliope. Her poems were very numerous, and included
specimens of nearly all the minor forms, odes, eclogues, idylls,
elegies, chansons, ballads, madrigals, &c. Of these the idylls
alone, and only some of them, have stood the test of time, the
others being entirely forgotten. She wrote several dramatic
works, the best of which do not rise to mediocrity. Her friend-
ship for Corneille made her take sides for the Phedre of Pradon
against that of Racine. Voltaire pronounced her the best of
women French poets; and her reputation with her contempor-
aries is indicated by her election as a member of the Academy of
the Ricovrati of Padua and of the Academy of Aries. In 1688
a pension of 2000 livres was bestowed upon her by the king, and
she was thus relieved from the poverty in which she had long
lived. She died in Paris on the I7th February 1694. Complete
editions of her works were published at Paris in 1695, I747, &c.
These include a few poems by her daughter, Antoine Therese
Deshoulieres (1656-1718), who inherited her talent.

DESICCATION (from the Lat. desiccare, to dry up), the
operation- of drying or removing water from a substance. It is
of particular importance in practical chemistry. If a substance
admits of being heated to say 100°, the drying may be effected
by means of an air-bath, which is simply an oven heated by gas
or by steam. Otherwise a desiccator must be employed; this
is essentially a closed vessel in which a hygroscopic substance is
placed together with the substance to be dried. The process may
be accelerated by exhausting the desiccator; this so-called
vacuum desiccation is especially suitable for the concentration
of aqueous solutions of readily decomposable substances. Of the
hygroscopic substances in common use, phosphoric anhydride,
concentrated sulphuric acid, and dry potassium hydrate are
almost equal in power; sodium hydrate and calcium chloride are
not much behind.

Two common types of desiccator are in use. In one the
absorbent is placed at the bottom, and the substance to be dried
above. Hempel pointed out that the efficiency would be
increased by inverting this arrangement, since water vapour is
lighter than air and consequently rises. Liquids are dried either
by means of the desiccator, or, as is more usual, by shaking with
a substance which removes the water. Fused calcium chloride
is the commonest absorbent; but it must not be used with
alcohols and several other compounds, since it forms compounds
with these substances. Quicklime, barium oxide, and dehy-
drated copper sulphate are especially applicable to alcohol and
ether; the last traces of water may be removed by adding
metallic sodium and distilling. Gases are dried by leading them
through towers or tubes containing an appropriate drying
material. The experiments of H. B. Baker on the influence of
moisture on chemical combination have shown the difficulty of
removing the last traces of water.

In chemical technology, apparatus on the principle of the
laboratory air-bath are mainly used. Crystals and precipitates,
deprived of as much water as possible by centrifugal machines
or filter-presses, are transported by means of a belt, screw, or
other form of conveyer, on to trays staged in brick chambers
heated directly by flue gases or steam pipes; the latter are easily
controlled, and if the steam be superheated a temperature of
300° and over may be maintained. In some cases the material
traverses the chamber from the coolest to the hottest part on a
conveyer or in wagons. Rotating cylinders are also used; the
material to be dried being placed inside, and the cylinder heated
by a steam jacket or otherwise.

DESIDERIO DA SETTIGNANO (1428-1464), Italian sculptor,
was born at Settignano, a village on the southern slope of the hill

DESIDERIUS— DESK

95

of Fiesole, still surrounded by the quarries of sandstone of which
the hill is formed, and inhabited by a race of " stone-cutters."
Desiderio was for a short time a pupil of Donatello, whom,
according to Vasari, he assisted in the work on the pedestal
of David, and he seems to have worked also with Mino da
Fiesole, with the delicate and refined style of whose works
those of Desiderio seem to have a closer affinity than with the
perhaps more masculine tone of Donatello. Vasari particularly
extols the sculptor's treatment of the figures of women and
children. It does not appear that Desiderio ever worked else-
where than at Florence; and it is there that those who are
interested in the Italian sculpture of the Renaissance must seek
his few surviving decorative and monumental works, though a
number of his delicately carved marble busts of women and
children are to be found in the museums and private collections of
Germany and France. The most prominent of his works are the
tomb of the secretary of state, Marsuppini, in Santa Croce, and
the great marble tabernacle of the Annunciation in San Lorenzo,
both of which belong to the latter period of Desiderio's activity;
and the cherubs' heads which form the exterior frieze of the
Pazzi Chapel. Vasari mentions a marble bust by Desiderio
of Marietta degli Strozzi, which for many years was held to
be identical with a very beautiful bust bought in 1878 from the
Strozzi family for the Berlin Museum. This bust is now, however,
generally acknowledged to be the work of Francesco Laurana;
whilst Desiderio's bust of Marietta has been recognized in another
marble portrait acquired by the Berlin Museum in 1842. The
Berlin Museum also owns a coloured plaster bust of an Urbino
lady by Desiderio, the model for which is in the possession of
the earl of Wemyss. Other important busts by the master are
in the Bargello, Florence, the Louvre in Paris, the collections of
M. Figdor and M. Benda in Vienna, and of M. Dreyfus in Paris.
Like most of Donatello's pupils, Desiderio worked chiefly in marble,
and not a single work in bronze has been traced to his hand.

See Wilhelm Bode, Die iialienische Plastik (Berlin, 1893).

DESIDERIUS, the last king of the Lombards, is chiefly known
through his connexion with Charlemagne. He was duke of
Tuscany and became king of the Lombards after the death of
Aistulf in 756. Seeking, like his predecessors, to extend the
Lombard power in Italy, he came into collision with the papacy,
and about 772 the new pope, Adrian I., implored the aid of
Charlemagne against him. Other causes of quarrel already
existed between the Frankish and the Lombard kings. In 770
Charlemagne had married a daughter of Desiderius; but he soon
put this lady away, and sent her back to her father. Moreover,
Gerberga, the widow of Charlemagne's brother Carloman, had
sought the protection of the Lombard king after her husband's
death in 771 ; and in return for the slight cast upon his daughter,
Desiderius had recognized Gerberga's sons as the lawful Frankish
kings, and had attacked Adrian for refusing to crown them. Such
was the position when Charlemagne led his troops across the Alps
in 773, took the Lombard capital, Ticinum, the modern Pavia,
in June 774, and added the kingdom of Lombardy to his own
dominions. Desiderius was carried to France, where he died,
and his son, Adalgis, spent his life in futile attempts to recover
his father's kingdom. The' name of Desiderius appears in the
romances of the Carolingian period.

See S. Abel, Untergang des Langobardenreichs (Gottingen, 1859);
and Jahrbucher des frdnkischen Reiches unter Karl dem Grossen
(Leipzig, 1865); L. M. Hartmann, Geschichte Italiens im Mittelalter
(Gotha, 1903) ; and Paulus Diaconus, Historia Langobardorum, edited
by L. Bethmann and G. Waitz (Hanover, 1878).

DESIGN (Fr. dessin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out),
in the arts, a drawing, more especially when made as a guide
for the execution of work; that side of drawing which deals
with arrangement rather than representation; and generally,
by analogy, a deliberate planning, scheming or purpose. Modern
use has tended to associate design with the word " original " in
the sense of new or abnormal. The end of design, however, is
properly utility, fitness and deligh't. If a discovery, it should be
a discovery of what seems inevitable, an inspiration arising out
of the conditions, and parallel to invention in the sciences. The
faculty of design has best flourished when an almost spontaneous

development was taking place in the arts, and while certain
classes of arts, more or less noble, were generally demanded and
the demand copiously satisfied, as in the production of Greek
vases, Byzantine mosaics, Gothic cathedrals, and Renaissance
paintings. Thus where a " school of design " arises there is much
general likeness in the products but also a general progress.
The common experience — " tradition " — is a part of each
artist's stock in trade; and all are carried along in a stream of
continuous exploration. Some of the arts, writing, for instance,
have been little touched by conscious originality in design, all
has been progress, or, at least, change, in response to conditions.
Under such a system, in a time of progress, the proper limitations
react as intensity; when limitations are removed the designer
has less and less upon which to react, and unconditioned liberty
gives him nothing at all to lean on. Design is response to needs,
conditions and aspirations. The Greeks so well understood this
that they appear to have consciously restrained themselves to
the development of selected types, not only in architecture and
literature, but in domestic arts, like pottery. Design with them
was less the new than the true.

For the production of a school of design it is necessary that
there should be a considerable body of artists working together,
and a large demand from a sympathetic public. A process of
continuous development is thus brought into being which sustains
the individual effort. It is necessary for the designer to know
familiarly the processes, the materials and the skilful use of the
tools involved in the productions of a given art, and properly
only one who practises a craft can design for it. It is necessary
to enter into the traditions of the art, that is, to know past
achievements. It is necessary, further, to be in relation with
nature, the great reservoir of ideas, for it is from it that fresh
thought will flow into all forms of art. These conditions being
granted, the best and most useful meaning we can give to
the word design is exploration, experiment, consideration of
possibilities. Putting too high a value on originality other than
this is to restrict natural growth from vital roots, in which true
originality consists. To take design in architecture as an example,
we have rested too much on definite precedent (a different thing
from living tradition) and, on the other hand, hoped too much from
newness. Exploration of the possibilities in arches, vaults, domes
and the like, as a chemist or a mathematician explores, is little
accepted as a method in architecture at this time, although in
antiquity it was by such means that the great master-works were
produced: the Pantheon, Santa Sophia, Durham and Amiens
cathedrals. The same is true of all forms of design. Of course
the genius and inspiration of the individual artist is not here
ignored, but assumed. What we are concerned with is a mode
of thought which shall make it most fruitful. (W. R. L.)

DESIRE, in popular usage, a term for a wishing or longing
for something which one has not got. For its technical use see
PSYCHOLOGY. The word is derived through the French from
Lat. desiderare, to long or wish for, to miss. The substantive
desiderium has the special meaning of desire for something one
has once possessed but lost, hence regret or grief. The usual
explanation of the word is to connect it with sidus, star, as in
considerare, to examine the stars with attention, hence, to look
closely at. If this is so, the history of the transition in meaning
is unknown. J. B. Greenough (Harvard Studies in Classical
Philology, i. 96) has suggested that the word is a military slang
term. According to this theory desiderare meant originally to
miss a soldier from the ranks at roll-call, the root being that
seen in sedere, to sit, sedes, seat, place, &c.

DESK (from Lat. discus, quoit, in med. sense of " table,"
cf. " dish " and Ger. Tisch, table, from same source), any-
kind of flat or sloping table for writing or reading. Its
earliest shape was probably that with which we are familiar
in pictures of the monastic scriptorium — rather high and
narrow with a sloping slab. The primitive desk had little
accommodation for writing materials, and no storage room for
papers; drawers, cupboards and pigeon-holes were the evolution
of periods when writing grew common, and when letters and
other documents requiring preservation became numerous. It

96

DESLONGCHAMPS

was long the custom to secure papers in chests or cabinets, whereas
the modern desk serves the double purpose of a writing-table and
a storehouse for documents. The first development from the
early stall-like desk consisted of the addition of a drawer; then
the table came to be supported upon legs or columns, which, as
in the many beautiful examples constructed by Boulle and his
school, were often of elaborate grace. Eventually the legs were
replaced by a series of superimposed drawers forming pedestals
— hence the familiar pedestal writing-table.

For a long period there were two distinct contemporary forms
of desk — the table and the bureau or escritoire. The latter shape
attained a popularity so great that, especially in England and
America, it was found even in houses in which there was little
occasion for writing. The English-speaking people of the i8th
century were amazingly fond of pieces of furniture which
served a double or triple purpose. The bureau — the word is
the French generic appellation for a desk — derives its name
from the material with which it was originally covered (Fr. bure,
woollen cloth). It consists of an upright carcass sloping inward
at the top, and provided with long drawers below. The upper
part is fitted with small drawers and pigeon-holes, and often with
secret places, and the writing space is formed by a hinged slab
supported on runners; when not in use this slab closes up the
sloping top. 'During the iSth century innumerable thousands of
these bureaux were made on both sides of the Atlantic — indeed,
if we except tables and chairs, no piece of old furniture is more
common. In the first part of that period they were usually of
oak, but when mahogany was introduced into Europe it speedily
ousted the heavier-looking wood. Its deep rich colour and the
high polish of which it was capable added appreciably to its
ornamental appearance. While the pigeon-holes and small
drawers were used for papers, the long drawers were often
employed for purposes other than literary. In time the bureau-
secretaire became a bureau-bookcase, the glazed shelves, which
were often a separate erection, resting upon the top of the bureau.
The cabinetmakers of the second half of the i8th century, the
period of the greatest floraison of this combination, competed
with each other in devising elegant frets for the glass fronts.
Solid and satisfying to the eye, if somewhat severe in form, the
mahogany bureau was usually an exceedingly presentable piece
of furniture. Occasionally it had a bombe front which mitigated
its severity; this was especially the case in the Dutch varieties,
which were in a measure free adaptations of the French Louis
Quinze commode. These Dutch bureaux, and the English ones
made in imitation of them, were usually elaborately inlaid with
floral designs in coloured woods; but whereas the Batavian
marquetry was often rough and crude, the English work was
usually of considerable excellence. Side by side with this form of
writing apparatus was one variety or another of the writing-table
proper. In so far as it is possible to generalize upon such a detail
it would appear that the bureau was the desk of the yeoman and
what we now call the lower middle class, and that the slighter and
more table-like forms were preferred by those higher in the social
scale. This probably means no more than that while the one
class preserved the old English affection for the solid and'heavy
furniture which would last for generations, those who were more
free to follow the fashions and fancies of their time were, as the
pecuniarily easy classes always have been, ready to abandon the
old for the new.

Just about the time when the flat table with its drawers in a
single row, or in nests serving as pedestals, was finally assuming
its familiar modern shape, an invention was introduced which
was destined eventually, so far as numbers and convenience go,
to supersede all other forms of desk. This was the cylinder-top
writing-table. Nothing is known of the originator of this device,
but it is certain that if not French himself he worked in France.
The historians of French furniture agree in fixing its introduction
about the year 1730, and we know that a desk worked on this
principle was in the possession of the French crown in the year
1760. Even in its early days the cylinder took more than one
form. It sometimes consisted of a solid piece of curved wood,
and sometimes of a tambour frame — that is to say, of a series of

narrow jointed strips of wood mounted on canvas; the revolving
shutters of a shop-front are an adaptation of the idea. For a long
period, however, the cylinder was most often solid, and remained
so until the latter part of the igth century, when the " American
roll-top desk " began to be made in large numbers. This is
indeed the old French form with a tambour cylinder, and it is
now the desk that is most frequently met with all over the world
for commercial purposes. Its popularity is due to its large
accommodation, and to the facility with which the closing of the
cylinder conceals all papers, and automatically locks every drawer.
To France we owe not only the invention of this ubiquitous form,
but the construction of many of the finest and most historic desks
that have survived — the characteristic marquetry writing-tables
of the Boulle period, and the gilded splendours of that of Louis
Quinze have never been surpassed in the history of furniture.
Indeed, the " Bureau du roi " which was made for Louis XV. is the
most famous and magnificent piece of furniture that, so far as we
know, was ever constructed. This desk, which is now one of the
treasures of the Louvre, was the work of several artist-artificers,
chief among whom were Oeben and Riesener — Oeben, it may be
added here as a matter of artistic interest, became the grand-
father of Eugene Delacroix. The bureau is signed " Riesener fa.
1769 a 1'Arsenal de Paris," but it has been established that,
however great may have been the share of its construction which
fell to him, the conception was that of Oeben. The work was
ordered in 1760; it would thus appear that nine years were
consumed in perfecting it, which is not surprising when we learn
from the detailed account of its construction that the work began
with making a perfect miniature model followed by one of full
size. The " bureau du roi " is a large cylinder desk elaborately
inlaid in marquetry of woods, and decorated with a wonderful
and ornate series of mounts consisting of mouldings, plaques,
vases and statuettes of gilt bronze cast and chased. These
bronzes are the work of Duplessis, Winant and Hervieux. The
desk, which shows plainly the transition between the Louis
Quinze and Louis Seize styles, is as remarkable for the boldness
of its conception as for the magnificent finish of its details. Its
lines are large, flowing and harmonious, and although it is no
longer exactly as it left the hands of its makers (Oeben died
before it was finished) the alterations that have been made have
hardly interfered with the general effect. For the head of the
king for whom it was made that of Minerva in a helmet was
substituted under his successor. The ciphers of Louis XV. have
been removed and replaced by Sevres plaques, and even the
key which bore the king's initial crowned with laurels and
palm leaves, with his portrait on the one side, and the fleur de lys
on the other, has been interfered with by an austere republicanism.
Yet no tampering with details can spoil the monumental nobility
of this great conception. (J. P.-B.)

DESLONGCHAMPS, JACQUES AMAND EUDES- (1794-1867),
French naturalist and palaeontologist, was born at Caen in
Normandy on the I7th of January 1794. His parents, though
poor, contrived to give him a good education, and he studied
medicine in his native town to such good effect that in 1812 he
was appointed assistant-surgeon in the navy, and in 1815 surgeon
assistant major to the military hospital of Caen. Soon after-
wards he proceeded to Paris to qualify for the degree of doctor of
surgery, and there the researches and teachings of Cuvier attracted
his attention to subjects of natural history and palaeontology.
In 1822 he was elected surgeon to the board of relief at Caen, and
while he never ceased to devote his energies to the duties of this
post, he sought relaxation in geological studies. Soon he dis-
covered remains of Teleosaurus in one of the Caen quarries, and
he became an ardent palaeontologist. He was one of the founders
of the museum of natural history at Caen, and acted as honorary
curator; he was likewise one of the founders of the Societe
linneenne de Normandie (1823), to the transactions of which
society he communicated papers on Teleosaurus, Poekilopleuron
(Megalosaurus), on Jurassic mollusca and brachiopoda. In 1825
he became professor of zoology to the faculty of sciences, and in
1847, dean. He died on the i?th of January 1867.

His son EUGENE EUDES-DESLONGCHAMPS (1830-1889), French

DESMAISEAUX— DESMARETS, N.

97

palaeontologist, was born in 1830. He succeeded his father about
the year 1856 as professor of zoology at the faculty of sciences at
Caen, and in 1861 he became also professor of geology and dean.
After the death of his father in 1867, he devoted himself to the
completion of a memoir on the Teleosaurs: the joint labours
being embodied in his Prodrome des Teliosauriens du Calvados.
To the Societe Linneenne de Normandie he contributed memoirs
on Jurassic brachiopods, on the geology of the department of La
Manche (1856), of Calvados (1856-1863), on the Terrain callovien
(1859), on Nouvelle-Caledonie (1864), and Etudes sur les etages
jurassiqttes inflrieurs de la Normandie (1864). His work Le
Jura normand was issued in 1877-1878 (incomplete). He died
at Chateau Matthieu, Calvados, on the 2ist of December 1889.

DESMAISEAUX, PIERRE (1673-1745); French writer, was
born at Saillat, probably in 1673. His father, a minister of the
reformed church, had to leave France on the revocation of the
edict of Nantes, and took refuge in Geneva, where Pierre was
educated. Bayle gave him an introduction to the 3rd Lord
Shaftesbury, with whom, in 1699, he came to England, where he
engaged in literary work. He remained in close touch with
the religious refugees in England and Holland, and constantly in
correspondence with the leading continental savants and writers,
who were in the habit of employing him to conduct such business
as they might have in England. In 1720 he was elected a fellow
of the Royal Society. Among his works are Vie de St Evremond
(1711), Vie de Boileau-DesprSaux (1712), Vie de Bayle (1730).
He also took an active part in preparing the Bibliotheque raisonnfe
des outrages de I'Europe (1728-1753), and the Bibliotheque
britannique (1733-1747), and edited a selection of St Evremond's
writings (1706). Part of Desmaiseaux's correspondence is pre-
served in the British Museum, and other letters are in the royal
library at Copenhagen. He died on the nth of July 1745.

DESMAREST, NICOLAS (1725-1815), French geologist, was
born at Soulaines, in the department of Aube, on the i6th of
September 1725. Of humble parentage, he was educated at
the college of the Oratorians of Troyes and Paris. Taking full
advantage of the instruction he received, he was able to support
himself by teaching, and to continue his studies independently.
Buffon's Theory of the Earth interested him, and in 1753 he
successfully competed for a prize by writing an essay on the
ancient connexion between England and France. This attracted
much attention, and ultimately led to his being employed in
studying and reporting on manufactures in different countries,
and in 1788 to his appointment as inspector-general of the
manufactures of France. He utilized his journeys, travelling on
foot, so as to add to his knowledge of the earth's structure. In
1763 he made observations in Auvergne, recognizing that the
prismatic basalts were old lava streams, comparing them with
the columns of the Giant's Causeway in Ireland, and referring
them to the operations of extinct volcanoes. It was not, however,
until 1774 that he published an essay on the subject, accompanied
by a geological map, having meanwhile on several occasions
revisited the district. He then pointed out the succession of
volcanic outbursts and the changes the rocks had undergone
through weathering and erosion. As remarked by Sir A. Geikie,
the doctrine of the origin of valleys by the erosive action of the
streams which flow through them was first clearly taught by
Desmarest. An enlarged and improved edition of his map of the
volcanic region of Auvergne was published after his death, in
1823, by his son ANSELME GAETAN DESMAREST (1784-1838), who
was distinguished as a zoologist, and author of memoirs on recent
and fossil Crustacea. He died in Paris on the 2oth of September
1815.

See The Founders of Geology, by Sir A. Geikie (1897), pp. 48-78.

(H. B. Wo.)

DESMARETS (or DESMARETZ), JEAN, SIEUR DE SAINT-
SORLIN (1595-1676), French dramatist and miscellaneous writer,
was born in Paris in 1595. When he was about thirty he was
introduced to Richelieu, and became one of the band of writers
who carried out the cardinal's literary ideas. Desmarets's own
inclination was to novel-writing, and the success of his romance
Ariane in 1631 led to his formal admission to the circle that met
vin. — 4

at the house of Valentine Conrart and later developed into the
Academic Francaise. Desmarets was its first chancellor. It was
at Richelieu's request that he began to write for the theatre. In
this kind he produced a comedy long regarded as a masterpiece,
Les Visionnaires (1637); a prose-tragedy, Erigone (1638); and
Scipion (1639), a tragedy in verse. His success led to official
preferment, and he was made conseiller du roi, contrdleur -Central
de V extraordinaire des guerres, and secretary-general of the fleet
of the Levant. His long epic Clovis (1657) is noteworthy because
Desmarets rejected the traditional pagan background, and
maintained that Christian imagery should supplant it. With
this standpoint he contributed several works in defence of
the moderns in the famous quarrel between the Ancients and
Moderns. In his later years Desmarets devoted himself chiefly
to producing a quantity of religious poems, of which the best-
known is perhaps his verse translation of the Office de la Vierge
(1645). He was a violent opponent of the Jansenists, against
whom he wrote a Reponse a I'insolente apologie de Port-Royal . . .
(1666). He died in Paris on the 28th of October 1676.

See also H. Rigault, Histoire de la querelle des anciens et des
modernes (1856), pp. 80-103.

DESMARETS, NICOLAS, SIEUR DE MAILLEBOIS (1648-1721),
French statesman, was born in Paris on the loth of September
1648. His mother was the sister of J. B. Colbert, who took him
into his offices as a clerk. He became counsellor to the parlement
in 1672, master of requests in 1674 and intendant of finances in
1678, In these last functions he had to treat with the financiers
for the coinage of new silver pieces of four sous. After Colbert's
death he was involved in the legal proceedings taken against those
financiers who had manufactured coins of bad alloy. The
prosecution, conducted by the members of the family of Le Tellier,
rivals of the Colberts, presented no proof against Desmarets.
Nevertheless he was stripped of his offices and exiled to his
estates by the king, on the 23rd of December 1683. In March
1686 he was authorized to return to Paris, and again entered
into relations with the controllers-general of finance, to whom
he furnished for more than ten years remarkable memoirs on the
economic situation in France. As early as 1687 he showed the
necessity for radical reforms in the system of taxation, insisting
on the ruin of the people and the excessive expenses of the king.
By these memoirs he established his claim to a place among
the great economists of the time, Vauban, Boisguilbert and the
comte de Boulainvilliers. When in September 1699 Chamillart
was named controller-general of finances, he took Desmarets for
counsellor; and when he created the two offices of directors
of finances, he gave one to Desmarets (October 22, 1703).
Henceforth Desmarets was veritable minister of finance. Louis
XIV. had long conversations with him. Madame de Maintenon
protected him. The economists Vauban and Boisguilbert ex-
changed long conversations with him. When Chamillart found
his double functions too heavy, and retaining the ministry of
war resigned that of finance in 1708, Desmarets succeeded him.
The situation was exceedingly grave. The ordinary revenues of
the year 1708 amounted to 81,977,007 livres, of which 57,833,233
livres had already been spent by anticipation, and the expenses
to meet were 200,251,447 livres. In 1709 a famine reduced still
more the returns from taxes. Yet Desmarets's reputation re-
newed the credit of the state, and financiers consented to advance
money they had refused to the king. The emission of paper
money, and a reform in the collection of taxes, enabled him to
tide over the years 1709 and 1710. Then Desmarets decided upon
an "extreme and violent remedy," to use his own expression, —
an income tax. His " tenth " was based on Vauban's plan; but
the privileged classes managed to avoid it, and it proved no better
than other expedients. Nevertheless Louis XIV. managed to
meet the most urgent expenses, and the deficit of 1715, about
350,000,000 livres, was much less than it would have been had
it not been for Desmarets's reforms. The honourable peace which
Louis was enabled to conclude at Utrecht with his enemies was cer-
tainly due to the resources which Desmarets procured for him.

After the death of Louis XIV. Desmarets was dismissed by
the regent along with all the other ministers. He withdrew to

98

DES MOINES— DESMOND, EARL OF

his estates. To justify his ministry he addressed to the regent
a Compte rendu, which showed clearly the difficulties he had
to meet. His enemies even, like Saint Simon, had to recognize
his honesty and his talent. He was' certainly, after Colbert, the
greatest finance minister of Louis XIV.

See Forbonnais, Recherches et considerations sur les finances de la
France (2 vols., Basel, 1758); Montyon, Particidarites et observations
sur les ministres des finances de la France (Paris, 1812) ; De Boislisle,
Correspondence des controleurs-generaux des finances (3 vols., Paris,
1873-1897) ; and the same author's " Desmarets et 1'affaire des pieces
de quatre sols " in the appendix to the seventh volume of his edition
of the Memoires de Saint-Simon. (E. Es.)

DES MOINES, the capital and the largest city of Iowa, U.S.A.,
and the county-seat of Polk county, in the south central part of
the state, at the confluence of the Raccoon with the Des Moines
river. Pop. (1890) 50,093; (1900) 62,139, of whom 7946 were
foreign-born, including 1907 from Sweden and 1432 from
Germany; (1910 census) 86,368. Des Moines is served by the
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & North-Western,
the Chicago Great Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul,
the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Wabash, the Minneapolis
& St Louis, and the Des Moines, Iowa Falls & Northern railways;
also by several interurban electric lines. The chief building
in Des Moines is the State Capitol, erected at a cost of about
$3,000,000; other important buildings are the public library
(containing, in 1908, 40,415 volumes), the court house, the post
office, the Iowa State Historical building, a large auditorium
and two hospitals. As a manufacturing centre the city has
considerable importance. Among the leading products are
those of the furnaces, foundries and machine shops, flour and
grist mills, planing mills, creameries, bridge and iron works,
publishing houses and a packing house; and brick, tile, pottery,
patent medicines, furniture, caskets, tombstones, carriages,
farm machinery, Portland cement, glue, gloves and' hosiery. The
value of the factory product in 1905 was $15,084,958, an increase
of 79- 7 % in five years. The city is in one of the most productive
coal regions of the state, has a large jobbing trade, and is an
important centre for the insurance business. The Iowa state fair
is held here annually. In 1908 this city had a park system of
750 acres. Des Moines is the seat of Des Moines College, a
Baptist institution, co-educational, founded in 1865 (enrolment,
1907-1908, 214); of Drake University (co-educational; founded
in 1881 by the Disciples of Christ; now non-sectarian), with
colleges of liberal arts, law, medicine, dental surgery and of the
Bible, a conservatory of music, and a normal school, in which
are departments of oratory and commercial training, and having
ir\ 1907-1908 1764 students, of whom 520 were in the summer
school only; of the Highland Park College, founded in 1890;
of Grand View College (Danish Lutheran), founded in 1895; and
of the Capital City commercial college (founded 1884). A new
city charter, embodying what has become known as the " Des
Moines Plan " of municipal government, was adopted in 1907.
It centralizes power in a council of five (mayor and four council-
men), nominated at a non-partisan primary and voted for on
a non-partisan ticket by the electors of the entire city, ward
divisions having been abolished. Elections are biennial. Other
city officers are chosen by the council, and city employees are
selected by a civil service commission of three members, ap-
pointed by the council. The mayor is superintendent of the
department of public affairs, and each of the other adminis-
trative departments (accounts and finances, public safety,
streets and public improvements, and parks and public
property) is under the charge of one of the councilmen. After
petition signed by a number of voters not less than 25% of the
number voting at the preceding municipal election, any member
of the council may be removed by popular vote, to which all
public franchises must be submitted, and by which the council
may be compelled to pass any law or ordinance.

A fort called Fort Des Moines was established on the site of the
city in 1843 to protect the rights of the Sacs and Foxes. In 1843
the site was opened to settlement by the whites; in 1851 Des
Moines was incorporated as a town; in 1857 it was first chartered
as a city, and, for the purpose of a more central location, the seat

of government was removed hither from Iowa City. A fort was
re-established here by act of Congress in 1900 and named Fort
Des Moines. It is occupied by a full regiment of cavalry. The
name of the city was taken from that of the river, which in turn
is supposed to represent a corruption by the French of the
original Indian name, Moingona, — the French at first using
the abbreviation " moin," and calling the river " la riviere des
mains " and then, the name having become associated with the
Trappist monks, changing it into " la rivitre des moines."

DESMOND, GERALD FITZGERALD, ISTH EARL OF (d. 1583),
Irish leader, was son of James, I4th earl, by his second wife More
O'Carroll. His father had agreed in January 1541, as one of the
terms of his submission to Henry VIII., to send young Gerald
to be educated in England. At the accession of Edward VI.
proposals to this effect, were renewed; Gerald was to be the
companion of the young king. Unfortunately for the subsequent
peace of Munster these projects were not carried out. The
Desmond estates were held by a doubtful title, and claims on
them were made by the Butlers, the hereditary enemies of the
Geraldines, the gth earl of Ormonde having married Lady Joan
Fitzgerald, daughter and heiress-general of the nth earl of
Desmond. On Ormonde's death she proposed to many Gerald
Fitzgerald, and eventually did so, after the death of her second
husband, Sir Francis Bryan. The effect of this- marriage was a
temporary cessation of open hostility between the Desmonds and
her son, Thomas Butler, loth earl of Ormonde.

Gerald succeeded to the earldom in 1558; he was knighted by
the lord deputy Sussex, and did homage at Waterford. He soon
established close relations with his namesake Gerald Fitzgerald,
nth earl of Kildare (1525-1585), and with Shane O'Neill. In
spite of an award made by Sussex in August 1560 regulating
the matters in dispute between Ormonde and the Fitzgeralds,
the Geraldine outlaws were still plundering their neighbours.
Desmond neglected a summons to appear at Elizabeth's court
for some time on the plea that he was at war with his uncle
Maurice. When he did appear in London in May 1562 his
insolent conduct before the privy council resulted in a short
imprisonment in the Tower. He was detained in England until
1564, and soon after his return his wife's death set him free from
such restraint as was provided by her Butler connexion. He now
raided Thomond, and in Waterford he sought to enforce his feudal
rights on Sir Maurice Fitzgerald of Decies, who invoked the help
of Ormonde. The two ncbles thereupon resorted to open war,
fighting a battle at Affane on the Blackwater, where Desmond
was defeated and taken prisoner. Ormonde and Desmond were
bound over in London to keep the peace, being allowed to return
early in 1566 to Ireland, where a royal commission was appointed
to settle the matters in dispute between them. Desmond and
his brother Sir John of Desmond were sent over to England,
where they surrendered their lands to the queen after a short
experience of the Tower. In the meanwhile Desmond's cousin,
James Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald, caused himself to be acclaimed
captain of Desmond in defiance of Sidney, and in the evident
expectation of usurping the earldom. He sought to give the
movement an ultra-Catholic character, with the idea of gaining
foreign assistance, and allied himself with John Burke, son of
the earl of Clanricarde, with Connor O'Brien, earl of Thomond,
and even secured Ormonde's brother, Sir Edmund Butler, whom
Sidney had offended. Piers and Edward Butler also joined the
rebellion, but the appearance of Sidney and Ormonde in the
south-west was rapidly followed by the submission of the Butlers.
Most of the Geraldines were subjugated by Humphrey Gilbert,
but Fitzmaurice remained in arms, and in 1571 Sir John Perrot
undertook to reduce him. Perrot hunted him down, and at last
on the 23rd of February 1573 he made formal submission at
Kilmallock, lying prostrate on the floor of the church by way of
proving his sincerity.

Against the advice of the queen's Irish counsellors Desmond
was allowed to return to Ireland in 1573, the earl promising not
to exercise palatinate jurisdiction in Kerry until his rights to
it were proved. He was detained for six months in Dublin, but
in November slipped through the hands of the government, and

DESMOND— DESMOULINS

99

within a very short time had reduced to a state of anarchy the
province which Perrot thought to have pacified by his severities.
Edward Fitzgerald, brother of the earl of Kildare, and lieutenant
of the queen's pensioners in London, was sent to remonstrate with
Desmond, but accomplished nothing. Desmond asserted that
none but Brehon law should be observed between Geraldines;
and Fitzmaurice seized Captain George Bourchier, one of
Elizabeth's officers in the west. Essex met the earl near Water-
ford in July, and Bourchier was surrendered, but Desmond
refused the other demands made in the queen's name. A
document offering £500 for his head, and £1000 to any one
who would take him alive, was drawn up but was vetoed by two
members of the council. On the i8th of July 1574 the Geraldine
chiefs signed the " Combination " promising to support the earl
unconditionally; shortly afterwards Ormonde and the lord
deputy, Sir William Fitzwilliam, marched on Munster, and put
Desmond's garrison at Derrinlaur Castle to the sword. Desmond
submitted at Cork on the 2nd of September, handing over his
estates to trustees. Sir Henry Sidney visited Munster in 1575,
and affairs seemed to promise an early restoration of order. But
Fitzmaurice had fled to Brittany in company with other leading
Geraldines, John Fitzgerald, seneschal of Imokilly, who had held
Ballymartyr against Sidney in 1567, and Edmund Fitzgibbon,
the son of the White Knight who had been attainted in 1571.
He intrigued at the French and Spanish courts for a foreign
invasion of Ireland, and at Rome met the adventurer Stucley,
with whom he projected an expedition which was to make
a nephew of Gregory XIII. king of Ireland. In 1579 he landed
in Smerwick Bay, where he was joined later by some Spanish
soldiers at the Fort del Ore. His ships were captured on the
29th of July and he himself was slain in a skirmish while on his
way to Tipperary. Nicholas Sanders, the papal legate who had
accompanied Fitzmaurice, worked on Desmond's weakness, and
sought to draw him into open rebellion. Desmond had perhaps
been restrained before by jealousy of Fitzmaurice; his inde-
cisions ceased when on the ist of November Sir William Pelham
proclaimed him a traitor. The sack of Youghal and Kinsale by
the Geraldines was speedily followed by the successes of Ormonde
and Pelham acting in concert with Admiral Winter. In June
1581 Desmond had to take to the woods, but he maintained a
considerable following for some time, which, however, in June
1583, when Ormonde set a price on his head, was reduced to four
persons. Five months later, on the nth of November, he was
seized and murdered by a small party of soldiers. His brother
Sir John of Desmond had been caught and killed in December
1581, and the seneschal of Imokilly had surrendered on the i4th
of June 1383. After his submission the seneschal acted loyally,
but his lands excited envy; he was arrested in 1587, and died
in Dublin Castle two days later.

By his second marriage with Eleanor Butler, the isth earl left
two sons, the elder of whom, James, i6th earl (1570-1601), spent
most of his life in prison. After an unsuccessful attempt in
1600-1601 to recover his inheritance he returned to England,
where he died, the title becoming extinct.

See G. E. C(okayne,) Complete Peerage; R. Bagwell, Ireland under
the Tudor s (1885-1890); Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters
(ed. J. O'Donovan, 1851); and the article FITZGERALD.

DESMOND (Des-Mumha), an ancient territorial division of
Ireland, covering the eastern part of the modern Co. Kerry and
the western part of Co. Cork. Its creation as a kingdom is placed
in the year 248, when Oliol Olum, king of Munster, divided his
territory between his two sons, giving Desmond to Eoghan, and
Thomond or North Munster to Cormac. In 1329 Maurice
Fitzthomas or Fitzgerald (d. 1356), lord of Decies and Desmond,
was created ist earl of Desmond by Edward III.; like other
earls created about that time he ruled his territory as a palatinate,
and his family acquired enormous powers and a large measure
of independence. Meanwhile native kings continued to reign in
a restricted territory until 1596. In 1583 came the attainder of
Gerald Fitzgerald, isth earl of Desmond (q.v.), and in 1586 an act
of parliament declared the forfeiture of the Desmond estates to
the crown. In 1571 a commission provided for the formation of

Desmond into a county, and it was regarded as such for a few
years, but by the beginning of the i7th century it was joined to
Co. Kerry.

In 1619 the title of earl of Desmond was conferred on Richard
Preston, Lord Dingwall, at whose death in 1628 it again became
extinct. It was then bestowed on George Feilding, second son
of William, earl of Denbigh, who had held the reversion of the
earldom from 1622. His son William Feilding succeeded as earl
of Denbigh in 1675, and thenceforward the title of Desmond was
held in conjunction with that honour.

DESMOSCOLECIDA, a group of minute marine worm-like
creatures. The body tapers towards each end and is marked by
a number of well-defined ridges. These
ridges resemble on a small scale those
which surround the body of a Poro-
cephalus (Linguatulida), and like them
have no segmental significance. Their
number varies in the different species.
The head bears four setae, and some of
the ridges bear a pair either dorsally
or ventrally. The setae are movable.
Two pigment spots between the fourth
and fifth ridges are regarded as eyes.
The Desmoscolecida move by looping
their bodies like geometrid caterpillars
or leeches, as well as by creeping on their
setae. The mouth is terminal, and
leads into a muscular oesophagus which
opens into a straight intestine terminat-
ing in an anus, which is said to be
dorsal in position. The sexes are dis-
tinct. The testis is single, and its duct
opens into the intestine and is provided
with two chitinous spicules. The ovary
is also single, opening independently
and anterior to the anus. The nervous
system is as yet unknown.

There are several species. D. minutus
Clap, has been met with in the English
Channel. Others are D. nematoides
Greef , D. adelphus Greef , D. chaetogasler
Greef, D. elongatus Panceri, D. lanugi-
nosa Panceri. Trichoderma oxycaudatum
Greef is 0-3 mm. long, and is also a
" ringed creature with long hair-like
bristles." The male has two spicules,
and there is some doubt as to whether
it should be placed with the Desmos-
colecida or with the Nematoda. With regard to the systematic
position of the group, it certainly comes nearest — especially in
the structure of its reproductive organs — to the Nematoda. We
still, however, are very ignorant of the internal anatomy of these
forms, and until we know more it is impossible to arrive at a
very definite conclusion as to their position in the animal
kingdom.

See Panceri, AM Ace. Napoli. vii. (1878); Greef, Arch. Naturg.
35 (i.) (1869), p. 112. (A. E. S.)

DESMOULINS, LUCIE SIMPLICE CAMILLE BENOIST (1760-
1794), French journalist and politician, who played an important
part in the French Revolution, was born at Guise, in Picardy, on
the 2nd of March 1760. His father was lieutenant-general of the
bailliage of Guise, and through the efforts of a friend obtained
a bourse for his son, who at the age of fourteen left home for Paris,
and entered the college of Louis le Grand. In this school, in
which Robespierre was also a bursar and a distinguished student,
Camille Desmoulins laid the solid foundation of his learning.
Destined by his father for the law, at the completion of his legal
studies he was admitted an advocate of the parlement of Paris
in 1785. His professional success was not great; his manner was
violent, his appearance unattractive, and his speech impaired by
a painful stammer. He indulged, however, his love for litera-
ture, was closely obseivant of public affairs, and thus gradually

From Cambridge Natural
History, vol. ii., "Worms,"
&c., by permission of Mac-
millan & Co. Ltd.

Female Desmoscolex
elongatus Panceri, vent-
ral view, X 260. a, Ovary.
(From Panceri.)

100

DESMOULINS

prepared himself for the main duties of his life — those of a
political litterateur.

In March 1 789 Desmoulins began his political career. Having
been nominated deputy from the batiliage of Guise, he appeared
at Laon as one of the commissioners for the election of deputies
to the States-General summoned by royal edict of January 24th.
Camille heralded its meeting by his Ode to the States-General. It
is, moreover, highly probable that he was the author of a radical
pamphlet entitled La Philosophic au peuple fran^ais, published
in 1788, the text of which is not known. His hopes of pro-
fessional success were now scattered, and he was living in Paris
in extreme poverty. He, however, shared to the full the excite-
ment which attended the meeting of the States- General. As
appears from his letters to his father, he watched with exultation
the procession of deputies at Versailles, and with violent indigna-
tion the events of the latter part of June which followed the
closing of the Salle des Menus to the deputies who had named
themselves the National Assembly. It is further evident that
Desmoulins was already sympathizing, not only with the enthusi-
asm, but also with the fury and cruelty, of the Parisian crowds.

The sudden dismissal of Necker by Louis XVI. was the event
which brought Desmoulins to fame. On the i2th of July 1789
Camille, leaping upon a table outside one of the cafes in
the garden of the Palais Royal, announced to the crowd
the dismissal of their favourite. Losing, in his violent excite-
ment, his stammer, he inflamed the passions of the mob by his
burning words and his call " To arms! " " This dismissal,"
he said, " is the tocsin of the St Bartholomew of the patriots."
Drawing, at last, two pistols from under his coat, he declared that
he would not fall alive into the hands of the police who were
watching his movements. He descended amid the embraces of
the crowd, and his cry " To arms! " resounded on all sides.
This scene was the beginning of the actual events of the
Revolution. Following Desmoulins the crowd surged through
Paris, procuring arms by force; and on the I3th it was partly
organized as the Parisian militia which was afterwards to be the
National Guard. On the i4th the Bastille was taken.

Desmoulins may be said to have begun on the following day
that public literary career which lasted till his death. In May
and June 1789 he had written La France libre, which, to his
chagrin, his publisher refused to print. The taking of the Bastille,
however, and the events by which it was preceded, were a sign
that the times had changed; and on the i8th of July Desmoulins's
work was issued. Considerably in advance of public opinion,
it already pronounced in favour of a republic. By its erudite,
brilliant and courageous examination of the rights of king, of
nobles, of clergy and of people, it attained a wide and sudden
popularity; it secured for the author the friendship and pro-
tection of Mirabeau, and the studied abuse of numerous royalist
pamphleteers. Shortly afterwards, with his vanity and love of
popularity inflamed, he pandered to the passions of the lower
orders by the publication of his Discours de la lanterne aux
Parisians which, with an almost fiendish reference to the excesses
of the mob, he headed by a quotation from St John, Qui male
agit odit lucent. Camille was dubbed " Procureur-general de
la lanterne."

In November 1789 Desmoulins began his career as a journalist
by the issue of the first number of a weekly publication, Les
Revolutions de France et de Brabant. The title of the publication
changed after the 73rd number. It ceased to appear at the end
of July I79I.1

Success attended the Revolutions from its first to its last
number, Camille was everywhere famous, and his poverty was
relieved. These numbers are valuable as an exhibition not so
much of events as of the feelings of the Parisian people; they
are adorned, moreover, by the erudition, the wit and the genius
of the author, but they are disfigured, not only by the most biting
personalities and the defence and even advocacy of the excesses
of the mob, but by the entire absence of the forgiveness and pity
for which the writer was afterwards so eloquently to plead.

1 In April 1792 Desmoulins founded with Stanislas Freron a new
journal, La Tribune des patriotes, but only four numbers appeared.

Desmoulins was powerfully swayed by the influence of more
vigorous minds; and for some time before the death of Mirabeau,
in April 1791, he had begun to be led by Danton, with whom
he remained associated during the rest of his life. In July 1791
Camille appeared before the municipality of Paris as head of
a deputation of petitioners for the deposition of the king. In
that month, however, such a request was dangerous; there was
excitement in the city over the presentation of the petition, and
the private attacks to which Desmoulins had often been subject
were now followed by a warrant for the arrest of himself and
Danton. Danton left Paris for a little; Desmoulins, however,
remained there, appearing occasionally at the Jacobin club.
Upon the failure of this attempt of his opponents, Desmoulins
published a pamphlet, Jean Pierre Brissot demasque, which
abounded in the most violent personalities. This pamphlet,
which had its origin in a petty squabble, was followed in 1793
by a Fragment de I'histoire secrete de la Revolution, in which the
party of the Gironde, and specially Brissot, were most mercilessly
attacked. Desmoulins took an active part on the icth of August
and became secretary to Danton, when the latter became
minister of justice. On the 8th of September he was elected one of
the deputies for Paris to the National Convention, where, however,
he was not successful as an orator. He was of the party of the
" Mountain, "and voted for the abolition of royalty and the death
of the king. With Robespierre he was now more than ever
associated, and the Histoire des Brissotins, the fragment above
alluded to, was inspired by the arch-revolutionist. The success
of the brochure, so terrible as to send the leaders of the Gironde
to the guillotine, alarmed Danton and the author. Yet the role
of Desmoulins during the Convention was of but secondary
importance.

In December 1793 was issued the first number of the Vieux
Cordelier, which was at first directed against the Hebertists and
approved of by Robespierre, but which soon formulated Danton's
idea of a committee of clemency. Then Robespierre turned
against Desmoulins and took advantage of the popular indigna-
tion roused against the H6bertists to send them to death. The
time had come, however, when Saint Just and he were to turn
their attention not only to les enragts, but to les indulgents —
the powerful faction of the Dantonists. On the 7th of January
1 794 Robespierre, who on a former occasion had defended Camille
when in danger at the hands of the National Convention, in
addressing the Jacobin club counselled not the expulsion of
Desmoulins, but the burning of certain numbers of the Vieux
Cordelier. Camille sharply replied that he would answer with
Rousseau, — " burning is not answering," and a bitter quarrel
thereupon ensued. By the end of March not only were Hebert
and the leaders of the extreme party guillotined, but their
opponents, Danton, Desmoulins and the best of the moderates,
were arrested. On the 3ist the warrant of arrest was signed and
executed, and on the 3rd, 4th and 5th of April the trial took place
before the Revolutionary Tribunal. It was a scene of terror not
only to the accused but to judges and to jury. The retorts of the
prisoners were notable. Camille on being asked his age, replied,
" I am thirty-three, the age of the sans-culotte Jesus, a critical age
for every patriot." This was false; he was thirty-four.2 The
accused were prevented from defending themselves; a decree of
the Convention denied them the right of speech. Armed with
this and the false report of a spy, who charged the wife of
Desmoulins with conspiring for the escape of her husband and the
ruin of the republic, Fouquier-Tinville by threats and entreaties
obtained from the jury a sentence of death. It was passed in
absence of the accused, and their execution was appointed for
the same day.

Since his arrest the courage of Camille had miserably failed.
He had exhibited in the numbers of the Vieux Cordelier almost
a disregard of the death which he must have known hovered over
him. He had with consummate ability exposed the terrors of

s This is borne out by the register of his birth and baptism, and by
words in his last letter to his wife, — " I die at thirty-four." The
dates (1762-1794) given in so many biographies of Desmoulins are
certainly inaccurate.

DESNOYERS— DESPENSER

101

the Revolution, and had adorned his pages with illustrations from
Tacitus, the force of which the commonest reader could feel. In
his last number, the seventh, which his publisher refused to print,
he had dared to attack even Robespierre, but at his trial it was
found that he was devoid of physical courage. He had to be torn
from his seat ere he was removed to prison, and as he sat next to
Danton in the tumbrel which conveyed them to the guillotine,
the calmness of the great leader failed to impress him. In his
violence, bound as he was, he tore his clothes into shreds, and
his bare shoulders and breast were exposed to the gaze of the
surging crowd. Of the fifteen guillotined together, including
among them Marie Jean Herault de Sechelles, Frangois Joseph
Westermann and Pierre Philippeaux, Desmoulins died third;
Danton, the greatest, died last.

On the 29th of December 1790 Camille had married Lucile
Duplessis, and among the witnesses of the ceremony are observed
the names of Brissot, Petion and Robespierre. The only child
of the marriage, Horace Camille, was born on the 6th of July
1792. Two days afterwards Desmoulins brought it into notice
by appearing with it before the municipality of Paris to demand
" the formal statement of the civil estate of his son." The boy
was afterwards pensioned by the French government, and died
in Haiti in 1825. Lucile, Desmoulins's accomplished and affec-
tionate wife, was, a few days after her husband, and on a false
charge, condemned to the guillotine. She astonished allonlookers
by the calmness with which she braved death (April 13, 1794).

See J. Claretie, CEuvres de Camille Desmoulins avec une etude
biographique . . . &c. (Paris, 1874), and Camille Desmoulins, Lucile
Desmoulins, etude sur les Dantonistes (Paris, 1875; Eng. trans.,
London, 1876) ; F. A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la
Convention (Paris, 1905, 2nd ed.) : G. Lenfitre, " La Maisonde Camille
Desmoulins " (Le Temps, March 25, 1899).

DESNOYERS, JULES PIERRE FRANCOIS STANISLAS (1800-
1887), French geologist and archaeologist, was born at Nogent-le-
Rotrou, in the department of Eure-et-Loir, on the 8th of October
1800. Becoming interested in geology at an early age, he was one
of the founders of the Societe Geologique de France in 1830.
In 1834 he was appointed librarian of the Museum of Natural
History in Paris. His contributions to geological science com-
prise memoirs on the Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary Strata
of the Paris Basin and of Northern France, and other papers
relating to the antiquity of man, and to the question of his
co-existence with extinct mammalia. His separate books were
Sur la Craie et sur les terrains tertiaires du Cotentin (1825),
Recherches geologiques et historiques sur les cavernes (1845). He
died in 1887.

DESOR, PIERRE JEAN EDOUARD (1811-1882), Swiss
geologist, was born at Friedrichsdorf, near Frankfort-on-Main,
on the i3th of February 1811. Associated in early years with
Agassiz he studied palaeontology and glacial phenomena, and
in company with J. D. Forbes ascended the Jungfrau in 1841.
Desor afterwards became professor of geology in the academy
at Neuchatel, continued his studies on the structure of glaciers,
but gave special attention to the study of Jurassic Echinoderms.
He also investigated the old lake-habitations of Switzerland,
and made important observations on the physical features of
the Sahara. Having inherited considerable property he retired
to Combe Varin in Val Travers. He died at Nizza on the 23rd
of February 1882. His chief publications were: Synopsis des
Echinides fossiles (1858)', Aus Sahara (1865), Der Gebirgsbau
der Alpen (1865), Die Pfahlbauten des Neuenburger Sees (1866),
Echinologie hehetique (2 vols., 1868-1873, with P. de Loriol).

DE SOTO, a city of Jefferson county, Missouri, U.S.A., on
Joachim Creek, 42 m. S.S.W. of St Louis. Pop. (1890) 3960;
(1900) 561 1 (332 being foreign-born and 364 negroes); (1910) 4721.
It is served by the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railway,
which has extensive repair shops here. About 2\ m. from De Soto
is the Bochert mineral spring. In De Sotoare Mount St Clement's
College (Roman Catholic, 1900), a theological seminary of the
Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer under the charge of the
Redemptorist Fathers, and a Young Men's Christian Associa-
tion building. De Soto is in a good agricultural and fruit-growing

region, which produces Indian corn, apples, plums, pears and
small fruit. Lead and zinc are mined in the vicinity and shipped
from the city in considerable quantities; and among the city's
manufactures are shoes, flour and agricultural implements. The
municipality owns the water-works, the water supply of which is
furnished by artesian wells. De Soto was laid out in 1855 and
was incorporated in 1869.

DESPARD, EDWARD MARCUS (1751-1803), Irish conspirator,
was born in Queen's Co., Ireland, in 1751. In 1766 he entered
the British navy, was promoted lieutenant in 1772, and stationed
at Jamaica, where he soon proved himself to have considerable
engineering talent. He served in the West Indies with credit,
being promoted captain after the San Juan expedition (1779),
then made governor of the Mosquito Shore and the Bay of
Honduras, and in 1782 commander of a successful expedition
against the Spanish possessions on the Black river. In 1784
he took over the administration of Yucatan. Upon frivolous
charges he was suspended by Lord Grenville, and recalled to
England. From 1790 to 1792 these charges were held over him,
and when dismissed no compensation was forthcoming. His
complaints caused him to be arrested in 1798, and with a short
interval he remained in gaol until 1800. By that time Despard
was desperate, and engaged in a plot to seize the Tower of
London and Bank of England and assassinate George III. The
whole idea was patently preposterous, but Despard was arrested,
tried before a special commission, found guilty of high treason,
and, with six of his fellow-conspirators, sentenced in 1803 to be
hanged, drawn and quartered. These were the last men to be
so sentenced in England. Despard was executed on the 2ist of
February 1803.

His eldest brother, JOHN DESPARD (1745-1829), had a long and
distinguished career in the British army; gazetted an ensign in
1760, he was promoted through the various intermediate grades
and became general in 1814. His most active service was in the
American War of Independence, during which he was twice
made prisoner.

DESPENSER, HUGH LE (d. 1265), chief justiciar of England,
first plays an important part in 1258, when he was prominent on
the baronial side in the Mad Parliament of Oxford. In 1260 the
barons chose him to succeed Hugh Bigod as justiciar, and in 1 263
the king was further compelled to put the Tower of London in
his hands. On the outbreak of civil war he joined the party of
Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, and led the Londoners when
they sacked the manor-house of Isleworth, belonging to Richard,
earl of Cornwall, king of the Romans. Having fought at Lewes
(1264) he was made governor of six castles after the battle, and
was then appointed one of the four arbitrators to mediate
between Simon de Montfort and Gilbert de Clare, earl of
Gloucester. He was summoned to Simon de Montfort's parlia-
ment in 1264, and acted as justiciar throughout the earl's
dictatorship. Despenser was killed at Evesham in August 1265.

See C. Bemont, Simon de Montfort (Paris, 1884); T. F. Tout in
Owens College Historical Essays, pp. 76 ff. (Manchester, 1902).

DESPENSER, HUGH LE (1262-1326), English courtier, was
a son of the English justiciar who died at Evesham. He fought
for Edward I. in Wales, France and Scotland, and in 1295 was
summoned to parliament as a baron. Ten years later he was
sent by the king to Pope Clement V. to secure Edward's release
from the oaths he had taken to observe the charters in 1297.
Almost alone Hugh spoke out for Edward II. 's favourite, Piers
Gaveston, in 1308; but after Gaveston's death in 1312 he himself
became the king's chief adviser, holding power and influence
until Edward's defeat at Bannockburn in 1314. Then, hated
by the barons, and especially by Earl Thomas of Lancaster, as
a deserter from their party, he was driven from the council, but
was quickly restored to favour and loaded with lands and honours,
being made earl of Winchester in 1322. Before this time Hugh's
son, the younger Hugh le Despenser, had become associated with
his father, and having been appointed the king's chamberlain
was enjoying a still larger share of the royal favour. About 1306
this baron had married Eleanor (d. 1337), one of the sisters and
heiresses of Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, who was slain at

102

DBS PERIERS— DESPORTES

Bannockburn; and after a division of the immense Clare lands
had been made in 1317 violent quarrels broke out between the
Despensers and the husbands of the other heiresses, Roger of
Amory and Hugh of Audley. Interwoven with this dispute was
another between the younger Despenser and the Mowbrays, who
were supported by Humphrey Bohun, earl of Hereford, about
some lands in Glamorganshire. Fighting having begun in Wales
and on the Welsh borders, the English barons showed themselves
decidedly hostile to the Despensers, and in 1321 Edward II. was
obliged to consent to their banishment. While the elder Hugh
left England the younger one remained; soon the king persuaded
the clergy to annul the sentence against them, and father and
son were again at court. They fought against the rebellious
barons at Boroughbridge, and after Lancaster's death in 1322
they were practically responsible for the government of the
country, which they attempted to rule in a moderate and con-
stitutional fashion. But their next enemy, Queen Isabella, was
more formidable, or more fortunate, than Lancaster. Returning
to England after a sojourn in France in 1326 the queen directed
her arms against her husband's favourites. The elder Despenser
was seized at Bristol, where he was hanged on the 27th of
October 1326, and the younger was taken with the king at
Llantrisant and hanged at Hereford on the 24th of November
following. The attainder against the Despensers was reversed
in 1398. The intense hatred with which the barons regarded the
Despensers was due to the enormous wealth which had passed
into their hands, and to the arrogance and rapacity of the
younger Hugh.

The younger Despenser left two sons, Hugh (1308-1349), and
Edward, who was killed at Vannes in 1342.

The latter's son EDWARD LE DESPENSER (d. 1375) fought at
the battle of Poitiers, and then in Italy for Pope Urban V.; he
was a patron of Froissart, who calls him le grand sire Despensier.
His son, THOMAS LE DESPENSER (1373-1400), the husband of
Constance (d. 1416), daughter of Edmund of Langley, duke of
York, supported Richard II. against Thomas of Woodstock, duke
of Gloucester, and the other lords appellant in 1397, when he
himself was created earl of Gloucester, but he deserted the king
in 1399. Then, degraded from his earldom for participating in
Gloucester's death, Despenser joined the conspiracy against
Henry IV., but he was seized and was executed by a mob at
Bristol in January 1400.

The elder Edward le Despenser left another son, HENRY
(c. 1341-1406), who became bishop of Norwich in 1370. In
early life Henry had been a soldier, and when the peasants
revolted in 1381 he took readily to the field, defeated the insur-
gents at North Walsham, and suppressed the rising in Norfolk
with some severity. More famous, however, was the militant
bishop's enterprise on behalf of Pope Urban VI., who in 1382
employed him to lead a crusade in Flanders against the supporters
of the anti-pope Clement VII. He was very successful in captur-
ing towns until he came before Ypres, where he was checked,
his humiliation being completed when his army was defeated by
the French and decimated by a pestilence. Having returned
to England the bishop was impeached in parliament and was
deprived of his lands; Richard II., however, stood by him, and
he soon regained an influential place in the royal council, and
was employed to defend his country on the seas. Almost alone
among his peers Henry remained true to Richard in 1399; he was
then imprisoned, but was quickly released and reconciled with
the new king, Henry IV. He died on the 23rd of August 1406.
Despenser was an active enemy of the Lollards, whose leader,
John Wycliffe, had fiercely denounced his crusade in Flanders.

The barony of Despenser, called out of abeyance in 1604, was
held by the Fanes, earls of Westmorland, from 1626 to 1762;
by the notorious Sir Francis Dashwood from 1763 to 1781;
and by the Stapletons from 1788 to 1891. In 1891 it was
inherited, through his mother, by the 7th Viscount Falmouth.

DBS PfiRIERS, BONAVENTURE (c. 1500-1544), French
author, was born of a noble family at Arnay-le-duc in Burgundy
at the end of the isth century. The circumstances of his educa-
tion are uncertain, but he became a good classical scholar, and

was attached to various noble houses in the capacity of tutor.
In 1533 or 1534 Des Periers visited Lyons, then the most en-
lightened town of France, and a refuge for many liberal scholars
who might elsewhere have had to suffer for their opinions. He
gave some assistance to Robert Olivetan and Lefevre d'Etaples
in the preparation of the vernacular version of the Old Testament,
and to Etienne Dolet in the Commentarii linguae latinae. In
1536 he put himself under the protection of Marguerite
d'Angouleme, queen of Navarre, who made him her valet-de-
chambre. He acted as the queen's secretary, and transcribed the
Heptamiron for her. It is probable that his duties extended
beyond those of a mere copyist, and some writers have gone so
far as to say that the Heptamiron was his work. The free
discussions permitted at Marguerite's court encouraged a licence
of thought as displeasing to the Calvinists as to the Catholics.
This free inquiry became scepticism in Bonaventure's Cymbalum
Mundi . . . (1537), and the queen of Navarre thought it prudent
to disavow the author, though she continued to help him privately
until 1541. The book consisted of four dialogues in imitation of
Lucian. Its allegorical form did not conceal its real meaning,
and, when it was printed by Morin, probably early in 1538, the
Sorbonne secured the suppression of the edition before it was
offered for sale. The dedication provides a key to the author's
intention: Thomas duClevier (or Clenier)dson ami Pierre Tryocan
was recognized by 19th-century editors to be an anagram for
Thomas I'lncridide a son ami Pierre Croyant. The book was
reprinted in Paris in the same year. It made many bitter enemies
for the author. Henri Estienne called it detestable, and Etienne
Pasquier said it deserved to be thrown into the fire with its author
if he were still living. Des Periers prudently left Paris, and after
some wanderings settled at Lyons, where he lived in poverty,
until in 1544 he put an end to his existence by falling on his
sword. In 1544 his collected works were printed at Lyons.
The volume, Recueil des (euvres de feu Bonavenlure des Periers,
included his poems, which are of small merit, the Traite des
qualre verlus cardinales apres Seneque, and a translation of the
Lysis of Plato. In 1558 appeared at Lyons the collection of
stories and fables entitled the Nouvelles recreations etjoyeux devis.
It is on this work that the claim put forward for Des Periers as
one of the early masters of French prose rests. Some of the tales
are attributed to the editors, Nicholas Denisot and Jacques
Pelletier, but their share is certainly limited to the later ones.
The book leaves something to be desired on the score of morality,
but the stories never lack point and are models of simple, direct
narration in the vigorous and picturesque French of the i6th
century.

His CEuvres franfaises were published by Louis Lacour (Paris,
2 vols., 1856). See also the preface to the Cymbalum Mundi . . .
(ed. F. Franck, 1874) ; A. Cheneviere, Bonaventure Desperiers, sa vie,
ses poesies (1885); and P. Toldo, Contribute alto studio delta novella
francese del XV. e XVI. secolo (Rome, 1895).

DESPORTES, PHILIPPE (1546-1606), French poet, was born
at Chartres in 1546. As secretary to the bishop of Le Puy
he visited Italy, where he gained a knowledge of Italian poetry
afterwards turned to good account. On his return to France he
attached himself to the duke of Anjou, and followed him to
Warsaw on his election as king of Poland. Nine months in
Poland satisfied the civilized Desportes, but in 1574 his patron
became king of France as Henry III. He showered favours on
the poet, who received, in reward for the skill with which he
wrote occasional poems at the royal request, the abbey of Tiron
and four other valuable benefices. A good example of the light
and dainty verse in which Desportes excelled is furnished by
the well-known mllanelle with the refrain " Qui premier s'en
repentira," which was on the lips of Henry, duke of Guise, just
before his tragic death. Desportes was above all an imitator.
He imitated Petrarch, Ariosto, Sannazaro, and still more closely
the minor Italian poets, and in 1604 a number of his plagiarisms
were exposed in the Rencontres des Muses de France et d'ltalie.
As a sonneteer he showed much grace and sweetness, and English
poets borrowed freely from him. In his old age Desportes
acknowledged his ecclesiastical preferment by a translation of

DESPOT— DESSAU

103

the Psalms remembered chiefly for the brutal mot of Malherbe:
" Votre potage vaut mteux que vos psaumes." Desportes died on
the 5th of October 1606. He had published in 1573 an edition
of his works including Diane, Les Amours d'Hippolyte, Elegies,
Bergeries, (Entires chretiennes, &c.

An edition of his (Euvres, by Alfred Michiels, appeared in 1858.

DESPOT (Gr. 5«7iranjs, lord or master; the origin of the first
part of the Gr. word is unknown, the second part is cognate with
iroats, husband, Lat. potens, powerful), in Greek usage the master
of a household, hence the ruler of slaves. It was also used by
the Greeks of their gods, as was the feminine form 8&nmu>a. It
was, however, principally applied by the Greeks to the absolute
monarchs of the eastern empires with which they came in contact;
and it is in this sense that the word, like its equivalent " tyrant,"
is in current usage for an absolute sovereign whose rule is not
restricted by any constitution. In the Roman empire of the
East " despot " was early used as a title of honour or address of
the emperor, and was given by Alexius I. (1081-1 118) to the sons,
brothers and sons-in-law of the emperor (Gibbon, Decline and
Fall, ed. Bury, vol. vi. 80). It does not seem that the title was
confined to the heir-apparent by Alexius II. (see Selden, Titles of
Honour, part ii. chap. i. s. vi.). Later still it was adopted by
the vassal princes of the empire. This gave rise to the name
" despotats " as applied to these tributary states, which survived
the break-up of the empire in the independent " despotats " of
Epirus, Cyprus, Trebizond, &c. Under Ottoman rule the title
was preserved by the despots of Servia and of the Morea, &c.
The early use of the term as a title of address for ecclesiastical
dignitaries survives in its use in the Greek Church as the formal
mode of addressing a bishop.

DBS PRES, JOSQUIN (c. 1445-1521), also called DEPRES or
DESPREZ, and by a latinized form of his name, JODOCUS
PRATENSIS or A PRATO, French musical composer, was born,
probably in Conde in the Hennegau, about 1445. He was a
pupil of Ockenheim, and himself one of the most learned
musicians of his time. In spite of his great fame, the accounts of
his life are vague and the dates contradictory. Fetis contributed
greatly towards elucidating the doubtful points in his Biographic
universelle. In his early youth Josquin seems to have been a
member of the choir of the collegiate church at St Quentin; when
his voice changed he went (about 1455) to Ockenheim to take
lessons in counterpoint; afterwards he again lived at his birth-
place for some years, till Pope Sixtus IV. invited him to Rome
to teach his art to the musicians of Italy, where musical know-
ledge at that time was at a low ebb. In Rome Des Pres lived
till the death of his protector (1484), and it was there that many
of his works were written. His reputation grew rapidly, and he
was considered by his contemporaries to be the greatest master
of his age. Luther, who was a good judge, is credited with the
saying that " other musicians do with notes what they can,
Josquin what he likes. " The composer's journey to Rome marks
in a manner the transference of the art from its Gallo-Belgian
birthplace to Italy, which for the next two centuries remained
the centre of the musical world. To Des Pres and his pupils
Arcadelt, Mouton and others, much that is characteristic in
modern music owes its rise, particularly in their influence upon
Italian developments under Palestrina. After leaving Rome
Des Pres went for a time to Ferrara, where the duke Hercules I.
offered him a home; but before long he accepted an invitation
of King Louis XII. of France to become the chief singer of the
royal chapel. According to another account, he was for a time
at least in the service of the emperor Maximilian I. The date
of his death has by some writers been placed as early as 1501.
But this is sufficiently disproved by the fact of one of his finest
compositions, A Dirge (Deploration) for Five Voices, being
written to commemorate the death of his master Ockenheim,
which took place after 1512. The real date of Josquin's decease
has since been settled as the 27th of August 1521. He was at
that time a canon of the cathedral of Conde (see Victor Delzant's
Sepultures de Flandre, No. 118).

The most complete list of his compositions — consisting of masses,
motets, psalms and other pieces of sacred music — will be found in

Fetis. The largest collection of his MS. works, containing no less
than twenty masses, is in the possession of the papal chapel in Rome.
In his lifetime Des Pres was honoured as an eminent composer, and
the musicians of the i6th century are loud in his praise. During the '
i?th and i8th centuries his value was ignored, nor does his work
appear in the collections 'of Martini and Paolucci. Burney was the
first to recover him from oblivion, and Forkel continued the task of
rehabilitation. Ambros furnishes the most exhaustive account of
his achievements. An admirable account of Josquin's art, from the
rare point of view of a modern critic who knows how to allow for
modern difficulties, will be found in the article " Josquin," in Grove's
Dictionary of Music and Musicians, new ed. vol. ii. The Repertoire
des chanteurs de St Gervais contains an excellent modern edition of
Josquin's Miserere.

DESPRES, SUZANNE (1875- ), French actress, was born
at Verdun, and trained at the Paris Conservatoire, where in 1897
she obtained the first prize for comedy, and the second for
tragedy. She then became associated with, and subsequently
married, Aurelien Lugne-Poe (b. 1870), the actor-manager, who
had founded a new school of modern drama, L'fEuvre, and she
had a brilliant success in several plays produced by him. In
succeeding years she played at the Gymnase and at the Porte
Saint-Martin, and in 1902 made her debut at the Comedie
Franchise, appearing in Phedre and other important parts.

DESRUES, ANTOINE FRANCOIS (1744-1777), French
poisoner, was born at Chartres in 1744, of humble parents. He
went to Paris to seek his fortune, and started in business as a
grocer. He was known as a man of great piety and devotion,
and his business was reputed to be a flourishing one, but when,
in 1773, h<» gave up his shop, his finances, owing to personal
extravagance, were in a deplorable condition. Nevertheless he
entered into negotiations with a Madame de la Mothe for the
purchase from her of a country estate, and, when the time came
for the payment of the purchase money, invited her to stay with
him in Paris pending the transfer. While she was still his guest,
he poisoned first her and then her son, a youth of sixteen. Then,
having forged a receipt for the purchase money, he endeavoured
to obtain possession of the property. But by this time the dis-
appearance of Madame de la Mothe and her son had aroused
suspicion. Desrues was arrested, the bodies of his victims were
discovered, and the crime was brought home to him. He was
tried, found guilty and condemned to be torn asunder alive and
burned. The sentence was carried out (1777), Desrues repeating
hypocritical protestations of his innocence to the last. The
whole affair created a great sensation at the time, and as late as
1828 a dramatic version of it was performed in Paris.

DESSAIX, JOSEPH MARIE, COUNT (1764-1834), French
general, was born at Thonon in Savoy on the 24th of September
1764. He studied medicine, took his degree at Turin, and then
went to Paris, where in 1789 he joined the National Guard. In
1791 he tried without success to raise an emeute in Savoy, in 1792
he organized the " Legion of the Allobroges," and in the follow- .
ing years he served at the siege of Toulon, in the Army of the
Eastern Pyrenees, and in the Army of Italy. He was captured
at Rivoli, but was soon exchanged. In the spring of 1 798 Dessaix
was elected a member of the Council of Five Hundred. He was
one of the few in that body who opposed the coup d'etat of the
i8th Brumaire (November 9, 1799). In 1803 he was promoted
general of brigade, and soon afterwards commander of the
Legion of Honour. He distinguished himself greatly at the
battle of Wagram (1809), and was about this time promoted
general of division and named grand officer of the Legion of
Honour, and in 1810 was made a count. He took part in the
expedition to Russia, and was twice wounded. For several
months he was commandant of Berlin, and afterwards delivered
the department of Mont Blanc from the Austrians. After the
first restoration Dessaix held a command under the Bourbons.
He nevertheless joined Napoleon in the Hundred Days, and in
1816 he was imprisoned for five months. The rest of his life
was spent in retirement. He died on the 26th of October 1834.

See Le General Dessaix, sa vie politique et militaire, by his nephew
Joseph Dessaix (Paris, 1879).

DESSAU, a town of Germany, capital of the duchy of Anhalt,
on the left bank of the Mulde, 2 m. from its confluence with the

DESSEWFFY— DESTRUCTORS

Elbe, 67 m. S.W. from Berlin and at the junction of lines to
Cothen and Zerbst. Pop. (1905) 55,134- Apart from the old
quarter lying on the Mulde, the town is well built, is surrounded
by pleasant gardens and contains many handsome streets and
spacious squares. Among the latter is the Grosse Markt with
a statue of Prince Leopold I. of Anhalt-Dessau, " the old
Dessauer." Of the six churches, the Schlosskirche, adorned with
paintings by Lucas Cranach, in one of which (" The Last Supper ")
are portraits of several reformers, is the most interesting. The
ducal palace, standing in extensive grounds, contains a collection
of historical curiosities and a gallery of pictures, which includes
works by Cimabue, Lippi,Rubens,Titian and Van Dyck. Among
other buildings are the town hall (built 1899-1900), the palace
of the hereditary prince, the theatre, the administration offices,
the law courts, the Amalienstift, with a picture gallery, several
high-grade schools, a library of 30,000 volumes and an excellently
appointed hospital. There are monuments to the philosopher
Moses Mendelssohn (born here in 1729), to the poet Wilhelm
Miiller, father of Professor Max Miiller, also a native of the place,
to the emperor William I., and an obelisk commemorating the
war of 1870-71. The industries of Dessau include the pro-
duction of sugar, which is the chief manufacture, woollen, linen
and cotton goods, carpets, hats, leather, tobacco and musical
instruments. There is also a considerable trade hi corn and
garden produce. In the environs are the ducal villas of Georgium
and Luisium, the gardens of which, as well as those of the
neighbouring town of Worlitz, are much admired.

Dessau was probably founded by Albert the Bear; it had
attained civic rights as early as 1213. It first began to grow into
importance at the close of the I7th century, in consequence of
the religious emancipation of the Jews in 1686, and of the
Lutherans in 1697.

See Wiirdig, Chronik der Stadt Dessau (Dessau, 1876).

DESSEWFFY, AUREL, COUNT (1808-1842), Hungarian
journalist and politician, eldest son of Count J6zsef Dessewffy
and Eleonora Sztaray,was born at Nagy-Mihaly,countyZemplen,
Hungary. Carefully educated at his father's house, he was
accustomed to the best society of his day. While still a child he
could declaim most of the Iliad in Greek without a book, and
read and quoted Tacitus with enthusiasm. Under the noble
influence of Ferencz Kazinczy he became acquainted with the
chief masterpieces of European literature in their original tongues.
He was particularly fond of the English, and one of his early
idols was Jeremy Bentham. He regularly accompanied his father
to the diets of which he was a member, followed the course of
the debates, of which he kept a journal, and made the acquaint-
ance of the great Szechenyi, who encouraged his aspirations. On
leaving college, he entered the royal aulic chancellery, and in
1832 was appointed secretary of the royal stadtholder at Buda.
The same year he turned his attention to politics and was
regarded as one of the most promising young orators of the day,
especially during the sessions of the diet of 1832-1836, when he
had the courage to oppose Kossuth. At the Pressburg diet in
1840 Dessewffy was already the leading orator of the more
enlightened and progressive Conservatives, but incurred great
unpopularity for not going far enough, with the result that he
was twice defeated at the polls. But his reputation in court
circles was increasing; he was appointed a member of the com-
mittee for the reform of the criminal law in 1840; and, the same
year with a letter of recommendation from Metternich in his
pocket, visited England and France, Holland and Belgium, made
the acquaintance of Thiers and Heine in Paris, and returned home
with an immense and precious store of practical information.
He at once proceeded to put fresh life into the despondent and
irresolute Conservative party, and the Magyar aristocracy, by
gallantly combating in the Vtfdg the opinions of Kossuth's paper,
the Pesti Hirlap. But the multiplicity of his labours was too
much for his feeble physique, and he died on the gth of February
1842, at the very time when his talents seemed most indispensable.

See Aus den Papieren des Graf en Aurel Dessewffy (Pest, 1843) ;
Memorial Wreath to Count Aurel Dessewffy (Hung.), (Budapest,
1 857) ; Collected Works of Count Dessewffy, with a Biography (Hung.) ,
(Budapest, 1887). (R. N. B.)

DESSOIR, LUDWIG (1810-1874), German actor, whose name
was originally Leopold Dessauer, was born on the isth of
December 1810 at Posen, the son of a Jewish tradesman. He
made his first appearance on the stage there in 1824 in a small
part. After some experience at the theatre in Posen and on
tour, he was engaged at Leipzig from 1834 to 1836. Then he
was attached to the municipal theatre of Breslau, and in 1837
appeared at Prague, Briinn, Vienna and Budapest, where he
accepted an engagement which lasted until 1839. He succeeded
Karl Devrient at Karlsruhe, and went in 1847 to Berlin, where he
acted Othello and Hamlet with such extraordinary success that
he received a permanent engagement at the Hof-theater. From
1849 to 1872, when he retired on a pension, he played no parts,
frequently on tour, and in 1853 acting in London. He died on
the 3oth of December 1874 in Berlin. Dessoir was twice married ;
his first wife, Theresa, a popular actress (1810-1866), was
separated from him a year after marriage; his second wife went
mad on the death of her child. By his first wife Dessoir had one
son, the actor Ferdinand Dessoir (1836-1892). In spite of certain
physical disabilities Ludwig Dessoir's genius raised him to the
first rank of actors, especially as interpreter of Shakespeare's
characters. G. H. Lewes placed Dessoir's Othello above that of
Kean, and the Athenaeum preferred him in this part to Brooks
or Macready.

DESTOUCHES, PHILIPPE (1680-1754), French dramatist,
whose real name was Nericault, was born at Tours in April 1680.
When he was nineteen years of age he became secretary to
M. de Puysieux, the French ambassador in Switzerland. In 1716
he was attached to the French embassy in London, where he
remained for six years under the abbe Dubois. He contracted
with a Lancashire lady, Dorothea Johnston, a marriage which
was not avowed for some years. He drew a picture later of his
own domestic circumstances in Le Philosophe marie (1726). On his
return to France (1723) he was elected to the Academy, and in
1727 he acquired considerable estates, the possession of which
conferred the privileges of nobility. He spent his later years at
his chateau of Fortoiseau near Melun, dying on the 4th of July
1754. His early comedies were: Le Curieux Impertinent (1710),
L'Ingral (iii2),L'Irresolu (1713) and Le Medisant (1715). The
best of these is L'lrresolu, in which Dorante, after hesitating
throughout the play between Julie and Celimene, marries Julie,
but concludes the play with the reflection: —

" J'aurais mieux fait, je crois, d'epouser Celimene."

After eleven years of diplomatic service Destouches returned
to the stage with the Philosophe marie (1727), followed in 1732
by his masterpiece Le Glorieux, a picture of the struggle then
beginning between the old nobility and the wealthy parvenus who
found their opportunity in the poverty of France. Destouches
wished to revive the comedy of character as understood by
Moliere, but he thought it desirable that the moral should be
directly expressed. This moralizing tendency spoilt his later
comedies. Among them may be mentioned: Le Tambour
nocturne (1736), La Force du naturel (1750) and Le Dissipateur

(1736).

His works were issued in collected form in 1755, 1757, '811 and,
in a limited edition (6 vols.), 1822.

DESTRUCTORS. The name destructors is applied by English
municipal engineers to furnaces, or combinations of furnaces,
commonly called " garbage furnaces " in the United States, con-
structed for the purpose of disposing by burning of town refuse,
which is a heterogeneous mass of material, including, besides
general household and ash-bin refuse, small quantities of garden
refuse, trade refuse, market refuse and often street sweepings.
The mere disposal of this material is not, however, by any means
the only consideration in dealing with it upon the destructor
system. For many years past scientific experts, municipal
engineers and public authorities have been directing careful
attention to the utilization of refuse as fuel for steam production,
and such progress in this direction has been made that in many
towns its calorific value is now being utilized daily for motive-
power purposes. On the other hand, that proper degree of
caution which is obtained only by actual experience must be

DESTRUCTORS

exercised in the application of refuse fuel to steam-raising.
When its value as a low-class fuel was first recognized, the idea
was disseminated that the refuse of a given population was of
itself sufficient to develop the necessary steam-power for supply-
ing that population with the electric light. The economical
importance of a combined destructor and electric undertaking
of this character naturally presented a somewhat fascinating
stimulus to public authorities, and possibly had much to do
with the development both of the adoption of the principle of
dealing with refuse by fire, and of lighting towns by electricity.
However true this phase of the question may be as the statement
of a theoretical scientific fact, experience so far does not show
it to be a basis upon which engineers may venture to calculate,
although, as will be seen later, under certain circumstances of
equalized load, which must be considered upon their merits
in each case, a well-designed destructor plant can be made
to perform valuable commercial service to an electric or other
power-using undertaking. Further, when a system, thermal or
otherwise, for the storage of energy can be introduced and applied
in a trustworthy and economical manner, the degree of advantage
to be derived from the utilization of the waste heat from
destructors will be materially enhanced.

The composition of house refuse, which must obviously affect
its calorific value, varies considerably in different localities,
Compost- according to the condition, habits and pursuits of the
tion and people. Towns situated in coal-producing districts
quantity invariably yield a refuse richer in unconsumed carbon
ise' than those remote therefrom. It is also often found
that the refuse from different parts of the same town varies
considerably — that from the poorest quarters frequently proving
of greater calorific value than that from those parts occupied by
the rich and middle classes. This has been attributed to the more
extravagant habits of the working classes in neglecting to sift
the ashes from their fires before disposing of them in the ash-bin.
In Bermondsey, for example, the refuse has been found to possess
an unusually high calorific value, and this experience is confirmed
in other parts of the metropolis. Average refuse consists of
breeze (cinder and ashes), coal and coke, fine dust, vegetable and
animal matters, straw, shavings, cardboard, bottles, tins, iron,
bones, broken crockery and other matters in very variable pro-
portions according to the character of the district from which it
is collected. In London the quantity of house refuse amounts
approximately to i j million tons per annum, which is equivalent
to from 4 cwt. to 5 cwt. per head per annum, or to from 200 to 250
tons per 1000 of the population per annum. Statistics, however,
vary widely in different districts. In the vicinity of the metropolis
the amount varies from 2-5 cwt. per head per annum at Ley ton to
3-5 cwt. at Hornsey, and to as much as 7 cwt. at Ealing. In the
north of England the total house refuse collected, exclusive of
street sweepings, amounts on the average to 8 cwt. per head per
annum. Speaking generally, throughout the country an amount
of from 5 cwt. to 10 cwt. per head per annum should be allowed
for. A cubic yard of ordinary house refuse weighs from i2j to
15 cwt. Shop refuse is lighter, frequently containing a large pro-
portion of paper, straw and other light wastes. It sometimes
weighs as little as 75 cwt. per cubic yard. A load, by which
refuse is often estimated, varies in weight from 15 cwt. to 15 tons.

The question how a town's refuse shall be disposed of must be
considered both from a commercial and a sanitary point of view.
Refuse Various methods have been practised. Sometimes the
disposal, household ashes, &c., are mixed with pail excreta, or
with sludge from a sewage farm, or with lime, and
disposed of for agricultural purposes, and sometimes they are
conveyed in carts or by canal to outlying and country districts,
where they are shot on waste ground or used to fill up hollows and
raise the level of marshland. Such plans are economical when
suitable outlets are available. To take the refuse out to sea in
hopper barges and sink it in deep water is usually expensive and
frequently unsatisfactory. At Bermondsey, for instance, the
cost of barging is about 2s. gd. a ton, while the material may
be destroyed by fire at a cost of from icd. to is. a ton, exclusive
of interest and sinking fund on the cost of the works. In other

cases, as at Chelsea and various dust contractors' yards, the
refuse is sorted and its ingredients are sold; the fine dust may be
utilized in connexion with manure manufactories, the pots and
pans employed in forming the foundations of roads, and the
cinders and vegetable refuse burnt to generate steam. In the
Arnold system, carried out in Philadelphia and other American
towns, the refuse is sterilized by steam under pressure, the grease
and fertilizing substances being extracted at the same time;
while in other systems, such as those of Weil and Porno, and
of Defosse, distillation in closed vessels is practised. But the
destructor system, in which the refuse is burned to an innocuous
clinker in specially constructed furnaces, is that which must
finally be resorted to, especially in districts which have become
well built up and thickly populated.

Various types of furnaces and apparatus have from time
to time been designed, and the subject has been one of much
experiment and many failures. The principal towns in
England which took the lead in the adoption of the
refuse destructor system were Manchester, Birming- tors.
ham, Leeds, Heckmondwike, Warrington, Blackburn,
Bradford, Bury, Bolton, Hull, Nottingham, Salford, Ealing and
London. Ordinary furnaces, built mostly by dust contractors,
began to come into use in London and in the north of England
in the second half of the igt h century, but they were not scientific-
ally adapted to the purpose, and necessitated the admixture of
coal or other fuel with the refuse to ensure its cremation. The
Manchester corporation erected a furnace of this description
about the year 1873, and Messrs Mead & Co. made an unsatis-
factory attempt in 1870 to burn house refuse in closed furnaces
at Paddington. In 1876 Alfred Fryer erected his destructor at
Manchester, and several other towns adopted this furnace
shortly afterwards. Other furnaces were from time to time
brought before the public, among which may be mentioned those
of Pearce and Lupton, Pickard, Healey, Thwaite, Young,
Wilkinson, Burton, Hardie, Jacobs and Odgen. In addition to
these the " Beehive " and the " Nelson " destructors became
well known. The former was introduced by Stafford and Pearson

FIG. i. — Fryer's Destructor.

of Burnley, and one was erected in 1884 in the parish yard at
Richmond, Surrey, but the results being unsatisfactory, it was
closed during the following year. The " Nelson " furnace,
patented in 1885 by Messrs Richmond and Birtwistle, was
erected at Nelson-in-Marsden, Lancashire, but being very costly
in working was abandoned. The principal types of destructors
now in use are those of Fryer, Whiley, Horsfall, Warner,
Meldrum, Beaman and Deas, Heenan and Froude, and the
" Sterling " destructor erected by Messrs Hughes and Stirling.
The general arrangement of the destructor patented ' by Alfred
Fryer in 1876 is illustrated in fig. i. An installation upon this
principle consists of a number of furnaces or cells, usu- fryer's
ally arranged in pairs back to back, and enclosed in a
rectangular block of brickwork having a flat top, upon which the
house refuse is tipped from the carts.

1 Patent No. 3125 (1876).

io6

DESTRUCTORS

A large main flue, which also forms the dust chamber, is placed
underneath the furnace hearths. The Fryer furnace ordinarily burns
from 4 to 6 tons of refuse per cell per 24 hours. It will be observed
that the outlets for the products of combustion are placed at the back
near the refuse feed opening, an arrangement which is imperfect in
design, inasmuch as while a charge of refuse is burning upon the
furnace bars the charge which is to follow lies on the dead hearth near
the outlet flue. Here it undergoes drying and partial decomposition,
giving off offensive empyreumatic vapours which pass into the flue
without being exposed to sufficient heat to render them entirely

FIG. 2. — Horsfall's improved Destructor.

inoffensive. The serious nuisances thus produced in some instances
led to the introduction of a second furnace, or " cremator," patented
by C. Jones of Ealing in 1885, which was placed in the main flue
leading to the chimney-shaft, for the purpose of resolving the organic
matters present in the vapour, but the greatly increased cost of
burning due to this device led to its abandonment in many cases.
This type of cell was largely used during the early period of the
history of destructors, but has to a considerable extent given place to
furnaces of more modern design.

A furnace * patented in 1891 by Mr Henry Whiley, superintendent

of the scavenging department of the Manchester corporation, is

f automatic in its action and was designed primarily with a

alley s. v;ew jo saving labour — the cells being fed, stoked and
clinkered automatically. There is no drying hearth, and the refuse
carts tip direct into a shoot or hopper at the back which conducts the
material directly on to movable eccentric grate bars. These auto-
matically traverse the material forward into the furnace, and finally
push it against a flap-door which opens and allows it to fall out.
This apparatus is adapted for dealing with screened rather than
unscreened refuse, since it suffers from the objection that the motion
of the bars tends to allow fine particles to drop through unburnt.
Some difficulty has been experienced from the refuse sticking in the

Tipping plat form

FIG. 3. — Meldrum's Destructor at Darwen.

hopper, and exception may also be taken to the continual flapping of
the door when the clinker passes out, as cold air is thereby admitted
into the furnace. As in the Fryer cell, the outlet for the products of
combustion into the main flue is close to the point where the crude
refuse is fed into the furnace, and the escape of unburnt vapours is
thus facilitated. Forced draught is applied by means of a Roots
blower. The Manchester corporation has 28 cells of this type in use,
and the approximate amount of refuse burnt per cell per 24 hours is
from 6 to 8 tons at a cost per ton for labour of 3-47 pence.

Horsfall's destructor5 (fig. 2) is a high-temperature furnace of
modern type which has been adopted largely in Great Britain and on
the continent of Europe. In it some of the general features
Hors fairs. of the pryer ceu are retained, but the details differ con-
siderably from those of the furnaces already described. Important

points in the design are the arrangement of the flues and flue outlets
for the products of combustion,. and the introduction of a blast duct
through which air is forced into a closed ash-pit. The feeding-hole is
situated at the back of and above the furnace, while the flue opening
for the emission of the gaseous products is placed at the front of the
furnace over the dead plate; thus the gases distilled from the raw
refuse are caused to pass on their way to the main flue over the
hottest part of the furnace and through the flue opening in the red-
hot reverberatory arch. The steam jet, which plays an important
part in the Horsfall furnace, forces air into the closed ash-pit at a
pressure of about f to I in. of water, and in this way a temperature
varying from 1500° to 2000° F., as tested by a thermo-electric
pyrometer, is maintained in the main flue. In a battery of cells the
gases from each are delivered into one main flue, so that a uniform
temperature is maintained therein sufficiently high to prevent
noxious vapours from reaching the chimney. The cells being charged
and clinkered in rotation, when the fire in one is green, in the others
it is at its hottest, and the products of combustion do not reach the
boiler surfaces until after they have been mixed in the main flue.
The cast iron boxes which are provided at the sides of the furnaces,
and through which the blast air is conveyed on its way to the grate,
prevent the adhesion of clinker to the side walls of the cells, and very
materially preserve the brickwork, which otherwise becomes damaged
by the tools used to remove the clinker. The wide clinkering doors
are suspended by counterbalance weights and open vertically. The
rate of working of these cells varies from 8 tons per cell per 24 hours
at Oldham to 10 tons per cell at Bradford, where the furnaces are of
a later type. The cost of labour in stoking and clinkering is about 6d.
per ton of the refuse treated at Bradford, and gd. per ton at Oldham,
where the rate of wages is higher. Well-constructed and properly-
worked plants of this type should give rise to no nuisance, and may
be located in populous neighbourhoods without danger to the public
health or comfort. Installations were put down at Fulham (1901),
Hammerton Street, Bradford (1900), West Hartlepool (1904), and
other places, and the surplus power generated is employed in the pro-
duction of electric energy.

Warner's destructor,3 known as the " Perfectus," is, in general
arrangement, similar to Fryer's, but differs in being provided with
special charging hoppers, dampers in flues, dust-catching
arrangements, rocking grate bars and other improvements. "arae
The refuse is tipped into feeding-hoppers, consisting of rectangular
cast iron boxes over which plates are placed to prevent the escape of
smoke and fumes. At the lower portion of the feeding-hopper is a
flap-door working on an axis and controlled by an iron lever from the
tipping platform. When refuse is to be fed into the furnace the lever
is thrown over, the contents of the hopper drop on to the sloping
firebrick hearth beneath, and the door is at once closed again. The
door should be kept open as short a time as possible in order to prevent
the admission of cold air into the furnace at the back end, since this

leads to the lowering of the
temperature of the cells and
main flue, and also to paper
and other light refuse being
carried into the flues and chim-
ney. The flues of each furnace
are provided with dampers,
which are closed during the
process of clinkering in order to
keep up the heat. The cells are
each 5 ft. wide and 1 1 ft. deep,
the rearmost portion consisting
of a firebrick drying hearth,
and the front of rocking grate
bars upon which the combus-
tion takes place. The crown of
each cell is formed of a rever-
beratory firebrick arch having
openings for the emission of the
products of combustion. The
flap dampers which are fitted
to these openings are operated
by horizontal spindles passing
through the brickwork to the

1 Patent No. 8271 (1891).
Patents No. 8999 (1887) ; No. 14,709 (1888) ; No. 22,531 (1891).

front of the cell, where they are provided with levers or handles;
thus each cell can be worked independently of the others. With the
view of increasing the steam-raising capabilities of the furnace, forced
draught is sometimes applied and a tubular boiler is placed close to
the cells. The amount of refuse consumed varies from 5 tons to 8 tons
per cell per 24 hours. At Hornsey, where 12 cells of this type are
in use, the cost of labour for burning the refuse is 9jd. per ton.

The Meldurm " Simplex " destructor (fig. 3), a type of furnace
which yields good steam-raising results, is in successful operation
at Rochdale, Hereford, Darwen, Nelson, Plumstead and „ . . ,
Woolwich, at each of which towns the production of steam
is an important consideration. Cells have also been laid down at
Burton, Hunstanton, Blackburn and Shipley, and more recently at
Burnley, Cleckheaton, Lancaster, Nelson, Sheernessand Weymouth.
In general arrangement the destructor differs considerably from

3 Patent No. 18,719 (1888).

DESTRUCTORS

107

those previously described. The grates are placed side by side
without separation except by dead plates, but, in order to localize
the forced draught, the ash-pit is divided into parts corresponding
with the different grate areas. Each ash-pit is closed air-tight by a
cast iron plate, and is provided with an air-tight door for removing
the fine ash. Two patent Meldrum steam-jet blowers are provided
for each furnace, supplying any required pressure of blast up to
6 in. water column, though that usually employed does not exceed
1 1 in. The furnaces are designed for hand-feeding from the front,
but hopper-feeding can be applied if desirable. The products of
combustion either pass away from the back of each fire-grate into
a common flue leading to boilers and the chimney-shaft, or are con-
veyed sideways over the various grates and a common fire-bridge
to the boilers or chimney. The heat in the gases, after passing the
boilers, is still further utilized to heat the air supplied to the furnaces,
the gases being passed through an air heater or continuous
regenerator consisting of a number of cast iron pipes from which the
air is delivered through the Meldrum " blowers at a temperature of
about 300° F. That a high percentage (15 to 18 %) of CO2 isobtained
in the furnaces proves a small excess of free oxygen, and no doubt
explains the high fuel efficiency obtained by this type of destructor.
High-pressure boilers of ample capacity are provided for the accumu-
lation during periods of light load of a reserve of steam, the storage
being obtained by utilizing the difference between the highest and
lowest water-levels and the difference between the maximum and
working steam-pressure. Patent locking fire-bars, to prevent lifting
when clinkering, are used in the furnace and have a good life. At
Rochdale the Meldrum furnaces consume from 53lb to 66 lb of refuse
per square foot of grate area per hour, as compared with 22-4 lb per
square foot in a low-temperature destructor burning 6 tons per cell
per 24 hours with a grate area of 25 sq.ft. The evaporative efficiency
of the Rochdale furnaces varies from 1-39 lb to 1-87 ft of water
(actual) per I lb of refuse burned, and an average steam-pressure of
about 114 lb per square inch is maintained. The cost of labour and

Fig. 4. — Beaman and Deas Destructor at Leyton.

supervision amounts to lod. per ton of refuse dealt with. A
Lancashire boiler (22 ft. by 6 ft. 6 in.) at the Sewage Outfall Works,
Hereford, evaporates with refuse fuel 2980 lb of water per hour,
equal to 149 indicated horse-power. About 54 ft of refuse are burnt
per square foot of grate area per hour with an evaporation of 1-82 ft
of water per pound of refuse.

The Beaman and Deas destructor1 (fig. 4) has attracted much
attention from public authorities, and successful installations
are in operation at Warrington, Dewsbury, Leyton,
Canterbury, Llandudno, Colne, Streatham, Rptherhithe,
ia* Wimbledon, Bolton and elsewhere. Its essential features
include a level-fire grate with ordinary type bars, a high-temperature
combustion chamber at the back of the cells, a closed ash-pit with
forced draught, provision for the admission of a secondary air-supply
at the fire-bridge, and a firebrick hearth sloping at an angle of about
52°. From the refuse storage platform the material is fed into a
hopper mouth about 18 in. square, and slides down the firebrick
hearth, supported by T-irons, to the grate bars, over which it is
raked and spread with the assistance of long rods manipulated through
clinkering doors placed at the sides of the cells. A secondary door
in the rear of the cell facilitates the operation. The fire-bars, spaced
only fa in. apart, are of the ordinary stationary type. Vertically,
under the fire-bridge, is an air-conduit, from the top of which lead
air blast pipes 12 in. in diameter discharging into a hermetically
closed ash-pit under the grate area. The air is supplied from fans
(Schiele's patent) at a pressure of from i| to 2 in. of water, and is con-
trolled by means of baffle valves worked by handles on either side
of the furnace, conveniently placed for the attendant. The forced
draught tends to keep the bars cool and lessen wear and tear. The
fumes from the charge drying on the hearth pass through the fire
and over the red-hot fire-bridge, which is perforated longitudinally
with air-passages connected with a small flue leading from a grated
opening on the face of the brickwork outside ; in this way an auxiliary
supply of heated oxygen is fed into the combustion chamber. This

1 Patents No. 15,598 (1893) and 23,712 (1893); also Beaman and
Deas Sludge Furnace, Patent No. 13,029 (1894).

chamber, in which a temperature approaching 2000° F. is attained,
is fitted with large iron doors, sliding with balance weights, which
allow the introduction of infected articles, bad meat, &c., and also
give access for the periodical removal of fine ash f om the flues.
The high temperatures attained are utilized by install 'ng one boiler,
preferably of the Babcock & Wilcox water-tube type, for each pair
of cells, so that the gases, on their way from the combustion chamber
to the main flue, pass three times between the boiler tubes. A
secondary furnace is provided under the boiler for raising steam by
coal, if required, when the cells are out of use. The grate area of each
cell is 25 sq. ft., and the consumption varies from 16 up to 20 tons of
refuse per cell per 24 hours. In a 24-hours' test made by the super-
intendent of the cleansing department, Leeds, at the Warrington
installation, the quantity of water evaporated per pound of refuse was
1-14 ft, the average temperature in the combustion chamber 2000°
F. by copper-wire test, and the average air pressure with forced
draught 2} in. (water-gauge). At Leyton, which has a population
of over 100,000, an 8-cell plant of this type is successfully dealing
with house refuse and filter press cakes of sewage sludge from the
sewage disposal works adjoining, and even with material of this low
calorific value the total steam-power produced is considerable. Each
cell burns about 16 tons of the mixture in 24 hours and develops
about 35 indicated horse-power continuously, at an average steam-
pressure in the boilers of 105 ft. The cost of labour at Leyton for
burning the mixed refuse is about is. 7d. per ton; at Llandudno,
where four cells were laid down, in connexion with the electric-light
station in 1898, it is is. 3Jd., and at Warrington 9jd. per ton of refuse
consumed. Combustion is complete, and the destructor may be
installed in populous districts without nuisance to the inhabitants.
Further patents (Wilkie's improvements) have been obtained by
Meldrum Brothers (Manchester) in connexion with this destructor.

The Heenan furnaces are in operation at Farnworth, Gloucester,
Barrow-in-Furness, Northampton, Mansfield, Wakefield, Blackburn,
Levenshulme, Kings Norton, Worthing, Birmingham and «.
other places, and are now dealing with over 1200 tons of
refuse per day. The general arrangement of this destructor some-
what resembles that of the Meldrum type. The cells intercommuni-
cate, and the mechanical mixture of the gases arising from the
furnace grates of the various cells is sought by the introduction of
a special design of reverberatpry arch overlying the grates. The
standard arrangement of this destructor embodies all modern
arrangements for high-temperature refuse destruction and steam-
power generation.

Destructors of the " Sterling " type, combined with electric-
power generating stations, are installed at Hackney (1901),
Bermondsey (1902) and Frederiksberg (1903) — the first- „, rf.
named plant being probably the most powerful com-
bined destructor and electricity station yet erected. In these
modern stations the recognized requirements of an up-to-date refuse-
destruction plant have been well considered and good calorific results
are also obtained.

In addition to the above-described destructors, other forms have
been introduced from time to time, but adopted to a less degree;
amongst these may be mentioned Baker's destructor, Willshear's,
Hanson's Utilizer, Mason's Gasifier, the Bennett-Phythian,
Cracknell's (Melbourne, Victoria), Coltman's (Loughborough),
Willoughby's, and Healey's improved destructors. On the continent
of Europe systems for the treatment of refuse have also been devised.
Among these may be mentioned those of M. Defosse and M. Helouis.
The former has endeavoured to burn the refuse in large quantities by
using a forced draught and only washing the smoke.2 Helouis has
extended the operation by using the heat from the combustion of the
refuse for drying and distilling the material which is brought gradu-
ally on to the grate.

Boulnois and Brodie's improved charging tank is a labour-saving
apparatus consisting of a wrought iron truck, 5 ft. wide by 3 ft. deep,
and of sufficient length to hold not less than 12 hours' Destructor
supply for the two cells which it serves. The truck, fcces.
which moves along a pair of rails across the top of the sorfcs.
destructor, may be worked by one man. It is divided into
compartments holding a charge of refuse in each, and is provided
with a pair of doors in the bottom, opening downwards, which are
supported by a series of small wheels running on a central rail. A
special feeding opening in the reverberatpry arch of the cell of the
width of the truck, situated over the drying hearth, is formed by a
firebrick arch fitted into a frame capable of being moved backwards
and forwards by means of a lever. The charging truck, when empty,
is brought under the tipping platform, and the carts tip directly into
it. When one of the cells has to be fed, the truck is moved along, so
that one of the divisions is immediately over the feeding opening, and
the wheel holding up the bottom doors rests upon the central rail,
which is continued over the movable covering arch. Then the
movable arch is rolled back, the doors are released, and the contents
are discharged into the cell, so that no handling of the refuse is
required from tipping to feeding. This apparatus is in operation at
Liverpool, Shoreditch, Cambridge and elsewhere.

Various forms of patent movable fire-bars have been employed

2 Compte Rendu des Travaux de la SocM6 des IngSnieurs Cimls de
France, folio 775 (June 1897).

io8

DESTRUCTORS

in destructor furnaces. Among these may be mentioned Settle's,1
Vicar's,2 Riddle's rocking bars,' Horsfall's self-feeding apparatus,4
and Healey's movable bars; * but complicated movable arrangements
are not to be recommended, and experience greatly favours the use
of a simple stationary type of fire-bar.

A dust-catching apparatus has been designed and erected at
Edinburgh, by the Horsfall Furnace Syndicate, in order to over-
come difficulties in regard to the escape of flue dust, &c., from the
destructor chimney. Externally, it appears a large circular block
of brickwork, 18 ft. in diameter and 13 ft. 7 in. high, connected with
the main flue, and situated between the destructor cells and the
boiler. Internally it consists of a spiral flue traversing the entire
circumference and winding upwards to the top of the chamber.
There is an interior well or chamber 6 ft. diameter by 12 ft. high,
having a domed top, and communicating with the outer spiral flue
by four ports at the top of the chamber. Dust traps, baffle walls

Other accessory plant in use at most modern destructor stations
includes machinery for the removal, crushing and various means
of utilization of the residual clinker, stoking tools, air heaters or
regenerators for the production of hot-air blast to the furnaces,
superheaters and thermal storage arrangements for equalizing the
output of power from the station during the 24-hours' day.

The general arrangement of a battery of refuse cells at a
destructor station is illustrated by fig. 5. The cells are arranged
either side by side, with a common main flue in the
rear, or back to back with the main flue placed in the w°rkiag
centre and leading to a tall chimney-shaft. The heated
gases on leaving the cells pass through the combustion
chamber into the main flue, and thence go forward to the boilers,
where their heat is absorbed and utilized. Forced draught, or

ol de-
structors.

••••/•>. if*,— ipf.- ,<->-..*•» , ,f.>_.,rx It*----

f 'f •••• •..-$— •-*«•»' x-|l- • *H;4- • - •*•»*«»••%* *•— .-»-*...—

~n--H f,-~n; ~ i :n--« «"n i "V-» ir-TiTT nn-w •,-,•-.

FIG. 5. — Leyton Destructor. Block Plan,

and cleaning doors are also provided for the retention and subsequent
weekly _ removal of the flue dust. The apparatus forms a large
reservoir of heat maintained at a steady temperature of from 1500°
to 1800° F., and is useful in keeping up steam in the boiler at an
equable pressure for a long period. It requires no attention, and has
proved successful for its purpose.

Travelling cranes for transporting refuse and feeding cells are
sometimes employed at destructor stations, as, for example, at
Hamburg. Here the transportation of the refuse is effected by
means of specially constructed water-tight iron wagons, containing
detachable boxes provided with two double-flap doors at the top for
loading, and one flap-door at the back for unloading. There are
thirty-six_ furnaces of the Horsfall type placed in two ranks, each
arranged in three blocks of six in the large furnace hall. An electric
crane running above each rank lifts the boxes off the wagons and
carries them to the feeding-hole of each well. Here the box is tipped
up by an electric pulley and emptied on to the furnace platform.
When the travelling crane is used, the carts (four-wheeled) bringing
the refuse may be constructed so that the body of the carriage can be
taken off the wheels, lifted up and tipped direct over the furnace
as required, and returned again to its frame. The adoption of the
travelling crane admits of the reduction in size of the main building,
as less platform space for unloading refuse carts is required; the
inclined road way_ may also be dispensed with. Where a destructor
site will not admit of an inclined roadway and platform, the refuse
may be discharged from the collecting carts into a lift, and thence
elevated into the feeding-bins.

1 Patent No. 15,482 (1885).

•Patents No. 1955 (1867) and No. 378 (1879).

1 Patent No. 4896 (1891).

4 Patent No. 20,207 (1892).

6 Patents No. 18,398 (1892) and No. 12,990 (1892).

showing general arrangement of the Works.

in many cases, hot blast, is supplied from fans through a conduit
commanding the whole of the cells. An inclined roadway, of
as easy gradient as circumstances will admit, is provided for the
conveyance of the refuse to the tipping platform, from which it
is fed through feed-holes into the furnaces. In the installation
of a destructor, the choice of suitable plant and the general design
of the works must be largely dependent upon local requirements,
and should be entrusted to an engineer experienced in these
matters. The following primary considerations, however, may
be enumerated as materially affecting the design of such works: —

(a) The plant must be simple, easily worked without stoppages,
and without mechanical complications upon which stokers may lay
the blame for bad results, (b) It must be strong, must withstand
variations of temperature, must not be liable to get out of order, and
should admit of being readily repaired, (c) It must be such as can be
easily understood by stokers or firemen of average intelligence, so
that the continuous working of the plant may not be disorganized by
change of workmen, (d) A sufficiently high temperature must be
attained in the cells to reduce the refuse to an entirely innocuous
clinker, and all fumes or gases should pass either through an adjoining
red-hot cell or through a chamber whose temperature is maintained
by the ordinary working of the destructor itself at a degree sufficient
to exclude the possibility of the escape of any unconsumed gases,
vapours or particles. The temperature may vary between 1 500° a nd
2000°. (e) The plant must be so worked that while some of the cells
are being recharged, others are at a glowing red heat, in order that a
high temperature may be uniformly maintained. (/) The design of
the furnaces must admit of clinkering and recharging being easily and
quickly performed, the furnace doors being open for a minimum of
time so as to obviate the inrush of cold air to lower the temperature

DESTRUCTORS

109

in main flues, &c. (g) The chimney draught must he assisted with
forced draught from fans or steam jet to a pressure of I J in. to 2 in.
under grates by water-gauge, (h) Where a destructor is required to
work without risk of nuisance to the neighbouring inhabitants, its
efficiency as a refuse destructor plant must be primarily kept in view
in designing the works, steam-raising being regarded as a secondary
consideration. Boilers should not be placed immediately over a
furnace so as to present a large cooling surface, whereby the
temperature of the gases is reduced before the organic matter has
been thoroughly burned. (») Where steam-power and a high fuel
efficiency are desired a large percentage of CO2 should be sought in
the furnaces with as little excess of air as possible, and the flue gases
should be utilized in heating the air-supply to the grates, and the
feed-water to the boilers, (j) Ample boiler capacity and hot-water
storage feed-tanks should be included in the design where steam-
power is required.

As to the initial cost of the erection of refuse destructors, few
trustworthy data can be given. The outlay necessarily depends,
amongst other things, upon the difficulty of preparing
the site, upon the nature of the foundations required, the
height of the chimney-shaft, the length of the inclined or approach
roadway, and the varying prices of labour and materials in different
localities. As an example may be mentioned the case of Bristol,
where, in 1892, the total cost of constructing a l6-cell Fryer de-
structor was £11,418, of which £2909 was expended on foundations,
and £1689 on the chimney-shaft; the cost of the destructor proper,
buildings and approach road was therefore £6820, or about £426 per
cell. The cost per ton of burning refuse in destructors depends
mainly upon — (a) The price of labour in the locality, and the number
of " shifts " or changes of workmen per day; (6) the type of furnace
adopted; (c) the nature of the material to be consumed; (d) the
interest on and repayment of capital outlay. The cost of burning
ton for ton consumed, in high-temperature furnaces, including labour
and repairs, is not greater than in slow-combustion destructors. The
average cost of burning refuse at twenty-four different towns through-
out England, exclusive of interest on the cost of the works, is is. I Jd.
per ton burned ; the minimum cost is 6d. per ton at Bradford, and
the maximum cost 2s. lod. per ton at Battersea. At Shoreditch the
coSt per ton for the year ending on the 25th of March 1899, including
labour, supervision, stores, repairs, &c. (but exclusive of interest on
cost of works), was 2s. 6-9d. The quantity of refuse burned per cell
per day of 24 hours varies from about 4 tons up to 20 tons. The
ordinary low-temperature destructor, with 25 sq. ft. grate area, burns
about 2olb of refuse per square foot of grate area per hour, or between
5 and 6 tons per cell per 24 hours. The Meldrum destructor furnaces
at Rochdale burn as much as 66 Ib per square foot of grate area per
hour, and the Beaman and Deas destructor at Llandudno 71-7 Ib
per square foot per hour. The amount, however, always depends
materially on the care observed in stoking, the nature of the material,
the frequency of removal of clinker, and on the question whether the
whole of the refuse passed into the furnace is thoroughly cremated.

The amount of residue in the shape of clinker and fine ash varies
from 22 to 37 % of the bulk dealt with. From 25 to 30% is a very
usual amount. At Shoreditch, where the refuse consists
Residues; of about g% of straw, paper, shavings, &c., the residue
contains about 29% clinker, 2-7% fine ash, -5% flue dust, and -6%
old tins, making a total residue of 32-8 %. As the residuum amounts
to from one-fourth to one-third of the total bulk of the refuse dealt
with, it is a question of the utmost importance that some profitable, or
at least inexpensive, means should be devised for its regular disposal.
Among other purposes, it has been used for bottoming for macadam-
ized roads, for the manufacture of concrete, for making paving slabs,
for forming suburban footpaths or cinder f ootwalks, and for the manu-
facture of mortar. The last is a very general, and in many places
profitable, mode of disposal. An entirely new outlet has also arisen
for the disposal of good well-vitrified destructor clinker in connexion
with the construction of bacteria beds for sewage disposal, and in
many districts its value has, by this means, become greatly enhanced.

Through defects in the design and management of many of the
early destructors complaints of nuisance frequently arose, and these
have, to some extent, brought destructor installations into disrepute.
Although some of the older furnaces were decided offenders in this
respect, that is by no means the case with the modern improved type
of high-temperature furnace; and often, were it not for the great
prominence in the landscape of a tall chimney-shaft, the existence of
a refuse destructor in a neighbourhood would not be generally known
to the inhabitants. A modern furnace, properly designed and
worked, will give rise to no nuisance, and may be safely erected in the
midst of a populous neighbourhood. To ensure the perfect crema-
tion of the refuse and of the gases given off, forced draught is essential.
_ This is supplied either as air draught delivered from a

rorcea rapidly revolving fan, or as steam blast, as in the Horsfall
steam jet or the Meldrum blower. With a forced blast less
air is required to obtain complete combustion than by chimney
draught. The forced draught grate requires little more than the
quantity theoretically necessary, while with chimney draught more
than double the theoretical amount of air must be supplied. With
forced draught, too, a much higher temperature is attained, and if
it is properly worked, little or no cold air will enter the furnaces during
stoking operations. As far as possible a balance of pressure in the

cells during clinkering should be maintained just sufficient to pre-
vent an inrush of cold air through the flues. The forced draught
pressure should not exceed 2 in. water-gauge. The efficiency of the
combustion in the furnace is conveniently measured by the
" Econometer," which registers continuously and automatically the
proportion of COj passing away in the waste gases; the higher the
percentage of CO2 the more efficient the furnace, provided there is no
formation of CO, the presence of which would indicate incomplete
combustion. The theoretical maximum of CO2 for refuse burning is
about 20%; and, by maintaining an even clean fire, by admitting
secondary air over the fire, and by regulating the dampers or the air-
pressure m the ash-pit, an amount approximating to this percentage
may be attained in a well-designed furnace if properly worked. If
the proportion of free oxygen (i.e. excess of air) is large, more air is
passed through the furnace than is required for complete combustion,
and the heating of this excess is clearly a waste of heat. The position
of the econometer in testing should be as near the furnace as possible,
as there may be considerable air leakage through the brickwork of the
flues.

The air supply to modern furnaces is usually delivered hot, the
inlet air being first passed through an air-heater the temperature of
which is maintained by the waste gases in the main flue.

The modern high-temperature destructor, to render the refuse and
gases perfectly innocuous and harmless, is worked at a temperature
varying from 1250° to 2000° F., and the maintenance of
such temperatures has very naturally suggested the possi-
bility of utilizing this heat-energy for the production of *"*'"«•
steam-power. Experience shows that a considerable amount of
energy may be derived from steam-raising destructor stations, amply
justifying a reasonable increase of expenditure on plant and labour.
The actual calorific value of the refuse material necessarily varies,
but, as a general average, with suitably designed and properly
managed plant, an evaporation of I Ib of water per pound of refuse
burned is a result which may be readily attained, and affords a basis
of calculation which engineers may safely adopt in practice. Many
destructor steam-raising plants, however, give considerably higher
results, evaporations approaching 2 Ib of water per pound of refuse
being often met with under favourable conditions.

From actual experience it may be accepted, therefore, that the
calorific value of unscreened house refuse varies from I to 2 Ib of
water evaporated per pound of refuse burned, the exact proportion
depending upon the quality and condition of the material dealt with.
Taking the evaporative power of coal at 10 ft of water per pound of
coal, this gives for domestic house refuse a value of from t"o to i tnat °f
coal ; or, with coal at 2os. per ton, refuse has a commercial value of
from 2s. to 43. per ton. In London the quantity of house refuse
amounts to about I \ million tons per annum, which is equivalent to
from 4 cwt. to 5 cwt. per head per annum. If it be burned in furnaces
giving an evaporation of I Ib of water per pound of refuse, it would
yield a total power annually of about 138 million brake horse-power
hours, and equivalent cost of coal at 2Os. per ton for this amount of
power even when calculated upon the very low estimate of 2 ib * of
coal per brake horse-power hour, works out at over £123,000. On the
same basis, the refuse of a medium-sized town, with, say, a population
of 70,000 yielding refuse at the rate of 5 cwt. per head per annum,
would afford 112 indicated horse-power per ton burned, and the
total indicated horse-power hours per annum would be

70,000X5 cwt. x j I2 = Ii960i000 J.H.P. hours annually.

If this were applied to the production of electric energy, the electrical
horse-power hours would be (with a dynamo efficiency of 90 %)

1.960.000X90 = Ii764iooo E.H.P. hours per annum;

and the watt-hours per annum at the central station would be

i ,764,000 X 746 = i ,31 5,944.000.

Allowing for a loss of 10% in distribution, this would give
1,184,349,600 watt-hours available in lamps, or with 8-candle-power
lamps taking 30 watts of current per lamp, we should have
1.184.349.600 watt-hours = 820 8< p lamp.hours ^ annum;

that is,

^

39.47 .3 —

=563 8-c.p.' lamp-hours per annum per
' K

70,000 population -head of population.

Taking the loss due to the storage which would be necessary at 20%
on three-quarters of the total or 15% upon the whole, there would
be 478 8-c.p. lamp-hours per annum per head of the population:
i.e. if the power developed from the refuse were fully utilized, it
would supply electric light at the rate of one 8-c.p. lamp per head of
the population for about I J hours for every night of the year.

In actual practice, when the electric.energy is for the purposes of
lighting only, difficulty has been experienced in fully utilizing the
thermal energy from a destructor plant owing to the want
of adequate means of storage either of the thermal or of
the electric energy. A destructor station usually yields a
fairly definite amount of thermal energy uniformly throughout the 24
hours, while the consumption of electric-lighting current is extremely

1With medium-sized steam plants, a consumption of 4ft of coal
per brake horse-power per" hour is a very usual performance.

atltles.

no

DE TABLEY— DETAILLE

irregular, the maximum demand being about four times the mean
demand. The period during which the demand exceeds the mean is
comparatively short, and does not exceed about 6 hours out of the
24, while for a portion of the time the demand may not exceed jVth
of the maximum. This difficulty, at first regarded as somewhat
grave, is substantially minimized by the provision of ample boiler
capacity, or by the introduction of feed thermal storage vessels in
which hot feed-water may be stored during the hours of light load
(say 1 8 out of the 24), so that at the time of maximum load the boiler
may be filled directly from these vessels, which work at the same
pressure and temperature as the boiler. Further, the difficulty
above mentioned will disappear entirely at stations where there is a
fair day load which practically ceases at about the hour when the
illuminating load comes on, thus equalizing the demand upon both
destructor and electric plant throughout the 24 hours. This arises
in cases where current is consumed during the day for motors, fans,
lifts, electric tramways, and other like purposes, and, as the employ-
ment of electric energy for these services is rapidly becoming general,
no difficulty need be anticipated in the successful working of com-
bined destructor and electric plants where these conditions prevail.
The more uniform the electrical demand becomes, the more fully
1 may the power from a destructor station be utilized.

In addition to combination with electric-lighting works, refuse
destructors are now very commonly installed in conjunction with
various other classes of power-using undertakings, including tram-
ways, water-works, sewage-pumping, artificial slab-making and
clinker-crushing works and others; and the increasingly large sums
which are being yearly expended in combined undertakings of this
character is perhaps the strongest evidence of the practical value
of such combinations where these several classes of work must be
carried on.

For further information on the subject, reference should be made
to William H. Maxwell, Removal and Disposal of Town Refuse, with
an exhaustive treatment of Refuse Destructor Plants (London, 1899),
with a special Supplement embodying later results (London, 1905).

See also the Proceedings of the Incorporated Association of Municipal
and County Engineers, vols. xiii. p. 216, xxii. p. 211, xxiv. p. 214
and xxv. p. 138; also the Proceedings of the Institution of Civti
Engineers, vols. cxxii. p. 443, cxxiv. p. 469, cxxxi. p. 413, cxxxviii.
p. 508, cxxix. p. 434, cxxx. pp. 213 and 347, cxxiii. pp. 369 and 498,
cxxviii. p. 293 and cxxxv. p. 300. (W. H. MA.)

DE TABLEY, JOHN BYRNE LEICESTER WARREN, 3RD
BARON (1835-1895), English poet, eldest son of George Fleming
Leicester (afterwards Warren) , 2nd Baron De Tabley, was born on
the 26th of April 1835. HewaseducatedatEtonand Christ Church,
Oxford, where he took his degree in 1856 with second classes in
classics and in law and modern history. In the autumn of 1858
he went to Turkey as unpaid attache toLord Stratford de Redcliffe,
and two years later was called to the bar. He became an officer in
theCheshireYeomanry,andunsuccessfullycontestedMid-Cheshire
in 1868 as a Liberal. After his father's second marriage in 1871
he removed to London, where he became a close friend of
Tennyson for several years. From 1877 till his succession to the
title in 1887 he was lost to his friends, assuming the life of a
recluse. It was not till 1892 that he returned to London life,
and enjoyed a sort of renaissance of reputation and friendship.
During the later years of his life Lord De Tabley made many new
friends, besides reopening old associations, and he almost seemed
to be gathering around him a small literary company when his
health broke, and he died on the 22nd of November 1895 at Ryde,
in his sixty-first year. He was buried at Little Peover in Cheshire.
Although his reputation will live almost exclusively as that of a
poet, De Tabley was a man of many studious tastes. He was at
one time an authority on numismatics; he wrote two novels;
published A Guide to the Study of Book Plates (1880); and the
fruit of his careful researches in botany was printed posthumously
in his elaborate Flora of Cheshire (1899). Poetry, however, was
his first and last passion, and to that he devoted the best energies
of his life. De Tabley's first impulse towards poetry came from
his friend George Fortescue, with whom he shared a close com-
panionship during his Oxford days, and whom he lost, as Tennyson
lost Hallam, within a few years of their taking their degrees.
Fortescue was killed by faUing from the mast of Lord Drogheda's
yacht in November 1859, and this gloomy event plunged De
Tabley into deep depression. Between 1859 and 1862 De Tabley
issued four little volumes of pseudonymous verse (by G. F.
Preston), in the production of which he had been greatly stimu-
lated by the sympathy of Fortescue. Once more he assumed a
pseudonym— his Praeterila (1863) bearing the name of William
Lancaster. In the next year he published Eclogues and Mono-

dramas, followed in 1865 by Studies in Verse. These volumes all
displayed technical grace and much natural beauty; but it was
not till the publication of Philocteles in 1866 that De Tabley met
with any wide recognition. Philoctetes bore the initials " M.A.,"
which, to the author's dismay, were interpreted as meaning
Matthew Arnold. He at once disclosed his identity, and received
the congratulations of his friends, among whom were Tennyson,
Browning and Gladstone. In 1867 he published Orestes, in 1870
Rehearsals and in 1873 Searching the Net. These last two
bore his own name, John Leicester Warren. He was somewhat
disappointed by their lukewarm reception, and when in 1876
The Soldier of Fortune, a drama on which he had bestowed much
careful labour, proved a complete failure, he retired altogether
from the literary arena. It was not until 1893 that he was
persuaded to return, and the immediate success in that year of
his Poems, Dramatic and Lyrical, encouraged him to publish a
second series in 1895, the year of his death. The genuine interest
with which these volumes were welcomed did much to lighten
the last years of a somewhat sombre and solitary life. His
posthumous poems were collected in 1902. The characteristics
of De Tabley's poetry are pre-eminently magnificence of style,
derived from close study of Milton, sonority, dignity, weight and
colour. His passion for detail was both a strength and a weak-
ness: it lent a loving fidelity to his description of natural objects,
but it sometimes involved him in a loss of simple effect from
over-elaboration of treatment. He was always a student of the
classic poets, and drew much of his inspiration directly from them.
He was a true and a whole-hearted artist, who, as a brother poet
well said, " still climbed the clear cold altitudes of song." His
ambition was always for the heights, a region naturally ice-bound
at periods, but always a country of clear atmosphere and bright,
vivid outlines.

See an excellent sketch by E. Gosse in his Critical Kit-Kats (1896).

(A. WA.)

DETAILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE EDOUARD (1848- ),
French painter, was born in Paris on the sth of October 1848.
After working as a pupil of Meissonier's, he first exhibited, in the
Salon of 1867, a picture representing " A Corner of Meissonier's
Studio." Military life was from the first a principal attraction
to the young painter, and he gained his reputation by depicting
the scenes of a soldier's life with every detail truthfully rendered.
He exhibited " A Halt " (1868); " Soldiers at rest, during the
Manoeuvres at the Camp of Saint Maur " (1869) ; " Engagement
between Cossacks and the Imperial Guard, 1814 " (1870). The
war of 1870-71 furnished him with a series of subjects which
gained him repeated successes. Among his more important
pictures may be named "The Conquerors" (1872); "The
Retreat " (1873) ; " The Charge of the gth Regiment of Cuirassiers
in the Village of Morsbronn, 6th August 1870" (1874); "The
Marching Regiment, Paris, December 1874" (1875); "A
Reconnaissance" (1876); "Hail to the Wounded!" (1877);
" Bonaparte in Egypt V (1878); the " Inauguration of the New
Opera House " — a water-colour; the " Defence of Champigny
by Faron's Division " (1879). He also worked with Alphonse de
Neuville on the panorama of Rezonville. In 1884 he exhibited
at the Salon the " Evening at Rezonville," a panoramic study,
and "The Dream" (1888), now in the Luxemburg. Detaille
recorded other events in the military history of his country:
the " Sortie of the Garrison of Huningue " (now in the Luxem-
burg), the " Vincendon Brigade," and " Bizerte," reminiscences
of the expedition to Tunis. After a visit to Russia, Detaille
exhibited " The Cossacks of the Ataman " and " The Hereditary
Grand Duke at the Head of the Hussars of the Guard." Other
important works are: " Victims to Duty," " The Prince of
Wales and the Duke of Connaught " and " Pasteur's Funeral."
In his picture of" Chalons, gth October 1896," exhibited in the
Salon, 1898, Detaille painted the emperor and empress of
Russia at a review, with M. Felix Faure. Detaille became a
member of the French Institute in 1898.

See Marius Vachon, Detaille (Paris, 1898) ; Frederic Masson,
Edouard Detaille and his work (Paris and London, 1891) ; J. Claretie,
Peintres et sculfiteurs contemporains (Paris, 1876); G. Goetschy,
Les Jeunes peintres militaires (Paris, 1878).

DETAINER— DETERMINANT

in

DETAINER (from detain, Lat. detinere), in law, the act of
keeping a person against his will, or the wrongful keeping of a
person's goods, or other real or personal property. A writ of
detainer was a form for the beginning of a personal action
against a person already lodged within the walls of a prison;
it was superseded by the Judgment Act 1838.

DETERMINANT, in mathematics, a function which presents
itself in the solution of a system of simple equations.

i . Considering the equations

ax -\-by -$-cz =d ,
a'x+b'y+c'z=d' ,
a"x+b"y+c"z=d",

and proceeding to solve them by the so-called method of cross
multiplication, we multiply the equations by factors selected in
such a manner that upon adding the results the whole coefficient
of y becomes = o, and the whole coefficient of z becomes = o;
the factors in question are b'c" — b"c' , b"c— be", bc'—b'c (values
which, as at once seen, have the desired property); we thus
obtain an equation which contains on the left-hand side only a
multiple of x, and on the right-hand side a constant term; the
coefficient of x has the value

a(b'c"-b"c')+a'(b"c-bc")+a'(bc'-b'c),
and this function, represented in the form
a , b , c
a' ,b',c'
a', b', c'

is said to be a determinant; or, the number of elements being 32,
it is called a determinant of the third order. It is to be noticed
that the resulting equation is

a , b , c \x — d ,b ,c

a',b',c' d',b',c'

a', b", c" I d", b", c'

where the expression on the right-hand side is the like function
with d, d', d" in place of a, a', a" respectively, and is of course also
a determinant. Moreover, the functions b'c" — b'c', b'c— be",
be' — b'c used in the process are themselves the determinants of
the second order

b',c'
b'.c"

b", c" I

b ,c \

We have herein the suggestion of the rule for the derivation
of the determinants of the orders i, 2, 3, 4, &c., each from the
preceding one, viz. we have

'

-am.

+a

"\b,c],
\b',c'\

" ,c" ,d" \+a"\b",c",d"\-a"\b ,c ,d \,

",c",d"\ \b ,c ,d y>',c',d'\

,c ,d \ W ,c' ,d' V>",c",d"\

and so on, the terms being all + for a determinant of an odd
order, but alternately + and — for a determinant of an even order.
2. It is easy, by induction, to arrive at the general results: —
A determinant of the order n is the sum of the 1.2.3. ..n pro-
ducts which can be formed with n elements out of »2 elements
arranged in the form of a square, no two of the n elements being
in the same line or in the same column, and each such product
having the coefficient ± unity.

The products in question may be obtained by permuting in
every possible manner the columns (or the lines) of the determin-
ant, and then taking for the factors the « elements in the dexter
diagonal. And we thence derive the rule for the signs, viz. con-
sidering the primitive arrangement of the columns as positive,
then an arrangement obtained therefrom by a single interchange
(inversion, or derangement) of two columns is regarded as nega-
tive; and so in general an arrangement is positive or negative
according as it is derived from the primitive arrangement by an
even or an odd number of interchanges. iThis implies the theorem
that a given arrangement can be derived from the primitive
arrangement only by an odd number, or else only by an even

number of interchanges, — a theorem the verification of which
may be easily obtained from the theorem (in fact a particular
case of the general one), an arrangement can be derived from
itself only by an even number of interchanges.] And this being so,
each product has the sign belonging to the corresponding arrange-
ment of the columns; in particular, a determinant contains with
the sign + the product of the elements in its dexter diagonal. It
is to be observed that the rule gives as many positive as negative
arrangements, the number of each being = 1 1.2. ..n.

The rule of signs may be expressed in a different form. Giving
to the columns in the primitive arrangement the numbers
i, 2, 3. . . n, to obtain the sign belonging to any other arrangement
we take, as often as a lower number succeeds a higher one, the
sign — , and, compounding together all these minus signs, obtain
the proper sign, + or — as the case may be.

Thus, for three columns, it appears by either rule that 123,
231, 312 are positive; 213, 321, 132 are negative; and the
developed expression of the foregoing determinant of the third
order is

=ab'c'-ab*c'+a'b"c-a'bc"-a"bc'-a"b'c.

3. It further appears that a determinant is a linear function1
of the elements of each column thereof, and also a linear function
of the elements of each line thereof; moreover, that the de-
terminant retains the same value, only its sign being altered,
when any two columns are interchanged, or when any two
lines are interchanged; more generally, when the columns are
permuted in any manner, or when the lines are permuted in
any manner, the determinant retains its original value, with
the sign + or — according as the new arrangement (considered
as derived from the primitive arrangement) is positive or negative
according to the foregoing rule of signs. It at once follows that,
if two columns are identical, or if two lines are identical, the
value of the determinant is = o. It may be added, that if the
lines are converted into columns, and the columns into lines, in
such a way as to leave the dexter diagonal unaltered, the value
of the determinant is unaltered; the determinant is in this case
said to be transposed.

4. By what precedes it appears that there exists a function of
the «2 elements, linear as regards the terms of each column (or
say, for shortness, linear as to each column), and such that only
the sign is altered when any two columns are interchanged;
these properties completely determine the function, except as to
a common factor which may multiply all the terms. If, to get
rid of this arbitrary common factor, we assume that the product
of -the elements in the dexter diagonal has the coefficient -f- i, we
have a complete definition of the determinant, and it is interesting
to show how from these properties, assumed for the definition
of the determinant, it at once appears that the determinant is a
function serving for the solution of a system of linear equations.
Observe that the properties show at once that if any column is
= o (that is, if the elements in the column are each= o), then
the determinant is = o; and further, that if any two columns
are identical, then the determinant is = o.

5. Reverting to the system of linear equations written down
at the beginning of this article, consider the determinant

ax +by +cz —d , b , c
a'x+b'y+c'z-dl,b',c'
a'x+b'y+c'z-d", b", c"

1

it appears that this is

=x\a , b , c
\a', b',c'
k, b", c'

+y

b ,b ,c
b\b',c'
b", b', c"

+4
1

". , b , c ,

•',b',c',
•-", b", c',

-M , b , c
W,b',c'
V", b", c"

viz. the second and third terms ei
=x\ a , b , c
«', b',c'
\ a", b', c"

LCt

vanishin
d ,b ,c
d',b',c'
d', b", c'

?, it is

But if the linear equations hold good, then the first column of the

1The expression, a linear function, is here used in its narrowest
sense, a linear function without constant term; what is meant is
that the determinant is in regard to the elements a, a', a", . . of
any column or line thereof, a function of the form Aa+A'a'+A"a"+
.... without any term independent of a, a', a" . . .

112

DETERMINANT

original determinant is = o, and therefore the determinant itself
is = o; that is, the linear equations give

a , b , c
a',b',c'
a", b", c"

d ,b ,c
d',b',c'
d', b', c"

which is the result obtained above.

We might in a similar way find the values of y and z, but there
is a more symmetrical process. Join to the original equations the
new equation

ax+fiy + 73 = 8;

a like process shows that, the equations being satisfied, we have

=o;

a", b', c", d'
or, as this may be written,

-I

a , b , c
a', b',c'
a', b", c"

= or

a , b , c , d
a',b',c',d'
a', b', c', d'

which, considering 5 as standing herein for its value ax+fty+yz,
is a consequence of the original equations only: we have thus an
expression for ax+fty+yz, an arbitrary linear function of the
unknown quantities x, y, z; and by comparing the coefficients of
a, ft, 7 on the two sides respectively, we have the values of *, y, z;
in fact, these quantities, each multiplied by

a , b , c
a',b',c'
a', b", c*

are in the first instance obtained in the forms

a , b , c , d
a'. b',c',d'
a", b", c', d"

a , b , c , d
a',b',c''d'
a", b', c", d"

but these are

b ,c A

c , d , a

b',c',d'
b", c", d"

c',d',a'
c',d",a"

a , b , c , d
a' , b' , c' , d'
a", b", c", d"

d a ,b
d' a', b'
d' a", b"

a ,b ,d
a',b' d'
a",b'd"

or, what is the same thing,

b ,c , d , c ,a , d
b',c',d' c',a',d'

b",c",d" c",a",d"

respectively.

6. Multiplication of two Determinants of the same Order. — The
theorem is obtained very easily from the last preceding definition
of a determinant. It is most simply expressed thus —

a. ,

b ,

C

w

a",

0 ,

y

a',

b',

c'

a',

0',

-/'

a-",

b",

c"

If

a t

y,

7"

(a , b , c )
(a',b',c')l
(a", b', c')

where the expression on the left side stands for a determinant,
the terms of the first line being (a, b, c)(a, a', a"), that is, aa+fto'+
ca", (a, b, c)(ft, ft', ft"), that is, aft+bft'+cft", (a, b, c)(y,y',y"),
thatisa7+&7'+c7"; and similarly the terms in the second and
third lines are the life functions with (a1, b', c') and (a", b", c")
respectively.

There is an apparently arbitrary transposition of lines and
columns; the result would hold good if on the left-hand side we
had written (a, ft, 7), (a', ft', 7'), (a", ft", y"), or what is the same
thing, if on the right-hand side we had transposed the second
determinant; and either of these changes would, it might be
thought, increase the elegance of the form, but, for a reason which
need not be explained,1 the form actually adopted is the pre-
ferable one.

To indicate the method of proof, observe that the determinant
on the left-hand side, qua linear function of its columns, may be

1 The reason is the connexion with the corresponding theorem for
the multiplication of two matrices.

broken up into a sum of (3" = ) 27 determinants, each of which is
either of some such form as

a , a , b
a',a',b'
a", a", b"

where the term afty' is not a term of the Oj87-determinant, and its
coefficient(as a determinant with two identical columns)vanishes;
or else it is of a form such as

a , b , c
a',b',c'
a", b", c"

that is, every term which does not vanish contains as a factor the
a&c-determinant last written down ; the sum of all other factors
=^aft'y" is the a/fy-determinant of the formula; and the final
result then is, that the determinant on the left-hand side is equal
to the product on the right-hand side of the formula.

7. Decomposition of a Determinant into complementary Deter-
minants.— Consider, for simplicity, a determinant of the fifth
order, 5=2+3, and let the top two lines be

a , b , c . d , e
a', b', c', d', e'

then, if we consider how these elements enter into the deter-
minant, it is at once seen that they enter only through the

determinants of the second order c/' j/ I , &c., which can be

formed by selecting any two columns at pleasure. Moreover,
representing the remaining three lines by

a" , b" , c" , d" , e"
a", b", c"', d", e"
a", b", c", d", e"

it is further seen that the factor which multiplies the determinant
formed with any two columns of the first set is the determinant
of the third order formed with the complementary three columns
of the second set; and it thus appears that the determinant of
the fifth order is a sum of all the products of the form

\a,b
\ a', b"

c" ,d" , e"
c",d",e"
c"", d", e"

the sign =*= being in each case such that the sign of the term
±ab'.c"d'"e"" obtained from the diagonal elements of the com-
ponent determinants may be the actual sign of this term in the
determinant of the fifth order; for the product written down
the sign is obviously +.

Observe that for a determinant of the »-th order, taking the
decomposition to be i + (n— i), we fallback upon the equations
given at the commencement, in order to show the genesis of a
determinant.

8. Any determinant "/' 6/ formed out of the elements of '

the original determinant, by selecting the lines and columns at
pleasure, is termed a minor of the original determinant; and
when the number of lines and columns, or order of the deter-
minant, is n—i, then such determinant is called a. first minor; the
number of the first minors is = w2, the first minors, in fact, corre-
sponding to the several elements of the determinant — that is,
the coefficient therein of any term whatever is the corresponding
first minor. The first minors, each divided by the determinant
itself, form a system of elements inverse to the elements of the
determinant.

A determinant is symmetrical when every two elements
symmetrically situated in regard to the dexter diagonal are equal
to each other; if they are equal and opposite (that is, if the sum
of the two elements be = o), this relation not extending to the
diagonal elements themselves, which remain arbitrary, then the
determinant is skew; but if the relation does extend to the
diagonal terms (that is, if these are each = o), then the deter-
minant is skew symmetrical; thus the determinants

a, h, g
h, b, f
«, /- c

o, v, — n

— v, O, X
It, — X, O

are respectively symmetrical, skew and skew symmetrical:

DETERMINISM— DETROIT

The theory admits of very extensive algebraic developments,
and applications in algebraical geometry and other parts of
mathematics. Foi further developments of the theory of deter-
minants see ALGEBRAIC FORMS. (A. CA.)

9. History. — These functions were originally known as " re-
sultants," a name applied to them by Pierre Simon Laplace, but
now replaced by the title " determinants," a name first applied
to certain forms of them by Carl Friedrich Gauss. The germ of the
theory of determinants is to be found in the writings of Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibnitz (1693), who incidentally discovered certain
properties when reducing the eliminant of a system of linear equa-
tions. Gabriel Cramer, in a note to his Analyse des lignes courbes
algebriques (1750), gave the rule which establishes the sign of a product
as plus or minus according as the number of displacements from the
typical form has been even or odd. Determinants were also em-
ployed by Etienne Bezout in 1764, but the first connected account of
these functions was published in 1772 by Charles Auguste Vander-
monde. Laplace developed a theorem of Vandermonde for the
expansion of a determinant, and in 1773 Joseph Louis Lagrange, in
his memoir on Pyramids, used determinants of the third order, and
proved that the square of a determinant was also a determinant.
Although he obtained results now identified with determinants,
Lagrange did not discuss these functions systematically. In 1801
Gauss published his Disquisitiones arithmetical, which, although
written in an obscure form, gave a new impetus to investigations on
this and kindred subjects. To Gauss is due the establishment of the
important theorem, that the product of two determinants both of
the second and third orders is a determinant. The formulation of
the general theory is due to Augustin Louis Cauchy, whose work was
the forerunner of the brilliant discoveries made in the following
decades by Hoene-Wronski and J. Binet in France, Carl Gustav
Jacobi in Germany, and James Joseph Sylvester and Arthur Cayley
in England. Jacobi's researches were published in Crelle's Journal
(1826-1841). In these papers the subject was recast and enriched
by new and important theorems, through which the name of Jacob!
is indissolubly associated with this branch of science. The far-
reaching discoveries of Sylvester and Cayley rank as one of the most
important developments of pure mathematics. Numerous new
fields were opened up, and have been diligently explored by many
mathematicians. Skew-determinants were studied by Cayley;
axisymmetric-determinants by Jacob!, V. A. Lebesque, Sylvester
and O. Hesse, and centre-symmetric determinants by W. R. F. Scott
and G. Zehfuss. Continuants have been discussed by Sylvester;
alternants by Cauchy, Jacobi, N. Trudi, H. Nagelbach and
G. Garbieri ; circulants by E. Catalan, W. Spottiswoode and J. W. L.
Glaisher, and Wronskians by E. B. Christoffel and G. Frobenius.
Determinants composed of binomial coefficients have been studied
by V. von Zeipel ; the expression of definite integrals as determinants
by A. Tissot and A. Enneper, and the expression of continued
fractions as determinants by Jacobi, V. Nachreiner, S. Giinther and
E. Fiirstenau. (See T. Muir, Theory of Determinants, 1906).

DETERMINISM (Lat. determinare, to prescribe or limit), in
ethics, the name given to the theory that all moral choice, so
called, is the determined or necessary result of psychological and
other conditions. It is opposed to the various doctrines of Free-
Will, known as voluntarism, libertarianism, indeterminism, and
is from the ethical standpoint more or less akin to necessitarianism
and fatalism. There are various degrees of determinism. It
may be held that every action is causally connected not only
externally with the sum of the agent's environment, but also
internally with his motives and impulses. In other words, if
we could know exactly all these conditions, we should be able
to forecast with mathematical certainty the course which the
agent would pursue. In this theory the agent cannot be held
responsible for his action in any sense. It is the extreme
antithesis of Indeterminism or Indifferentism, the doctrine that a
man is absolutely free to choose between alternative courses (the
liberum arbitrium indijferentiat) . Since, however, the evidence
of ordinary consciousness almost always goes to prove that the
individual, especially in relation to future acts, regards himself
as being free within certain limitations to make his own choice
of alternatives, many determinists go so far as to admit that
there may be in any action which is neither reflex nor determined
by external causes solely an element of freedom. This view is
corroborated by the phenomenon of remorse, in which the agent
feels that he ought to, and could, have chosen a different course
of action. These two kinds of determinism are sometimes
distinguished as " hard " and " soft " determinism. The con-
troversy between determinism and libertarianism hinges largely
on the significance of the word " motive "; indeed in no other
philosophical controversy has so much difficulty been caused

by purely verbal disputation and ambiguity of expression. How
far, and in what sense, can action which is determined by motives
be said to be free? For a long time the advocates of free-will,
in their eagerness to preserve moral responsibility, went so far
as to deny all motives as influencing moral action. Such a
contention, however, clearly defeats its own object by reducing
all action to chance. On the other hand, the scientific doctrine
of evolution has gone far towards obliterating the distinction
between external and internal compulsion, e.g. motives, character
and the like. In so far as man can be shown to be the product
of, and a link in, a long chain of causal development, so far does
it become impossible to regard him as self-determined. Even in
his motives and his impulses, in his mental attitude towards
outward surroundings, in his appetites and aversions, inherited
tendency and environment have been found to play a very large
part; indeed many thinkers hold that the whole of a man's
development, mental as well as physical, is determined by
external conditions.

In the Bible the philosophical-religious problem is nowhere
discussed, but Christian ethics as set forth in the New Testament
assumes throughout the freedom of the human will. It has been
argued by theologians that the doctrine of divine fore-knowledge,
coupled with that of the divine origin of all things, necessarily
implies that all human action was fore-ordained from the
beginning of the world. Such an inference is, however, clearly
at variance with the whole doctrine of sin, repentance and the
atonement, as also with that of eternal reward and punishment,
which postulates a real measure of human responsibility.

For the history of the free-will controversy see the articles,
WILL, PREDESTINATION (for the theological problems), ETHICS.

DETINUE (O. Fr. delcnue, from detenir, to hold back), in law,
an action whereby one who has an absolute or a special property
in goods seeks to recover from another who is in actual possession
and refuses to redeliver them. If the plaintiff succeeds in an
action of detinue, the judgment is that he recover the chattel or,
if it cannot be had, its value, which is assessed by the judge and
jury, and also certain damages for detaining the same. An order
for the restitution of the specific goods may be enforced by
a special writ of execution, called a writ of delivery. (See
CONTRACT; TROVER.)

DETMOLD, a town of Germany, capital of the principality
of Lippe-Detmold, beautifully situated on the east slope of the
Teutoburger Wald, 25 m. S. of Minden, on the Herford-Alten-
beken line of the Prussian state railways. Pop. (1905) 13,164.
The residential chateau of the princes of Lippe-Detmold (1550),
in the Renaissance style, is an imposing building, lying with its
pretty gardens nearly in the centre of the town; whilst at
the entrance to the large park on the south is the New Palace
(1708-1718), enlarged in 1850, used as the dower-house. Detmold
possesses a natural history museum theatre, high school, library,
the house in which the poet Ferdinand Freiligrath (1810-1876) was
born, and that in which the dramatist Christian Dietrich Grabbe
(1801-1836), also a native, died. The leading industries are linen-
weaving, tanning, brewing, horse-dealing and the quarrying of
marble and gypsum. About 3 m. to the south-west of the town
is the Grotenburg, with Ernst von Bandel's colossal statue of
Hermann or Arminius, the leader of the Cherusci. Detmold
(Thiatmelli) was in 783 the scene of a conflict between tke
Saxons and the troops of Charlemagne.

DETROIT, the largest city of Michigan, U.S.A., and the
county-seat of Wayne county, on the Detroit river opposite
Windsor, Canada, about 4 m. W. from the outlet of Lake St
Clair and 18 m. above Lake Erie. Pop. (1880) 116,340; (1890)
205,876; (1900) 285,704, of whom 96,503 were foreign-born and
4111 were negroes; (1910 census) 465,766. Of the foreign-
born in 1900, 32,027 were Germans and 10,703 were German
Poles, 25,403 were English Canadians and 3541 French Canadians,
6347 were English and 6412 were Irish. Detroit is served by
the Michigan Central, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the
Wabash, the Grand Trunk, the Pere Marquette, the Detroit &
Toledo Shore Line, the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton and the
Canadian Pacific railways. Two belt lines, one 2 m. to 3 m., and

DETROIT

the other 6 m. from the centre of the city, connect the factory
districts with the main railway lines. Trains are ferried across the
river to Windsor, and steamboats make daily trips to Cleveland,
Wyandotte, Mount Clemens, Port Huron, to less important
places between, and to several Canadian ports. Detroit is also
the S. terminus for several lines to more remote lake ports, and
electric lines extend from here to Port Huron, Flint, Pontiac,
Jackson, Toledo and Grand Rapids.

The city extended in 1907 over about 41 sq. m., an increase
from 29 sq. m. in 1900 and 36 sq. m. in 1905. Its area in pro-
portion to its population is much greater than that of most of the
larger cities of the United States. Baltimore, for example, had
in 1904 nearly 70% more inhabitants (estimated), while its area
at that time was a little less and in 1907 was nearly one-quarter
less than that of Detroit. The ground within the city limits as
well as that for several miles farther back is quite level, but rises
gradually from the river bank, which is only a few feet in height.
The Detroit river, along which the city extends for about 10 m.,
is here % m. wide and 30 ft. to 40 ft. deep; its current is quite
rapid; its water, a beautiful clear blue; at its mouth it has a
width of about 10 m., and in the river there are a number of
islands, which during the summer are popular resorts. The city
has a 3 m. frontage on the river Rouge, an estuary of the
Detroit, with a 16 ft. channel. Before the fire by which the city
was destroyed in 1805, the streets were only 12 ft. wide and were
unpaved and extremely dirty. But when the rebuilding began,
several avenues from 100 ft. to 200 ft. wide were — through the
influence of Augustus B. Woodward (c. 1775-1827), one of the
territorial judges at the time and an admirer of the plan of the
city of Washington — made to radiate from two central points.
From a half circle called the Grand Circus there radiate avenues
1 20 ft. and 200 ft. wide. About J m. toward the river from this
was established another focal point called the Campus Martius,
600 ft. long and 400 ft. wide, at which commence radiating
or cross streets 80 ft. and 100 ft. wide. Running north from
the river through the Campus Martius and the Grand Circus
is Woodward Avenue, 1 20 ft. wide, dividing the present city, as
it did the old town, into nearly equal parts. Parallel with the
river is Jefferson Avenue, also 120 ft. wide. The first of these
avenues is the principal retail street along its lower portion,
and is a residence avenue for 4 m. beyond this. Jefferson is the
principal wholesale street at the lower end, and a fine residence
avenue E. of this. Many of the other residence streets are 80 ft.
wide. The setting of shade trees was early encouraged, and
large elms and maples abound. The intersections of the diagonal
streets left a number of small, triangular parks, which, as well
as the larger ones, are well shaded. The streets are paved mostly
with asphalt and brick, though cedar and stone have been much
used, and kreodone block to some extent. In few, if any, other
American cities of equal size are the streets and avenues kept so
clean. The Grand Boulevard, 1 50 ft. to 200 ft. in width and 1 2 m.
in length, has been constructed around the city except along the
river front. A very large proportion of the inhabitants of Detroit
own their homes: there are no large congested tenement-house
districts; and many streets in various parts of the city are faced
with rows of low and humble cottages often having a garden
plot in front.

Of the public buildings the city hall (erected 1868-1871),
overlooking the Campus Martius, is in Renaissance style, in
three storeys; the flagstaff from the top of the tower reaches
a height of 200 ft. On the four corners above the first section
of the tower are four figures, each 14 ft. in height, to represent
Justice, Industry, Art and Commerce, and on the same level
with these is a clock weighing 7670 Ib — one of the largest in the
world. In front of the building stands the Soldiers' and Sailors'
monument, 60 ft. high, designed by Randolph Rogers (1825-1892)
and unveiled in 1872. At each of the four comers in each of
three sections rising one above the other are bronze eagles and
figures representing the United States Infantry, Marine, Cavalry
and Artillery, also Victory, Union, Emancipation and History;
the figure by which the monument is surmounted was designed
to symbolize Michigan. A larger and more massive and stately

building than the city hall is the county court house, facing
Cadillac Square, with a lofty tower surmounted by a gilded
dome. The Federal building is a massive granite structure, finely
decorated in the interior. Among the churches of greatest
architectural beauty are the First Congregational, with a fine
Byzantine interior, St John's Episcopal, the Woodward Avenue
Baptist and the First Presbyterian, all on Woodward Avenue,
and St. Anne's and Sacred Heart of Mary, both Roman Catholic.
The municipal museum of art, in Jefferson Avenue, contains
some unusually interesting Egyptian and Japanese collections,
the Scripps' collection of old masters,other valuable paintings, and
a small library: free lectures on art are given here through the
winter. The public library had 228,500 volumes in 1908, includ-
ing one of the best collections of state and town histories in the
country. A large private collection, owned by C. M. Burton and
relating principally to the history of Detroit, is also open to the
public. The city is not rich in outdoor works of art. The
principal ones are the Merrill fountain and the soldiers' monu-
ment on the Campus Martius, and a statue of Mayor Pingree in
West Grand Circus Park.

The parks of Detroit are numerous and their total area is about
1 200 acres. By far the most attractive is Belle Isle, an island in
the river at the E. end of the city, purchased in 1879 and having
an area of more than 700 acres. The Grand Circus Park of
45 acres, with its trees, flowers and fountains, affords a pleasant
resting place in the busiest quarter of the city. Six miles farther
out on Woodward Avenue is Palmer Park of about 140 acres,
given to the city in 1894 and named in honour of the donor.
Clark Park (28 acres) is in the W. part of the city, and there are
various smaller parks. The principal cemeteries are Elmwood
(Protestant) and Mount Elliott (Catholic), which lie adjoining in
the E. part of the city; Woodmere in the W. and Woodlawn in
the N. part of the city.

Charity and Education. — Among the charitable institutions are
the general hospitals (Harper, Grace and St Mary's) ; the Detroit
Emergency, the Children's Free and the United States Marine
hospitals; St Luke's hospital, church home, and orphanage;
the House of Providence (a maternity hospital and infant
asylum); the Woman's hospital and foundling's home; the
Home for convalescent children, &c. In 1894 the mayor, Hazen
Senter Pingree (1842-1901), instituted the practice of preparing,
through municipal aid and supervision, large tracts of vacant
land in and about the city for the growing of potatoes and other
vegetables and then, in conjunction with the board of poor
commissioners, assigning it in small lots to families of the un-
employed, and furnishing them with seed for planting. This plan
served an admirable purpose through three years of industrial
depression, and was copied in other cities; it was abandoned
when, with the renewal of industrial activity, the necessity for
it ceased. The leading penal institution of the city is the Detroit
House of Correction, noted for its efficient reformatory work;
the inmates are employed ten hours a day, chiefly in making
furniture. The house of correction pays the city a profit of
$35,000 to $40,000 a year. The educational institutions, in
addition to those of the general public school system, include
several parochial schools, schools of art and of music, and
commercial colleges; Detroit College (Catholic), opened in 1877;
the Detroit College of Medicine, opened in 1885; the Michigan
College of Medicine and Surgery, opened in 1888; the Detroit
College of law, founded in 1891, and a city normal school.

Commerce. — Detroit's location gives to the city's shipping
and shipbuilding interests a high importance. All the enormous
traffic between the upper and lower lakes passes through the
Detroit river. Ini9O7 thenumberof vessels recorded was 34, 149,
with registered tonnage of 53,959,769, carrying 71,226,895 tons
of freight, valued at $697,311,302. This includes vessels which
delivered part or all of their cargo at Detroit. The largest item
in the freights is iron ore on vessels bound down. The next is
coal on vessels up bound. Grain and lumber are the next largest
items. Detroit is a port of entry, and its foreign commerce,
chiefly with Canada, is of growing importance. The city's
exports increased from $11,325,807 in 1896 to $37,085,027 in

DETROIT

1909.
1909.

The imports were $3,153,609 in 1896 and $7,10x2,659 in

As a manufacturing city, Detroit holds high rank. The total
number of manufacturing establishments in 1890 was 1746, with
a product for the year valued at $77,351,546; in 1900 there were
2847 establishments with a product for the year valued at
$100,892,838, or an increase of 30-4 % in the decade. In 1900 the
establishments under the factory system, omitting the hand
trades and neighbourhood industries, numbered 1259 and pro-
duced goods valued at $88,365,924; in 1904 establishments
under the factory system numbered 1363 and the product had
increased 45-7% to $128,761,658. In the district subsequently
annexed the product in 1904 was about $12,000,000, making
a total of $140,000,000. The output for 1906 was estimated at
$180,000,000. The state factory inspectors in 1905 visited 1721
factories having 83,231 employees. In 1906 they inspected 1790
factories with 93,071 employees. Detroit is the leading city in
the country in the manufacture of automobiles. In 1904 the
value of its product was one-fifth that for the whole country. In
1906 the city had twenty automobile factories, with an out-
put of 11,000 cars, valued at $12,000,000. Detroit is probably
the largest manufacturer in the country of freight cars, stoves,
pharmaceutical preparations, varnish, soda ash and similar
alkaline products. Other important manufactures are ships,
paints, foundry and machine shop products, brass goods,
furniture, boots and shoes, clothing, matches, cigars, malt
liquors and fur goods; and slaughtering and meat packing
is an important industry.

The Detroit Board of Commerce, organized in 1903, brought
into one association the members of three former bodies, making
a compact organization with civic as well as commercial aims.
The board has brought into active co-operation nearly all the
leading business men of the city and many of the professional
men. Their united efforts have brought many new industries to
the city, have improved industrial conditions, and have exerted
a beneficial influence upon the municipal administration. Other
business organizations are the Board of Trade, devoted to the
grain trade and kindred lines, the Employers' Association, which
seeks to maintain satisfactory relations between employer and
employed, the Builders' & Traders' Exchange, and the Credit
Men's Association.

Administration. — Although the city received its first charter
in 1806, and another in 181 5, the real power rested in the hands of
the governor and judges of the territory until 1824; the charters
of 1824 and 1827 centred the government in a council and made
the list of elective officers long; the charter of 1827 was revised
in 1857 and again in 1859 and the present charter dates from
1883. Under this charter only three administrative officers are
elected, — the mayor, the city clerk and the city treasurer, —
elections being biennial. The administration of the city depart-
ments is largely in the hands of commissions. There is one
commissioner each, appointed by the mayor, for the parks and
boulevards, police and public works departments. The four
members of the health board are nominated by the governor
and confirmed by the state senate. The school board is an
independent body, consisting of one elected member from each
ward holding office for four years, but the mayor has the veto
power over its proceedings as well as those of the common council.
In each case a two-thirds vote overrules his veto. The other
principal officers and commissions, appointed by the mayor
and confirmed by the council, are controller, corporation counsel,
board of three assessors, fire commission (four members), public
lighting commission (six members), water commission (five
members), poor commission (four members), and inspectors of
the house of correction (four in number) . The members of the
public library commission, six in number, are elected by the board
of education. Itemized estimates of expenses for the next fiscal
year are furnished by the different departments to the controller
in February. He transmits them to the common council with
his recommendations. The council has four weeks in which to
consider them. It may reduce or increase the amounts asked,
and may add new items. The budget then goes to the board of

estimates, which has a month for its consideration. This body
consists of two members elected from each ward and five elected
at large. The mayor and heads of departments are advisory
members, and may speak but not vote. The members of the
board of estimates can hold no other office and they have no
appointing power, the intention being to keep them as free as
possible from all political motives and influences. They may
reduce or cut out any estimates submitted, but cannot increase
any or add new ones. No bonds can be issued without the assent
of the board of estimates. The budget is apportioned among
twelve committees which have almost invariably given close and
conscientious examination to the actual needs of the departments.
A reduction of $1,000,000 to $1,500,000, without impairing the
service, has been a not unusual result of their deliberations.
Prudent management under this system has placed the city in
the highest rank financially. Its debt limit is 2 % on the assessed
valuation, and even that low maximum is not often reached.
The debt in 1907 was only about $5,500,000, a smaller per capita
debt than that of any other city of over 100,000 inhabitants in
the country; the assessed valuation was $330,000,000; the city
tax, $14.70 on the thousand dollars of assessed valuation.
Both the council and the estimators arc- hampered in their work
by legislative interference. Nearly all the large salaries and
many of those of the second grade are made mandatory by the
legislature, which has also determined many affairs of £f purely
administrative character.

Detroit has made three experiments with municipal ownership.
On account of inadequate and unsatisfactory service by a private
company, the city bought the water-works as long ago as 1836.
The works have been twice moved and enlargements have been
made in advance of the needs of the city. In 1907 there were six
engines in the works with a pumping capacity of 152,000,000
gallons daily. The daily average of water used during the pre-
ceding year was 61,357,000 gallons. The water is pumped from
Lake St Clair and js of exceptional purity. The city began its
own public lighting in April 1895, having a large plant on the
river near the centre of the city. It lights the streets and public
buildings, but makes no provision for commercial business. The
lighting is excellent, and the cost is probably less than could be
obtained from a private company. The street lighting is done
partly from pole and arm lights, but largely from steel towers
from 100 ft. to 180 ft. in height, with strong reflected lights at the
top. The city also owns two portable asphalt plants, and thus
makes a saving in the cost of street repairing and resurfacing.
With a view of effecting the reduction of street car fares to three
cents, the state legislature in 1899 passed an act for purchasing
or leasing the street railways of the city, but the Supreme Court
pronounced this act unconstitutional on the ground that, as
the constitution prohibited the state from engaging in a work
of internal improvement, the state could not empower a munici-
pality to do so. Certain test votes indicated an almost even
division on the question of municipal ownership of the railways.

History. — Detroit was founded in 1701 by Antoine Laumet
de la Mothe Cadillac (c. 1661-1730), who had pointed out the
importance of the place as a strategic point for determining the
control of the fur trade and the possession of the North-west and
had received assistance from the French government soon after
Robert Livingston (1654-1725), the secretary of the Board of
Indian Commissioners in New York, had urged the English
government to establish a fort at the same place. Cadillac
arrived on the 24th of July with about 100 followers. They at
once built a palisade fort about 200 ft. square S. of what is now
Jefferson Avenue and between Griswold and Shelby streets, and
named it Fort Pontchartrain in honour of the French colonial
minister. Indians at once came to the place in large numbers,
but they soon complained of the high price of French goods;
there was serious contention between Cadillac and the French
Canadian Fur Company, to which a monopoly of the trade had
been granted, as well as bitter rivalry between him and the
Jesuits. After the several parties had begun to complain to the
home government the monopoly of the fur trade was transferred
to Cadillac and he was exhorted to cease quarrelling with the

n6

DETTINGEN— DEUS, J. DE

Jesuits. Although the inhabitants then increased to 200 or
more, dissatisfaction with the paternal rule of the founder
increased until 1710, when he was made governor of Louisiana.
The year before, the soldiers had been withdrawn; by the
second year after there was serious trouble with the Indians, and
for several years following the population was greatly reduced
and the post threatened with extinction. But in 1722, when the
Mississippi country was opened, the population once more in-
creased, and again in 1748, when the settlement of the Ohio
Valley began, the governor-general of Canada offered special
inducements to Frenchmen to settle at Detroit, with the result
that the population was soon more than 1000 and the culti-
vation of farms in the vicinity was begun. In 1760, however,
the place was taken by the British under Colonel Robert Rogers
and an English element was introduced into the population which
up to this time had been almost exclusively French. Three years
later, during the conspiracy of Pontiac, the fort first narrowly
escaped capture and then suffered from a siege lasting from the
9th of May until the I2th of October. Under English rule it
continued from this time on as a military post with its population
usually reduced to less than 500. In 1778 a new fort was built
and named Fort Lernault, and during the War of Independence
the British sent forth from here several Indian expeditions to
ravage the frontiers. With the ratification of the treaty which
concluded that war the title to the post passed to the United
States in 1783, but the post itself was not surrendered until the
nth of January 1796, in accordance with Jay's Treaty of 1794.
It was then named Fort Shelby; but in 1802 it was incorporated
as a town and received its present name. In 1805 all except one
or two buildings were destroyed by fire. General William Hull
(1753-1825), a veteran of the War of American Independence,
governor of Michigan territory in 1805-1812, as commander of
the north-western army in 1812 occupied the city. Failing to
hear immediately of the declaration of war between the United
States and Great Britain, he was cut off from his supplies shipped
by Lake Erie. He made from Detroit on the 1 2th of July an
awkwardandfutile advance into Canada, which, if more vigorous,
might have resulted in the capture of Maiden and the estab-
lishment of American troops in Canada, and then retired to
his fortifications. On the i6th of August 1812, without any
resistance and without consulting his officers, he surrendered the
city to General Brock, for reasons of humanity, and afterwards
attempted to justify himself by criticism of the War Department
in general and in particular of General Henry Dearborn's
armistice with Prevost, which had not included in its terms Hull,
whom Dearborn had been sent out to reinforce.1 After Perry's
victory on the i4th of September on Lake Erie, Detroit on the
zgth of September was again occupied by the forces of the United
States. Its growth was rather slow until 1830, but since then
its progress has been unimpeded. Detroit was the capital of
Michigan from 1805 to 1847.

AUTHORITIES. — Silas Farmer, The History of Detroit and Michigan
(Detroit, 1884 and 1889), and " Detroit, the Queen City," in L. P.
Powell's Historic Towns of the Western States (New York and London,
1901); D. F. Wilcox, " Municipal Government in Michigan and
Ohio," in Columbia University Studies (New York, 1896); C. M.
Burton, " Cadillac's Village or Detroit under Cadillac (Detroit,
1896) ; Francis Parkman, A Half Century of Conflict (Boston, 1897) ;
and The Conspiracy of Pontiac (Boston, 1898) ; and the annual
Reports of the Detroit Board of Commerce (1904 sqq.).

DETTINGEN, a village of Germany in the kingdom of Bavaria,
on the Main, and on the Frankfort-on-Main-Aschaffenburg rail-
way, 10 m. N.W. of Aschaffenburg. It is memorable as the scene
of a decisive battle on the 27th of June 1743, when the English,
Hanoverians and Austrians (the " Pragmatic army "), 42,000
men under the command of George II. of England, routed -the
numerically superior French forces under the due de Noailles.
It was in memory of this victory that Handel composed his
Dettingen Te Deum.

1 Hull was tried at Albany in i8l4by court martial, General Dearborn
presiding, was found guilty of treason, cowardice, neglect of duty and
unofficerlike conduct, and was sentenced to be shot; the president
remitted the sentence because of Hull's services in the Revolution.

DEUCALION, in Greek legend, son of Prometheus, king of
Phthia in Thessaly, husband of Pyrrha, and father of Hellen, the
mythical ancestor of the Hellenic race. When Zeus had resolved
to destroy all mankind by a flood, Deucalion constructed a boat
or ark, in which, after drifting nine days and nights, he landed
on Mount Parnassus (according to others, Othrys, Aetna or
Athos) with his wife. Having offered sacrifice and inquired how
to renew the human race, they were ordered to cast behind them
the " bones of the great mother," that is, the stones from the hill-
side. The stones thrown by Deucalion became men, those thrown
by Pyrrha, women.

See Apollodorus i. 7, 2; Ovid, Metam. i. 243-415; Apollonius
Rhodius iii. 1085 ff. ; H. Usener, Die Sintflutsagen (1899).

DEUCE (a corruption of the Fr. deux, two), a term applied to
the " two " of any suit of cards, or of dice. It is also a term used
in tennis when both sides have each scored three points in a game,
or five games in a set; to win the game or set two points or games
must then be won consecutively. The earliest instances in
English of the use of the slang expression " the deuce," in
exclamations and the like, date from the middle of the i7th
century. The meaning was similar to that of " plague " or
" mischief " in such phrases as " plague on you," " mischief take
you " and the like. The use of the word as an euphemism for
" the devil " is later. According to the New English Dictionary
the most probable derivation is from a Low German das dans, i.e.
the " deuce " in dice, the lowest and therefore the most unlucky
throw. The personification, with a consequent change of gender,
to der daus, came later. The word has also been identified with
the name of a giant or goblin in Teutonic mythology.

DEUS, JOAO DE (1830-1896), the greatest Portuguese poet
of his generation, was born at San Bartholomeu de Messines in
the province of Algarve on the 8th of March 1830. Matriculating
in the faculty of law at the university of Coimbra, he did not
proceed to his degree but settled in the city, dedicating himself
wholly to the composition of verses, which circulated among
professors and undergraduates in manuscript copies. In the
volume of his art, as in the conduct of life, he practised a rigorous
self-control. He printed nothing previous to 1855, and the first
of his poems to appear in a separate form was La Lata, in 1860.
In 1862 he left Coimbra for Beja, where he was appointed editor
of 0 Bejense, the chief newspaper in the province of Alemtejo,
and four years later he edited the Folha do Sul. As the pungent
satirical verses entitled Eleifdes prove, he was not an ardent
politician, and, though he was returned as Liberal deputy for
the constituency of Silves in 1869, he acted independently of
all political parties and promptly resigned his mandate. The
renunciation implied in the act, which cut him off from all
advancement, is in accord with nearly all that is known of his
lofty character. In the year of his election as deputy, his friend
Jose Antonio Garcia Blanco collected from local journals the series
of poems., Flares do campo, which is supplemented by the Ramo
de flores (1869). This is Joao de Deus's masterpiece. Pires de
Marmalada (1869) is an improvisation of no great merit. The
four theatrical pieces — Amemos o nosso proximo, Ser apresentado,
Ensaio de Casamento, and A Viuva inconsolavel — are prose
translations from Mery, cleverly done, but not worth the doing.
Horacio e Lydia (1872), a translation from Ronsard, is a good
example of artifice in manipulating that dangerously monotonous
measure, the Portuguese couplet. As an indication of a strong
spiritual reaction three prose fragments (1873) — Anna, Mae de
Maria, A Virgem Maria and A Mulher do Levita de Ephrain —
translated from Darboy's Femmes de la Bible, are full of signific-
ance. The Folhas soltas (1876) is a collection of verse in the
manner of Flores do campo, brilliantly effective and exquisitely
refined. Within the next few years the writer turned his atten-
tion to educational problems, and in his Cartilha maternal (1876)
first expressed the conclusions to which his study of Pestalozzi
and Frobel had led him. This patriotic, pedagogical apostolate
was a misfortune for Portuguese literature; his educational
mission absorbed Joao de Deus completely, and is responsible
for numerous controversial letters, for a translation of Theodore-
Henri Barrau's treatise, Des devoirs des enfants envers leurs

DEUTERONOMY

117

parents, for a prosodic dictionary and for many other publications
of no literary value. A copy of verses in Antonio Vieira's
Grinalda de Maria (1877), the Loos a Virgem (1878) and the
Proverbios de Salomao are evidence of a complete return to
orthodoxy during the poet's last years. By a lamentable error
of judgment some worthless pornographic verses entitled
Cryptinas have been inserted in the completest edition of Joao
de Deus's poems — Campo de Flares (Lisbon, 1893). He died at
Lisbon on the i ith of January 1896, was accorded a public funeral
and was buried in the National Pantheon, the Jeronymite church
at Belem, where repose the remains of Camoens, Herculano and
Garrett. His scattered minor prose writings and correspondence
have been posthumously published by Dr TheophiJo Braga
(Lisbon, 1898).

Next to Camoens and perhaps Garrett, no Portuguese poet has
been more widely read, more profoundly admired than Joao de
Deus; yet no poet in any country has been more indifferent to
public opinion and more deliberately careless of personal fame.
He is not responsible for any single edition of his poems, which
were put together by pious but ill-informed enthusiasts, who
ascribed to him verses that he had not written; he kept no copies
of his compositions, seldom troubled to write them himself, and
was content for the most part to dictate them to others. He has
no great intellectual force, no philosophic doctrine, is limited in
theme as in outlook, is curiously uncertain in his touch, often
marring a fine poem with a slovenly rhyme or with a misplaced
accent; and, on the only occasion when he was induced to revise
a set of proofs, his alterations were nearly all for the worse. And
yet, though he never appealed to the patriotic spirit, though
he wrote nothing at all comparable in force or majesty to the
restrained splendour of Os Lusiadas, the popular instinct which
links his name with that of his great predecessor is eminently
just. For Camoens was his model; not the Camoens of the epic,
but the Camoens of the lyrics and the sonnets, where the passion
of tenderness finds its supreme utterance. Braga has noted five
stages of development in Joao de Deus's artistic life — the imita-
tive, the idyllic, the lyric, the pessimistic and the devout phases.
Under each of these divisions is included much that is of extreme
interest, especially to contemporaries who have passed through
the same succession of emotional experience, and it is highly
probable that Caturras and Caspar, pieces as witty as anything
in Bocage but free from Bocage's coarse impiety, will always
interest literary students. But it is as the singer of love that Joao
de Deus will delight posterity as he delighted his own generation.
The elegiac music of Rachel and of Marina, the melancholy of
Adeus and of Remoinho, the tenderness and sincerity of Meu
casto lirio, of Lagrima celeste, of Descalfa, and a score more songs
are distinguished by the large, vital simplicity which withstands
time. It is precisely in the quality of unstudied simplicity that
Joao de Deus is incomparably strong. The temptations to a dis-
play of virtuosity are almost irresistible for a Portuguese poet;
he has the tradition of virtuosity in his blood, he has before him
the example of all contemporaries, and he has at hand an in-
strument of wonderful sonority and compass. Yet not once is
Joao de Deus clamorous or rhetorical, not once does he indulge
in idle ornament. His prevailing note is that of exquisite sweet-
ness and of reverent purity; yet with all his caressing softness he
is never sentimental, and, though he has not the strength for a
long fight, emotion has seldom been set to more delicate music.
Had he included among his other gifts the gift of selection,
had he continued the poetic discipline of his youth instead of
dedicating his powers to a task which, well as he performed
it, might have been done no less well by a much lesser man,
there is scarcely any height to which he might not have risen.

See also Maxime Formont, Le Mouvement poetique conlemporain
en Portugal (Lyon, 1892). (J. F.-K.)

DEUTERONOMY, the name of one of the books of the Old
Testament. This book was long the storm-centre of Pentateuchal
criticism, orthodox scholars boldly asserting that any who
questioned its Mosaic authorship reduced it to the level of a
pious fraud. But Biblical facts have at last triumphed over
tradition, and the non-Mosaic authorship of Deuteronomy is now

a commonplace of criticism. It is still instructive, however, to
note the successive phases through which scholarly opinion
regarding the composition and ;date of his book has passed.

In the 1 7th century. the characteristics which so clearly mark
off Deuteronomy from the other four books of the Pentateuch
were frankly recognized, but the most advanced critics of that
age were inclined to pronounce it the earliest and most authentic
of the five. In the beginning of the igth century de Wette
startled the religious world by declaring that Deuteronomy, so
far from being Mosaic, was not known till the time of Josiah.
This theory he founded on 2 Kings xxii.; and ever since, this
chapter has been one of the recognized foci of Biblical criticism.
The only other single chapter of the Bible which is responsible
for having brought about a somewhat similar revolution in
critical opinion is Ezek. xliv. From this chapter, some seventy
years after de Wette's discovery, Wellhausen with equal acumen
inferred tnat Leviticus was not known to Ezekiel, the priest, and
therefore could not have been in existence in his day; for had
Leviticus been the recognized Law-book of his nation Ezekiel
could not have represented as a degradation the very position
which that Law-book described as a special honour conferred
on the Levites by Yahweh himself. Hence Leviticus, so far
from belonging to an earlier stratum of the Pentateuch than
Deuteronomy, as de Wette thought, must belong to a much
later stratum, and be at least exilic, if not post-exilic.

The title " Deuteronomy " is due to a mistranslation by the
Septuagint of the clause in chap. xvii. 18, rendered " and he shall
write out for himself this Deuteronomy." The Hebrew really
means " and he [the king] shall write out for himself a copy of
this law," where there is not the slightest suggestion that the
author intended to describe <: this law " delivered on the plains
of Moab as a second code in contradistinction to the first code
given on Sinai thirty-eight years earlier. Moreover the phrase
" this law " is so ambiguous as to raise a much greater diffi-
culty than that caused by the Greek mistranslation of the Hebrew
word for " copy." How much does " this law " include? It was
long supposed to mean the whole of our present Deuteronomy;
indeed, it is on that supposition that the traditional view of the
Mosaic authorship is based. But the context alone can determine
the question; and that is often so ambiguous that a sure infer-
ence is impossible. We may safely assert, however, that nowhere
need " this law " mean the whole book. In fact, it invariably
means very much less, and sometimes, as in xxvii. 3, 8, so little
that it could all be engraved in large letters on a few plastered
stones set up beside an altar.

Deuteronomy is not the work of any single writer but the
result of a long process of development. The fact that it is
legislative as well as hortatory is enough to prove this, for most
of the laws it contains are found elsewhere in the Pentateuch,
sometimes in less developed, sometimes in more developed forms,
a fact which is conclusive proof of prolonged historical develop-
ment. According to the all-pervading law of evolution, the less
complex form must have preceded the more complex. Still, the
book does bear the stamp of one master-mind. Its style is as
easily recognized as that of Deutero-Isaiah, being as remarkable
for its copious diction as for its depths of moral and religious
feeling.

The original Deuteronomy, D, read to King Josiah, cannot
have been so large as our present book, for not only could it be
read at a single sitting, but it could be easily read twice in one
day. On the day it was found, Shaphan first read it himself, and
then went to the king and read it aloud to him. But perhaps the
most conclusive proof of its brevity is that it was read publicly
to the assembled people immediately before they, as well as their
king, pledged themselves to obey it; and not a word is said as
to the task of reading it aloud, so as to be heard by such a great
multitude, being long or difficult.

The legislative part of D consists of fifteen chapters (xii.-xxvi.),
which, however, contain many later insertions. But the impression
made upon Josiah by what he heard was far too deep to have
been produced by the legislative part alone. The king must have
listened to the curses as well as the blessings in chap, xxviii., and

n8

DEUTERONOMY

no doubt also to the exhortations in chaps, v.-xi. Hence we may
conclude that the original book consisted of a central mass of
religious, civil and social laws, preceded by a hortatory intro-
duction and followed by an effective peroration. The book read
to Josiah must therefore have comprised most of what is found
in Deut. v.-xxvi., xxvii. 9, 10 and xxviii. But something like
two centuries elapsed before the book reached its present form,
for in the closing chapter, as well as elsewhere, e.g. i. 41-43 (where
1 the joining is not so deftly done as usual) and xxxii. 48-52, there
are undoubted traces of the Priestly Code, P, which is generally
acknowledged to be post-exilic.

The following is an analysis of the main divisions of the book
as we now have it. There are two introductions, the first i.-iv.
44, more historical than hortatory; the second v.-xi., more
hortatory than historical. These may at first have been prefixed
to separate editions of the legislative portion, but were eventu-
ally combined. Then, before D was united to P, five appendices
of very various dates and embracing poetry as well as prose, were
added so as to give a fuller account of the last days of Moses and
thus lead up to the narrative of his death with which the book
closes, (i) Chap, xxvii., where the elders of Israel are introduced
for the first time as acting along with Moses (xxvii. i) and then
the priests, the Levites (xxvii. 9). Some of the curses refer to
laws given not in D but in Lev. xxx., so that the date of this
chapter must be later than Leviticus or at any rate than the
laws codified in the Law of Holiness (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.). (2) The
second appendix, chaps, xxix.-xxxi. 29, xxxii. 45-47, gives us
the farewell address of Moses and is certainly later than D.
Moses is represented as speaking not with any hope of preventing
Israel's apostasy but because he knows that the people will
eventually prove apostate (xxxi. 29), a point of view very
different from D's. (3) The Song of Moses, chap, xxxii. That
this didactic poem must have been written late in the nation's
history, and not at its very beginning, is evident from v. 7:
" Remember the days of old, Consider the years of many genera-
tions." Such words cannot be interpreted so as to fit the lips of
Moses. It must have been composed in a time of natural gloom
and depression, after Yahweh's anger had been provoked by
" a very froward generation," certainly not before the Assyrian
Empire had loomed up against the political horizon, aggressive
and menacing. Some critics bring the date down even to the
time of Jeremiah and Ezekiel. (4) The Blessing of Moses,
chap, xxxiii. The first line proves that this poem is not by D,
who speaks invariably of Horeb, never of Sinai. The situation
depicted is in striking contrast with that of the Song. Everything
is bright because of promises fulfilled, and the future bids fair
to be brighter still. Bruston maintains with reason that the
Blessing, strictly so called, consists only of w. 6-25, and has
been inserted in a Psalm celebrating the goodness of Jehovah to
his people on their entrance into Canaan (vv. 1-5, 26-29). The
special prominence given to Joseph (Ephraim and Manasseh) in
w. 13-17 has led many critics to assign this poem to the time
of the greatest warrior-king of Northern Israel, Jeroboam II.
(5) The account of Moses' death, chap, xxxiv. This appendix,
containing, as it does, manifest traces of P, proves that even
Deuteronomy was not put into its present form until after the
exile.

From the many coincidences between D and the Book of the
Covenant (Ex. xx.-xxiii.) it is clear that D was acquainted with E,
the prophetic narrative of the Northern kingdom; but it is not
quite clear whether D knew E as an independent work, or after
its combination with J, the somewhat earlier prophetic narrative
of the Southern kingdom, the combined form of which is now
indicated by the symbol JE. Kittel certainly puts it too strongly
when he asserts that D quotes always from E and never from J,
for some of the passages alluded to in D may just as readily be
ascribed to J as to E, cf. Deut. i. 7 and Gen. xv. 18; Deut. x. 14
and Ex. xxxiv. 1-4. Consequently D must have been written
certainly after E and possibly after E was combined with J.

In Amos, Hosea and Isaiah there are no traces of D's ideas,
whereas in Jeremiah and Ezekiel their influence is everywhere
manifest. Hence this school of thought arose between the age of

Isaiah and that of Jeremiah; but how long D itself may have
been in existence before it was read in 622 to Josiah cannot be
determined with certainty. Many argue that D was written
immediately before it was found and that, in fact, it was put into
the temple for the purpose of being " found." This theory gives
some plausibility to the charge that the book is a. pious fraud.
But the narrative in 2 Kings xxii. warrants no such inference.
The more natural explanation is that it was written not in the
early years of Josiah's reign, and with the cognizance of the
temple priests then in office, but some time during the long reign
of Manasseh, probably when his policy was most reactionary
and when he favoured the worship of the " host of heaven " and
set up altars to strange gods in Jerusalem itself. This explains
why the author did not publish his work immediately, but placed
it where he hoped it would be safely preserved till opportunity
should arise for its publication. One need not suppose that he
actually foresaw how favourable that opportunity would prove,
and that, as soon as discovered, his work would be promulgated
as law by the king and willingly accepted by the people. The
author believed that everything he wrote was in full accordance
with the mind of Moses, and would contribute to the national
weal of Yahweh's covenant people, and therefore he did not
scruple to represent Moses as the speaker. It is not to be
expected that modern scholars should be able to fix the exact
year or even decade in which such a book was written. It is
enough to determine with something like probability the century
or half-century which best fits its historical data; and these
appear to point to the reign of Manasseh.

Between D and P there are no verbal parallels; but in the
historical resumes JE is followed closely, whole clauses and even
verses being copied practically verbatim. As Dr Driver points
out in his careful analysis, there are only three facts in D which
are not also found in JE, viz. the number of the spies, the number
of souls that went down into Egypt with Jacob, and the ark
being made of acacia wood. But even these may have been in
J or E originally, and left out when JE was combined with P.
Steuernagel divides the legal as well as the hortatory parts of D
between two authors, one of whom uses the 2nd person plural
when addressing Israel, and the other the 2nd person singular;
but as a similar alternation is constantly found in writings
universally acknowledged to be by the same author, this clue
seems anything but trustworthy, depending as it does on the
presence or absence of a single Hebrew letter, and resulting, as it
frequently does, in the division of verses which otherwise seem
to be from the same pen (cf. xx. 2). The inference as to diversity
of authorship is much more conclusive when difference of stand-
point can be proved, cf. v. 3, xi. 2 ff. with viii. 2. The first two
passages represent Moses as addressing the generation that was
alive at Horeb, whereas the last represents him as speaking to
those who were about to pass over Jordan a full generation later;
and it may well be that the one author may, in the historical and
hortatory parts, have preferred the 2nd plural and the other
the 2nd singular; without the further inference being justified
that every law in which the 2nd singular is used must be assigned
to the latter, and every law in which the 2nd plural occurs must
be due to the former.

The law of the Single Sanctuary, one of D's outstanding
characteristics, is, for him, an innovation, but an innovation
towards which events had long been tending. 2 Kings xxiii. 9
shows that even the zeal of Josiah could not carry out the
instructions laid down in D xviii. 6-8. Josiah's acceptance of
D made it the first canonical book of scripture. Thus the religion
of Judah became henceforward a religion which enabled its
adherents to learn from a book exactly what was required of
them. D requires the destruction not only of the high places and
the idols, but of the Asheras (wooden posts) and the Mazzebas
(stone pillars) often set up beside the altar of Jehovah (xvi. 21).
These reforms made too heavy demands upon the people, as was
proved by the reaction which set in at Josiah's death. Indeed
the country people would look on the destruction of the high
places with their Asheras and Mazzebas as sacrilege and would
consider Josiah's death in battle as a divine punishment for his

DEUTSCH— DEUX-SEVRES

119

sacrilegious deeds. On the other hand, the destruction of
Jerusalem and the exile of the people would appear to those who
had obeyed D's instructions as a well-merited punishment for
national apostasy.

Moreover, D regarded religion as of the utmost moment to each
individual Israelite; and it is certainly not by accident that the
declaration of the individual's duty towards God immediately
follows the emphatic intimation to Israel of Yahweh's unity.
" Hear, O Israel, Yahweh is our God, Yahweh is one: and thou
shall love Yahweh thy God with all thine heart and with all thy
soul and with all thy strength " (vi. 4, 5).

In estimating the religious value of Deuteronomy it should
never be forgotten that upon this passage the greatest eulogy
ever pronounced on any scripture was pronounced by Christ
himself, when he said " on these words hang all the law and the
prophets," and it is also well to remember that when tempted in
the wilderness he repelled each suggestion of the Tempter by a
quotation from Deuteronomy.

Nevertheless even such a writer as D could not escape the
influence of the age and atmosphere in which he lived; and
despite the spirit of love which breathes so strongly throughout
the book, especially for the poor, the widow and the fatherless,
the stranger and the homeless Levite (xxiv. 10-22), and the
humanity shown towards both beasts and birds (xxii. i, 4, 6 f.,
xxv. 4), there are elements in D which go far to explain the
intense exclusiveness and the religious intolerance characteristic
of Judaism. Should a man's son or friend dear to him as his own
soul seek to tempt him from the faith of his fathers, D's pitiless
order to that man is " Thou shall surely kill. him; thine hand
shall be first upon him to put him lo dealh." From Ihis single
instance we see nol only how far mankind has travelled along the
path of religious toleration since Deuteronomy was wrillen, bul
also how very far the criticism implied in Christ's melhod of
deah'ng wilh whal " was said to them of old time " may be
legilimately carried. (J- A. P.*)

DEUTSCH, IMMANUEL OSCAR MENAHEM (1829-1873),
German orienlal scholar, was born on the 28th of October 1829,
at Neisse in Prussian Silesia, of Jewish extraction. On reaching
his sixteenlh year he began his sludies at the university of Berlin,
paying special allenlion to theology and the Talmud. He also
mastered ihe English language and sludied English lileralure.
In 1855 Deulsch was appointed assislanl in Ihe library of Ihe
British Museum. He worked intensely on the Talmud and
conlribuled no less lhan 100 papers to Chambers' s Encyclopaedia,
in addition to essays in Kitlo's and Smith's Biblical Dictionaries,
and articles in periodicals. In October 1867 his article on " The
Talmud," published in the Quarterly Renew, made him known.
Il was translated into French, German, Russian, Swedish, Dutch
and Danish. He died al Alexandria on the I2th of May 1873.

His Literary Remains, edited by Lady Strangford, were published
in 1874, consisting ot nineteen papers on such subjects as " The
Talmud," " Islam," " Semitic Culture," " Egypt, Ancient and
Modern," " Semitic Languages," " The Targums," " The Samaritan
Pentateuch," and " Arabic Poetry."

DEUTSCHKRONE, a town of Germany, kingdom of Prussia,
between the two lakes of Arens and Radau, 15 rn. N.W. of
Schneidemiihl, a railway junction 60 m. north of Posen. Pop.
(1905) 7282. Il is the seal of Ihe public offices for Ihe dislricl,
possesses an Evangelical and a Roman Calholic church, a
synagogue, and a gymnasium established in the old Jesuil
college, and has manufaclures of machinery, woollens, dies,
brandy and beer.

DEUTZ (anc. Divitio), formerly an independenl town of
Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, on the right bank of
the Rhine, opposite to Cologne, wilh which il has been incorpor-
ated since 1888. It contains Ihe church of Si Heribert, buill in
Ihe i7lh cenlury, cavalry barracks, artillery magazines, and gas,
porcelain, machine and carriage faclories. Ic has a handsome
railway slalion on Ihe banks of the Rhine, negotiating Ihe local
Iraffic wilh Elberfeld and Konigswinler. The forlificalions of
Ihe lown form parl of Ihe defences of Cologne. To the easl is the
manufacturing suburb of Kalk.

The old castle in Deutz was in 1002 made a Benedictine
monastery by Heribert, archbishop of Cologne. Permission to
fortify ihe lown was in 1 230 granted lo Ihe citizens by the arch-
bishop of Cologne, between whom and Ihe counls of Berg it was
in 1240 divided. Il was burnl in 1376, 1445 and 1583; and
in 1678, afler Ihe peace of Nijmwegen, Ihe fortifications were
dismantled; rebuilt in 1816, they were again razed in 1888.

DEUX-SEVRES, an inland department of western France,
formed in 1 790 mainly of Ihe Ihree districts of Poilou, Thouarsais,
Gatine and Niorlais, added lo a small portion of Sainlonge and
a still smaller portion of Aunis. Area, 2337 sq. m. Pop. (1906)
339,466. It is bounded N. by Maine-et-Loire, E. by Vienne,
S.E. by Charente, S. by Charente-Inferieure and W. by Vendee.
The department takes its name from two rivers — the Sevre of
Niort which Iraverses the southern portion, and the Sevre of
Nanles (an affluenl of Ihe Loire) which drains Ihe north-west.
There are three regions — the Gatine, occupying the north and
centre of the departmenl, the Plaine in Ihe soulh and the Marais,
— distinguished by Iheir geological character and their general
physical appearance. The Gatine, formed of primitive rocks
(granite and schists), is the continuation of the " Bocage " of
Vendee and Maine-et-Loire. Ils surface is irregular and covered
wilh hedges and clumps of wood or forests. The systematic
application of lime has much improved Ihe soil, which is nalurally
poor. The Plaine, resting on oolite limestone, is treeless bul
fertile. The Marais, a low-lying dislrict in the extreme soulh-
wesl, consisls of alluvial clays which also are extremely pro-
ductive when properly drained. The highesl points, several of
which exceed 700 f I., are found in a line of hills which begins in ihe
cenlre of the departmenl, lo Ihe soulh of Parthenay, and stretches
north-west into the neighbouring departmenl of Vendee. It
divides Ihe region drained by Ihe Sevre Nanlaise and the Thouet
(both affluenls of Ihe Loire) in Ihe north from the basins of the
Sevre Niortaise and the Charente in Ihe south. The climate is
mild, the annual lemperalure al Niort being 54° Fahr., and the
rainfall nearly 25 in. The winters are colder in the Gatine, Ihe
summers warmer in Ihe Plaine.

Three-quarters of the entire area of Deux-Sevres, which is
primarily an agricullural deparlment, consisls of arable land.
Wheal and oals are Ihe main cereals. Polaloes and mangold-
wurzels are the chief root-crops. Niort is a centre for the growing
of vegetables (onions, asparagus, artichokes, &c.) and of angelica.
Considerable quantities of beetrool are raised lo supply the
distilleries of Melle. Colza, hemp, rape and flax are also culti-
vated. Vineyards are numerous in the neighbourhood of
Bressuire in the north, and of Niort and Melle in the south. The
deparlmenl is well known for the Parthenay breed of caltle and
the Poitou breed of horses; and Ihe mules reared in Ihe soulhern
arrondissemenls are much soughl afler bolh in France and in
Spain. The system of co-operative dairying is practised in some
localities. The apple-trees of Ihe Gatine and ihe walnul-lrees of
Ihe Plaine bring a good relurn. Coal is mined, and Ihe deparl-
menl produces building-slone and lime. A leading induslry is
themanufactureof textiles (serges, druggets, linen, handkerchiefs,
flannels, swan-skins and knilled goods). Tanning and lealher-
dressing are carried on at Niorl and olher places, and gloves are
made al Niorl. Wool and collon spinning, hat and shoe making,
distilling, brewing, flour-milling and oil-refining are also main
industries. The deparlmenl exports cattle and sheep to Paris
and Poitiers; also cereals, oils, wines, vegetables and ils induslrial
producls.

The Sevre Niorlaise and ils Iribulary Ihe Mignon furnish 19 m.
of navigable waterway. The department is served by the Ouesl-
Etat railway. Il contains a large proportion of Proleslanls,
especially in Ihe soulh-easl. The four arrondissemenls are Niorl,
Bressuire, Melle and Parthenay; the cantons number 31, and
the communes 356. Deux-Sevres is part of the region of the
IX. army corps, and of the diocese and the academic (educational
circumscription) of Poitiers, where also is its courl of appeal.

Niorl (ihe capital), Bressuire, Melle, Parthenay, St Maixent,
Thouars and Oiron are Ihe principal places in Ihe deparlment.
Several olher towns contain fealures of inlerest. Among these

120

DEVA— DEVENTER

are Airvault, where there is a church of the i2th and i4th
centuries which once belonged to the abbey of St Pierre, and an
ancient bridge built by the monks; Celles-sur-Belle, where there
is an old church rebuilt by Louis XI., and again in the i7th
century; and St Jouin-de-Marnes, with a fine Romanesque
church with Gothic restoration, which belonged to one of the
most ancient abbeys of Gaul.

DEVA (Sanskrit " heavenly "), in Hindu and Buddhist
mythology, spirits of the light and air, and minor deities
generally beneficent. In Persian mythology, however, the
word is used for evil spirits or demons. According to Zoroaster
the devas were created by Ahriman.

DEVA (mod. Chester), a Roman legionary fortress in Britain
on the Dee. It was occupied by Roman troops about A.D. 48 and
held probably till the end of the Roman dominion. Its garrison
was the Legio XX. Valeria Victrix, with which another legion
(II. Adjutrix) was associated for a few years, about A.D. 75-85.
It never developed, like many Roman legionary fortresses, into
a town, but remained military throughout. Parts of its north
and east walls (from Morgan's Mount to Peppergate) and
numerous inscriptions remain to indicate its character and area.

See F. J. Haverfield, Catalogue of the Grosvenor Museum, Chester
(Chester, 1900), Introduction.

DEVADATTA, the son of Suklodana, who was younger
brother to the father of the Buddha (Mahavastu, iii. 76). Both
he and his brother Ananda, who were considerably younger
than the Buddha, joined the brotherhood in the twentieth year
of the Buddha's ministry. Four other cousins of theirs, chiefs of
the Sakiya clan, and a barber named Upali, were admitted to the
order at the same time; and at their own request the barber was
admitted first, so that as their senior in the order he should
take precedence of them ( Vinaya Texts, iii. 228). All the others
continued loyal disciples, but Devadatta, fifteen years afterwards,
having gained over the crown prince of Magadha, Ajalasallu, to
his side, made a formal proposition, at the meeting of the order,
that the Buddha should retire, and hand over the leadership to
him, Devadatta (Vinaya Texts, iii. 238; Jataka, i. 142). This
proposal was rejected, and Devadatta is said in the tradition
to have successfully instigated the prince to the execution of his
aged father and to have made three abortive attempts to bring
about the death of the Buddha (Vinaya Texts, iii. 241-250;
Jataka, vi. 131), shortly afterwards, relying upon the feeling of
the people in favour of asceticism, he brought forward four
propositions for ascetic rules to be imposed on the order. These
being refused, he appealed to the people, started an order of
his own, and gained over 500 of the Buddha's community
to join in the secession. We hear nothing further about the
success or otherwise of the new order, but it may possibly be
referred to under the name of the Gotamakas, in the Anguttara
(see Dialogues of the Buddha 1.222), for Devadatta 's family name
was Gotama. But his community was certainly still in existence
in the 4th century A.D., for it is especially mentioned by Fa Hien,
the Chinese pilgrim (Legge's translation, p. 62). And it possibly
lasted till the 7th century, for Hsiian Tsang mentions that in a
monastery in Bengal the monks then followed a certain regulation
of Devadatta's (T. Walters, On Yuan Chwang, ii. 191). There
is no mention in the canon as to how or when Devadatta died';
but the commentary on the Jataka, written in the 5th century A.D.,
has preserved a tradition that he was swallowed up by the earth
near Savatthi, when on his way to ask pardon of the Buddha
(Jataka, iv. 158). The spot where this occurred was shown to
both the pilgrims just mentioned (Fa Hien, loc. cit. p. 60; and
T. Walters, On Yuan Chwang, i. 390). It is a striking example
of Ihe way in which such legends grow, that it is only the latest
of these aulhorities, Hsiian Tsang, who says that, though
ostensibly approaching the Buddha with a view lo reconcilialion,
Devadalta had concealed poison in his nail with the object of
murdering the Buddha.

AUTHORITIES. — Vinaya Texts, translated by Rhys Davids and
H. Oldenberg (3 vols., Oxford, 1881-1885); The Jataka, edited by
V. Fausboll (7 vols., London, 1877-1897); T. Walters, On Yuan
Chwang (ed. Rhys Davids and Bushel!, 2 vols., London, 1904-1905) ;

Fa Hian, translated by J. Legge (Oxford, 1886); Mahavastu (ed.
Tenant, 3 vols., Paris, 1882-1897). (T. W. R. D.)

DEVAPRAYAG (DEOpRAYAG).a village in Tehri Slale of the
United Provinces, India. It is situaled at the spot where the
rivers Alaknanda and Bhagirathi unile and form the Ganges,
and as one of the five sacred confluences in Ihe hills is a great
place of pilgrimage for devout Hindus. Devaprayag stands at
an elevation of 2265 ft. on the side of a hill which rises above it
800 ft. On a terrace in Ihe upper part of the village is the temple
of Raghunath, built of huge uncemenled stones, pyramidical in
form and capped by a while cupola.

DEVEKS, CHARLES (1820-1891), American lawyer and jurist,
was born in Charleslown, Massachusells, on Ihe 4lh of April 1820.
He gradualed al Harvard College in 1838, and al Ihe Harvard
law school in 1840, and was admilled lo Ihe bar in Franklin
counly, Mass., where he praclised from 1841 to 1849. In
the year 1848 he was a Whig member of the stale senale, and
from 1849 to 1853 was Uniled Slates marshal for Massachuselts,
in which capacity he was called upon in 1851 to remand the
fugilive slave, Thomas Sims, to slavery. This he felt constrained
lo do, much againsl his personal desire; and subsequenlly he
altempted in vain to purchase Sims's freedom, and many years
later appointed him to a position in the deparlmenl of juslice at
Washington. Devens praclised law al Worcesler from 1853 unlil
1 86 1, and Ihroughoul Ihe Civil War served in Ihe Federal army,
becoming colonel of volunteers in July 1861 and brigadier-
general of volunteers in April 1862. At the batlle of Ball's Bluff
(1861) he was severely wounded; he was again wounded al
Fair Oaks (1862) .and al Chancellorsville (1863), where he com-
manded a division. He later dislinguished himself at Cold
Harbor, and commanded a division in Granl's final campaign in
Virginia (1864-65), his Iroops being Ihe firsl to occupy Richmond
after its fall. Breveled major-general in 1865, he remained in
Ihe army for a year as commander of the military district of
Charleston, Soulh Carolina. He was a judge of the Massachusetls
superior court from 1867 to 1873, and was an associate juslice of
the supreme court of Ihe state from 1873 to 1877, and again from
1881 lo 1891. From 1877 to 1881 he was attorney-general of the
United States in the cabinet of President Hayes. He died at
Boston, Mass., on the 7th of January 1891.

See his Orations and Addresses, with a memoir by John Codman
Ropes (Boston, 1891).

DEVENTER, a town in the province of Overysel, Holland, on
Ihe righl bank of Ihe Ysel, al Ihe confluence of the Schipbeek,
and a junction slation 10 m. N. of Zutphen by rail. It is also
connected by steam Iramway S.E. wilh Brokulo. Pop. (1900)
26,212. Devenler is a neal and prosperous town silualed in the
midst of pretlily wooded environs, and conlaining many curious
old buildings. There are Ihree churches of special interest: the
Groote Kerk (St Lebuinus), which dates from 1334, and occupies
Ihe sile of an older slruclure of which the nlh-cenlury crypl
remains; Ihe Roman Calholic Broederkerk, or Brolhers' Church,
conlaining among ils relics three ancient gospels said lo have
been written by St Lebuinus (Lebwin), Ihe English apostle of
Ihe Frisians and Weslphalians (d. c. 773); and the Bergkerk,
dedicated in 1 206, which has two late Romanesque lowers. The
lown hall (1693) conlains a remarkable painling of Ihe town
council by Terburg. In Ihe fine square called Ihe Brink is the old
weigh-house, nowaschool (gymnasium), builtiu I528,wilhalarge
exlernal staircase (1644). The gymnasium is descended from the
Latin school of which Ihe celebrated Alexander Hegius was
masler in Ihe Ihird quarler of Ihe i5lh cenlury, when Ihe young
Erasmus was senl lo it, and al which Adrian Floreizoon, after-
wards Pope Adrian VI., is said to have been a pupil about the
same time. Anolher famous educalional inslilulion was the
" Alhenaeum " or high school, founded in 1630, al which Henri
Renery (d. 1639) laughl philosophy, while Johann Friedrich
Gronov (Gronovius) (1611-1671) laughl rhetoric and history in
Ihe middle of the same century. The " Alhenaeum " disap-
pered in 1876. In modern limes Deventer possessed a famous
teacher in Dr Burgersdyk (d. 1900), the Dutch translator of
Shakespeare. The lown library, also called Ihe library of tnt

DE VERB— DEVIL

121

Athenaeum, includes many MSS. and incunabula, and a 13th-
century copy of Reynard the Fox. The archives of the town are
of considerable value. Besides a considerable agricultural trade,
Deventer has important iron foundries and carpet factories (the
royal manufactory of Smyrna carpets being especially famous) ;
while cotton-printing, rope-making and the weaving of woollens
and silks are also carried on. A public official is appointed to
supervise the proper making of a form of gingerbread known as
" Deventer Koek," which has a reputation throughout Holland.
In the church of Bathmen, a village 5 m. E. of Deventer, some
14th-century frescoes were discovered in 1870.

In the I4th century Deventer was the centre of the famous
religious and educational movement associated with the name
of Gerhard Groot (q.v.), who was a native of the town (see
BROTHERS or COMMON LIFE).

DE VERB, AUBREY THOMAS (1814-1002), Irish poet and
critic, was born at Curragh Chase, Co. Limerick, on the loth of
January 1814, being the third son of Sir Aubrey de Vere Hunt
(1788-1846). In 1832 his father dropped the final name by royal
licence. Sir Aubrey was himself a poet. Wordsworth called his
sonnets the " most perfect of the age." These and his drama,
Mary Tudor, were published by his son in 1875 and 1884. Aubrey
de Vere was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and in his
twenty-eighth year published The Waldenses, which he followed
up in the next year by The Search after Proserpine. Thence-
forward he was continually engaged, till his death on the 2oth of
January 1902, in the production of poetry and criticism. His
best-known works are: in verse, The Sisters (1861); The Infant
Bridal (1864); Irish Odes (1869); Legends of St Patrick (1872);
and Legends of the Saxon Saints (1879); and in prose, Essays
chiefly on Poetry (1887); and Essays chiefly Literary and Ethical
(1889). He also wrote a picturesque volume of travel-sketches,
and two dramas in verse, Alexander the Great (1874); and St
Thomas of Canterbury (1876); both of which, though they
contain fine passages, suffer from diffuseness and a lack of
dramatic spirit. The characteristics of Aubrey de Vere's poetry
are " high seriousness " and a fine religious enthusiasm. His
research in questions of faith led him to the Roman Church; and
in many of his poems, notably in the volume of sonnets called
St Peter's Chains (1888), he made rich additions to devotional
verse. He was a disciple of Wordsworth, whose calm meditative
serenity he often echoed with great felicity; and his affection for
Greek poetry, truly felt and understood, gave dignity and weight
to his own versions of mythological idylls. But perhaps he will
be chiefly remembered for the impulse which he gave to the study
of Celtic legend and literature. In this direction he has had many
followers, who have sometimes assumed the appearance of
pioneers; but after Matthew Arnold's fine lecture on " Celtic
Literature," nothing perhaps did more to help the Celtic revival
than Aubrey de Vere's tender insight into the Irish character,
and his stirring reproductions of the early Irish epic poetry.

A volume of Selections from his poems was edited in 1894 (New
York and London) by G. E. Woodberry.

DEVICE, a scheme, plan, simple mechanical contrivance; also
a pattern or design, particularly an heraldic design or emblem,
often combined with a motto or legend. " Device " and its
doublet " devise " come from the two Old French forms devis
and devise of the Latin divisa, things divided, from dividere, to
separate, used in the sense of to arrange, set out, apportion.
" Devise," as a substantive, is now only used as a legal term
for a disposition of property by will, by a modern convention
restricted to a disposition of real property, the term " bequest "
being used of personalty (see WILL). This use is directly due
to the Medieval Latin meaning of dividere = testamenlo disponere.
In its verbal form, " devise " is used not only in the legal sense,
but also in the sense of to plan, arrange, scheme.

DEVIL (Gr. &a/3o\os, "slanderer," from SiatfdXW, to
slander), the generic name for a spirit of evil, especially the
supreme spirit of evil, the foe of God and man. The word is used,
for minor evil spirits in much the same sense as " demon." From
the various characteristics associated with this idea, the term has
come to be applied by analogy in many different senses. From

the idea of evil as degraded, contemptible and doomed to failure,
the term is applied to persons in evil plight, or of slight considera-
tion. In English legal phraseology " devil " and " devilling "
are used of barristers who act as substitutes for others. Any
remuneration which the legal " devil " may receive is purely a
matter of private arrangement between them. In the chancery
division such remuneration is generally in the proportion of
one half of the fee which the client pays; " in the king's bench
division remuneration for ' devilling ' of briefs or assisting in
drafting and opinions is not common " (see Annual Practice, 1907,
p. 717). In a similar sense an author may have his materials
collected and arranged by a literary hack or " devil." The term
" printer's devil " for the errand boy in a printing office probably
combines this idea with that of his being black with ink. The
common notions of the devil as black, ill-favoured, malicious,
destructive and the like, have occasioned the application of the
term to certain animals (the Tasmanian devil, the devil-fish, the
coot), to mechanical contrivances (for tearing up cloth or separat-
ing wool), to pungent, highly seasoned dishes, broiled or fried.
In this article we are concerned with the primary sense of the
word, as used in mythology and religion.

The primitive philosophy of animism involves the ascription
of all phenomena to personal agencies. As phenomena are good
or evil, produce pleasure or pain, cause weal or woe, a distinction
in the character of these agencies is gradually recognized; the
agents of good become gods, those of evil, demons. A tendency
towards the simplification and organization of the evil as of the
good forces, leads towards belief in outstanding leaders among
the forces of evil. When the divine is most completely conceived
as unity, the demonic is also so conceived; and over against God
stands Satan, or the devil.

Although it is in connexion with Hebrew and Christian mono-
theism that this belief in the devil has been most fully developed,
yet there are approaches to the doctrine in other religions. In
Babylonian mythology " the old serpent goddess ' the lady Nina '
was transformed into the embodiment of all that was hostile to
the powers of heaven " (Sayce's Hibbert Lectures, p. 283) , and was
confounded with the dragon Tiamat, " a terrible monster, reap-
pearing in the Old Testament writings as Rahab and Leviathan,
the principle of chaos, the enemy of God and man " (Tennant's
The Fall and Original Sin, p. 43), and according to Gunkel
(Schopfung und Chaos, p. 383) " the original of the ' old serpent '
of Rev. xii. 9." In Egyptian mythology the serpent Apap with
an army of monsters strives daily to arrest the course of the boat
of the luminous gods. While the Greek mythology described
the Titans as " enchained once for all in their dark dungeons "
yet Prometheus' threat remained to disturb the tranquillity of the
Olympian Zeus. In the German mythology the army of darkness
is led by Hel, the personification of twilight, sunk to the goddess
who enchains the dead and terrifies the living, and Loki, originally
the god of fire, but afterwards " looked upon as the father of the
evil powers, who strips the goddess of earth of her adornments,
who robs Thor of his fertilizing hammer, and causes the death of
Balder the beneficent sun." In Hindu mythology the Maruts,
Indra, Agni and Vishnu wage war with the serpent Ahi to deliver
the celestial cows or spouses, the waters held captive in the
caverns of the clouds. In the Trimurti, Brahma (the impersonal)
is manifested as Brahma (the personal creator), Vishnu (the
preserver), and Siva (the destroyer). In Siva is perpetuated the
belief in the god of Vedic times Rudra, who is represented as
" the wild hunter who storms over the earth with his bands, and
lays low with arrows the men who displease him " (Chantepie de
la Saussaye's Religionsgeschichte, 2nd ed., vol. ii. p. 25). The evil
character of Siva is reflected in his wife, who as Kali (the black)
is the wild and cruel goddess of destruction and death. The
opposition of good and evil is most fully carried out in
Zoroastrianism. Opposed to Ormuzd, the author of all good, is
Ahriman, the source of all evil; and the opposition runs through
the whole universe (D'Alviella's Hibbert Lectures, pp. 158-164).

The conception of Satan (Heb. v&t, the adversary, Gr.
~2o.TO.vas, or "Zarav, 2 Cor. xii. 7) belongs to the post -exilic period
of Hebrew development, and probably shows traces of the

122

DEVIL

influence of Persian on Jewish thought, but it has also its roots
in much older beliefs. An " evil spirit " possesses Saul (i Sam.
xvi. 14), but it is " from the Lord." The same agency produces
discord between Abimelech and the Shechcmites (Judges ix. 23).
" A lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets " as Yah\veh's
messenger entices Ahab to his doom (i Kings xxii. 22). Growing
human corruption is traced to the fleshy union of angels and
women (Gen. vi. 1-4). But generally evil, whether as misfortune
or as sin, is assigned to divine causality (i Sara, xviii. 10; 2 Sam.
xxiv. i; i Kings xxii. 20: Isa. vi. 10, Ixiii. 17). After the Exile
there is a tendency to protect the divine transcendence by the
introduction of mediating angelic agency, and to separate all
evil from God by ascribing its origin to Satan, the enemy of
God and man. In the prophecy of Zechariah (iii. 1-2) he stands
as the adversary of Joshua, the high priest, and is rebuked by
Yahweh for desiring that Jerusalem should be further punished.
In the book of Job he presents himself before the Lord among the
sons of God (ii. i), yet he is represented both as accuser and
tempter. He disbelieves in Job's integrity, and desires him to be
so tried that he may fall into sin. While, according to 2 Sam.
xxiv. i, God himself tests David in regard to the numbering of
the people, according to i Chron. xxi, i it is Satan who tempts
him.

The development of the conception continued in later Judaism,
which was probably more strongly influenced by Persian dualism.
It is doubtful, however, whether the Asmodeus (q.v.) of the book
of Tobit is the same as the Aeshma Daewa of the Bundahesh.
He is the evil spirit who slew the seven husbands of Sara (iii. 8),
and the name probably means "Destroyer." In the book of
Enoch Satan is represented as the ruler of a rival kingdom of evil,
but here are also mentioned Satans, who are distinguished from
the fallen angels and who have a threefold function, to tempt, to
accuse and to punish. Satan possesses the ungodly (Ecclesi-
asticus xxi. 27), is identified with the serpent of Gen. iii. (Wisdom
ii. 24), and is probably also represented by Asmodeus, to whom
lustful qualities are assigned (Tobit vi. 14) ; Gen. iii. is probably
referred to in Psalms of Solomon xvii. 49, " a serpent speaking
with the words of transgressors, words of deceit to pervert
wisdom." The Book of the Secrets of Enoch not only identifies
Satan with the Serpent, but also describes his revolt against God,
and expulsion from heaven. In the Jewish Targums Sammael,
" the highest angel that stands before God's throne, caused the
serpent to seduce the woman "; he coalesces with Satan, and has
inferior Satans as his servants. The birth of Cain is ascribed to a
union of Satan with Eve. As accuser affecting man's standing
before God he is greatly feared.

This doctrine, stripped of much of its grossness, is reproduced
in the New Testament. Satan is the 5id/3oXos (Matt. xiii. 39;
John xiii. 2; Eph. iv. 27; Heb. ii. 14; Rev. ii. 10), slanderer
or accuser, the irapaf wv (Matt. iv. 3; iThess. iii. 5), the tempter,
the iroJTjpos (Matt. v. 37; John xvii. 15; Eph. vi. 16), the evil
one, and the k\&pte (Matt. xiii. 39), the enemy. He is apparently
identified with Beelzebub (or Beelzebul) in Matt. xii. 26, 27.
Jesus appears to recognize the existence of demons belonging to
a kingdom of evil under the leadership of Satan " the prince of
demons " (Matt. xii. 24, 26, 27), whose works in demonic posses-
sions it is his function to destroy (Mark i. 34, iii. 1 1, vi. 7 ; Luke x.
17-20). But he himself conquers Satan in resisting his tempta-
tions (Matt. iv. i-n). Simon is warned against him, and Judas
yields to him as tempter (Luke xxii. 31; John xiii. 27). Jesus's
cures are represented as a triumph over Satan (Luke x. 18).
This Jewish doctrine is found in Paul's letters also. Satan rules
over a world of evil, supernatural agencies, whose dwelling is in
the lower heavens (Eph. vi. 12): hence he is the "prince of
the power of the air " (ii. 2). He is the tempter (i Thess. iii. 5;
i Cor. vii. 5), the destroyer (x. 10), to whom the offender is to be
handed over for bodily destruction (v. 5), identified with the
serpent (Rom. xvi. 20; 2 Cor. xi. 3), and probably with Beliar or
Belial (vi. 15); and the surrender of man to him brought death
into the world (Rom. v. 17). Paul's own " stake in the flesh "
is Satan's messenger (2 Cor. xii. 7). According to Hebrews
Satan's power over death Jesus destroys by dying (ii. 14). Revela-

tion describes the war in heaven between God with his angels and
Satan or the dragon, the " old serpent," the deceiver of the
whole world (xii. 9), with his hosts of darkness. After the over-
throw of the Beast and the kings of the earth, Satan is imprisoned
in the bottomless pit a thousand years (xx. 2\. Again loosed to
deceive the nations, he is finally cast into the lake of fire and
brimstone (xx. 10; cf. Enoch liv. 5, 6; 2 Peter ii. 4). In John's
Gospel and Epistles Satan is opposed to Christ. Sinner and
murderer from the beginning (i John iii. 8) and liar by nature
(John viii. 44), he enslaves men to sin (viii. 34), causes death
(verse 44), rules the present world (xiv. 30), but has no power
over Christ or those who are his (xiv. 30, xvi. n; i John v. 18).
He will be destroyed by Christ with all his works. (John xvi. 33;
i John iii. 8).

In the common faith of the Gentile churches after the Apostolic
Age " the present dominion of evil demons, or of one evil demon,
was just as generally presupposed as man's need of redemption,
which was regarded as a result of that dominion. The tenacity
of this belief may be explained among other things by the living
impression of the polytheism that surrounded the communities
on every side. By means of this assumption too, humanity
seemed to be unburdened, and the presupposed capacity for
redemption could, therefore, be justified in its widest range "
(Harnack's History of Dogma, i. p. 181). While Christ's First
Advent delivered believers from Satan's bondage, his overthrow
would be completed only by the Second Advent. The Gnostics
held that " the present world sprang from a fall of man, or from
an undertaking hostile to God, and is, therefore, the product of
an evil or intermediate being " (p. 257). Some taught that while
the future had been assigned by God to Christ, the devil had
received the present age (p. 309). The fathers traced all doctrines
not held by the Catholic Church to the devil, and the virtues of
heretics were regarded as an instance of the devil transforming
himself into an angel of light (ii. 91). Irenaeus ascribes Satan's
fall to " pride and arrogance and envy of God's creation "; and
traces man's deliverance from Satan to Christ's victory in re-
sisting his temptations; but also, guided by certain Pauline
passages, represents the death of Christ " as a ransom paid to the
' apostasy ' for men who had fallen into captivity " (ii. 290). He
does not admit that Satan has any lawful claim on man, or that
God practised a deceit on him, as later fathers taught. This
theory of the atonement was formulated by Origen. " By his
successful temptation the devil acquired a right over men. God
offered Christ's soul for that of men. But the devil was duped,
as Christ overcame both him and death " (p. 367). It' was held
by Gregory of Nyssa, Ambrose, who uses the phrase pia fraus,
Augustine, Leo I., and Gregory I., who expresses it in its worst
form. " The humanity of Christ was the bait; the fish, the
devil, snapped at it, and was left hanging on the invisible hook,
Christ's divinity" (iii. 307). In Athanasius the relation of the
work of Christ to Satan retires into the background, Gregory of
Nazianzus and John of Damascus felt scruples about this view.
It is expressly repudiated by Anselm and Abelard. Peter the
Lombard asserted it, disregarding these objections. Bernard
represents man's bondage to Satan " as righteously permitted
as a just retribution for sin," he being " the executioner of the
divine justice." ^Another theory of Origen 's found less accept-
ance. The devil, as a being resulting from God's will, cannot
always remain a devil. The possibility of his redemption,
however, was in the sth century branded as a heresy. Persian
dualism was brought into contact with Christian thought in the
doctrine of Mani; and it is permissible to believe that the gloomy
views of Augustine regarding man's condition are due in some
measure to this influence. Mani taught that Satan with his
demons, sprung from the kingdom of darkness, attacked the
realm of light, the earth, defeated man sent against him by the
God of light, but was overthrown by the God of light, who then
delivered the primeval man (iii. 324). " During the middle
ages," says Tulloch, " the belief in the devil was absorbing —
saints conceived themselves and others to be in constant conflict
with him." This superstition, perhaps at its strongest in the
I3th to the i sth century, passed into Protestantism. Luther

DEVIZES

123

was always conscious of the presence and opposition of Satan.
" As I found he was about to begin again," says Luther, " I
gathered together my books, and got into bed. Another time in
the night I heard him above my cell walking on the cloister, but
as I knew it was the devil I paid no attention to him and went to
sleep." He held that this world will pass away with its pleasures,
as there can be no real improvement in it, for the devil continues
in it to ply his daring and seductive devices (vii. 191). I. A.
Dorner (Christian Doctrine, iii. p. 93) sums up Protestant doctrine
as follows: — " He is brought into relation with natural sinfulness,
and the impulse to evil thoughts and deeds is ascribed to him.
The dominion of evil over men is also represented as a slavery
to Satan, and this as punishment. He has his full power in the
extra-Christian world. But his power is broken by Christ, and
by his word victory over him is to be won. The power of creating
anything is also denied the devil, and only the power of corrupting
substances is conceded to him. But it is only at the Last Judg-
ment that his power is wholly annihilated; he is himself delivered
up to eternal punishment." This belief in the devil was specially
strong in Scotland among both clergy and laity in the I7th
century. " The devil was always and literally at hand," says
Buckle, " he was haunting them, speaking to them, and tempting
them. Go where they would he was there."

In more recent times a great variety of opinions has been
expressed on this subject. J. S. Semler denied the reality of
demonic possession, and held that Christ in his language accom-
modated himself to the views of the sick whom he was seeking to
cure. Kant regarded the devil as a personification of the radical
evil in man. Daub in his Jitdas Ishcarioth argued that a finite
evil presupposes an absolute evil, and the absolute evil as real
must be in a person. Schelling regarded the devil as, not a
person, but a real principle, a spirit let loose by the freedom of
man. Schleiermacher was an uncompromising opponent of the
common belief. " The problem remains to seek evil rather in
self than in Satan, Satan only showing the limits of our self-
knowledge." Dorner has formulated a theory which explains
the development of the conception of Satan in the Holy Scriptures
as in correspondence with an evolution in the character of
Satan. " Satan appears in Scripture under four leading char-
acters:— first as the tempter of freedom, who desires to bring to
decision, secondly as the accuser, who by virtue of the law retorts
criminality on man; thirdly as the instrument of the Divine,
which brings evil and death upon men; fourthly and lastly he
is described, especially in the New Testament, as the enemy of
God and man." He supposes " a change in Satan in the course
of the history of the divine revelation, in conflict with which he
came step by step to be a sworn enemy of God and man, especially
in the New Testament times, in which, on the other hand, his
power is broken at the root by Christ." He argues that " the
world-order, being in process as a moral order, permits breaches
everywhere into which Satan can obtain entrance " (pp. 99, 102).
H. L. Martensen gives even freer rein to speculation. " The evil
principle," he says, " has in itself no personality, but attains
a progressively universal personality in its kingdom; it has no
individual personality, save only in individual creatures, who in
an especial manner make themselves its organs; but among
these is one creature in whom the principle is so hypostasized
that he has become the centre and head of the kingdom of evil "
(Dogmatics, p. 199). A. Ritschl gives no place in his construc-
tive doctrine to the belief in the devil; but recognizes that the
mutual action of individual sinners on one another constitutes a
kingdom of sin, opposed to the Kingdom of God (A. E. Garvie,
The Ritschlian Theology, p. 304) . Kaftan affirms that a " doctrine
about Satan can as little be established as about angels, as faith
can say nothing about it, and nothing is gained by it for the
dogmatic explanation of evil. This whole province must be left
to the immediate world-view of the pious. The idea of Satan will
on account of the Scriptures not disappear from it, and it would
be arrogant to wish to set it aside. Only let everyone keep the
thought that Satan also stands under the commission of the
Almighty God, and that no one must suppose that by leading
back his sins to a Satanic temptation he can get rid of his own

guilt. To transgress these limits is to assail faith " (Dogmatik,
p. 348). In the book entitled Evil and Evolution there is " an
attempt to turn the light of modern science on to the ancient
mystery of evil." The author contends that the existence of evil
is best explained by assuming that God is confronted with Satan,
who in the process of evolution interferes with the divine designs,
an interference which the instability of such an evolving process
makes not incredible. Satan is, however, held to be a creature
who has by abuse of his freedom been estranged from, and
opposed to his Creator, and who at last will be conquered by
moralmeans. W. M. Alexander in his book on demonic possession
maintains that " the confession of Jesus as the Messiah or Son
of God is the classical criterion of genuine demonic possession "
(p. 150), and argues that as " the Incarnation indicated the
establishment of the kingdom of heaven upon earth," there took
place " a counter movement among the powers of darkness," of
which " genuine demonic possession was one of the manifesta-
tions " (p. 249).

Interesting as these speculations are, it may be confidently
affirmed that belief in Satan is not now generally regarded as an
essential article of the Christian faith, nor is it found to be an
indispensable element of Christian experience. On the one hand
science has so explained many of the processes of outer nature
and of the inner life of man as to leave no room for Satanic agency.
On the other hand the modern view of the inspiration of the
Scriptures does not necessitate the acceptance of the doctrine of
the Scriptures on this subject as finally and absolutely authori-
tative. The teaching of Jesus even in this matter may be ac-
counted for as either an accommodation to the views of those
with whom he was dealing, or more probably as a proof of the
limitation of knowledge which was a necessary condition of the
Incarnation, for it cannot be contended that as revealer of God
and redeemer of men it was imperative that he should either
correct or confirm men's beliefs in this respect. The possibility
of the existence of evil spirits, organized under one leader Satan
to tempt man and oppose God, cannot be denied; the sufficiency
of the evidence for such evil agency may, however, be doubted ;
the necessity of any such belief for Christian thought and
life cannot, therefore, be affirmed. (See also DEMONOLOGY;
POSSESSION.) (A. E. G.*)

DEVIZES, a market town and municipal borough in the
Devizes parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 86 m. W.
by S. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901)
6532. Its castle was built on a tongue of land flanked by two
deep ravines, and behind this the tov/n grew up in a semicircle
on a stretch of bare and exposed tableland. Its main streets, in
which a few ancient timbered houses are left, radiate from the
market place, where stands a Gothic cross, the gift of Lord
Sidmouth in 1814. The Kennet and Avon Canal skirts the town
on the N., passing over the high ground through a chain of thirty-
nine locks. St John's church, one of the most interesting in
Wiltshire, is cruciform, with a massive central tower, based upon
two round and two pointed arches. It was originally Norman of
the 1 2th century, arid the chancel arch and low vaulted chancel,
in this style, are very fine. In the interior several ancient
monuments of the Suttons and Heathcotes are preserved,
besides some beautiful carved stone work, and two rich ceilings of
oak over the chapels. St Mary's, a smaller church, is partly
Norman, but was rebuilt in the i5th and again in the igth cen-
tury. Its lofty clerestoried nave has an elaborately carved timber
roof, and the south porch, though repaired in 1612, preserves
its Norman mouldings. The woollen industries of Devizes have
lost their prosperity; but there is a large grain trade, with
engineering works, breweries, and manufactures of silk, snuff,
tobacco and agricultural implements. The town is governed
by a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors. Area, 906
acres.

Devizes (Dimsis, la Devise, De Vies) does not appear in any
historical document prior to the reign of Henry I., when the
construction of a castle of exceptional magnificence by Roger,
bishop of Salisbury, at once constituted the town an important
political centre, and led to its speedy development. After the

124

DEVOLUTION, WAR OF— DEVONIAN SYSTEM

disgrace of Roger in 1139 the castle was seized by the Crown;
in the i4th century it formed part of the dowry of the queens of
England, and figured prominently in history until its capture and
demolition by Cromwell in the Civil War of the lyth century.
Devizes became a borough by prescription, and the first charter
from Matilda, confirmed by successive later sovereigns, merely
grants exemption from certain tolls and the enjoyment of un-
disturbed peace. Edward III. added a clause conferring on the
town the liberties of Marlborough, and Richard II. instituted a
coroner. A gild merchant was granted by Edward I., Edward II.
and Edward III., and in 1614 was divided into the three companies
of drapers, mercers and leathersellers. The present governing
charters were issued by James I. and Charles I., the latter being
little more than a confirmation of the former, which instituted a
common council consisting of a mayor, a town clerk and thirty-six
capital burgesses. These charters were surrendered to Charles II. ,
and a new one was conferred by James II., but abandoned three
years later in favour of the original grant. Devizes returned two
members to parliament from 1295, until deprived of one member
by the Representation of the People Act of 1867, and of the other
by the Redistribution Act of 1 885. The woollen manufacture was
the staple industry of the town from the reign of Edward III.
until the middle of the i8th century, when complaints as to the
decay of trade began to be prevalent. In the reign of Elizabeth
the market was held on Monday, and there were two annual fairs
at the feasts of the Purification of the Virgin and the Decollation
of John the Baptist. The market was transferred to Thursday
in the next reign, and the fairs in the i8th century had become
seven in number.

See Victoria County History, Wiltshire; History of Devizes
(Devizes, 1859).

DEVOLUTION, WAR OF (1667-68), the name applied to
the war which arose out of Louis XIV. 's claims to certain
Spanish territories in right of his wife Maria Theresa, upon
whom the ownership was alleged to have " devolved." (See, for
the military operations, DUTCH WARS.) The war was ended by
the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668.

DEVON, EARLS OF. From the family of De Redvers (De
Ripuariis; Riviers), who had been earls of Devon from about
noo, this title passed to Hugh de Courtenay (c. 1275-1340),
the representative of a prominent family in the county (see
Gibbon's " digression " in chap. Ixi. of the Decline and Fall, ed.
Bury), but was subsequently forfeited by Thomas Courtenay
(1432-1462), a Lancastrian who was beheaded after the battle
of Towton. It was revived in 1485 in favour of Edward
Courtenay (d. 1509), whose son Sir William (d. 1511) married
Catherine, daughter of Edward IV. Too great proximity to the
throne led to his attainder, but his son Henry (c. 1498-1539) was
restored in blood in 1517 as earl of Devon, and in 1525 was created
marquess of Exeter; his second wife was a daughter of William
Blount, 4th Lord Mountjoy. The title again suffered forfeiture
on Henry's execution, but in 1553 it was recreated for his son
Edward (1526-1556). At the latter's death it became dormant
in the Courtenay family, till in 1831 a claim by a collateral branch
was allowed by the House of Lords, and the earldom of Devon
was restored to the peerage, still being held by the head of
the Courtenays. The earlier earls of Devon were referred to
occasionally as earls of Devonshire, but the former variant has
prevailed, and the latter is now solely used for the earldom and
dukedom held by the Cavendishes (see DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND
DUKES OF, and also the article COURTENAY).

DEVONIAN SYSTEM, in geology, the name applied to series
of stratified fossiliferous and igneous rocks that were formed
during the Devonian period, that is, in the interval of time
between the close of the Silurian period and the beginning of the
Carboniferous; it includes the marine Devonian and an estuarine
Old Red Sandstone series of strata. The name " Devonian " was
introduced in 1829 by Sir R. Murchison and A. Sedgwick to
describe the older rocks of Cornwall and Devon which W. Lonsdale
had shown, from an examination of the fossils, to be intermediate
between the Silurian and Carboniferous. The same two workers
also carried on further researches upon the same rocks of the

European continent, where already several others, F. Roemer,
H. E. Beyrich, &c., were endeavouring to elucidate the succession
of strata in this portion of the " Transition Series." The labours
of these earlier workers, including in addition to those already
mentioned, the brothers F. and G. von Sandberger, A. Dumont,
J. Gosselet, E. J. A. d'Archiac, E. P. de Verneuil and H. von

Distribution of
Devonian Rocks

J Areas in which the Earlier Devonian Jlocka an found
I Additional areas In which Mia. Devonian flocks en found

J Devon/an Rocks absent or unknown

— Suggested limits of Land & Sea In Earlier Devonian time

— - Modifications introduced about the middle of Devonian time
. — .-.jattr Modifications

Dechen, although somewhat modified by later students, formed
the foundation upon which the modern classification of the
Devonian rocks is based.

Stratigraphy of the Devonian Fades.

Notwithstanding the fact that it was in Devonshire and Cornwall
that the Devonian rocks were first distinguished, it is in central
Europe that the succession of strata is most clearly made out, and
here, too, their geological position was first indicated by the founders
of the system, Sedgwick and Murchison.

Continental Europe. — Devonian rocks occupy a large area in the
centre of Europe, extending from the Ardennes through the south
of Belgium across Rhenish Prussia to Darmstadt. They are best
known from the picturesque gorges which have been cut through
them by the Rhine below Bingen and by the Moselle below Treves.
They reappear from under younger formations in Brittany, in the
Harz and Thuringia, and are exposed in Franconia, Saxony, Silesia,
North Moravia and eastern Galicia. The principal subdivisions of
the system in the more typical areas are indicated in Table I.

This threefold subdivision, with a central mass of calcareous strata,
is traceable westwards through Belgium (where the Calcaire de Givet
represents the Stringocephalus limestone of the Eifel) and eastwards
into the Harz. The rocks reappear with local petrographical
modifications, but with a remarkable persistence of general palaeonto-
logical characters, in Eastern Thuringia, Franconia, Saxony, Silesia,
the north of Moravia and East Galicia. Devonian rocks have been
detected among the crumpled rocks of the Styrian Alps by means of
the evidence of abundant corals, cephalopods, gasteropods, lamelli-
branchs and other organic remains. Perhaps in other tracts of the
Alps, as well as in the Carpathian range, similar shales, limestones
and dolomites, though as yet unfossiliferous, but containing ores of
silver, lead, mercury, zinc, cobalt and other metals, may be referable
to the Devonian system.

In the centre of Europe, therefore, the Devonian rocks consist of
a vast thickness of dark-grey sandy and shaly rocks, with occasional
seams of limestone, and in particular with one thick central calcareous
zone. These rocks are characterized in the lower zones by numerous
broad-winged spirifers and by peculiar trilobites (Phacops, Homa-
lonotus, &c.) which, though generically like those of the Silurian
system, are specifically distinct. The central calcareous zone abounds
in corals and crinoids as well as in numerous brachiopods. In the
highest bands a profusion of coiled cephalopods (Clymenia) occurs in
some of the limestones, while the shales are crowded with a small
but characteristic ostracod crustacean (Cypridina). Here and there
traces of fishes have been found, more especially in the Eifel, but
seldom in such a state of preservation as to warrant their being
assigned to any definite place in the zoological scale. Subsequently,
however, E. Beyrich has described from Gerplstein in the Eifel an
undoubted species of Pterichthys, which, as it cannot be certainly
identified with any known form, he names P. Rhenanus. A Coccosteus
has been described by F. A. Roemer from the Harz, and still
later one has been cited from Bicken near Herborn by V. Koenen;
but, as Beyrich points out, there may be some doubt as to whether the
latter is not a Pterichthys. A Ctenacanlhus, seemingly undistinguish-
able from the C. Bohemicus of Barrande's Etage G, has also been

DEVONIAN SYSTEM

125

obtained from the Lower Devonian " Nereitenschichten " of
Thuringia. The characteristic Holoptychius nobilissimus has been
detected in the Psammite de Condroz, which in Belgium forms
a characteristic sandy portion of the Upper Devonian rocks.
These are interesting facts, as helping to link the Devonian and Old
Red Sandstone types together. But they are as yet too few and
unsupported to warrant any large deduction as to the correlations
between these types.

It is in the north-east of Europe that the Devonian and Old Red
Sandstone appear to be united into one system, where the limestones
and marine organisms of the one are interstratified with the fish-
bearing sandstones and shales of the other. In Russia, as was

of the Silurian rocks on which they rest, for they are found gradually
to overlap Upper and Lower Silurian formations.

The chief interest of the Russian rocks of this age lies in the fact,
first signalized by Murchison and his associates, that they unite
within themselves the characters of the Devonian and the Old Red
Sandstone types. In some districts they consist largely of lime-
stones, in others of red sandstones and marls. In the former they
present molluscs and other marine organisms of known Devonian
species; in the latter they afford remains of fishes, some of which
are specifically identical with those of the Old Red Sandstone of
Scotland. The distribution of these two palaeontological types in
Russia is traced by Murchison to the lithological characters of the

TABLE I.

Stages.

Ardennes.

Rhineland.

Brittany and
Normandy.

Bohemia.

Harz.

Famennien
(Clymenia
beds).

Limestone of Etrceungt
Psammites of Condroz
(sandy series).
Slates of Famenne
(shaly series).

Cypridina slates.
Pon sandstone (Sauerland).
Crumbly limestone (Kramen-
zelkalk) with Clymenia.
Neheim slates in Sauerland,
and diabases, tuffs, &c., in
Dillmulde, &c.

Slates of Rostellec.

Cypridina slates. t
Clymenia limestone
and limestone of
Altenau.

Frasnien
(Intumes-
cens beds)

Slates of Matagne.
Limestones, marls and
shale of Frasne, and
red marble of Flan-
ders.

Adorf limestone of Waldeck
and shales with Goniatites
(Eifel and Aix) = Budes-
heimer shales.
Marls, limestone and dolomite
with Rhynchonella cuboides
(Flinz in part).
Iberg limestone of Dillmulde.

Limestone of Cop-
Choux and green
slates of Travuliors.

Iberg limestone and
Winterberg lime-
stone ; also Adorf
limestone and shales
(Budesheim).

Givetien
(Stringo-
cephalus
beds).

Limestone of Givet.

Stringocephalus limestone,
ironstone of Brilon and
Lahnmulde.
Jpper Lenne shales, crinoidal
limestone of Eifel, red sand-
stones of Aix.
Tuffs and diabases of Brilon
and Lahnmulde.
Red conglomerate of Aix.

Limestones of Cha-
lonnes, Montjean
and I'Ecoch&re.

H2 (of Barrande)
dark plant-
bearing shales.

a.

Stringocephalus shales
with Flaser and
Knollenkalk.
Wissenbach slates.

Eif61ien
(Calceola
beds).

Calceola slates and
limestones of Couvin.
Greywacke with Spir-
ifer cultrijugatus.

Calceola beds, Wissenbach
slates, Lower Lenne beds,
Giintroder limestone and
clay slate of Lahnmulde,
Dillmulde, Wildungen, Grie-
fenstein limestone, Bailers-
bach limestone.

Slates of Porsguen,
greywacke of Fret.

G3 Cephalopod
limestone.
Gi Tentaculite
limestone.
GI Knollenkalk
and mottled
Mnenian lime-
stone.

Calceola beds.
Nereite slates, slates
of Wieda and lime-
stones of Hasselfeld.

Coblentzien.

Greywacke of Hierges.
Shales and conglomer-
ate of Burnot with
quartzite, of Bierl6
and red siates of
Vireux, greywacke
of Vireux, greywacke
of Montigny, sand-
stone of Anor.

Upper Coblentz slates.
Red sandstone of Eifel, Cob-
lentz quartzite, lower Cob-
lentz slates.
Hunsriick and Siegener grey-
wacke and slates.
Taunus quartzite and grey-
wacke.

Limestones of Er-
bray, Brulon, Vird
and N6hou, grey-
wacke of Faou,
sandstone of Ga-
hard.

F2 of Barrande.
White Konje-
prus limestone
with Hercyn-
ian fauna.

•

Haupt quartzite (of
Lessen) = Rammels-
berg slates, Schalker
slates = Kahleberg
sandstone.
Hercynian slates and
limestones.

Geclinnien.

Slates of St Hubert and
Fooz, slates of Mon-
drepuits, arkose of
Weismes, conglomer-
ate of Fepin.

Slates of G6dinne.

Slates and quartzites
of Plougastel.

a
Q

B

Q1

o

shown in the great work Russia and the Ural Mountains by M urchison,
De Verneuil and Keyserling, rocks intermediate between the Upper
Silurian and Carboniferous Limestone formations cover an extent
of surface larger than the British Islands. This wide development
arises not from the thickness but from the undisturbed horizontal
character of the strata. Like the Silurian formations described else-
where, they remain to this day nearly as flat and unaltered as they
were originally laid down. Judged by mere vertical depth, they
present but a meagre representative of the massive Devonian grey-
wacke and limestone of Germany, or of the Old Red Sandstone of
Britain. Yet vast though the area is over which they form the
surface rock, it is probably only a small portion of their total extent ;
for they are found turned up from under the newer formations along
the flank of the Ural chain. It would thus seem that they spread
continuously across the whole breadth of Russia in Europe. Though
almost everywhere undisturbed, they afford evidence of some
terrestrial oscillation between the time of their formation and that

rocks, and consequent original diversities of physical conditions,
rather than to differences of age. Indeed cases occur where in the
same band of rock Devonian shells and Old Red Sandstone fishes lie
commingled. In the belt of the formation which extends south-
wards from Archangel and the White Sea, the strata consist of sands
and marls, and contain only fish remains. Traced through the
Baltic provinces, they are found to pass into red and green marls,
clays, thin limestones and sandstones, with beds of gypsum. In
some of the calcareous bands such fossils occur as Orthis striatula,
Spiriferina prisca, Leptaena productoides, Spirifercalcaratus, Spirorbis
omphaloides and Orthoceras subfusiforme. In the higher beds
Holoptychius and other well-known fishes of the Old Red Sandstone
occur. Followed still farther to the south, as far as the watershed
between Orel and Voronezh, the Devonian rocks lose their red
colour and sandy character, and become thin-bedded yellow lime-
stones, and dolomites with soft green and blue marls. Traces of salt
deposits are indicated by occasional saline springs. It is evident

126

DEVONIAN SYSTEM

that the geographical conditions of the Russian area during the
Devonian period must have closely resembled those of the Rhine
basin and central England during the Triassic period. The Russian
Devonian rocks have been classified in Table II. There is an
unquestionable passage of the uppermost Devonian rocks of Russia
into the base of the Carboniferous system.

The Lower Devonian of the Harz contains a fauna which is very
different from that of the Rhenish region; to this facies the name

The fossil evidence clearly shows the close agreement of the
Rhenish and south Devonshire areas. In north Devonshire the
Devonian rocks pass upward without break into the Culm.

North America. — In North America the Devonian rocks are
extensively developed; they have been studied most closely in the
New York region, where they are classified according to Table IV.

The classification below is not capable of application over the
states generally and further details are required from many of the

TABLE II.

LOWER. MIDDLE. UPPER.

I * \ r * \ "" -*

North-West Russia.

Central Russia.

Petchoraland.

Ural Region.

Red sandstone (Old Limestones with Spir-
Red). ifer Verneuili and
Sp. Archiaci.

Limestones with Area
oreliana.
Limestones with Sp.
Verneuili and Sp.
Archiaci.

Domanik slates and
limestones with Sp.
Verneuili.

Cypridina slates, Cly-
menia limestones (Fa-
mennien).
Limestones with Gephy-
oceras intumescens and
Rhynchonella cuboides
(Frasnien).

Dolomites and limestones
with
Spirifer Anossofi.

Lower sandstone

Marl with
Spirifer Anossofi
and corals.

(Old Red).

Limestones and slates
with Sp. Anossofi (Giv-
6tien).
Limestones and slates
with Pentamerus basch-
kiricus (Eifelien).

Absent.

Limestones and slates of
the Yuresan and Ufa
rivers, slate and quartz-
ite, marble of Byelaya
and of Bogoslovsk,
phyllitic schists and
quartzite.

" Hercynian " has been applied, and the correlation of the strata
has been a source of prolonged discussion among continental
geologists. A similar fauna appears in Lower Devonian of Bohemia,
in Brittany (limestone of Erbray) and in the Urals. The Upper
Devonian of the Harz passes up into the Culm.

In the eastern Thuringian Fichtelgebirge the upper division is
represented by Clymenia limestone and Cypridina slates with Adorf
limestone, diabase and Planschwitzer tuff in the lower part. The
middle division has diabases and tuffs at the top with Tentaculite
and Nereite shales and limestones below. The upper part of the
Lower Devonian, the sandy shale of Steinach, rests unconformably
upon Silurian rocks. In the Carnic Alps are coral reef limestones,
the equivalents of the Iberg limestone, which attain an enormous
thickness; these are underlain by coral limestones with fossils
similar to those of the Konjeprus limestone of Bohemia; below
these are shales and nodular limestones with goniatites. The
Devonian rocks of Poland are sandy in the lower, and more calcareous
in the upper parts. They are of interest because while the upper
portions agree closely with the Rhenish facies, from the top of the
Coblentzien upwards, in the sandy beds near the base Old Red
Sandstone fishes (Coccosteus, &c.) are found. In France Devonian
rocks are found well developed in Brittany, as indicated in the table,
also in Normandy and Maine; in the Boulonnais district only the
middle and upper divisions are known. In south France in the
neighbourhood of Cabrieres, about Montpellier and in the Montagne
Noire, all three divisions are found in a highly calcareous condition.
Devonian rocks are recognized, though frequently much meta-
morphosed, on both the northern and southern flanks of the
Pyrenees; while on the Spanish peninsula they are extensively
developed. In Asturias they are no less than 3280 ft. thick, all three
divisions and most of the central European subdivisions are present.
In general, the Lower Devonian fossils of Spain bear a marked
resemblance to those of Brittany.

Asia. — From the Ural Mountains eastward, Devonian rocks have
been traced from point to point right across Asia. In the Altai
Mountains they are represented by limestones of Coblentzien age
with a fauna possessing Hercynian features. The same features are
observed in the Devonian of the Kougnetsk basin, and in Turkestan.
Well-developed quartzites with slates and diabases are found south
of Yarkand and Khotan. Middle and Upper Devonian strata are
widespread in China. Upper Devonian rocks are recorded from
Persia, and from the Hindu Kush on the right bank of the Chitral
river.

England. — In England the original Devonian rocks are developed
in Devon and Cornwall and west Somerset. In north Devonshire
these rocks consist of sandstones, grits and slates, while in south
Devon there are, in addition, thick beds of massive limestone, and
intercalations of lavas and tuffs. The interpretation of the strati-
graphy in this region is a difficult matter, partly on account of the
absence of good exposures with fossils, and partly through the
disturbed condition of the rocks. The system has been subdivided
as shown in Table III.

regions where Devonian rocks have been recognized, but every-
where the broad threefold division seems to obtain. In Maryland
the following arrangement has been adopted — (i) Helderberg =
Coeymans; (2) Oriskany; (3) Romney = Erian; (4) Jennings =
Genesee and Portage; (5) Hampshire = Catskill in part. In the

TABLE III.

LOWER. MIDDLE. UPPER.

[

•

North Devon and West
Somerset.

South Devon.

Pilton group. Grits, slates
and thin limestones.
Baggy group. Sandstones
and slates.
Pickwell Down group. Dark
slates and grits.
Morte slates (?).

Ashburton slates.
Livaton slates.
Red and green Entomis slates
(Famennien).
Red and grey slates with
tuffs.
Chudleigh goniatite limestone
Petherwyn beds (Frasnien).

Ilfracombe slates with len-
ticles of limestone.
Combe Martin grits and
slates.

Torquay and Plymouth lime-
stones and Ashprington
volcanic series. (Giv6tien
and Eife'lien.)
Slates and limestones of
Hope's Nose.

Hangman grits and slates.
Lynton group, grits and cal-
careous slates.
Foreland grits and slates.

Looe beds (Cornwall).
Meadfoot, Cockington and
Warberry series of slates
and greywackes. (Coblent-
zien and G&linnien.)

interior the Helderbergian is missing and the system commences
with (i) Oriskany, (2) Onondaga, (3) Hamilton, (4) Portage (and
Genesee), (5) Chemung.

The Helderbergian series is mainly confined to the eastern part
of the continent; there is a northern development in Maine, and
in Canada (Gasp6, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Montreal);
an Appalachian belt, and a lower Mississippian region. The series
as a whole is mainly calcareous (2000 ft. in Gasp6), and thins
out towards the west. The fauna has Hercynian affinities. The
Oriskany formation consists largely of coarse sandstones; it is thin
in New York, but in Maryland and Virginia it is several hundred feet
thick. It is more widespread than the underlying Helderbergian.
The Lower Devonian appears to be thick in northern Maine and in
Gasp6, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, but neither the palaeon-
tology nor the stratigraphy has been completely worked out.

DEVONIAN SYSTEM

127

In the Middle Devonian the thin clastic deposits at the base,
Esopus and Schoharie grits, have not been differentiated west of the
Appalachian region ; but the Onondaga limestones are much more
extensive. The Brian series is often described as the Hamilton series
outside the New York district, where the Marcellus shales are grouped
together with the Hamilton shales, and numerous local subdivisions
are included, as in Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee. The rocks are
mostly shales or slates, but limestones predominate in the western
development. In Pennsylvania the Hamilton series is from 1500 ft.
to 5000 ft. thick, but in the more calcareous western extension it is
much thinner. The Marcellus shales are bituminous in places.

The Senecan series is composed of shallow- water deposits; the
Tully limestone, a local bed in New York, thins out in places into a
layer of pyrites which contains a remarkable dwarfed fauna. The
bituminous Genesee shales are thickest in Pennsylvania (300 ft.) ;
25 ft. on Lake Erie. The shales and sandstones of the Portage
formation reach 1000 ft. to 1400 ft. in western New York. In the
Chautauquan series the Chemung formation is not always clearly
separable from the Portage beds, it is a sandstone and conglomerate

TABLE IV.

Probable

Groups.

Formations.

European

Equivalent.

Chautauquan.

Chemung beds with Catskill

Famennien.

f

as a local fades.

«•

f

Portage beds (Naples, Ithaca

EH

and Oneonla shales as local

51

Senecan. 1

facies).

D

1

Genesee shales.

^

I

Tully limestone.

Frasnien.

sf

Erian. (

Hamilton shale.
Marcellus shale.

Giv6tien.

\\

f

Onondaga (Corniferous)

sl
s

Ulsterian.

limestone.
Schoharie grit.

Eifdlien.

i

I

Esopus grit (Caudagalligrit).

. r

Oriskanian.

Oriskany sandstone.

Coblentzien.

»\

f

Kingston beds.

H
SI

Helderbergian 1

Becraft limestone.
New Scotland beds.

G6dinnien.

J I

I

Coeymans limestone.

formation which reaches its maximum thickness (8000 ft.) in
Pennsylvania, but thins rapidly towards the west. In the Catskill
region the Upper Devonian has an Old Red facies — red shales and
sandstones with a freshwater and brackish fauna.

Although the correlation of the strata has only advanced a short
distance, there is no doubt as to the presence of undifferentiated
Devonian rocks in many parts of th» continent. In the Great Plains
this system appears to be absent, but it is represented in Colorado,
Utah, Nevada, Wyoming, Montana, California and Arizona ; Devon-
ian rocks occur between the Sierras and the Rocky Mountains,
in the Arbuckle Mountains of Oklahoma and in Texas. In the
western interior limestones predominate; 6000 ft. of limestone are
found at Eureka, Nevada, beneath 2000 ft. of shale. On the Pacific
coast metamorphism of the rocks is common, and lava-flows and
tuffs occur in them.

In Canada, besides the occurrences previously mentioned in the
eastern region, Devonian strata are found in considerable force along
the course of the Mackenzie river and the Canadian Rockies, whence
they stretch out into Alaska. It is probable, however, that much
that is now classed as Devonian in Canada will prove on fossil
evidence to be Carboniferous.

South America, Africa, Australia, &fc. — In South America the
Devonian is well developed; in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Peru
and the Falkland Islands, the palaeontological horizon is about
the junction of the Lower and Middle divisions, and the fauna has
affinities with the Hamilton shales of North America. Nearly allied
to the South American Devonian is that of South Africa, where they
are represented by the Bokkeveld beds in the Cape system. In
Australia we find Lower Devonian consisting of coarse littoral
deposits with volcanic rocks; and a Middle division with coral
limestones in Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland ; an Upper
division has also been observed. In New Zealand the Devonian is
well exposed in the Reefton mining field ; and it has been suggested
that much of the highly metamorphosed rock may belong to this
system.

Stratigraphy of the Old Red Sandstone Facies.
The Old Red Sandstone of Britain, according to Sir Archibald
Geikie, " consists of two subdivisions, the lower of which passes down
conformably into the Upper Silurian deposits, the upper shading off

in the same manner into the base of the Carboniferous system, while
they are separated from each other by an unconformability." The
Old Red strata appear to have been deposited in a number of
elongated lakes or lagoons, approximately parallel to one another,
with a general alignment in a N.E.-S.W. direction. To these areas
of deposit Sir A. Geikie has assigned convenient distinctive names.

In Scotland the two divisions of the system are sharply separated
by a pronounced unconformability which is probably indicative
of a prolonged interval of erosion. In the central valley between
the base of the Highlands and the southern uplands lay " Lake
Caledonia." Here the lower division is made up of some 20,000 ft.
of shallow-water deposits, reddish-brown, yellow and grey sand-
stones and conglomerates, with occasional " cornstones, and thin
limestones. The grey flagstones with shales are almost confined to
Forfarshire, and are known as the " Arbroath flags." Interbedded
volcanic rocks, andesites, dacites, diabases, with agglomerates and
tuffs constitute an important feature, and attain a thickness of
6000 ft. in the Pentland and Ochil hills. A line of old volcanic vents
may be traced in a direction roughly parallel to the trend of the
great central valley. On the northern side of the Highlands was
' Lake Orcadie," presumably much larger than the foregoing lake,
though its boundaries are not determmable. It lay over Moray
Firth and the east of Ross and Sutherland, and extended from
Caithness to the Orkney Islands and S. Shetlands. It may even have
stretched across to Norway, where similar rocks are found in Sognefjord
and Dalsfjord, and may have had communications with some parts
of northern Russia. Very characteristic of this area are the Caithness
flags, dark grey and bituminous, which, with the red sandstones and
conglomerates at their base, probably attain a thickness of 16,000 ft.
The somewhat peculiar fauna of this series led Murchison to class
the flags as Middle Devonian. In the Shetland Islands contempo-
raneous volcanic rocks have been observed. Over the west of Argyll-
shire lay " Lake Lprne " ; here the volcanic rocks predominate, they
are intercalated with shallow-water deposits. A similar set of rocks
occupy the Cheviot district.

The upper division of the Old Red Sandstone is represented in
Shropshire and South Wales by a great series of red rocks, shales,
sandstones and marls, some 10,000 ft. thick. They contain few
fossils, and no break has yet been found in the series. In Scotland
this series was deposited in basins which correspond only partially
with those of the earlier period. They are well developed in central
Scotland over the lowlands bordering the Moray Firth. Inter-
bedded lavas and tuffs are found in the island of Hoy. An interesting
feature of this series is the occurrence of great crowds of fossil fishes
in some localities, notably at Dura Den in Fife. In the north of
England this series rests unconformably upon the Lower Old Red
and the Silurian.

Flanking the Silurian high ground of Cumberland and Westmor-
land, and also in the Lammermuir hills and in Flint and Anglesey,
a brecciated conglomerate, presenting many of the characters of a
glacial deposit in places, has often been classed with the Old Red
Sandstone, but in parts, at least, it is more likely to belong to the
base of the Carboniferous system. In Ireland the lower division
appears to be represented by the Dingle beds and Glengariff grits,
while the Kerry rocks and the Kiltorcan beds of Cork are the
equivalents of the upper division. Rocks of Old Red type, both
lower and upper, are found in Spitzbergen and in Bear Island. In
New Brunswick and Nova Scotia the Old Red facies is extensively
developed. The Gasp6 sandstones have been estimated at 7036 ft.
thick. _ In parts of western Russia Old Red Sandstone fossils are
found in beds intercalated with others containing marine fauna of
the Devonian facies.

Devonian and Old Red Sandstone Faunas.

The two types of sediment formed during this period — the marine
Devonian and the lagoonal Old Red Sandstone — representing as they
do two different but essentially contemporaneous phases of physical
condition, are occupied by two strikingly dissimilar faunas. Doubt-
less at all times there were regions of the earth that were marked off
no less clearly from the normal marine conditions of which we have
records; but this period is the earliest in which these variations of
environment are made obvious. In some respects the faunal break
between the older Silurian below and the younger Carboniferous
above is not strongly marked; and in certain areas a very close
relationship can be shown to exist between the older Devonian and
the former, and the younger Devonian and the latter. Nevertheless,
taken as a whole, the life of this period bears a distinct stamp of
individuality.

The two most prominent features of the Devonian seas are pre-
sented by corals and brachiopods. The corals were abundant
individually and varied in form ; and they are so distinctive of the
period that no Devonian species has yet been found either in the
Silurian or in the Carboniferous. They built reefs, as in the present
day, and contributed to the formation of limestone masses in
Devonshire, on the continent of Europe and in North America.
Rugose and tabulate forms prevailed; among the former the
cyathophyllids ' (Cyathophyllum) were important, Phillipsastraea,
Zaphrentis, Acervularia and the curious Calceola (sanaalina), an
pperculate genus which has given palaeontologists much trouble in
its diagnosis, for it has been regarded as a pelecypod (hippurite) and

128

DEVONIAN SYSTEM

a brachiopod. The tabulate corals were represented by Favosites,
Michelinia, Pleurodictyum, Fistulipora, Pachypora and others.
Heliolites and Plasmopora represent the alcyonarians. Stromato-
poroids were important reef builders. A well-known fossil is
Receptaculites, a genus to which it has been difficult to assign a
definite place; it has been thought to be a sponge, it may be a
calcareous alga, or a curious representative of the foraminifera.

In the Devonian period the brachiopods reached the climax of
their development : they compose three-quarters of the known
fauna, and more than noo species have been described.
Changes were taking place from the beginning of the period in the
relative importance of genera; several Silurian forms dropped out,
and new types were coming in. A noticeable feature was the
development of broad-winged shells in the genus Spirifer. other
spiriferids were Ambocoelia, Uncites, Verneuilia. Orthids and
pentamerids were waning in importance, while the productids
(Productella, Chonetes, Strophalosia) were increasing. The stroph-
omenids were still flourishing, represented by the genera Leptaena,
Stropfaodonta, Kayserella, and others. The ancient Lingula, along
with Crania and Orbiculoidea, occur among the inarticulate forms.
Another long-lived and wide-ranging species is A try pa reticularis.
The athyrids were very numerous(Athyns, Retzia, Merista, Meristella,
Kayserina, &c.) ; and the rhynchonellids were well represented
by Pugnax, Hypothyris, and several other genera. The important
group of terebratulids appears in this system; amongst them
Stringocephalus is an eminently characteristic Devonian brachiopod ;
others are Dielasma, CryptoneUa, Rensselaeria and Oriskania.

The pelecypod molluscs were represented by Pterinea, abundant
in the lower members along with other large-winged forms, and by
CuculleUa, Buchiola and Curtonotus in the upper members of the
system. Other genera are Actinodesma, Cardipta, Nucula, Megalodon,
Aviculopecten, &c. Gasteropods were becoming more important, but
the simple capulid forms prevailed: Platyceras (Capulus), Strapar-
ottus, Pleurotomaria, Murchisonia, Macrocheilina, Euomphalus.
Among the pteropods, Tentaculites was very abundant in some
quarters; others were Conularia and Styliolina. In the Devonian
period the cephalopods began to make a distinct advance in numbers,
and in development. The goniatites appear with the genera
Anarcestes, Agoniatites, Tornoceras, Bactrites and others; and in the
upper strata the clymenoids, forerunners of the later ammonoids,
began to take definite shape. While several new nautiloids (Homa-
loceras, Ryticeras, &c.) made their appearance several cf the older
genera still lived on (Orthocetas, Potenoceras, Actinoceras).

Crinoids were very abundant in some parts of the Devonian
sea, though they were relatively scarce in others; they include the
genera Melocrinus, Haplocrinus, Cupressocrinus, Calceocrinus and
Eleuthrocrinus. The cystideans were falling off (Protr.ocystis,
Tiaracrinus), but blastoids were in the ascendant (Nucleocrinus,
Cadaster, &c.). Both brittle-stars, Ophiura, Palaeophiura, Eugaster,
and true starfishes, Palaeasler, Aspidosoma, were present, as well as
urchins (Lepidocentras).

When we turn to the crustaceans we have to deal with two distinct
assemblages, one purely marine, trilobitic, the other mainly lacustrine
or lagoonal with a eurypteridian fades. The trilobites had already
begun to decline in importance, and as happens not infrequently with
degenerating races of beasts and men, they began to develop strange
eccentricities of ornamentation in some of their genera. A number
of Silurian genera lived on into the Devonian period, and some
gradually developed into new and distinctive forms; such were
Proetus, Harpes, Cheirurus, Bronteus and others. Distinct species of
Phacops mark the Lower and Upper Devonian respectively, while the
genus Dalmania (Odontochile) was represented by species with an
almost world-wide range. The Ostracpd Entomis (Cypridina) was
extremely abundant in places — Cypridinen-Schiefer — while the true
Cypridina was also present along with Beyrichia, Leperditia, &c.
The Phyllocarids, Echinocaris, Eleuthrocaris, Tropidocaris, are
common in the United States. It is in the Old Red Sandstone that
the eurypterids are best preserved; foremost among these was
Pterygotus; P. anglicus has been found in Scotland with a length of
nearly 6 ft. ; Eurypttrus, Slimonia, Stylonurus were other genera.

Insects appear well developed, including both orthopterous and
neuropterous forms, in the New Brunswick rocks. Mr Scudder
believed he had obtained a specimen of Orthoptera in which a
stridulating organ was present. A species of Ephemera, allied to the
modern may-fly, had a spread of wing extending to 5 in. In the
Scottish Old Red Sandstone myriapods, Kampecaris andArchidesmus,
have been described ; they are somewhat simpler than more recent
forms, each segment being separate, and supplied with only one pair
of walking legs. Spiders and scorpions also lived upon the land.

The great number of fish remains in the Devonian and Old Red
strata, coupled with the truly remarkable characters possessed
by some of the forms, has caused the period to be described as the
"age of fishes." As in the case of the crustaceans, referred to above,we
find one assemblage more or less peculiar to the freshwater orbrackish
conditions of the Old Red, and another characteristic of the marine
Devonian ; on the whole the former is the richer in variety, but there
seems little doubt that quite a number of genera were capable of
living in either environment, whatever may have been the real
condition of the Old Red waters. Foremost in interest are the curious
ostracoderms, a remarkable group of creatures possessing many of

the characteristics of fishes, but more probably belonging to a
distinct class of organisms, which appears to link the vertebrates with
the arthropods. They had come into existence late in Silurian
times ; but it is in the Old Red strata that their remains are most fully
preserved. They were abundant in the fresh or brackish waters of
Scotland, England, Wales, Russia and Canada, and are represented
by such forms as Pteraspis, Cephalaspis, Cyathaspis, Tremataspis,
Bothriolepis and Pterichthys.

In the lower members of the Old Red series Dipterus, and in the
upper members Phaneropleuron, represented the dipnoid lung-fishes;
and it is of extreme interest to note that a few of these curious forms
still survive in the African Protopterus, the Australian Ceratodus and
the South American Lepidosiren, — all freshwater fishes. Distantly
related to the lung-fishes were the singular arthrodirans, a group
possessing the unusual faculty of moving the head in a vertical plane.
These comprise the wide-ranging Coccosteus with Homosleus and
Dinichthys, the largest fish of the period. The latter probably
reached 20 ft. in length; it was armed with exceedingly powerful
jaws provided with turtle-like beaks. Sharks were fairly prominent
depizens of the sea ; some were armed with cutting teeth, others with
crushing dental plates ; and although they were on the whole marine
fishes, they were evidently able to live in fresher waters, like some
of their modern representatives, for their remains, mostly teeth
and large dermal spines, are found both in the Devonian and Old
Red rocks. Mesacanthus, Diplacanthus, Climatius, Cheiracanthus are
characteristic genera. The crossopterygians, ganoids with a scaly
lobe in the centre of the fins, were represented by Holoptychius and
Glypwpomus in the Upper Old Red, and by such genera asDiplopterus,
Osteolepis, Gyroptychius in the lower division. The Polypterus of the
Nile and Calamoichthys of South Africa are the modern exemplars of
this group. Cheirolepis, found in the Old Red of Scotland and
Canada, is the only Devonian representative of the actinopterygian
fishes. The cyclostome fishes have, so far, been discovered only in
Scotland, in the tiny Palaeospondylus. Amphibian remains have
been found in the Devonian of Belgium ; and footprints supposed to
belong to a creature of the same class (Thinopus antiquus) have been
described by Professor Marsh from the Chemung formation of
Pennsylvania.

Plant Life. — In the lacustrine deposits of the Old Red Sandstone
we find the earliest well-defined assemblage of terrestrial plants. In
some regions so abundant are the vegetable remains that in places
they form thin seams of veritable coal. These plants evidently
flourished around the shores of the lakes and lagoons in which their
remains were buried along with the other forms of life. Lycopods
and ferns were the predominant types; and it is important to notice
that both groups were already highly developed. The ferns include
the genera Sphenopteris, Megalopteris, Archaeopteris, Neuropteris.
Among the Lycopods are Lycopodites, Psilophyton, Lepidodendron.
Modern horsetails are represented by Calamocladus, Asterocalamites,
Anmdaria. Of great interest are the genera Cordaites, Araucari-
oxylon, &c., which were synthetic types, uniting in some degree the
Coniferae and the Cycadofilicales. With the exception of obscure
markings, aquatic plants are not so well represented as might have
been expected; Parka, a common fossil, has been regarded' as a
water plant with a creeping stem and two kinds of sporangia in
sessile sporocarps.

Physical Conditions, &c. — Perhaps the most striking fact that
is brought out by a study of the Devonian rocks and their fossils
is the gradual transgression of the sea over the land, which took
place quietly in every quarter of the globe shortly after the
beginning of the period. While in most places the Lower
Devonian sediments succeed the Silurian formations in a perfectly
conformable manner, the Middle and Upper divisions, on account
of this encroachment of the sea, rest unconformably upon the
older rocks, the Lower division being unrepresented. This is
true over the greater part of South America, so far as our limited
knowledge goes, in much of the western side of North America,
in western Russia, in Thuringia and other parts of central Europe.
Of the distribution of land and sea and the position of the coast
lines in Devonian times we can state nothing with precision. The
known deposits all point to shallow waters of epicontinental seas;
no abyssal formations have been recognized. E. Kayser has
pointed out the probability of a Eurasian sea province extending
through Europe towards the east, across north and central Asia
towards Manitoba in Canada, and an American sea province
embracing the United States, South America and South Africa.
At the same time there existed a great North Atlantic land area
caused partly by the uplift of the Caledonian range just before
the beginning of the period, which stretched across north Europe
to eastern Canada; on the fringe of this land the Old Red
Sandstone was formed.

In the European area C. Barrois has indicated the existence
of three zones of deposition: (i) A northern, Old Red, region,

DEVONPORT

129

including Great Britain, Scandinavia, European Russia and
Spitzbergen; here the land was close at hand; great brackish
lagoons prevailed, which communicated more or less directly with
the open sea. In European Russia, during its general advance,
the sea occasionally gained access to wide areas, only to be driven
off again, during pauses in the relative subsidence of the land,
when the continued terrigenous sedimentation once more
established the lagoonal conditions. These alternating phases
were frequently repeated. (2) A middle region, covering
Devonshire and Cornwall, the Ardennes, the northern part of
the lower Rhenish mountains, and the upper Harz to the Polish
Mittelgebirge; here we find evidence of a shallow sea, clastic
deposits and a sublittoral fauna. (3) A southern region reaching
from Brittany to the south of the Rhenish mountains, lower
Harz, Thuringia and Bohemia; here was a deeper sea with a
more pelagic fauna. It must be borne in mind that the above-
mentioned regions are intended to refer to the time when the
extension of the Devonian sea was near its maximum. In the
case of North America it has been shown that in early and
middle Devonian time more or less distinct faunas invaded
the continent from five different centres, viz. the Helderberg,
the Oriskany, the Onondaga, the southern Hamilton and the
north-western Hamilton; these reached the interior approxi-
mately in the order given.

Towards the close of the period, when the various local faunas
had mingled one with another and a more generalized life
assemblage had been evolved, we find many forms with a very
wide range, indicating great uniformity of conditions. Thus
we find identical species of brachiopods inhabiting the Devonian
seas of England, France, Belgium, Germany, Russia, southern
Asia and China; such are, Hypothyris (Rhynchonella) cuboides,
Spirifer disjunctus and others. The fauna of the Calceola shales
can be traced from western Europe to Armenia and Siberia; the
Stringoceplwlus limestones are represented in Belgium, England,
the Urals and Canada; and the (Gephyroceras) inlumescens
shales are found in western Europe and in Manitoba.
• The Devonian period was one of comparative quietude; no
violent crustal movements seem to have taken place, and while
some changes of level occurred towards its close in Great Britain,
Bohemia and Russia, generally the passage from Devonian to
Carboniferous conditions was quite gradual. In later periods
these rocks have suffered considerable movement and meta-
morphism, as in the Harz, Devonshire and Cornwall, and in the
Belgian coalfields, where they have frequently been thrust over
the younger Carboniferous rocks. Volcanic activity was fairly
widespread, particularly during the middle portion of the period.
In the Old Red rocks of Scotland there is a great thickness
(6000 ft.) of igneous rocks, including diabases and andesitic lavas
with agglomerates and tuffs. In Devonshire diabases and tuffs
are found in the middle division. In west central Europe volcanic
rocks are found at many horizons, the most common rocks are
diabases and diabase tuffs, schalstein. Felsitic lavas and tuffs
occur in the Middle Devonian of Australia. Contemporaneous
igneous rocks are generally absent in the American Devonian,
but in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick there appear to be
some.

There is little evidence as to the climate of this period, but it
is interesting to observe that local glacial conditions may have
existed in places, as is suggested by the coarse conglomerate with
striated boulders in the upper Old Red of Scotland. On the other
hand, the prevalence of reef-building corals points to moderately
warm temperatures in the Middle Devonian seas.

The economic products of Devonian rocks are of some import-
ance: in many of the metamorphosed regions veins of tin, lead,
copper, iron are exploited, as in Cornwall, Devon, the Harz; in
New Zealand, gold veins occur. Anthracite of Devonian age is
found in China and a little coal in Germany, while the Upper
Devonian is the chief source of oil and gas of western Pennsylvania
and south-western New York. In Ontario the middle division is
oil-bearing. Black phosphates are worked in central Tennessee,
and in England the marls of the " Old Red " are employed for
brick-making,
vni. — 5

REFERENCES.— The literature of the Devonian rocks and fossils is
very extensive; important papers have been contributed by the
following geologists: J. Barrande, C. Barrois, F. Beclard, E. W.
Benecke, L. Beushausen, A. Champernowne, J. M. Clarke, Sir J. W.
Dawson, A. Denckmann, J. S. Diller, E. Dupont, F. Freeh, J.Fournet,
Sir A. Geikie, G. Gurich, R. Hoernes, E. Kayser, C. and M. Koch,
A. von Koenen, Hugh Miller, D. P. Oehlert, C. S. Prosser, P. de
Rouville, C. Schuchert, T. Tschernyschew, E. O. Ulrich, W. A. E.
Ussher, P. N. Wenjukoff, G. F. Whidbprne, J. T. Whiteaves and
H. S. Williams. Sedgwick and Murchison's original description
appeared in the Trans. Geol. Spc. (2nd series, vol. v., 1839). Good
general accounts will be found in Sir A. Geikie's Text-Book of Geology
(vol. ii., 4th ed., 1903), in E. Kayser's Lehrbuch der Geologic (vol. ii.,
2nd ed., 1902), and, for North America, in Chamberlin and Salisbury's
Geology (vol. ii., 1906). See the Index to the Geological Magazine
(1864-1903), and insubsequent annual volumes ; Geological Literature
added to the Geological Society's Library (London), annually since
1893; and the Neues Jahrbuch fur Min., Geologic und Paldontologie
(Stuttgart, 2 annual volumes). The U.S. Geological Survey publishes
at intervals a Bibliography and Index of North American Geology, &fc. ,
and this (e.g. Bulletin 301, — the Bibliog. and Index for 1901-1905)
contains numerous references for the Devonian system in North
America. (J. A. H.)

DEVONPORT, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough
of Devonshire, England, contiguous to East Stonehouse and.
Plymouth, the seat of one of the royal dockyards, and an im-
portant naval and military station. Pop. (1901) 70,437. It is
situated immediately above the N.W. angle of Plymouth Sound,
occupying a triangular peninsula formed by Stonehouse Pool on
the E. and the Hamoaze on the W. It is served by the Great
Western and the London & South Western railways. The town
proper was formerly enclosed by a line of ramparts and a
ditch excavated out of the limestone, but these are in great
part demolished. Adjoining Devonport are East Stonehouse
(an urban district, pop. 15,111), Stoke and Morice Town, the
two last being suburbs of Devonport. The town hall, erected
in 1821-1822 partly after the design of the Parthenon, is
distinguished by a Doric portico; while near it are the public
library, in Egyptian style, and a conspicuous Doric column built
of Devonshire granite. This monument, which is 100 ft. high,
was raised in commemoration of the naming of the town in 1824.
Other institutions are the Naval Engineering College, Keyham
(1880); the municipal technical schools, opened in 1899, the
majority of the students being connected with the dockyard;
the naval barracks, Keyham (1885); the Raglan barracks and
the naval and military hospitals. On Mount Wise, which was
formerly defended by a battery (now a naval signalling station),
stands the military residence, or Government House, occupied by
the commander of the Plymouth Coast Defences; and near at
hand is the principal naval residence, the naval commander-in-
chief 's house. The prospect from Mount Wise over the Hamoaze
to Mount Edgecumbe on the opposite shore is one of the finest in
the south of England. The most noteworthy feature of Devon-
port, however, is the royal dockyard, originally established by
William III. in 1689 and until 1824 known as Plymouth Dock.
It is situated within the old town boundary and contains four
docks. To this in 1853 was added Keyham steamyard, situated
higher up the Hamoaze beyond the old boundary and connected
with the Devonport yard by a tunnel. In 1896 further extensions
were begun at the Keyham yard, which became known as
Devonport North yard. Before these were begun the yard
comprised two basins, the northern one being 9 acres and the
southern 7 acres in area, and three docks, having floor-lengths of
295> 347 and 4J3 ft-i together with iron and brass foundries,
machinery shops, engineer students' shop, &c. The new ex-'
tensions, opened by the Prince of Wales on the 2ist of February
1907, cover a total area of 118 acres lying to the northward in
front of the Naval Barracks, and involved the reclamation of
77 acres of mudflats lying below high- water mark. The scheme
presented three leading features — a tidal basin, a group of three
graving docks with entrance lock, and a large enclosed basin with
a coaling dep6t at the north end. The tidal basin, close to the
old Keyham north basin, is 740 ft. long with a mean width of
590 ft., and has an area of 10 acres, the depth being 32 ft. at low
water of spring tides. It affords access to two graving docks, one
with a floor-length of 745 ft. and 20^ ft. of water over the sill, and

130

DEVONPORT— DEVONSHIRE, DUKES OF

the other with a length of 741 ft. and 32 ft. of water over the sill.
Each of these can be subdivided by means of an intermediate
caisson, and (when unoccupied) may serve as an entrance to the
closed basin. The lock which leads from the tidal to the closed
basin is 730 ft. long, and if necessary can be used as a dock. The
closed basin, out of which opens a third graving dock, 660 ft.
long, measures 1550 ft. by jooo ft. and has an area of 355 acres,
with a depth of 32 ft. at low- water springs; it has a direct
entrance from the Hamoaze, closed by a caisson. The founda-
tions of the walls are carried down to the rock, which in some
places lies covered with mud 100 ft. or more below coping level.
Compressed air is used to work the sliding caissons which close
the entrances of the docks and closed basin. A ropery at
Devonport produces half the hempen ropes used in the navy.

By the Reform Act of 1832 Devonport was erected into a
parliamentary borough including East Stonehouse and returning
two members. The ground on which it stands is for the most
part the property of the St Aubyn family (Barons St Levan),
whose steward holds a court leet and a court baron annually.
The town is governed by a mayor, sixteen aldermen and forty-
eight councillors. Area, 3044 acres.

DEVONPORT, EAST and WEST, a town of Devon county,
Tasmania, situated on both sides of the mouth of the river
Mersey, 193 m. by rail N.W. of Hobart. Pop. (1901), East
Devonport, 673, West Devonport, 2101. There is regular com-
munication from this port to Melbourne and Sydney, and it
ranks as the third port in Tasmania. ' A celebrated regatta is held
on the Mersey annually on New Year's day.

DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The Devonshire
title, now in the Cavendish family, had previously been held by
Charles Blount (1563-1606), 8th Lord Mountjoy, great-grandson
of the 4th Lord Mountjoy (d. 1534), the pupil of Erasmus; he
was created earl of Devonshire in 1603 for his services in Ireland,
where he became famous in subduing the rebellion between 1600
and 1603; but the title became extinct at his death. In the
Cavendish line the ist earl of Devonshire was William (d. 1626),
second son of Sir William Cavendish (<?.».), and of Elizabeth
Hardwick, who afterwards married the 6th earl of Shrewsbury.
He was created earl of Devonshire in 1618 by James I., and was
succeeded by William, 2nd earl (1591-1628), and the latter by
his son William (1617-1684), a prominent royalist, and one of
the original members of the Royal Society, who married a
daughter of the 2nd earl of Salisbury.

WILLIAM CAVENDISH, ist duke of Devonshire (1640-1707),
English statesman, eldest son of the earl of Devonshire last
mentioned, was born on the 25th of January 1640. After com-
pleting his education he made the tour of Europe according to the
custom of young men of his rank, being accompanied on his travels
by Dr Killigrew. On his return he obtained, in 1661, a seat in
parliament for Derbyshire, and soon became conspicuous as one
of the most determined and daring opponents of the general
policy of the court. In 1678 he was one of the committee
appointed to draw up articles of impeachment against the lord
treasurer Danby. In 1679 he was re-elected for Derby, and made
a privy councillor by Charles II.; but he soon withdrew from
the board with his friend Lord Russell, when he found that the
Roman Catholic interest uniformly prevailed. He carried up to
the House of Lords the articles of impeachment against Lord
Chief-Justice Scroggs, for his arbitrary and illegal proceedings
in the court of King's bench; and when the king declared his
resolution not to sign the bill for excluding the duke of York,
afterwards James II., he moved in the House of Commons
that a bill might be brought in for the association of all his
majesty's Protestant subjects. He also openly denounced the
king's counsellors, and voted for an address to remove them. He
appeared in defence of Lord Russell at his trial, at a time when
it was scarcely more criminal to be an accomplice than a witness.
After the condemnation he gave the utmost possible proof of his
attachment by offering to exchange clothes with Lord Russell
in the prison, remain in his place, and so allow him to effect his
escape. In Novembr 1684 he succeeded to the earldom on the
death of his father. He opposed arbitrary government under

James II. with the same consistency and high spirit as during the
previous reign. He was withdrawn from public life for a time,
however, in consequence of a hasty and imprudent act of which
his enemies knew how to avail themselves. Fancying that he
had received an insulting look in the presence chamber from
Colonel Colepepper, a swaggerer whose attendance at court the
king encouraged, he immediately avenged the affront by challeng-
ing the colonel, and, on the challenge being refused, striking him
with his cane. This offence was punished by a fine of £30,000,
which was an enormous sum even to one of the earl's princely
fortune. Not being able to pay he was imprisoned in the king's
bench, from which he was released only on signing a bond for
the whole amount. This was afterwards cancelled by King
William. After his discharge the earl went for a time to
Chatsworth, where he occupied himself with the erection of a
new mansion, designed by William Talman, with decorations by
Verrio, Thornhill and Grinling Gibbons. The Revolution again
brought him into prominence. He was one of the seven who
signed the original paper inviting the prince of Orange from
Holland, and was the first nobleman who appeared in arms to
receive him at his landing. He received the order of the Garter
on the occasion of the coronation, and was made lord high
steward of the new court. In 1690 he accompanied King William
on his visit to Holland. He was created marquis of Hartington
and duke of Devonshire in 1694 by William and Mary, on the
same day on which the head of the house of Russell was created
duke of Bedford. Thus, to quote Macaulay, " the two great
houses of Russell and Cavendish, which had long been closely
connected by friendship and by marriage, by common opinions,
common sufferings and common triumphs, received on the same
day the highest honour which it is in the power of the crown to
confer." His last public service was assisting to conclude the
union with Scotland, for negotiating which he and his eldest son,
the marquis of Hartington, had been appointed among the
commissioners by Queen Anne. He died on the i8th of August
1707, and ordered the following inscription to be put on his
monument: —

Willielmus Dux Devon,
Bonorum Principum Fidelis Subditus,
Iniraicus et Invisus Tyrannis.

He had married in 1661 the daughter of James, duke of
Ormonde, and he was succeeded by his eldest son William as
2nd duke, and by the latter's son William as 3rd duke (viceroy
of Ireland, 1737-1744). The latter's son William (1720-1764)
succeeded in 1755 as 4th duke; he married the daughter and
heiress of Richard Boyle, earl of Burlington and Cork, who
brought Lismore Castle and the Irish estates into the family; and
from November 1756 to May 1757 he was prime minister, mainly
in order that Pitt, who would not then serve under the duke of
Newcastle, should be in power. His son William (1748-1811),
5th duke, is memorable as the husband of the beautiful Georgiana
Spencer, duchess of Devonshire (1757-1806), and of the intellec-
tual Elizabeth Foster, duchess of Devonshire (1758-1824), both
of whom Gainsborough painted. His son William, 6th duke
(1790-1858), who died unmarried, was sent on a special mission
to the coronation of the tsar Nicholas at Moscow in 1826, and
became famous for his expenditure on that occasion; and it was
he who employed Sir Joseph Paxton at Chatsworth. The title
passed in 1858 to his cousin William (1808-1891), 2nd earl of
Burlington, as 7th duke, a man who, without playing a prominent-
part in public affairs, exercised great influence, not only by his
position but by his distinguished abilities. At Cambridge in 1 8 29
he was second wrangler, first Smith's prizeman, and eighth classic,
and subsequently he became chancellor of the university.

SPENCER COMPTON CAVENDISH, 8th duke (1833-1908), born
on the 23rd of July 1833, was the son of the 7th duke (then earl of
Burlington) and his wife Lady Blanche Howard (sister of the earl
of Carlisle). In 1854 Lord Cavendish, as he then was, took his
degree at Trinity College, Cambridge; in 1856 he was attached to
the special mission to Russia for the new tsar's accession ; and in
1857 he was returned to parliament as Liberal member for North
Lancashire. At the opening of the new parliament of 1859 the

DEVONSHIRE, DUKES OF

marquis of Hartington (as he had now become) moved the amend-
ment to the address which overthrew the government of Lord
Derby. In 1863 he became first a lord of the admiralty, and then
under-secretary for war, and on the formation of the Russell-
Gladstone administration at the death of Lord Palmerston he
entered it as war secretary. He retired with his colleagues in
July 1866; but upon Mr Gladstone's return to power in 1868 he
became postmaster-general, an office which he exchanged in 1871
for that of secretary for Ireland. When Mr Gladstone, after his
defeat and resignation in 1874, temporarily withdrew from the
leadership of the Liberal party in January 1875, Lord Hartington
was chosen Liberal leader in the House of Commons, Lord
Granville being leader in the Lords. Mr W. E. Forster, who
had taken a much more prominent part in public life, was the
only other possible nominee, but he declined to stand. Lord
Hartington's rank no doubt told in his favour, and Mr Forster's
education bill had offended the Nonconformist members, who
would probably have withheld their support. Lord Hartington's
prudent management in difficult circumstances laid his followers
under great obligations, since not only was the opposite party
in the ascendant, but his own former chief was indulging in
the freedom of independence. After the complete defeat of
the Conservatives in the general election of 1880, a large pro-
portion of the party would have rejoiced if Lord Hartington
could have taken the Premiership instead of Mr Gladstone,
and the queen, in strict conformity with constitutional usage
(though Gladstone himself thought Lord Granville should have
had the preference), sent for him as leader of the Opposition.
Mr Gladstone, however, was clearly master of the situation: no
cabinet could be formed without him, nor could he reasonably be
expected to accept a subordinate post. Lord Hartington, there-
fore, gracefully abdicated the leadership, and became secretary
of state for India, from which office, in December 1882, he passed
to the war office. His administration was memorable for the
expeditions of General Gordon and Lord Wolseley to Khartum,
and a considerable number of the Conservative party long held
him chiefly responsible for the " betrayal of Gordon." His
lethargic manner, apart from his position as war minister, helped
to associate him in their minds with a disaster which emphasized
the fact that the government acted " too late " ; but Gladstone and
Lord Granville were no less responsible than he. In June 1885 he
resigned along with his colleagues, and in December was elected
for the Ressendale Division of Lancashire, created by the new
reform bill. Immediately afterwards the great political oppor-
tunity of Lord Hartington's life came to him in Mr Gladstone's
conversion to home rule for Ireland. Lord Hartington's refusal
to follow his leader in this course inevitably made him the chief
of the new Liberal Unionist party, composed of a large and
influential section of the old Liberals. In this capacity he moved
the first resolution at the famous public meeting at the opera
house, and also, in the House of Commons, moved the rejection of
MrGladstone's Billon thesecondreading. During the memorable
electoral contest which followed, no election excited more interest
than Lord Hartington's for the Ros^endale division, where he
was returned by a majority of nearly 1500 votes. In the new
parliament he held a position much resembling that which Sir
Robert Peel had occupied after his fall from power, the leader
of a small, compact party, the standing and ability of whose
members were out of all proportion to their numbers, generally
esteemed and trusted beyond any other man in the country, yet
in his own opinion forbidden to think of office. Lord Salisbury's
offers to serve under him as prime minister (both after the general
election, and again when Lord Randolph Churchill resigned) were
declined, and Lord Hartington continued to discharge the delicate
duties of the leader of a middle party with no less judgment than
he had shown when leading the Liberals during the interregnum
of 1875-1880. It was not until 1895, when the differences
between Conservatives and Liberal Unionists had become almost
obliterated by changed circumstances, and the habit of acting
together, that the duke of Devonshire, as he had become by the
death of his father in 1891, consented to enter Lord Salisbury's
third ministry as president of the council. The duke thus was

the nominal representative of education in the cabinet at a time
when educational questions were rapidly becoming of great
importance; and his own technical knowledge of this difficult
and intricate question being admittedly superficial, a good deal of
criticism from time to time resulted. He had however by this
time an established position in public life, and a reputation for
weight of character, which procured for him universal respect
and confidence, and exemoted him from bitter attack, even from
his most determined political opponents. Wealth and rank
combined with character to place him in a measure above party;
and his succession to his father as chancellor of the university of
Cambridge in 1892 indicated his eminence in the life of the
country. In the same year he had married the widow of the
7th duke of Manchester.

He continued to hold the office of lord president of the council
till the 3rd of October 1903, when he resigned on account of
differences with Mr Balfour (q.v.) over the latter's attitude towards
free trade. As Mr Chamberlain had retired from the cabinet,
and the duke had not thought it necessary to join Lord George
Hamilton and Mr Ritchie in resigning a fortnight earlier, the
defection was unanticipated and was sharply criticized by Mr
Balfour, who, in the rearrangement of his ministry, had only
just appointed the duke's nephew and heir, Mr Victor Cavendish,
to be secretary to the treasury. But the duke had come to the
conclusion that while he himself was substantially a free-trader,1
Mr Balfour did not mean the same thing by the term. He
necessarily became the leader of the Free Trade Unionists who
were neither Balfourites nor Chamberlainites, and his weight was
thrown into the scale against any association of Unionism with the
constructive policy of tariff reform, which he identified with sheer
Protection . A struggle at once began within the Liberal Unionist
organization between those who followed the duke and those who
followed Mr Chamberlain (q.v.); but the latter were in the
majority and a reorganization in the Liberal Unionist Association
took place, the Unionist free-traders seceding and becoming a
separate body. The duke then became president of the new
organizations, the Unionist Free Food League and the Unionist
Free Trade Club. In the subsequent developments the duke
played a dignified but somewhat silent part, and the Unionist
rout in 1906 was not unaffected by his open hostility to any taint
of compromise with the tariff reform movement. But' in the
autumn of 1907 his health gave way, and grave symptoms of
cardiac weakness necessitated his abstaining from public effort
and spending the winter abroad. He died, rather suddenly, at
Cannes on the 24th of March 1908.

The head of an old and powerful family, a wealthy territorial
magnate, and an Englishman with thoroughly national tastes
for sport, his weighty and disinterested character made him a
statesman of the first rank in his time, in spite of the absence of
showy or brilliant qualities. He had no self-seeking ambitions,
and on three occasions preferred not to become prime minister.
Though his speeches were direct and forcible, he was not an orator,
nor " clever "; and he lacked all subtlety of intellect; but he
was conspicuous for solidity of mind and straightforwardness
of action, and for conscientious application as an administrator,
whether in his public or private life. The fact that he once
yawned in the middle of a speech of his own was commonly
quoted as characteristic; but he combined a great fund of
common sense and knowledge of the average opinion with a
patriotic sense of duty towards the state. Throughout his career
he remained an old-fashioned Liberal, or rather Whig, of a type
which in his later years was becoming gradually more and more
rare.

There was no issue of his marriage, and he was succeeded as
9th duke by his nephew VICTOR CHRISTIAN CAVENDISH (b. 1868),
who had been Liberal Unionist member for West Derbyshire
since 1891, and was treasurer of the household (1900 to 1903) and

1 His own words to Mr Balfour at the time were: " I believe that
our present system of free imports is on the whole the most advan-
tageous to the country, though I do not contend that the principles on
which it rests possess any such authority or sanctity as to forbid any
departure from it, for sufficient reasons."

132

DEVONSHIRE

financial secretary to the treasury (1903 to 1905); in 1892 he
married a daughter of the marquess of Lansdowne, by whom he
had two sons. (H. CH.)

DEVONSHIRE (DEVON), a south-western county of England,
bounded N.W. and N. by the Bristol Channel, N.E. by Somerset
and Dorset, S.E. and S. by the English Channel, and W. by
Cornwall. The area, 2604-9 sq. m., is exceeded only by those of
Yorkshire and Lincolnshire among the English counties. Nearly
the whole of the surface is uneven and hilly. The county contains
the highest land in England south of Derbyshire (excepting points
on the south Welsh border) ; and the scenery, much varied, is in
most parts striking and picturesque. The heather-clad uplands
of Exmoor, though chiefly within the borders of Somerset, extend
into North Devon, and are still the haunt of red deer, and of the
small hardy ponies called after the district. Here, as on Dart-
moor, the streams are rich in trout. Dartmoor, the principal
physical feature of the county, is a broad and lofty expanse of
moorland which rises in the southern part. Its highest point,
2039 ft., is found in the north-western portion. Its rough wastes
contrast finely with the wild but wooded region which immediately
surrounds the granite of which it is composed, and with the rich
cultivated country lying beyond. Especially noteworthy in this
fertile tract are the South Hams, a fruitful district of apple
orchards, lying between the Ernie and the Dart; the rich
meadow-land around Crediton, in the vale of Exeter; and the
red rocks near Sidmouth. Two features which lend a character-
istic charm to the Devonshire landscape are the number of
picturesque old cottages roofed with thatch; and the deep lanes,
sunk below the common level of the ground, bordered by tall
hedges, and overshadowed by an arch of boughs. The north and
south coasts of the county differ much in character, but both have
grand cliff and rock scenery, not surpassed by any in England
or Wales, resembling the Mediterranean seaboard in its range of
colour. As a rule the long combes or glens down which the rivers
flow seaward are densely wooded, and the country immediately
inland is of great beauty. Apart from the Tamar, which consti-
tutes the boundary between Devon and Cornwall, and flows into
the English Channel, after forming in its estuary the harbours of
Devonport and Plymouth, the principal rivers rise on Dartmoor.
These include the Teign, Dart, Plym and Tavy, falling into the
English Channel, and the Taw flowing north towards Bideford
Bay. The river Torridge, also discharging northward, receives
part of its waters from Dartmoor through the Okement, but
itself rises in the angle of high land near Hartland point on the
north coast, and makes a wide sweep southward. The lesser
Dartmoor streams are the Avon, the Erme and the Vealm, all
running south. The Exe rises on Exmoor in Somersetshire; but
the main part of its course is through Devonshire (where it gives
name to Exeter), and it is joined on its way to the English
Channel by the lesser streams of the Culm, the Greedy and the
Clyst. The Otter, rising on the Blackdown Hills, also runs south,
and the Axe, for part of its course, divides the counties of Devon
and Dorset. These eastern streams are comparatively slow;
while the rivers of Dartmoor have a shorter and more rapid
course.

Geology.— The greatest area occupied by any one group of rocks
in Devonshire is that covered by the Culm, a series of slates, grits and
greywackes, with some impure limestones and occasional radiolarian
cherts as at Codden Hill; beds of " culm," an impure variety of coal,
are found at Bideford and elsewhere. This series of rocks occurs at
Bampton, Exeter and Chudleigh and extends thence to the western
boundary. North and south ofthe Culm an older series of slates, grits
and limestones appears; it was considered so characteristic of the
county that it was called the Devonian system (?.».), the marine
equivalent of the Old Red Sandstone of Hereford and Scotland. It
lies in the form of a trough with its axis running east and west. In
the central hollow the Culm reposes, while the northern and southern
rims rise to the surface respectively north of the latitude of Barn-
staple and South Molton and south of the latitude of Tavistock.
These Devonian rocks have been subdivided into upper, middle and
lower divisions, but the stratigraphy is difficult to follow as the beds
have suffered much crumpling; fine examples of contorted strata
may be seen almost anywhere on the north coast, and in the south,
at Bolt Head and Start Point they have undergone severe meta-
morphism. Limestones are only poorly developed in the north, but
in the south important masses occur, in the middle and at the base

of the upper subdivisions, about Plymouth. Torquay, Brixham and
between Newton Abbot and Totnes. Fossil corals abound in these
limestones, which are largely quarried and when polished are known
as Devonshire marbles.

On the eastern side of the county is found an entirely different set
of rocks which cover the older series and dip away from them gently
towards the east. The lower and most westerly situated members of
the younger rocks is a series of breccias, conglomerates, sandstones
and marls which are probably of lower Bunter age, but by some
geologists have been classed as Permian. These red rocks are
beautifully exposed on the coast by Dawlish and Teignmouth, and
they extend inland, producing a red soil, past Exeter and Tivertoji.
A long narrow strip of the same formation reaches out westward on
the top of the Culm as far as Jacobstow. Farther east, the Bunter
pebble beds are represented by the well-known pebble deposit of
Budleigh Salterton, whence they are traceable inland towards
Rockbeare. These are succeeded by the Keuper marls and sand-
stones, well exposed at Sidmouth, where the upper Greensand
plateau is clearly seen to overlie them. The Greensand covers
al! the high ground northward from Sidmouth as far as the Black-
down Hills. At Beer Head and Axmouth the Chalk is seen, and at
the latter place is a famous landslip on the coast, caused by the
springs which issue from the Greensand below the Chalk. The
Lower Chalk at Beer has been mined for building stone and was
formerly in considerable demand. At the extreme east of the county,
Rhaetic and Lias beds make their appearance, the former with a
" bone " bed bearing the remains of saurians and fish.

Dartmoor is a mass of granite that was intruded into the Culm
and Devonian strata in post-Carboniferous times and subsequently
exposed by denudation. Evidences of Devonian volcanic activity
are abundant in the masses of diabase, dolerite, &c., at Bradford and
Trusham, south of Exeter, around Plymouth and at Ashprington.
Perhaps the most interesting is the Carboniferous volcano of Brent
Tor near Tavistock. An Eocene deposit, the product of the denuda-
tion of the Dartmoor Hills, lies in a small basin at Bovey Tracey (see
BOVEY BEDS) ; it yields beds of lignite and valuable clays.

Raised beaches occur at Hope's Nose and the Thatcher Stone near
Torquay and at other points, and a submerged forest lies in the bay
south of the same place. The caves and fissures in the Devonian
limestone at Kent's Hole near Torquay, Brixham and Oreston are
famous for the remains of extinct mammals; bones of the elephant,
rhinoceros, bear and hyaena have been found as well as flint
implements of early man.

Minerals. — Silver-lead was formerly worked at Combe Martin near
the north coast, and elsewhere. Tin has been worked on Dartmoor
(in stream works) from an unknown period. Copper was not much
worked before the end of the 1 8th century. Tin occurs in the granite
of Dartmoor, and along its borders, but rather where the Devonian
than where the Carboniferous rocks border the granite. It is found
most plentifully in the district which surrounds Tavistock, which,
for tin and other ores, is in effect the great mining district of the
county. Here, about 4 m. from Tavistock, are the Devon Great
Consols mines, which from 1843 to 1871 were among the richest
copper mines in the world, and by far the largest and most profitable
in the kingdom. The divided profits during this period amounted
to £1,192,960. But the mining interests of Devonshire are affected
by the same causes, and in the same way, as those of Cornwall.
The quantity of ore has greatly diminished, and the cost of raising
it from the deep mines prevents competition with foreign markets.
In many mines tin underlies the general depth of the copper,
and is worked when the latter has been exhausted. The mineral
products of the Tavistock district are various, and besides tin
and copper, ores of zinc and iron are largely distributed. Great
quantities of refined arsenic have been produced at the Devon Great
Consols mine, by elimination from the iron pyrites contained in the
various lodes. Manganese occurs in the neighbourhood of Exeter,
in the valley of the Teign and in N. Devon; but the most profitable
mines, which are shallow, are, like those of tin and copper, in the
Tavistock district.

The other mineral productions of the county consist of marbles,
building stones, slates and potters' clay. Among building stones,
the granite of Dartmoor holds the foremost place. It is much quarried
near Princetown, near Moreton Hampstead on the N.E. of Dartmoor
and elsewhere. The annual export is considerable. Hard traps,
which occur in many places, are also much used, as are the lime-
stones of Buckfastleigh and of Plymouth. The Robprough stone,
used from an early period in Devonshire churches, is found near
Tavistock, and is a hard, porphyritic elvan, taking a fine polish.
Excellent roofing slates occur in the Devonian series round the
southern part of Dartmoor. The chief quarries are near Ashburton
and Plymouth (Cann quarry)- Potters clay is worked at King's
Teignton, whence it is largely exported; at Bpvey Tracey; and at
Watcombe near Torquay. The Watcombe clay is of the finest quality.
China clay or kaolin is found on the southern side of Dartmoor,
at Lee Moor, and near Trowlesworthy. There is a large deposit of
umber close to Ashburton.

Climate and Agriculture.— The climate varies greatly in
different parts of the county, but everywhere it is more humid

DEVONSHIRE

than that of the eastern or south-eastern parts of England. The
mean annual temperature somewhat exceeds that of the mid-
lands, but the average summer heat is rather less than that of the
southern counties to the east. The air of the Dartmoor highlands
is sharp and bracing. Mists are frequent, and snow often lies
long. On the south coast frost is little known, and many half
hardy plants, such as hydrangeas, myrtles, geraniums and helio-
tropes, live through the winter without protection. The climate
of Sidmouth, Teignmouth, Torquay and other watering places
on this coast is very equable, the mean temperature in January
being 43-6° at Plymouth. The north coast, exposed to the
storms and swell of the Atlantic, is more bracing; although
there also, in the more sheltered nooks (as at Combe Martin),
myrtles of great size and age flower freely, and produce their
annual crop of berries.

Rather less than three-quarters of the total area of the county
is under cultivation; the cultivated area falling a little below
the average of the- English counties. There are, however, about
160,000 acres of hill pasture in addition to the area in permanent
pasture, which is more than one-half that of the cultivated area.
The Devon breed of cattle is well adapted both for fattening and
for dairy purposes; while sheep are kept in great numbers on
the hill pastures. Devonshire is one of the chief cattle-farming
and sheep-farming counties. It is specially famous for two
products of the dairy — the clotted cream to which it gives its
name, and junket. Of the area under grain crops, oats occupy
about three times the acreage under wheat or barley. The bulk
of the acreage under green crops is occupied by turnips, swedes
and mangold. Orchards occupy a large acreage, and consist
chiefly of apple-trees, nearly every farm maintaining one for the
manufacture of cider.

Fisheries. — Though the fisheries of Devon are less valuable
than those of Cornwall, large quantities of the pilchard and
herrings caught in Cornish waters are landed at Plymouth. Much
of the fishing is carried on within the three-mile limit; and it
may be asserted that trawling is the main feature of the Devon-
shire industry, whereas seining and driving characterize that
of Cornwall. Pilchard, cod, sprats, brill, plaice, soles, turbot,
shrimps, lobsters, oysters and mussels are met with, besides
herring and mackerel, which are fairly plentiful. After Ply-
mouth, the principal fishing station is at Brixham, but there are
lesser stations in every bay and estuary.

Other Industries. — The principal industrial works in the county
are the various Government establishments at Plymouth and
Devonport. Among other industries may be noted the lace-
works at Tiverton; the manufacture of pillow-lace for which
Honiton and its neighbourhood has long been famous; and the
potteries and terra-cotta works of Bovey Tracey and Watcombe.
Woollen goods and serges are made at Buckfastleigh and
Ashburton, and boots and shoes at Crediton. Convict labour is
employed in the direction of agriculture, quarrying, &c., in the
great prison of Dartmoor.

Communications. — The main line of the Great Western railway,
entering the county in the east from Taunton, runs to Exeter,
skirts the coast as far as Teignmouth, and continues a short
distance inland by Newton Abbot to Plymouth, after which it
crosses the estuary of the Tamar by a great bridge to Saltash
in Cornwall. Branches serve Torquay and other seaside resorts
of the south coast; and among other branches are those from
Taunton to Barnstaple and from Plymouth northward to
Tavistock and Launceston. The main line of the London &
South- Western railway between Exeter and Plymouth skirts the
north and west of Dartmoor by Okehampton and Tavistock. A
branch from Yeoford serves Barnstaple, Ilfracombe, Bideford and
Torrington, while the Lynton & Barnstaple and the Bideford,
Westward Ho & Appledore lines serve the districts indicated
by their names. The branch line to Princetown from the
Plymouth-Tavistock line of the Great Western company in part
follows the line of a very early railway — that constructed to
connect Plymouth with the Dartmoor prison in 1810-1825,
which was worked with horse cars. The only waterways of any
importance are the Tamar, which is navigable up to Gunnislake

(3 m. S.W. of Tavistock), and the Exeter ship canal, noteworthy
as one of the oldest in England, for it was originally cut in the
reign of Elizabeth.

Population and Administration. — Theareaof theancient county
is 1,667,154 acres, with a population in 1891 of 631,808, and 1901
of 661,314. The area of the administrative county is 1,671,168
acres. The county contains 33 hundreds. The municipal
boroughs are Barnstaple (pop. 14,137), Bideford (8754), Dart-
mouth (6579), Devonport, a county borough (70,437), Exeter, a
city and county borough (47,185), Torrington, officially Great
Torrington(324i),Honiton(327i),Okehampton(2569), Plymouth,
a county borough (107,636), South Molton (2848), Tiverton
(10,382), Torquay (33,625), Totnes (4035). The other urban
districts are Ashburton (2628), Bampton (1657), Brixham (8092),
Buckfastleigh (2520), Budleigh Salterton (1883), Crediton (3974),
Dawlish (4003), East Stonehouse (15,111), Exmouth (10,485),
Heavitree (7529), Holsworthy (1371), Ilfracombe (8557), Ivy-
bridge (1575), Kingsbridge (3025), Lynton (1641), Newton Abbot
(12,517), Northam (5355), Ottery St Mary (3495), Paignton
(8385), Salcombe (1710), Seaton (1325), Sidmouth (4201),
Tavistock (4728), Teignmouth (8636). The county is in the
western circuit, and assizes are held at Exeter. It has one
court of quarter sessions, and is divided into twenty-four petty
sessional divisions. The boroughs of Barnstaple, Bideford,
Devonport, Exeter, Plymouth, South Molton, and Tiverton have
separate commissions of the peace and courts of quarter sessions,
and those of Dartmouth, Great Torrington, Torquay and Totnes
have commissions of the peace only. There are 46 1 civil parishes.
Devonshire is in the diocese of Exeter, with the exception of
small parts in those of Salisbury and Truro; and there are 516
ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within the
county. The parliamentary divisions are the Eastern or Honiton,
North-eastern or Tiverton, Northern or South Molton, North-
western or Barnstaple, Western or Tavistock, Southern or Totnes,
Torquay, and Mid or Ashburton, each returning one member;
and the county also contains the parliamentary boroughs of
Devonport and Plymouth, each returning two members, and
that of Exeter, returning one member.

History. — The Saxon conquest of Devonshire must have begun
some time before the 8th century, for in 700 there existed at
Exeter a famous Saxon school. By this time, however, the
Saxons had become Christians, and established their supremacy,
not by destructive inroads, but by a gradual process of coloniza-
tion, settling among the native Welsh and allowing them to hold
lands under equal laws. The final incorporation of the district
which is now Devonshire with the kingdom of Wessex must
have taken place about 766, but the county, and even Exeter,
remained partly Welsh until the time of ./Ethelstan. At the
beginning of the gth century Wessex was divided into definite
pagi, probably corresponding to the later shires, and the Saxon
Chronicle mentions Devonshire by name in 823, when a battle
was fought between the Welsh in Cornwall and the people of
Devonshire at Camelford. During the Danish invasions of the
oth century aldermen of Devon are frequently mentioned. In
851 the invaders were defeated by the fyrd and aldermen of
Devon, and in 878, when the Danes under Hubba were harrying
the coast with a squadron of twenty-three ships, they were again
defeated with great slaughter by the fyrd. The modern hundreds
of Devonshire correspond in position very nearly with those given
in the Domesday Survey, though the names have in many cases
been changed, owing generally to alterations in their places of
meeting. The hundred of Bampton formerly included estates
west of the Exe, now transferred to the hundred of Witheridge.
Ten of the modern hundreds have been formed by the union of
two or more Domesday hundreds, while the Domesday hundred
of Listen has had the new hundred of Tavistock severed from
it since 1114. Many of the hundreds were separated by tracts
of waste and forest land, of which Devonshire contained a vast
extent, until in 1204 the inhabitants paid 5000 marks to have the
county disafforested, with the exception only of Dartmoor and
Exmoor.

Devonshire in the 7th century formed part of the vast bishopric

134

DEVRIENT

of Dorchester-on-Thames. In 705 it was attached to the newly
created diocese of Sherborne, and in 910 Archbishop Plegmund
constituted Devonshire a separate diocese, and placed the see at
Crediton. About 1030 the dioceses of Devonshire and Cornwall
were united, and in 1049 the see was fixed at Exeter. The arch-
deaconries of Exeter, Barnstaple and Totnes are all mentioned in
the 1 2th century and formerly comprised twenty-four deaneries.
The deaneries of Three Towns, Collumpton and Ottery have
been created since the i6th century, while those of Tamerton,
Dunkeswell, Dunsford and Plymptre have been abolished, bring-
ing the present number to twenty-three.

At the time of the Norman invasion Devonshire showed an
active hostility to Harold, and the easy submission which it
rendered to the Conqueror accounts for the exceptionally large
number of Englishmen who are found retaining lands after the
Conquest. The many vast fiefs held by Norman barons were
known as honours, chief among them being Plympton, Oke-
hampton, Barnstaple, Harberton and Totnes. The honour of
Plympton was bestowed in the izth century on the Redvers
family, together with the earldom of Devon; in the i3th century
it passed to the Courtenay family, who had already become
possessed of the honour of Okehamoton, and who in 1335
obtained the earldom. The dukedom of Exeter was bestowed in
the I4th century on the Holland family, which became extinct
in the reign of Edward IV. The ancestors of Sir Walter Raleigh,
who was born at Budleigh, had long held considerable estates in
the county.

Devonshire had an independent sheriff, the appointment being
at first hereditary, but afterwards held for one year only. In 1 3 20
complaint was made that all the hundreds of Devonshire were in
the hands of the great lords, who did not appoint a sufficiency
of bailiffs for their proper government. The miners of Devon
had independent courts, known as stannary courts, for the
regulation of mining affairs, the four stannary towns being
Tavistock, Ashburton, Chagford, and Plympton. The ancient
miners' parliament was held in the open air at Crockern's Tor.

The castles of Exeter and Plympton were held against Stephen
by Baldwin de Redvers, and in the I4th and i,sth centuries the
French made frequent attacks on the Devonshire coast, being
repulsed in 1404 by the people of Dartmouth. In the Wars of the
Roses the county was much divided, and frequent skirmishes took
place between the earl of Devon and Lord Bonville, the respective
champions of the Lancastrian and Yorkist parties. Great dis-
turbances in the county followed the Reformation of the i6th
century and in 1549 a priest was compelled to say mass at
Sampford Courtney. On the outbreak of the Civil War the county
as a whole favoured the parliament, but the prevailing desire
was for peace, and in 1643 a treaty for the cessation of hostilities
in Devonshire and Cornwall was agreed upon. Skirmishes,
however, continued until the capture of Dartmouth and Exeter
in 1646 put an end to the struggle. In 1688 the prince of Orange
landed.at Torbay and was entertained for several days at Ford
and at Exeter.

The tin mines of Devon have been worked from time im-
memorial, and in the i4th century mines of tin, copper, lead, gold
and silver are mentioned. Agriculturally the county was always
poor, and before the disafforestation rendered especially so
through the ravages committed by the herds of wild deer. At
the time of the Domesday Survey the salt industry was important,
and there were ninety-nine mills in the county and thirteen
fisheries. From an early period the chief manufacture was that
of woollen cloth, and a statute 4 Ed. IV. permitted the manu-
facture of cloths of a distinct make in certain parts of Devonshire.
About 1505 Anthony Bonvis, an Italian, introduced an improved
method of spinning into the county, and cider-making is
mentioned in the i6th century. In 1680 the lace industry was
already flourishing at Colyton and Ottery St Mary, and flax,
hemp and malt were largely produced in the i7th and i8th
centuries.

Devonshire returned two members to parliament in 1290,
and in 1 295 Barnstaple, Exeter, Plympton, Tavistock, Torrington
and Totnes were also represented. In 1831 the county with its

boroughs returned a total of twenty-six members, but under the
Reform Act of 1832 it returned four members in two divisions,
and with ten boroughs was represented by a total of eighteen
members. Under the act of 1868 the county returned six
members in three divisions, and four of the boroughs were dis-
franchised, making a total of seventeen members.

Antiquities. — In primeval antiquities Devonshire is not so rich
as Cornwall; but Dartmoor abounds in remains of the highest
interest, the most peculiar of which are the long parallel align-
ments of upright stones, which, on a small scale, resemble those
of Carnac in Brittany. On Dartmoor the lines are invariably
straight, and are found in direct connexion with cairns, and
with circles which are probably sepulchral. These stone
avenues are very numerous. Of the so-called sacred circles the
best examples are the " Longstones " on Scorhill Down, and
the " Grey Wethers " under Sittaford Tor. By far the finest
cromlech is the " Spinster's Rock " at Drewsteignton, a three-
pillared cromlech which may well be compared with those of
Cornwall. There are numerous menhirs or single upright stones;
a large dolmen or holed stone lies in the bed of the Teign, near the
Scorhill circle; and rock basins occur on the summit of nearly
every tor on Dartmoor (the largest are on Kestor, and on Heltor,
above the Teign). It is, however, tolerably evident that these
have been produced by the gradual disintegration of the granite,
and that the dolmen in the Teign is due to the action of the
river. Clusters of hut foundations, circular, and formed of
rude granite blocks, are frequent; the best example of such
a primitive village is at Bat worthy, near Chagford; the type
resembles that of East Cornwall. Walled enclosures, or pounds,
occur in many places; Grimspound is the most remarkable.
Boundary lines, also called trackways, run across Dartmoor in
many directions; and the rude bridges, formed of great slabs
of granite, deserve notice. All these remains are on Dartmoor.
Scattered over the county are numerous large hill castles and
camps, — all earthworks, and all apparently of the British period.
Roman relics have been found from time to time at Exeter (Isca
Damnoniorum) , the only large Roman station in the county.

The churches are for the most part of the Perpendicular period,
dating from the middle of the I4th to the end of the i5th century.
Exeter cathedral is of course an exception, the whole (except
the Norman towers) being very beautiful Decorated work. The
special features of Devonshire churches, however, are the richly
carved pulpits and chancel screens of wood, in which this county
exceeded every other in England, with the exception of Norfolk
and Suffolk. The designs are rich and varied, and the skill dis-
played often very great. Granite crosses are frequent, the finest
and earliest being that of Coplestone, near Crediton. Monastic
remains are scanty; the principal are those at Tor, Buckfast,
Tavistock and Buckland Abbeys. Among domestic buildings
the houses of Wear Gifford, Bradley and Darlington of the
15th century; Bradfield and Holcombe Rogus (Elizabethan),
and Forde (Jacobean), deserve notice. The ruined castles of
Okehampton (Edward I.), Exeter, with its vast British earth-
works, Berry Pomeroy (Henry III., with ruins of a large Tudor
mansion), Totnes (Henry III.) and Compton (early 1 5th century),
are all interesting and picturesque.

AUTHORITIES. — T. Westcote, Survey of Devon, written about 1630,
and first printed in 1845; J. Prince, Worthies of Devon (Exeter,
1701); Sir W. Pole, Collections towards a History of the County of
Devon (London, 1791); R. Polwhele, History of Devonshire (3 vols.
Exeter, 1797, 1798-1800); T. Moore, History of Devon from the
Earliest Period, to the Present Time (vols. i., ii., London, 1829—1831);
G. Olivet, Historic Collections relating to the Monasteries in Devon
(Exeter, 1820) ; D. and S. Lysons, Magna Britannia (vol. vi.,
London, 1822); Ecclesiastical Antiquities tn_ Devon (Exeter, 1844);
Mrs Bray, Traditions of Devonshire, in a series ot letters to Robert
Southey (London, 1838); G. C. Boase, Devonshire Bibliography
(London, 1883); Sir W. R. Drake, Devonshire Notes and Notelets
(London, 1888); S. Hewett, Peasant Speech of Devon (London, 1892);
R. N. Worth, History of Devonshire (London, 1886, new edition,
1895); C. Worthy, Devonshire Parishes (Exeter, 1887); Devonshire
Wills (London, 1896); Victoria County History, Devonshire.

DEVRIENT, the name of a family of German actors.

LUDWIG DEVRIENT (1784-1832), born in Berlin on the isth
of December 1784, was the son of a silk merchant. He was

DEW

apprenticed to an upholsterer, but, suddenly leaving his employ-
ment, joined a travelling theatrical company, and made his first
appearance on the stage at Gera in 1804 as the messenger in
Schiller's Braut von Messina. By the interest of Count Bruhl,
he appeared at Rudolstadt as Franz Moor in Schiller's Rauber,
so successfully that he obtained a permanent engagement at the
ducal theatre in Dessau, where he played until 1809. He then
received a call to Breslau, where he remained for six years. So
brilliant was his success in the title-parts of several of Shake-
speare's plays, that Iffland began to fear for his own reputation;
yet that great artist was generous enough to recommend the
young actor as his only possible successor. On Iffland's death
Devrient was summoned to Berlin, where he was for fifteen
years the popular idol. He died there on the 3oth of December
1832. Ludwig Devrient was equally great in comedy and tragedy.
Falstaff, Franz Moor, Shylock, King Lear and Richard II. were
among his best parts. Karl von Holtei in his Reminiscences has
given a graphic picture of him and the " demoniac fascination "
of bis acting.

See Z. Funck, Aus dem Leben zweier Schauspieler, Ifflands und
Devrients (Leipzig, 1838); H. Smidt in Devrient- Novellen (3rd ed.,
Berlin, 1882); R. Springer in the novel Devrient und Hoffmann
(Berlin, 1873), and Eduard Devrient's Geschichte der deutschen
Schauspielkunst (Leipzig, 1861).

Three of the nephews of Ludwig Devrient, sons of his brother,
a merchant, were also connected with the stage. KARL AUGUST
DEVRIENT (1797-1872) was born at Berlin on the sth of April
1797. After being for a short time in business, he entered a
cavalry regiment as volunteer and fought at Waterloo. He then
joined the stage, making his first appearance on the stage in 1819
at Brunswick. In 1821 he received an engagement at the court
theatre in Dresden, where, in 1823, he married Wilhelmine
Schroder (see SCHRODER-DEVRIENT). In 1835 he joined the
company at Karlsruhe, and in 1839 that at Hanover. His
best parts were Wallenstein and King Lear. He died on the
Sth of April 1872. His brother PHILIPP EDUARD DEVRIENT
(1801-1877), born at Berlin on the nth of August 1801, was for
a time an opera singer. Turning his attention to theatrical
management, he was from 1844 to 1846 director of the court
theatre in Dresden. Appointed to Karlsruhe in 1852, he began
a thorough reorganization of the theatre, and in the course of
seventeen years of assiduous labour, not only raised it to a high
position, but enriched its repertory by many noteworthy librettos,
among which Die Gunst des Augenblicks and Verirrungen are the
best known. But his chief work is his history of the German
stage — Geschichte der deutschen Schauspielkunst (Leipzig, 1848-
1874). Hediedon the 4th of October 1877. A complete edition
of his works — Dramatische und dramaturgische Schriften — was
published in ten volumes (Leipzig, 1846-1873).

The youngest and the most famous of the three nephews of
Ludwig Devrient was GUSTAV EMIL DEVRIENT (1803-1872), born
in B erlin on the 4th of September 1 803 . He made his first appear-
ance on the stage in 1821, at Brunswick, as Raoul in Schiller's
Jungfrau von Orleans. After a short engagement in Leipzig, he
received in 1829 a call to Hamburg, but after two years accepted
a permanent appointment at the court theatre in Dresden, to
which he belonged until his retirement in 1868. His chief
characters were Hamlet, Uriel Acosta (in Karl Gutzkow's play),
Marquis Posa (in Schiller's Don Carlos), and Goethe's Torquato
Tasso. He acted several times in London, where his Hamlet was
considered finer than Kemble's or Edmund Kean's. He died on
the 7th of August 1872.

OTTO DEVRIENT (1838-1894), another actor, born in Berlin on
the 3rd of October 1838, was the son of Philipp Eduard Devrient.
He joined the stage in 1856 at Karlsruhe, and acted successively
in Stuttgart, Berlin and Leipzig, until he received a fixed
appointment at Karlsruhe, in 1863. In 1873 he became stage
manager at Weimar, where he gained great praise for his mise en
scene of Goethe's Faust. After being manager of the theatres in
Mannheim and Frankfort he retired to Jena, where in 1883 he
was given the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy. In 1884
he was appointed director of the court theatre in Oldenburg, and

in 1889 director of dramatic plays in Berlin. He died at Stettin
on the 23rd of June 1894.

DEW. The word "dew" (O.E. deaw ; cf. Ger. Tau) is a
very ancient one and its meaning must therefore be defined on
historical principles. According to the New English Dictionary,
it means " the moisture deposited in minute drops upon any cool
surface by condensation of the vapour of the atmosphere; formed
after a hot day, during or towards night and plentiful in the early
morning." Huxley in his Physiography makes the addition
" without production of mist." The formation of mist is not
necessary for the formation of dew, nor does it necessarily
prevent it. If the deposit of moisture is in the form of ice instead
of water it is called hoarfrost. The researches of Aitken suggest
that the words " by condensation of the vapour in the atmo-
sphere " might be omitted from the definition. He has given
reasons for believing that the large dewdrops on the leaves of
plants, the most characteristic of all the phenomena of dew, are
to be accounted for, in large measure at least, by the exuding of
drops of water from the plant through the pores of the leaves
themselves. The formation of dewdrops in such cases is the con-
tinuation of the irrigation process of the plant for supplying the
leaves with water from the soil. The process is set up in full
vigour in the daytime to maintain tolerable thermal conditions
at the surface of the leaf in the hot sun, and continued after the
sun has gone.

On the other hand, the most typical physical experiment illus-
trating the formation of dew is the production of a deposit oi
moisture, in minute drops, upon the exterior surface of a glass
or polished metal vessel by the cooling of a liquid contained in the
vessel. If the liquid is water, it can be cooled by pieces of ice;
if volatile like ether, by bubbling air through it. No deposit is
formed by this process until the temperature is reduced to a point
which, from that circumstance, has received a special name,
although it depends upon the state of the air round the vessel.
So generally accepted is the physical analogy between the natural
formation of dew and its artificial production in the manner
described, that the point below which the temperature of a
surface must be reduced in order to obtain the deposit is known
as the " dew-point."

In the view of physicists the dew-point is the temperature at
which, by being cooled without change of pressure, the air becomes
saturated with water vapour, not on account of any increase of
supply of that compound, but by the diminution of the capacity
of the air for holding it in the gaseous condition. Thus, when
the dew-point temperature has been determined, the pressure of
water vapour in the atmosphere at the time of the deposit is given
by reference to a taole of saturation pressures of water vapour
at different temperatures. As it is a well-established proposition
that the pressure of the water vapour in the air does not vary
while the air is being cooled without change of its total external
pressure, the saturation pressure at the dew-point gives the
pressure of water vapour in the air when the cooling commenced.
Thus the artificial formation of dew and consequent determination
of the dew-point is a recognized method of measuring the pressure,
and thence the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. The
dew-point method is indeed in some ways a fundamental method
of hygrometry.

The dew-point is a matter of really vital consequence in the
question of the oppressiveness of the atmosphere or its reverse.
So long as the dew-point is low, high temperature does not matter,
but when the dew-point begins to approach the normal tempera-
ture of the human body the atmosphere becomes insupportable.

The physical explanation of the formation of dew consists
practically in determining the process or processes by which
leaves, blades of grass, stones, and other objects in the open air
upon which dew may be observed, become cooled " below the
dew-point."

Formerly, from the time of Aristotle at least, dew was supposed
to " fall." That view of the process was not extinct at the time
of Wordsworth and poets might even now use the figure without
reproach. To Dr Charles Wells of London belongs the credit of
bringing to a focus the ideas which originated with the study of

136

DEW

radiation at the beginning of the loth century, and which are
expressed by saying that the cooling necessary to produce dew
on exposed surfaces is to be attributed to the radiation from the
surfaces to a clear sky. He gave an account of the theory of
automatic cooling by radiation, which has found a place in
all text-books of physics, in his first Essay on Dew published
in 1818. The theory is supported in that and in a second essay
by a number of well-planned observations, and the essays are
indeed models of scientific method. The process of the formation
of dew as represented by Wells is a simple one. It starts from the
point of view that all bodies are constantly radiating heat, and
cool automatically unless they receive a corresponding amount
of heat from other bodies by radiation or conduction. Good
radiators, which are at the same time bad conductors of heat,
such as blades of grass, lose heat rapidly on a clear night by
radiation to the sky and become cooled below the dew-point of
the atmosphere.

The question was very fully studied by Mellon! and others, but
little more was added to the explanation given by Wells until
1885, when John Aitken of Falkirk called attention to the question
whether the water of dewdrops on plants or stones came from the
air or the earth, and described a number of experiments to show
that under the conditions of observation in Scotland, it was the
earth from which the moisture was probably obtained, either by
the operation of the vascular system of plants in the formation
of exuded dewdrops, or by evaporation and subsequent condensa-
tion in the lowest layer of the atmosphere. Some controversy
was excited by the publication of Aitken's views, and it is inter-
esting to revert to it because it illustrates a proposition which is of
general application in meteorological questions, namely, that the
physical processes operative in the evolution of meteorological
phenomena are generally complex. It is not radiation alone that
is necessary to produce dew, nor even radiation from a body
which does not conduct heat. The body must be surrounded
by an atmosphere so fully supplied with moisture that the dew-
point can be passed by the cooling due to radiation. Thus the
conditions favourable for the formation of dew are (i) a good
radiating surf ace, (2) a still atmosphere, (3) aclearsky, (4) thermal
insulation of the radiating surface, (5) warm moist ground or
some other provision to produce a supply of moisture in the
surface layers of air.

Aitken's contribution to the theory of dew shows that in
considering the supply of moisture we must take into con-
sideration the ground as well as the air and concern ourselves
with the temperature of both. Of the five conditions mentioned,
the first four may be considered necessary, but the fifth is very
important for securing a copious deposit. It can hardly be
maintained that no dew could form unless there were a supply
of water by evaporation from warm ground, but, when such a
supply is forthcoming, it is evident that in place of the limited
process of condensation which deprives the air of its moisture
and is therefore soon terminable, we have the process of
distillation which goes on as long as conditions are maintained.
This distinction is of some practical importance for it indicates
the protecting power of wet soil in favour of young plants as
against night frost. If distillation between the ground and the
leaves is set up, the temperature of the leaves cannot fall much
below the original dew-point because the supply of water for
condensation is kept up; but if the compensation for loss of
heat by radiation is dependent simply on the condensation of
water from the atmosphere, without renewal of the supply, the
dew-point will gradually -get lower as the moisture is deposited
and the process of cooling will go on.

In these questions we have to deal with comparatively large
changes taking place within a small range of level. It is with
the layer a few inches thick on either side of the surface that we are
principally concerned, and for an adequate comprehension of the
conditions close consideration is required. To illustrate this point
reference may be made to figs, i and 2, which represent the
condition of affairs at 10-40 P.M. on about the aoth of October
1885, according to observations by Aitken. Vertical distances
represent heights in feet, while the temperatures of the air and

Soil

/

1

If

1 °

I

Grour

rfl

evel

Earth 1

em per* t

ur?i

3

>* M

FIG. i

>° y.

Grass

the dew-point are represented by horizontal distances and their
variations with height by the curved lines of the diagram. The
line marked o is the ground level itself, a rather indefinite
quantity when the surface is grass. The whole vertical distance
represented is from 4 ft. above ground to i ft. below ground, and
the special phenomena
which we are consider-
ing take place in the
layer which represents
the rapid transition be-
tween the temperature
of the ground 3 in.
below the surface and
that of the air a few
inches above ground.

The point of interest
is to determine where
the dew-point curve and
dry-bulb curve will cut.
If they cut above the
surface, mist will result; if they cut at the surface, dew will be
formed. Below the surface, it may be assumed that the air is
saturated with moisture and any difference in temperature of the
dew-point is accompanied by distillation. It may be remarked,
by the way, that such distillation between soil layers of different
temperatures must be productive of the transference of large
quantities of water between different levels in the soil either
upward or downward according to the time of year.

These diagrams illustrate the importance of the warmth and
moisture of the ground in the phenomena which have been con-
sidered. From the surface there is a continual loss of heat going
on by radiation and a continual supply of warmth and moisture
from below. But while the heat can escape, the moisture cannot.
Thus the dry-bulb line is deflected to the left as it approaches
the surface, the dew-point line to the right. Thus the effect of the
moisture of the ground is to cause the lines to approach. In the
case of grass, fig. 2, the deviation of the dry-bulb line to the left
to form a sharp minimum of temperature at the surface is well
shown. The dew-point line is also shown diverted to the left to
the same point as the dry-bulb; but that could only happen if
there were so copious a condensation from the atmosphere as
actually to make the air drier at the surface than up above. In
diagram i, for soil, the effect on air temperature and moisture
is shown; the two lines converge to cut at the surface where a
dew deposit will be formed. Along the underground line there
must be a gradual creeping of heat and moisture towards the
surface by distillation, the more rapid the greater the temperature
gradient.

The amount of dew deposited is considerable, and, in tropical
countries, is sometimes sufficiently heavy to be collected by
gutters and spouts, but it is not generally regarded as a large
percentage of the total rainfall. Loesche estimates the amount
of dew for a single night on the Loango coast at 3 mm., but the
estimate seems a high one. Measurements go to show that the
depth of water corresponding with the aggregate annual deposit
of dew is i in. to 1-5 in. near London (G. Dines), 1-2 in. at Munich
(Wollny), 0-3 in. at Montpellier (Crova), 1-6 in. at Tenbury,
Worcestershire (Badgley).

With the question of the amount of water collected as dew, that
of the maintenance of " dew ponds " is intimately associated.
The name is given to certain isolated ponds on the upper levels
of the chalk downs of the south of England and elsewhere. Some
of these ponds are very ancient, as the title of a work on Neolithic
Dewponds by A. J. and G. Hubbard indicates. Their name
seems to imply the hypothesis that they depend upon dew and
not entirely upon rain for their maintenance as a source of water
supply for cattle, for which they are used. The question has been
discussed a good deal, but not settled; the balance of evidence
seems to be against the view that dew deposits make any
important contribution to the supply of water. The construction
of dew ponds is, however, still practised on traditional lines, and
it is said that a new dew pond has first to be filled artificially.

DEWAN— D'EWES

137

It does not come into existence by the gradual accumulation of
water in an impervious basin.

AUTHORITIES. — For Dew, see the two essays by Dr Charles Wells
(London, 1818), also " An Essay on Dew," edited by Casella
(London, 1866), Longmans', with additions by Strachan; Melloni,
Pogg. Ann. Ixxi. pp. 416, 424 and Ixxiii. p. 467; Jamin, " Comple-
ments 4 la theone de la ros6e," Journal de physique, viii. p. 41 ;
J. Aitken, on " Dew," Trans. Roy. Soc. of Edinburgh, xxxiii., part i.
2, and " Nature," vol. xxxiii. p. 256; C. Tomlinson, " Remarks on
a new Theory of Dew," Phil. Mag. (1886), 5th series, vol. 21,
p. 483 and vol. 22, p. 270; Russell, Nature, vol. 47, p. 210; also
Met. Zeit. (1893), p. 390; Hpmen, Bodenphysikalische und meteoro-
logische Beobachtungen (Berlin, 1894), iii. ; Taubildung, p. 88, &c. ;
Rubenson, " Die Temperatur- und Feuchtigkeitsverhaltnisse in den
unteren Luftschichten bei der Taubildung," Met. Zeit. xi. (1876),
p. 65 ; H. E. Hamberg, " Temperature et humidite de 1'air £ differ-
entes hauteurs a Upsal," Soc. R. des sciences d'Upsal (1876) ; review
in Met. Zeit. xii. (1877), p. 105.

For Dew Ponds, see Stephen Hales, Statical Essays, vol. i., experi-
ment xix., pp. 52-57 (2nd ed., London, 1731) ; Gilbert White, Natural
History and Antiquities of Selborne, letter xxix. (London, 1789) ; Dr C.
Wells, An Essay on Dew (London, 1818, 1821 and 1866) ; Rev. J. C.
Clutterbuck, " Prize Essay on Water Supply," Journ. Roy. Agric.
Soc., 2nd series, vol. i. pp. 271-287 (1865); Field and Symons,
" Evaporation from the Surface of Water," Brit.Assoc. Rep. (1869),
sect., pp. 25, 26; J. Lucas, " Hydrogeology : One of the Develop-
ments of Modern Practical Geology, Trans. Inst. Surveyors, vol.
ix. pp. 153-232 (1877); H. P. Slade, "A Short Practical Treatise
on Dew Ponds" (London, 1877); Clement Reid, "The Natural
History of Isolated Ponds," Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists'
Society, vol. v. pp. 272-286 (1892); Professor G. S. Brady, On the
Nature and Origin of Freshwater Faunas (1899) ; Professor L. C. M jail,
" Dew Ponds," Reports of the British Association (Bradford Meeting,
1900), pp. 579-585; A. J. and G. Hubbard, " Neolithic Dewponds
and Cattle-Ways " (London, 1904, 1907). (W. N. S.)

DEWAN or DIWAN, an Oriental term for finance minister.
The word is derived from the Arabian diwan, and is commonly
used in India to denote a minister of the Mogul government, or
in modern days the prime minister of a native state. It was in
the former sense that the grant of the dewanny to the East India
Company in 1765 became the foundation of the British empire
in India.

DEWAR, SIR JAMES (1842- ), British chemist and
physicist, was born at Kincardine-on-Forth, Scotland, on the
zoth of September 1842. He was educated at Dollar Academy
and Edinburgh University, being at the latter first a pupil, and
afterwards the assistant, of Lord Playfair, then professor of
chemistry; he also studied under Kekule at Ghent. In 1875
he was elected Jacksonian professor of natural experimental
philosophy at Cambridge, becoming a fellow of Peterhouse, and
in 1877 he succeeded Dr J. H. Gladstone as Fullerian professor of
chemistry in the Royal Institution, London. He was president
of the Chemical Society in 1897, and of the British Association
in 1902, served on the Balfour Commission on London Water
Supply (1893-1894), and as a member of the Committee
on Explosives (1888-1891) invented cordite jointly with Sir
Frederick Abel. His scientific work covers a wide field. Of his
earlier papers, some deal with questions of organic chemistry,
others with Graham's hydrogenium and its physical constants,
others with high temperatures, e.g. the temperature of the sun
and of the electric spark, others again with electro-photometry
and the chemistry of the electric arc. With Professor J. G.
M'Kendrick, of Glasgow, he investigated the physiological
action of light, and examined the changes which take place in
the electrical condition of the retina under its influence. With
Professor G. D. Liveing, one of his colleagues at Cambridge, he
began in 1878 a long series of spectroscopic observations, the later
of which were devoted to the spectroscopic examination of
various gaseous constituents separated from atmospheric air by
the aid of low temperatures; and he was joined by Professor
J. A. Fleming, of University College, London, in the investigation
of the electrical behaviour of substances cooled to very low
temperatures. His name is most widely known in connexion
with his work on the liquefaction of the so-called permanent
gases and his researches at temperatures approaching the zero
of absolute temperature. His interest in this branch of inquiry
dates back at least as far as 1874, when he discussed the " Latent
Heat of Liquid Gases " before the British Association. In 1878

he devoted a Friday evening lecture at the Royal Institution to
the then recent work of L. P. Cailletet and R. P. Pictet, and
exhibited for the first time in Great Britain the working of the
Cailletet apparatus. • Six years later, in the same place, he
described the researches of Z. F. Wroblewski and K. S. Olszewski,
and illustrated for the first time in public the liquefaction of
oxygen and air, by means of apparatus specially designed for
optical projection so that the actions taking place might be
visible to the audience. Soon afterwards he constructed a
machine from which the liquefied gas could be drawn off through
a valve for use as a cooling agent, and he showed its employment
for this purpose in connexion with some researches on meteorites ;
about the same time he also obtained oxygen in the solid state.
By 1891 he had designed and erected at the Royal Institution an
apparatus which yielded liquid oxygen by the pint, and towards
the end of that year he showed that both liquid oxygen and liquid
ozone are strongly attracted by a magnet. About 1892 the idea
occurred to him of using vacuum-jacketed vessels for the storage
of liquid gases, and so efficient did this device prove in preventing
the influx of external heat that it is found possible not only to
preserve the liquids for comparatively long periods, but also to
keep them so free from ebullition that examination of their optical
properties becomes possible. He next experimented with a high-
pressure hydrogen jet by which low temperatures were realized
through the Thomson- Joule effect, and the successful results thus
obtained led him to build at the Royal Institution the large
refrigerating machine by which in 1898 hydrogen was for the
first time collected in the liquid state, its solidification following
in 1809. Later he investigated the gas-absorbing powers of
charcoal when cooled to low temperatures, and applied them to
the production of high vacua and to gas analysis (see LIQUID
GASES). The Royal Society in 1894 bestowed the Rumford
medal upon him for his work in the production of low tempera-
tures, and in 1899 he became the first recipient of the Hodgkins
gold medal of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, for his
contributions to our knowledge of the nature and properties of
atmospheric air. In 1904 he was the first British subject to
receive the Lavoisier medal of the French Academy of Sciences,
and in 1906 he was the first to be awarded the Matteucci medal
of the Italian Society of Sciences. He was knighted in 1904,
and in 1908 he was awarded the Albert medal of the Society of
Arts.

DEWAS, two native states of India, in the Malwa Political
Charge of Central India, founded in the first half of the i8th
century by two brothers, Punwar Mahrattas, who came into
Malwa with the peshwa, Baji Rao, in 1728. Their descendants
are known as the senior and junior branches of the family, and
since 1841 each has ruled his own portion as a separate state,
though the lands belonging to each are so intimately entangled,
that even in Dewas, the capital town, the two sides of the main
street are under different administrations and have different
arrangements for water supply and lighting. The senior branch
has an area of 446 sq. m. and a population of 62,312, while the
area of the junior branch is 440 sq. m. and its population 54,904.

DEWBERRY, Rubus caesius, a trailing plant, allied to the
bramble, of the natural order Rosaceae. It is common in woods,
hedges and the borders of fields in England and other countries
of Europe. The leaves have three leaflets, are hairy beneath,
and of a dusky green; the flowers which appear in June and July
are white, or pale rose-coloured. The fruit is large, and closely
embraced by the calyx, and consists of a few drupules, which are
black, with a glaucous bloom; it has an agreeable acid taste.

DEW-CLAW, the rudimentary toes, two in number, or the
"false hoof" of the deer, sometimes also called the "nails."
In dogs the dew-claw is the rudimentary toe or hallux (corre-
sponding to the big toe in man) hanging loosely attached to the
skin, low down on the hinder part of the leg. The origin of the
word is unknown, but it has been fancifully suggested that, while
the other toes touch the ground in walking, the dew-claw merely
brushes the dew from the grass.

D'EWES, SIR SIMONDS, Bart. (1602- t6so), English anti-
quarian, eldest son of Paul D'Ewes of Milden, Suffolk, and of

DE WET— DE WETTE

Cecilia, daughter and heir of Richard Simonds, of Coaxdon or
Coxden, Dorsetshire, was born on the i8th of December 1602,
and educated at the grammar school of Bury St Edmunds, and
at St John's College, Cambridge. He had been admitted to
the Middle Temple in 1611, and was called to the bar in 1623,
when he immediately began his collections of material and his
studies in history and antiquities. In 1626 he married Anne,
daughter and heir of Sir William Clopton, of Luton's Hall in
Suffolk, through whom he obtained a large addition to his already
considerable fortune. On the 6th of December he was knighted.
He took an active part as a strong Puritan and member of the
moderate party in the opposition to the king's arbitrary govern-
ment in the Long Parliament of 1640, in which he sat as member
for Sudbury. On the isth of July he was created a baronet by
the king, but nevertheless adhered to the parliamentary party
when war broke out, and in 1643 took the Covenant. He was
one of the members expelled by Pride's Purge in 1648, and died
on the i8th of April 1650. He had married secondly Elizabeth,
daughter of Sir Henry Willoughby, Bart., of Risley in Derbyshire,
by whom he had a son, who succeeded to his estates and title,
the latter becoming extinct on the failure of male issue in 1731.
D'Ewes appears to have projected a work of very ambitious
scope, no less than the whole history of England based on original
documents. But though excelling as a collector of materials,
and as a laborious, conscientious and accurate transcriber, he had
little power of generalization or construction, and died without
publishing anything except an uninteresting tract, The Primitive
Practice for Preserving Truth (1645), and some speeches. His
Journals of all the Parliaments during the Reign of Queen
Elizabeth, however, a valuable work, was published in 1682. His
large collections, including transcripts from ancient records, many
of the originals of which are now dispersed or destroyed, are in
the Harleian collection in the British Museum. His unprinted
Diaries from 1621-1624 and from 1643-1647, the latter valuable
for the notes of proceedings in parliament, are often the only
authority for incidents and speeches during that period, and are
amusing from the glimpses the diarist affords of his own character,
his good estimation of himself and his little jealousies; some are
in a cipher and some in Latin.

Extracts from his Autobiography and Correspondence from the
MSS. in the British Museum were published by J. O. Halliwell-
Phillips in 1845, by Hearne in the appendix to his Historic, vitae et
regni Ricardi II. (1729), and in the Bibliotheca topographica Britan-
nica, No. xv. vol. vi. (1783); and from a Diary of later date, College
Life in the Time of James I. (1851). His Diaries have been extensively
drawn upon by Forster, Gardiner, and by Sanford in his Studies of
the Great Rebellion. Some of his speeches have been reprinted in the
Harleian Miscellany and in the Somers Tracts.

DE WET, CHRISTIAN (1854- ), Boer general and poli-
tician, was born on the 7th of October 1854 at Leeuwkop,
Smithfield district (Orange Free State), and later resided at
Dewetsdorp. He served in the first Anglo-Boer War of 1880-81
as a field cornet, and from 1881 to 1896 he lived on his farm,
becoming in 1897 member of the Volksraad. He took part in the
earlier battles of the Boer War of 1899 in Natal as a commandant
and later, as a general, he went to serve under Cronje in the west.
His first successful action was the surprise of Sanna's Post near
Bloemfontein, which was followed by the victory of Reddersburg
a little later. Thenceforward he came to be regarded more and
more as the most formidable leader of the Boers in their guerrilla
warfare. Sometimes severely handled by the British, sometimes
escaping only by the narrowest margin of safety from the columns
which attempted to surround him, and falling upon and annihilat-
ing isolated British posts, De Wet continued to the end of the war
his successful career, striking heavily where he could do so and
skilfully evading every attempt to bring him to bay. He took an
active part in the peace negotiations of 1902, and at the conclusion
of the war he visited Europe with the other Boer generals. While
in England the generals sought, unavailingly, a modification
of the terms of peace concluded at Pretoria. De Wet wrote an
account of his campaigns, an English version of which appeared in
November 1902 under the title Three Years' War. In November,
1907 he was elected a member of the first parliament of the

Orange River Colony and was appointed minister of agriculture.
In 1908-9 he was a delegate to the Closer Union Convention.

DE WETTE, WILHELM MARTIN LEBERECHT (1780-1849),
German theologian, was born on the I2th of January 1780, at
Ulla, near Weimar, where his father was pastor. He was sent
to the gymnasium at Weimar, then at the height of its literary
glory. Here he was much influenced by intercourse with Johann
Gottfried Herder, who frequently examined at the school. In
1799 he entered on his theological studies at Jena, his principal
teachers being J. J. Griesbach and H. E. G. Pauius, from the
latter of whom he derived his tendency to free critical inquiry.
Both in methods and in results, however, he occupied an almost
solitary position among German theologians. Having taken his
doctor's degree, he became privat-docent at Jena; in 1807
professor of theology at Heidelberg, where he came under the
influence of J. F. Fries (1773-1843); and in 1810 was transferred
to a similar chair in the newly founded university of Berlin, where
he enjoyed the friendship of Schleiermacher. He was, however,
dismissed from Berlin in 1819 on account of his having written a
letter of consolation to the mother of Karl Ludwig Sand, the
murderer of Kotzebue. A petition in his favour presented by the
senate of the university was unsuccessful, and a decree was issued
not only depriving him of the chair, but banishing him from the
Prussian kingdom. He retired for a time to Weimar, where he
occupied his leisure in the preparation of his edition of Luther,
and in writing the romance Theodor oder die Weihe des Ziveiflers
(Berlin, 1822), in which he describes the education of an evan-
gelical pastor. During this period he made his first essay in
preaching, and proved himself to be possessed of very popular
gifts. But in 1822 he accepted the chair of theology in the
university of Basel, which had been reorganized four years before.
Though his appointment had been strongly opposed by the
orthodox party, De Wette soon won for himself great influence
both in the university and among the people generally. He was
admitted a citizen, and became rector of the university, which
owed to him much of its recovered strength, particularly in
the theological faculty. He died on the i6th of June 1849.

De Wette has been described by Julius Wellhausen as " the
epoch-making opener of the historical criticism of the Penta-
teuch." He prepared the way for the Supplement-theory. But
he also made valuable contributions to other branches of theology.
He had, moreover, considerable poetic faculty, and wrote a drama
in three acts, entitled Die Entsagung (Berlin, 1823). He had an
intelligent interest in art, and studied ecclesiastical music and
architecture. As a Biblical critic he is sometimes classed with
the destructive school, but, as Otto Pfleiderer says (Development
of Theology, p. 102), he " occupied as free a position as the
Rationalists with regard to the literal authority of the creeds
of the church, but that he sought to give their due value to the
religious feelings, which the Rationalists had not done, and, with
a more unfettered mind towards history, to maintain the con-
nexion of the present life of the church with the past." His works
are marked by exegetical skill, unusual power of condensation
and uniform fairness. Accordingly they possess value which is
little affected by the progress of criticism.

The most important of his works are: — Beitrage zur Einleitung
in das Alte Testament (2 vols., 1806-1807); Kommentar uber die
Psalmen (1811), which has passed through several editions, and is
still regarded as of high authority ; Lehrbuch der hebraisch-jiidischen
Archdologie (1814); Uber Religion und Theologie (1815); a work of
great importance as showing its author's general theological position ;
Lehrbuch der christlichen Dogmatik (1813-1816); Lehrbuch der
historisch-kritischen Einleitung in die Bibel (1817); Christliche
Sittenlehre (1819-1821); Einleitung in das Neue Testament (1826);
Religion, ihr Wesen, ihre Erscheinungsform, und ihr Einfluss auf das
Leben (1827); Das Wesen des christlichen Glaubens (1846); and
Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Neuen Testament (1836-
1848). De Wette also edited Luther's works (5 vols., 1825-1828).

See K. R. Hagenbach in Herzog's Realencyklopiidie; G. C. F.
Lucke's W. M. L. De Wette, zur freundschaftlicher Erinnerung (1850) ;
and D. SchenkePs W. M. L. De Wette und die Bedeutung seiner
Theologie fur unsere Ze.it (1849). Rudolf Stahelin, De Wette nach
seiner theol. Wirksamkeit und Bedeutung (1880) ; F. Lichtenberger,
History of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century (1889) ; Otto
Pfleiderer, Development of Theology (1890), pp. 97 ft.; T. K. Cheyne,
Founders of the Old Testament Criticism, pp. 31 ff.

DEWEY— DE WINTER

139

DEWEY, DAVIS RICH (1858- ), American economist and
statistician, was born at Burlington, Vermont, U.S.A., on the 7th
of April 1858. He was educated at the university of Vermont and
at Johns Hopkins University, and afterwards became professor
of economics and statistics at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. He was chairman of the state board on the question
of the unemployed (1895), member of the Massachusetts com-
mission on public, charitable and reformatory interests (1897),
special expert agent on wages for the 12th census, and member of
a state commission (1904) on industrial relations. He wrote an
excellent Syllabus on Political History since 1815 (1887), a
Financial History of the U.S. ( 1 902) , and National Problems ( 1 907 ) .

DEWEY, GEORGE (1837- ), American naval officer, was
born at Montpelier, Vermont, on the 26th of December 1837.
He studied at Norwich University, then at Norwich, Vermont,
and graduated at the United States Naval Academy in 1858.
He was commissioned lieutenant in April 1861, and in the Civil
War served on the steamsloop " Mississippi " (1861-1863) during
Farragut's passage of the forts below New Orleans in April 1862,
and at Port Hudson in March 1863; took part in the fighting
below Donaldsonville, Louisiana, in July 1863; and in 1864-1865
served on the steam-gunboat " Agawam " with the North
Atlantic blockading squadron and took part in the attacks on
Fort Fisher in December 1864 and January 1865. In March 1865
he became a lieutenant-commander. He was with the European
squadron in 1866-1867; was an instructor in the United States
Naval Academy in 1868-1869; was in command of the " Nar-
ragansett " in 1870-1871 and 1872-1875, being commissioned
commander in 1872; was light-house inspector in 1876-1877;
and was secretary of the light-house board in 1877-1882. In
1884 he became a captain; in 1889-1893 was chief of the bureau
of equipment and recruiting; in 1893-1895 was a member of the
light-house board; and in 1895-1897 was president of the board
of inspection and survey, being promoted to the rank of com-
modore in February 1896. In November 1897 he was assigned,
at his own request, to sea service, and sent to Asiatic waters. In
April 1898, while with his fleet at Hong Kong, he was notified by
cable that war had begun between the United States and Spain,
and was ordered to " capture or destroy the Spanish fleet " then
in Philippine waters. On the ist of May he overwhelmingly
defeated the Spanish fleet under Admiral Montojo in Manila Bay,
a victory won without the loss of a man on the American ships
(see SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR). Congress, in a joint resolution,
tendered its thanks to Commodore Dewey, and to the officers and
men under his command, and authorized " the secretary of the
navy to present a sword of honor to Commodore George Dewey,
and cause to be struck bronze medals commemorating the battle
of Manila Bay, and to distribute such medals to the officers and
men of the ships of the Asiatic squadron of the United States."
He was promoted rear-admiral on the loth of May 1898. On
the 1 8th of August his squadron assisted in the capture of the
city of Manila. After remaining in the Philippines under orders
from his government to maintain control, Dewey received the
rank of admiral (March 3, 1899) — that title, formerly borne only
by Farragut and Porter, having been revived by act of Congress
(March 2, 1899), — and returned home, arriving in New York
City, where, on the 3rd of October 1899, he received a great
ovation. He was a member (1899) of the Schurman Philippine
Commission, and in 1899 and 1900 was spoken of as a possible
Democratic candidate for the presidency. He acted as president
of the Schley court of inquiry in 1901, and submitted a minority
report on a few details.

DEWEY, MELVIL (1851- ), American librarian, was born
at Adams Center, New York, on the loth of December 1851. He
graduated in 1874 at Amherst College, where he was assistant
librarian from 1874 to 1877. In 1877 he removed to Boston,
where he founded and became editor of The Library Journal,
which became an influential factor in the development of
libraries in America, and in the reform of their administration.
He was also one of the founders of the American Library Associa-
tion, of which he was secretary from 1876 to 1891, and president
in 1891 and 1893. In 1883 he became librarian of Columbia

College, and in the following year founded there the School of
Library Economy, the first institution for the instruction of
librarians ever organized. This school, which was very successful,
was removed to Albany in 1890, where it was re-established as the
State Library School under his direction; from 1888 to 1906 he
was director of the New York State Library and from 1888 to
1900 was secretary of the University of the State of New York,
completely reorganizing the state library, which he made one of
the most efficient in America, and establishing the system of
state travelling libraries and picture collections. His " Decimal
System of Classification " for library cataloguing, first proposed
in 1876, is extensively used.

DEWING, THOMAS WILMER (1851- ), American figure
painter, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 4th of May
1851. He was a pupil of Jules Lefebvre in Paris from 1876 to
1879; was elected a full member of the National Academy of
Design in 1888; was a member of the society of Ten American
Painters, New York; and received medals at the Paris Exhibition
(1889), at Chicago (1893), at Buffalo (1901) and at St Louis
(1904). His decorative genre pictures are notable for delicacy
and finish. Among his portraits are those of Mrs Stanford White
and of his own wife. Mrs Dewing (b, 1855), nee Maria Oakey, a
figure and flower painter, was a pupil of John La Farge in New
York, and of Couture in Paris.

DE WINT, PETER (1784-1849), English landscape painter,
of Dutch extraction, son of an English physician, was born at
Stone, Staffordshire, on the 2ist of January 1784. He studied
art in London, and in 1809 entered the Academy schools. In
1812 he became a member of the Society of Painters in Water-
colours, where he exhibited largely for many years, as well as at
the Academy. He married in 1810 the sister of William Hilton,
R.A. He died in London on the 30th of January 1849. DeWint's
life was devoted to art; he painted admirably in oils, and he ranks
as one of the chief English water-colourists. A number of his
pictures are in the National Gallery and the Victoria and Albert
Museum.

DE WINTER, JAN WILLEM (1750-1812), Dutch admiral, was
born at Kampen, and in 1761 entered the naval service at the
age of twelve years. He distinguished himself by his zeal and
courage, and at the revolution of 1787 he had reached the rank of
lieutenant. The overthrow of the " patriot " party forced him
to fly for his safety to France. Here he threw himself heart and
soul into the cause of the Revolution, and took part under
Dumouriez and Pichegru in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793, and
was soon promoted to the rank of brigadier-general. When
Pichegru in 1795 overran Holland, De Winter returned with the
French army to his native country. The states-general now uti-
lized the experience he had gained as a naval officer by giving him
the post of adjunct-general for the reorganization of the Dutch
navy. In 1796 he was appointed vice-admiral and commander-
in-chief of the fleet. He spared no efforts to strengthen it
and improve its condition, and on the nth of October 1797 he
ventured upon an encounter off Camperdown with the British
fleet under Admiral Duncan. After an obstinate struggle the
Dutch were defeated, and De Winter himself was taken prisoner.
He remained in England until December, when he was liberated
by exchange. His conduct in the battle of Camperdown was
declared by a court-martial to have nobly maintained the honour
of the Dutch flag.

From 1798 to 1802 De Winter filled the post of ambassador
to the French republic, and was then once more appointed com-
mander of the fleet. He was sent with a strong squadron to the
Mediterranean to repress the Tripoli piracies, and negotiated a
treaty of peace with the Tripolitan government. He enjoyed the
confidence of Louis Bonaparte, when king of Holland, and, after
the incorporation of the Netherlands in the French empire, in an
equal degree of the emperor Napoleon. By the former he was
created marshal and count of Huessen, and given the command of
the armed forces both by sea and land. Napoleon gave him the
grand cross of the Legion of Honour and appointed him inspector-
general of the northern coasts, and in 1811 he placed him at the
head of the fleet he had collected at the Texel. Soon afterwards

140

DE WITT— DEWLAP

De Winter was seized with illness and compelled to betake himself
to Paris, where he died on the 2nd of June 1812. He had a
splendid public funeral and was buried in the Pantheon. His
heart was enclosed in an urn and placed in the Nicolaas Kerk
at Kampen.

DE WITT, CORNELIUS (1623-1672), brother of John de Witt
(q.v.), was born at Dort in 1623. In 1650 he became burgo-
master of Dort and member of the states of Holland and West
Friesland. He was afterwards appointed to the important post
of ruwaard or governor of the land of Putten and bailiff of
Beierland. He associated himself closely with his greater
brother, the grand pensionary, and supported him throughout
his career with great ability and vigour. In 1667 he was the
deputy chosen by the states of Holland to accompany Admiral
de Ruyter in his famous expedition to Chatham. Cornelius
de Witt on this occasion distinguished himself greatly by his
coolness and intrepidity. He again accompanied De Ruyter in
1672 and took an honourable part in the great naval fight at
Sole Bay against the united English and French fleets. Compelled
by illness to leave the fleet, he found on his return to Dort that
the Orange party were in the ascendant, and he and his brother
were the objects of popular suspicion and hatred. An account
of his imprisonment, trial and death, is given below.

DE WITT, JOHN (1625-1672), Dutch statesman, was born at
Dort, on the 24th of September 1625. He was a member of one
of the old burgher-regent families of his native town. His father,
Jacob de Witt, was six times burgomaster of Dort, and for many
years sat as a representative of the town in the states of Holland.
He was a strenuous adherent of the repubh'can or oligarchical
states-right party in opposition to the princes of the house of
Orange, who represented the federal principle and had the support
of the masses of the people. John was educated at Leiden, and
early displayed remarkable talents, more especially in mathe-
matics and jurisprudence. In 1645 he and his elder brother
Cornelius visited France, Italy, Switzerland and England, and on
his return he took up his residence at the Hague, as an advocate.
In 1650 he was appointed pensionary of Dort, an office which
made him the leader and spokesman of the town's deputation in
the state of Holland. In this same year the states of Holland
found themselves engaged in a struggle for provincial supremacy,
on the question of the disbanding of troops, with the youthful
prince of Orange, William II. William, with the support of the
states-general and the army, seized five of the leaders of the
states-right party and imprisoned them in Loevestein castle;
among these was Jacob de Witt. The sudden death of William,
at the moment when he had crushed opposition, led to a reaction.
He left only a posthumous child, afterwards William III. of
Orange, and the principles advocated by Jacob de Witt triumphed,
and the authority of the states of Holland became predominant
in the repubh'c.

At this time of constitutional crisis such were the eloquence,
sagacity and business talents exhibited by the youthful
pensionary of Dort that on the 23rd of July 1653 he was
appointed to the office of grand pensionary (Raadpensionaris) of
Holland at the age of twenty-eight. He was re-elected in 1658,
1663 and 1668, and held office until his death in 1672. During
this period of nineteen years the general conduct of public affairs
and administration, and especially of foreign affairs, such was
the confidence inspired by his talents and industry, was largely
placed in his hands. He found in 1653 his country brought to
the brink of ruin through the war with England, which had been
caused by the keen commercial rivalry of the two maritime states.
The Dutch were unprepared, and suffered severely through the
loss of their carrying trade, and De Witt resolved to bring about
peace as soon as possible. The first demands of Cromwell were
impossible, for they aimed at the absorption of the two republics
into a single state, but at last in the autumn of 1654 peace was
concluded, by which the Dutch made large concessions and agreed
to the striking of the flag to English ships in the narrow seas. The
treaty included a secret article, which the states-general refused
to entertain, but which De Witt succeeded in inducing the states
of Holland to accept, by which the provinces of Holland pledged

themselves not to elect a stadtholder or a captain-general of the
union. This Act of Seclusion, as it was called, was aimed at the
young prince of Orange, whose close relationship to the Stuarts
made him an object of suspicion to the Protector. De Witt was
personally favourable to this exclusion of William III. from his
ancestral dignities, but there is no truth in the suggestion that
he prompted the action of Cromwell in this matter.

The policy of De Witt after the peace of 1654 was eminently
successful. He restored the finances of the state, and extended
its commercial supremacy in the East Indies. In 1658-59 he
sustained Denmark against Sweden, and in 1662 concluded an
advantageous peace with Portugal. The accession of Charles II.
to the English throne led to the rescinding of the Act of Seclusion;
nevertheless De Witt steadily refused to allow the prince of
Orange to be appointed stadtholder or captain-general. This led
to ill-will between the English and Dutch governments, and to
a renewal of the old grievances about maritime and commercial
rights, and war broke out in 1665. The zeal, industry and
courage displayed by the grand pensionary during the course of
this fiercely contested naval struggle could scarcely have been
surpassed. He himself on more than one occasion went to sea
with the fleet, and inspired all with whom he came in contact by
the example he set of calmness in danger, energy in action and
inflexible strength of will. It was due to his exertions as an
organizer and a diplomatist quite as much as to the brilliant
seamanship of Admiral de Ruyter, that the terms of the treaty
of peace signed at Breda (July 31, 1667), on the principle of
uti possidetis, were so honourable to the United Provinces. A
still greater triumph of diplomatic skill was the conclusion of the
Triple Alliance (January 17, 1668) between the Dutch Republic,
England and Sweden, which checked the attempt of Louis XIV.
to take possession of the Spanish Netherlands in the name of his
wife, the infanta Maria Theresa. The check, however, was but
temporary, and the French king only bided his time to take
vengeance for the rebuff he had suffered. Meanwhile William III.
was growing to manhood, and his numerous adherents throughout
the country spared no efforts to undermine the authority of De
Witt, and secure for the young prince of Orange the dignities and
authority of his ancestors.

In 1672 Louis XIV. suddenly declared war, and invaded
the United Provinces at the head of a splendid army. Practically
no resistance was possible. The unanimous voice of the people
called William III. to the head of affairs, and there were violent
demonstrations against John de Witt. His brother Cornelius
was (July 24) arrested on a charge of conspiring against the
prince. On the 4th of August John de Witt resigned the post
of grand pensionary that he had held so long and with such
distinction. Cornelius was put to the torture, and on the igth of
August he was sentenced to deprivation of his offices and banish-
ment. He was confined in the Gevangenpoort, and his brother
came to visit him in the prison. A vast crowd on hearing this
collected outside, and finally burst into the prison, seized the two
brothers and literally tore them to pieces. Their mangled remains
were hung up by the feet to a lamp-post. Thus perished, by the
savage act of an infuriated mob, one of the greatest statesmen of
his age.

John de Witt married Wendela Bicker, daughter of an influ-
ential burgomaster of Amsterdam, in 1655, by whom he had two
sons and three daughters.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — J. Geddes, History of the Administration of John
de Witt, (vol. i. only, London, 1879); A. Lefevre-Pontalis, Jean de
Witt, grand pensionnaire de Hollande (2 vols. , Paris, 1 884) ; P. Simons,
Johan de Witt en zijn tijd (3 vols., Amsterdam, 1832-1842); W. C.
Knottenbelt, Geschiedenis der Staatkunde van J. de Witt (Amsterdam,
1862); J. de Witt, Brieven . . . gewisselt tusschen den Heer Johan
de Witt . . . ende de gevolgmaghtigden v. d. staedt d. Vereen. Neder-
landen so in Vranckryck, Engelandt, Sweden, Denemarken, Poolen,
enz. 1652-69 (6 vols., The Hague, 1723-1725); Brieven . . . 1650-
1657 (1658) eerste deel bewerkt den R. Fruin uitgegeven d., C. W.
Kernkamp (Amsterdam, 1906).

DEWLAP (from the O.E. Iceppa, a lappet, or hanging fold;
the first syllable is of doubtful origin and the popular explana-
tion that the word means " the fold which brushes the dew "
is not borne out, according to the New English Dictionary, by the

DEWSBURY— DHAMMAPALA

141

equivalent words such as the Danish doglaeb, in Scandinavian
languages), the loose fold of skin hanging from the neck of cattle,
also applied to similar folds in the necks of other animals and
fowls, as the dog, turkey, &c. The American practice of branding
cattle by making a cut in the neck is known as a " dewlap brand."
The skin of the neck in human beings often becomes pendulous
with age, and is sometimes referred to humorously by the same
name.

DEWSBURY, a market town and municipal and parliamentary
borough in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on the river
Calder, 8 m. S.S.W. of Leeds, on the Great Northern, London
& North-Western, and Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Pop.
(1901) 28,060. The parish church of All Saints was for the most
part rebuilt in the latter half of the i8th century; the portions
still preserved of the original structure are mainly Early English.
The chief industries are the making of blankets, carpets, druggets
and worsted yarn ; and there are iron foundries and machinery
works. Coal is worked in the neighbourhood. The parliamentary
borough includes the adjacent municipal borough of Batley, and
returns one member. The municipal borough, incorporated in
1862, is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area,
1471 acres. Paulinus, first archbishop of York, about the year
627 preached in the district of Dewsbury, where Edwin, king
of Northumbria, whom he converted to Christianity, had a royal
mansion. At Kirklees, in the parish, are remains of a Cistercian
convent of the i2th century, in an extensive park, where tradition
relates that Robin Hood died and was buried.

DEXIPPUS, PUBLIUS HERENNIUS (c. A.D. 210-273), Greek
historian, statesman and general, was an hereditary priest of the
Eleusinian family of the Kerykes, and held the offices of archon
basileus and eponymus in Athens. When the Heruli overran
Greece and captured Athens (269), Dexippus showed great
personal courage and revived the spirit of patriotism among
his degenerate fellow-countrymen. A statue was set up in
his honour, the base of which, with an inscription recording
his services, has been preserved (Corpus Inscrr. Alticarum, iii.
No. 716). It is remarkable that the inscription is silent as to
his military achievements. Photius (cod. 82) mentions three
historical works by Dexippus, of which considerable fragments
remain: (i) Ta per' 'AMt-avSpov, an epitome of a similarly
named work by Arrian; (2) SKuSucd, a history of the wars
of Rome with the Goths (or Scythians) in the 3rd century;
(3) Xpwuo) iaropia, a chronological history from the earliest
times to the emperor Claudius Gothicus (270), frequently referred
to by the writers of the Augustan history. The work was
continued by Eunapius of Sardis down to 404. Photius speaks
very highly of the style of Dexippus, whom he places on a
level with Thucydides, an opinion by no means confirmed by the
fragments (C. W. Muller, F.H.G. iii. 666-687).

DEXTER, HENRY MARTYN (1821-1890), American clergy-
man and author, was born in Plympton, Massachusetts, on the
I3th of August 1821. He graduated at Yale in 1840 and at
the Andover Theological Seminary in 1844; was pastor of a
Congregational church in Manchester, New Hampshire, in
1844-1849, and of the Berkeley Street Congregational church,
Boston, in 1849-1867; was an editor of the Congregalionalist
in 1851-1866, of the Congregational Quarterly in 1859-1866,
and of the Congregationalist, with which the Recorder was
merged, from 1867 until his death in New Bedford, Mass., on the
i3th of November 1890. He was an authority on the history of
Congregationalism and was lecturer on that subject at the
Andover Theological Seminary in 1877-1879 ; he left his fine
library on the Puritans in America to Yale University. Among
his works are: Congregationalism, What it is, Whence it is,
How it works, Why it is better than any other Form of Church
Government, and its consequent Demands (1865), The Church
Polity of the Puritans the Polity of the New Testament (1870),
As to Roger Williams and His " Banishment" from the Massa-
chusetts Colony (1876), Congregationalism of the Last Three
Hundred Years, as seen in its Literature (1880), his most
important work, A Handbook of Congregationalism (1880), The
True Story of John Smyth, the "Se-Baptisl " (1881), Common Sense

as to Woman Suffrage (1885), and many reprints of pamphlets
bearing on early church history in New England, especially
Baptist controversies. His The England and Holland of the
Pilgrims was completed by his son, Morton Dexter (b. 1846),
and published in 1905.

DEXTER, TIMOTHY (1747-1806), American merchant, re-
markable for his eccen tricities, was born at Maiden , Massachu setts ,
on the 22nd of February 1747. He acquired considerable wealth
by buying up quantities of the depreciated continental currency,
which was ultimately redeemed by the Federal government at
par. He assumed the title of Lord Dexter and built extraordinary
houses at Newburyport, Mass., and Chester, New Hampshire.
He maintained a poet laureate and collected inferior pictures,
besides erecting in one of his gardens some forty colossal statues
carved in wood to represent famous men. A statue of him-
self was included in the collection, and had for an inscription
" I am the first in the East, the first in the West, and the greatest
philosopher in the Western World." He wrote a book entitled
Pickle for the Knowing Ones. It was wholly without punctuation
marks, and as this aroused comment, he published a second
edition, at the end of which was a page displaying nothing but
commas and stops, from which the readers were invited to " peper
and solt it as they plese." He beat his wife for not weeping
enough at the rehearsal of his funeral, which he himself carried
out in a very elaborate manner. He died at Newburyport on the
26th of October 1806.

DEXTRINE (BRITISH GUM, STARCH GUM, LEIOCOME),
(C«HtoO|)*, a substance produced from starch by the action of
dilute acids, or by roasting it at a temperature between 170°
and 240° C. It is manufactured by spraying starch with 2 % nitric
acid, drying in air, and then heating to about 110°. Different
modifications are known, e.g. amylodextrine, erythrodextrine and
achroodextrine. Its name has reference to its powerful dextro-
rotatory action on polarized light. Pure dextrine is an insipid,
odourless, white substance; commercial dextrine is sometimes
yellowish, and contains burnt or unchanged starch. It dissolves
in water and dilute alcohol; by strong alcohol it is precipitated
from its solutions as the hydrated compound, C6H10O5-H2O.
Diastase converts it eventually into maltose, CuHstOu; and by
boiling with dilute acids (sulphuric, hydrochloric, acetic) it is
transformed into dextrose, or ordinary glucose, CeH^Oe. It
does not ferment in contact with yeast, and does not reduce
Fehling's solution. If heated with strong nitric acid it gives
oxalic, and not mucic acid. Dextrine much resembles gum
arabic, for which it is generally substituted. It is employed for
sizing paper, for stiffening cotton goods, and for thickening
colours in calico printing, also in the making of lozenges, adhesive
stamps and labels, and surgical bandages.

See Otto Lueger, Lexikon der gesamten Technik.

DEY (an adaptation of the Turk, ddi, a maternal uncle), an
honorary title formerly bestowed by the Turks on elderly men,
and appropriated by the janissaries as the designation of their
commanding officers. In Algeria the deys of the janissaries
became in the I7th century rulers of that country (see ALGERIA:
History). From the middle of the i6th century to the end of the
1 7th century the ruler of Tunisia was also called dey, a title
frequently used during the same period by the sovereigns of
Tripoli.

DHAMMAPALA, the name of one of the early disciples of
the Buddha, and therefore constantly chosen as their name in
religion by Buddhist novices on their entering the brotherhood.
The most famous of the Bhikshus so named was the great
commentator who lived in the latter half of the sth century A.D.
at the Badara Tittha Vihara, near the east coast of India, just a
little south of where Madras now stands. It is to him we owe the
commentaries on seven of the shorter canonical books, consisting
almost entirely of verses, and also the commentary on the Netti,
perhaps the oldest Pali work outside the canon. Extracts from
the latter work, and the whole of three out of the seven others,
have been published by the Pali Text Society. These works
show great learning, exegetical skill and sound judgment. But
as Dhammapala confines himself rigidly either to questions of

142

DHANIS— DHARAMPUR

the meaning of words, or to discussions of the ethical import of
his texts, very little can be gathered from his writings of value
for the social history of his time. For the right interpretation of
the difficult texts on which he comments, they are indispensable.
Though in all probability a Tamil by birth, he declares, in the
opening lines of those of his works that have been edited, that he
followed the tradition of the Great Minster at Anuradhapura in
Ceylon, and the works themselves confirm this in every respect.
Hsiian Tsang, the famous Chinese pilgrim, tells a quaint story
of a Dhammapala of Kanchipura (the modern Konjevaram).
He was a son of a high official, and betrothed to a daughter of the
king, but escaped on the eve of the wedding feast, entered the
order, and attained to reverence and distinction. It is most
likely that this story, whether legendary or not (and Hsiian
Tsang heard the story at Kanchipura nearly two centuries after
the date of Dhammapala), referred to this author. But it may
also refer, as Hsiian Tsang refers it, to another author of the same
name. Other unpublished works, besides those mentioned above,
have been ascribed to Dhammapala, but it is very doubtful
whether they are really by him.

AUTHORITIES. — T.Watters, On Yuan Chwang (ed. Rhys Davidsand
Bushell, London, 1905), ii. 169, 228; Edmund Hardy in Zeitschrift
der deutschen morgenldndischen Gesellschaft (1898), pp. 97 foil.; Netti
(ed. E. Hardy, London, Pali Text Society, 1902), especially the
Introduction, passim', Then Gathd Commentary, Peta Vctthu
Commentary, and Vimdna Vatthu Commentary, all three published
by the Pali Text Society. (T. W. R. D.)

DHANIS, FRANCIS, BARON (1861-1909), Belgian adminis-
trator, was born in London in 1861 and passed the first fourteen
years of his life at Greenock, where he received his early educa-
tion. He was the son of a Belgian merchant and of an Irish lady
named Maher. The name Dhanis is supposed to be a varia-
tion of D'Anvers. Having completed his education at the Ecole
Militaire he entered the Belgian army, joining the regiment of
grenadiers, in which he rose to the rank of major. As soon as he
reached the rank of lieutenant he volunteered for service on the
Congo, and in 1887 he went out for a first term. He did so well
in founding new stations north of the Congo that, when the
government decided to put an end to the Arab domination on the
Upper Congo, he was selected to command the chief expedition
sent against the slave dealers. The campaign began in April
1892, and it was not brought to a successful conclusion till
January 1894. The story of this war has been told in detail by
Dr Sydney Hinde, who took part in it, in his book The Fall of
the Congo Arabs. The principal achievements of the campaign
were the captures in succession of the three Arab strongholds at
Nyangwe, Kassongo and Kabambari. For his services Dhanis
was raised to the rank of baron, and in 1895 was made vice-
governor of the Congo State. In 1896 he took command of an
expedition to the Upper Nile. His troops, largely composed
of the Batetela tribes who had only been recently enlisted,
and who had been irritated by the execution of some of their
chiefs for indulging their cannibal proclivities, mutinied and
murdered many of their white officers. Dhanis found himself
confronted with a more formidable adversary than even the Arabs
in these well-armed and half-disciplined mercenaries. During
two years (1897-1898) he was constantly engaged in a life-and-
death struggle with them. Eventually he succeeded in breaking
up the several bands formed out of his mutinous soldiers.
Although the incidents of the Batetela operations were less
striking than those of the Arab war, many students of both
think that the Belgian leader displayed the greater ability and
fortitude in bringing them to a successful issue. In 1899
Baron Dhanis returned to Belgium with the honorary rank of
vice governor-general. He died on the i4th of November 1909.

DHAR, a native state of India, in the Bhopawar agency,
Central India. It includes many Rajput and Bhil feudatories,
and has an area of 1775 sq. m. The raja is a Punwar Mahratta.
The founder of the present ruling family was Anand Rao Punwar,
a descendant of the great Paramara clan of Rajputs who from
the gth to the i3th century, when they were driven out by the
Mahommedans, had ruled over Malwa from their capital at Dhar.
In 1742 Anand Rao received Dhar as a fief from Baji Rao, the

peshwa, the victory of the Mahrattas thus restoring the sovereign
power to the family whkh seven centuries before had been
expelled from this very city and country. Towards the close of
the 1 8th and in the early part of the igth century, the state was
subject to a series of spoliations by Sindia and Hoikar, and was
only preserved from destruction by the talents and courage of the
adoptive mother of the fifth raja. By a treaty of 1819 Dhar
passed under British protection, and bound itself to act in sub-
ordinate co-operation. The state was confiscated for rebellion
in 1857, but in 1860 was restored to Raja Anand Rao Punwar,
then a minor, with the exception of the detached district of
Bairusia, which was granted to the begum of Bhopal. Anand
Rao, who received the personal title Maharaja and the K.C.S.I. in
1877, died in 1898, and was succeeded by Udaji Rao Punwar.
In 1901 the population was 142,115. The state includes the
ruins of Mandu, or Mandogarh, the Mahommedan capital of
Malwa.

The TOWN OF DHAR is 33 m. W. of Mhow, 908 ft. above the sea.
Pop. (1901) 17,792. It is picturesquely situated among lakes
and trees surrounded by barren hills, and possesses, besides its
old walls, many interesting buildings, Hindu and Mahommedan,
some of them containing records of a great historical importance.
The Lat Masjid, or Pillar Mosque, was built by Dilawar Khan in
1405 out of the remains of Jain temples. It derives its name from
an iron pillar, supposed to have been originally set up at the
beginning of the i3th century in commemoration of a victory, and
bearing a later inscription recording the seven days' visit to the
town of the emperor Akbar in 1598. The pillar, which was 43 ft.
high, is now overthrown and broken. The Kamal Maula is an
enclosure containing four tombs, the most notable being that of
Shaikh Kamal Maulvi (Kamal-ud-din), a follower of the famous
13th-century Mussulman saint Nizam-ud-din Auliya.1 The
mosque known as Raja Bhoj's school was built out of Hindu
remains in the I4th or i$th century: its name is derived from the
slabs, covered with inscriptions giving rules of Sanskrit grammar,
with which it is paved. On a small hill to the north of the town
stands the fort, a conspicuous pile of red sandstone, said to
have been built by Mahommed ben Tughlak of Delhi in the
1 4th century. It contains the palace of the raja. Of modern
institutions may be mentioned the high school, public library,
hospital, and the chapel, school and hospital of the Canadian
Presbyterian mission. There is also a government opium depot
for the payment of duty, the town being a considerable centre
for the trade in opium as well as in grain.

The town, the name of which is usually derived from Dhara Nagari
(the city of sword blades), is of great antiquity, and was made the
capital of the Paramara chiefs of Malwa by Vairisinha II., who trans-
ferred his headquarters hither from Ujjain at the close of the 9th
century. During the rule of the Paramara dynasty Dhar was famous
throughout India as a centre of culture and learning; but, after
suffering various vicissitudes, it was finally conquered by the
Mussulmans at the beginning of the lAthcentury. At the close of the
century Dilawar Khan, the builder of the Lat Masjid, who had been
appointed governor in 1399, practically established his independence,
his son Hoshang Shah being the first Mahommedan king of Malwa.
Under this dynasty Dhar was second in importance to the capital
Mandu. Subsequently, in the time of Akbar, Dhar fell under the
dominion of the Moguls, in whose hands it remained till 1730, when
it was conquered by the Mahrattas.

See Imperial Gazetteer of India (Oxford, 1908).

DHARAMPUR, a native state of India, in the Surat political
agency division of Bombay, with an area of 704 sq. m. The
population in 1901 was 100,430, being a decrease of 17% during
the decade ; the estimated gross revenue is £25,412 ; and the
tribute £600. Its chief is a Sesodia Rajput. The state has been
surveyed for land revenue on the Bombay system. It contains
one town, Dharampur (pop. in 1901, 63,449), and 272 villages.
Only a small part of the state, the climate of which is very
unhealthy, Is capable of cultivation ; the rest is covered with
rocky hills, forest and brushwood.

1 Nizam-ud-din, whose beautiful marble tomb is at Indarpat near
Delhi, was, according to some authorities, an assassin of the secret
society of Khorasan. By some modern authorities he is supposed
to have been the founder of Thuggism, the Thugs having a special
reverence for his memory.

DHARMSALA— DHOW

DHARMSALA, a hill-station and sanatorium of the Punjab,
India, situated on a spur of the Dhaola Dhar, 16 m. N.E. of
Kangra town, at an elevation of some 6000 ft. Pop. (1901) 6971.
The scenery of Dharmsala is of peculiar grandeur. The spur on
which it stands is thickly wooded with oak and other trees;
behind it the pine-clad slopes of the mountain tower towards the
jagged peaks of the higher range, snow-clad for half the year;
while below stretches the luxuriant cultivation of the Kangra
valley. In 1855 Dharmsala was made the headquarters of the
Kangra district of the Punjab in place of Kangra, and became the
centre of a European settlement and cantonment, largely occupied
by Gurkha regiments. The station was destroyed by the earth-
quake of April 1905, in which 1625 persons, including 25
Europeans and 112 of the Gurkha garrison, perished (Imperial
Gazetteer of India, 1908).

DHARWAR, a town and district of British India, in the
southern division of Bombay. The town has a station on the
Southern Mahratta railway. The population in 1901 was 31,279.
It has several ginning factories and a cotton-mill; two high
schools, one maintained by the Government and the other by
the Basel German Mission.

The DISTRICT or DHARWAR has an area of 4602 sq. m. In the
north and north-east are great plains of black .soil, favourable to
cotton-growing; in the south and west are successive ranges of
low hills, with flat fertile valleys between them. The whole
district lies high and has no large rivers.

In 1901 the population was 1,113,298, showing an increase of
6% in the decade. The most influential classes of the community
are Brahmans and Lingayats. The Lingayats number 436,968,
or 46% of the Hindu population; they worship the symbol of
Siva, and males and females both carry this emblem about their
person, in a silver case. The principal crops are millets, pulse and
cotton. The centres of the cotton trade are Hubli and Gadag,
junctions on the Southern Mahratta railway, which traverses the
district in several directions.

The early history of the territory comprised within the district
of Dharwar has been to a certain extent reconstructed from the
inscription slabs and memorial stones which abound there.
From these it is clear that the country fell in turn under the sway
of the various dynasties that ruled in the Deccan, memorials of
the Chalukyan dynasty, whether temples or inscriptions, being
especially abundant. In the I4th century the district was first
overrun by the Mahommedans, after which it was annexed to the
newly established Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, an official of
which named Dhar Rao, according to local tradition, built the
fort at Dharwar town in 1403. After the defeat of the king of
Vijayanagar at Talikot (1565), Dharwar was for a few years
practically independent under its Hindu governor; but in 1573
the fort was captured by the sultan of Bijapur, and Dharwar was
annexed to his dominions. In 1685 the fort was taken by the
emperor Aurangzeb, and Dharwar, on the break-up of the Mogul
empire, fell under the sway of the peshwa of Poona. In 1764 the
province was overrun by Hyder Ali of Mysore, who in 1778
captured the fort of Dharwar. This was retaken in 1791 by the
Mahrattas. On the final overthrow of the peshwa in 1817,
Dharwar was incorporated with the territory of the East India
Company.

DHOLPUR, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency,
with an area of 1155 sq. m. It is a crop-producing country,
without any special manufactures. All along the bank of the
river Chambal the country is deeply intersected by ravines;
low ranges of hills in the western portion of the state supply
inexhaustible quarries of fine-grained and easily-worked red
sandstone. In 1901 the population of Dholpur was 270,973,
showing a decrease of 3 % in the decade. The estimated revenue
is £83,000. The state is crossed by the Indian Midland railway
from Jhansi to Agra. In recent years it has suffered severely
from drought. In 1896-1897 the expenditure on famine relief
amounted to £8190.

The town of Dholpur is 34 m. S. of Agra by rail. Pop. (1901)
19,310. The present town, which dates from the i6th century,
stands somewhat to the north of the site of the older Hindu town

built, it is supposed, in the nth century by the Tonwar Rajput
Raja Dholan (or Dhawal) Deo, and named after him Dholdera OT
Dhawalpuri. Among the objects of interest in the town may be
mentioned the fortified sarai built in the reign of Akbar, within
which is the fine tomb of Sadik Mahommed Khan (d. 1595), one
of his generals. The town, from its position on the railway, is
growing in importance as a centre of trade.

Little is known of the early history of the country forming the
state of Dholpur. Local tradition affirms that it was ruled by
the Tonwar Rajputs, who had their seat at Delhi from the 8th
to the 1 2th century. In 1450 it had a raja of its own; but in
1 501 the fort of Dholpur was taken by the Mahommedans under
Sikandar Lodi and in 1504 was transferred to a Mussulman
governor. In 1527, after a strenuous resistance, the fort was
captured by Baber and with the surrounding country passed
under the sway of the Moguls, being included by Akbar in the
province of Agra. During the dissensions which followed the
death of Aurangzeb in 1707, Raja Kalyan Singh Bhadauria
obtained possession of Dholpur, and his family retained it till
1761, after which it was taken successively by the Jat raja,
Suraj Mai of Bharatpur, by Mirza Najaf Khan in 1775, by
Sindhia in 1782, and in 1803 by the British. It was restored
to Sindhia by the treaty of Sarji Anjangaon, but in consequence
of new arrangements was again occupied by the British. Finally,
in 1806, the territories of Dholpur, Bari and Rajakhera were
handed over to the maharaj rana Kirat Singh, ancestor of the
present chiefs of Dholpur, in exchange for his state of Gohad,
which was ceded to Sindhia.

The maharaj rana of Dholpur belongs to the clan of Bamraolia
Jats, who are believed to have formed a portion of the Indo-
Scythian wave of invasion which swept over northern India
about A.D. 100. An ancestor of the family appears to have held
certain territories at Bamraoli near Agra c. 1195. His descendant
in 1505, Singhan Deo, having distinguished himself in an expedi-
tion against the freebooters of the Deccan, was rewarded by the
sovereignty of the small territory of Gohad, with the title of rana.
In 1779 the rana of Gohad joined the British forces against
Sindhia, under a treaty which stipulated that, at the conclusion
of peace between the English and Mahrattas, all the territories
then in his possession should be guaranteed to him, and protected
from invasion by Sindhia. This protection was subsequently
withdrawn, the rana having been guilty of treachery, and in
1783 Sindhia succeeded in recapturing the fortress of Gwalior,
and crushed his Jat opponent by seizing the whole of Gohad. In
1804, however, the family were restored to Gohad by the British
government; but, owing to the opposition of Sindhia, the rana
agreed in 1805 to exchange Gohad for his present territory of
Dholpur, which was taken under British protection, the chief
binding himself to act in subordinate co-operation with the para-
mount power, and to refer all disputes with neighbouring princes
to the British government. Kirat Singh, the first maharaj rana
of Dholpur, was succeeded in 1836 by his son Bhagwant Singh,
who showed great loyalty during the Mutiny of 1857, was created
a K.C.S.I., and G.C.S.I. in 1869. He was succeeded in 1873 by
his grandson Nihal Singh, who received the C.B. and frontier
medal for services in the Tirah campaign. He died in 1901, and
was succeeded by his eldest son Ram Singh (b. 1883).

See Imperial Gazetteer of India (Oxford, 1908) and authorities
there given.

DHOW, the name given to a type of vessel used throughout
the Arabian Sea. The language to which the word belongs is
unknown. According to the New English Dictionary the place
of origin may be the Persian Gulf, assuming that the word is
identical with the lava mentioned by Athanasius Nikitin (India
in the i^th Century, Hakluyt Society, 1858). Though the word
is used generally of any craft along the East African coast, it is
usually applied to the vessel of about 1 50 to 200 tons burden with
a stem rising with a long slope from the water; dhows generally
have one mast with a lateen sail, the yard being of enormous
length. Much of the coasting trade of the Red Sea and Persian
Gulf is carried on by these vessels. They were the regular vessels
employed in the slave trade from the east coast of Africa.

144

DHRANGADRA— DIABASE

OHRANGADRA, a native state of India, in the Gujarat
division of Bombay, situated in the north of the peninsula of
Kathiawar. Its area is 1156 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 70,880. The
estimated gross revenue is £38,000 and the tribute £3000. A
state railway on the metre gauge from Wadhwan to the town of
Dhrangadra, a distance of 21 m., was opened for traffic in 1898.
Some cotton is grown, although the soil is as a whole poor;
the manufactures include salt, metal vessels and stone hand-
mills. The chief town, Dhrangadra, has a population (1901) of

14,77°-

The chief of Dhrangadra, who bears the title of Raj Sahib, with
the predicate of His Highness, is head of the ancient clan of Jhala
Rajputs, who are said to have entered Kathiawar from Sind in
the 8th century. Raj Sahib Sir Mansinghji Ranmalsinghji
(b. 1837), who succeeded his father in 1869, was distinguished
for the enlightened character of his administration, especially in
the matter of establishing schools and internal communications.
He was created a K.C.S.I. in 1877. He died in 1900, and was
succeeded by his grandson Ajitsinghji Jaswatsinghji (b. 1872).

DHULEEP SINGH (1837-1893), maharaja of Lahore, was born
in February 1837, and was proclaimed maharaja on the i8th of
September 1843, under the regency of his mother the rani Jindan,
a woman of great capacity and strong will, but extremely inimical
to the British. He was acknowledged by Ranjit Singh and
recognized by the British government. After six years of peace
the Sikhs invaded British territory in 1845, but were defeated in
four battles, and terms were imposed upon them at Lahore, the
capital of the Punjab. Dhuleep Singh retained his territory, but
it was administered to a great extent by the British government
in his name. This arrangement increased the regent's dislike of
the British, and a fresh outbreak occurred in 1848-49. In spite
of the valour of the Sikhs, they were utterly routed at Gujarat,
and in March 1849 Dhuleep Singh was deposed, a pension of
£40,000 a year being granted to him and his dependants. He
became a Christian and elected to live in England. On coming
of age he made an arrangement with the British government
by which his income was reduced to £25,000 in consideration of
advances for the purchase of an estate, and he finally settled at
Elvedon in Suffolk. While passing through Alexandria in 1864
he met Miss Bamba Miiller, the daughter of a German merchant
who had married an Abyssinian. The maharaja had been
interested in mission work by Sir John Login, and he met Miss
Miiller at one of the missionary schools where she was teaching.
She became his wife on the 7th of June 1864, and six children were
the issue of the marriage. In the year after her death in 1890 the
maharaja married at Paris, as his second wife, an English lady,'
Miss Ada Douglas Wetherill, who survived him. The maharaja
was passionately fond of sport, and his shooting parties were
celebrated, while he himself became a persona grata in English
society. The result, however, was financial difficulty, and in
1882 he appealed to the government for assistance, making,
various claims based upon the alleged possession of private
estates in the Punjab, and upon the surrender of the Koh-i-nor
diamond to the British Crown. His demand was rejected, where-
upon he started for India, after drawing up a proclamation to his
former subjects. But as it was deemed inadvisable to allow him
to visit the Punjab, he remained for some time as a guest at the
residency at Aden, and was allowed to receive some of his
relatives to witness his abjuration of Christianity, which actually
took place within the residency itself. As the climate began to
affect his health, the maharaja at length left Aden and returned
to Europe. He stayed for some time in Russia, hoping that his
claim against England would be taken up by the Russians; but
when that expectation proved futile he proceeded to Paris, where
he lived for the rest of his life on the pension allowed him by the
Indian government. His death from an attack of apoplexy took
place at Paris on the 22nd of October 1893. The maharaja's
eldest son, Prince Victor Albert Jay Dhuleep Singh (b. 1866), was
educated at Trinity and Downing Colleges, Cambridge. In 1888
he obtained a commission in the ist Royal Dragoon Guards. In
1898 he married Lady Anne Coventry, youngest daughter of the
earl of Coventry. (G. F. B.)

DHULIA, a town of British India, administrative headquarters
of West Khandesh district in Bombay, on the right bank of the
Panjhra river. Pop. (1901) 24,726. Considerable trade is done
in cotton and oil-seeds, and weaving of cotton. A railway
connects Dhulia with Chalisgaon, on the main line of the Great
Indian Peninsula railway.

DIABASE, in petrology, a rock which is a weathered form of
dolerite. It was long widely accepted that the pre-Tertiary rocks
of this group differed from their Tertiary and Recent representa-
tives in certain essential respects, but this is now admitted to be
untenable, and the differences are known to be merely the result
of the longer exposure to decomposition, pressure and shearing,
which the older rocks have experienced. Their olivine tends
to become serpentinized; their augite changes to chlorite and
uralite; their felspars are clouded by formation of zeolites, calcite,
sericite and epidote. The rocks acquire a green colour (from the
development of chlorite, uralite and epidote); hence the older
name of " greenstones," which is now little used. Many of them
become somewhat schistose from pressure (" greenstone-schists,"
meta-diabase, &c.). Although the original definition of the group
can no longer be justified, thename is so well established in current
usage that it can hardly be discarded. The terms diabase and
dolerite are employed really to designate distinct facies of the
same set of rocks.

The minerals of diabase are the same as those of dolerite, viz.
olivine, augite, and plagioclase felspar, with subordinate quantities
of hornblende, biotite, iron oxides and apatite.

There are olivine-diabases and diabases without olivine; quartz-
diabases, analcite-diabases (or teschenites) and hornblende diabases
(or proterobases). Hypersthene (or bronzite) is characteristic of
another group. Many of them are ophitic, especially those which
contain olivine, but others are intersertal, like the intersertal
dolerites. The last include most quartz-diabases, hypersthene-
diabases and the rocks which have been described as tholeites.
Porphyritic structure appears in the diabase-porphyrites, some of
which are highly vesicular and contain remains of an abundant
fine-grained or partly glassy ground-mass (diabas-mandelstein,
amygdaloidal diabase). The somewhat ill-defined spilites are re-
garded by many as modifications of diabase-porphyrite. In the
intersertal and porphyrite diabases, fresh or devitrified glassy base
is not infrequent. It is especially conspicuous in some tholeites
(hyalo-tholeites) and in weisselbergites. These rocks consist of
augite and plagioclase, with little or no olivine, on a brown,
vitreous, interstitial matrix. Devitrified forms of tachylyte (sor-
dawilite, &c.) occur at the rapidly chilled margins of dolerite sills
and dikes, and fine-grained spotted rocks with large spherulites of
grey or greenish felspar, and branching growths of brownish-green
augite (variolites).

To nearly every variety in composition and structure presented
by the diabases, a counterpart can be found among the Tertiary
dolerites. In the older rocks, however, certain minerals are more
common than in the newer. Hornblende, mostly of pale green colours
and somewhat fibrous habit, is very frequent in diabase; it is in
most cases secondary after pyroxene, and is then known as uralite ;
often it forms pseudomorphs which retain the shape of the original
augite. Where diabases have been crushed or sheared, hornblende
readily develops at the expense of pyroxene, sometimes replacing it
completely. In the later stages of alteration the amphibole becomes
compact and well crystallized; the rocks consist of green horn-
blende and plagioclase felspar, and are then generally known as
epidiorites or amphibolites. At the same time a schistose structure
is produced. But transition forms are very common, having more
or less of the augite remaining, surrounded by newly formed horn-
blende which at first is rather fibrous and tends to spread outwards
through the surrounding felspar. Chlorite also is abundant both
in sheared and unsheared diabases, and with it calcite may make its
appearance, or the lime set free from the augite may combine with
the titanium of the iron oxide and with silica to form incrustations or
borders of sphene around the original crystals of ilmenite. Epidote
is another secondary lime-bearing mineral which results from the
decomposition of the soda lime felspars and the pyroxenes. Many
diabases, especially those of the teschenite sub-group, are filled with
zeolites.

Diabases are exceedingly abundant among the older rocks of
all parts of the globe. Popular names for them are " whinstone,"
" greenstone," " loadstone ' and " trap." They form excellent road-
mending stones and are much quarried for this purpose, being tough,
durable and resistant to wear, so long as they are not extremely
decomposed. Many of them are to be preferred to the fresher
dolerites as being less brittle. The'quality of the Cornish greenstones
appears to have been distinctly improved by a smaller amount of
recrystallization where they have been heated by contact with
intrusive masses of granite. (J. S. F.)

DIABETES

DIABETES (from Gr. 8ia, through, and @alveu>, to pass), a
constitutional disease characterized by a habitually excessive
discharge of urine. Two forms of this complaint are described,
viz. Diabetes Mellitus, or Glycosuria, where the urine is not only
increased in quantity, but persistently contains a greater or less
amount of sugar, and Diabetes Insipidus, or Polyuria, where the
urine is simply increased in quantity, and contains no abnormal
ingredient. This latter, however, must be distinguished from the
polyuria due to chronic granular kidney, lardaceous disease of the
kidney, and also occurring in certain cases of hysteria.

Diabetes mellitus is the disease to which the term is most
commonly applied, and is by far the more serious and important
ailment. It is one of the diseases due to altered metabolism
(see METABOLIC DISEASES) . It is markedly hereditary, much more
prevalent in towns and especially modern city life than in more
primitive rustic communities, and most common among the Jews.
The excessive use of sugar as a food is usually considered one
cause of the disease, and obesity is supposed to favour its
occurrence, but many observers consider that the obesity so
often met with among diabetics is due to the same cause as the
disease itself. No age is exempt, but it occurs most commonly
in the fifth decade of life. It attacks males twice as frequently
as females, and fair more frequently than dark people.

The symptoms are usually gradual in their onset, and the
patient may suffer for a length of time before he thinksi it
necessary to apply for medical aid. The first symptoms which
attract attention are failure of strength, and emaciation, along
with great thirst and an increased amount and frequent passage
of urine. From the normal quantity of from 2 to 3 pints in the
24 hours it may be increased to 10, 20 or 30 pints, or even more.
It is usually of pale colour, and of thicker consistence than normal
urine, possesses a decidedly sweet taste, and is of high specific
gravity (1030 to 1050). It frequently gives rise to considerable
irritation of the urinary passages.

By simple evaporation crystals of sugar may be obtained from
diabetic urine, which also yields the characteristic chemical tests
of sugar, while the amount of this substance can be accurately
estimated by certain analytical processes. The quantity of sugar
passed may vary from a few ounces to two or more pounds per
diem, and it is found to be markedly increased after saccharine
or starchy food has been taken. Sugar may also be found in
the blood, saliva, tears, and in almost all the excretions of persons
suffering from this disease. One of the most distressing symptoms
is intense thirst, which the patient is constantly seeking to allay,
the quantity of liquid consumed being in general enormous, and
there is usually, but not invariably, a voracious appetite. The
mouth is always parched, and a faint, sweetish odour may be
evolved from the breath. The effect of the disease upon the
general health is very marked, and the patient becomes more and
more emaciated. He suffers from increasing muscular weakness,
the temperature of his body is lowered, and the skin is dry and
harsh. There is often a peculiar flush on the face, not limited to
the malar eminences, but extending up to the roots of the hair.
The teeth are loosened or decay, there is a tendency to bleeding
from the gums, while dyspeptic symptoms, constipation and
loss of sexual power are common accompaniments. There is in
general great mental depression or irritability.

Diabetes as a rule advances comparatively slowly except in
the case of young persons, in whom its progress is apt to be
rapid. The complications of the disease are many and serious.
It may cause impaired vision by weakening the muscles of
accommodation, or by lessening the sensitiveness of the retina to
light. Also cataract is very common. Skin affections of all kinds
may occur and prove very intractable. Boils, carbuncles,
cellulitis and gangrene are all apt to occur as life advances,
though gangrene is much more frequent in men than in women.
Diabetics are especially liable to phthisis and pneumonia, and
gangrene of the lungs may set in if the patient survives the crisis
in the latter disease. Digestive troubles of all kinds, kidney
diseases and heart failure due to fatty heart are all of common
occurrence. Also patients seem curiously susceptible to the
poison of enteric fever, though the attack usually runs a mild

course. The sugar temporarily disappears during the fever. But
the most serious complication of all is known as diabetic coma,
which is very commonly the final cause of death. The onset is
often insidious, but may be indicated by loss of appetite, a rapid
fall in the quantity of both urine and sugar, and by either consti-
pation or diarrhoea. More rarely there is most acute abdominal
pain. At first the condition is rather that of collapse than true
coma, though later the patient is absolutely comatose. The
patient suffers from a peculiar kind of dyspnoea, and the breath
and skin have a sweet ethereal odour. The condition may last
from twenty-four hours to three days, but is almost invariably
the precursor of death.

Diabetes is a very fatal form of disease, recovery being ex-
ceedingly rare. Over 50% die of coma, another 25 % of phthisis
or pneumonia, and the remainder of Bright's disease, cerebral
haemorrhage, gangrene, &c. The most favourable cases are those
in which the patient is advanced in years, those in which it is
associated with obesity or gout, and where the social conditions
are favourable. A few cures have been recorded in which the
disease supervened after some acute illness. The unfavourable
cases are those in which there is a family history of the disease
and in which the patient is young. Nevertheless much may be
done by appropriate treatment to mitigate the severity of the
symptoms and to prolong life.

There are two distinct lines of treatment, that of diet and that
of drugs, but each must be modified and determined entirely by
the idiosyncrasy of the patient, which varies in this condition
between very wide limits. That of diet is of primary importance
inasmuch as it has been proved beyond question that certain
kinds of food have a powerful influence in aggravating the disease,
more particularly those consisting largely of saccharine and
starchy matter; and it may be stated generally that the various
methods of treatment proposed aim at the elimination as far as
possible of these constituents from the diet. Hence it is recom-
mended that such articles as bread, potatoes and all farinaceous
foods, turnips, carrots, parsnips and most fruits should be
avoided; while animal food and soups, green vegetables, cream,
cheese, eggs, butter, and tea and coffee without sugar, may be
taken with advantage. As a substitute for ordinary bread,
which most persons find it difficult to do without for any length of
time, bran bread, gluten bread and almond biscuits. A patient
must never pass suddenly from an ordinary to a carbohydrate-
free diet. Any such sudden transition is extremely liable to
bring on diabetic coma, and the change must be made quite
gradually, one form of carbohydrate after another being taken
out of the diet, whilst the effect on the quantity of sugar passed
is being carefully noted meanwhile. The treatment may be
begun by excluding potatoes, sugar and fruit, and only after
several days is the bread to be replaced by some diabetic substi-
tute. When the sugar excretion has been reduced to its lowest
point, and maintained there for some time, a certain amount of
carbohydrate may be cautiously allowed, the consequent effect
on the glycosuria being estimated. The best diet can only be
worked out experimentally for each individual patient. But in
every case, if drowsiness or any symptom suggesting coma1
supervene, all restrictions must be withdrawn, and carbohydrate
freely allowed. The question of alcohol is one which must be
largely determined by the previous history of the patient, but a
small quantity will help to make up the deficiencies of a diet poor
in carbohydrate. Scotch and Irish whisky, and Hollands gin,
are usually free from sugar, and some of the light Bordeaux wines
contain very little. Fat is beneficial, and can be given as cream,
fat of meat and cod-liver oil. Green vegetables are harmless,
but the white stalks of cabbages and lettuces and also celery and
endive yield sugar. Laevulose can be assimilated up to ij ozs.
daily without increasing the glycosuria, and hence apples, cooked
or raw, are allowable, as the sugar they contain is in this form.
The question of milk is somewhat disputed; but it is usual to
exclude it from the rigid diet, allowing a certain quantity when
the diet is being extended. Thirst is relieved by anything that
relieves the polyuria. But hypodermic injections of pilocarpine
stimulate the flow of saliva, and thus relieve the dryness of the

146

DIABOLO— DIAGRAM

mouth. Constipation appears to increase the thirst, and must
always be carefully guarded against. The best remedies are the
aperient mineral waters.

Numerous medicinal substances have been employed in
diabetes, but few of them are worthy of mention as possessed
of any efficacy. Opium is often found of great service, its ad-
ministration being followed by marked amelioration in all the
symptoms. Morphia and codeia have a similar action. In the
severest cases, however, these drugs appear to be of little or no
use, and they certainly increase the constipation. Heroin hydro-
chloride has been tried in their place, but this seems to have more
power over slight than over severe cases. Salicylate of sodium
and aspirin are both very beneficial, causing a diminution in the
sugar excretion without counterbalancing bad effects.

In diabetes insipidus there is constant thirst and an excessive
flow of urine, which, however,is not found to contain any abnormal
constituent. Its effects upon the system are often similar to
those of diabetes mellitus, except that they are much less marked,
the disease being in general very slow in its progress. In some
cases the health appears to suffer very slightly. It is rarely
a direct cause of death, but from its debilitating effects may
predispose to serious and fatal complications. It is best treated
by tonics and generous diet. Valerian has been found beneficial,
the powdered root being given in 5-grain doses.

DIABOLO, a game played with a sort of top in the shape of
two cones joined at their apices, which is spun, thrown, and caught
by means of a cord strung to two sticks. The idea of the game
appears originally to have come from China, where a top (Kouen-
gen), made of two hollow pierced cylinders of metal or wood,
joined by a rod — and often of immense size, — was made by
rotation to hum with a loud noise, and was used by pedlars to
attract customers. From China it was introduced by missionaries
to Europe; and a form of the game, known as " the devil on two
sticks," appears to have been known in England towards the
end of the i8th century, and Lord Macartney is credited with
improvements in it. But its principal vogue was in France in
1812, where the top was called " le diable." Amusing old prints
exist (see Fry's Magazine, March and December 1907), depicting
examples of the popular craze in France at the time. The diable
of those days resembled a globular wooden dumb-bell with a
short waist, and the sonorous hum when spinning — the bruit du
diable — was a pronounced feature. At intervals during the
century occasional attempts to revive the game of spinning a top
of this sort on a string were made, but it was not till 1906 that
the sensation of 1812 began to be repeated. A French engineer,
Gustave Phillipart, discovering some old implements of the game,
had experimented for some time with new forms of top with a
view to bringing it again into popularity; and having devised the
double-cone shape, and added a miniature bicycle tire of rubber
round the rims of the two ends of the double-cone, with other
improvements, he named it " diabolo." The use of celluloid in
preference to metal or wood as its material appears to have been
due to a suggestion of Mr C. B. Fry, who was consulted by the
inventor on the subject. The game of spinning, throwing and
catching the diabolo was rapidly elaborated in various directions,
both as an exercise of skill in doing tricks, and in " diabolo tennis "
and other ways as an athletic pastime. From Paris, Ostend and
the chief French seaside resorts, where it became popular in 1906,
its vogue spread in 1907 so that in France and England it became
the fashionable " rage " among both children and adults.

The mechanics of the diabolo were worked out by Professor
C. V. Boys in the Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), Nov. 1907.

DIACONICON, in the Greek Church, the name given to a cham-
ber on the south side of the central apse, where the sacred utensils,
vessels, &c., of the church were kept. In the reign of Justin II.
(565-574), owing to a change in the liturgy, the diaconicon and
protheses were located in apses at the east end of the aisles.
Before that time there was only one apse. In the churches in cen-
tral Syria of slightly earlier date, the diaconicon is rectangular,
the side apses at Kalat-Seman having been added at a later date.

DIADOCHI (Gr. Siadixtatiai, to receive from another), i.e.
" Successors," the name given to the Macedonian generals who

fought for the empire of Alexander after his death in 323 B.C.
The name includes Antigonus and his son Demetrius Poliorcetes,
Antipater and his son Cassander, Seleucus, Ptolemy, Eumenes
and Lysimachus. The kingdoms into which the Macedonian
empire was divided under these rulers are known as Hellenistic.
The chief were Asia Minor and Syria under the Seleucid Dynasty
(q.v.), Egypt under the Ptolemies (q.v.), Macedonia under the
successors of Antigonus Gonatas, Pergamum (q.v.) under the
Attalid dynasty. Gradually these kingdoms were merged in the
Roman empire. (See MACEDONIAN EMPIRE.)

DIAGONAL ( Gr. 5ia, through^cocia, a corner) , in geometry, a line
joining the intersections of two pairs of sides of a rectilinear figure.

DIAGORAS, of Melos, surnamed the Atheist, poet and sophist,
flourished in the second half of the 5th century B.C. Religious
in his youth and a writer of hymns and dithyrambs, he became
an atheist because a great wrong done to him was left unpunished
by the gods. In consequence of his blasphemous speeches, and
especially his criticism of the Mysteries, he was condemned
to death at Athens, and a price set upon his head (Aristoph.
Clouds, 830; Birds, 1073 and Schol.). He fled to Corinth, where
he is said to have died. His work on the Mysteries was called
4>/>{ryioi \6yoi or 'AirmvpylgovTts, in which he probably attacked
the Phrygian divinities.

DIAGRAM (Gr. Sto/ypajujun, from 5<.a.ypa<t>tu>, to mark out by
lines, a figure drawn in such a manner that the geometrical
relations between the parts of the figure illustrate relations
between other objects. They may be classed according to the
manner in which they are intended to be used, and also according
to the kind of analogy which we recognize between the diagram
and the thing represented. The diagrams in mathematical
treatises are intended to help the reader to follow the mathe-
matical reasoning. The construction of the figure is defined in
words so that even if no figure were drawn the reader could draw
one for himself. The diagram is a good one if those features
which form the subject of the proposition are clearly represented.

Diagrams are also employed in an entirely different way —
namely, for purposes of measurement. The plans and designs
drawn by architects and engineers are used to determine the value
of certain real magnitudes by measuring certain distances on the
diagram. For such purposes it is essential that the drawing be as
accurate as possible. We therefore class diagrams as diagrams of
illustration, which merely suggest certain relations to the mind
of the spectator, and diagrams drawn to scale, from which
measurements are intended to be made. There are some dia-
grams or schemes, however, in which the form of the parts is of
no importance, provided their connexions are ,:>roperly shown.
Of this kind are the diagrams of electrical connexions, and those
belonging to that department of geometry which treats of the
degrees of cyclosis, periphraxy, linkedness and knottedness.

Diagrams purely Graphic and mixed Symbolic and Graphic. —
Diagrams may also be classed either as purely graphical diagrams,
in which no symbols are employed except letters or other marks
to distinguish particular points of the diagrams, and mixed
diagrams, in which certain magnitudes are represented, not by
the magnitudes of parts of the diagram, but by symbols, such as
numbers written on the diagram. Thus in a map the height of
places above the level of the sea is often indicated by marking
the number of feet above the sea at the corresponding places
on the map. There is another method in which a line called a
contour line is drawn through all the places in the map whose
height above the sea is a certain number of feet, and the number
of feet is written at some point or points of this line. By the use
of a series of contour lines, the height of a great number of places
can be indicated on a map by means of a small number of written
symbols. Still this method is not a purely graphical method,
but a partly symbolical method of expressing the third dimension
of objects on a diagram in two dimensions.

In order to express completely by a purely graphical method
the relations of magnitudes involving more than two variables,
we must use more than one diagram. Thus in the arts of con-
struction we use plans and elevations and sections through
different planes, to specify the form of objects having three

DIAGRAM

dimensions. In such systems of diagrams we have to indicate
that a point in one diagram corresponds to a point in another
diagram. This is generally done by marking the corresponding
points in the different diagrams with the same letter. If the
diagrams are drawn on the same piece of paper we may indicate
corresponding points by drawing a line from one to the other,
taking care that this line of correspondence is so drawn that it
cannot be mistaken for a real line in either diagram. (See
GEOMETRY: Descriptive.)

In the stereoscope the two diagrams, by the combined use of
which the form of bodies in three dimensions is recognized, are
projections of the bodies taken from two points so near each
other that, by viewing the two diagrams simultaneously, one
with each eye, we identify the corresponding points intuitively.
The method in which we simultaneously contemplate two figures,
and recognize a correspondence between certain points in the one
figure and certain points in the other, is one of the most poweiful
and fertile methods hitherto known in science. Thus in pure
geometry the theories of similar, reciprocal and inverse figures
have led to many extensions of the science. It is sometimes
spoken of as the method or principle of Duality. (See GEOMETRY
Projective.)

DIAGRAMS IN MECHANICS

The study of the motion of a material system is much assisted by
the use of a series of diagrams representing the configuration, dis-
placement and acceleration of the parts of the system.

Diagram of Configuration. — In considering a material system it is
often convenient to suppose that we have a record of its position at
any given instant in the form of a diagram of configuration. The
position of any particle of the system is defined by drawing a straight
line or vector from the origin, or point of reference, to the given
particle. The position of the particle with respect to the origin is
determined by the magnitude and direction of this vector. If in the
diagram we draw from the origin (which need not be the same point
of space as the origin for the material system) a vector equal and
parallel to the vector which determines the position of the particle,
the end of this vector will indicate the position of the particle in the
diagram of configuration. If this is done for all the particles we shall
have a system of points in the diagram of configuration, each of
which corresponds to a particle of the material system, and the
relative positions of any pair of these points will be the same as the
relative positions of the material particles which correspond to them.

We have hitherto spoken of two origins or points from which the
vectors are supposed to be drawn — one for the material system, the
other for the diagram. These points, however, and the vectors drawn
from them, may now be omitted, so that we have on the one hand
the material system and on the other a set of points, each point
corresponding to a particle of the system, and the whole representing
the configuration of the system at a given instant.

This is called a diagram of configuration.

Diagram of Displacement. — Let us next consider two diagrams of
configuration of the same system, corresponding to two different
instants. We call the first the initial configuration and the second
the final configuration, and the passage from the one configuration
to the other we call the displacement of the system. We do not at
present consider the length of time during which the displacement
was effected, nor the intermediate stages through which it passed,
but only the final result — a change of configuration. To study this
change we construct a diagram of displacement.

Let A, B, C be the points -in the initial diagram of configuration,
and A', B', C' be the corresponding points in the final diagram of
configuration. From o, the origin of the diagram of displacement,
draw a vector oa equal and parallel to AA', ob equal and parallel to
BB', oc to CC', and so on. The points a, b, c, &c., will be such that
the vector ab indicates the displacement of B relative to A, and so
on. The diagram containing the points a, b, c, &c., is therefore called
the diagram of displacement.

In constructing the diagram of displacement we have hitherto
assumed that we know the absolute displacements of the points of
the system. For we are required to draw a line equal and parallel to
AA', which we cannot dp unless we know the absolute final position
of A, with respect to its initial position. In this diagram of displace-
ment there is therefore, besides the points a, b, c, &c., an origin, o,
which represents a point absolutely fixed in space. This is necessary
because the two configurations do not exist at the same time ; and
therefore to express their relative position we require to know a
point which remains the same at the beginning and end of the time.

But we may construct the diagram in another way which does not
assume a knowledge of absolute displacement or of a point fixed in
space. Assuming any point and calling it a, draw ak parallel and
equal to BA in the initial configuration, and from k draw kb parallel
and equal to A'B' in the final configuration. It is easy to see that the
position of the point b relative to a will be the same by this construc-
tion as by the former construction, only we must observe that in this

second construction we use only vectors such as AB, A'B', which
represent the relative position of points both of which exist simul-
taneously, instead of vectors such as AA', BB', which express the
position of a point at one instant relative to its position at a foriher
instant, and which therefore cannot be determined by observation,
because the two ends of the vector do not exist simultaneously.

It appears therefore that the diagram of displacements, when
drawn by the first construction, includes an origin o, which indicates
that we have assumed a knowledge of absolute displacements. But
no such point occurs in the second construction, because we use
such vectors only as we can actually observe. Hence the diagram of
displacements without an origin represents neither more nor less than
all we can ever know about the dispjacement of the material system.

Diagram of Velocity. — If the relative velocities of the points of the
system are constant, then the diagram of displacement corresponding
to an interval of a unit of time between the initial and the final
configuration is called a diagram of relative velocity. If the relative
velocities are not constant, we suppose another system in which the
velocities are equal to the velocities of the given system at the given
instant and continue constant for a unit of time. The diagram of
displacements for this imaginary system is the required diagram of
relative velocities of the actual system at the given instant. It is easy
to see that the diagram gives the velocity of any one point relative to
any other, but cannot give the absolute velocity of any of them.

Diagram of Acceleration. — By the same process by which we formed
the diagram of displacements .from the two diagrams of initial and
final configuration, we may form a diagram of changes of relative
velocity from the two diagrams of initial and final velocities. This
diagram may be called that of total accelerations in a finite interval
of time. And by the same process by which we deduced the diagram
of velocities from that of displacements we may deduce the diagram
of rates of acceleration from that of total acceleration.

We have mentioned this system of diagrams in elementary kine-
matics because they are found to be of use epsecially when we have
to deal with material systems containing a great number of parts,
as in the kinetic theory of gases. The diagram of configuration then
appears as a region of space swarming with points representing
molecules, and the only way in which we can investigate it is by
considering the number of such points in unit of volume in different
parts of that region, and calling this the density of the gas.

In like manner the diagram of velocities appears as a region con-
taining points equal in number but distributed in a different manner,
and the number of points in any given portion of the region expresses
the number of molecules whose velocities lie within given limits. We
may speak of this as the velocity-density.

Diagrams of Stress. — Graphical methods are peculiarly applicable
to statical questions, because the state of the system is constant,
so that we do not need to construct a series of diagrams corre-
sponding to the successive states of the system. The most useful
of these applications, collectively termed Graphic Statics, relates
to the equilibrium of plane framed structures familiarly represented
in bridges and roof-trusses. Two diagrams are used, one called the
diagram of the frame and the other called the diagram of stress.
The structure itself consists of a number of separable pieces or links
jointed together at their extremities. In practice these joints have
friction, or may be made purposely stiff, so that the force acting at
the extremity of a piece may not pass exactly through the axis of
the joint; but as it is unsafe to make the stability of the structure
depend in any degree upon the stiffness of joints, we assume in our
calculations that all the joints are perfectly smooth, and therefore
that the force acting on the end of any link passes through the axis
of the joint.

The axes of the joints of the structure are represented by points
in the diagram of the frame. The link which connects two joints in
the actual structure may be of any shape, but in the diagram of the
frame it is represented by a straight line joining the points repre-
senting the two joints. If no force acts on the link except the two
forces acting through the centres of the joints, these two forces must
be equal and opposite, and their direction must coincide with the
straight line joining the centres of the joints. If the force acting on
either extremity of the link is directed towards the other extremity,
the stress on the link is called pressure and the link is called a " strut."
If it is directed away from the other extremity, the stress on the link
is called tension and the link is called a " tie." In this case, there-
fore, the only stress acting in a link is a pressure or a tension in the
direction of the straight line which represents it in the diagram of the
frame, and all tha,t we have to do is to find the magnitude of this
stress. In the actual structure gravity acts on every part of the link,
but in the diagram we substitute for the actual weight ot the different
parts of the link two weights which have the same resultant acting
at the extremities of the link.

We may now treat the diagram of the frame as composed of links
without weight, but loaded at each joint with a weight made up of
portions of the weights of all the links which meet in that joint. If
any link has more than two joints we may substitute for it in the
diagram an imaginary stiff frame, consisting of links, each of which
has only two joints. The diagram of the frame is now reduced to a
system of points, certain pairs of which are joined by straight lines,
and each point is in general acted on by a weight or other force
acting between it and some point external to the system. To complete

148

DIAGRAM

the diagram we may represent these external forces as links, that is
to say, straight lines joining the points of the frame to points external
to the frame. Thus each weight may be represented by a link joining
the point of application of the weight with the centre of the earth.

But we can always construct an imaginary frame having its joints
in the lines of action of these external forces, and this frame, together
with the real frame and the links representing external forces, which
join points in the one frame to points in the other frame, make up
together a complete self-strained system in equilibrium, consisting of
points connected by links acting by pressure or tension. We may
in this way reduce any real structure to the case of a system of points
with attractive or repulsive forces acting between certain pairs of
these points, and keeping them in equilibrium. The direction of each
of these forces is sufficiently indicated by that of the line joining the
points, so that we have only to determine its magnitude. We might
do this by calculation, and then write down on each link the pressure
or the tension which acts in it.

We should in this way obtain a mixed diagram in which the stresses
are represented graphically as regards direction and position, but
symbolically as regards magnitude. But we know that a force may be
represented in a purely graphical manner by a straight line in the
direction of the force containing as many units of jength as there are
units of force in the force. The end of this line is marked with an
arrow head to show in which direction the force acts. According to
this method each force is drawn in its proper position in the diagram
of configuration of the frame. Such a diagram might be useful as
a record of the result of calculation of the magnitude of the forces,
but it would be of no use in enabling us to test the correctness of
the calculation.

But we have a graphical method of testing the equilibrium of any
set of forces acting at a point. We draw in series a set of lines parallel
and proportional to these forces. If these lines form a closed polygon
the forces are in equilibrium. (See MECHANICS.) We might in this
way form a series of polygons of forces, one for each joint of the frame.
But in so doing we give up the principle of drawing the line represent-
ing a force from the point of application of the force, for all the sides
of the polygon cannot pass through the same point, as the forces do.
We also represent every stress twice over, for it appears as a side of
both the polygons corresponding to the two joints between which
it acts. But if we can arrange the polygons in such a way that the
sides of any two polygons which represent the same stress coincide
with each other, we may form a diagram in which every stress is
represented in direction and magnitude, though not in position, by
a single line which is the common boundary of the two polygons
which represent the joints at the extremities of the corresponding
piece of the frame.

We have thus obtained a pure diagram of stress in which no attempt
is made to represent the configuration of the material system, and in
which every force is not only represented in direction and magnitude
by a straight line, but the equilibrium of the forces at any joint is
manifest by inspection, for we have only to examine whether the
corresponding polygon is closed or not.

The relations between the diagram of the frame and the diagram
of stress are as follows: — To every link in the frame corresponds a
straight line in the diagram of stress which represents in magnitude
and direction the stress acting in that link; and to every joint of the
frame corresponds a closed polygon in the diagram, and the forces
acting at that joint are represented by the sides of the polygon taken
in a certain cyclical order, the cyclical order of the sides of the two
adjacent polygons being such that their common side is traced in
opposite directions in going round the two polygons.

The direction in which any side of a polygon is traced is the direction
of the force acting on that joint of the frame which corresponds to the
polygon, and due to that link of the frame which corresponds to the
side. This determines whether the stress of the link is a pressure or a
tension. If we know whether the stress of any one link is a pressure
or a tension, this determines the cyclical order of the sides of the two
polygons corresponding to the ends of the links, and therefore the
cyclical order of all the polygons, and the nature of the stress in every
link of the frame.

Reciprocal Diagrams. — When to every point of concourse of the lines
in the diagram of stress corresponds a closed polygon in the skeleton
of the frame, the two diagrams are said to be reciprocal.

The first extensions of the method of diagrams of forces to other
cases than that of the funicular polygon were given by Rankine in
his Applied Mechanics (1857). The method was independently
applied to a large number of cases by W. P. Taylor, a practical
draughtsman in the office of J. B. Cochrane, and by Professor Clerk
Maxwell in his lectures in King's College, London. In the Phil. Mag.
for 1864 the latter pointed out the reciprocal properties of the two
diagrams, and in a paper on " Reciprocal Figures. Frames and
Diagrams of Forces," Trans. R.S. Edin. vol. xxvi., 1870, he showed
the relation of the method to Airy's function of stress and to other
mathematical methods. Professor Fleeming Jenkin has given a
number of applications of the method to practice (Trans. R.S. Edin.
vol. xxv.).

L. Cremona (Le Figure reciproche nella statica grafica, 1872) deduced
the construction of reciprocal figures from the theory of the two
components of a wrench as developed by Mobius. Karl Culmann, in
his Graphische Statik (isted. 1864-1866, 2nd ed. 1875), madepreat use

of diagrams of forces, some of which, however, are not reciprocal.
Maurice Levy in his Statique graphique (1874) has treated the whole
subject in an elementary but copious manner, and R. H. Bow, in his
The Economics of Construction in Relation to Framed Structures (1873),
materially simplified the process of drawing a diagram of stress
reciprocal to a given frame acted on by a system of equilibrating
external forces.

Instead of lettering the joints of the frame, as is usually done, or
the links of the frame, as was the custom of Clerk Maxwell, Bow
places a letter in each of the polygonal areas enclosed by the links of
the frame, and also in each of the divisions of surrounding space as

FlG. I. — Diagram of Configuration.

separated by the lines of action of the external forces. When one
link of the frame crosses another, the point of apparent intersection
of the links is treated as if it were a real joint, and the stresses of each
of the intersecting links are represented twice in the diagram of
stress, as the opposite sides^of the parallelogram which corresponds
to the point of intersection.*

This method is followed in the lettering of the diagram of configura-
tion (fig. i), and the diagram of stress (fig. 2) of the linkwork which
Professor Sylvester has called a quadruplane.

In fig. I the real joints are distinguished from the places where one
link appears to cross another by the little circles O, P, Q, R, S, T, V.
The four links RSTV form a " contraparallelogram " in which
RS = TV and RV = ST. The triangles ROS, RPV, TQS are similar
:o each other. A fourth triangle (TNV), not drawn in the figure,
would complete the quadruplane. The four points O, P, N, Q form
a parallelogram whose angle POQ is constant and equal to v — SOR.
The product of the distances OP and OQ is constant. The linkwork
may be fixed at O. If any figure is traced by P, Q will trace the

FIG. 2. — Diagram of Stress.

inverse figure, but turned round O through the constant angle POQ.
In the diagram forces Pp, Qq are balanced by the force Co at the
fixed point. The forces Pp and Qq are necessarily inversely as OP
and OQ, and make equal angles with those lines.

Every closed area formed by the links or the external forces in the
diagram of configuration is marked by a letter which corresponds
to a point of concourse of lines in the diagram of stress. The stress
in the link which is the common boundary of two areas is represented
in the diagram of stress by the line joining the points corresponding
to those areas. When a link is divided into two or more parts by
lines crossing it, the stress in each part is represented by a different
line for each part, but as the stress is the same throughout the link
these lines are all equal and parallel. Thus in the figure the stress
in RV is represented by the four equal and parallel lines HI, FG, DE
and AB. If two areas have no part of their boundary in common
the letters corresponding to them in the diagram of stress are not
joined by a straight line. If, however, a straight line were drawn
between them, it would represent in direction and magnitude the
resultant of all the stresses in the links which are cut by any line,
straight or curved, joining the two areas. For instance the areas
F ana C in fig. I have no common boundary, and the points F and C
in fig. 2 are not joined by a straight line. But every path from the
area F to the area C in fig. I passes through a series of other areas, and
each passage from one area into a contiguous area corresponds to a
line drawn in the diagram of stress. Hence the whole path from F

DIAL

149

to C in fig. i corresponds to a path formed of lines in fig. 2 and
extending from F to C, and the resultant of all the stresses in the
links cut by the path is represented by FC in fig. 2.

Many examples of stress diagrams are given in the article on
bridges (q.v.).

A utomatic Description of Diagrams.

' There are many other kinds of diagrams in which the two co-ordin-
ates of a point in a plane are employed to indicate the simultaneous
values of two related quantities. If a sheet of paper is made to move,
say horizontally, with a constant known velocity, while a tracing
point is made to move in a vertical straight line, the height varying
as the value of any given physical quantity, the point will trace out
a curve on the paper from which the value of that quantity at any
given time may be determined. This principle is applied to the
automatic registration of phenomena of all kinds, from those of
meteorology and terrestrial magnetism to the velocity of cannon-
shot, the vibrations of sounding bodies, the motions of animals,
voluntary and involuntary, and the currents in electric telegraphs.

In Watt's indicator for steam engines the paper does not move
with a constant velocity, but its displacement is proportional to
that of the piston of the engine, while that of the tracing point is
proportional to the pressure of the steam. Hence the co-ordinates of
a point of the curve traced on the diagram represent the volume and
the pressure of the steam in the cylinder. The indicator-diagram not
only supplies a record of the pressure of the steam at each stage of
the stroke of the engine, but indicates the work done by the steam
in each stroke by the area enclosed by the curve traced on the
diagram. 0- C. M.)

DIAL and DIALLING. Dialling, sometimes called gnomonics,
is a branch of applied mathematics which treats of the construc-
tion of sun-dials, that is, of those instruments, either fixed or
portable, which determine the divisions of the day (Lat. dies) by
the motion of the shadow of some object on which the sun's rays
fall. It must have been one of the earliest applications of a
knowledge of the apparent motion of the sun; though for a long
time men would probably be satisfied with the division into
morning and afternoon as marked by sun-rise, sun-set and the
greatest elevation.

History. — The earliest mention of a sun-dial is found in
Isaiah xxxviii. 8: " Behold, I will bring again the shadow of the
degrees which is gone down in the sun-dial of Ahaz ten degrees
backward." The date of this would be about 700 years before
the Christian era, but we know nothing of the character or con-
struction of the instrument. The earliest of all sun-dials of which
we have any certain knowledge was the hemicycle, or hemisphere,
of the Chaldaean astronomer Berossus, who probably lived about
300 B.C. It consisted of a hollow hemisphere placed with its
rim perfectly horizontal, and having a bead, or globule, fixed in
any way at the centre. So long as the sun remained above the
horizon the shadow of the bead would fall on the inside of the
hemisphere, and the path of the shadow during the day would
be approximately a circular arc. This arc, divided into twelve
equal parts, determined twelve equal intervals of time for that
day. Now, supposing this were done at the time of the solstices
and equinoxes, and on as many intermediate days as might be
considered sufficient, and then curve lines drawn through the
corresponding points of division of the different arcs, the shadow
of the bead falling on one of these curve lines would mark a
division of time for that day, and thus we should have a sun-dial
which would divide each period of daylight into twelve equal
parts. These equal parts were called temporary hours; and, since
the duration of daylight varies from day to day, the temporary
hours of one day would differ from those of another ; but this
inequality would probably be disregarded at that time, and
especially in countries where the variation between the longest
summer day and the shortest winter day is much less than in our
climates.

The dial of Berossus remained in use for centuries. The
Arabians, as appears from the work of Albategnius, still followed
the same construction about the year A.D. 900. Four of these dials
have in modern times been found in Italy. One, discovered at
Tivoli in 1746, is supposed to have belonged to Cicero, who, in
one of his letters, says that he had sent a dial of this kind to his
villa near Tusculum. The second and third were found in 1751 —
one at Castel-Nuovo and the other at Rignano; and a fourth was
found in 1762 at Pompeii. G. H. Martini in his Abhandlungen
von den Sonnenuhren der Allen (Leipzig, 1777), says that thi:

dial was made for the latitude of Memphis; it may therefore
je the work of Egyptians, perhaps constructed in the school of
Alexandria.

Herodotus recorded, that the Greeks derived from the Baby-
onians the use of the gnomon, but the great progress made by
the Greeks in geometry enabled them in later times to construct
dials of great complexity, some of which remain to us, and are
jroof not only of extensive knowledge but also of great ingenuity.

Ptolemy's Almagest treats of the construction of dials by
means of his analemma, an instrument which solved a variety of
astronomical problems. The constructions given by him were
sufficient for regular dials, that is, horizontal dials, or vertical
dials facing east, west, north or south, and these are the only ones
tie treats of. It is certain, however, that the ancients were able
to construct declining dials, as is shown by that most interesting
monument of ancient gnomics — the Tower of the Winds at
Athens. This is a regular octagon, on the faces of which the eight
principal winds are represented, and over them eight different
dials — four facing the cardinal points and the other four facing
the intermediate directions. The date of the dials is long subse-
quent to that of the tower; for Vitruvius, who describes the tower
in the sixth chapter of his first book, says nothing about the dials,
and as he has described all the dials known in his time, we must
believe that the dials of the tower did not then exist. The hours
are still the temporary hours or, as the Greeks called them,
hectemoria.

The first sun-dial erected at Rome was in the year 290 B.C., and
this Papirius Cursor had taken from the Samnites. A dial which
Valerius Messalla had brought from Catania, the latitude of which
is five degrees less than that of Rome, was placed in the forum
in the year 261 B.C. The first dial actually constructed at Rome
was in the year 164 B.C., by order of Q. Marcius Philippus, but
as no other Roman has written on gnomonics, this was perhaps
the work of a foreign artist. If, too, we remember that the dial
found at Pompeii was made for the latitude of Memphis, and
consequently less adapted to its position than that of Catania
to Rome, we may infer that mathematical knowledge was not
cultivated in Italy.

The Arabians were much more successful. They attached
great importance to gnomonics, the principles of which they had
learned from the Greeks, but they greatly simplified and diversified
the Greek constructions. One of their writers, Abu'l Hassan, who
lived about the beginning of the i3th century, taught them how
to trace dials on cylindrical, conical and other surfaces. He
even introduced equal or equinoctial hours, but the idea was not
supported, and the temporary hours alone continued in use.

Where or when the great and important step already conceived
by Abu'l Hassan, and perhaps by others, of reckoning by equal
hours was generally adopted cannot now be determined. The
history of gnomonics from the i3th to the beginning of the
1 6th century is almost a blank, and during that time the change
took place. We can see, however, that the change would neces-
sarily follow the introduction of clocks and other mechanical
methods of measuring time; for, however imperfect these were,
the hours they marked would be of the same length in summer and
in winter, and the discrepancy between these equal hours and the
temporary hours of the sun-dial would soon be too important
to be overlooked. Now, we know that a balance clock was put up
in the palace of Charles V. of France about the year 1370, and
we may reasonably suppose that the new sun-dials came into
general use during the I4th and isth centuries.

Among the earliest of the modern writers on gnomonics was
Sebastian Minister (q.v.), who published his Horologiographia
at Basel in 1531. He gives a number of correct rules, but with-
out demonstrations. Among his inventions was a moon-dial,1
but this does not admit of much accuracy.

During the I7th century dialling was discussed at great length
by many writers on astronomy. Clavius devotes a quarto

1 In one of the courts of Queens' College, Cambridge, there is an
elaborate sun-dial dating from the end of the 1 7th or beginning of
the 1 8th century, and around it a series of numbers which make it
available as a moon-dial when the moon's age is known.

DIAL

volume of 800 pages entirely to the subject. This was published
in 1612, and may be considered to contain all that was known at
that time.

In the 1 8th century clocks and watches began to supersede
sun-dials, and these have gradually fallen into disuse except as
an additional ornament to a garden, or in remote country districts
where the old dial on the church tower still serves as an occasional
check on the modern clock by its side. The art of constructing
dials may now be looked upon as little more than a mathematical
recreation.

General Principles. — The diurnal and the annual motions of the
earth are the elementary astronomical facts on which dialling is
founded. That the earth turns upon its axis uniformly from west
to east in twenty-four hours, and that it is carried round the sun in
one year at a nearly uniform rate, is the correct way of expressing
these facts. But the effect will be precisely the same, and it will suit
our purpose better, and make our explanations easier, if we adopt the
ideas of the ancients, of which our senses furnish apparent confirma-
tion, and assume the earth to be fixed. Then, the sun and stars
revolve round the earth's axis uniformly from east to west once a
day — the sun lagging a little behind the stars, making its day some
four minutes longer — so that at the end of the year it finds itself again
in the same place, having made a complete revolution of the heavens
relatively to the stars from west to east.

The fixed axis about which all these bodies revolve daily is a line
through the earth's centre; but the radius of the earth is so small,
compared with the enormous distance of the sun, that, if we draw a
parallel axis through any point of the earth's surface, we may safely
look on that as being the axis of the celestial motions. The error in
the case of the sun would not, at its maximum, that is, at 6 A.M. and
6 P.M., exceed half a second of time, and at noon would vanish. An
axis so drawn is in the plane of the meridian, and points to the pole,
its elevation being equal to tl.<; latitude of the place.

The diurnal motion of the stars is strictly uniform, and so would
that of the sun be if the daily retardation of about four minutes,
spoken of above, were always the same. But this is constantly alter-
ing, so that the time, as measured by the sun's motion, and also
consequently as measured by a sun-dial, does not move on at a
strictly uniform pace. This irregularity, which is slight, would be
of little consequence in the ordinary affairs of life, but clocks and
watches being mechanical measures of time could not, except by
extreme complication, be made to follow this irregularity, even
if desirable.

The clock is constructed to mark uniform time in such wise that the
length of the clock day shall be the average of all the solar days in the
year. Four times a year the clock and the sun-dial agree exactly;
but the sun-dial, now going a little slower, now a little faster, will be
sometimes behind, sometimes before the clock — the greatest accumu-
lated difference being about sixteen minutes for a few days in
November, but on the average much less. The four days on which
the two agree are April 15, June 15, September I and December 24.
Clock-time is called mean time, that marked by the sun-dial iscalled
apparent time, and the difference between them is the equation of
time. It is given in most calendars and almanacs, frequently under
the heading ' clock slow," " clock fast." When the time by the sun-
dial is known, the equation of time will at once enable us to obtain the
corresponding clock-time, or vice versa.

Atmospheric refraction introduces another error by altering the
apparent position of the sun; but the effect is too small to need
consideration in the construction of an instrument which, with the
best workmanship, does not after all admit of very great accuracy.

The general principles of dialling will now be readily understood.
The probjem before us is the following : — A rod, or style, as it is
called, being firmly fixed in a direction parallel to the earth's axis,
we have to find how and where points or lines of reference must be
traced on some fixed surface behind the style, so that when the
shadow of the style falls on a certain one of these lines, we may know
that at that moment it is solar noon,— that is, that the plane through
the style and through the sun then coincides with the meridian;
again, that when the shadow reaches the next line of reference, it is
I o'clock by solar time, or, which comes to the same thing, that the
above plane through the style and through the sun has just turned
through the twenty-fourth part of a complete revolution ; and so on
for_the subsequent hours, — the hours before noon being indicated in
a similar manner. The style and the surface on which these lines
are traced together constitute the dial.

The position of an intended sun-dial having been selected —
whether on church tower, south front of farmstead or garden wall —
the surface must be prepared, if necessary, to receive the hour-lines.
The chief, and in fact the only practical difficulty will be the
accurate fixing of the style, for on its accuracy the value of the instru-
ment depends. It must be in the meridian plane, and must make an
angle with the horizon equal to the latitude of the place. The latter
condition will offer no difficulty, but the exact determination of the
meridian plane which passes through the point where the style is
faxed to the surface is not so simple. At present we shall assume that
the style has been fixed in its true position. The style itself will be

usually a stout metal wire, and when we speak of the shadow cast by
the style it must always be understood that the middle line of the
thin band of shade is meant.

The point where the style meets the dial is called the centre of the
dial. It is the centre from which all the hour-lines radiate.

The position of the XII o'clock line is the most important to
determine accurately, since all the others are usually made to depend
on this one. We cannot trace it correctly on the dial until the style
has been itself accurately fixed in its proper place. When that is done
the XII o'clock line will be found by the intersection of the dial
surface with the vertical plane which contains the style; and the
most simple way of drawing it on the dial will be by suspending a
plummet from some point of the style whence it may hang freely,
and waiting until the shadows of both style and plumb-line coincide
on the dial. This single shadow will be the XII o'clock line.

In one class of dials, namely, all the vertical ones, the XII o'clock
line is simply the vertical line from the centre; it can, therefore, at
once be traced on the dial face by using a fine plumb-line.

The XII o'clock line being traced, the easiest and most accurate
method of tracing the other hour-lines would, at the present day when
good watches are common, be by marking where the shadow of the
style falls when I, 2, 3, &c., hours have elapsed since noon, and the
next morning by the same means the forenoon hour-lines could be
traced ; and m the same manner the hours might be subdivided into
halves and quarters, or even into minutes.

But formerly, when watches did not exist, the tracing of the I, II,
III, &c., o'clock lines was done by calculating the angle which each of
these lines would make with the XI I o'clock line. Now, except in the
simple cases of a horizontal dial or of a vertical dial facing a cardinal
point, this would require long and intricate calculations, or elabo-
rate geometrical constructions, implying considerable mathematical
knowledge, but also introducing increased chances of error. The
chief source of error would lie in the uncertainty of the data; for the
position of the dial-plane would have to be found before the calcula-
tions began,— that is, it would be necessary to know exactly by how
many degrees it declined from the south towards the east or west,
and by how many degrees it inclined from the vertical. The ancients,
with the means at their disposal, could obtain these results only very
roughly.

Dials received different names according to their position : —

Horizontal dials, when traced on a horizontal plane ;

Vertical dials, when on a vertical plane facing one of the cardinal
points ;

Vertical declining dials, on a vertical plane not facing a cardinal
point;

Inclining dials, when traced on planes neither vertical nor hori-
zontal (these were further distinguished as reclining when leaning
backwards from an observer, proclining when leaning forwards) ;

Equinoctial dials, when the plane is at right angles to the earth's
axis, &c. &c.

Dial Construction. — A very correct view of the problem of dial
construction may be obtained as follows: —

FIG. i.

Conceive a transparent cylinder (fig. I) having an axis AB parallel
to the axis of the earth. On the surface of the cynnder let equidistant
generating lines be traced 15° apart, one of them XII . . .XII being
in the meridian plane through AB, and the others I ... I, II ... II,
&c., following in the order of the sun's motion.

Then the shadow of the line AB will obviously fall on the line
XII . . . XII at apparent noon, on the line I . . . I at one hour after
noon, on II ... II at two hours after noon, and so on. If now the
cylinder be cut by any plane MN representing the plane on which the
dial is to be traced, the shadow of AB will be intercepted by this plane
and fall on the lines AXII AI, All, &c.

The construction of the dial consists in determining the angles made

DIAL

by AI, All, &c. with AXII ; the line AXII itself, being in the vertical
plane through AB, may be supposed known.

For the purposesof actual calculation, perhaps a transparent sphere
will, with advantage, replace the cylinder, and we shall here apply it
to calculate the angles made by the hour-line with the XII o'clock line
in the two cases of a horizontal dial and of a vertical south dial.

Horizontal Dial. — Let PEp (fig. 2), the axis of the supposed trans-
parent sphere, be directed towards the north and south poles of the
heavens. Draw the two great circles, HMA, QMa, the former

FIG. 2.

horizontal, the other perpendicular to the axis Pp, and therefore
coinciding with the plane of the equator. Let EZ be vertical, then
the circle QZP will be the meridian, and by its intersection A with
the horizontal circle will determine the XII o'clock line EA. Next
divide the equatorial circle QMa into 24 equal parts ab, be, cd, &c. . . .
of 15° each, beginning from the meridian Pa, and through the
various points of division and the poles draw the great circles Pbp,
Pep, &c. . . . These will exactly correspond to the equidistant
generating lines on the cylinder in the previous construction, and the
shadow of the style will fall on these circles after successive intervals
of i, 2, 3, &c., hours from noon. If they meet the horizontal circle

in the points B, C, D, &c., then EB, EC, ED, &c will be the

I, II, III, &c., hour-lines required; and the problem of the horizontal
dial consists in calculating the angles which these lines make with
the XII o'clock line EA, whose position is known. The spherical
triangles PAB, PAC, &c., enable us to do this readily. They are all
right-angled at A, the side PA is the latitude of the place, and the
angles APB, APC, &c., are respectively 15", 30°, &c., then
tan AB = tan 15° sin latitude,
tan AC =tan 30° sin latitude,

&c. &c.

These determine the sides AB, AC, &c.,that is, the angles AEB, AEC,
&c., required.

The I o'clock hour-line EB must make an angle with the meridian
EA of 11° 51' on a London dial, of 12° 31' at Edinburgh, of 11° 23'
at Paris, 12° o' at Berlin, 9° 55' at New York and 9° 19' at San
Francisco. In the same way may be found the angles made by the
other hour-lines.

The calculations of these angles must extend throughout one
quadrant from noon to VI o'clock, but need not be carried further,
because all the other hour-lines can at once be deduced from these.
In the first place the dial is symmetrically divided by the meridian,
and therefore two times equidistant from noon will have their hour-
lines equidistant from the meridian ; thus the XI o'clock line and the
I o'clock line must make the same angles with it, the X o'clock the
same as the II o'clock, and so on. And next, the 24 great circles,
which were drawn to determine these lines, are in reality only 12;
for clearly the great circle which gives I o'clock after midnight, and
that which gives I o'clock after noon, are one and the same, and so
also for the other hours. Therefore the hour-lines between VI in
the evening and VI the next morning are the prolongations of the
remaining twelve.

Let us now remove the imaginary sphere with all its circles, and
retain only the style EP and the plane HMA with the lines traced on
it, and we shall have the horizontal dial.

On the longest day in London the sun rises a little before 4 o'clock,
and sets a little after 8 o'clock; there is therefore no necessity for
extending a London dial beyond those hours. At Edinburgh^ the
limits wnl be a little longer, while at Hammerfest, which is within
the Arctic circle, the whole circuit will be required.

Instead of a wire style it is often more convenient to use a metal
plate from one quarter to half an inch in thickness. This plate,
which is sometimes in the form of a right-angled triangle, must have
an acute angle equal to the latitude of the place, and, when properly
fixed in a vertical position on the dial, its two faces must coincide
with the meridian plane, and the sloping edges formed by the thick-
ness of the plate must point to the pole and form two parallel styles.

Since there are two styles, there must be two dials, or rather two half
dials, because a little consideration will show that, owing to the
thickness of the plate, these styles will only one at a time cast a
shadow. Thus the eastern edge will give the shadow for all hours
before 6 o'clock in the morning. From 6 o'clock until noon the
western edge will be used. At noon it will change again to the
eastern edge until 6 o'clock in the evening, and finally the western
edge for the remaining hours of daylight.

The centres of the two dials will be at the points where the styles
meet the dial face; but, in drawing the hour-lines, we must be
careful to draw only those
lines for which the corre-
sponding style is able to give
a shadow as explained above.
The dial will thus have the
appearance of a single dial
plate, and there will be no
confusion (see fig. 3).

The line of demarcation
between the shadow and the
light will be better defined
than when a wire style is
used ; but the indications by
this double dial will always
be one minute too fast in the
morning and one minute too
slow in the afternoon. This FIG. 3.

is owing to the magnitude

of the sun, whose angular breadth is half a degree. The well-defined
shadows are given, not by the centre of the sun, as we should require
them, but by the forward limb in the morning and by the backward
one in the afternoon; and the sun takes just about a minute to
advance through a space equal to its half-breadth.

Dials of this description are frequently met with. The dial plate
is of metal as well as the vertical piece upon it, and they may be
purchased ready for placing on the pedestal, — the dial with all the
hour-lines traced on it and the style plate firmly fastened in its
proper position, if not even cast in the same piece with the dial plate.

When placing it on the pedestal care must be taken that the dial
be perfectly horizontal and accurately oriented. The levelling wilt
be done with a spirit-level, and the orientation will be best effected
either in the forenoon or in the afternoon, by turning the dial plate
till the time given by the shadow (making the one minute correction
mentioned above) agrees with a good watch whose error on solar time
is known. It is, however, important to bear in mind that a dial, so
built up beforehand, will have the angle at the base equal to the
latitude of some selected place, such as London, and the hour-lines
will be drawn in directions calculated for the same latitude. Such a
dial can therefore not be used near Edinburgh or Glasgow, although
it would, without appreciable error, be adapted to any place whose
latitude did not differ more than 20 or 30 m. from that of London,
and it would be safe to employ it in Essex, Kent or Wiltshire.

If a series of such dials were constructed, differing by 30 m. in
latitude, then an intending purchaser could select one adapted to a
place whose latitude was within 15 m. of his own, and the error of
time would never exceed a small fraction of a minute. The following
table will enable us to check the accuracy of the hour-lines and of the
angle of the style, — all angles on the dial being readily measured with
an ordinary protractor. It extends from 50° lat. to 59^° lat., and
therefore includes the whole of Great Britain and Ireland : —

LAT.

XI. A.M.
I. P.M.

X. A.M.
II. P.M.

IX. A.M.
III. P.M.

VIII. A.M.
IIII. P.M.

VII. A.M.
V. P.M.

VI. A. M.
VI. P.M

50° o'

11° 36'

23° 51'

37° 27'

53° o'

70° 43'

90° o'

50 30

II 41

24 I

37 39

53 12

70 51

90 o

5i o

II 46

24 10

37 51

53 23

7<> 59

90 o

5i 3°

II 51

24 19

3» 3

53 35

71 6

90 o

52 o

ii 55

24 28

38 14

53 46

71 13

90 o

52 3°

12 0

24 37

38 25

53 57

71 20

90 o

53 o

12 5

24 45

38 37

54 8

71 27

90 o

53 3°

12 9

24 54

38 48

54 19

71 34

90 o

54 o

12 14

25 2

38 58

54 29

71 40

90 o

54 3°

12 18

25 10

39 9

54 39

71 47

90 o

55 o

12 23

25 19

39 19

54 49

71 53

90 o

55 30

12 27

25 27

39 3°

54 59

71 59

90 o

56 o

12 31

25 35

39 4°

55 9

72 5

90 o

56 3°

12 36

25 43

39 5°

55 18

.72 ii

90 o

57 o

12 40

25 50

39 59

55 27

72 17

90 o

57 3°

12 44

25 58

40 9

55 36

72 22

90 o

58 o

12 48

26 5

40 18

55 45

72 28

90 o

58 30

12 52

26 13

40 27

55 54

72 33

90 o

59 o

12 56

26 20

40 36

56 2

72 39

90 o

59 30

13 o

26 27

45 45

56 II

72 44

90 o

Vertical South Dial. — Let us take again our imaginary transparent
sphere QZPA (fig. 4), whose axis PEp is parallel to the earth's axis.
Let Z be the zenith, and, consequently, the great circle QZP the

152

DIAL

meridian. Through E, the centre of the sphere, draw a vertical plane
facing south. This wijl cut the sphere in the great circle ZMA,
which, being vertical, will pass through the zenith, and, facing south,
will be at right angles to the meridian. Let QMa be the equatorial
circle, obtained by drawing a plane through E at right angles to the
axis PEp. The lower portion Ep of the axis will be the style, the
vertical line EA in the meridian plane will be the XII o'clock line,
and the line EM, which is obviously horizontal, since M is the inter-
section of two great circles ZM , QM , each at right angles to the vertical
plane QZP, will be the VI o'clock line. Now, as in the previous
problem, divide the equatorial circle into 24 equal arcs of 15° each,
beginning at a, viz. ab, be, &c., — each quadrant aM, MQ, &c., con-
taining 6, — then through each point of division and through the

7.

FIG. 4.

axis Pp draw a plane cutting the sphere in 24 equidistant great circles.
As the sun revolves round the axis the shadow of the axis will suc-
cessively fall on these circles at intervals of one hour, and if these
circles cross the vertical circle ZMA in the points A, B, C, &c., the
shadow of the lower portion Ep of the axis will fall on the lines EA,
EB, EC, &c., which will therefore be the required hour-lines on the
vertical dial, Ep being the style.

There is no necessity for going beyond the VI o'clock hour-line on
each side of noon ; for, in the winter months the sun sets earlier than
6 o'clock, and in the summer months it passes behind the plane of the
dial before that time, and is no longer available.

It remains to show how the angles AEB, AEC, &c., may be calcu-
lated.

The spherical triangles pAB, pAC, &c., will give us a simple rule.
These triangles are all right-angled at A, the side pA, equal to ZP, is
the co-latitude of the place, that is, the difference between the latitude
and 90°; and the successive angles ApB, ApC, &c., are 15°, 30°, &c.,
respectively. Then

tan AB = tan 15° sin co-latitude;
or more simply,

tan AB=tan 15° cos latitude,
tan AC = tan 30° cos latitude,

&c. &c.

and the arcs AB, AC so found are the measure of the angles AEB,
AEC, &c., required.

In this case the angles diminish as the latitudes increase, the
opposite result to that of the horizontal dial.

Inclining, Reclining, &c., Dials. — We shall not enter into the
calculation of these cases. Our imaginary sphere being, as before
supposed, constructed with its centre at the centre of the dial, and
all the hour-circles traced upon it, the intersection of these hour-
circles with the plane of the dial will determine the hour-lines just as
in the previous cases ; but the triangles will no longer be right-angled,
and the simplicity of the calculation will be lost, the chances of error
being greatly increased by the difficulty of drawing the dial plane in
its true position on the sphere, since that true position will have to be
found from observations which can be only roughly performed.

In all these cases, and in cases where the dial surface is nota plane,
and the hour-lines, consequently, are not straight lines, the only safe
practical way is to mark rapidly on the dial a few points (one is
sufficient when the dial face is plane) of the shadow at the moment
when a good watch shows that the hour has arrived, and afterwards
connect these points with the centre by a continuous line. Of course
the style must have been accurately fixed in its true position before
we begin.

Equatorial Dial. — The name equatorial dial is given to one whose
plane is at right angles to the style, and therefore parallel to the
equator. It is the simplest of all dials. A circle (fig. 5) divided into
24 equal arcs is placed at right angles to the style, and hour divisions
are marked upon it. Then if care be taken that the style point
accurately to the pole, and that the noon division coincide with
the meridian plane, the shadow of the style will fall on the other
divisions, each at its proper time. The divisions must be marked

FIG.

on both sides of the dial, because the sun will shine on opposite
sides in .the summer and in the winter months, changing at each
equinox.

To find the Meridian Plane. — We have, so far, assumed the meridian
plane to be accurately known ; we shall proceed to describe some of
the methods by which it may be found.

The mariner's compass may be employed as a first rough approxi-
mation. It is well known that the needle of the compass, when free
to move horizontally, oscillates upon its
pivot and settles in a direction termed
the magnetic meridian. This does not
coincide with the true north and south
line, but the difference between them is
generally known with tolerable accur-
acy, and is called the variation of the
compass. The variation differs widely
at different parts of the surface of the
earth, and is not stationary at any
particular place, though the change is
slow; and there is even a small daily
oscillation which takes place about the
mean position, but too small to need
notice here (see MAGNETISM, TERRES-
TRIAL).

With all these elements of uncertainty, it is obvious that the
compass can only give a rough approximation to the position of the
meridian, but it will serve to fix the style so that only a small further
alteration will be necessary when a more perfect determination has
been made.

A very simple practical method is the following : —

Place a table (fig. 6), or other plane surface, in such a position that
it may receive the sun's raysbothinthemorningandintheafternoon.
Then carefully level the surface by means of a spirit-level. This must
be done very accurately, and the table in that position made perfectly
secure, so that there be no danger of its shifting during the day.

Next, suspend a plummet SH from a point S, which must be
rigidly fixed. The extremity H, where the plummet just meets the
surface, should be somewhere near the middle of one end of the table.
With H for centre, describe any number of concentric arcs of circles,
AB, CD, EF.&c.

A bead P, kept in its place by friction, is threaded on the plummet
line at some convenient height above H.

Everything being thus prepared, let us follow the shadow of the
bead P as it moves along the surface of the table during the day. It
will be found to describe
a curve ACE . . . FOB,
approaching the point
H as the sun advances
towards noon, and reced-
ing from it afterwards.
(The curve is a conic
section — an hyperbola
in these regions.) At the
moment when it crosses
the arc AB, mark the
point A; AP is then the
direction of the sun, and,
as AH is horizontal, the
angle PAH is the alti-
tude of the sun. In the
afternoon mark the
point B where it crosses
the same arc; then the
angle PBH is the alti-
tude. But the right-
angled triangles PHA,
PHB are obviously
equal; and the sun has
therefore the same alti-

FIG. 6.

tudes at those two instants, the one before, the other after noon.
It follows that, if the sun has not changed its declination during the
interval, the two positions will be symmetrically placed one on each
side of the meridian. Therefore, drawing the chord AB, and bisecting
it in M, HM will be the meridian line.

Each of the other concentric arcs, CD, EF, &c., will furnish its
meridian line. Of course these should all coincide, but if not, the
mean of the positions thus found must be taken.

The proviso mentioned above, that the sun has not changed its
declination, is scarcely ever realized; but the change is slight, and
may be neglected, except perhaps about the time of the equinoxes,
at the end of March and at the end of September. Throughout the
remainder of the year the change of decimation is so slow that we
may safely neglect it. The most favourable times are at the end
of June and at the end of December, when the sun's declination is
almost stationary. If the line HM be produced both ways to the
edges of the table, then the two points on the ground vertically below
those on the edges may be found by a plummet, and, if permanent
marks be made there, the meridian plane, which is the vertical plane
passing through these two points, will have its position perfectly
secured.

DIAL

To place the Style of a Dial in its True Position. — Before giving any
other method of finding the meridian plane, we shall complete the
construction of the dial, by showing how the style may now be
accurately placed in its true position. The angle which the style
makes with a hanging plumb-line, being the co-latitude of the place,
is known, and the north and south direction is also roughly given by
the mariner's compass. The style may therefore be already adjusted
approximately — correctly, indeed, as to its inclination — but prob-
ably requiring a little horizontal motion east or west. Suspend a
fine plumb-line from some point of the style, then the style will be
properly adjusted if, at the very instant of noon, its shadow falls
exactly on the plumb-line, — or, which is the same thing, if both
shadows coincide on the dial.

This instant of noon will be given very simply, by the meridian
plane, whose position we have secured by the two permanent marks
on the ground. Stretch a cord from the one mark to the other. This
will not generally be horizontal, but the cord will be wholly in the
meridian plane, and that is the only necessary condition. Next,
suspend a plummet over the mark which is nearer to the sun, and,
when the shadow of the plumb-line falls on the stretched cord, it is
noon. A signal from the observer there to the observer at the dial
enables the latter to adjust the style as directed above.

Other Methods of finding the Meridian Plane. — We have dwelt at
some length on these practical operations because they are simple and
tolerably accurate, and because they want neither watch, nor sextant,
nor telescope — nothing more, in fact, than the careful observation of
shadow lines.

The Pole star, or Ursae Minoris, may also be employed for finding
the meridian plane without other apparatus than plumb-lines. This
star is now only about I ° 14' from the pole ; if therefore a plumb-line
be suspended, at a few feet from the observer, and if he shift his
position till the star is exactly hidden by the line, then the plane
through his eye and the plumb-line will never be far from the meridian
plane. Twice in the course of the twenty-four hours the planes would
be strictly coincident. This would be when the star crosses the
meridian above the pole, and again when it crosses it below. If we
wished to employ the method of determining the meridian, the times
of the stars crossing would have to be calculated from the data in the
Nautical Almanac, and a watch would be necessary to know when
the instant arrived. The watch need not, however, be very accurate,
because the motion of the star is so slow that an error of ten minutes
in the time would not give an error of one-eighth of a degree in the
azimuth.

The following accidental circumstance enables us to dispense with
both calculation and watch. The right ascension of the star i; Ursae
Majoris, that star in the tail of the Great Bear which is farthest from
the " pointers," happens to differ by a little more than 12 hours from
the right ascension of the Pole star. The great circle which joins the
two stars passes therefore close to the pole. When the Pole star, at
a distance of about I ° 14' from the pole, is crossing the meridian above
the pole, the star ij Ursae Majoris, whose polar distance is about 40°,
has not yet reached the meridian below the pole.

When jj Ursae Majoris reaches the meridian, which will be within
half an hour later, the Pole star will have left the meridian ; but its
slow motion will have carried it only a very little distance away. Now
at some instant between these two times — much nearer the latter
than the former — -the great circle joining the two stars will be exactly
vertical; and at this instant, which the observer determines by
seeing that the plumb-line hides the two stars simultaneously, neither
of the stars is strictly in the meridian ; but the deviation from it is so
small that it may be neglected, and the plane through the eye and the
plumb-line taken for meridian plane.

In all these cases it will be convenient, instead of fixing the plane
by means of the eye and one fixed plummet, to have a second plummet
at a short distance in front of the eye ; this second plummet, being
suspended so as to allow of lateral shifting, must be moved so as
always to be between the eye and the fixed plummet. The meridian
plane will be secured by placing two permanent marks on the ground,
one under each plummet.

This method, by means of the two stars, is only available for the
upper transit of Polaris; for, at the lower transit, the other star i\
Ursae Majoris would pass close to or beyond the zenith, and the
observation could not be made. Also the stars will not be visible
when the upper transit takes place in the daytime, so that one-half
of the year is lost to this method.

Neither could it be employed in lower latitudes than 40° N., for
there the star would be below the horizon at its lower transit; — we
may even say not lower than 45° N., for the star must be at least 5°
above the horizon before it becomes distinctly visible.

There are other pairs of stars which could be similarly employed,
but none so convenient as these two, on account of Polaris with its
very slow motion being one of the pair.

To place the Style in its True Position without previous Determination
of the Meridian Plane. — The various methods given above for finding
the meridian plane have for ultimate object the determination of the
plane, not on its own account, but as an element for fixing the instant
of noon, whereby the style may be properly placed.

We shall dispense, therefore, with all this preliminary work if we
determine noon by astronomical observation. For this we shall want
a good watch, or pocket chronometer, and a sextant or other instru-

ment for taking altitudes. The local time at any moment may be
determined in a variety of ways by observation of the celestial bodies.
The simplest and most practically useful methods will be found
described and investigated in any work on astronomy.

For our present purpose a single altitude of the sun taken in the
forenoon will be most suitable. At some time in the morning, when
the sun is high enough to be free from the mists and uncertain
refractions of the horizon — but to ensure accuracy, while the rate of
increase of the altitude is still tolerably rapid, and, therefore, not later
than 10 o'clock — take an altitude of the sun, an assistant, at the same
moment, marking the time shown by the watch. The altitude so
observed being properly corrected for refraction, parallax, &c., will,
together with the latitude of the place, and the sun's declination,
taken from the Nautical Almanac, enable us to calculate the time.
This will be the solar or apparent time, that is, the very time we
require. Comparing the time so found with the time shown by the
watch, we see at once by how much the watch is fast or slow of solar
time; we know, therefore, exactly what time the watch must mark
when solar noon arrives, and waiting for that instant we can fix the
style in its proper position as explained before.

We can dispense with the sextant and with all calculation and
observation if, by means of the pocket chronometer, we bring the
time from some observatory where the work is done ; and, allowing
for the change of longitude, and also for the equation of time, if the
time we have brought is clock time, we shall have the exact instant
of solar noon as in the previous case.

In former times the fancy of dialists seems to have run riot in
devising elaborate surfaces on which the dial was to be traced. Some-
times the shadow was received on a cone, sometimes on a cylinder,
or on a sphere, or on a combination of these. A universal dial was
constructed of a figure in the shape of a cross; another universal dial
showed the hours by a globe and by several gnomons. These
universal dials required adjusting before use, and for this a mariner's
compass and a spirit-level were necessary. But it would be tedious
and useless to enumerate the various forms designed, and, as a rule,
the more complex the less accurate.

Another class of useless dials consisted of those with variable
centres. They were drawn on fixed horizontal planes, and each day
the style had to be shifted to a new position. Instead of hour-lines
they had hour-points ; and the style, instead of being parallel to the
axis of the earth, might make any chosen angle with the horizon.
There was no practical advantage in their use, but rather the reverse ;
and they can only be considered as furnishing material for new
mathematical problems.

Portable Dials. — The dials so far described have been fixed dials,
for even the fanciful ones to which reference was just now made were
to be fixed before using. There were, however, other dials, made
generally of a small size, so as to be carried in the pocket; and
these, so long as the sun shone, roughly answered the purpose of a
watch.

The description of the portable dial has generally been mixed up
with that of the fixed dial, as if it had been merely a special case, and
the same principle had been the basis of both; whereas there are
essential points of difference between them, besides those which are
at once apparent.

In the fixed dial the result depends on the uniform angular motion
of the sun round the fixed style ; and a small error in the assumed
position of the sun, whether due to the imperfection of the instru-
ment, or to some small neglected correction, has only a trifling effect
on the time. This is owing to the angular displacement of the sun
being so rapid — a quarter of a degree every minute — that for the
ordinary affairs of life greater accuracy is not required, as a displace-
ment of a quarter of a degree, or at any rate of one degree, can be
readily seen by nearly every person. But with a portable dial this
is no longer the case. The uniform angular motion is not now avail-
able, because we have no determined fixed plane to which we may
refer it. In the new position, to which the observer has gone, the
zenith is the only point of the heavens he can at once practically find ;
and the basis for the determination of the time is the constantly but
very irregularly varying zenith distance of the sun.

At sea the observation of the altitude of a celestial body is the only
method available for finding local time ; but the perfection which has
been attained in the construction of the sextant enables the sailor
to reckon on an accuracy of seconds. Certain precautions have,
however, to be taken. The observations must not be made within a
couple of hours of noon, on account of the slow rate of change at that
time, nor too near the horizon, on account of the uncertain refractions
there ; and the same restrictions must be observed in using a portable
dial.

_To compare roughly the accuracy of the fixed and the portable
dials, let us take a mean position in Great Britain, say 54° lat., and a
mean declination when the sun is in the equator. It will rise at
6 o'clock, and at noon have an altitude of 36°, — that is, the portable
dial will indicate an average change of one-tenth of a degree in each
minute, or two and a half times slower than the fixed dial. The
vertical motion of the sun increases, however, nearer the horizon,
but even there it will be only one-eighth of a degree each minute, or
half the rate of the fixed dial, which goes on at nearly the same speed
throughout the day.

Portable dials are also much more restricted in the range of latitude

154

DIAL

o

**

1 /

for which they are available, and they should not be used more than

4 or 5 m. north or south of the place for which they were constructed.
We shall briefly describe two portable dials which were in actual

use.
Dial on a Cylinder.— A hollow cylinder of metal (fig. 7), 4 or 5 in.

high, and about an inch in diameter, has a lid which admits of toler-
ably easy rotation. A hole in
the lid receives the style
shaped somewhat like a
bayonet; and the straight
part of the style, which, on
account of the two bends, is
lower than the lid, projects
horizontally out from the
cylinder to a distance of I or
l% in. When not in use the
style would be taken out and
placed inside the cylinder.

A horizontal circle is traced
on the cylinder opposite the
projecting style, and this
circle is divided into 36
approximately equidistant
intervals.1 These intervals
represent spaces of time, and
to each division is assigned
a date, so that each month
has three dates marked as
follows: — January 10, 20,
31; February 10, 20, 28;
March 10, 20, 31; April 10,
20, 30, and so on, — always
the loth, the 2Oth, and the
last day of each month

«

J

FlG. 7.

Through each point of division a vertical line parallel to the axis
of the cylinder is drawn from top to bottom. Now it will be readily
understood that if, upon one of these days, the lid be turned, so as
to bring the style exactly opposite the date, and if the dial be then
placed on a horizontal table so as to receive sunlight, and turned
round bodily until the shadow of the style falls exactly on the vertical
line below it, the shadow will terminate at some definite point of this
line, the position of which point will depend on the length of the
style — that is, the distance of its end from the surface of the cylinder
— and on the altitude of the sun at that instant. Suppose that the
observations are continued all day, the cylinder being very gradually
turned so that the style may always face the sun, and suppose that
marks are made on the vertical line to show the extremity of the
shadow at each exact hour from sunrise to sunset — these times being
taken from a good fixed sun-dial, — then it is obvious that the next
year, on the same date, the sun's declination being about the same,
and the observer in about the same latitude, the marks made the
previous year will serve to tell the time all that day.

What we have said above was merely to make the principle of the
instrument clear, for it is evident that this mode of marking, which
would require a whole year's sunshine and hourly observation,
cannot be the method employed.

The positions of the marks are, in fact, obtained by calculation.
Corresponding to a given date, the declination of the sun is taken
from the almanac, and this, together with the latitude of the place
and the length of the style, will constitute the necessary data for
computing the length of the shadow, that is, the distance of the mark
below the style for each successive hour.

We have assumed above that the declination of the sun is the same
at the same date in different years. This is not quite correct, but, if
the dates be taken for the second year after leap year, the results will
be sufficiently approximate.

When all the hour-marks have been placed opposite to their
respective dates, then a continuous curve, joining the corresponding
hour-points, will serve to find the time for a day intermediate to
those set down, the lid being turned till the style occupy a proper
position between the two divisions. The horizontality of the surface
on which the instrument rests is a very necessary condition, especially
in summer, when, the shadow of the style being long, the extreme
end will shift rapidly for a small deviation from the vertical, and
render the reading uncertain. The dial can also be used by holding
it up by a small ring in the top of the lid, and probably the vertically
is better ensured in that way.

Portable Dial on a Card. — This neat and very ingenious dial is
attributed by Ozanam to a Jesuit Father, De Saint Rigaud, and
probably dates from the early part of the i?th century. Ozanam
says that it was sometimes called the capuchin, from some fancied
resemblance to a cowl thrown back.

Construction. — Draw a straight line ACB parallel to the top of the

1 Strict equaKty is not necessary, as the observations made are on
the vertical line through each division-point, without reference to
the others. It is not even requisite that the divisions should go
completely and exactly round the cylinder, although they were
always so drawn, and both these conditions were insisted upon in
the directions for the construction.

card (fig. 8) and another DCE at right angles to it ; with C as centre,
and any convenient radius CA, describe the semicircle AEB below
the horizontal. Divide the whole arc AEB into 12 equal parts at the
points r, s, t. &c., and through these points draw perpendiculars to
the diameter ACB; these lines will be the hour-lines, viz. the line
through r will be the XI . . . I line, the line through s the X ... II
line, and so on ; the hour-line of noon will be the point A itself ; by
subdivision of the small arcs Ar, rs, st, &c., we may draw the hour-
lines corresponding to halves and quarters, but this only where it
can be done without confusion.

Draw ASD making with AC an angle equal to the latitude of the
place, and let it meet EC in D, through which point draw FDG at
right angles to AD.

With centre A, and any convenient radius AS, describe an arc of
circle RST, and graduate this arc by marking degree divisions on

FIG. 8.

it, extending from o° at S to 23$° on each side at R and T. Next
determine the points on the straight line FDG where radii drawn
from A to the degree divisions on the arc would cross it, and carefully
mark these crossings.

The divisions of RST are to correspond to the sun's declination,
south declinations on RS and north declinations on ST. In the
other hemisphere of the earth this would be reversed; the north
declinations would be on the upper half.

Now, taking a second year after leap year (because the declinations
of that year are about the mean of each set of four years), find the
days of the month when the sun has these different declinations, and
place these dates, or so many of them as can be shown without
confusion, opposite the corresponding marks on FDG. Draw the
sun-line at the top of the card parallel to the line ACB ; and, near the
extremity, to the right, draw any small figure intended to form, as
it were, a door of which a b shall be the hinge. Care must be taken
that this hinge is exactly at right angles to the sun-line. Make a fine
open slit r. d right through the carr1 -\nd extending from the hinge to
a short distance on the door, — the centre line of this slit coinciding
accurately with the sun-line. Now, cut the door completely through
the card ; except, of course, along the hinge, which, when the card
is thick, should be partly cut through at the back, to facilitate the
opening. Cut the card right through along the line FDG, and pass a
thread carrying a little plummet W and a very small bead P ; the
bead having sufficient friction with the thread to retain any position
when acted on only by its own weight, but sliding easily along the
thread when moved by the hand. At the back of the card the thread
terminates in a knot to hinder it from being drawn through; or
better, because giving more friction and a better hold, it passes
through the centre of a small disk of card — a fraction of an inch in
diameter — and, by a knot, is made fast at the back of the disk.

To complete the construction, — with the centres F and G, and

DIALECT

155

radii FA and GA, draw the two arcs AY and AZ which will limit the
hour-lines; for in an observation the bead will always be found
between them. The forenoon and afternoon hours may then
be marked as indicated in the figure. The dial does not of itself
discriminate between forenoon and afternoon; but extraneous
circumstances, as, for instance, whether the sun is rising or falling,
will settle that point, except when close to noon, where it will always
be uncertain.

To rectify the dial (usingthe old expression, which means to prepare
the dial for an observation), — open the small door, by turning it
about its hinge, till it stands well out in front. Next, set the thread
in the line FG opposite the day of the month, and stretching it over
the point A, slide the bead P along till it exactly coincide with A.

To find the hour of the day, — hold the dial in a vertical position in
such a way that its-plane may pass through the sun. The vertically
is ensured by seeing that the bead rests against the card without
pressing. Now gradually tilt the dial (without altering its vertical

plane), until the central line of sunshine, passing through the open
slit of the door, just falls along the sun-line. The hour-line against
which the bead P then rests indicates the time.

The sun-line drawn above has always, so far as we know, been used
as a shadow-line. The upper edge of the rectangular door was the
prolongation of the line, and, the door being opened, the dial was
gradually tilted until the shadow cast by the upper edge exactly
coincided with it. But this shadow tilts the card one-quarter of a
degree more than the sun-line, because it is given by that portion of
the sun which just appears above the edge, that is, by the upper limb
of the sun, which is one-quarter of a degree higher than the centre.
Now, even at some distance from noon, the sun will sometimes take a
considerable time to rise one-quarter of a degree, and by so much
time will the indication of the dial be in error.

The central line of light which comes through the open slit will be
free from this error, because it is given by light from the centre of the
sun.

The card-dial deserves to be looked upon as something more than
a mere toy. Its ingenuity and scientific accuracy give it an educa-
tional value which is not to be measured by the roughness of the
results obtained.

The theory of this instrument is as follows : — Let H (fig. 9) be the
point of suspension of the plummet at the time of observation, so that
the angle DAHis the north declination of the sun, — P, the bead, resting
against the hour-line VX. Join CX, then the angle ACX is the hour-
angle from noon given by the bead, and we have to prove that this
hour-angle is the correct one corresponding to a north latitude DAC.
a north declination DAH and an altitude equal to the angle which the
sun-line, or its parallel AC, makes with the horizontal. The angle
PHQ will be equal to the altitude, if HQ be drawn parallel to DC,
for the pair of lines HQ, HP will be respectively at right angles to
the sun-line and the horizontal.

Draw PQ and HM parallel to AC, and let them meet DCE in M and
N respectively.

Let HP and its equal HA be represented by a. Then the following
values will be readily deduced from the figure : —

AD =a cos ded. DH =a sin decl. PQ = o sin alt.
CX= AC = AD cos lat. =a cos decl. cos lat.
PN= CV = CXcos ACX = o cos dec/, cos to. cos ACX.
NQ = MH = DH sin MDH = a sin decl. sin lat.

(.-. the angle MDH = DAC = latitude.)
And since PQ = NQ + PN,

we have, by simple substitution,

a sin alt. = a sin decl. sin lat. +a cos decl. cos lat. cos ACX ; or, dividing
by a throughout,

sin alt. =sin decl. sin lat.+cos decl. cos lat. cos ACX . . . (i)
which equation determines the hour-angle ACX shown by the bead.

To determine the hour-angle of the sun at the same moment, let
fig. 10 represent the celestial sphere, HR the horizon, P the pole,
Z the zenith and S the sun.

From the spherical triangle PZS, we have

cos ZS = cos PS cos ZP+sin PS sin ZP cos ZPS
but ZS = zenith distance =90 "-altitude
ZP =90°- PR =90°- latitude

PS = polar distance =90°- declination,
therefore, by substitution

sin alt. =sin decl. sin lat.+cos decl. cos lat. cos ZPS ... (2)
and ZPS is the hour-angle of the sun.

A comparison of the two formulae (i) and (2) shows that the hour-
angle given by the bead will be the same as that given by the sun, and
proves the theoretical accuracy of the card-dial. Just at sun-rise or
at sun-set the amount of refraction slightly exceeds half a degree.
If, then, a little cross m (see fig. 8) be made just below the sun-line, at
a distance from it which would subtend half a degree at c, the time
of sun-set would be found corrected for refraction, if the central line
of light were made to fall on cm.

LITERATURE. — The following list includes the principal writers on
dialling whose works have come down to us, and to these we must
refer for descriptions of
the various constructions,
some simple and direct,
others fanciful and intricate,
which have been at different
times employed : Ptolemy,
Analemma, restored by
Commandine; Vitruvius,
Architecture ; Sebastian
Munster, Horolegiographia ;
Orontius Fineus, De horo-
logiis solaribus; Mutio
Oddi da Urbino, Horologi
solari; Dryander, De horo-
logierum compositione ;
Conrad Gesner, Pandectae;
Andreas Schoner, Gnomo-
nicae; F. Commandine,
Horologiorum descriptio ;

FIG. 10.

Joan. Bapt. Benedictus, De gnomonum usu; Georgius Schomberg,
Exegesis fundamentorum gnomonicorum; Joan. Solomon de Caus,
Horologes solaires; Joan. Bapt. Trolta, Praxis horologiorum;
Desargues, Maniere universelle pour poser I'essieu, &c. ; Ath.
Kircher, Ars magna lucis et Umbrae; Hallum, Explicatio horologii
in horto regie Londini ; Joan. Mark, Tractatus horologiorum; Clavius,
Gnomonices de horologiis. Also among more modern writers,
Deschales, Ozanam, Schottus, Wolfius, Picard, Lahire, Walper; in
German, Paterson, Michael, Miiller; in English, Foster, Wells, Collins,
Leadbetter, Jones, Leybourn, Emerson and Ferguson. See also
Hans Loschner, Uber Sonnenuhren (2nd ed., Graz, 1906). (H. G.)

DIALECT (from Gr. 5tdXe/CTOJ, conversation, manner of
speaking, diaXtyeaOai, to converse), a particular or characteristic
manner of speech, and hence any variety of a language. In its
widest sense languages which are branches of a common or parent
language may be said to be " dialects " of that language; thus
Attic, Ionic, Aeolic and Doric are dialects of Greek, though there
may never have at any time been a separate language of which
they were variations; so the various Romance languages, Italian,
French, Spanish, &c., were dialects of Latin. Again, where there
have existed side by side, as in England, various branches of a
language, such as the languages of the Angles, the Jutes or the
Saxons, and the descendant of one particular language, from many
causes, has obtained the predominance, the traces of the other
languages remain in the " dialects " of the districts where once
the original language prevailed. Thus it may be incorrect, from
the historical point of view, to say that " dialect " varieties of
a language represent degradations of the standard language. A
" literary " accepted language, such as modern English, repre-
sents the original language spoken in the Midlands, with accretions

i56

DIALECTIC— DIALOGUE

of Norman, French, and later literary and scientific additions from
classical and other sources, while the present-day " dialects "
preserve, in inflections, pronunciation and particular words,
traces of the original variety of the language not incorporated
in the standard language of the country. See the various articles
on languages (English, French, &c.).

DIALECTIC, or DIALECTICS (from Gr. StdXe/CTos, discourse,
debate; •ft 5ia\em/ci7, sc. rtyyv, the art of debate), a logical
term, generally used in common parlance in a contemptuous sense
for verbal or purely abstract disputation devoid of practical value.
According to Aristotle, Zeno of Elea " invented " dialectic, the art
of disputation by question and answer, while Plato developed it
metaphysically in connexion with his doctrine of " Ideas " as
the art of analysing ideas in themselves and in relation to the
ultimate idea of the Good (Repub. vii.). The special function of
the so-called " Socratic dialectic " was to show the inadequacy of
popular beliefs. Aristotle himself used " dialectic," as opposed to
" science," for that department of mental activity which examines
the presuppositions lying at the back of all the particular sciences.
Each particular science has its own subject matter and special
principles (Iditu apxai) on which the superstructure of its special
discoveries is based. The Aristotelian dialectic, however, deals
with the universal laws (Koi.va.1 apxai) of reasoning, which can
be applied to the particular arguments of all the sciences. The
sciences, for example, all seek to define their own species;
dialectic, on the other hand, sets forth the conditions which all
definitions must satisfy whatever their subject matter. Again,
the sciences all seek to educe general laws; dialectic investigates
the nature of such laws, and the kind and degree of necessity to
which they can attain. To this general subject matter Aristotle
gives the name " Topics " (TOKOI, loci, communes loci). " Dia-
lectic " in this sense is the equivalent of " logic." Aristotle also
uses the term for the science of probable reasoning as opposed
to demonstrative reasoning (awodtiKriK-ij) . The Stoics divided
\oyiKrj (logic) into rhetoric and dialectic, and from their time till
the end of the middle ages dialectic was either synonymous with,
or a part of, logic.

In modern philosophy the word has received certain special
meanings. In Kantian terminology Dialektik is the name of that
portion of the Kritik d. reinen Vernunft in which Kant discusses
the impossibility of applying to " things-in-themselves " the
principles which are found to govern phenomena. In the system
of Hegel the word resumes its original Socratic sense, as the name
of that intellectual process whereby the inadequacy of popular
conceptions is exposed. Throughout its history, therefore,
" dialectic " has been connected with that which is remote
from, or alien to, unsystematic thought, with the a priori, or
transcendental, rather than with the facts of common experience
and material things.

DIALLAGE, an important mineral of the pyroxene group, dis-
tinguished by its thin foliated structure and bronzy lustre. The
chemical composition is the same as diopside, Ca Mg (SiOa)!, but
it sometimes contains the molecules (Mg, Fe") (Al, Fe"")2 SiOs
and Na Fe" (SiOa)2 in addition, when it approaches to
augite in composition. Diallage is in fact an altered form of
these varieties of pyroxene; the particular kind of alteration
which they have undergone being known as "schillerization."
This, as described by Prof. J. W. Judd, consists in the develop-
ment of a fine lamellar structure or parting due to secondary
twinning and the separation of secondary products along these
and other planes of chemical weakness (" solution planes ") in
the crystal. The secondary products'consist of mixtures of vari-
ous hydrated oxides — opal, gothite, limonite, &c. — and appear
as microscopic inclusions filling or partly filling cavities, which
have definite outlines with respect to the enclosing crystal and
are known as negative crystals. It is to the reflection and inter-
ference of light from these minute inclusions that the peculiar
bronzy sheen or " schiller " of the mineral is due. The most
pronounced lamination is that parallel to the orthopinacoid;
another, less distinct, is parallel to the basal plane, and a third
parallel to the plane of symmetry; these planes of secondary
parting are in addition to the ordinary prismatic cleavage of all

pyroxenes. Frequently the material is interlaminated with a
rhombic pyroxene (bronzite) or with an amphibole (smaragdite
or uralite), the latter being an alteration product of the diallage.

Diallage is usually greyish-green or dark green, sometimes
brown, in colour, and has a pearly to metallic lustre or schiller
on the laminated surfaces. The hardness is 4, and the specific
gravity 3-2 to 3-35. It does not occur in distinct crystals with
definite outlines, but only as lamellar masses in deep-seated
igneous rocks, principally gabbro, of which it is an essential con-
stituent. It occurs also in some peridotites and serpentines, and
rarely in volcanic rocks (basalt) and crystalline schists. Masses
of considerable size are found in the coarse-grained gabbros of the
Island of Skye, Le Prese near Bornio in Valtellina, Lombardy,
Prato near Florence, and many other localities.

The name diallage, from 5taXXo7^, " difference," in allusion
to the dissimilar cleavages and planes of fracture, as originally
applied by R. J. Haiiy in 1801, included other minerals (the
orthorhombic pyroxenes hypersthene, bronzite and bastite, and
the smaragdite variety of hornblende) which exhibit the same
peculiarities of schiller structure; it is now limited to the
monoclinic pyroxenes with this structure. Like the minerals
of similar appearance just mentioned, it is sometimes cut and
polished for ornamental purposes. (L. J. S.)

DIALOGUE, properly the conversation between two or more
persons, reported in writing, a form of literature invented by the
Greeks for purposes of rhetorical entertainment and instruction,
and scarcely modified since the days of its invention. A dialogue
is in reality a little drama without a theatre, and with scarcely
any change of scene. It should be illuminated with those
qualities which La Fontaine applauded in the dialogue of Plato,
namely vivacity, fidelity of tone, and accuracy in the opposition
of opinions. It has always been a favourite with those writers
who have something to censure or to impart, but who love to
stand outside the pulpit, and to encourage others to pursue a
train of thought which the author does not seem to do more than
indicate. The dialogue is so spontaneous a mode of expressing
and noting down the undulations of human thought that it
almost escapes analysis. All that is recorded, in any literature,
of what pretend to be the actual words spoken by living or
imaginary people is of the nature of dialogue. One branch of
letters, the drama, is entirely founded upon it. But in its
technical sense the word is used to describe what the Greek
philosophers invented, and what the noblest of them lifted to the
extreme refinement of an art.

The systematic use of dialogue as an independent literary form
is commonly supposed to have been introduced by Plato, whose
earliest experiment in it is believed to survive in the Laches. The
Platonic dialogue, however, was founded on the mime, which
had been cultivated half a century earlier by the Sicilian poets,
Sophron and Epicharmus. The works of these writers, which
Plato admired and imitated, are lost, but it is believed that they
were little plays, usually with only two performers. The recently
discovered mimes of Herodas (Herondas) give us some idea of
their scope. Plato further simplified the form, and reduced it
to pure argumentative conversation, while leaving intact the
amusing element of character-drawing. He must have begun this
about the year 405, and by 399 he had brought the dialogue to
its highest perfection, especially in the cycle directly inspired by
the death of Socrates. All his philosophical writings, except the
Apology, are cast in this form. As the greatest of all masters of
Greek prose style, Plato lifteti his favourite instrument, the
dialogue, to its highest splendour, and to this day he remains by
far its most distinguished proficient. In the 2nd century A.D.
Lucian of Samosata achieved a brilliant success with his ironic
dialogues " Of the Gods," " Of the Dead," " Of Love " and " Of
the Courtesans." In some of them he attacks superstition and
philosophical error with the sharpness of his wit; in others he
merely paints scenes of modern life. The title of Lucian's most
famous collection was borrowed in the 1 7th century by two French
writers of eminence, each of whom prepared Dialogues des marts.
These were Fontenelle (1683) and Fenelon (1712). In English
non-dramatic literature the dialogue had not been extensively

DIALYSIS— DIAMETER

employed until Berkeley used it, in 1713, for his Platonic treatise,
Hylas and Philonous. Lander's Imaginary Conversations (1821-
1828) is the most famous example of it in the loth century,
although the dialogues of Sir Arthur Helps claim attention. In
Germany, Wieland adopted this form for several important
satirical works published between 1780 and 1799. In Spanish
literature, the Dialogues of Valdes (1528) and those on Painting
(1633) by Vincenzo Carducci, are celebrated. In Italian, collec-
tions of dialogues, on the model of Plato, have been composed by
Torquato Tasso (1586), by Galileo (1632), by Galiani (1770), by
Leopardi (1825), and by a host of lesser writers. Inourownday,
the French have returned to the original application of dialogue,
and the inventions of " Gyp," of Henri Lavedan and of others,
in which a mundane anecdote is wittily and maliciously told
in conversation, would probably present a close analogy to the
lost mimes of the early Sicilian poets, if we could meet with
them. This kind of dialogue has been employed in English,
and with conspicuous cleverness by Mr Anstey Guthrie, but
it does not seem so easily appreciated by English as by French
readers. (E.G.)

DIALYSIS (from the Gr. 8ta, through, \vtiv, to loosen), in
chemistry, a process invented by Thomas Graham for separating
colloidal and crystalline substances. He found that solutions
could be divided into two classes according to their action upon
a porous diaphragm such as parchment. If a solution, say of salt,
be placed in a drum provided with a parchment bottom, termed
a " dialyser," and the drum and its contents placed in a larger
vessel of water, the salt will pass through the membrane. If the
salt solution be replaced by one of glue, gelatin or gum, it will
be found that the membrane is impermeable to these solutes.
To the first class Graham gave the name " crystalloids," and to
the second " colloids." This method is particularly effective in
the preparation of silicic acid. By adding hydrochloric acid to a
dilute solution of an alkaline silicate, no precipitate will fall and
the solution will contain hydrochloric acid, an alkaline chloride,
and silicic acid. If the solution be transferred to a dialyser, the
hydrochloric acid and alkaline chloride will pass through the
parchment, while the silicic acid will be retained.

DIAMAGNETISM. Substances which, like iron, are attracted
by the pole of an ordinary magnet are commonly spoken of as
magnetic, all others being regarded as non-magnetic. It was
noticed by A. C. Becquerel in 1827 that a number of so-called
non-magnetic bodies, such as wood and gum lac, were influenced
by a very powerful magnet, and he appears to have formed the
opinion that the influence was of the same nature as that exerted
upon iron, though much feebler, and that all matter was more
or less magnetic. Faraday showed in 1845 (Experimental Re-
searches, vol. iii.) that while practically all natural substances are
indeed acted upon by a sufficiently strong magnetic pole, it is only
a comparatively small number that are attracted like iron, the
great majority being repelled. Bodies of the latter class were
termed by Faraday diamagnetics. The strongest diamagnetic
substance known is bismuth, its susceptibility being — 0-000014,
and its permeability 0-9998. The diamagnetic quality of this
metal can be detected by means of a good permanent magnet,
and its repulsion by a magnetic pole had been more than once
recognized before the date of Faraday's experiments. The
metals gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, antimony and mercury are
all diamagnetic; tin, aluminium and platinum are attracted by
a very strong pole. (See MAGNETISM.)

DIAMANTE, FRA, Italian fresco painter, was born at Prato
about 1 400. He was a Carmelite friar, a member of the Florentine
community of that order, and was the friend and assistant of
Filippo Lippi. The Carmelite convent of Prato which he adorned
with many works in fresco has been suppressed, and the buildings
have been altered to a degree involving the destruction of the
paintings. He was the principal assistant of Fra Filippo in
the grand frescoes which may still be seen at the east end of the
cathedral of Prato. In the midst of the work he was recalled to
Florence by his conventual superior, and a minute of proceedings
of the commune of Prato is still extant, in which it is determined
to petition the metropolitan of Florence to obtain his return to

Prato, — a proof that his share in the work was so important that
his recall involved the suspension of it. Subsequently he assisted
Fra Filippo in the execution of the frescoes still to be seen in the
cathedral of Spoleto, which Fra Diamante completed in 1470 after
his master's death in 1469. Fra Filippo left a son ten years old
to the care of Diamante, who, having received 200 ducats from
the commune of Spoleto, as the balance due for the work done in
the cathedral, returned with the child to Florence, and, as Vasari
says, bought land for himself with the money, giving but a small
portion to the child. The accusation of wrong-doing, however,
would depend upon the share of the work executed by Fra
Diamante, and the terms of his agreement with Fra Filippo.
Fra Diamante must have been nearly seventy when he com-
pleted the frescoes at Spoleto, but the exact year of his death is
not known.

DIAMANTE, JUAN BAUTISTA (i64o?-i684?), Spanish
dramatist, was born at Castillo about 1640, entered the army, and
began writing for the stage in 1657. He became a knight of
Santiago in 1660; the date of his death is unknown, but no
reference to him as a living author occurs after 1684. Like many
other Spanish dramatists of his time, Diamante is deficient in
originality, and his style is riddled with affectations; La Des-
graciada Raquel, which was long considered to be his best play,
is really Mira de Amescua's Judia de Toledo under another title;
and the earliest of Diamante's surviving pieces, El Honrador de
su padre (1658), is little more than a free translation of Corneille's
Cid. Diamante is historically interesting as the introducer of
French dramatic methods into Spain.

DIAMANTINA (formerly called Tejuco), a mining town of the
state of Minas Geraes, Brazil, in the N.E. part of the state, 3710 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1890) 17,980. Diamantina is built partly
on a steep hillside overlooking a small tributary of the Rio
Jequitinhonha (where diamond- washing was once carried on),
and partly on the level plain above. The town is roughly but
substantially built, with broad streets and large squares. It is
the seat of a bishopric, with an episcopal seminary, and has many
churches. Its public buildings are inconspicuous; they include
a theatre, military barracks, hospitals, a lunatic asylum and
a secondary school. There are several small manufactures,
including cotton-weaving, and diamond-cutting is carried on.
The surrounding region, lying on the eastern slopes of one of the
lateral ranges of the Serra do Espinhago, is rough and barren, but
rich in minerals, principally gold and diamonds. Diamantina is
the commercial centre of an extensive region, and has long been
noted for its wealth. The date of the discovery of diamonds,
upon which its wealth and importance chiefly depend, is uncertain,
but the official announcement was made in 1729, and in the
following year the mines were declared crown property, with a
crown reservation, known as the " forbidden district," 42 leagues
in circumference and 8 to 16 leagues in diameter. Gold-mining
was forbidden within its limits and diamond-washing was
placed under severe restrictions. There are no trustworthy
returns of the value of the output, but in 1849 the total was
estimated up to that date at 300,000,000 francs (see DIAMOND).
The present name of the town was assumed (instead of Tejuco)
in 1838, when it was made a cidade.

DIAMANTINO, a small town of the state of Matto Grosso,
Brazil, near the Diamantino river, about 6 m. above its junction
with the Paraguay, in 14° 24' 33* S., 56° 8' 30' W. Pop. (1890)
of the municipality 2147, mostly Indians. It stands in a broken
sterile region 1837 ft. above sea-level and at the foot of the1 great
Matto Grosso plateau. The first mining settlement dates from
1730, when gold was found in the vicinity. On the discovery of
diamonds in 1746 the settlement drew a large population and
for a time was very prosperous. The mines failed to meet
expectations, however, and the population has steadily declined.
Ipecacuanha and vanilla beans are now the principal articles of
export.

DIAMETER (from the Gr. 8ia, through, fifrpov, measure), in
geometry, a line passing through the centre of a circle or conic
section and terminated by the curve; the "principal diameters"
of the ellipse and hyperbola coincide with the "axes" and are at

iS8

DIAMOND

right angles; " conjugate diameters " are such that each bisects
chords parallel to the other. The diameter of a quadric surface
is a line at the extremities of which the tangent planes are parallel.
Newton defined the diameter of a curve of any order as the locus
of the centres of the mean distances of the points of intersection
of a system of parallel chords with the curve; this locus may
be shown to be a straight line. The word is also used as a uniU
of linear measurement of the magnifying power of a lens or
microscope.

In architecture, the term is used to express the measure of the
lower part of the shaft of a column. It is employed by Vitruvius
(iii. 2) to determine the height of a column, which should vary
from eight to ten diameters according to the intercolumniation:
and it is generally the custom to fix the lower diameter of the
shaft by the height required and the Order employed. Thus
the diameter of the Roman Doric should be about one-eighth of
the height, that of the Ionic one-ninth, and of the Corinthian
one-tenth (see ORDER).

DIAMOND, a mineral universally recognized as chief among
precious stones; it is the hardest, the most imperishable, and
also the most brilliant of minerals.1 These qualities alone
have made it supreme as a jewel since early times, and yet the
real brilliancy of the stone is not displayed until it has been
faceted by the art of the lapidary (?.».); and this was scarcely
developed before the year 1746. The consummate hardness of
the diamond, in spite of its high price, has made it most useful
for purposes of grinding, polishing and drilling. Numerous
attempts have been made to manufacture the diamond by arti-
ficial means, and these attempts have a high scientific interest on
account of the mystery which surrounds the natural origin of this
remarkable mineral. Its physical and chemical properties have
been the subject of much study, and have a special interest
in view of the extraordinary difference between the physical
characters of the diamond and those of graphite (blacklead) or
charcoal, with which it is chemically identical, and into which it
can be converted by the action of heat or electricity. Again, on
account of the great value of the diamond, much of the romance
of precious stones has centred round this mineral; and the
history of some of the great diamonds of historic times has been
traced through many extraordinary vicissitudes.

The name 'ASd^as, " the invincible," was probably applied by
the Greeks to hard metals, and thence to corundum (emery) and
other hard stones. According to Charles William King, the first
undoubted application of the name to the diamond is found
in Manilius (A.D. 16), — Sic Adamas, punctumlapidis, pretiosior
auro, — and Pliny (A.D. 100) speaks of the rarity of the stone,
" the most valuable of gems, known only to kings." Pliny de-
scribed six varieties, among which the Indian, having six pointed
angles, and also resembling two pyramids (turbines, whip-tops)
placed base to base, may probably be identified as the ordinary
octahedral crystal (fig. i). The " diamond " (Yahalom) in the
breastplate of the high priest (Ex. xxxix. n) was certainly some
other stone, for it bore the name of a tribe, and methods of
engraving the true diamond cannot have been known so early.
The stone can hardly have become familiar to the Romans until
introduced from India, where it was probably mined at a very
early period. But one or other of the remaining varieties
mentioned by Pliny (the Macedonian, the Arabian, the Cyprian,
&c.) may be the true diamond, which was in great request for
the tool of the gem-engraver. Later Roman authors mentioned
various rivers in India as yielding the Adamas among their sands.
The name Adamas became corrupted into the forms adamant,
diamaunt, diamant, diamond; but the same word, owing to
a medieval misinterpretation which derived it from adamare
(compare the French word aimant), was also applied to the
lodestone.

Like all the precious stones, the diamond was credited with
many marvellous virtues; among others the power of averting
insanity, and of rendering poison harmless; and in the middle

1 Diamonds are invariably weighed in carats and in \, \, J, -fa, fa, j"j
of a carat. One (English) carat = 3-i7 grains = -2O54 gram. One
ounce = 1513 carats. (See CARAT.)

ages it was known as the " pietra della reconciliazione," as the
peacemaker between husband and wife.

Scientific Characters. — The majority of minerals are found most
eotnmonly in masses which can with difficulty be recognized as
(Aggregates of crystalline grains, and occur comparatively seldom
/as distinct crystals; but the diamond is almost always found
in single crystals, which show no signs of previous attachment to
any matrix; the stones were, until the discovery of the South
African mines, almost entirely derived from sands or gravels,
but owing to the hardness of the mineral it is rarely, if ever,
water-worn, and the crystals are often very perfect. The crystals
belong to the cubic system, generally assuming the form of the
octahedron (fig. i), but they may, in accordance with the prin-
ciples of crystallography, also occur in other forms symmetric-
ally derived from the octahedron, — for example, the cube, the
i2-faced figure known as the rhombic dodecahedron (fig. 2), or
the 48-faced figure known as the hexakis-octahedron (fig. 3), or
in combinations of these. The octahedron faces are usually
smooth; most of the other faces are rounded (fig. 4). The cube

FIG. i.

FIG. 2.

FIG. 3.

FIG. 4.

FIG. 5.

faces are rough with protruding points. The cube is sometimes
found in Brazil, but is very rare among the S. African stones;
and the dodecahedron is perhaps more „..

common in Brazil than elsewhere.
There is often a furrow running along
the edges of the octahedron, or across
the edges of the cube, and this indicates
that the apparently simple crystal may
really consist of eight individuals meet-
ing at the centre; or, what comes to the i:'..
same thing, of two individuals inter-
penetrating and projecting through
each other. If this be so the form of the diamond is really the
tetrahedron (and the various figures derived symmetrically from
it) and not the octadehron. Fig. 5 shows
how the octahedron with furrowed edge
may be constructed from two interpene-
trating tetrahedra (shown in dotted lines).
If the grooves be left out of account, the
large faces which have replaced each tetra-
hedron corner then make up a figure which
has the aspect of a simple octahedron.
Such regular interpenetrations are known

in crystallography as " twins." There are also twins of dia-
mond in which two octahedra (fig. 6) are united by contact along
a surface parallel to an octahedron face without interpenetra-
tion. On account of their resemblance to
the twins of the mineral spinel (which
crystallizes in octahedra) these are
known as " spinel twins." They are gen-
erally flattened along the plane of union.
The crystals often display triangular
markings, either elevations or pits, upon
the octahedron faces; the latter are
particularly well defined and have the form
of equilateral triangles (fig. 7). They are
similar to the " etched figures " produced

FIG. 7.

by moistening an octahedron of alum, and have probably been
produced, like them, by the action of some solvent. Similar, but
somewhat different markings are produced by the combustion
of diamond in oxygen, unaccompanied by any rounding of the
edgesV"

Diamond possesses a brilliant " adamantine" lustre, but this
tends to be greasy on the surface of the natural stones and gives

DIAMOND

the rounded crystals somewhat the appearance of drops of gum.
Absolutely colourless stones are not so common as cloudy and
faintly coloured specimens; the usual tints are grey, brown,
yellow or white; and as rarities, red, green, blue and black
stones have been found. The colour can sometimes be removed
or changed at a high temperature, but generally returns on
cooling. It is therefore more probably due to metallic oxides than
to hydrocarbons. Sir William Crookes has, however, changed
a pale yellow diamond to a bluish-green colour by keeping it
embedded in radium bromide for eleven weeks. The black
coloration upon the surface produced by this process, as also by
the electric bombardment in a vacuum tube, appears to be due
to a conversion of the surface film into graphite. Diamond may
break with a conchoidal fracture, but the crystals always cleave
readily along planes parallel to the octahedron faces: of this
property the diamond cutters avail themselves when reducing
the stone to the most convenient form for cutting; a sawing
process, has, however, now been introduced, which is preferable
to that of cleavage. It is the hardest known substance (though
tantalum, or an alloy of tantalum now competes with it) and is
chosen as 10 in the mineralogist's scale of hardness; but the
difference in hardness between diamond (10) and corundum (9)
is really greater than that between corundum (9) and talc (i);
there is a difference in the hardness of the different faces; the
Borneo stones are also said to be harder than those of Australia,
and the Australian harder than the African, but this is by no
means certain. The specific gravity ranges from 3-56 to 3-50,
generallyabout3'S2. The coefficient of expansion increases very
rapidly above 750°, and diminishes very rapidly allow temper-
atures; the maximum density is attained about -42° C.

.The very high refractive power (index = 2-417 for sodium light)
gives the stone its extraordinary brilliancy; for light incident
within a diamond at a greater angle than 245° is reflected back
into the stone instead of passing through it; the corresponding
angle for glass is 40?°. The very high dispersion (index for red
light = 2-402, for blue light = 2-460) givesit the wonderful" fire "
or display of spectral colours. Certain absorption bands at the
blue end of the spectrum are supposed to be due to rare elements
such as samarium. Unlike other cubic crystals, diamond
experiences a diminution of refractive index with increase of
temperature. It is very transparent for Rontgen rays, whereas
paste imitations are opaque. It is a good conductor of heat, and
therefore feels colder to the touch than glass and imitation stones.
The diamond has also a somewhat greasy feel. The specific heat
increases rapidly with rising temperature up to 60° C., and then
more slowly. Crystals belonging to the cubic system should not
be birefringent unless strained; diamond often displays double
refraction particularly in the neighbourhood of inclusions, both
liquid and solid; this is probably due to strain, and the
spontaneous explosion of diamonds has often been observed.
Diamond differs from graphite in being a bad conductor of
electricity: it becomes positively electrified by friction. The
electrical resistance is about that of ordinary glass, and is
diminished by one-half during exposure by Rontgen rays; the
dielectric constant (16) is greater than that which should
correspond to the specific gravity.

The phosphorescence produced by friction has been known
since the time of Robert Boyle (1663); the diamond becomes
luminous in a dark room after exposure to sunlight or in the
presence of radium; and many stones phosphoresce beautifully
(generally with a pale green light) when subjected to the electric
discharge in a vacuum tube. Some diamonds are more phosphor-
escent than others, and different faces of a crystal may display
different tints./The combustibility of the diamond was pre-
dicted by Syr Isaac Newton on account of its high refractive
power; it was first established experimentally by the Florentine
Academicians in 1694. In oxygen or air diamond burns at about
850°, and only continues to do so if maintained at a high temper-
ature; but in the absence of oxidising agents it may be raised
to a much higher temperature. It is, however, infusible at
the temperature of the electric arc, but becomes converted
superficially into graphite. Experiments on the combustion of

diamond were made by Smithson Tennant (1797) and Sir
Humphry Davy (1816), with the object of proving that it is pure
carbon; they showed that burnt in oxygen it yields exactly the
same amount of carbon dioxide as that produced by burning the
same weight of carbon. • Still more convincing experiments were
made by A. Krause in 1890. Similarly Guyton de Morveau
showed that, like charcoal, diamond converts soft iron into steel.
Diamond is insoluble in acid and alkalis, but is oxidised on
heating with potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid.
j-. Bort (or Boart) is the name given to impure crystals or frag-
ments useless for jewels; it is also applied to the rounded
crystalline aggregates, which generally have a grey colour,
a rough surface, often a radial structure, and are devoid of
good cleavage. / They are sometimes spherical (" shot bort ").
Carbonado or " black diamond," found in Bahia (also recently
in Minas Geraes), is a black material with a minutely crystalline
structure somewhat porous, opaaue, resembling charcoal in
appearance, devoid of cleavage/rather harder than diamond,
but of less specific gravity; it Sometimes displays a rude cubic
crystalline form. The largest specimen found (1895) weighed
3078 carats. Both bort and carbonado seem to be really aggre-
gates of crystallized diamond, but the carbonado is so nearly
structureless that it was till recently regarded as an amorphous
modification of carbon.

Uses of the Diamond. — The use of the diamond for other
purposes than jewelry depends upon its extreme hardness: it
has always been the only material used for cutting or engraving
the diamond itself. The employment of powdered bort and
the lapidary's wheel for faceting diamonds was introduced by
L. von Berquen of Bruges in 1476. Diamonds are now employed
not only for faceting precious stones, but also for cutting and
drilling glass, porcelain, &c,; for fine engraving such as scales;
in dentistry for drilling; as a turning tool for electric-light
carbons, hard rubber, &c. ; and occasionally for finishing accurate
turning work such as the axle of a transit instrument. For these
tools the stone is actually shaped to the best form: it is now
electroplated before being set in its metal mount in order to
secure a firm fastening. It is also used for bearings in watches
and electric meters. The best glaziers' diamonds are chosen from
crystals such that a natural curved edge can be used. For rock
drills, and revolving saws for stone cutting, either diamond, bort
or carbonado is employed, set in steel tubes, disks or bands. Rock
drilling is the most important industrial application; and for
this, owing to its freedom from cleavage, the carbonado is more
highly prized than diamond; it is broken into fragments about
3 carats in weight; and in 1905 the value of carbonado was no
less than from £10 to £14 a carat. It has been found that the
" carbons " in drills can safely be subjected to a pressure of over
60 kilograms per square millimetre, and a speed of 25 metres
per second. A recent application of the diamond is for wire
drawing; a hole tapering towards the centre is drilled through
a diamond, and the metal is drawn through this. No other tool
is so endurable, or gives such uniform thickness of wire.

Distribution and Mining. — The most important localities for
diamonds have been: (i) India, where they were mined from
the earliest times till the close of the igth century; (2) South
America, where they have been mined since the middle of the
i8th century; and (3) South Africa, to which almost the whole
of the diamond-mining industry has been transferred since 1870.

India. — The diamond is here found in ancient sandstones and con-
glomerates, and in the river gravels and sands derived from them.
The sandstones and conglomerates belong to the Vindhyan formation
and overlie the old crystalline rocks: the diamantiferous beds are
well defined, often not more than I ft. in thickness, and contain
pebbles of quartzite, jasper, sandstone, slate, &c. The mines fall
into five groups situated on the eastern side of the Deccan plateau
about the following places (beginning from the south), the first three
being in Madras, (i) Chennur near Cuddapah on the river Pennar.
(2) Kurnool near Baneganapalle between the rivers Pennar and
Kistna. (3) Kollar near Bezwada on the river Kistna. (4) Sambalpur
on the river Mahanadi in the Central Provinces. (5) Panna near
Allahabad, in Bundelkhand. The mining has always been carried
on by natives of low caste, and by primitive methods which do not
differ much from those described by the French merchant Jean
Baptiste Tavernier (1605-1689), who paid a prolonged visit to most

i6o

DIAMOND

of the mines between 1638 and 1665 as a dealer in precious stones.
According to his description shallow pits were sunk, and the gravel
excavated was gathered into a walled enclosure where it was crushed
and water was pouVed over it, and it was finally sifted in baskets and
sorted by hand. The buying and selling was at that period conducted
by young children. In more modern times there has been the same
excavation of shallow pits, and sluicing, sifting and sorting, by hand
labour, the only machinery used being chain pumps made of earthen
bowls to remove the water from the deeper pits._

At some of the Indian localities spasmodic mining has been carried
on at different periods for centuries, at some the work which had been
long abandoned was revived in recent times, at others it has long been
abandoned altogether. Many of the large stones of antiquity were
probably found in the Kollar group, where Tavernier found 60,000
workers in 1645 (?), the mines having, according to native accounts,
been discovered about loo years previously. Golconda was the
fortress and the market for the diamond industry at this group of
mines, and so gave its name to them. The old mines have now been
completely abandoned, but in 1891 about 1000 carats were being
raised annually in the neighbourhood of Hyderabad. The Sambalpur
group appear to have been the most ancient mines of all, but they
were not worked later than 1850. The Panna group were the most
productive during the igth century. India was no doubt the source
of all the large stones of antiquity; a stone of 67! carats was found
at Wajra Karur in the Chennur group in 1881, and one of 210$
carats at Hira Khund in 1809. Other Indian localities besides those
mentioned above are Simla, in the N.W. Provinces, where a few
stones have been found, and a district on the Gouel and the Sunk
rivers in Bengal, which V. Ball has identified with the Soumelpour
mentioned by Tavernier. The mines of Golconda and Kurnool were
described as early as 1677 in the twelfth volume of the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society. At the present time very few
Indian diamonds find their way out of the country, and, so far as
the world's supply is concerned, Indian mining of diamonds may be
considered extinct. The first blow to this industry was the discovery
of the Brazilian mines in Minas Geraes and Bahia.

Brazil. — Diamonds were found about 1725 at Tejuco (now Dia-
mantina) in Minas Geraes, and the mining became important about
1740. The chief districts in Minas Geraes are (i) Bagagem on the W.
side of the Serra da Mata da Corda; (2) Rio Abaete on the E. side of
the same range; these two districts being among the head waters of
the Rio de San Francisco and its tributaries ; (3) Diamantina, on and
about the watershed separating the Rio de San Francisco from the
Rio Jequitinhonha ; and (4) Grao Mogul, nearly 200 m. to the N.E.
of Diamantina on the latter river.

The Rio Abaete district was worked on a considerable scale between
1785 and 1807, but is now abandoned. Diamantina is at present the
most important district; it occupies a mountainous plateau, and
the diamonds are found both on the plateau and in the river valleys
below it. The mountains consist here of an ancient laminated
micaceous quartzite, which is in parts a flexible sandstone known as
itacolumite, and in parts a conglomerate; it is interbedded with
clay-slate, mica-schist, hornblende-schist and haematite-schist, and
intersected by veins of quartz. This series is overlain unconformably
by a younger quartzite of similar character, and itself rests upon the
crystalline schists. The diamond is found under three conditions:
( i ) in the 'gravels of the present rivers, embedded in a ferruginous clay-
cemented conglomerate known as cascalho ; (2) in terraces (gupiarras)
in a similar conglomerate occupying higher levels in the present
valleys; (3) in plateau deposits in a coarse surface conglomerate
known as gurgulho, the diamond and other heavy minerals being
embedded in the red clay which cements the larger blocks. Under
all these three conditions the diamond is associated with fragments
of the rocks of the country and the minerals derived from them,
especially quartz, hornstone, jasper, the polymorphous oxide of
titanium (rutile, anatase and brookite), oxides and hydrates of iron
(magnetite, ilmenite, haematite, limonite), oxide of tin, iron pyrites,
tourmaline, garnet, xenotime, monazite, kyanite, diaspore, sphene,
topaz, and several phosphates, and also gold. Since the heavy
minerals of the cascalho in the river beds are more worn than those of
the terraces, it is highly probable that they have been derived by the
cutting down of the older river gravels represented by the terraces ;
and since in both deposits the heavy minerals are more abundant
near the heads of the valleys in the plateau, it is also highly probable
that both have really been derived from the plateau deposit. In the
latter, especially at Sao Joao da Chapada, the minerals accompany-
ing the diamond are scarcely worn at all ; in the terraces and the river
beds they are more worn and more abundant ; the terraces, therefore,
are to be regarded as a first concentration of the plateau material by
the old rivers; and the cascalho as a second concentration by the
modern rivers. The mining is carried on by negroes under the super-
vision of overseers; the cascalho is dug out in the dry season and
removed to a higher level, and is afterwards washed out by hand in
running water in shallow wooden basins (bateas). The terraces can
be worked at all seasons, and the material is partly washed out
by leading streams on to it. The washing of the plateau material is
effected in reservoirs of rain water.

It is difficult to obtain an estimate of the actual production of the
Minas Geraes mines, for no official returns have been published, but
in recent years it has certainly been rivalled by the yield in Bahia.

The diamond here occurs in river gravels and sands associated with
the same minerals as in Minas Geraes; since 1844 the richest mines
have been worked in the Serra de Cincora, where the mountains are
intersected by the river Paraguassu and its tributaries; it is said
that there were as many as 20,000 miners working here in 1845, and
it was estimated that 54,000 carats were produced in Bahia in 1858.
The earlier workings were in the Serra de Chapada to the N.W. of
the mines just mentioned. In 1901 there were about 5000 negroes
employed in the Buhia mines; methods were still primitive; the
cascalho was dug out from the river beds or tunnelled out from the
valley side, and washed once a week in sluices of running water,
where it was turned over with the hoe, and finally washed in wooden
basins and picked over by hand ; sometimes also the diamantiferous
material is scooped out of the bed of the shallow rivers by divers, and
by men working under water in caissons. It is almost exclusively in
the mines of Bahia, and in particular in the Cincora district, that the
valuable carbonado is found. The carbonado and the diamond have
been traced to an extensive hard conglomerate which occurs in the
middle of the sandstone formation. Diamonds are also mined at
Salobro on the river Pardo not far inland from the port of Canavieras
in the S.E. corner of Bahia. The enormous development of the South
AfricanmineSjWhichsuppliedin 1906, about9O%of the world's produce,
has thrown into the shade the Brazilian production ; but the Bulletin
for Feb. 1909 of the International Bureau of American Republics gave
a very confident account of its future, under improved methods.

South Africa. — The first discovery was made in 1867 by Dr W. G.
Atherstone, who identified as diamond a pebble obtained from a
child in a farm on the banks of the Orange river and brought by a
trader to Grahamstown ; it was bought for £500 and displayed in the
Paris Exhibition of that year. In 1869 a stone weighing 83^ carats
was found near the Orange river; this was purchased by the earl
of Dudley for £25,000 and became famous as the " Star of South
Africa." A rush of prospectors at once took place to the banks of
the Orange and Vaal rivers, and resulted in considerable discoveries, so
that in 1870 there was a mining camp of no less than 10,000 persons
on the " River Diggings." In the River Diggings the mining was
carried on in the coarse river gravels, and by the methods of the
Brazilian negroes and of gold placer-miners. A diggers' committee
limited the size of claims to 30 ft. square, with free access to the river
bank; the gravel and sand were washed in cradles provided with
screens of perforated metal, and the concentrates were sorted by
hand on tables by means of an iron scraper.

But towards the close of 1870 stones were found at Jagersfontein
and at Dutoitspan, far from the Vaal river, and led to a second great
rush of prospectors, especially to Dutoitspan, and in 1871 to what
is now the Kimberley mine in the neighbourhood of the latter. At
each of these spots the diamantiferous area was a roughly circular
patch of considerable size, and in some occupied the position of
one of those depressions or " pans " so frequent in S. Africa. These
" dry diggings " were therefore at first supposed to be alluvial in origin
like the river gravels; but it was soon discovered that, below the red
surface soil and the underlying calcareous deposit, diamonds were also
found in a layer of yellowish clay about 50 ft. thick known as " yellow
ground." Below this again was a hard bluish-green serpentinous rock
which was at first supposed to be barren bed-rock; but this also
contained the precious stone, and has become famous, under the
name of " blue ground," as the matrix of the S. African diamonds.
The yellow ground is merely decomposed blue ground. In the
Kimberley district five of these round patches of blue ground were
found within an area little more than 3 m. in diameter; that at
Kimberley occupying 10 acres, that at Dutoitspan 23 acres. There
were soon 50,000 workers on this field, the canvas camp was replaced
by a town of brick and iron surrounded by the wooden huts of the
natives, and Kimberley became an important centre.

It was soon found that each mine was in reality a huge vertical
funnel or crater descending to an unknown depth, and filled with
diamantiferous blue ground. At first each claim was an independent
pit 31 ft. square sunk into the blue ground; the diamantiferous rock
was hoisted by bucket and windlass, and roadways were left across
the pit to provide access to the claims. But the roadways soon fell
in, and ultimately haulage from the claims could only be provided by
means of a vast system of wire ropee extending from a triple staging
of windlasses erected round the entire edge of the mine, which had by
this time become a huge open pit ; .the ropes from the upper wind-
lasses extended to the centre, and those from the lower tier to the
sides of the pit; covering the whole mass like a gigantic cobweb.
(See Plate II. fig. 12.) The buckets of blue ground were hauled up
these ropes by means of horse whims, and in 1875 steam winding
engines began to be employed. By this time also improved methods
in the treatment of the blue ground were introduced. It was carried
off in carts to open spaces, where an exposure of some weeks to the air
was found to pulverize the hard rock far more efficiently than the
old method of crushing with mallets. The placer-miner's cradle and
rocking-trough were replaced by puddling troughs stirred by a
revolving comb worked by horse power; reservoirs were constructed
for the scanty water-supply, bucket elevators were introduced to
carry away the tailings ; and the natives were confined in compounds.
For these improvements co-operation was necessary; the better
claims, which in 1872 had risen from jfioo to more than £4000 in
value, began to be consolidated, and a Mining Board was introduced.

DIAMOND

PLATE I.

FIG. 9.- DE BEERS MINE, 1874.

FIG. io— KIMBERLEY MINE, 1874.

FIG. ii.— DE BEERS MINE, 1873.
(From photographs by C. Evans.)

VIII. 160.

\

PLATE II.

DIAMOND

FIG. I2.-KIMBERLEY MINE, 1874.

:>-/, ~r

FIG. 13.— KIMBERLEY MINE, 1902.
(From Photographs by C. Evans.)

DIAMOND

161

In a very few years, however, the open pit mining was rendered
impossible by the mud rushes, by the falls of the masses of barren
rock known as " reef," which were left standing in the mine, and by
landslips from the sides, so that in 1883, when the pit had reached a
depth of about 400 ft., mining in the Kimberley crater had become
almost impossible. By 1889, in the wholegroupof mines, Kimberley,
Dutoitspan, De Beers and Bultfpntein, open pit working was practi-
cally abandoned. Meanwhile mining below the bottom of the pits by
means of shafts and underground tunnels had been commenced ; but
the full development of modern methods dates from the year 1889
when Cecil Rhodes and Alfred Beit, who had already secured control
of the De Beers mine, acquired also the control of the Kimberley mine,
and shortly afterwards consolidated the entire group in the hands of
the De Beers Company. (See KIMBERLEY.)

The scene of native mining was now transferred from the open pit
to underground tunnels; the vast network of wire ropes (Plate II.
fig. 12) with their ascending and descending buckets disappeared, and
with it the cosmopolitan crowd of busy miners working like ants at
the bottom of the pit. In place of all this, the visitor to Kimberley
encounters at the edge of the town only a huge crater,
silent and apparently deserted, with no visible sign of the
great mining operations which are conducted nearly half
a mile below the surface. The aspect of the Kimberley
pit in 1906 is shown in fig. 13 of Plate II., which may
be compared with the section of fig. 8.

Infig.l3, Plate II. .thesequenceof thebasalt, shale and
melaphyre is clearly visible on the sides of the pit ; and
fig. 8 shows how the crater or " pipe "of blue ground has
penetrated these rocks and also the underlyingquartzite.
The workings at De Beers had extended into the still
more deeply seated granite in 1906. Figure 9, Plate I.,
shows the top of the De Beers' crater with basalt over-
lying the shale. Figure 8 also explains the modern
system of mining introduced by Gardner Williams. A
vertical shaft is sunk in the vicinity of the mine, and from
this horizontal tunnels are driven into the pipe at dif-
ferent levels separated by intervals of 40 ft. Through the
blue ground itself on each level a series of parallel tunnels
about 120 ft. apart are driven to the opposite side of the
pipe, and at right angles to these, and 36 ft. apart,
another series of tunnels. When the tunnels reach the
side of the mine they are opened upwards and sideways
so as to form a large chamber, and the overlying mass of
blue ground and debris is allowed to settle down and fill
up the gallery. On each level this process is carried
somewhat farther back than on the level below (fig. 8) ;
material is thus continually withdrawn from one side of
the mine and extracted by means of the rock shaft on the
opposite side, while the superincumbent debris is contin-
ually sinking, and is allowed to fall deeper on the side
farthest from the shaft as the blue ground is withdrawn
from beneath it. In 1905 the main shaft had been sunk
to a depth of 2600 ft. at the Kimberley mine.

For the extraction and treatment of the blue ground
the De Beers Company in its great winding and washing plant em-
ploys labour-saving machinery on a gigantic scale. The ground is
transferred in trucks to the shaft where it is automatically tipped into
skips holding 96 cubic ft. (six truck loads) ; these are rapidly hoisted
to the surface, where their contents are automatically dumped into
side-tipping trucks, and these in turn are drawn away in a continual
procession by an endless wire rope along the tram lines leading to the
vast "distributing floors." These are open tracts upon which the blue
ground is spread out and left exposed to sun and rain until it crumbles
and disintegrates, the process being hastened by harrowing with
steam ploughs ; this may require a period of three or six months, or
even a year. The stock of blue ground on the floors at one time in
1905 was nearly 4,500,000 loads. The disintegrated ground is then
brought back in the trucks and fed through perforated cylinders into
the washing pans; .the hard blue which has resisted disintegration
on the floors, and the lumps which are too big to pass the cylindrical
sieves, are crushed before going to the pans. These are shallow
cylindrical troughs containing muddy water in which the diamonds
and other heavy minerals (concentrates) are swept to the rim by
revolving toothed arms, while the lighter stuff escapes near the centre
of the pan. The concentrates are then passed over sloping tables
(pulsator) and shaken to and fro underastream of waterwhicn effects
a second concentration of the heaviest material.

Until recently the final separation of the diamond from the con-
centrates was made by hand picking, but even this has now been
replaced by machinery, owing to the remarkable discovery that a
greased surface will hold a diamond while allowing the other heavy
minerals to pass over it. The concentrates are washed down a sloping
table of corrugated iron which is smeared with grease, and it is found
that .practically all the diamonds adhere to the table, and the other
minerals are washed away ./At the large and important Premier mine
in the Transvaal the Elmwe process, used in British Columbia and
in Wales for the separation of metallic ores, has been also introduced.
In the Elmore process oil is employed to float off the materials which
adhere to it, while the other materials remain in the water, the oil
being separated from the water by centrifugal action. The other
VHI. — 6

minerals found in the concentrates are pebbles and fragments of
pyrope, zircon, cyanite, chrome-diopside, enstatite, a green pyroxene,
mica, ilmenite,_ magnetrte, chromite, hornblende, olivine, barytes,
calcite and pyrites.

In all the S. African mines the diamonds are not only crystals of
various weights from fractions of a carat to 150 carats, but also occur
as microscopic crystals disseminated through the blue ground. In
spite of this, however, the average yield in the profitable mines is
only from 0-2 carat to 0-6 carat per load of 1600 ID, or on an average
about i J grs. per ton. The annual output of diamonds from the De
Beers mines was valued in 1906 at nearly £5,000,000; the value per
carat ranging from about 353. to 703.

Pipes similar to those which surround Kimberley have been found
in other parts of S. Africa. One of the best known is that of Jagers-
fontein, which was really the first of the dry diggings (discovered in
1870). This large mine is near Fauresmith and 80 m. to the south
of Kimberley. In 1905 the year's production from the Orange River
Colony mines was more than 320,000 carats, valued at £938,000. But
by far the largest of all the pipes hitherto discovered is the Premier

SECTJOMOF KIMBERtEY MINE

LOOKING EAST
100 tf 0 iro MO tro MO -n> H, '

From Gardner Williams's Diamond Mines of South Africa.

FIG. 8.

mine in the Transvaal, about 300 m. to the east of Kimberley. This
was discovered in 1902 and occupies an area of about 75 acres. In
1906 it was being worked as a shallow open mine ; but the description
of the Kimberley methods given above is applicable to the washing
plant at that time being introduced into the Premier mine upon a very
large scale. Comparatively few of the pipes which have been dis-
covered are at all rich in diamonds, and many are quite barren ; some
are filled with " hard blue " which even if diamantiferous may be
too expensive to work.

The most competent S. African geologists believe all these remark-
able pipes to be connected with volcanic outbursts which occurred
over the whole of S. Africa during the Cretaceous period (after the
deposition of the Stormberg beds), and drilled these enormous craters
through all the later formations. With the true pipes are associated
dykes and fissures also filled with diamantiferous blue ground. It
is only in the more northerly part of the country that the pipes
are filled with blue ground (or " kimberlite "), and that they are
diamantiferous; but over a great part of Cape Colony have been
discovered what are probably similar pipes filled with agglomerates,
breccias and tuffs, and some with basic lavas; one, in particular, in
the Riversdale Division near the southern coast, being occupied by a
melilite-basalt. It is quite clear that the occurrence of the diamond
in the S. African pipes is quite different from the occurrences in
alluvial deposits which have been described above. The question of
the origin of the diamond in S. Africa and elsewhere is discussed
below.

The River Diggings on the Vaaj river are still worked upon a small
scale, but the production from this source is so limited that they are
of little account in comparison with the mines in the blue ground.
The stones, however, are good ; since they differ somewhat from the
Kimberley crystals it is probable that they were not derived from
the present pipes. Another S. African locality must be mentioned ;
considerable finds were reported in 1905 and 1906 from gravels
at Somabula near Gwelo in Rhodesia where the diamond is associ-
ated with chrysoberyl, corundum (both sapphire and ruby), topaz,
garnet, ilmenite, staurolite, rutile, with pebbles of quartz, granite,

DIAMOND

chlorite-schist, &c. Diamond has also been reported from kimberlite
" pipes " in Rhodesia.

Other Localities. — In addition to the South American localities
mentioned above, small diamonds have also been mined since their
discovery in 1890 on the river Mazaruni in British Guiana, and
finds have been reported in the gold washings of Dutch Guiana.
Borneo has possessed a diamond industry since the island was first
settled by the Malays ; the references in the works of Garcia de Orta,
Linschoten, De Boot, De Laet and others, to Malacca as a locality
relate to Borneo. The large Borneo stone, over 360 carats in weight,
known as the Matan, is in all probability not a diamond. The chief
mines are situated on the river Kapuas in the west and near
Bandjarmassin in the south-east of the island, and the alluvial
deposits in which they occur are worked by a small number of Chinese
and Malays. Australia has yielded diamonds in alluvial deposits
near Bathurst (where the first discovery was made in 1851) and
Mudgee in New South Wales, and also near Bingara and Inverell
in the north of the colony. At Mount Werong a stone weighing
29 carats was found in 1905. At Ruby Hill near Bingara they were
found in a breccia filling a volcanic pipe. At Ballina, in New England,
diamonds have been found in the sea sand. Other Australian
localities are Echunga in South Australia; Beechworth, Arena and
Melbourne in Victoria; Freemantle and Nullagine in Western
Australia ; the Palmer and Gilbert rivers in Queensland. These have
been for the most part discoveries in alluvial deposits of the gold-
fields, and the stones were small. In Tasmania also diamonds have
been found in the Corinna goldfields. Europe has produced few
diamonds. Humboldt searched for them in the Urals on account of
the similarity of the gold and platinum deposits to those of Brazil,
and small diamonds were ultimately found (1829) in the gold washings
of Bissersk, and later at Ekaterinburg and other spots in the Urals.
In Lapland they have been found in the sands of the Pasevig river.
Siberia has yielded isolated diamonds from the gold washings of
Yenisei. In North America a few small stones have been found in
alluvial deposits, mostly auriferous, in Georgia, N. and S. Carolina,
Kentucky, Virginia, Tennessee, Wisconsin, California, Oregon and
Indiana. A crystal weighing 23} carats was found in Virginia in
1855, and one of 21} carats in Wisconsin in 1886. In 1906 a number
of small diamonds were discovered in an altered peridotite some-
what resembling the S. African blue ground, at Murfreesboro, Pike
county, Arkansas. Considerable interest attaches to the diamonds
found in Wisconsin, Michigan and Ohio near the Great Lakes, for they
are here found inthe terminal moraines of the great glacial sheet which
is supposed to have spread southwards from the region of Hudson
Bay; several of the drift minerals of the diamantiferous region of
Indiana have been identified as probably of Canadian origin; no
diamonds have however yet been found in the intervening country of
Ontario. A rock similar to the blue ground of Kimberley has been
found in the states of Kentucky and New York. The occurrence of
diamond in meteorites is described below.

Origin of the Diamond in Nature. — It appears from the foregoing
account that at most localities the diamond is found in alluvial de-
posits probably far from the place where it originated. The minerals
associated with it do not afford much clue to tne original conditions ;
they are mostly heavy minerals derived from the neighbouring rocks,
in which the diamond itself has not been observed. Among the
commonest associates of the diamond are quartz, topaz, tourmaline,
rutile, zircon, magnetite, garnet, spinel and other minerals which are
common accessory constituents of granite, gneiss and the crystalline
schists. Gold (also platinum) is a not infrequent associate, but this
may only mean that the sands in which the diamond is found have
been searched because they were known to be auriferous ; also that
both gold and diamond are among the most durable of minerals and
may have survived from ancient rocks of which other traces have been
lost.

The localities at which the diamond has been supposed to occur
in its original matrix are the following: — at Wajra Karur, in the
Cuddapah district, India, M. Chaper found diamond with corundum
in a decomposed red pegmatite vein in gneiss. At Sao Joao da
Chapada, in Minas Geraes, diamonds occur in a clay interstratified
with the itacolumite, and are accompanied by sharp crystals of rutile
and haematite in the neighbourhood of decomposed quartz veins
which intersect the itacolumite. It has been suggested that these
three minerals were originally formed in the quartz veins. In both
these occurrences the evidence is certainly not sufficient to establish
the presence of an original matrix. At Inverell in New South Wales
a diamond (1906) has been found embedded in a hornblende diabase
which is described as a dyke intersecting the granite. Finally there is
the remarkable occurrence in the blue ground of the African pipes.

There has been much controversy concerning the nature and origin
of the blue ground itself; and even grantea that (as is generally
believed) the blue ground is a much serpentinized volcanic breccia
consisting originally of an olivine-bronzite-biotite rock (the so-called
kimberlite), it contains so many rounded and angular fragments of
various rocks and minerals that it is difficult to say which of them
may have belonged to the original rock, and whether any were formed
in situ, or were brought up from below as inclusions. Carvill Lewis
believed the blue ground to be true eruptive rock, and the carbon to
have been derived from the bituminous shales of which it contains
fragments. The Kimberley shales, which are penetrated by the De

Beers group of pipes, were, however, certainly not the source of the
carbon at the Premier (Transvaal) mine, for at this locality the shales
do not exist. The view that the diamond may have crystallized out
from solution in its present matrix receives some support from the
experiments of W. Luzi, who found that it can be corroded by the
solvent action of fused blue ground; from the experiments of
J. Friedlander, who obtained diamond by dissolving graphite in fused
olivine ; and still more from the experiments of R. von Hasslinger
and J. Wolff, who have obtained it by dissolving graphite in a fused
mixture of silicates having approximately the composition of the
blue ground. E Cohen, who regarded the pipes as of the nature of a
mud volcano, and the blue ground as a kimberlite breccia altered by
hydrothermal action, thought that the diamond and accompanying
minerals had been brought up from deep-seated crystalline schists.
Other authors have sought the origin of the diamond in the action
of the hydrated magnesian silicates on hydrocarbons derived from
bituminous schists, or in the decomposition of metallic carbides.

Of great scientific interest in this connexion is the discovery of
small diamonds in certain meteorites, both stones and irons; for
example, in the stone which fell at Novo-Urei in Penza, Russia, in
1886, in a stone found at Carcote in Chile, and in the iron found at
Canon Diablo in Arizona. Graphitic carbon in cubic form (cliftonite)
has also been found in certain meteoric " irons," for example in those
from Magura in Szepes county, Hungary, and Youndegin near York
in Western Australia. The latter is now generally believed to be
altered diamond. The fact that H. Moissan has produced the
diamond artificially, by allowing dissolved carbon to crystallize out
at a hign temperature and pressure from molten iron, coupled with
the occurrence in meteoric iron, has led Sir William Crookes and others
to conclude that the mineral may have been derived from deep-seated
iron containing carbon in solution (see the article GEM, ARTIFICIAL).
Adolf Knop suggested that this may have first yielded hydrocarbons
by contact with water, and that from these the crystalline diamond
has been formed. The meteoric occurrence has even suggested the
fanciful notion that all diamonds were originally derived from
meteorites. The meteoric iron of Arizona, some of which contains
diamond, is actually found in and about a huge crater which is
supposed by some to have been formed by an immense meteorite
penetrating the earth's crust.

It is, at any rate, established that carbon can crystallize as diamond
from solution in iron, and other metals; and it seems that high
temperature and pressure and the absence of oxidizing agents are
necessary conditions. The presence of sulphur, nickel, &c., in the
iron appears to favour the production of the diamond. On the other
hand, the occurrence in meteoric stones, and the experiments
mentioned above, show that the diamond may also crystallize from
a basic magmo, capable of yielding some of the metallic oxides and
ferro-magnesian silicates; a magma, therefore, which is not devoid
of oxygen. This is still more forcibly suggested by the remarkable
eclogite boulder found in the blue ground of the Newlands mine, not
far from the Vaal river, and described by T. G. Bonney. The boulder
is a crystalline rock consisting of pyroxene (chrome-diopside), garnet,
and a little olivine, and is studded with diamond crystals; a portion
of it is preserved in the British Museum (Natural History). In
another eclogite boulder, diamond was found partly embedded in
pyrope. Similar boulders have also been found in the blue ground
elsewhere. Specimens of pyrope with attached or embedded diamond
had previously been found in the blue ground of the De Beers mines.
In the Newlands boulder the diamonds have the appearance of being
an original constituent of the eclogite. It seems therefore that a holo-
crystalline pyroxene-garnet rock may be one source of the diamond
found in blue ground. On the other hand many tons of the somewhat
similar eclogite in the De Beers mine have been crushed and have not
yielded diamond. Further, the ilmenite, which is the most character-
istic associate of the diamond in blue ground, and other of the
accompanying minerals, may have come from basic rocks of a
different nature.

The Inverell occurrence may_ prove to be another example of
diamond crystallized from a basic rock.

In both occurrences, however, there is still the possibility that the
eclogite or the basalt is not the original matrix, but may have caught
up the already formed diamond from some other matrix. Some
regard the eclogite boulders as derived from deep-seated crystalline
rocks, others as concretions in the blue ground.

None of the inclusions in the diamond gives any clue to its origin ;
diamond itself has been found as an inclusion, as have also black
specks of some carbonaceous materials. Other black specks have been
identified as haematite and ilmenite; gold has also been found;
other included minerals recorded are rutile, topaz, quartz, pyrites,
apophyllite, and green scales of chlorite (?). Some of these are of very
doubtful identification; others (e.g. apophyllite and chlorite) may
have been introduced along cracks. Some of the fibrous inclusions
were identified by H. R. Goppert as vegetable structures and were
supposed to point to an organic origin, but this view is no longer held.
Liquid inclusions, some of which are certainly carbon dioxide, have
also been observed.

Finally, then, both experiment and the natural occurrence in rocks
and meteorites suggest that diamond may crystallize not only from
iron but also from a basic silicate magma, possibly from various rocks
consisting of basic silicates. The blue ground of S. Africa may be

DIAMOND

163

the result of the serpentinization of several such rocks, and although
now both brecciated and serpentinized some of these may have been
the original matrix. A circumstance often mentioned in support of
this view is the fact that the diamonds in one pipe generally differ
somewhat in character from those of another, even though they be
near neighbours,

History. — All the famous diamonds of antiquity must have been
Indian stones. The first author who described the Indian mines
at all fully was the Portuguese, Garcia de Orta (1565), who was
physician to the viceroy of Goa. Before that time there were
only legendary accounts like that of Sindbad's " Valley of
the Diamonds," or the tale of the stones found in the brains of
serpents. V. Ball thinks that the former legend originated in the
Indian practice of sacrificing cattle to the evil spirits when a new
mine is opened; birds of prey would naturally carry off the flesh,
and might give rise to the tale of the eagles carrying diamonds
adhering to the meat.

The following are some of the most famous diamonds of the
world: —

A large stone found in the Golconda mines and said to have
weighed 787 carats in the rough, before being cut by a Venetian
lapidary, was seen in the treasury of Aurangzeb in 1665 by
Tavernier, who estimated its weight after cutting as 280 (?)
carats, and described it as a rounded icse-cut-stone, tall on one
side. The name Great Mogul has been frequently applied to this
stone. Tavernier states that it was the famous stone given to
Shah Jahan by the emir Jumla. The Orlojf, stolen by a French
soldier from the eye of an idol in a Brahmin temple, stolen again
from him by a ship's captain, was bought by Prince Orloff for
£90,000, and given to the empress Catharine II. It weighs
194! carats, is of a somewhat yellow tinge, and is among the
Russian crown jewels. The Koh-i-nor, which was in 1739 in the
possession of Nadir Shah, the Persian conqueror, and in 1813 in
that of the raja of Lahore, passed into the hands of the East
India Company and was by them presented to Queen Victoria
in 1850. It then weighed i86^V carats, but was recut in London
by Amsterdam workmen, and now weighs io6iV carats. There
has been much discussion concerning the possibility of this stone
and the Orloff being both fragments of the Great Mogul. The
Mogul Baber in his memoirs (1526) relates how in his conquest of
India he captured at Agra the great stone weighing 8 mishkals,
or 320 ratis, which may be equivalent to about 187 carats. The
Koh-i-nor has been identified by some authors with this stone and
by others with the stone seen by Tavernier. Tavernier, however,
subsequently described and sketched the diamond which he saw
as shaped like a bisected egg, quite different therefore from the
Koh-i-nor. Nevil Story Maskelyne has shown reason for believ-
ing that the stone which Tavernier saw was really the Koh-i-nor
and that it is identical with the great diamond of Baber; and
that the 280 carats of Tavernier is a misinterpretation on his part
of the Indian weights. He suggests that the other and larger
diamond of antiquity which was given to Shah Jahan may
be one which is now in the treasury of Teheran, and that this is
the true Great Mogul which was confused by Tavernier with the
one he saw. (See Ball, Appendix I. to Tavernier's Travels (1889) ;
and Maskelyne, Nature, 1891, 44, p. 555.).

The Regent or Pitt diamond is a magnificent stone found in
either India or Borneo; it weighed 410 carats and was bought for
£20,400 by Pitt, the governor of Madras; it was subsequently,
in 1717, bought for £80,000 (or, according to some authorities,
£135,000) by the duke of Orleans, regent of France; it was re-
duced by cutting to 136}-^ carats; was stolen with the other crown
jewels during the Revolution, but was recovered and is still in
France. The A kbar Shah was originally a stone of 1 1 6 carats with
Arabic inscriptions engraved upon it; after being cut down to
71 carats it was bought by the gaikwar of Baroda for £33,000.
The Nizam, now in the possession of the nizam of Hyderabad, is
supposed to weigh 277 carats; but it is only a portion of a stone
which is said to have weighed 440 carats before it was broken.
The Great Table, a rectangular stone seen by Tavernier in 1642
at Golconda, was found by him to weigh 242^ carats; Maskelyne
regards it as identical with the Darya-i-nur, which is also a
rectangular stone weighing about 186 carats in the possession of

the shah of Persia. Another stone, the Taj-e-mah, belonging to
the shah, is a pale rose pear-shaped stone and is said to weigh
146 carats.

Other famous Indian'diamonds are the following: — The Sancy,
weighing 53^$ carats, which is said to have been successively the
property of Charles the Bold, de Sancy, Queen Elizabeth,
Henrietta Maria, Cardinal Mazarin, Louis XIV. ; to have been
stolen with the Pitt during the French Revolution; and subse-
quently to have been the property of the king of Spain, Prince
Demidoff and an Indian prince. The Nassak, 78$ carats, the
property of the duke of Westminster. The Empress Eugenie,
51 carats, the property of the gaikwar of Baroda. The Pigolt,
49 carats (?). which cannot now be traced. The Pasha, 40 carats.
The White Saxon, 48$ carats. The Star of Este, 2sM carats.

Coloured Indian diamonds of large size are rare; the most
famous are : — a beautiful blue brilliant, 67^ carats, cut from a
stone weighing 112-^- carats brought to Europe by Tavernier.
It was stolen from the French crown jewels with the Regent and
was never recovered. The Hope, 44^ carats, has the same colour
and is probably a portion of the missing stone: it was so-called
as forming part of the collection of H. T. Hope bought for
£18,000), and was sold again in 1906 (resold 1909). Two other
blue diamonds are known, weighing 13! and if carats, which may
also be portions of the French diamond. The Dresden Green, one
of the Saxon crown jewels, 40 carats, has a fine apple-green
colour. The Florentine, 133^ carats, one of the Austrian crown
jewels, is a very pale yellow.

The most famous Brazilian stones are: — The Star of the South,
found in 1853, when it weighed 254^ carats and was sold for
£40,000; when cut it weighed 125 carats and was bought by the
gaikwar of Baroda for £80,000. Also a diamond belonging to
Mr Dresden, 119 carats before, and 76^ carats after cutting.

Many large stones have been found in South Africa; some are
yellow but some are as colourless as the best Indian or Brazilian
stones. The most famous are the following: — the Star of South
Africa, or Dudley, mentioned above, 83^ carats rough, 46^ carats
cut. The Stewart, 288f carats rough, 1 20 carats cut. Both these
were found in the river diggings. The Porter Rhodes from
Kimberley, of the finest water, weighed about 150 carats. The
Victoria, 180 carats, was cut from an octahedron weighing 457^
carats, and was sold to the nizam of Hyderabad for £400,000.
The Tiffany, a magnificent orange-yellow stone, weighs 125^
carats cut. A yellowish octahedron found at De Beers weighed
428^ carats, and yielded a brilliant of 288^ carats. Some of the
finest and largest stones have come from the Jagersfontein mine;
one, the Jubilee, found in 1895, weighed 640 carats in the rough
and 239 carats when cut. Until 1905 the largest known diamond
in the world was the Excelsior, found in 1893 at Jagersfontein by
a native while loading a truck. It weighed 971 carats, and was
ultimately cut into ten stones weighing from 68 to 13 carats.
But all previous records were surpassed in 1905 by a magnificent
stone more than three times the size of any known diamond,
which was found in the yellow ground at the newly discovered
Premier mine in the Transvaal. This extraordinary diamond
weighed 3025$ carats (ij Ib) and was clear and water white; the
largest of its surfaces appeared to be a cleavage plane, so that it
might be only a portion of a much larger stone. It was known
as the Cullinan Diamond. This stone was purchased by the
Transvaal government in 1907 and presented to King Edward VII.
It was sent to Amsterdam to be cut, and in 1908 was divided into
nine large stones and a number of small brilliants. The four
largest stones weigh 516! carats, 309^ carats, 92 carats and 62
carats respectively. Of these the first and second are the largest
brilliants in existence. All the stones are flawless and of the
finest quality.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Boetius de Boot, Gemmarum et lapidum
historia (1609); D. Jeffries, A Treatise on Diamonds and Pearls
(1757) ; J- Mawe, Travels in the Interior of Brazil (1812) ; Treatise on
Diamonds and Precious Stones (1813); Finder, De adamante (1829);
Murray, Memoir on the Nature of the Diamond (1831) ; C. Zerenner
De adamante dissertatio (1850); H. Emanuel, Diamonds and
Precious Stones (1865) ; A. Schrauf, Edelsteinkunde (1869) ; N. Jacobs
and N. Chatnan, Monographie du diamant (1880) ; V. Ball, Geology
of India (1881) ; C. W. King, The Natural History of Precious Stones

164

DIAMOND NECKLACE

and Precious Metals (1883); M. E. Boutan, Le Diamant (1886);
S. M. Burnham, Precious Stones in Nature, Art and Literature (1887) ;
P. Groth, Grundriss der Edelsteinkunde (1887); A. Liversidge, The
Minerals of New South Wales (1888); Tavernier's Travels in, India,
translated by V. Ball (1889); E. W. Streeter, The. Great Diamonds
of the World (1896) ; H. C. Lewis, The Genesis and Matrix of the
Diamond (1897); L. de Launay, Les Diamants du Cap (1897);
C. Hintze, Handbuch der Mineralogie (1898); E. W. Streeter,
Precious Stones and Gems (6th ed., 1898); Dana, System of Miner-
alogy (1899) ; Kunz and others, The Production oj Precious Stones (in
annual, Mineral Resources of the United States); M. Bauer, Precious
Stones (trans. L. J. Spencer, 1904); A. W. Rogers, An Introduction
to the Geology of Cape Colony (1905); Gardner F. Williams, The
Diamond Mines of South Africa (revised edition, 1906); George F.
Kunz, " Diamonds, a study of their occurrence in the United States,
with descriptions and comparisons of those from all known localities"
(U.S. Geol. Survey, 1909); P. A. Wagner, Die Diamantfiihrenden
Gesteine Sudafrikas (1909).

Among papers in scientific periodicals may be mentioned articles
by Adler, Ball, Baumhauer, Beck, Bonney, Brewster, Chaper, Cohen,
Crookes, Daubree, Derby, Des Cloizeaux, Doelter, Dunn, Flight,
Friedel, Gorceix, Gurich, Goeppert, Harger, Hudleston, Hussak,
Tannettaz, Jeremejew, de Launay, Lewis, Maskelyne, Meunier,
Moissan, Molengraaff, Moulle, Rose, Sadebeck, Scheibe, Stelzner,
Stow. See generally Hintze's Handbuch der Mineralogie.

(H. A. Mi.)

DIAMOND NECKLACE, THE AFFAIR OF THE, a mysterious
incident at the court of Louis XVI. of France, which involved
the queen Marie Antoinette. The Parisian jewellers Boehmer and
Bassenge had spent some years collecting stones for a necklace
which they hoped to sell to Madame Du Barry, the favourite of
Louis XV., and after his death to Marie Antoinette. In 1778
Louis XVI. proposed to the queen to make her a present of
the necklace, which cost 1,600,000 livres. But the queen is
said to have refused it, saying that the money would be better
spent equipping a man-of-war. According to others, Louis XVI.
himself changed his mind. After having vainly tried to place the
necklace outside of France, the jewellers attempted again in 1781
to sell it to Marie Antoinette after the birth of the dauphin. It
was again refused, but it was evident that the queen regretted
not being able to acquire it.

At that time there was a personage at the court whom Marie
Antoinette particularly detested. It was the cardinal Louis de
Rohan, formerly ambassador at Vienna, whence he had been
recalled in 1774, having incurred the queen's displeasure by
revealing to the empress Maria Theresa the frivolous actions of
her daughter, a disclosure which brought a maternal reprimand,
and for having spoken lightly of Maria Theresa in a letter of
which Marie Antoinette learned the contents. After his return
to France the cardinal was anxious to regain the favour of the
queen in order to obtain the position of prime minister. In March
1784 he entered into relations with a certain Jeanne de St Remy
de Valois, a descendant of a bastard of Henry II., who after many
adventures had married a soi-disant comte de Lamotte, and lived
on a small pension which the king granted her. This adventuress
soon gained the greatest ascendancy over the cardinal, with whom
she had intimate relations. She persuaded him that she had been
received by the queen and enjoyed her favour; and Rohan
resolved to use her to regain the queen's good will. The comtesse
de Lamotte assured the cardinal that she was making efforts on
his behalf, and soon announced to him that he might send his
justification to Marie Antoinette. This was the beginning of a
pretended correspondence between Rohan and the queen, the
adventuress duly returning replies to Rohan's notes, which she
affirmed to come from the queen. The tone of the letters became
very warm, and the cardinal, convinced that Marie Antoinette
was in love with him, became ardently enamoured of her. He
begged the countess to obtain a secret interview for him with the
queen, and a meeting took place in August 1784 in a grove in
the garden at Versailles between him and a lady whom the
cardinal believed to be the queen herself. Rohan offered her
a rose, and she promised him that she would forget the past.
Later a certain Marie Lejay (renamed by the comtesse " Baronne
Gay d'Oliva," the last word being apparently an anagram of
Valoi), who resembled Marie Antoinette, stated that she had
been engaged to play the role of queen in this comedy. In any
case the countess profited by the cardinal's conviction to borrow

from him sums of money destined ostensibly for the queen's
works of charity. Enriched by these, the countess was able to
take an honourable place in society, and many persons believed
her relations with Marie Antoinette, of which she boasted openly
and unreservedly, to be genuine. It is still an unsettled question
whether she simply mystified people, or whether she was really
employed by the queen for some unknown purpose, perhaps
to ruin the cardinal. In any case the jewellers believed in
the relations of the countess with the queen, and they resolved
to use her to sell their necklace. She at first refused their
commission, then accepted it. On the zist of January 1785
she announced that the queen would buy the necklace, but
that not wishing to treat directly, she left the affair to a high
personage. A little while later Rohan came to negotiate the
purchase of the famous necklace for the 1,600,000 livres, payable
in instalments. He said that he was authorized by the queen,
and showed the jeweUers the conditions of the bargain approved
in the handwriting of Marie Antoinette. The necklace was
given up. Rohan took it to the countess's house, where a man,
in whom Rohan believed he recognized a valet of the queen,
came to fetch it. Madame de Lamotte had told the cardinal
that Marie Antoinette would make him a sign to indicate her
thanks, and Rohan believed that she did make him a sign.
Whether it was so, or merely chance or illusion, no one knows.
But it is certain that the cardinal, convinced that he was acting
for the queen, had engaged the jewellers to thank her; that
Boehmer and Bassenge, before the sale, in order to be doubly sure,
had sent word to the queen of the negotiations in her name; that
Marie Antoinette had allowed the bargain to be concluded, and
that after she had received a letter of thanks from Boehmer, she
had burned it. Meanwhile the " comte de Lamotte " appears to
have started at once for London, it is said with the necklace,
which he broke up in order to sell the stones.

When the time came to pay, the comtesse de Lamotte pre-
sented the cardinal's notes; but these were insufficient, and
Boehmer complained to the queen, who told him that she had
received no necklace and had never ordered it. She had the
story of the negotiations repeated for her. Then followed a coup
de theatre. On the I5th of August 1785, Assumption day, when
the whole court was awaiting the king and queen in order to go to
the chapel, the cardinal de Rohan, who was preparing to officiate,
was arrested and taken to the Bastille. He was able, however, to
destroy the correspondence exchanged, as he thought, with the
queen, and it is not known whether there was any connivance of
the officials, who did not prevent this, or not. The comtesse de
Lamotte was not arrested until the i8th of August, after having
destroyed her papers. The police set to work to find all her
accomplices, and arrested the girl Oliva and a certain Reteaux
de Villette, a friend of the countess, who confessed that he had
written the letters given to Rohan in the queen's name, and
had imitated her signature on the conditions of the bargain. The
famous charlatan Cagliostro was also arrested, but it was recog-
nized that he had taken no part in the affair. The cardinal de
Rohan accepted the parlement of Paris as judges. A sensational
trial resulted (May 31, 1786) in the acquittal of the cardinal, of
the girl Oliva and of Cagliostro. The comtesse de Lamotte was
condemned to be whipped, branded and shut up in the
Salpetriere. Her husband was condemned, in his absence, to the
galleys for life. Villette was banished.

Public opinion was much excited by this trial. It is generally
believed that Marie Antoinette was stainless in the matter, that
Rohan was an innocent dupe, and that the Lamottes deceived
both for their own ends. People, however, persisted in the belief
that the queen had used the countess as an instrument to satisfy
her hatred of the cardinal de Rohan. Various circumstances
fortified this belief, which contributed to render Marie Antoinette
very unpopular — her disappointment at Rohan's acquittal, the
fact that he was deprived of his charges and exiled to the abbey of
la Chaise-Dieu, and finally the escape of the comtesse de Lamotte
frcm the Salpetriere, with the connivance, as people believed,
o* the court. The adventuress, having taken refuge abroad,
published Mtmoires in which she accused the queen. Her

DIANA— DIAPASON

165

husband also wrote Memoires, and lived until 1831, after having,
it is said, received subsidies from Louis XVIII.

See M. Tourneux, Marie Antoinette, devant I'histoire: Essai biblio-
graphique (2nd ed., Paris, 1901) ; Emile Campardon, Marie Antoinette
et le proces du collier (Paris, 1863) ; P. Audebert, L 'Affaire du collier
de la reine, d'apres la corrsspondance inedite du chevalier de Pujol
(Rouen, 1901) ; F. d'Albini, Marie Antoinette and the Diamond Neck-
lace from another Point of View (London, 1900) ; Funck-Brentano,
L' Affaire du collier (1903); A. Lang, Historical Mysteries (1904).
Carlyle's essay on The Diamond Necklace (first published in 1837 in
Fraser's Magazine) is of historical literary interest.

DIANA, in Roman mythology, an old Italian goddess, in later
times identified with the Greek Artemis (<?.».). That she was
originally an independent Italian deity is shown by her name,
which is the feminine form of Janus ( = Dianus). She is essentially
the goddess of the moon and light generally, and presides over
wood, plain and water, the chase and war. As the goddess of
childbirth, she was known, like Juno, by the name of Lucina, the
" bringer to light." As the moon-goddess she was also identified
with Hecate, and invoked as " three-formed " in reference to the
phases of the moon. Her most celebrated shrine was in a grove
at Aricia (whence her title of Nemorensis) near the modern lake of
Nemi. Here she was worshipped side by side with a male deity
Virbius, a god of the forest and the chase. This Virbius was
subsequently identified with Hippoly tus, the favourite of Artemis,
who was said to have been brought to life by Aesculapius and
conducted by Diana to Aricia (Ovid, Fasti, iii. 263, vi. 731,
Metam. xv. 497; Virgil, Aencid, vii. 761). A barbarous custom,
perhaps reminiscent of human sacrifice once offered to her,
prevailed in connexion with her ritual here ; her priest, called
Rex Nemorensis, who was a runaway slave, was obliged to qualify
for office by slaying his predecessor in single combat (Strabo v.
p. 239 ; Suetonius, Caligula, 35). This led to the identification of
Diana with the Tauric Artemis, whose image was said to have been
removed by Orestes to the grove of Aricia (see ARICINI).

After the destruction of AlbaLongathis grove was for a long time
the united sanctuary of the neighbouring La tin and Rutuliancities,
until at last it was extinguished beneath the supremacy of Rome.
The festival of the goddess was on the ides (i3th) of August,' the
full moon of the hot season. She was worshipped with torches,
her aid was sought by women seeking a happy deliverance in
childbirth, and many votive offerings have been found on the site.
The worship of Diana was brought to Rome by Latin plebeians,
and hence she was regarded as the protectress of the lower
classes, and especially of slaves. In accordance with this, her
most important temple was that on the Aventine, the chief seat
of the plebeians, founded by Servius Tullius, originally as a
sanctuary of the Latin league (Dion. Halic. iv. 26). No man was
allowed to enter the temple, and on the day of its dedication
(August 13) the slaves kept holiday (Plutarch, Quaest. Rom. 100).
This Diana was identified with the sister of Apollo, and at the
secular games she was worshipped simply as Artemis. Another
celebrated sanctuary of Diana was that on the slopes of Mount
Tifata near Capua (where she was worshipped under the name of
Tifatina), a sanctuary specially favoured by Sulla and Vespasian.
As Noctiluca (" giving light by night ") she had a sanctuary on
the Palatine which was kept illuminated throughout the night
(Varro, L.L. v. 68). On the Nemi priesthood see J. bG. Frazer,
Golden Bough.

DIANA MONKEY, a West African representative of the
guenon monkeys taking its name, Cercopithecus diana, from the
presence of a white crescent on the forehead ; another character-
istic feature being the pointed white beard. The general colour
of the fur is greyish, with a deep tinge of chestnut from the
middle of the back to the root of the tail. Together with
C. neglectus of East and Central Africa, C. ignitus of Libeiia, and
C. roloway of the Gold Coast, the diana represents the special
subgenus of guenons known as Pogonocebus. Although the diana
monkey is commonly seen in menageries, little is known of its
habits in the wild state.

DIANE DE FRANCE (1538-1619), duchess of Montmorency
and AngoulSme, was the natural daughter of Henry II. of France
and a young Piedmontese, Filippe Due. The constable de

Montmorency went so far as to assert that of all the children of
Henry II. Diane was the only one who resembled him. Catherine
de' Medici was greatly incensed at this affront, and took her
revenge by having the constable disgraced on the death of Henry
II. Brantdme is loud in praise of Diane. She was a perfect horse-
woman and dancer, played several musical instruments, knew
Spanish and Italian, and " estoit tres belle de visage et de taille."
Legitimated in 1547, she was married in 1553 to Horace Farnese,
second son of the duke of Parma, but her husband was killed soon
afterwards at the siege of Hesdin. In order to assure his position,
the constable de Montmorency wished to marry her to his eldest
son, Francis. This was a romantic adventure, for Francis had
clandestinely married Mademoiselle de Piennes. The constable
dissolved this union, and after lengthy negotiations obtained the
dispensation of the pope. On the 3rd of May 1559 Francis
married Diane. A wise and moderate woman, Diane undoubtedly
helped to make Francis de Montmorency one of the leaders of the
party of the politiques. Again a widow in 1579, she had some
influence at the court of Henry III., and negotiated his recon-
ciliation with Henry of Navarre (i 588) . She retained her influence
in the reign of Henry IV., conveyed the bodies of Catherine
de' Medici and Henry III. to St Denis, and died in 1619 at her
h&tel of AngouMme.

See Brant6me, ed. by Lalanne, in the Coll de la societe d'histoire
de France, vol. viii. (1875); J. de Thou, Historia sui temporis . . .
(!733); Matthieu de Morgues, Oraison funebre de Diane de France
(Paris, 1619).

DIANE DE POITIERS (1499-1566), duchess of Valentinois,
and mistress of Henry II. of France, was the daughter of Jean
de Poitiers, seigneur de St Vallier, who came of an old family of
Dauphine. In 1515 she married Louis de Br6ze, grand seneschal
of Normandy, by whom she had two daughters. She became a
widow in 1533, but soon replaced her husband by a more illustri-
ous lover, the king's second son, Henry, who became dauphin
in 1536. Although he was ten years younger than Diane, she
inspired the young prince with a profound passion, which lasted
until his death. The accession of Henry II. in 1547 was also the
accession of Diane: she was virtual queen, while Henry's lawful
wife, Catherine de' Medici, lived in comparative obscurity. The
part Diane played, however, must not be exaggerated. More
rapacious than ambitious, she concerned herself little with
government, but devoted her energies chiefly to augmenting her
income, and providing for her family and friends. Henry was
the most prodigal of lovers, and gave her all rights over the
duchy of Valentinois. Although she showed great tact in her
dealings with the queen, Catherine drove her from the court
after Henry's death, and forced her to restore the crown jewels
and to accept Chaumont in exchange for Chenonceaux. Diane
retired to her chateau at Anet, where she died in 1566.

Several historians relate that she had been the mistress of
Francis I. before she became the dauphin's mistress, and that she
gave herself to the king in order to obtain the pardon of her
father, who had been condemned to death as an accomplice of the
constable de Bourbon. This rumour, however, has no serious
foundation. Men vied with each other in celebrating Diane's
beauty, which, if we may judge from her portraits, has been
slightly exaggerated. She was a healthy, vigorous woman, and,
by dint of great pains, succeeded in retaining her beauty late into
life. It is said that even on the coldest mornings she would wash
her face with well water. Diane was a patroness of the arts.
She entrusted to Philibert de 1'Orme the building of her chateau
at Anet, and it was for her that Jean Goujon executed his master-
piece, the statue of Diana, now in the Louvre.

See G. Guiffrey, Leltres inedites de Diane de Poytitrs (Paris, 1866)
and Proces crirmnel de Jehan de Poytiers (Paris, 1867); Capefigue,
Diane de Poitiers (Paris, 1860); Hay, Madame Dianne de Poytiers
(London, 1900).

DIAPASON (Gr. 5to iraa&v, through all), a term in music,
originally for an interval of an octave. The Greek is an abbrevia-
tion of ri 8ia ircuruv \opbCiv ffvn<t>ciivia, a consonance
through all the tones of the scale. In this sense it is only
used now, loosely, for the compass of an instrument or voice,
or for a harmonious melody. The name is given to the two

i66

DIAPER— DIAPHRAGM

foundation stops of an organ, the open and the stopped diapason
(see ORGAN), and to a standard of musical pitch, as in the French
diapason normal (see PITCH, MUSICAL).

DIAPER (derived through the Fr. from the Gr. Sia, through,
and acrTrpos, white; the derivation from the town of Ypres,
" d'Ypres," in Belgium is unhistorical, as diapers were known
for centuries before its existence), the name given to a textile
fabric, formerly of a rich and costly nature with embroidered
ornament, but now of linen or cotton, with a simple woven
pattern; and particularly restricted to small napkins. In
architecture, the term " diaper " is given to any small pattern of
a conventional nature repeated continuously and uniformly
over a surface; the designs may be purely geometrical, or based

on floral forms, and in early examples were regulated by the pro-
cess of their textile origin. Subsequently, similar patterns were
employed in the middle ages for the surface decoration of stone,
as in Westminster Abbey and Bayeux cathedral in the spandrils
of the arcades of the choir and nave; also in mural painting,
stained glass, incised brasses, encaustic tiles, &c. Probably in
most cases the pattern was copied, so far as the general design
is concerned, from the tissues and stuffs of Byzantine manu-
facture, which came over to Europe and were highly prized as
ecclesiastical vestments.

In its textile use, the term diaper was originally applied to silk
patterns of a geometrical pattern ; it is now almost exclusively used
for diamond patterns made from linen or cotton yarns. An illustra-
tion of two patterns of this nature is shown in the figure. The floats
of the warp and the weft are mostly in three; indeed the patterns
are made from a base weave which is composed entirely of
floats of this number. It will be seen that both designs are formed
of .what may be termed concentric figures — alternately black and
white. Pattern B differs from pattern A only in that more of these
concentric figures are used for the complete figure. If pattern B,
which shows only one unit, were extended, the effect would be similar
to A, except for the size of the unit. In A there are four complete
units, and hence the pattern appears more striking. Again, the
repeating of B would cause the four corner pieces to join and to form
a diamond similar to the one in the centre. The two diamonds in B
would then alternate diagonally to left and right. Special names are
given to certain kinds of diapers, e.g. " bird's-eye," " pheasant's-
eye"; these terms indicate, to a certain extent, the size of the
complete diamond in the cloth — the smaller kind taking the name
" bird's-eye." The size of the pattern on paper has little connexion
with the size of the pattern in the cloth, for it is clearly the number
of threads and picks per inch which determine the size of the pattern
in the cloth from any given design. Although A is larger than what
is usually termed the " bird's-eye " pattern, it is evident that it may
be made to appear as such, provided that the cloth is fine enough.
These designs, although adapted mostly for cloths such as nursery-
diapers, for pinafores, &c., are sometimes used in the production of
towels and table-cloths. In the figure, the first pick in A is identical
with the first pick in B, and the part C shows how each interweaves
with the twenty-four threads.

DIAPHORETICS (from Gr. diafoptiv, to carry through),
the name given to those remedies which promote perspiration.
In health there is constantly taking place an exhalation of
watery vapour from the skin, by which not only are many of the
effete products of nutrition eliminated, but the body is kept cool.
Under exertion or in a heated atmosphere this natural function
of the skin is increased, sweating more or less profuse follows,
and, evaporation going on rapidly over the whole surface, little
or no rise in the temperature of the body takes place. In many
forms of disease, such as fevers and inflammatory affections, the

action of the skin is arrested, and the surface of the body feels
harsh and dry, while the temperature is greatly elevated. The
occurrence of perspiration not unfrequently marks a crisis in such
diseases, and is in general regarded as a favourable event. In
some chronic diseases, such as diabetes and some cases of
Bright's disease, the absence of perspiration is a marked feature;
while, on the other hand, in rnany wasting diseases, such as
phthisis, the action of the skin is increased, and copious exhaust-
ing sweating occurs. Many means can be used to induce perspira-
tion, among the best known being baths, either in the form of hot
vapour or hot water baths, or in that part of the process of
the Turkish bath which consists in exposing the body to a dry and
hot atmosphere. Such measures, particularly if followed by the
drinking of hot liquids and the wrapping of the body in warm
clothing, seldom fail to excite copious perspiration. Numerous
medicinal substances have the same effect.

DIAPHRAGM (Gr. Sid^paT/m, a partition). The dia-
phragm or midriff (Anglo-Saxon, mid, middle, hrif, belly) in
human anatomy is a large fibro-muscular partition between the
cavities of the thorax and abdomen; it is convex toward the
thorax, concave toward the abdomen, and consists of a central
tendon and a muscular margin. The central tendon(q, fig. i)is trefoil
in shape, its leaflets being right, left and anterior; of these the right
is the largest and the left the smallest. The fleshy fibres rise, in
front from the back of the xiphoid cartilage of the sternum (d) ,
laterally by six serrations, from the inner surfaces of the lower six
ribs, interdigitating with the transversalis, posteriorly from the
arcuate ligaments, of which there are five, a pair of external, a
pair of internal, and a single median one. The external arcuate
ligament (h) stretches from the tip of the twelfth rib (b) to the
costal process of the first lumbar vertebra in front of the quad-
ratus lumborum muscle (o), the internal and middle are continua-
tions of the crura which rise from the ventro-lateral aspects of
the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae, the right (e) coming from
three, the left (/) from two. On reaching the level of the twelfth
thoracic vertebra each crus spreads out into a fan-shaped mass of
fibres, of which the innermost join their fellows from the opposite
crus, in front of the aortic opening (k), to form the middle arcuate

FIG. I. — Abdominal Surface of the Diaphragm.
ligament; the outer ones (g) arch in front of the psoas muscle (n)
to the tip of the costal process of the first lumbar vertebra to
form the internal arcuate ligament, while the intermediate ones
pass to the central tendon. There are three large openings in the
diaphragm; the aortic (k) is behind the middle arcuate ligament
and transmits the aorta, the vena azygos major, and the thoracic
duct. In the right leaflet is an opening (sometimes called the
hiatus quadratus) for the inferior vena cava and a branch of the
right phrenic nerve (m), while in front and a little to the left of
the aortic opening is one for the oesophagus and the two pneumo-
gastric nerves (/), the left being in front and the right behind.

DIARBEKR— DIARRHOEA

167

The fleshy fibres on each side of this opening act as a sphincter.
Passing between the xiphoid and costal origins in front are the
superior epigastric arteries, while the other terminal branches of
the internal mammaries, the musculo-phrenics, pass through
between two costal origins.

Through the crura pass the splanchnic nerves, and in addition
to these the left crus is pierced by the vena azygos minor. The
sympathetic nerves usually enter the abdomen behind the internal
arcuate ligaments. The phrenic nerves, which are the main
supply of the diaphragm, divide before reaching the muscle and
pierce it in a number of places to enter its abdominal surface, but
some of the lower intercostal nerves assist in the supply. The last
thoracic or subcostal nerves pass behind the external arcuate
ligament.

For the action of the diaphragm see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.

Embryology. — The diaphragm is at first developed intheneckregion
of the embryo, and this accounts for the phrenic nerves, which supply
it, rising from the fourth and fifth cervical. From the mesoderm on
the caudal side of the pericardium isdevelopedtheseptumtransversum,
and in this the central tendon is formed. The fleshy portion is
developed on each side in two parts, an anterior or sterno-costal
which is derived from the longitudinal neck musculature, probably
the same layer from which the sternothyroid comes, and a spinal part
which is a derivative of the transversalis sheet of the trunk. Between
these two parts is at one time a gap, the spino-costal hiatus, and this
isobliterated by the growth of the pleuro-peritoneal membrane, which
may occasionally fail to close ana so may form the site of a phrenic
hernia. With the growth of the body and the development of the
lungs the diaphragm shifts its position until it becomes the septum
between the thoracic and abdominal cavities. (See A. Keith, "On the
Development of the Diaphragm," Jour, of Anal, and Phys. vol. 39.)
A. Paterson has recorded cases in which the left half of the diaphragm
is wanting (Proceedings of the Anatomical Society of Gt. Britain,
June 1900; Jour, of Anal, and Phys. vol. 34), and occasionally
deficiencies are found elsewhere, especially in the sternal portion.
For further details see Quain's Anatomy, vol. i. (London, 1908).

Comparative Anatomy. — A complete diaphragm, separating the
thoracic from the abdominal parts of the coelom, is characteristic of
the Mammalia; it usually has the human structure and relations
exceptthat belowthe Anthropoids it is separated from the pericardium
by the azygous lobe of the lung. In some Mammals, e.g. Echidna
and Phocoena.it is entirely muscular. In theCetacea it is remarkable
for its obliquity; its vertebral attachment is much nearer the tail
than its sternal or ventral one ; this allows a much larger lung space
in the dorsal than in the ventral part of the thorax, and may be
concerned with the equipoise of the animal. (Otto Mtiller, " Unter-
suchungen iiber die Veranderung, welche die Respirationsorgane der
Saugetiere durch die Anpassung an das Leben im Wasser erlitten
haben," Jen. Zeitschr.f. Naturwiss., 1898, p. 93.) In the Ungulata
only one crus is found (Windle and Parsons, " Muscles of the
Ungulata," Proc. Zoo/. Soc., 1903, p. 287). Below the Mammals
incomplete partitions between the pleural and peritoneal .cavities
are found in Chelonians, Crocodiles and Birds, and also inAmphibians
(Xenopus and Pipa). (F. G. P.)

DIARBEKR1 (Kara Amid or Black Amid; the Roman
Amida), the chief town of a vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, situated
on a basaltic plateau on the right bank of the Tigris, which here
flows in a deep open valley. The town is still surrounded by the
masonry walls of black basalt which give it the name of Kara
or Black Amid; they are well built and imposing on the west
facing the open country, but almost in ruins where they overlook
the river. A mass of gardens and orchards cover the slope down
to the river on the S.W., but there are no suburbs outside the
walls. The houses are rather crowded but only partially fill
the walled area. The population numbers 38,000, nearly half
being Christian, comprising Turks, Kurds, Arabs, Turkomans,
Armenians, Chaldeans, Jacobites and a few Greeks. The streets
are 10 ft to 15 ft. wide, badly paved and dirty; the houses and
shops are low, mostly of stone, and some of stone and mud.
The bazaar is a good one, and gold and silver filigree work is
made, peculiar in character and design. The cotton industry is
declining, but manufacture of silk is increasing. Fruit is good and
abundant as the rich volcanic soil is well watered from the town
springs. The size of the melons is specially famous. To the
south, the walls are some 40 ft. high, faced with large cut stone
blocks of very solid construction, with towers and square bastions
rising to 500 ft. There are four gates: on the north the Kharput
gate, on the west the Rum, on the south the Mardin, and on the
1 From Dior, land, and Bekr (i.e. Abu Bekr, the caliph).

east the Yeni Kapu or new gate. A citadel enclosure stands
at the N. E. corner and is now partly in ruins, but the interior
space is occupied by the government konak. The summer
climate in the confined space within the town is excessively hot
and unhealthy. Epidemics of typhus are not unknown, as well
as ophthalmia. The Diarbekr boil is like the " Aleppo button,"
lasting a long time and leaving a deep scar. Winters are fre-
quently severe but do not last long. Snow sometimes lies, and
ice is stored for summer use. Scorpions noted for the virulence of
their poison abound as well as horse leeches in the tanks. The
town is supplied with water both by springs inside the town
and by aqueducts from fountains at Ali Punar and Hamervat.
The principal exports are wool, mohair and copper ore, and
imports are cotton and woollen goods, indigo, coffee, sugar,
petroleum, &c.

The Great Mosque, Ulu Jami, formerly a Christian church,
occupies the site of a Sassanian palace and was built with
materials from an older palace, probably that of Tigranes II.
The remains consist of the facades of two palaces 400 ft. apart,
each formed by a row of Corinthian columns surmounted by an
equal number of a Byzantine type. Kufic inscriptions run across
the fronts under the entablature. The court of the mosque
is entered by a gateway on which lions and other animals are
sculptured. The churches of greatest interest are those of SS.
Cosmas and Damian (Jacobite) and the church of St James
(Greek). In the igth century Diarbekr was one of the largest
and most flourishing cities of Asia, and as a commercial centre it
now stands at the meeting-point of several important routes. It
is at the head of the navigation of the Tigris, which is traversed
down stream by keleks or rafts supported by inflated skins.
There is a good road to Aleppo and Alexandretta on the Mediter-
ranean, and to Samsun on the Black Sea by Kharput, Malatia
and Sivas. There are also routes to Mosul and Bitlis.

Diarbekr became a Roman colony in A.D. 230 under the name
of Amida, and received a Christian bishop in A.D. 325. It was
enlarged and strengthened by Constantius II., in whose reign it
was taken after a long siege by Shapur (Sapor) II., king of Persia.
The historian Ammianus Marcellinus, who took part in the
defence, gives a detailed account of it. In the later wars between
the Persians and Romans it more than once changed hands.
Though ceded by Jovian to the Persians it again became annexed
to the Roman empire, and in the reign of Anastasius (A.D. 502)
was once more taken by the Persians, when 80,000 of its in-
habitants were slain. It was taken c. 638 by the Arabs, and
afterwards passed into the hands of the Seljuks and Persians,
from whom it was finally captured by Selim I. in 1515; and
since that date it has remained under Ottoman rule. About 2 m.
below the town is a masonry bridge over the Tigris; the older
portion being probably Roman, and the western part, which bears
a Kufic inscription, being Arab.

The vilayet of Diarbekr extends south from Palu on the
Euphrates toMardin and Nisibin on the edge of the Mesopotamian
plain, and is divided into three sanjaks — Arghana, Diarbekr and
Mardin. The headwaters of the main arm of the Tigris have
their source in the vilayet.

Cereals, cotton, tobacco, rice and silk are produced, but most of
the fertile lands have been abandoned to semi-nomads, who raise
large quantities of live stock. The richest portion of the vilayet
lies east of the capital in the rolling plains watered by tributaries
of the Tigris. An exceptionally rich copper mine exists at
Arghana Maden, but it is very imperfectly worked; galena
mineral oil and silicious sand are also found.

(C. W. W.; F. R. M.)

DIARRHOEA (from Gr. 5tA, through, fcu, flow), an exces-
sive looseness of the bowels, a symptom of irritation which
may be due to various causes, or may be associated with
some specific disease. The treatment in such latter cases
necessarily varies, since the symptom itself may be remedial,
but in ordinary cases depends on the removal of the cause of
irritation by the use of aperients, various sedatives being also
prescribed. In chronic diarrhoea careful attention to the diet is
necessary.

i68

DIARY— DIASPORE

DIARY, the Lat. diarium (from dies, a day), the book in which
are preserved the daily memoranda regarding events and actions
which come under the writer's personal observation, or are
related to him by others. The person who keeps this record is
called a diarist. It is not necessary that the entries in a diary
should be made each day, since every life, however full, must
contain absolutely empty intervals. But it is essential that the
entry should be made during the course of the day to which it
refers. When this has evidently not been done, as in the case of
Evelyn's diary, there is nevertheless an effort made to give the
memoranda the effect of being so recorded, and in point of fact,
even in a case like that of Evelyn, it is probable that what we
now read is an enlargement of brief notes jotted down on the day
cited. When this is not approximately the case, the diary is a
fraud, for its whole value depends on its instantaneous transcript
of impressions.

In its primitive form, the diary must always have existed; as
soon as writing was invented, men and women must have wished
to note down, in some almanac or journal, memoranda respect-
ing their business, their engagements or their adventures. But
the literary value of these would be extremely insignificant until
the spirit of individualism had crept in, and human beings began
to be interesting to other human beings for their own sake. It
is not, therefore, until the close of the Renaissance that we find
diaries beginning to have literary value, although, as the study of
sociology extends, every scrap of genuine and unaffected record
of early history possesses an ethical interest. In the 1 7th century,
diaries began to be largly written in England, although in most
cases without any idea of even eventual publication. Sir William
Dugdale (1605-1686) had certainly no expectation that his slight
diary would ever see the light. There is no surviving record of
a journal kept by Clarendon, Richard Baxter, Lucy Hutchinson
and other autobiographical writers of the middle of the century,
but we may take it for granted that they possessed some such
record, kept from day to day. Bulstrode Whitelocke (1605-
1675), whose Memorials of the English Affairs covers the ground
from 1625 to 1660, was a genuine diarist. So was the elder George
Fox (1624-1690), who kept not merely " a great journal," but
" the little journal books," and whose work was published in
1694. The famous diary of John Evelyn (1620-1706) professes
to be the record of seventy years, and, although large tracts of it
are covered in a very perfunctory manner, while in others many of
the entries have the air of having been written in long after the
event, this is a very interesting and amusing work; it was not
published until 1818. In spite of all its imperfections there is a
great charm about the diary of Evelyn, and it would hold a still
higher position in the history of literature than it does if it were
not overshadowed by what is unquestionably the most illustrious
of the diaries of the world, that of Samuel Pepys (1633-1703).
This was begun on the ist of January 1660 and was carried on
until the 2gth of May 1669. The extraordinary value of Pepys'
diary consists in its fidelity to the portraiture of its author's
character. He feigns nothing, conceals nothing, sets nothing
down in malice or insincerity. He wrote in a form of shorthand
intelligible to no one but himself, and not a phrase betrays the
smallest expectation that any eye but his own would ever
investigate the pages of his confession. The importance of this
wonderful document, in fact, lay unsuspected until 1819, when
the Rev. John Smith of Baldock began to decipher the MS. in
Magdalene College, Cambridge. It was not until 1825 that Lord
Braybrooke published part of what was only fully edited, under
the care of Mr Wheatley, in 1893-1896. In the age which suc-
ceeded that of Pepys, a diary of extraordinary emotional interest
was kept by Swift from 1710 to 1713, and was sent to Ireland in
the form of a " Journal to Stella "; it is a surprising amalgam
of ambition, affection, wit and freakishness. John Byrom
(1692-1763), the Manchester poet, kept a journal, which was
published in 1854. The diary of the celebrated dissenting divine,
Philip Doddridge (1702-1751), was printed in 1829. Of far
greater interest are the admirably composed and vigorously
written journals of John Wesley (1703-1791). But the most
celebrated work of this kind produced in the latter half of the i8th

century was the diary of Fanny Burney (Madame D'Arblay),
published in 1842-1846. It will be perceived that, without
exception, these works were posthumously published, and the
whole conception of the diary has been that it should be written
for the writer alone, or, if for the public, for the public when all
prejudice shall have passed away and all passion cooled down.
Thus, and thus only, can the diary be written so as to impress
upon its eventual readers a sense of its author's perfect sincerity
and courage.

Many of the diaries described above were first published in the
opening years of the igth century, and it is unquestionable that
the interest which they awakened in the public led to their
imitation. Diaries ceased to be rare, but as a rule the specimens
which have hitherto appeared have not presented much literary
interest. Exception must be made in favour of the journals of
two minor politicians, Charles Greville (1794-1865) and Thomas
Creevey (1768-1838), whose indiscretions have added much to the
gaiety of nations; the papers of the former appeared in 1874-
1887, those of the latter in 1903. The diary of Henry Crabb
Robinson (1775-1867), printed in 1869, contains excellent
biographical material. Tom Moore's journal, published in 1856
by Lord John Russell, disappointed its readers. But it is
probable, if we reason by the analogy of the past, that the most
curious and original diaries of the igth century are still unknown
to us, and lie jealously guarded under lock and key by the
descendants of those who compiled them.

It was natural that the form of the diary should appeal to a
people so sensitive to social peculiarities and so keen in the
observation of them as the French. A medieval document of
immense value is the diary kept by an anonymous curi during
the reigns of Charles VI. and Charles VII. This Journal d'un
bourgeois de Paris was kept from 1409 to 1431, and was continued
by another hand down to 1449. The marquis de Dangeau
(1638-1720) kept a diary from 1684 till the year of his death;
this although dull, and as Saint-Simon said " of an insipidity to
make you sick," is an inexhaustible storehouse of facts about
the reign of Louis XIV. Saint-Simon's own brilliant memoirs,
written from 1691 to 1723, may be considered as a sort of diary.
The lawyer, Edmond Barbier (1689-1771), wrote ajournalof the
anecdotes and little facts which came to his knowledge from
1 7 18 to 1762. The studious care which he took to be correct, and
his manifest candour, give a singular value to Barbier's record ;
his diary was not printed at all until 1847. nor, in its entirety,
until 1857. The song-writer, Charles Colle (1700-1783), kept a
journal histor ique from 175810 1782; it is full of vivacity, but very
scandalous and spiteful. It saw the light in 1805, and surprised
those to whom Colle, in his lifetime, had seemed the most placid
and good-natured of men. Petit de Bachaumont (1690-1770)
had access to remarkable sources of information, and his
Memoires secrets (a diary the publication of which began in
1762 and was continued after Bachaumont's death, until 1787,
by other persons) contains a valuable mass of documents. The
marquis d'Argenson (1694-1757) kept a diary, of which a com-
paratively full textwas first published in 1 8 59. In recent times the
posthumous publication of the diaries of the Russian artist, Marie
Bashkirtseff (1860-1884), produced a great sensation in 1887, and
revealed a most remarkable temperament. The brothers Jules
and Edmond de Goncourt kept a very minute diary of all that
occurred around them in artistic and literary Paris; after
the death of Jules, in 1870, this was continued by Edmond, who
published the three first volumes in 1 888. The publication of this
work was continued, and it produced no little scandal. It is
excessively ill-natured in parts, but of its vivid picturesqueness,
and of its general accuracy as a transcript of conversation, there
can be no two opinions. (E. G.)

DIASPORE, a native aluminium hydroxide, AIO(OH), crystal-
lizing in the orthorhombic system and isomorphous with gothite
and manganite. It occurs sometimes as flattened crystals, but
usually as lamellar or scaly masses, the flattened surface being a
direction of perfect cleavage on which the lustre is markedly
pearly in character. It is colourless or greyish- white, yellowish,
sometimes violet in colour, and varies from translucent to

DIASTYLE— DIATOMACEAE

169

transparent. It may be readily distinguished from other colour-
less transparent minerals, with a perfect cleavage and pearly
lustre — mica, talc, brucite, gypsum — by its greater hardness
of 65-7. The specific gravity is 3-4. When heated before the
blowpipe it decrepitates violently, breaking up into white pearly
scales; it was because of this property that the mineral was
named diaspore by R. J. Hatty in 1801, from Siaavdpew, " to
scatter." The mineral occurs as an alteration product of
corundum or emery, and is found in granular limestone and
other crystalline rocks. Well-developed crystals are found in the
emery deposits of the Urals and at Chester, Massachusetts, and
in kaolin at Schemnitz in Hungary. If obtainable in large
quantity it would be of economic importance as a source of
alumina. (L. J. S.)

DIASTYLE (from Gr. Sid, through, and orDXos, column), in
architecture, a term used to designate an intercolumniation of
three or four diameters.

DIATOMACEAE. For the knowledge we possess of these
beautiful plants, so minute as to be undiscernible by our unaided
vision, we are indebted to the assistance of the microscope. It
was not till towards the close of the i8th century that the first
known forms of this group were discovered by O. F. Miiller. And
so slow was the process of discovery in this field of scientific re-
search that in the course of half a century, when Agardh published
his Systema algarum in 1824, only forty-nine species included
under eight genera had been described. Since that time, however,
with modern microscopes and microscopic methods, eminent
botanists in all parts of the civilized world have studied these
minute plants, with the result that the number of known genera
and species has been greatly increased. Over 10,000 species of
diatoms have been described, and about 1200 species and
numerous varieties occur in the fresh waters and on the coasts
of Great Britain and Ireland. Rabenhorst, in the index to his
Flora Europaea algarum (1864) enumerated about 4000 forms
which had up to that time been discovered throughout the
continent of Europe.

The diatoms are more commonly known among systematic
botanists as the Bacillarieae, particularly on the continent of
Europe, and although such an immense number of very diverse
forms are included in it, the group as a whole exhibits a remark-
able uniformity of structure. The Bacillarieae is one of the
large groups of Algae, placed by some in close proximity to the

FIG. i.

A and B, Melosira arenaria.
E, showing formation of auxospore.

C-E, Melosira varians.
All X45°.

Conjugatae and by others as an order of the Brown Algae (or
Phaeophyceae) ; but their characters are so distinctive and their
structure is so uniform as to warrant the separation of the diatoms
as a distinct class. The affinities of the group are doubtful.

———•.-. niNNiiMijiiNjii The diatoms exhibit great

'"'"' ""* variety of form. While some

FIG. 2.—Synedra Ulna. Xaoo. species are circular and more
or less disk-shaped, others are oval in outline. Some are
linear, as Synedra Ulna (fig. 2); others more or less cres-

FIG; 3- — Podo-

centic; others again are cuneate, as Podosphenia Lyngbyii

(fig. 3); some few have a sigmoid outline, as Pleuro-

sigma balticum (fig. 4); but the prevailing

forms are naviculoid, as in the large family

Naviculaceae, of which the genus Navicula

embraces upwards of 1000 species. They vary

also in their modes of growth, — some being

free-floating, others attached to foreign bodies

by simple or branched gelatinous stalks, which

in some species are short and thick, while in

others they are long and slender. In some

genera the forms are simple, while in others the

frustules are connected together in ribbon-like

filaments, or form, as in other cases, zigzag

chains. In some genera the individuals are

naked, while in many others they are enclosed in a more or less

definite gelatinous investment. The conditions necessary to

their growth are

moisture and

light. Wherever

these circum-

stances coexist, - „

diatomaceous FIG. 4.-Pfe«ro«g«a Ja/teum. Xzoo.

forms will almost invariably be found. They occur mixed
with other organisms on the surface of moist rocks; in
streamlets and pools, they form a brownish stratum on
the surface of the mud, or cover the stems and leaves of
water plants or floating twigs with a furry investment.
Marine forms are usually attached to various sea-weeds, and
many are found in the stomachs of molluscs, holothurians,
ascidians and other denizens of the ocean. The fresh-water
forms are specifically distinct from those incidental to salt or
brackish water, — fresh-water species, however, are sometimes

FIG. 5.

A-C, Tetracyclus lacustris. D and E, Tabellaria fenestrata.

F and G, Tabellaria flocculosa. All X5OO.

carried some distance into the sea by the force of the current, and
in tidal rivers marine forms are carried up by the force of the tide.
Some notion may be formed of the extreme minuteness of these
forms from the fact that one the length of which is TJ J^th of an
inch may be considered as beyond the medium size. Some few,
indeed, are much larger, but by far the greater proportion are of
very much smaller dimensions.

Diatoms are unicellular plants distinguished from kindred
forms by the fact of having their soft vegetative part covered by
a siliceous case. Each individual is known as a frustule, and the
cell-wall consists of two similar valves nearly parallel to each
other, each valve being furnished with a rim (or connecting-band)
projecting from it at a right angle.

One of these valves with its rim is slightly smaller than the

IJO

DIATOMACEAE

other, the smaller fitting into the larger pretty much as a pill-box
fits into its cover. This peculiarity of structure affords ample
scope for the growth of the protoplasmic cell-contents, for as the
latter increase in volume the siliceous valves are pushed out, and
their corresponding siliceous rims become broader. The con-
necting-bands although closely fitting their respective valves are
distinct from them, and together the two bands form the girdle.

An individual diatom is usually described from two aspects,
one in which the surface of the valve is exposed to view — the
valve view, and one in which the girdle side is exposed — the
girdle view. The valves are thin and transparent, convex on the
outside, and generally ornamented with a variety of sculptured
markings. These sculptures often present the aspect of striae
across the face of the valve, and the best lenses have shown them
to consist of a series of small cavities within the siliceous wall of
the cell. The valves of some of the marine genera exhibit a
beautiful areolated structure due to the presence of larger
chambers within the siliceous cell-wall. Many diatoms possess
thickenings of the cell-wall, visible in the valve view, in the
centre of the valve and at each extremity. These thickenings
are known as the nodules, and they are generally connected by a
long median line, the raphe, which is a cleft in the siliceous valve,
extending at least some part of its length.

The protoplasmic contents of this siliceous box-like unicell are
very similar to the contents of many other algal cells. There is a
living protoplasmic layer or primordial utricle, connected either
by two broad bands or by a number of anastomosing threads with
a central mass of protoplasm in which the nucleus is embedded.
The greater part of the cavity of the cell is occupied by one
or several fluid vacuoles. The characteristic brown colour of
diatoms is due to the presence of chromatophores embedded in
the lining layer of protoplasm. In number and form these
chromatophores are variable. They contain chlorophyll, but the
green colour is masked by the presence of diatomin, a brown
pigment which resembles that which occurs in the Brown Algae
or Phaeophyceae. The chromatophores contain a variable
number of pyrenoids, colourless proteid bodies of a crystalloidal
character.

One of the first phenomena which comes under the notice of
the observer is the extraordinary power of motion with which
the frustules are endowed. Some species move slowly backwards
and forwards in pretty much the same line, but in the case of
Bacillaria paradoxa the motion is very rapid, the frustules darting
through the water in a zigzag course. To account for this motion
various theories have been suggested, none of which appear to be
altogether satisfactory. There is little doubt that the movements
are connected with the raphe, and in some diatoms there is much
evidence to prove that they are due to an exudation of mucilage.

Classification. — The most natural system of classification of the
Bacillarieae is the one put forward by Schutt (1896), and since
generally followed by systematists. He separates them into two
primary divisions, the ' Centricae ' and the ' Pennatae.' The
former includes all those diatoms which in the valve view possess
a radial symmetry around a central point, and which are destitute
of a raphe (or a pseudoraphe). The latter includes those which
are zygomorphic or otherwise irregular, and in which the valve
view is generally boat-shaped or needle-shaped, with the mark-
ings arranged in a sagittal manner on each side of a raphe or
pseudoraphe.

Reprodwtion. — In the Diatomaceae, as well as in the Desmidieae,
the ordinary mode of increase is by simple cell-division. The
cell-contents within the enclosure of the siliceous case separate
into two distinct masses. As these two daughter-masses become
more and more developed, the valves of the mother-cell are pushed
more and more widely apart. A new siliceous valve is secreted by
each of the two masses on the side opposite to the original valve,
the new valves being situated within the girdle of the original
frustule. When this process has been completed the girdle of
the mother frustule gives way, and two distinct frustules are
formed, the siliceous valves in each of these new frustules being
one of the valves of the mother-cell, and a newly formed valve
similar and more or less parallel to it.

During the life of the plant this process of self-division is
continued with an almost incredible rapidity. On this subject
the observation of Professor William Smith, writing in 1853, is
worthy of special notice: — " I have been unable to ascertain the
time occupied in a single act of self -division, but supposing it to be
completed in twenty-four hours we should have, as the progeny of
a single frustule, the amazing number of 1,000,000,000 in a single
month, a circumstance which will in some degree explain the
sudden, or. at least rapid, appearance of these organisms in
localities where they were a
short time previously either
unrecognized or sparingly dif-
fused " (British Diatomaceae,
vol. i. p. 25).

Individual diatoms when
once produced by cell-division
are incapable of any increase
in size owing to the rigidity of
their siliceous cell-walls, and
since the new valves are always
formed within the girdle of the
old ones, it would follow that
every succeeding generation is
reduced in size by the thickness
of the girdle. In some diatoms,
however, this is not strictly
true as daughter-cells are some-
times produced of larger size
than the parent-cells. Thus,
the reduction in size of the
individuals is not always
proportionate to the number
of cell-divisions.

On the diminution in size
having reached a limit in any
species, the maximum size is
regained by the formation of
an auxospore. There are five
known methods of reproduction by auxospores, but it is unneces-
sary here to enter into details of these methods. Suffice it to
say that a normal auxospore is produced by the conjugation
of two parent-cells, its distinguishing feature being a rejuven-
escence accompanied by a marked increase in size. These
auxospores formed without conjugation are parthenogenetic.

Mode of Preparation. — The Diatomaceae are usually gathered
in small bottles, and special care should be taken to collect them
as free as possible from extraneous matter. A small portion having
been examined under the microscope, should the gathering be
thought worthy of preservation, some of the material is boiled in
acid for the purpose of cleaning it. The acids usually employed
are hydrochloric, nitric or sulphuric, according as circumstances
require. When the operator considers that by this process all
foreign matter has been eliminated, the residuum is put into a
precipitating jar of a conical shape, broader at the bottom than
at the top, and covered to the brim with filtered or distilled water.
When the diatoms have settled in the bottom of the jar, the
supernatant fluid is carefully removed by a syringe or some
similar instrument, so that the sediment be not disturbed. The
jar is again filled with water, and the process repeated till the acid
has been completely removed. It is desirable afterwards to boil
the sediment for a short time with supercarbonate of soda, the
alkali being removed in the same manner as the acid. A small
portion may then be placed with a pipette upon a slip of glass,
and, when the moisture has been thoroughly evaporated, the film
that remains should be covered with dilute Canada balsam, and,
a thin glass cover having been gently laid over the balsam, the
preparation should be laid aside for a short time to harden, and
then is ready for observation.

General Remarks. — Diatoms are most abundant in cold
latitudes, having a general preference for cold water. In the
pelagic waters of lakes and of the oceans they are often very
abundant, and in the cold waters of the Arctic and Antarctic

FIG. 6. — Formation of
Auxospores.

A. Navicula limosa.

B. Achnanlhes flexella

C. Navicula Amphisbaena.

D. Navicula viridis.

A-C, X45o; D, X.'350.

DIAULOS— DIAZ, NARCISSE

171

Oceans they exist in prodigious numbers. They thus form a large
proportion of both the marine and the fresh-water plankton.

Large numbers of fossil diatoms are known. Not only are
these minute plants assisting at the present time in the accumula-
tion of oceanic and lake deposits, but in former ages they have
been sufficiently active to give rise to considerable deposits of
diatomaceous earths. When the plant has fulfilled its natural
course the siliceous covering sinks to the bottom of the water in
which it had lived, and there forms part of the sediment. When
in the process of ages, as it has often happened, the accumulated
sediment has been hardened into solid rock, the siliceous frustules
of the diatoms remain unaltered, and, if the rock be disintegrated
by natural or artificial means, may be removed from the
enveloping matrix and subjected to examination under the
microscope. The forms found may from their character help in
some degree to illustrate the conditions under which the stratum
of rock had been originally deposited. These earths are generally
of a white or grey colour. Some of them are hard, but most
are soft and friable. Many of them are of economic importance,
being used as polishing powders (" Tripoli "), as absorbents for
nitroglycerin in the manufacture of dynamite (" Kieselguhr "),
as a dentifrice, and more recently they have been used to a large
extent in the manufacture of non-conducting and sound-proof
materials. Most of these diatomaceous earths are associated
with rocks of Tertiary formations, although it is generally
regarded that the earliest appearance of diatoms is in the Upper
Cretaceous (chalk).

Vast deposits of Diatomaceous earths have been discovered in
various parts of the world, — some the deposit of fresh, others of
salt water. Of these deposits the most remarkable for extent,
as well as for the number and beauty of the species contained in it,
is that of Richmond, in Virginia, one of the United States of
America. It extends for many miles, and is in some places at
least 40 ft. deep. It is a remarkable fact that though the genera-
tions of a diatom in the space of a few months far exceed in
number the generation of man during the period usually assigned
to the existence of the race, the fossil genera and species are
in most respects to the most minute details identical with the
numerous living representatives of their class.

(E.O'M.jG.S.W.*)

DIAULOS (from Gr. 5i-, double, and auXos, pipe), in archi-
tecture, the peristyle round the great court of the palaestra,
described by Vitruvius (v. n), which measured two stadia
(1200 ft.) in length; on the south side this peristyle had two
rows of columns, so that in stormy weather the rain might not
be driven into the inner part. The word was also used in ancient
Greece for a foot-race of twice the usual length.

DIAVOLO, FRA (1771-1806), the popular name given to a
famous Italian brigand associated with the political revolutions
of southern Italy at the time of the French invasion. His real
name was Michele Pezza, and he was born of low parentage
at Itri; he had committed many murders and robberies in the
Terra di Lavoro, but by good luck combined with audacity he
always escaped capture, whence his name of Fra Diavolo, popular
superstition having invested him with the characters of a monk
and a demon, and it seems that at one time he actually was a
monk. When the kingdom of Naples was overrun by the French
and the Parthenopaean Republic established (1799), Cardinal
. Ruffo, acting on behalf of the Bourbon king Ferdinand IV., who
had fled to Sicily, undertook the reconquest of the country, and
for this purpose he raised bands of peasants, gaol-birds, brigands,
&.C., under the name of Sanfedisti or bande delta Santa Fede
(" bands of the Holy Faith ")• Fra Diavolo was made leader
of one of them, and waged untiring war against the French troops,
cutting off isolated detachments and murdering stragglers and
couriers. Owing to his unrivalled knowledge of the country, he
succeeded in interrupting the enemy's communications between
Rome and Naples. But although, like his fellow-brigands under
Ruffo, he styled himself " the faithful servant and subject of His
Sicilian Majesty," wore a military uniform and held military rank,
and was even created duke of Cassano, his atrocities were worthy
of a bandit chief. On one occasion he threw some of his prisoners,

men, women and children, over a precipice, and on another he
had a party of seventy shot. His excesses while at Albano were
such that the Neapolitan general Naselli had him arrested and
imprisoned in the castle of St Angelo, but he was liberated soon
after. When Joseph Bonaparte was made king of Naples, extra-
ordinary tribunals were established to suppress brigandage, and
a price was put on Fra Diavolo 's head. After spreading terror
through Calabria, he crossed over to Sicily, where he concerted
further attacks on the French. He returned to the mainland at
the head of 200 convicts, and committed further excesses in
the Terra di Lavoro; but the French troops were everywhere
on the alert to capture him and he had to take refuge in the woods
of Lenola. For two months he evaded his pursuers, but at
length, hungry and ill, he went in disguise to the village of
Baronissi, where he was recognized and arrested, tried by an
extraordinary tribunal, condemned to death and shot. In his
last moments he cursed both the Bourbons and Admiral Sir
Sidney Smith for having induced him to engage in this reckless
adventure (1806). Although his cruelty was abominable, he
was not altogether without generosity, and by his courage and
audacity he acquired a certain romantic popularity. His name
has gained a world-wide celebrity as the title of a famous opera
by Auber.

The best known account of Fra Diavolo is in Pietro Colletta's
Storia del reame di Napoli (2nd ed., Florence, 1848); B. Amante's
Fra Diavolo a il suo tempo (Florence, 1904) is an attempted rehabiji-
tation; but A. Luzio, whose account in Profili e bozzetti storici
(Milan, 1906) gives the latest information on the subject, has de-
molished Amante's arguments. (L. V.*)

DIAZ, NARCISSE VIRGIL10 (1808-1876), French painter, was
born in Bordeaux of Spanish parents, on the 25th of August 1808.
At first a figure-painter who indulged in strong colour, in his later
life Diaz became a painter of the forest and a " tone artist " of
the first order. He spent much time at Barbizon; and although
he is the least exalted of the half-dozen great artists who are
usually grouped round that name, he sometimes produced works
of the highest quality. At the age of ten Diaz became an orphan,
and misfortune dogged his earlier years. His foot was bitten by a
reptile in Meudon wood, near Sevres, where he had been taken to
live with some friends of his mother. The bite was badly dressed,
and ultimately it cost him his leg. Afterwards his wooden stump
became famous. At fifteen he entered the studios at Sevres,
where the decoration of porcelain occupied him; but tiring of the
restraint of fixed hours, he took to painting Eastern figures
dressed in richly coloured garments. Turks and Oriental scenes
attracted him, and many brilliant gems remain of this period.
About 1831 Diaz encountered Theodore Rousseau, for whom he
entertained a great veneration, although Rousseau was four years
his junior; but it was not until ten years later that the remark-
able incident took place of Rousseau teaching Diaz to paint trees.
At Fontainebleau Diaz found Rousseau painting his wonderful
forest pictures, and determined to paint in the same way if
possible. Rousseau, then in poor health, worried at home, and
embittered against the world, was difficult to approach. Diaz
followed him surreptitiously to the forest, — wooden leg not
hindering, — and he dodged round after the painter, trying to
observe his method of work. After a time Diaz found a way
to become friendly with Rousseau, and revealed his anxiety
to understand his painting. Rousseau was touched with the
passionate words of admiration, and finally taught Diaz all he
knew. Diaz exhibited many pictures at the Paris Salon, and was
decorated in 1851. During the Franco-German War he went to
Brussels. After 1871 he became fashionable, his works gradually
rose in the estimation of collectors, and he worked constantly and
successfully. In 1876 he caught cold at his son's grave, and on
the i8th of November of that year he died at Mentone, whither
he had gone to recruit his health. Diaz's finest pictures are his
forest scenes and storms, and it is on these, and not on his pretty
figures, that his fame is likely to rest. There are several fairly
good examples of the master in the Louvre, and three small figure
pictures in the Wallace collection, Hertford House. Perhaps the
most notable of Diaz's works are " La Fee aux Perles " (1857),
in the Louvre; " Sunset in the Forest " (1868); " The Storm,"

172

DIAZ, PORFIRIO— DIAZ DE NOVAES

and " The Forest of Fontainebleau " (1870) at Leeds. Diaz
had no well-known pupils, but Leon Richet followed markedly
his methods of tree-painting, and J. F. Millet at one period
painted small figures in avowed imitation of Diaz's then
popular subjects.

See A. Hustin, Les Artistes celebres: Diaz (Paris); D. Croal
Thomson, The Barbizon School of Painters (London, 1890) ;
J. W. Mollett, Diaz (London, 1890) ; J. Claretie, Peintres et sculpteurs
contemporains : Diaz (Paris, 1882); Albert Wolff, La Capitale de
I' art: Narcisse Diaz (Paris, 1886); Ph. Burty, Mattres et petit-
mattres: N. Diaz (Paris, 1877). (D. C.T.)

DIAZ, PORFIRIO (1830-^), president of the republic of
Mexico (q.v.), was born in the southern state of Oaxaca, on the
i sth of September 1830. His father was an innkeeper in the little
capital of that province, and died three years after the birth of
Porfirio, leaving a family of seven children. The boy, who had
Indian blood in his veins, was educated for the Catholic Church,
a body having immense influence in the country at that time and
ordering and controlling revolutions by the strength of their filled
coffers. Arrived at the age of sixteen Porfirio Diaz threw off the
authority of the priests. Fired with enthusiasm by stories told by
the revolutionary soldiers continually passing through Oaxaca,
and hearing about the war with the United States, a year later
he determined to set out for Mexico city and join the National
Guard. There being no trains, and he being too poor to ride, he
walked the greater part of the 250 m., but arrived there too late,
as the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo (1848) had been already
signed, and Texas finally ceded to the United States. Thus
his entering the army was for the time defeated. Thereupon he
returned to his native town and began studying law. He took
pupils in order to pay his own fees at the Law Institute, and help
his mother. At this time he came under the notice and influence
of Don Marcos Perez and Benito Juarez, the first a judge, the
second a governor of the state of Oaxaca, and soon to become
famous as the deliverer of Mexico fiom the priesthood (War of
Reform). Diaz continued in his native town until 1854, when,
refusing to vote for the dictator, Santa Anna, he was stung by a
taunt of cowardice, and hastily pushing his way to the voting
place, he recorded his vote in favour of Alvarez and the revolu-
tionists. Orders were given for his arrest, but seizing a rifle and
mounting a horse he placed himself at the head of a few revolting
peasants, and from that moment became one of the leading
spirits in that long struggle for reform, known as the War of
Reform, which, under the leadership of Juarez, followed the over-
throw of Santa Anna. Promotion succeeded promotion, as Diaz
led his troops from victory to victory, amid great privations and
difficulties. He was made captain (1856), lieutenant-colonel and
colonel (1859), brigadier-general (1861), and general of division
for the army (1863) . Closely following on civil war, political strife,
open rebellion and the great War of Reform, came the French
invasion of 1862, and the landing of the emperor Maximilian in
1864. From the moment the French disclosed their intentions of
settling in Mexico in 1862, Diaz took a prominent part against the
foreign invasion. He was twice seriously wounded, imprisoned on
three different occasions, had two hairbreadth escapes, and took
part in many daring engagements. So important a personage did
he become that both Marshal Bazaine and theemperor'Maximilian
made overtures to him. At the time of Maximilian's death (with
which Diaz personally had nothing to do) he was carrying on the
siege of Mexico city, which ended in the surrender of the town
two days after the emperor was shot at Queretaro between his
two leading generals. Diaz at once set to work to pay up arrears
due to his soldiers, proclaimed death as the penalty of plunder
and theft, and in the few weeks that followed showed his great
administrative powers, the officers as well as the rank and file
receiving arrears of pay. On the very day that he occupied
Mexico city, the great commander of the army of the east, to
everyone's surprise, sent in his resignation. He was, indeed,
appointed to the command of the second division of the army by
President Juarez in his military reorganization, but Diaz, seeing
men who had given great and loyal service to the state dismissed
from their positions in the government, and disgusted at this
course, retired to the little city of Oaxaca; there he lived, helping

in the reorganization of the army but taking no active part in the
government until 1871.

On Juarez' death Lerdo succeeded as president, in 1872. His
term of office again brought discord, and when it was known that
he was attempting to be re-elected in 1876, the storm broke.
Diaz came from retirement, took up the leadership against Lerdo,
and after desperate struggles and a daring escape finally made a
triumphal entry into Mexico city on the 24th of November 1876,
as provisional president, quickly followed by the full president-
ship. His term of office marks a prominent change in the history
of Mexico; from that date he at once forged ahead with financial
and political reform, the scrupulous settlement of all national
debts, the welding together of the peoples and tribes (there are
150 different Indian tribes) of his country, the establishment
of railroads and telegraphs, and all this in a land which had
been upheaved for a century with revolutions and bloodshed,
and which had had fifty-two dictators, presidents and rulers
in fifty -nine years. In 1880 Diaz was succeeded by Gonzalez,
the former minister of war, for four years (owing to the limit
of the presidential office), but in 1884 he was unanimously
re-elected. The government having set aside the above-
mentioned limitation, Diaz was continually re-elected to the
presidency. He married twice and had a son and two daughters.
His gifted second wife (Carmelita), very popular in Mexico, was
many years younger than himself. King Edward VII. made him
an honorary grand commander of the Bath in June 1906, in
recognition of his wonderful administration as perpetual presi-
dent for over a quarter of a century.

See also Mrs Alec Tweedie, Porfirio Diaz, Seven Times President of
Mexico (1906), and Mexico as I saw it (1901) ; Dr Noll, From Empire
to Republic^ (1890); Lieut. Seaton Schroeder, Fall of Maximilian's
Empire (New York, 1887); R. de Z. Enriquez, P. Diaz (1908);
and an article by Percy Martin in Quarterly Review for October
1909- (E. A. T.)

DIAZ DE NOVAES, BARTHOLOMEU (fl. 1481-1500),
Portuguese explorer, discoverer of the Cape of Good Hope, was
probably a kinsman of Joao Diaz, one of the first Portuguese to
round Cape Bojador (1434), and of Diniz Diaz, the discoverer
of Cape Verde (1445)- In 1478 a Bartholomeu Diaz, probably
identical with the discoverer, was exempted from certain
customary payments on ivory brought from the Guinea coast.
In 1481 he commanded one of the vessels sent by King John II.
under Diogo d'Azambuja to the Gold Coast. In 1486 he seems to
have been a cavalier of the king's household, and superintendent
of the royal warehouses; on the loth of October in this year he
received an annuity of 6000 reis from King John for " services
to come "; and some time after this (probably about July or
August 1487, rather than July 1486, the traditional date) he left
Lisbon with three ships to carry on the work of African explora-
tion so greatly advanced by Diogo Cao (1482-1486). Passing
Cao's farthest point near Cape Cross (in the modern German
South-west Africa and) in 21° 50' S., he erected a pillar on what is
now known as Diaz Point, south of Angra Pequena or Luderitz
Bay, in 26° 38' S.; of this fragments still exist. From this point
(according to De Barros) Diaz ran thirteen days southwards
before strong winds, which freshened to dangerous stormy
weather, in a comparatively high southern latitude, considerably
south of the Cape. When the storm subsided the Portuguese
stood east; and failing, after several days' search, to find land,
turned north, and so struck the south coast of Cape Colony at
Mossel Bay (Diaz' Bahia dos Vaqueiros), half way between the
Cape of Good Hope and Port Elizabeth (February 3,1488). Thence
they coasted eastward, passing Algoa Bay (Diaz' Bahia da Roca),
erecting pillars (or perhaps wooden crosses) , it is said, on one of the
islands in this bay and at or near Cape Padrone farther east; of
these no traces remain. The officers and men now began to insist
on return, and Diaz could only persuade them to go as far as the
estuary of the Great Fish River (Diaz' Rio do Iffante, so named
from his colleague, Captain Joao Iffante). Here, however, half way
between Port Elizabeth and East London (and indeed from
Cape Padrone), the north-easterly trend of the coast became
unmistakable: the way round Africa had been laid open. On
his return Diaz perhaps named Cape Agulhas after St B randan;

DIAZO COMPOUNDS

while on the southernmost projection of the modern Cape
peninsula, whose remarkable highlands (Table Mountain, &
doubtless impressed him as the practical termination of the
continent, he bestowed, says De Barros, the name of Cape of
Storms (Cabo Tormentoso) in memory of the storms he hac
experienced in these far southern waters; this name (in the
•ordinary tradition) was changed by King John to that of Gooc
Hope (Cabo da Boa EsperanQa). Some excellent authorities,
however, make Diaz himself give the Cape its present name.
Hard by this " so many ages unknown promontory " the ex-
plorer probably erected his last pillar. After touching at the
Ilha do Principe (Prince's Island, south-west of the Cameroons)
as well as at the Gold Coast, he appeared at Lisbon in December
1488. He had discovered 1260 m. of hitherto unknown coast;
and his voyage, taken with the letters soon afterwards received
from Pero de Covilhao (who by way of Cairo and Aden had
reached Malabar on one side and the " Zanzibar coast " on the
other as far south as Sofala, in 1487-1488) was rightly considered
to have solved the question of an ocean route round Africa to the
Indies and other lands of South and East Asia.

No record has yet been found of any adequate reward for Diaz:
on the contrary, when the great Indian expedition was being
prepared (for Vasco da Gama's future leadership) Bartolomeu
only superintended the building and outfit of the ships; when
the fleet sailed in 1497, he only accompanied da Gama to the Cape
Verde Islands, and after this was ordered to El Mina OR the Gold
Coast. On Cabral's voyage of 1500 he was indeed permitted
to take part in the discovery of Brazil (April 22), and thence
should have helped to guide the fleet to India; but he perished
in a great storm off his own Cabo Tormentoso. Like Moses, as
Galvano says, he was allowed to see the Promised Land, but not
to enter in.

See Joao de Barros, Asia, Dec. I. bk. iii. ch. 4; Duarte Pacheco
Pereira, Esmeraldo de situ orbis, esp. pp. 15, 90, 92, 04 and Raphael
Bastos's introduction to the edition of 1892 (Pacheco met Diaz,
returning from his great voyage, at the Ilha do Principe) ; a marginal
note, probably by Christopher Columbus himself, on fol. 13 of a copy
of Pierre d'Ailly's Imago mundi, now in the Colombina at Seville
(the writer of this note fixes Diaz's return to Lisbon, December 1488,
and says he was present at Diaz's interview with the king of Portugal,
when the explorer described his voyage and showed his route upon
the chart he had kept) ; a similar but briefer note in a copy of Pope
Pius II. 's Historic rerum ubique gestarum, from the same hand; the
Roteiro of Vasco da Gama's First Voyage (Journal of the First Voyage
of ... Da Gama, Hakluyt Soc., ed. E. G. Ravenstein (1898), pp. 9,
14); Ramusio, Navigationi ford ed.), vol. i. fol. 144; Castanheda,
Historia, bk. i. ch. i ; Galvano, Descobrimentos (Discoveries of the
World), Hakluyt Spc. (1862), p. 77 ; E. G. Ravenstein, " Voyages of ...
Cao and . . . Dias," in Geog. Journ. (London, December 1900), vol. xvi.
pp. 638-655), an excellent critical summary in the light of the most
recent investigations of all the material. The fragments of Diaz's
only remaining pillar (from Diaz Point) are now partly at the Cape
Museum, partly at Lisbon: the latter are photographed in Raven-
stein's paper in Geog. Journ. (December 1900, p. 642). (C. R. B.)

DIAZO COMPOUNDS, in organic chemistry, compounds of the
type R-N-2-X (where R = a hydrocarbon radical, and X = an
acid radical or a hydro xyl group). These compounds may be
divided into two classes, namely, the true diazo compounds,
characterized by the grouping — N = N— , and the diazonium
compounds, characterized by the grouping N;N<.

The diazonium compounds were first discovered by P. Griess
(Ann., 1858, 106, pp. 123 et seq.), and may be prepared by the
action of nitrous fumes on a well-cooled solution of a salt of a
primary amine,

C6H6NHj-HN03 + HNO2 = C6H6N2.NO3 + 2H20,
or, as is more usually the case (since the diazonium salts
themselves are generally used only in aqueous solution) by the
addition of a well-cooled solution of potassium or sodium nitrite
to a well-cooled dilute acid solution of the primary amine. In
order to isolate the anhydrous diazonium salts, the method of
E. Knoevenagel (Ber., 1890, 23, p. 2094) may be employed. In
this process the amine salt is dissolved in absolute alcohol and
diazotized by the addition of amyl nitrite; a crystalline pre-
cipitate of the diazonium salt is formed on standing, or on the
addition. of a small quantity of ether. The diazonium salts are
also formed by the action of zinc-dust and acids on the nitrates

of primary amines (R. Mohlau, Ber., 1883, 16, p. 3080), and by the
action of hydroxylamine on nitrosobenzenes. They are colourless
crystalline solids which turn brown on exposure. They dissolve
easily in water, but only to a slight extent in alcohol and ether.
They are very unstable, exploding violently when heated or
rubbed. Benzene diazonium nitrate, C6H6N(NO3):N, crystal-
lizes in long silky needles. The sulphate and chloride are similar,
but they are not quite so unstable as the nitrate. The bromide
may be prepared by the addition of bromine to an ethereal
solution of diazo-amino-benzene (tribromaniline remaining in
solution). By the addition of potassium bromide and bromine
water to diazonium salts they are converted into a perbromide,
e.g. C6H6N2Br3, which crystallizes in yellow plates.

The diazonium salts are characterized by their great reactivity and
consequently are important reagents in synthetical processes, since by
their agency the amino group in a primary amine may be exchanged
for other elements or radicals. The chief reactions are as follows : —

1. Replacement of-NH, by -OH: — The amine is diazotized and
the aqueous solution of the diazonium salt is heated, nitrogen being
eliminated and a phenol formed.

2. Replacement of- NHt by halogens and by the - CN and - CNO
groups: — The diazonium salt is warmed with an acid solution of the
corresponding cuprous salt (T. Sandmeyer, Ber., 1884, 17, p. 2650), or
with copper powder (L. Gattermann, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 1218; 1892,
25, p. 1074). In the case of iodine, the substitution is effected by
adding a warm solution of potassium iodide to the diazonium
solution, no copper or cuprous salt being necessary; whilst for
the production of nitriles a solution of potassium cuprous cyanide is
used. This reaction (the so-called " Sandmeyer " reaction) has been
investigated by A. Hantzsch and J. W. Blagden (Ber., 1900,33^.2544),
who consider that three simultaneous reactions occur, namely, the
formation of labile double salts which decompose in such a fashion
that the radical attached to the copper atom wanders to the aromatic
nucleus; a catalytic action, in which nitrogen is eliminated and the
acid radical attaches itself to the aromatic nucleus; and finally, the
formation of azo compounds.

3. Replacement of -NHt by -NO2: — A well -cooled concen-
trated solution of potassium mercuric nitrate is added to a cooled
solution of benzene diazonium nitrate, when the crystalline salt
2C6H6N2-NO3, Hg(NO2)2 is precipitated. On warming this with
copper powder, it gives a quantitative yield of nitrobenzene (A.
Hantzsch, Ber., 1900, 33, p. 2551).

4. Replacement of - NH2 by hydrogen : —This exchange is brought
about, m some cases, by boiling the diazonium salt with alcohol;
but I. Remsen and his pupils (Amer. Chem. Journ., 1888, 9, pp. 389
et seq.) have shown that the main product of this reaction is usually
a phenolic ether. This reaction has also been investigated by
A. Hantzsch and E. Jochem (Ber., 1901, 34, p. 3337), who arrived at
the conclusion that the normal decomposition of diazonium salts
by alcohols results in the formation of phenolic ethers, but that an
increase in the molecular weight of the alcohol, or the accumulation
of negative groups in the aromatic nucleus, diminishes the yield of
the ether and increases the amount of the hydrocarbon formed. The
replacement is more readily brought about by the use of sodium
stannite (P. Friedlander, Ber., 1889, 22, p. 587), or by the use of a
concentrated solution of hypophosphorous acid (J. Mai, Ber., 1902, 35,
p. 162). A. Hantzsch (Ber., 1 896,29^. 947 jlSgS, 31, p. 1253) has shown
that the chlor- and brom- diazoniumthiocyanates, when dissolved in
alcohol containing a trace of hydrochloric acid, become converted
into the isomeric thiocyanbenzene diazonium chlorides and bromides.
This change only occurs when the halogen atom is in the ortho- or
para- position to the - N2- group.

Metallic Diazo Derivatives. — Benzene diazonium chlorid«4sdecom-
posed by silver oxide in aqueous solution, with the formation of
benzene diazonium hydroxide, CeHU-NCOH); N. This hydroxide,
although possessing powerful basic properties, is unstable in the
presence of alkalis and neutralizes them, being converted first into
:he isomeric benzene-diazptic acid, the potassium salt of which is
obtained when the diazonium chloride is added to an excess of cold
concentrated potash (A. Hantzsch and W. B. Davidson, Ber., 1898,
31, p. 1612). Potassium benzene diazotate, CeH6N2'OK, crystallizes in
colourless silky needles. The free acid is not known ; by the addition
of the potassium salt to 50% acetic acid at —20° C., the acid
anhydride, benzene diazo oxide, (C6H5N2)2O, is obtained as a very
unstable, yellow, insoluble compound, exploding spontaneously at
0° C. Strong acids convert it into a diazonium salt, and potash
converts it into the diazotate. On the constitution, of these anhy-
drides see E. Bamberger, Ber., 1896, 29, p. 446, and A. Hantzsch, Ber.,
1896,29, p. 1067; 1898, 31, p. 636. By the addition of the diazonium
salts to a hot concentrated solution of a caustic alkali, C. Schraube
and C. Schmidt(5er., 1894, 27, p. 52o)obtatned an isomer of potassium
jenzene diazotate. These ise-diazotates are formed much more
readily when the aromatic nucleus in the diazonium salt contains
negative radicals. Potassium benzene iso-diazotate resembles the
lormal salt, but is more stable, and is more highly ionized. Car-
bon dioxide converts it into phenyl nitrosamine, C6H5NH-NO

174

DIAZO COMPOUNDS

(A. Hantzsch). The potassium salt of the iso-diazo hydroxide yields
on methylation a nitrogen ether, R'N(CH3)-NO, whilst the silver salt
yields an oxygen ether, R-N: N-OCHj. These results point to the
conclusion that the iso-diazo hydroxide is a tautomeric substance.
The same oxygen ether is formed by the methylation of the silver salt
of the normal diazo hydroxide; this points to the conclusion that the
isomeric hydroxides, corresponding with the silver derivatives, have
the same structural formulae, namely, R-N: N-OH. These oxygen
ethers contain the grouping - N : N - , since they couple very readily
with the phenols in alkaline solution to form azo compounds (q.v.)
(E. Bamberger, Ber., 180,5, 28, p. 225); they are also explosive.

By oxidizing potassium benzene iso-diazotate with alkaline
potassium ferricyanide, E. Bamberger (Ber., 1894, 27, p. 914) obtained
the diazoic acids, R-NH-NO2, substances which he had previously
prepared by similarly oxidizing the diazonium salts, by dehydrating
the nitrates of primary amines with acetic anhydride, and by the
action of nitric anhydride on the primary amines. Concentrated
acids convert them into the isomeric nitro-amines, the - NO2 group
'going into the nucleus in the ortho- or para- position to the amine
nitrogen; this appears to indicate that the compounds are nitra-
mines. They behave, however, as tautomeric substances, since
their alkali salts on methylation give nitrogen ethers, whilst their
silver salts yield oxygen ethers:

•> potassium salt — > R'N(CH3).N02 nitramine.

R'NH'N02 ^

~~* silver salt -» R'N : N'O'OCH , diazoate.

Phenyl nitramine, CeH5NH NC>2, is a colourless crystalline solid,
which melts at 46° C. Sodium amalgam in alkaline solution reduces
it to phenylhydrazine.

Constitution of the Diazo Compounds. — P. Griess (Ann., 1866, 137,
p. 39) considered thatthediazocompoundswereformedby theaddition
of complex groupings of the type Cer^Nz— to the inorganic acids;
whilst A. Kekul6 (Zeit.f. Chemie, 1866, 2, p. 308), on account of their
ready condensation to form azo compounds and their easy reduction
to hydrazines, assumed that they were substances of the type
R-N: N-C1. The constitution of the diazonium group- N2-X, may be
inferred from the following facts: — The group CeHsNj- behaves in
many respects similarly to an alkali metal, and even more so to the
ammonium group, since it is capable of forming colourless neutral
salts with mineral acids, which in dilute aqueous solution are strongly
ionized, but do not show any trace of hydrolytic dissociation
(A. Hantzsch, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 1734). Again, the diazonium chlorides
combine with platinic chloride to form difficultly soluble double
platinum salts, such as (CeHs^ClVPtCU; similar gold salts,
CeHcN^Cl-AuCls, are known. Determinations of the electrical con-
ductivity of the diazonium chloride and nitrate also show that the
diazonium radical is strictly comparable with other quaternary
ammonium ions. For these reasons, one must assume the existence
of pentavalent nitrogen in the diazonium salts, in order to account
for their basic properties.

The constitution of the isomeric diazo hydroxides has given rise
to much discussion. E. Bamberger (Ber., 1895, 28, pp.444 et seq.) and
C. W. Blomstrand (Journ. prakt.Chem., 1896, 53, pp. Ifkjetseq.) hold
that the compounds are structurally different, the normal diazo-
hydroxide being a diazonium derivative of the type R-N(;N)-OH.
The recent work of A. Hantzsch and his pupils seems to invalidate this
view (Ber., 1894, 27, pp. 1702 et seq. ; see also A. Hantzsch, DieDiazo-
verbindungen). According to Hantzsch the isomeric diazo hydroxides
are structurally identical, and the differences in behaviour are due
to stereo-chemica1 relations, the isomerism being comparable with
that of the oximes (q.v.). On such a hypothesis, the relatively
unstable normal diazo hydroxides would be the sjTZ-compounds,
since here the nitrogen atoms would be more easily eliminated, whilst
the stable iso-diazo derivatives would be the an<z-compounds, thus:
R-N R-N

HO-N N-OH

Normal hydroxide Iso hydroxide

(Syn-cpmpound) (Anti-compound)

In support of this theory, Hantzsch has succeeded in isolating a series
of syn-andanti-diazo-cyanidesand-sulphonates(Ber.,i895,28,p.666;
1900, 33, p. 2161 ; 1901, 34, p. 4166).. By diazotizingpara-chloraniline
and adding a cold solution of potassium cyanide, a salt (melting at
29° C.) is obtained, which readily loses nitrogen, and forms para-
chlorbenzonitrile on the addition of copper powder. By dissolving
this diazocyanide in alcohol and reprecipitating it by water, it is
converted into the isomeric diazocyanide (melting at 105-106° C.),
which does not yield para-chlorbenzonitrile when treated with copper
powder. Similar results have been obtained by using diazotized
para-anisidine, a syn- and an anti- compound being formed, as well
as a third isomeric cyanide, obtained by evaporating para-methoxy-
benzenediazonium hydroxide in the presence of an excess of hydro-
cyanic acid at ordinary temperatures. This salt is a colourless
crystalline substance of composition CH3O-C6H4-N2-CN-HCN-2H2O,
and has the properties of a metallic salt ; it is very soluble in water
and its solution is an electrolyte, whereas the solutions of the syn-
and anti- compounds are not electrolytes. The isolation of these
compounds is a powerful argument in favour of the Hantzsch
hypothesis which requires the existence of these three different types,
whilst the Bamberger-Blomstrand view only accounts for the forma-

tion of two isomeric cyanides, namely, one of the normal diazonium
type and one of the iso-diazocyanide type.

Benzene diazonium hydroxide, although a strong base, reacts with
the alkaline hydroxides to form salts with the evolution of heat, and
generally behaves as a weak acid. On mixing dilute solutions of the
diazonium hydroxide and the alkali together, it is found that the
molecular conductivity of the mixture is much less than the sum of
the two electrical conductivities of the solutions separately, from
which it follows that a portion of the ions present have changed to
the non-ionized condition. This behaviour is explained by consider-
ing the non-ionized part of the diazonium hydroxide to exist in
solution in a hydrated form, the equation of equilibrium being:

c«H6-N- C,HS-N-OH

H20+ £ + OH' 7± |

HO-N'H

On adding the alkaline hydroxide to the solution, this hydrate is
supposed to lose water, yielding the syn-diazo hydroxide, which then
gives rise to a certain amount of the sodium salt (A. Hantzsch, Ber.,
1898, 31, p. 1612),

C,H6-N-;OH

HO-N'H

C,H5-N

C6H6'N

J I

<- HO-N <r- NaO'N

This assumption also shows the relationship of the diazonium
hydroxides to other quaternary ammonium compounds, for most of
the quaternary ammonium hydroxides (except such as have the
nitrogen atom attached to four saturated hydrocarbon radicals) are
unstable, and readily pass over intocompounds in which the hydroxyl
group is no longer attached to the amine nitrogen ; thus the syn-diazo
hydroxides are to be regarded as pseudo-diazonium derivatives.
(A. Hantzsch, Ber., 1899, 32, p. 3109; 1900,33^.278.) It isgenerally
accepted that the iso-diazo hydroxides possess the oxime structure
R-N: N-OH.

Hantzsch explains the characteristic reactions of the diazonium
compounds by the assumption that an addition compound is first
formed, which breaks down with the elimination of the hydride of
the acid radical, and the formation of an unstable syn-diazo com-
pound, which, in its turn, decomposes with evolution of nitrogen
(Ber., 1897, 30, p. 2548; 1898, 31, p. 2053).

"D "V" T) V T> "V"

>N;N+|-> >N;N< -> | | +HC1 ->R'X+N2.
Cl H Cl ^H N = N

J. Cain (Jour. Ghent. Soc., 1907, 91, p. 1049) suggested a quinonoid
formula for diazonium salts, which has been combated by Hantzsch
(Ber., 1908,41, pp. 3532 et seq.). G.T. Morgan and F. M. G. Mickle-
thwaite (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1908, 93, p. 617; 1909, 95, p. 1319) have
pointed out that the salts may possess a dynamic formula, Cain's
representing the middle stage, thus:

Diazoamines. — The diazoamines, R-N2-NHR, maybe prepared by
the action of the primary and secondary amines on the diazonium
salts, or by the action of nitrous acid on the free primary amine. I n the
latter reaction it is assumed that the isodiazohydroxide first formed
is immediately attacked by a second molecule of the amine. They
are yellow crystalline solids, which do not unite with acids. Nitrous
acid converts them, in acid solution, into diazonium salts.

They are readily converted into the isomeric aminoazo compounds,
either by standing in alcoholic solution, or by warming with a
mixture of the parent base and its hydrochloride; the diazo group
preferably going into the para-position to the amino group. When
the para-position is occupied, the diazo group takes the ortho-
position. H. Goldschmidt and R. U. Reinders (Ber., 1896, 29, p. 1369,
1899) have shown that the transformation is a monomoleculaf
reaction, the velocity of transformation in moderately dilute solution
being independent of the concentration, but proportional to the
amount of the catalyst present (amine hydrochloride) and to the
temperature. It has also been shown that when different salts of the
amine are used, their catalytic influence varies in amount and is
almost proportional to their degree of ionization in aqueous solution.
Diazoaminobenzene, CeHsNj-NHCeHs, crystallizes in golden yellow
laminae, which melt at 96 °C. and explode at a slightly higher tempera-
ture. It is readily soluble in alcohol, ether and benzene. Concen-
trated hydrochloric acid converts it into chlprbenzene, aniline and
nitrogen. Zinc dust and alcoholic acetic acid reduce it to aniline
and phenylhydrazine.

Diazoimino compounds, R-Ns, may be regarded as derivatives of
azoimide (g.f.) ; they are formed by the action of ammonia on the
diazoperbromides,orby the action of hydroxylamine on the diazonium
sulphates (J. Mai, Ber., 1892, 25, p. 372; T. Curtius, Ber., 1893, 26,
p. 1271). Diazobenzeneimide, CeH6N 3, is a yellowish oil of stupefying
odour. It boils at 59° C. (12 mm.), and explodes when heated.
Concentrated hydrochloric acid decomposes it with formation of

DIAZOMATA— DIBDIN, T. F.

'75

chloranilines and elimination of nitrogen, whilst on boiling with
sulphuric acid it is converted into aminophenols.

Aliphatic Diazo Compounds. — The esters of the aliphatic amino
acids may be diazotized in a manner similar to the primary aromatic
amines, a fact discovered by T. Curtius (Ber., 1833, 16, p. 2230). The
first aliphatic diazo compound to be isolated was diazoacetic ester,
CH-Nz-COjCjHs, which is prepared by the action of potassium nitrite
on the ethyl ester of glycocoll hydrochloride>HCl-NH2-CH2-CO2C2H5
+ KNO2 = CHN2-COsC2H6+KCl+2H2O. It is a yellowish oil which
melts at— 24° C.; it boils at 143-144° C., but cannot be distilled safely
as it decomposes violently, giving nitrogen and ethyl fumarate. It
explodes in contact with concentrated sulphuric acid. On reduction
it yields ammonia and glycocoll (aminoacetic acid). When heated
with water it forms ethyl hydroxy-acetate ; with alcohol it yields
ethyl ethoxyacetate. Halogen acids convert it into monohalogen
fatty acids, and the halogens themselves convert it into dihalogen
fatty acids. It unites with aldehydes to form esters of ketonic acids,
and with aniline yields anilido-acetic acid. It forms an addition
product with acrylic ester, which on heating loses nitrogen and leaves
trimethylene dicarboxylic ester. Concentrated ammonia converts
it into diazoacetamide, CHN2-CONH2, which crystallizes in golden
yellow plates which melt at 114° C. For other reactions see
HYDRAZINE. The constitution of the diazo fatty esters is inferred
from the fact that the two nitrogen atoms, when split off, are
replaced by two monovalent elements or groups, thus leading to
^

the formula

, for diazoacetic ester.

Diazosuccinic ester, Nj-CCCOzCzHs^, is similarly prepared by the
action of nitrous acid on the hydrochloride of aspartic ester. It is
decomposed by boiling water and yields fumaric ester.

Diazomethane, CH2N2, was first obtained in 1894 by H. v. Pech-
mann (Ber., 1894, 27, p. 1888; 1895, 28, p. 855). It is prepared by the
action of aqueous or alcoholic solutions of the caustic alkalis on
the nitroso-acidyl derivatives of methylamine (such, for example,
as nitrosomethyl urethane, NO-f^CHsVCC^CjHs, which is formed on
passing nitrous fumes into an ethereal solution of methyl urethane).
E. Bamberger (Ber., 1895, 28, p. 1682) regards it as the anhydride of
iso-diazomethane, CHj-N:N-OH, and has prepared it by a method
similar to that used for the preparation of isp-diazobenzene. By the
action of bleaching powder on methylamine hydrochloride, there
is obtained a volatile liquid (methyldichloramine, CHs-N-CU), boil-
ing at 58-60° C., which explodes violently when heated with water,
yielding hydrocyanic acid (CH3NCl2 = HCN-t-2HCl). Well-dried
hydroxylamine hydrochloride is dissolved in methyl alcohol and
mixed with sodium methylate; a solution of methyldichloramine in
absolute ether is then added and an ethereal solution of diazomethane
distils over. Diazomethane is a yellow inodorous gas, very poisonous
and corrosive. It may be condensed to a liquid, which boils at about
o° C. It is a powerful methylating agent, reacting with water to form
methyl alcohol, and converting acetic acid into methylacetate, hydro-
chloric acid into methyl chloride, hydrocyanic acid into acetonitrile,
and phenol into anisol, nitrogen being eliminated in each case. It is
reduced by sodium amalgam (in alcoholic solution) to methylhydrazine,
CH3'NH-NH2. It unites directly with acetylene to form pyrazole
(H. v. Pechmann, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2950) and with fumaric methyl
ester it forms pyrazolin dicarboxylic ester. (F. G. P.*)

SeeG. T. Morgan, B.A . Rep., 1902 ; J. Cain, Diazo Compounds, 1908.

DIAZOMATA (Gr. 5idfco/ja, a girdle), in architecture, the
landing places and passages which were carried round the semi-
circle and separated the upper and lower tiers in a Greek theatre.

DIBDIN, CHARLES (1745-1814), British musician, dramatist,
novelist, actor and song-writer, the son of a parish clerk, was born
at Southampton on or before the 4th of March 1745, and was the
youngest of a family of eighteen. His parents designing him for
the church, he was sent to Winchester; but his love of music
early diverted his thoughts from the clerical profession. After
receiving some instruction from the organist of Winchester
cathedral, where he was a chorister from 1756 to 1759, he went
to London at the age of fifteen. Here he was placed in a music
warehouse in Cheapside, but he soon abandoned this employment
to become a singing actor at Covent Garden. On the 2 ist of May
1762 his first work, an operetta entitled The Shepherd's Artifice,
with words and music by himself, was produced at this theatre.
Other works followed, his reputation being firmly established
by the music to the play of The Padlock, produced at Drury Lane
under Garrick's management in 1 768, the composer himself taking
the part of Mungo with conspicuous success. He continued for
some years to be connected with Drury Lane, both as composer
and as actor, and produced during this period two of his best
known works, The Waterman (1774) and The Quaker (1775). A
quarrel with Garrick led to the termination of his engagement.
In The Comic Mirror he ridiculed prominent contemporary figures
through the medium of a puppet show. In 1782 he became joint

manager of the Royal circus, afterwards known as the Surrey
theatre. In three years he lost this position owing to a quarrel
with his partner. His opera Liberty Hall, containing the suc-
cessful songs " Jock Ratlin," " The Highmettled Racer," and
" The Bells of Aberdovey," was produced at Drury Lane theatre
on the 8th of February 1785. In 1788 he sailed for the East
Indies, but the vessel having put in to Torbay hi stress of weather,
he changed his mind and returned to London. In a musical
variety entertainment called The Oddities, he succeeded in win-
ning marked popularity with a number of songs that included
" 'Twas in the good ship ' Rover'," " Saturday Night at Sea," "I
sailed from the Downs in the ' Nancy,' " and the immortal " Tom
Bowling," written on the death of his eldest brother, Captain
Thomas Dibdin, at whose invitation he had planned his visit
to India. A series of monodramatic entertainments which he
gave at his theatre, Sans Souci, in Leicester Square, brought his
songs, music and recitations more prominently into notice, and
permanently established his fame as a lyric poet. It was at these
entertainments that he first introduced many of those sea-songs
which so powerfully influenced the national spirit. The words
breathe the simple loyalty and dauntless courage that are the
cardinal virtues of the British sailor, and the music was ap-
propriate and naturally melodious. Their effect in stimulating
and ennobling the spirit of the navy during the war with France
was so marked as to call for special acknowledgment. In 1803
Dibdin was rewarded by government with a pension of £200 a
year, of which he was only for a time deprived under the ad-
ministration of Lord Grenville. During this period he opened a
music shop in the Strand, but the venture was a failure. Dibdin
died of paralysis in London on the 2Sth of July 1814. Besides his
Musical Tour through England (1788), his Professional Life, an
autobiography published in 1803, a History of the Stage (1795), and
several smaller works, he wrote upwards of 1400 songs and about
thirty dramatic pieces. He also wrote the following novels: —
The Devil (1785); Hannah Hewitt (1792); The Younger Brother
(1793). An edition of his songs by G. Hogarth (1843) contains
a memoir of his life. His two sons, Charles and Thomas John
Dibdin (?.».), whose works are often confused with those of their
father, were also popular dramatists in their day.

DIBDIN, THOMAS FROGNALL (1776-1847), English biblio-
grapher, born at Calcutta in 1776, was the son of Thomas Dibdin,
the sailor brother of Charles Dibdin. His father and mother both
died on the way home to England in 1780, and Thomas was
brought up by a maternal uncle. He was educated at St John's
College, Oxford, and studied for a time at Lincoln's Inn. After
an unsuccessful attempt to obtain practice as a provincial counsel
at Worcester, he was ordained a clergyman at the close of 1804,
being appointed to a curacy at Kensington. It was not until
1823 that he received the living of Exning in Sussex. Soon after-
wards he was appointed by Lord Liverpool to the rectory of St
Mary's, Bryanston Square, which he held until his death on the
1 8th of November 1847. The first of his numerous bibliographical
works was his Introduction to the Knowledge of Editions of the
Classics (1802), which brought him under the notice of the
third Earl Spencer, to whom he owed much important aid in
his bibliographical pursuits. The rich library at Althorp was
thrown open to him; he spent much of his time in it, and in
1814-1815 published his Bibliotheca Spenceriana. As the library
was not open to the general public, the information given in the
Bibliotheca was found very useful, but since its author was unable
even to read the characters in which the books he described were
written, the work was marred by the errors which more or less
characterize all his productions. This fault of inaccuracy how-
ever was less obtrusive in his series of playful, discursive works in
the form of dialogues on his favourite subject, the first of which,
Bibliomania (1809), was republished with large additions in
1811, and was very popular, passing through numerous editions.
To the same class belonged the Bibliographical Decameron, a larger
work, which appeared in 181 7. In 1810 he began the publication
of a new and much extended edition of Ames's Typographical
Antiquities. The first volume was a great success, but the publica-
tion was checked by the failure of the fourth volume, and was

DIBDIN, T. J.— DICE

never completed. In 1818 Dibdin was commissioned by Earl
Spencer to purchase books for him on the continent, an expedi-
tion described in his sumptuous Bibliographical, Antiquarian and
Picturesque Tour in France and Germany (1821). In 1824 he
made an ambitious venture in his Library Companion, or the
Young Man's Guide and Old Man's Comfort in the Choice of a
Library, intended to point out the best works in all departments
of literature. His culture was not broad enough, however, to
render him competent for the task, and the work was severely
criticized. For some years Dibdin gave himself up chiefly to
religious literature. He returned to bibliography in his
Bibliophobia, or Remarks on the Present Depression in the State of
Literature and the Book Trade (1832), and the same subject
furnishes the main interest of his Reminiscences of a Literary Life
(1836), and his Bibliographical, Antiquarian and Picturesque
Tour in the Northern Counties of England and Scotland (1838).
Dibdin was the originator and vice-president, Lord Spencer
being the president, cf the Roxburghe Club, founded in 1812,
— the first of the numerous book clubs which have done such
service to literature.

DIBDIN, THOMAS JOHN (1771-1841), English dramatist and
song-writer, son of Charles Dibdin, the song-writer, and of Mrs
Davenet, an actress whose real name was Harriet Pitt, was born
on the 2ist of March 1771. He was apprenticed to his maternal
uncle, a London upholsterer, and later to William Rawlins,
afterwards sheriff of London. He summoned his second master
unsuccessfully for rough treatment; and after a few years of
service he ran away to join a company of country players. From
1789 to 1795 he played in all sorts of parts; he acted as scene
painter at Liverpool in 1791; and during this period he com-
posed more than 1000 songs. He made his first attempt as a
dramatic writer in Something New, followed by The Mad Guardian
in 1795. He returned to London in 1795, having married two
years before; and in the winter of 1798-1799 his Jew and the
Doctor was produced at Covent Garden. From this time he
contributed a very large number of comedies, operas, farces, &c.,
to the public entertainment. Some of these brought immense
popularity to the writer and immense profits to the theatres. It is
stated that the pantomime of Mother Goose (1807) produced more
than £20,000 for the management at Covent Garden theatre, and
the High-mettled Racer, adapted as a pantomime from his father's
play, £18,000 at Astley's. Dibdin was prompter and pantomime
writer at Drury Lane until 1816, when he took the Surrey theatre.
This venture proved disastrous and he became bankrupt. After
this he was manager of the Haymarket, but without his old
success, and his last years were passed in comparative poverty.
In 1827 he published two volumes of Reminiscences; and at the
time of his death he was preparing an edition of his father's sea
songs, for which a small sum was allowed him weekly by the lords
of the admiralty. Of his own songs " The Oak Table " and
" The Snug Little Island " are well-known examples. He died in
London on the i6th of September 1841.

DIBRA (Slav. Debra), the capital of a sanjak bearing the same
name, in the vilayet of Monastir, eastern Albania, Turkey. Pop.
(1900) about 15,000. Dibra occupies a valley enclosed by
mountains, and watered by the Tsrni Drin and Radika rivers,
which meet 3 m. S. It is a fortified city, and the only episcopal
see of the Bulgarian exarchate in Albania; most of the inhabit-
ants are Albanians, but there is a strong Bulgarian colony. The
local trade is almost entirely agricultural.

DIBRUGARH, a town of British India, in the Lakhimpur
district of eastern Bengal and Assam, of which it is the head-
quarters, situated on the Dibru river about 4 m. above its
confluence with the Brahmaputra. Pop. (1001) 11,227. It is the
terminus of steamer navigation on the Brahmaputra, and also of
a railway running to important coal-mines and petroleum wells,
which connects with the Assam-Bengal system. Large quantities
of coal and tea are exported. There are a military cantonment,
the headquarters of the volunteer corps known as the Assam
Valley Light Horse; a government high school, a training school
for masters; and an aided school for girls. In 1900 a medical
school for the province was established, out of a bequest left

by Brigade-Surgeon J. Berry-White, which is maintained by
the government, to train hospital assistants for the tea gardens.
The Williamson artisan school is entirely supported by an
endowment.

DICAEARCHUS, of Messene in Sicily, Peripatetic philosopher
and pupil of Aristotle, historian, and geographer, flourished about
320 B.C. He was a friend of Theophrastus, to whom he dedicated
the majority of his works. Of his writings, which comprised
treatises on a great variety of subjects, only the titles and a few
fragments survive. The most important of them was his
|8ios TTJS 'EXXdSos (Life in Greece), in which the moral, political
and social condition of the people was very fully discussed. In
his Tripoliticos he described the best form of government as a
mixture of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy, and illustrated
it by the example of Sparta. Among the philosophical works of
Dicaearchus may be mentioned the Lesbiaci, a dialogue in three
books, in which the author endeavours to prove that the soul is
mortal, to which he added a supplement called Corinthiaci. He
also wrote a Description of the World illustrated by maps, in
which was probably included his Measurements of Mountains.
A description of Greece (150 iambics, in C. Miiller, Frag. hist.
Grace, i. 238-243) was formerly attributed to him, but, as the
initial letters of the first twenty-three lines show, was really
the work of Dionysius, son of Calliphon. Three considerable
fragments of a prose description of Greece (Muller, i. 97-110)
are now assigned to an unknown author named Heracleides. The
De re publica of Cicero is supposed to be founded on one of
Dicaearchus's works.

The best edition of the fragments is by M. Fuhr (1841), a work of
great learning; see also a dissertation by F. G. Osann, Beitrdge zur
rom. und griech. Litteratur, ii. pp. 1-117 (1839); Pauly-Wissowa,
Realencydopddie der klass. Altertumswiss. v. pt. i (1905).

DICE (plural of die, O. Fr. de, derived from Lat. dare, to give),
small cubes of ivory, bone, wood or metal, used in gaming. The
six sides of a die are each marked with a different number of
incised dots in such a manner that the sum of the dots on any two
opposite sides shall be 7. Dice seem always to have been
employed, as is the case to-day, for gambling purposes, and they
are also used in such games as backgammon. There are many
methods of playing, from one to five dice being used, although
two or three are the ordinary numbers employed in Great Britain
and America. The dice are thrown upon a table or other smooth
surface either from the hand or from a receptacle called a dice-box,
the latter method having been in common use in Greece, Rome
and the Orient in ancient times. Dice-boxes have been made in
many shapes and of various materials, such as wood, leather,
agate, crystal, metal or paper. Many contain bars within to ensure
a proper agitation of the dice, and thus defeat trickery. Some,
formerly used in England, were employed with unmarked dice,
and allowed the cubes to fall through a kind of funnel upon a
board marked off into six equal parts numbered from i to 6.
It is a remarkable fact, that, wherever dice have been found,
whether in the tombs of ancient Egypt, of classic Greece, or of
the far East, they differ hi no material respect from those in use
to-day, the elongated ones with rounded ends found in Roman
graves having been, not dice but tali, or knucklebones. Eight-
sided dice have comparatively lately been introduced in France
as aids to children in learning the multiplication table. The
teetotum, or spinning die, used in many modern games, was
known in ancient times in China and Japan. The increased
popularity of the more elaborate forms of gaming has resulted in
the decline of dicing. The usual method is to throw three times
with three dice. If one or more sixes or fives are thrown the first
time they may be reserved, the other throws being made with the
dice that are left. The object is to throw three sixes = 18 or as
near that number as possible, the highest throw winning, or, when
drinks are to be paid for, the lowest throw losing. (For other
methods of throwing consult the Encyclopaedia of Indoor Games,
by R. F. Foster, 1903.) The most popular form of pure gambling
with dice at the present day, particularly with the lower classes in
America, is Craps, or Crap-Shooting, a simple form of Hazard, of
French origin. Two dice are used. Each player puts up a stake

DICETO

177

and the first caster may cover any or all of the bets. He then
shoots, i.e. throws the dice from his open hand upon the table
If the sum of the dice is 7 or 1 1 the throw is a nick, or natural, anc
the caster wins all stakes. If the throw is either 2, 3 or 12 it is
a crap, and the caster loses all. If any other number is thrown
it is a point, and the caster continues until he throws the same
number again, in which case he wins, or a 7, in which case he
loses. The now practically obsolete game of Hazard was much
more complicated than Craps. (Consult The Game of Hazard
Investigated, by George Lowbut.) Poker dice are marked with ace,
king, queen, jack and ten-spot. Five are used and the object is,
in three throws, to make pairs, triplets, full hands or fours and
fives of a kind, five aces being the highest hand. Straights do
not count. In throwing to decide the payment of drinks the
usual method is called horse and horse, in which the highest
throws retire, leaving the two lowest to decide the loser by the
best two in three throws. Should each player win one throw-
both are said to be horse and horse, and the next throw determines
the loser. The two last casters may also agree to sudden death, i.e.
a single throw. Loaded dice, i.e. dice weighted slightly on the side
of the lowest number, have been used by swindlers from the very
earliest times to the present day, a fact proved by countless
literary allusions. Modern dice are often rounded at the corners,
which are otherwise apt to wear off irregularly.

History. — Dice were probably evolved from knucklebones.
The antiquary Thomas Hyde, in his Syntagma, records his
opinion that the game of " odd or even," played with pebbles, is
nearly coeval with the creation of man. It is almost impossible
to trace clearly the development of dice as distinguished from
knucklebones, on account of the confusing of the two games
by, the ancient writers. It is certain, however, that both were
played in times antecedent to those of which we possess any
written records. Sophocles, in a fragment, ascribed their in-
vention to Palamedes, a Greek, who taught them to his country-
men during the siege of Troy, and who, according to Pausanias
(on Corinth, xx.), made an offering of them on the altar of the
temple of Fortune. Herodotus (Clio) relates that the Lydians,
during a period of famine in the days of King Atys, invented dice,
knucklebones and indeed all other games except chess. The fact
that dice have been used throughout the Orient from time
immemorial, as has been proved by excavations from ancient
tombs, seems to point clearly to an Asiatic origin. Dicing is
mentioned as an Indian game in the Rig-veda. In its primitive
form knucklebones was essentially a game of skill, played by
women and children, while dice were used for gambling, and
it was doubtless the gambling spirit of the age which was
responsible for the derivative form of knucklebones, in which
four sides of the bones received different values, which were then
counted, like dice. Gambling with three, sometimes two, dice
(Kvffa.) was a very popular form of amusement in Greece, especially
with the upper classes, and was an almost invariable accompani-
ment to the symposium, or drinking banquet. The dice were cast
from conical beakers, and the highest throw was three sixes,
called Aphrodite, while the lowest, three aces, was called the dog.
Both in Greece and Rome different modes of counting were in
vogue. Roman dice were called tesserae from the Greek word for
four, indicative of the four sides. The Romans were passionate
gamblers, especially in the luxurious days of the Empire, and
dicing was a favourite form, though it was forbidden except
during the Saturnalia. The emperor Augustus wrote in a letter
to Suetonius concerning a game that he had played with his
friends: " Whoever threw a dog or a six paid a denarius to the
bank for every die, and whoever threw a Venus (the highest) won
everything." In the houses of the rich the dice-beakers were
of carved ivory and the dice of crystal inlaid with gold. Mark
Antony wasted his time at Alexandria with dicing, while, accord-
ing to Suetonius, the emperors Augustus, Nero and Claudius were
passionately fond of it, the last named having written a book on
the game. Caligula notoriously cheated at the game; Domitian
played it, and Commodus set apart special rooms in his palace
for it. The emperor Verus, adopted son of Antonine, is known
to have thrown dice whole nights together. Fashionable society

followed the lead of its emperors, and, in spite of the severity of
the laws, fortunes were squandered at the dicing-table. Horace
derided the youth of the period, who wasted his time amid the
dangers of dicing instead of taming his charger and giving him-
self up to the hardships of the chase. Throwing dice for money
was the cause of many special laws in Rome, according to one of
which no suit could be brought by a person who allowed gambling
in his house, even if he had been cheated or assaulted. Pro-
fessional gamblers were common, and some of their loaded dice
are preserved in museums. The common public-houses were the
resorts of gamblers, and a fresco is extant showing two quarrelling
dicers being ejected by the indignant host. Virgil, in the Copa
generally ascribed to him, characterizes the spirit of that age in
verse, which has been Englished as follows: —

" What ho ! Bring dice and good wine !

Who cares for the morrow?
Live — so calls grinning Death —

Live, for I come to you soon!"

That the barbarians were also given to gaming, whether or
not they learned it from their Roman conquerors, is proved by
Tacitus, who states that the Germans were passionately fond
of dicing, so much so, indeed, that, having lost everything, they
would even stake their personal liberty. Centuries later, during
the middle ages, dicing became the favourite pastime of the
knights, and both dicing schools (scholae deciorum) and gilds
of dicers existed. After the downfall of feudalism the famous
German mercenaries called landsknechts established a reputation
as the most notorious dicing gamblers of their time. Many of the
dice of the period were curiously carved in the images of men and
beasts. In France both knights and ladies were given to dicing,
which repeated legislation, including interdictions on the part of
St Louis in 1254 and 1256, did not abolish. In Japan, China,
Korea, India and other Asiatic countries dice have always been
popular and are so still.

See Foster's Encyclopaedia of Indoor Games (1903); Raymond's
Illustriertes Knobelbreyier (Oramenburg, 1888) ; Les Jeux des Anciens,
by L. Becqde Fouquieres (Paris, 1869) ; Das Knochelspiel der Alien,
by Bolle (Wismar, 1886) ; Die Spiele der Griechen und Ranter, by
W. Richter (Leipzig, 1887); Raymond's Alte und neue Wurfelspiele;
Chinese Games with Dice, by Stewart Culin (Philadelphia, 1889);
Korean Games, by Stewart Culin (Philadelphia, 1895).

DICETO, RALPH DE (d. c. 1202), dean of St Paul's, London,
and chronicler, is first mentioned in 1152, when he received the
archdeaconry of Middlesex. He was probably born between
1 1 20 and 1130; of his parentage and nationality we know
nothing. The common statement that he derived his surname
from Diss in Norfolk is a mere conjecture; Dicetum may equally
well be a Latinized form of Dissai, or Dicy, or Dizy, place-names
which are found in Maine, Picardy, Burgundy and Champagne.
In 1152 Diceto was already a master of arts; presumably he had
studied at Paris. His reputation for learning and integrity stood
high; he was regarded with respect and favour by Arnulf of
Lisieux and Gilbert Foliot of Hereford (afterwards of London),
two of the most eminent bishops of their time. Quite naturally,
the archdeacon took in the Becket question the same side as his
iriends. Although his narrative is colourless, and although he
was one of those who showed some sympathy for Becket at the
council of Northampton (1164), the correspondence of Diceto
shows that he regarded the archbishop's conduct as ill-considered,
and that he gave advice to those whom Becket regarded as his
chief enemies. Diceto was selected, in 1166, as the envoy of the
English bishops when they protested against the excommunica-
tions launched by Becket. But, apart from this episode, which he
characteristically omits to record, he remained in the background.
The natural impartiality of his intellect was accentuated by a
certain timidity, which is apparent in his writings no less than
.n his life. About 1180 he became dean of St Paul's. In this
office he distinguished himself by careful management of the
estates, by restoring the discipline of the chapter, and by building
at his own expense a deanery-house. A scholar and a man of
considerable erudition, he showed a strong preference for his-
:orical studies; and about the time when he was preferred to
the deanery he began to collect materials for the history of his

i78

DICEY— DICKENS

own times. His friendships with Richard Fitz Nigel, who suc-
ceeded Foliot in the see of London, with William Longchamp, the
chancellor of Richard I., and with Walter of Coutances, the arch-
bishop of Rouen, gave him excellent opportunities of collecting
information. His two chief works, the Abbreviations Chronico-
rum and the Ymagines Historiarum, cover the history of the
world from the birth of Christ to the year 1202. The former,
which ends in 1147, is a work of learning and industry, but
almost entirely based upon extant sources. The latter, begin-
ning as a compilation from Robert de Monte and the letters of
Foliot, becomes an original authority about 1172, and a contem-
porary record about 1181. In precision and fulness of detail the
Ymagines are inferior to the chronicles of the so-called Benedict
and of Hoveden. Though an annalist, Diceto is careless in his
chronology; and the documents which he incorporates, while
often important, are selected on no principle. He has little sense
of style; but displays considerable insight when he ventures to
discuss a political situation. For this reason, and on account of
the details with which they supplement the more important
chronicles of the period, the Ymagines are a valuable though a
secondary source.

See W. Stubbs' edition of the Historical Works of Diceto (Rolls ed.
1876, 2 vols.), and especially the introduction. The second volume
contains minor works which are the barest compendia of facts taken
from well-known sources. Diceto's fragmentary Domesday of the
capitular estates has been edited by Archdeacon Hale in TheDomesday
of St Paul's, pp. 109 ff. (Camden Society, 1858).

DICEY, EDWARD (1832- ), English writer, son of T. E.
Dicey of Claybrook Hall, Leicestershire, was born in 1832. Edu-
cated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took mathematical
and classical honours, he became an active journalist, contribut-
ing largely to the principal reviews. He was called to the bar
in 1875, became a bencher of Gray's Inn in 1896, and was
treasurer in 190-3-1904. He was connected with the Daily
Telegraph as leader writer and then as special correspondent, and
after a short spell in 1870 as editor of the Daily News he became
editor of the Observer, a position which he held until 1889. Of
his many books on foreign affairs perhaps the most important are
his England and Egypt (1884), Bulgaria, the Peasant State (1895),
The Story of the Khedivate (1902), and The Egypt of the Future
(1907). He was created C.B. in 1886.

His brother ALBERT VENN DICEY (b. 1835), English jurist,
was educated at Balliol College, Oxford, where he took a first
class in the classical schools in 1858. He was called to the bar at
the Inner Temple in 1863. He held fellowships successively
at Balliol, Trinity and All Souls', and from 1882 to 1909 was
Vinerian professor of law. He became Q.C. in 1890. His chief
works are the Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitu-
tion (1885, 6th ed. 1902), which ranks as a standard work on
the subject; England's Case against Home Rule (1886); A Digest
of the Law of England with Reference to the Conflict of Laws (1896),
and Lectures on the Relation between Law and Public Opinion in
England during the ipth century (1905).

DICHOTOMY (Gr. bl%a, apart, refivuv, to cut), literally a
cutting asunder, the technical term for a form of logical division,
consisting in the separation of a genus into two species, one of
which has and the other has not, a certain quality or attribute.
Thus men may be thus divided into white men, and men who are
not white; each of these may be subdivided similarly. On the
principle of contradiction this division is both exhaustive and
exclusive; there can be no overlapping, and no members of the
original genus or the lower groups are omitted. This method of
classification, though formally accurate, has slight value in the
exact sciences, partly because at every step one of the two groups
is merely negatively characterized and therefore incapable of real
subdivision; it is useful, however, in setting forth clearly the
gradual descent from the most inclusive genus (summum genus)
through species to the lowest class (infima species), which is
divisible only into individual persons or things. (See further
DIVISION.) In astronomy the term is used for the aspect of the
moon or of a planet when apparently half illuminated, so that its
disk has the form of a semicircle.

DICK, ROBERT (1811-1866), Scottish geologist and botanist-
was born at Tullibody, in Clackmannanshire, in January 1811.
His father was an officer of excise. At the age of thirteen, after
receiving a good elementary education at the parish school,
Robert Dick was apprenticed to a baker, and served for three
years. In these early days he became interested in wild flowers
— he made a collection of plants and gradually acquired some
knowledge of their names from an old encyclopaedia. When
his time was out he left Tullibody and gained employment as a
journeyman baker at Leith, Glasgow and Greenock. Meanwhile
his father, who in 1826 had been removed to Thurso, as super-
visor of excise, advised his son to set up a baker's shop in that
town. Thither Robert Dick went in 1830, he started in business
as a baker and worked laboriously until he died on the 24th of
December 1866. Throughout this period he zealously devoted
himself to studying and collecting the plants, mollusca and insects
of a wide area of Caithness, and his attention was directed soon
after he settled in Thurso to the rocks and fossils. In 1 83 5 he first
found remains of fossil fishes; but it was net till some years later
that his interest became greatly stirred. Then he obtained a copy
of Hugh Miller's Old Red Sandstone (published in 1841), and
he began systematically to collect with hammer and chisel the
fossils from the Caithness flags. In 1845 he found remains of
Holoptychius and forwarded specimens to Hugh Miller, and he
continued to send the best of his fossil fishes to that geologist, and
to others after the death of Miller. In this way he largely contri-
buted to the progress of geological knowledge, although he him-
self published nothing and was ever averse from publicity. His
herbarium, which consisted of about 200 folios of mosses, ferns
and flowering plants " almost unique in its completeness," is now
stored, with many of his fossils, in the museum at Thurso. Dick
had a hard struggle for existence, especially through competition
during his late years, when he was reduced almost to beggary:
but of this few, if any, of his friends were aware until it was
too late. A monument erected in the new cemetery at Thurso
testifies to the respect which his life-work created, when the
merits of this enthusiastic naturalist came to be appreciated.

See Robert Dick, Baker of Thurso, Geologist and Botanist, by
Samuel Smiles (1878).

DICK, THOMAS (1774-1857), Scottish writer on astronomy,
was born at Dundee on the 24th of November 1774. The
appearance of a brilliant meteor inspired him, when in his ninth
year, with a passion for astronomy; and at the age of sixteen he
forsook the loom, and supported himself by teaching. In 1794
he entered the university of Edinburgh, and set up a school on the
termination of his course; then, in 1801, took out a licence to
preach, and officiated for some years as probationer in the
United Presbyterian church. From about 1807 to 1817 he taught
in the secession school at Methven in Perthshire, and during the
ensuing decade in that of Perth, where he composed his first
substantive book, The Christian Philosopher (1823, 8th ed. 1842).
Its success determined his vocation as an author; he built
himself, in 1827, a cottage at Broughty Ferry, near Dundee, and
devoted himself wholly to literary and scientific pursuits. They
proved, however, owing to his unpractical turn of mind, but
slightly remunerative, and he was in 1847 relieved from actual
poverty by a crown pension of £50 a year, eked out by a> local
subscription. He died on the 2gth of July 1857. His best-known
works are: Celestial Scenery (1837), The Sidereal Heavens
(1840), and The Practical Astronomer (1845), in which is con-
tained (p. 204) a remarkable forecast of the powers and uses of
celestial photography. Written with competent knowledge, and
in an agreeable style, they obtained deserved and widespread
popularity.

See R. Charnbers's Eminent 'Scotsmen (ed. 1868); Monthly Notices
Roy. Astr. Society, xviii. 98; Athenaeum (1857). p. 1008.

(A. M. C.)

DICKENS, CHARLES JOHN HUFFAM (1812-1870), English
novelist, was born on the 7th of February 1812 at a house in
the Mile End Terrace, Commercial Road, Landport (Portsea) — a
house which was opened as a Dickens Museum on 22nd July 1904.
His father John Dickens (d. 1851), a clerk in the navy-pay office

DICKENS

179

on a salary of £80 a year, and stationed for the time being at
Portsmouth, had married in 1809 Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas
Barrow, and she bore him a family of eight children, Charles
being the second. In the winter of 1814 the family moved
from Portsea in the snow, as he remembered, to London, and
lodged for a time near the Middlesex hospital. The country
of the novelist's childhood, however, was the kingdom of Kent,
where the family was established in proximity to the dockyard
at Chatham from 1816101821. He looked upon himself in later
years as a man of Kent, and his capital abode as that in Ordnance
Terrace, or 18 St Mary's Place, Chatham, amid surroundings
classified in Mr Pickwick's notes as " appearing " to be soldiers,
sailors, Jews, chalk, shrimps, officers and dockyard men. He fell
into a family the general tendency of which was to go down in
the world, during one of its easier periods (John Dickens was
now fifth clerk on £250 a year), and he always regarded himself
as belonging by right to a comfortable, genteel, lower middle-
class stratum of society. His mother taught him to read; to his
father he appeared very early in the light of a young prodigy, and
by him Charles was made to sit on a tall chair and warble popular
ballads, or even to tell stories and anecdotes for the benefit of
fellow-clerks in the office. John Dickens, however, had a small
collection of books which were kept in a little room upstairs
that led out of Charles's own, and in this attic the boy found
his true literary instructors in Roderick Random, Peregrine
Pickle, Humphry Clinker, Tom Jones, The Vicar of Wakcfield,
Don Quixote, Gil Bias and Robinson Crusoe. The story of how he
played at the characters in these books and sustained his idea of
Roderick Random for a month at a stretch is picturesquely told
in David Copperfield. Here as well as in his first and last books
and in what many regard as his best, Great Expectations, Dickens
returns with unabated fondness and mastery to the surround-
ings of his childhood. From seven to nine years he was at a
school kept in Clover Lane; Chatham, by a Baptist minister
named William Giles, who gave him Goldsmith's Bee as a keep-
sake when the call to Somerset House necessitated the removal
of the family from Rochester to a shabby house in Bayham Street,
Camden Town. At the very moment when a consciousness of
capacity was beginning to plump his youthful ambitions, the
whole flattering dream vanished and left not a rack behind.
Happiness and Chatham had been left behind together, and
Charles was about to enter a school far sterner and also far
more instructive than that in Clover Lane. The family income
had been first decreased and then mortgaged; the creditors of
the " prodigal father " would not give him time; John Dickens
was consigned to the Marshalsea; Mrs Dickens started an
" Educational Establishment " as a forlorn hope in Upper Gower
Street; and Charles, who had helped his mother with the children,
blacked the boots, carried things to the pawnshop and done
other menial work, was now sent out to earn his own living as a
young hand in a blacking warehouse, at Old Hungerford Stairs, on
a salary of six shillings a week. He tied, trimmed and labelled
blacking pots for over a year, dining off a saveloy and a slice of
pudding, consorting with two very rough boys, Bob Fagin and
Pol Green, and sleeping in an attic in Little College Street,
Camden Town, in the house of Mrs Roylance (Pipchin), while on
Sunday he spent the day with his parents in their comfortable
prison, where they had the services of a " marchioness " imported
from the Chatham workhouse.

Already consumed by ambition, proud, sensitive and on his
dignity to an extent not uncommon among boys of talent, he felt
his position keenly, and in later years worked himself up into a
passion of self-pity in connexion with the " degradation " and
" humiliation " of this episode. The two years of childish hard-
ship which ate like iron into his soul were obviously of supreme
importance in the growth of the novelist. Recollections of the
streets and the prison and its purlieus supplied him with a store
of literary material upon which he drew through all the years of
his best activity. And the bitterness of such an experience was
not prolonged sufficiently to become sour. From 1824 to 1826,
having been rescued by a family quarrel and by a windfall in the
shape of a legacy to his father, from the warehouse, he spent two

years at an academy known as Wellington House, at the corner
of Granby Street and the Hampstead Road (the lighter traits of
which are reproduced in Salem House), and was there known as
a merry and rather mischievous boy. Fortunately he learned
nothing there to compromise the results of previous instruction.
His father had now emerged from the Marshalsea and was seeking
employment as a parliamentary reporter. A Gray's Inn solicitor
with whom he had had dealings was attracted by the bright,
clever look of Charles, and took him into his office as a boy at
a salary of thirteen and sixpence (rising to fifteen shillings) a
week. He remained in Mr Blackmore's office from May 1827 to
November 1828, but he had lost none of his eager thirst for dis-
tinction, and spent all his spare time mastering Gurney's short-
hand and reading early and late at the British Museum. A more
industrious apprentice in the lower grades of the literary profession
has never been known, and the consciousness of opportunities
used to the most splendid advantage can hardly have been absent
from the man who was shortly to take his place at the head of it
as if to the manner born. Lowten and Guppy, and Swiveller
had been observed from this office lad's stool; he was now
greatly to widen his area of study as a reporter in Doctors'
Commons and various police courts, including Bow Street,
working all day at law and much of the night at shorthand. Some
one asked John Dickens, during the first eager period of curiosity
as to the man behind " Pickwick," where his son Charles was
educated. " Well really," said the prodigal father, " he may be
said — haw — haw — to have educated himself." He was one of
the most rapid and accurate reporters in London when, at nine-
teen years of age, in 1831, he realized his immediate ambition
and "entered the gallery" as parliamentary reporter to the
True Sun. Later he was reporter to the Mirror of Parliament
and then to the Morning Chronicle. Several of his earliest letters
are concerned with his exploits as a reporter, and allude to the
experiences he had, travelling fifteen miles an hour and being
upset in almost every description of known vehicle in various parts
of Britain between 1831 and 1836. The family was now living in
Bentwick Street, Manchester Square, but John Dickens was
still no infrequent inmate of the sponging-houses. With all the
accessories of these places of entertainment his son had grown to
be excessively familiar. Writing about 1832 to his school friend
Tom Mitton, Dickens tells him that his father has been arrested
at the suit of a wine firm, and begs him go over to Cursitcr Street
and see what can be done. On another occasion of a paternal
disappearance he observes: " I own that his absence does not
give me any great uneasiness, knowing how apt he is to get out
of the way when anything goes wrong." In yet another letter
he asks for a loan of four shillings.

In the meanwhile, however, he had commenced author in a
more creative sense by penning some sketches of contemporary
London life, such as he had attempted in his school days in imita-
tion of the sketches published in the London and other magazines
of that day. The first of these appeared in the December number
of the Old Monthly Magazine for 1833. By the following August,
when the signature " Boz " was first given, five of these sketches
had appeared. By the end of 1834 we find him settled in rooms
in Furnival's Inn, and a little later his salary on the Morning
Chronicle was raised, owing to the intervention of one of its chiefs,
George Hogarth, the father of (in addition to six sons) eight
charming daughters, to one of whom, Catherine, Charles was
engaged to be married before the year was out. Clearly as his
career now seemed designated, he was at this time or a little before
it coquetting very seriously with the stage: but circumstances
were rapidly to determine another stage in his career. A year
before Queen Victoria's accession appeared in two volumes
Sketches by Boz, Illustrative of Everyday Life and Everyday
People. The book came from a prentice hand, but like the
little tract on the Puritan abuse of the Sabbath entitled " Sunday
under three Heads " which appeared a few months later, it
contains in germ all, or almost all, the future Dickens. Glance
at the headings of the pages. Here we have the Beadle and all
connected with him, London streets, theatres, shows, the pawn-
shop, Doctors' Commons, Christmas, Newgate, coaching, the

i8o

DICKENS

river. Here comes a satirical picture of parliament, fun made of
cheap snobbery, a rap on the knuckles of sectarianism. And what
could be more prophetic than the title of the opening chapter —
Our Parish? With the Parish — a large one indeed — Dickens
to the end concerned himself; he began with a rapid survey of
his whole field, hinting at all he might accomplish, indicating
the limits he was not to pass. This year was to be still more
momentous to Dickens, for, on the 2nd of April 1836, he was
married to George Hogarth's eldest daughter Catherine. He
seems to have fallen in love with the daughters collectively,
and, judging by subsequent events, it has been suggested that
perhaps he married the wrong one. His wife's sister Mary was
the romance of his early married life, and another sister, Georgina,
was the dearest friend of his last ten years.

A few days before the marriage, just two months after the
appearance of the Sketches, the first part of The Posthumous Papers
of the Pickwick Club was announced. One of the chief vogues of
the day was the issue of humorous, sporting or anecdotal novels
in parts, with plates, and some of the best talent of the day, repre-
sented by Ainsworth, Bulwer, Marryat, Maxwell, Egan, Hook
and Surtees, had been pressed into this kind of enterprise. The
pubh'shers of the day had not been slow to perceive Dickens's
aptitude for this species of " letterpress." A member of the
firm of Chapman & Hall called upon him at Furnival's Inn in
December 1835 with a proposal that he should write about a
Nimrod Club of amateur sportsmen, foredoomed to perpetual
ignominies, while the comic illustrations were to be etched by
Seymour, a well-known rival of Cruikshank (the illustrator of
Boz). The offer -was too tempting for Dickens to refuse, but he
changed the idea from a club of Cockney sportsmen to that of a
club of eccentric peripatetics, on the sensible grounds, first that
sporting sketches were stale, and, secondly, that he knew nothing
worth speaking of about sport. The first seven pictures appeared
with the signature of Seymour and the letterpress of Dickens.
Before the eighth picture appeared Seymour had blown his brains
out. After a brief interval of Buss, Dickens obtained the services
of Hablot K. Browne, known to all as " Phiz." Author and
illustrator were as well suited to one another and to the common
creation of a unique thing as Gilbert and Sullivan. Having early
got rid of the sporting element, Dickens found himself at once.
The subject exactly suited his knowledge, his skill in arranging
incidents — nay, his very limitations too. No modern book is
so incalculable. We ccmmence laughing heartily at Pickwick
and his troupe. The laugh becomes kindlier. We are led on
through a tangle of adventure, never dreaming what is before us.
The landscape changes: Pickwick becomes the symbol of kind-
heartedness, simplicity and innocent levity. Suddenly in the Fleet
Prison a deeper note is struck. The medley of human relation-
ships, the loneliness, the mystery and sadness of human destinies
are fathomed. The tragedy of human life is revealed to us amid
its most farcical elements. The droll and laughable figure of the
hero is transfigured by the kindliness of human sympathy into
a beneficent and bespectacled angel in shorts and gaiters. By
defying accepted rules, Dickens had transcended the limited
sphere hitherto allotted to his art: he had produced a book to
be enshrined henceforth in the inmost hearts of all sorts and
conditions of his countrymen, and had definitely enlarged the
boundaries of English humour and English fiction. As for Mr
Pickwick, he is a fairy like Puck or Santa Claus, while his creator
is " the last of the mythologists and perhaps the greatest."

When The Pickwick Papers appeared in book form at the close
of 1837 Dickens's popular reputation was made. From the
appearance of Sam Weller in part v. the universal hunger for the
monthly parts had risen to a furore. The book was promptly
translated into French and German. The author had received
little assistance from press or critics, he had no influential con-
nexions, his class of subjects was such as to " expose him at the
outset to the fatal objections of vulgarity," yet in less than six
months from the appearance of the first number, as the Quarterly
Review almost ruefully admits, the whole reading world was
talking about the Pickwickians. The names of Winkle, Wardle,
Weller, Jingle, Snodgrass, Dodson & Fogg, were as familiar as

household words. Pickwick chintzes figured in the linendrapers"
windows, and Pickwick cigars in every tobacconist's; Weller
corduroys became the stock-in-trade of every breeches-maker;
Boz cabs might be seen rattling through the streets, and the
portrait of the author of Pelham and Crichton was scraped down
to make way for that of the new popular favourite on the omni-
buses. A new and original genius had suddenly sprung up, there
was no denying it, even though, as the Quarterly concluded, " it
required no gift of prophecy to foretell his fate — he has risen like
a rocket and he will come down like the stick." It would have
needed a very emphatic gift of prophecy indeed to foretell that
Dickens's reputation would have gone on rising until at the
present day (after one sharp fall, which reached an extreme
about 1887) it stands higher than it has ever stood before.

Dickens's assumption of the literary purple was as amazing as
anything else about him. Accepting the homage of the luminaries
of the literary, artistic and polite worlds as if it had been his
natural due, he arranges for the settlement of his family, decrees,
like another Edmund Kean, that his son is to go to Eton, carries
on the most complicated negotiations with his publishers and
editors, presides and orates with incomparable force at innumer-
able banquets, public and private, arranges elaborate villegiatures
in the country, at the seaside, in France or in Italy, arbitrates in
public on every topic, political, ethical, artistic, social or literary,
entertains and legislates for an increasingly large domestic circle,
both juvenile and adult, rules himself and his time-table with
a rod of iron. In his letter-writing alone, Dickens did a life's
literary work. Nowadays no one thinks of writing such letters;
that is to say, letters of such length and detail, for the quality is
Dickens's own. He evidently enjoyed this use of the pen. Page
after page of Forster's Life (750 pages in the Letters edited by
his daughter and sister-in-law) is occupied with transcription from
private correspondence, and never a line of this but is thoroughly
worthy of print and preservation. ^ If he makes a tour in any
part of the British Isles, he writes a full description of all he
sees, of everything that happens, and writes it with such gusto,
such mirth, such strokes of fine picturing, as appear in no other
private letters ever given to the public. Naturally buoyant in
all circumstances, a holiday gave him the exhilaration of a school-
boy. See how he writes from Cornwall, when on a trip with two
or three friends, in 1843. " Heavens ! if you could have seen the
necks of bottles, distracting in their immense variety of shape,
peering out of the carriage pockets ! If you could have witnessed
the deep devotion of the post-boys, the maniac glee of the waiters !
If you could have followed us into the earthy old churches we
visited, and into the strange caverns on the gloomy seashore, and
down into the depths of mines, and up to the tops of giddy heights,
where the unspeakably green water was roaring, I don't know
how many hundred feet below. ... I never laughed in my life
as I did on this journey. It would have done you good to hear
me. I was choking and gasping and bursting the buckles off the
back of my stock, all the way. And Stanfield " — the painter —
" got into such apoplectic entanglements that, we were obliged
to beat him on the back with portmanteaus before we could
recover him."

The animation of Dickens's look would attract the attention
of any one, anywhere. His figure was not that of an Adonis, but
his brightness made him the centre and pivot of every society
he was in. The keenness and vivacity of his eye combined with
his inordinate appetite for life to give the unique quality to all
that he wrote. His instrument is that of the direct, sinewy
English of Smollett, combined with much of the humorous grace
of Goldsmith (his two favourite authors), but modernized to a
certain extent under the influence of Washington Irving, Sydney
Smith, Jeffrey, Lamb, and other writers of the London Magazine.
He taught himself to speak French and Italian, but he could have
read little in any language. His ideas were those of the inchoate
and insular liberalism of the 'thirties. His unique force in
literature he was to owe to no supreme artistic or intellectual
quality, but almost entirely to his inordinate gift of observation,
his sympathy with the humble, his power over the emotions
and his incomparable endowment of unalloyed human fun. To

DICKENS

181

contemporaries he was not so much a man as an institution, at
the very mention of whose name faces were puckered with grins
or wreathed in smiles. To many his work was a revelation, the
revelation of a new world and one far better than their own.
And his influence went further than this in the direction of
revolution or revival. It gave what were then universally referred
to as " the lower orders " a new sense of self-respect, a new
feeling of citizenship. Like the defiance of another Luther, or the
Declaration of a new Independence, it emitted a fresh ray of hope
across the firmament. He did for the whole English-speaking
race what Burns had done for Scotland — he gave it a new
conceit of itself. He knew what a people wanted and he told
what he knew. He could do this better than anybody else
because his mind was theirs. He shared many of their " great
useless virtues," among which generosity ranks before justice, and
sympathy before truth, even though, true to his middle-class vein,
he exalts piety, chastity and honesty in a manner somewhat alien
to the mind of the low-bred man. This is what makes Dickens
such a demigod and his public success such a marvel, and this
also is why any exclusively literary criticism of his work is bound
to be so inadequate. It should also help us to make the necessary
allowances for the man. Dickens, even the Dickens of legend
that we know, is far from perfect. The Dickens of reality to
which Time may furnish a nearer approximation is far less
perfect. But when we consider the corroding influence of adula-
tion, and the intoxication of unbridled success, we cannot but
wonder at the relatively high level of moderation and self-control
that Dickens almost invariably observed. Mr G. K. Chesterton
remarks suggestively that Dickens had all his life the faults of
the little boy who is kept up too late at night. He is overwrought
by happiness to the verge of exasperation, and yet as a matter
of fact he does keep on the right side of the breaking point. The
specific and curative in his case was the work in which he took
such anxious pride, and such unmitigated delight. He revelled
in punctual and regular work; at his desk he was often in the
highest spirits. Behold how he pictured himself, one day at
BroadstairS, where he was writing Chuzzlewit. " In a bay-
window in a one-pair sits, from nine o'clock to one, a gentleman
with rather long hair and no neckcloth, who writes and grins, as
if he thought he was very funny indeed. At one he disappears,
presently emerges from a bathing-machine, and may be seen,
a kind of salmon-colour porpoise, splashing about in the ocean.
After that, he may be viewed in another bay-window on the
ground-floor eating a strong lunch; and after that, walking a
dozen miles or so, or lying on his back on the sand reading a book.
Nobody bothers him, unless they know he is disposed to be
talked to, and I am told he is very comfortable indeed. He's as
brown as a berry, and they do say he is as good as a small fortune
to the innkeeper, who sells beer and cold punch." Here is the
secret of such work as that of Dickens; it is done with delight —
done (in a sense) easily, done with the mechanism of mind and
body in splendid order. Even so did Scott write ; though more
rapidly and with less conscious care: his chapter finished before
the world had got up to breakfast. Later, Dickens produced
novels less excellent with much more of mental strain. The
effects of age could not have shown themselves so soon, but
for the unfortunate loss of energy involved in his non-literary
labours.

While the public were still rejoicing in the first sprightly
runnings of the " new humour," the humorist set to work
desperately on the grim scenes of Oliver Twist, the story of a
parish orphan, the nucleus of which had already seen the light
in his Sketches. The early scenes are of a harrowing reality,
despite the germ of forced pathos which the observant reader may
detect in the pitiful parting between Oliver and little Dick; but
what will strike every reader at once in this book is the direct-
ness and power of the English style, so nervous and unadorned:
from its unmistakable clearness and vigour Dickens was to travel
far as time went on. But the full effect of the old simplicity is
felt in such masterpieces of description as the drive of Oliver and
Sikes to Chertsey, the condemned-cell ecstasy of Fagin, or the
unforgettable first encounter between Oliver and the Artful

Dodger. Before November 1837 had ended, Charles Dickens
entered on an engagement to write a successor to Pickwick on
similar lines of publication. Oliver Twist was then in mid-career;
a Life of Grimaldi and Barnaby Ritdge were already covenanted
for. Dickens forged ahead with the new tale of Nicholas Nickleby
and was justified by the results, for its sale far surpassed even
that of Pickwick. As a conception it is one of his weakest. An
unmistakably 18th-century character pervades it. Some of the
vignettes are among the most piquant and besetting ever written.
Large parts of it are totally unobserved conventional melo-
drama; but the Portsmouth Theatre and Dotheboys Hall and
Mrs Nickleby (based to some extent, it is thought, upon Miss
Bates in Emma, but also upon the author's Mamma) live for ever
as Dickens conceived them in the pages of Nicholas Nickleby.

Having got rid of Nicholas Nickleby and resigned his editor-
ship of Bentley's Miscellany, in which Oliver Twist originally
appeared, Dickens conceived the idea of a weekly periodical to
be issued as Master Humphrey's Clock, to comprise short stories,
essays and miscellaneous papers, after the model of Addison's
Spectator. To make the weekly numbers " go," he introduced
Mr Pickwick, Sam Weller and his father in friendly intercourse.
But the public requisitioned " a story," and in No. 4 he had
to brace himself up to give them one. Thus was commenced
The Old Curiosity Shop, which was continued with slight inter-
ruptions, and followed by Barnaby Rudge. For the first time
we find Dickens obsessed by a highly complicated plot. The
tonality achieved in The Old Curiosity Shop surpassed anything
he had attempted in this difficult vein, while the rich humour of
Dick Swiveller and the Marchioness, and the vivid portraiture
of the wandering Bohemians, attain the very highest level of
Dickensian drollery; but in the lamentable tale of Little Nell
(though Landor and Jeffrey thought the character-drawing of
this infant comparable with that of Cordelia), it is generally
admitted that he committed an indecent assault upon the
emotions by exhibiting a veritable monster of piety and long-
suffering in a child of tender years. In Barnaby Rudge he was
manifestly affected by the influence of Scott, whose achievements
he always regarded with a touching veneration. The plot, again,
is of the utmost complexity, and Edgar Allan Poe (who predicted
the conclusion) must be one of the few persons who ever really
mastered it. But few of Dickens's books are written in a more
admirable style.

Master Humphrey's Clock concluded, Dickens started in 1842
on his first visit to America — an episode hitherto without parallel
in English literary history, for he was received everywhere with
popular acclamation as the representative of a grand triumph
of the English language and imagination, without regard to
distinctions of nationality. He offended the American public
grievously by a few words of frank description and a few
quotations of the advertisement columns of American papers
illustrating the essential barbarity of the old slave system
(American Notes) . Dickens was soon pining for home — no English
writer is more essentially and insularly English in inspiration
and aspiration than he is. He still brooded over the perverseness
of America on the copyright question, and in his next book he
took the opportunity of uttering a few of his impressions about
the objectionable sides of American democracy, the result being
that " all Yankee-doodle-dom blazed up like one universal soda
bottle," as Carlyle said. Martin Chuzzlewit (1843-1844) is import-
ant as closing his great character period. His sew originale, as the
French would say, was by this time to a considerable extent
exhausted, and he had to depend more upon artistic elaboration,
upon satires, upon tours de force of description, upon romantic
and ingenious contrivances. But all these resources combined
proved unequal to his powers as an original observer of popular
types, until he reinforced himself by autobiographic reminiscence,
as in David Copperfield and Great Expectations, the two great
books remaining to his later career.

After these two masterpieces and the three wonderful books
with which he made his debut, we are inclined to rank Chuzzlewit.
Nothing in Dickens is more admirably seen and presented than
Todgers's, a bit of London particular cut out with a knife. Mr

182

DICKENS

Pecksniff and Mrs Gamp, Betsy Prig and " Mrs Harris " have
passed into the national language and life. The coach journey,
the windy autumn night, the stealthy trail of Jonas, the under-
tone of tragedy in the Charity and Mercy and Chuffey episodes
suggest a blending of imaginative vision and physical penetration
hardly seen elsewhere. Two things are specially notable about
this novel — the exceptional care taken over it (as shown by the
interlineations in the MS.) and the caprice or nojichalance of
the purchasing public, its sales being far lower than those of
any of its monthly predecessors.

At the close of 1843, to pay outstanding debts of his now
lavish housekeeping, he wrote that pioneer of Christmas numbers,
that national benefit as Thackeray called it, A Christmas Carol.
It failed to realize his pecuniary anticipations, and Dickens
resolved upon a drastic policy of retrenchment and reform.
He would save expense by living abroad and would punish his
publishers by withdrawing his custom from them, at least for a
time. Like everything else upon which he ever determined, this
resolution was carried out with the greatest possible precision and
despatch. In June 1844 he set out for Marseilles with his now
rapidly increasing family (the journey cost him £200). In a villa
on the outskirts of Genoa he wrote The Chimes, which, during a
brief excursion to London before Christmas, he read to a select
circle of friends (the germ of his subsequent lecture-audiences),
including Forster, Carlyle, Stanfield, Dyce, Maclise and Jerrold.
He was again in London in 1845, enjoying his favourite diversion
of private theatricals; and in January 1846 he experimented
briefly as the editor of a London morning paper — the Daily
News. By early spring he was back at Lausanne, writing his
customary vivid letters to his friends, craving as usual for
London streets, commencing Dombey and Son, and walking his
fourteen miles daily. The success of Dombey and Son completely
rehabilitated the master's finances, enabled him to return to
England, send his son to Eton and to begin to save money.
Artistically it is less satisfactory; it contains some of Dickens's
prime curios, such as Cuttle, Bunsby, Toots, Blimber, Pipchin,
Mrs MacStinger and young Biler; it contains also that master-
piece of sentimentality which trembles upon the borderland
of the sublime and the ridiculous, the death of Paul Dombey
(" that sweet Paul," as Jeffrey, the " critic laureate," called him),
and some grievous and unquestionable blemishes. As a narrative,
moreover, it tails off into a highly complicated and exacting plot.
It was followed by a long rest at Broadstairs before Dickens
returned to the native home of his genius, and early in 1849
" began to prepare for David Copperfield. "

" Of all my books," Dickens wrote, " I like this the best; like
many fond parents I have my favourite child, and his name is
David Copperfield." In some respects it stands to Dickens in
something of the same relation in which the contemporary
Pendennis stands to Thackeray. As in that book, too, the earlier
portions are the best. They gained in intensity by the auto-
biographical form into which they are thrown; as Thackeray
observed, there was no writing against such power. The tragedy
of Emily and the character of Rosa Dartle are stagey and unreal;
Uriah Heep is bad art; Agnes, again, is far less convincing
as a consolation than Dickens would have us believe; but these
are more than compensated by the wonderful realization
of early boyhood in the book, by the picture of Mr Creakle's
school, the Peggottys, the inimitable Mr Micawber, Betsy Trot-
wood and that monument of selfish misery, Mrs Gummidge.

At the end of March 1850 commenced the new twopenny
weekly called Household Words, which Dickens planned to form
a direct means of communication between himself and his
readers, and as a means of collecting around him and encouraging
the talents of the younger generation. No one was better quali-
fied than he for this work, whether we consider his complete
freedom from literary jealousy or his magical gift of inspiring
young authors. Following the somewhat dreary and incoherent
Bleak House of 1852, Hard Times (1854) — an anti-Manchester
School tract, which Ruskin regarded as Dickens's best work — was
the first long story written for Household Words. About this
time Dickens made his final home at Gad's Hill, near Rochester,

and put the finishing touch to another long novel published upon
the old plan, Little Dorrit (1855-1857). In spite of the exquisite
comedy of the master of the Marshalsea and the final tragedy
of the central figure, Little Dorrit is sadly deficient in the old
vitality, the humour is often a mock reality, and the repetition
of comic catch-words and overstrung similes and metaphors is
such as to affect the reader with nervous irritation. The plot
and characters ruin each other in this amorphous production.
The Tale of Two Cities, commenced in All the Year Round (the
successor of Household Words) in 1859, is much better: the main
characters are powerful, the story genuinely tragic, and the
atmosphere lurid; but enormous labour was everywhere ex-
pended upon the construction of stylistic ornament.

The Tale of Two Cities was followed by two finer efforts at
atmospheric delineation, the best things he ever did of this kind:
Great Expectations (1861), over which there broods the mournful
impression of the foggy marshes of the Lower Thames; and Our
Mutual Friend (1864-1865), in which the ooze and mud and
slime of Rotherhithe, its boatmen and loafers, are made to per-
vade the whole book with cumulative effect. The general effect
produced by the stories is, however, very different. In the first
case, the foreground was supplied by autobiographical material
of the most vivid interest, and the lucidity of the creative impulse
impelled .him to write upon this occasion with the old simplicity,,
though with an added power. Nothing therefore, in the whole
range of Dickens surpassed the early chapters of Great Expecta-
tions in perfection of technique or in mastery of all the resources
of the novelist's art. To have created Abel Magwitch alone is to
be a god indeed, says Mr Swinburne, among the creators of death-
less men. Pumblechook is actually better and droller and truer
to imaginative life than Pecksniff; Joe Gargery is worthy to have
been praised and loved at once by Fielding and by Sterne: Mr
Jaggers and his ch'ents, Mr Wemmick and his parent and his
bride, are such figures as Shakespeare, when dropping out of
poetry, might have created, if his lot had been cast in a later
century. " Can as much be said," Mr Swinburne boldly asks,
" for the creatures of any other man or god ? "

In November 1867 Dickens made a second expedition to
America, leaving all the writing that he was ever to complete be-
hind him. He was to make a round sum of money, enough to free
him from all embarrassments, by a long series of exhausting read-
ings, commencing at the Tremont Temple, Boston, on the 2nd of
December. The strain of Dickens's ordinary life was so tense and
so continuous that it is, perhaps, rash to assume that he broke
down eventually under this particular stress; for other reasons,
however, his persistence in these readings, subsequent to his
return, was strongly deprecated by his literary friends, led by
the arbitrary and relentless Forster. It is a long testimony to
Dickens's self-restraint, even in his most capricious and despotic
moments, that he never broke the cord of obligation which bound
him to his literary mentor, though sparring matches between them
were latterly of frequent occurrence. His farewell reading was
given on the isth of March 1870, at St James's Hall. He then
vanished from " those garish lights," as he called them, " for
evermore." Of the three brief months that remained to him,
his last book, The Mystery of Edwin Drood, was the chief occupa-
tion. It hardly promised to become a masterpiece (Longfellow's
opinion) as did Thackeray's Denis Duval, but contained much fine
descriptive technique, grouped round a scene of which Dickens
had an unrivalled sympathetic knowledge.

In March and April 1870 Dickens, as was his wont, was mixing
in the best society; he dined with the prince at Lord Houghton's
and was twice at court, once at a long deferred private interview
with the queen, who had given him a presentation copy of her
Leaves from a Journal of our Life in the Highlands with the
inscription " From one of the humblest of authors to one of the
greatest "; and who now begged him on his persistent refusal
of any other title to accept the nominal distinction of a privy
councillor. He took for four months the Milner Gibsons' house
at 5 Hyde Park Place, opposite the Marble Arch, where he gave
a brilliant reception on the 7th of April. His last public appear-
ance was made at the Royal Academy banquet early in May.

DICKENS

183

He returned to his regular methodical routine of work at Gad's
Hill on the 3oth of May, and one of the last instalments he wrote
of Edwin Drood contained an ominous speculation as to the next
two people to die at Cloisterham: " Curious to make a guess at
the two, or say at one of the two." Two letters bearing the well-
known superscription " Gad's Hill Place, Higham by Rochester,
Kent " are dated the 8th of June, and, on the same Thursday, after
a long spell of writing in the Chalet where he habitually wrote,
he collapsed suddenly at dinner. Startled by the sudden change
in the colour and expression of his face, his sister-in-law (Miss
Hogarth) asked him if he was ill; he said " Yes, very ill," but
added that he would finish dinner and go on afterwards to London.
" Come and lie down," she entreated; " Yes, on the ground,"
he said, very distinctly; these were the last words he spoke, and
he slid from her arms and fell upon the floor. He died at 6-10 P.M.
on Friday, the gth of June, and was buried privately in Poets'
Corner, Westminster Abbey, in the early morning of the i4th of
June. One of the most appealing memorials was the drawing
by his " new illustrator " Luke Fildes in the Graphic of " The
Empty Chair; Gad's Hill: ninth of June, 1870." " Statesmen,
men of science, philanthropists, the acknowledged benefactors of
their race, might pass away, and yet not leave the void which will
be caused by the death of Charles Dickens " (The Times). In
his will he enjoined his friends to erect no monument in his
honour, and directed his name and dates only to be inscribed on
his tomb, adding this proud provision, " I rest my claim to
the remembrance of my country on my published works."

Dickens had no artistic ideals worth speaking about. The
sympathy of his readers was the one thing he cared about and,
like Cobbett, he went straight for it through the avenue of the
emotions. In personality, intensity and range of creative genius
he can hardly be said to have any modern rival. His creations
live, move and have their being about us constantly, like those
of Homer, Virgil, Chaucer, Rabelais, Cervantes, Shakespeare,
Btmyan, Moliere and Sir Walter Scott. As to the books them-
selves, the backgrounds on which these mighty figures are pro-
jected, they are manifestly too vast, too chaotic and too unequal
ever to become classics. Like most of the novels constructed upon
the unreformed model of Smollett and Fielding, those of Dickens
are enormous stock-pots into which the author casts every kind
of autobiographical experience, emotion, pleasantry, anecdote,
adage or apophthegm. The fusion is necessarily very incomplete
and the hotch-potch is bound to fall to pieces with time.
Dickens's plots, it must be admitted, are strangely unintelligible,
the repetitions and stylistic decorations of his work exceed
all bounds, the form is unmanageable and insignificant. The
diffuseness of the English novel, in short, and its extravagant
didacticism cannot fail to be most prejudicial to its perpetuation.
In these circumstances there is very little fiction that will stand
concentration and condensation so well as that of Dickens.

For these reasons among others our interest in Dickens's novels
as integers has diminished and is diminishing. But, on the other
hand, our interest and pride in him as a man and as a repre-
sentative author of his age and nation has been steadily augmented
and is still mounting. Much of the old criticism of his work, that
it was not up to a sufficiently high level of art, scholarship or
gentility, that as an author he is given to caricature, redundancy
and a shameless subservience to popular caprice, must now be
discarded as irrelevant.

As regards forn T.1 excellence it is plain that Dickens labours
under the double disadvantage of writing in the least disciplined
of all literary genres ir the most lawless literary milieu of the
modern world, that of \'ictorian England. In spite of these
defects, which are those of masters such as Rabelais, Hugo and
Tolstoy, the work of Dickens is more and more instinctively felt
to be true, original and ennobling. It is already beginning to
undergo a process of automatic s. if ting, segregation and crystalliza-
tion, at the conclusion of which it will probably occupy a larger
segment in the literary conscious ness of the English-spoken race
than ever before.

Portraits of Dickens, from the ^ay and alert " Boz " of Samuel
Lawrence, and the self-consciou , rather foppish portrait by

Maclise which served as frontispiece to Nicholas Nickleby, to
the sketch of him as Bobadil by C. R. Leslie, the Drummond and
Ary Scheffer portraits of middle age and the haggard and drawn
representations of him from photographs after his shattering
experiences as a public entertainer from 1856 (the year of his
separation from his wife) onwards, are reproduced in Kitton, in
Forster and Gissing and in the other biographies. Sketches are
also given in most of the books of his successive dwelling places
at Ordnance Terrace and 18 St Mary's Place, Chatham; Bayham
Street, Camden Town; 15 FurnivaPs Inn; 48 Doughty Street;
i Devonshire Terrace, Regent's Park; Tavistock House,
Tavistock Square; and Gad's Hill Place. The manuscripts of all
the novels, with the exception of the Tale of Two Cities and
Edwin Drood, were given to Forster, and are now preserved in the
Dyce and Forster Museum at South Kensington. The work of
Dickens was a prize for which publishers naturally contended both
before and after his death. The first collective edition of his
works was begun in April 1847, and their number is now very
great. The most complete is still that of Messrs Chapman &
Hall, the original publishers of Pickwick; others of special
interest are the Harrap edition, originally edited by F. G. Kitton;
Macmillan's edition with original illustrations and introduction
by Charles Dickens the younger; and the edition in the World's
Classics with introductions by G. K. Chesterton. Of the transla-
tions the best known is that done into French by Lorain, Pichot
and others, with B.H. Gausseron's excellent Pages Choisies (1903).

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — During his lifetime Dickens's biographer was
clearly indicated in his guide, philosopher and friend, John Forster,
who had known the novelist intimately since the days of his first
triumph with Pickwick, who had constituted himself a veritable
encyclopaedia of information about Dickens, and had clung to his
subject (in spite of many rebuffs which his peremptory temper found
it hard to digest) as tightly as ever Boswell had enveloped Johnson.
Two volumes of Forster's Life of Charles Dickens appeared in 1872
and a third in 1874. He relied much on Dickens's letters to himself
and produced trifl^ must always remain the authoritative work.
The first two volumes are put together with much art, the portrait
as a whole has been regarded as truthful, and the immediate success
was extraordinary. In the opinion of Carlyle, Forster's book was not
unworthy to be named after that of Boswell. A useful abridgment
was carried out in 1903 by the novelist George Gissing. Gissing also
wrote Charles Dickens: A Critical Study (1898), which ranks with
G.K.Chesterton's Charles Didkens(i<)o6)as a commentary inspired by
deep insight and adorned by great literary talent upon the genius of
the master-novelist. The names of other lives, sketches, articles and
estimates of Dickens and his works would occupy a large volume in
the mere enumeration. See R. H. Shepherd, The Bibliography of
Dickens (1880) ; James Cqoke's Bibliography of the Writings of Charles
Dickens (1879); Dickensiana, by F. G. Kitton (1886); and Biblio-
graphy by J. P. Anderson, appended to Sir F. T. Marzials's Life of
Charles Dickens (1887). Among the earlier sketches may be specially
cited the lives by I. C. Hotten and G. A. Sala (1870), the Anecdote-
Biography edited by the American R. H. Stoddard (1874), Dr A. W.
Ward in the English Men of Letters Series (1878), that by Sir Leslie
Stephen in the Dictionary of National Biography, and that by Pro-
fessor Minto in the eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
The Letters were first issued in two volumes edited by his daughter
and sister-in-law in 1880. For Dickens's connexion with Kent the
following books are specially valuable : — ^Robert Langton's Childhood
and Youth of Charles Dickens (1883) ; Langton s Dickens and
Rochester (1880); Thomas Frost's In Kent with Charles Dickens
(1880); F. G. Kitten's The Dickens Country (1905); H. S. Ward's
The Real Dickens Land (1004) ; R. Allbut's Rambles in Dickens Land
(1899 and 1903). For Dickens's reading tours see G. Dolby's
Charles Dickens as I knew him (1884) ; J. T. Fields's In and Out of
Doors with Charles Dickens (1876); Charles Kent's Dickens as a
Reader (1872). And for other aspects of his life see M. Dickens's My
Father as I recall him (1807) ; P. H. Fitzgerald's Life of C. Dickens as
revealed in his Writings (1905), and Bozland (1895); F. G. Kitton's
Charles Dickens, his Life, Writings and Personality, a useful compen-
dium (1902); T. E. Pemberton's Charles Dickens and the Stage, and
Dickens's London (1876) ; F. Miltoun's Dickens's London (1904) ;
Kitton's Dickens and his Illustrators; W. Teignmouth Shore's Charles
Dickens and his Friends (1904 and 1909); B. W. Matz, Story of
Dickens's Life and Work (1904), and review of solutions to Edwin
Drood in The Bookman for March 1908 ; the recollections of Edmund
Yates, Trollope, James Payn, Lehmann, R. H. Home, Lockwood
and many others. The Dickensian, a magazine devoted to Dickensian
subjects, was started in 1905; it is the organ of the Dickens Fellow-
ship, and in a sense of the Boz Club. A Dickens Dictionary (by G. A.
Pierce) appeared in 1872 and 1878 ; another (by A. J. Philip) in 1909 ;
and a Dickens Concordance by Mary Williams in 1907. (T. SE.)

184

DICKINSON, A. E.— DICKSON, J. R.

DICKINSON, ANNA ELIZABETH (1842- ), American
author and lecturer, was born, of Quaker parentage, at
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 28th of October 1842. She
was educated at the Friends' Free School in Philadelphia, and
was for a time a teacher. In 1861 she obtained a clerkship in the
United States mint, but was removed for criticizing General
McClellan at a public meeting. She had gradually become
widely known as an eloquent and persuasive public speaker, one
of the first of her sex to mount the platform to discuss the burning
questions of the hour. Before the Civil War she lectured on
anti-slavery topics, during the warshe toured the country on behalf
of the Sanitary Commission, and also lectured on reconstruction,
temperance and woman's rights. She wrote several plays, in-
cluding The Crown of Thorns (1876) ; Mary Tudor (1878), in which
she appeared in the title role; Aurelian (1878) ; and An American
Girl (1880), successfully acted by Fanny Davenport. She also
published a novel, Which Answer? (1868); A Paying Investment,
a Plea for Education (1876); and A Ragged Register of People,
Places and Opinions (1879).

DICKINSON, JOHN (1732-1808), American statesman and
pamphleteer, was born in Talbot county, Maryland, on the 8th
of November 1732. He removed with his father to Kent county,
Delaware, in 1740, studied under private tutors, read law, and in
1753 entered the Middle Temple, London. Returning to America
in 1757, he began the practice of law in Philadelphia, was speaker
of the Delaware assembly in 1760, and was a member of the
Pennsylvania assembly in 1762-1765 and again in I77&-I776.1
He represented Pennsylvania in the Stamp Act Congress (1765)
and in the Continental Congress from 1774 to 1776, when he
was defeated owing to his opposition to the Declaration of
Independence. He then retired to Delaware, served for a time
as private and later as brigadier-general in the state militia, and
was again a member of the Continental Congress (from Delaware)
in 1 7 79-1 780. He was president of the executive council, or chief
executive officer, of Delaware in 1781-1782, and of Pennsylvania
in 1782—1783, and was a delegate from Delaware to the Annapolis
convention of 1786 and the Federal Constitutional convention
of 1787. Dickinson has aptly been called the " Penman of the
Revolution." No other writer of the day presented arguments so
numerous, so timely and so popular. He drafted the " Declara-
tion of Rights " of the Stamp Act Congress, the " Petition to the
King" and the "Address to the Inhabitants of Quebec" of the
congress of 1774, and the second "Petition to the King"2 and
the "Articles of Confederation" of the second Congress. Most
influential of all, however, were The Letters of a Farmer in
Pennsylvania, written in 1767-1768 in condemnation of the
Townshend Acts of 1767, in which he rejected speculative
natural rights theories and appealed to the common sense of
the people through simple legal arguments. By opposing the
Declaration of Independence, he lost his popularity and was never
able entirely to regain it. As the representative of a small state,
he championed the principle of state equality in the constitu-
tional convention, but was one of the first to advocate the
compromise, which was finally adopted, providing for equal
representation, in one house and proportional representation in
the other. He was probably influenced by Delaware prejudice
against Pennsylvania when he drafted the clause which forbids
the creation of a new state by the junction of two or more states
or parts of states without the consent of the states concerned as
well as of congress. After the adjournment of the convention he
defended its work in a series of letters signed " Fabius," which
will bear comparison with- the best of the Federalist productions.
It was largely through his influence that Delaware and
Pennsylvania were the first two states to ratify the Constitution.
Dickinson's interests were not exclusively political. He helped
to found Dickinson College (named in his honour) at Carlisle,
Pennsylvania, in 1783, was the first president of its board of

1 Being under -the same proprietor and the same governor,
Pennsylvania and Delaware were so closely connected before the
Revolution that there was an interchange of public men.

* The " Declaration of the United Colonies of North America . . .
setting forth the Causes and the Necessity of their Taking up Arms "
(often erroneously attributed to Thomas Jefferson).

trustees, and was for many years its chief benefactor. He died
on the 1 4th of February 1808 and was buried in the Friends'
burial ground in Wilmington, Del.

See C. J. Stille, Life and Times of John Dickinson, and P. L. Ford
(editor), The Writings of John Dickinson, in yols. xiii. and xiv.
respectively of the Memoirs of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania
(Philadelphia, 1891 and 1895).

DICKSON, SIR ALEXANDER (I777-i84o), British artillerist,
entered the Royal Military Academy in 1793, passing out as
second lieutenant in the Royal Artillery in the following year.
As a subaltern he saw service in Minorca in 1798 and at Malta in
1800. As a captain he took part in the unfortunate Montevideo
Expedition of 1806-07, and m J8o9 he accompanied_Howorth
to the Peninsular War as brigade-major of the artillery. He soon
obtained a command in the Portuguese artillery, and as a
lieutenant-colonel of the Portuguese service took part in the
various battles of 1810-11. At the two sieges of Budazoz,
Ciudad Rodrigo, the Salamanca forts and Burgos, he was
entrusted by Wellington (who had the highest opinion of him)
with most of the detailed artillery work, and at Salamanca battle
he commanded the reserve artillery. In the end he became
commander of the whole of the artillery of the allied army, and
though still only a substantive captain in the British service he
had under his orders some 8000 men. At Vitoria, the Pyrenees
battles and Toulouse he directed the movements of the artillery
engaged, and at the end of the war received handsome presents
from the officers who had served under him, many of whom were
his seniors in the army list. He was at the disastrous affair of
New Orleans, but returned to Europe in time for the Waterloo
campaign. He was present at Quatre Bras and Waterloo on the
artillery staff of Wellington's army, and subsequently commanded
the British battering train at the sieges of the French fortresses
left behind the advancing allies. For the rest of his life he was on
home service, principally as a staff officer of artillery. He died,
a major-general and G.C.B.,'in 1840. A memorial was erected at
Woolwich in 1847. Dickson was one of the earliest fellows of the
Royal Geographical Society.

His diaries kept in the Peninsula were the main source of informa-
tion used in Duncan's History of the Royal Artillery.

DICKSON, SIR JAMES ROBERT (1832-1901), Australian
statesman, was born in Plymouth on the 3Oth of November 1832.
He was brought up in Glasgow, receiving his education at the
high school, and became a clerk in the City of Glasgow Bank.
In 1854 he emigrated to Victoria, but after some years spent
in that colony and in New South Wales, he settled in 1862 in
Queensland, where he was connected with many important
business enterprises, among them the Royal Bank of Queensland.
He entered the Queensland House of Assembly in 1872, and
became minister of works (1876), treasurer (1876-1879, and 1883-
1887), acting premier (1884), but resigned in 1887 on the question
of taxing land. In 1889 he retired from business, and spent three
years in Europe before resuming political life. He fought for
the introduction of Polynesian labour on the Queensland sugar
plantations at the general election of 1892, and wastelected to the
House of Assembly in that year and again at the elections of 1893
and 1896. He became secretary for railways in 1897, minister for
home affairs in 1898, represented Queensland in the federal
council of Australia in 1896 and at the postal conference at
Hobart in 1898, and in 1898 became premier. His energies were
now devoted to the formation of an Australian commonwealth.
He secured the reference of the question to a plebiscite, the result
of which justified his anticipations. He resigned the premiership
in November 1899, but in the ministry of Robert Philip, formed
in the next month, he was reappo-lnted to the offices of chief
secretary and vice-president of the executive council which he had
combined with the office of premier. He represented Queensland
in 1900 at the conference held in Ijondon to consider the question
of Australian unity, and on his return was appointed minister of
defence in the first government of the Australian Commonwealth.
He did not long survive the ace jmplishment of his political aims,
dying at Sydney on the toth of January 1901, in the midst of
the festivities attending the ii 'auguration of the new state.

DICOTYLEDONS— DICTATOR

185

DICOTYLEDONS, in botany, the larger of the two great classes
of angiosperms, embracing most of the common flower -bearing
plants. The name expresses the most universal character of ihe
class, the importance of which was first noticed by John Ray,
namely, the presence of a pair of seed-leaves or cotyledons, in
the plantlet or embryo contained in the seed. The embryo is
generally surrounded by a larger or smaller amount of foodstuff
(endosperm) which serves to nourish it in its development to
form a seedling when the seed germinates; frequently, however,
as in pea or bean and their allies, the whole of the nourishment for
future use is stored up in the cotyledons themselves, which then
become thick and fleshy. In germination of the seed the root of
the embryo (radicle) grows out to get a holdfast for the plant;
this is generally followed by the growth of the short stem
immediately above the root, the so-called " hypocotyl," which
carries up the cotyledons above the ground, where they spread
to the light and become the first green leaves of the plant.
Protected between the cotyledons and terminating the axis of the
plant is the first stem-bud (the plumule of the embryo), by the
further growth and development of which the aerial portion of
the plant, consisting of stem, leaves and branches, is formed,
while the development of the radicle forms the root-system.
The size and manner of growth of the adult plant show a great
variety, from the small herb lasting for one season only, to the
forest tree living for centuries. The arrangement of the conduct-
ing tissue in the stem is characteristic; a transverse section of
the very young stem shows a nunber of distinct conducting
strands — vascular bundles — arranged in a ring round the pith;
these soon become united to form a closed ring of bast and
wood, separated by a layer of formative lissue (cambium). In
perennials the stem shows a regular increase in thickness each
year by the addition of a new ring of wood outside the old one
— for details of structure see PLANTS : A natomy. A similar growth
occurs in the root. This increase in the diameter of stem and root
is correlated with the increase in leaf -area each season, due to the
continued production of new leal -bearing branches. A character-
istic of the class is afforded by the complicated network formed
by the leaf -veins, — well seen in a skeleton leaf, from which the soft
parts have been removed by maceration. The parts of the
flower are most frequently arranged in fives, or multiples of fives;
for instance, a common arrangement is as follows, — five sepals,
succeeded by five petals, ten stamens in two sets of five, and five
or fewer carpels; an arrangement in fours is less frequent, while
the arrangement in threes, so common in monocotyledons, is rare
in dicotyledons. In some orders the parts are numerous, chiefly
in the case of the stamens and the carpels, as in the buttercup and
other members of the order Ranunculaceae. There is a very wide
range in the general structure and arrangement of the parts of the
flower, associated with the means for ensuring the transference of
pollen; in the simplest cases the flower consists only of a few
stamens or carpels, with no enveloping sepals or petals, as in the
willow, while in the more elaborate type each series is represented,
the whole forming a complicated structure closely correlated
with the size, form and habits of the pollinating agent (see
FLOWER). The characters of the fruit and seed and the means
for ensuring the dispersal of the seeds are also very varied (see
FRUIT).

DICTATOR (from the Lat. diclarc, frequentative of dicere, to
speak). In modern usage this term is loosely used for a personal
ruler enjoying extraordinary and extra-constitutional power.
The etymological sense of one who " dictates " — i.e. one whose
word (dictum) is law (from which that of one who " dictates," i.e.
speaks for some writer to record, is to be distinguished) — has
been assisted by the historical use of the term, in ancient times,
for an extraordinary magistrate in the Roman commonwealth.
It is unknown precisely how the Roman word .came into use,
though an explanation of the earlier official title, magister popidi,
throws some light on the subject. That designation may mean
" head of the (infantry) host " as opposed to his subordinate, the
magister equitum, who was " head of the cavalry." If this explana-
tion be accepted, emphasis was thus laid in early times on the
military aspect of the dictatorship, and in fact the office seems to

have been instituted for the purpose of meeting a military crisis
such as might have proved too serious for the annual consuls with
their divided command. Later constitutional theory held that
the repression of civil discord was also one of the motives for the
institution of a dictatorship. Such is the view expressed by
Cicero in the De legibus (iii. 3, 9) and by the emperor Claudius
in his extant Oratio (i. 28). This function of the office, although
it may not have been contemplated at first, is attested by
the internal history of Rome. In the crisis of the agitation that
gathered round the Licinian laws (367 B.C.) a dictator was ap-
pointed, and in 314 B.C. we have the notice of a dictator created
for purposes of criminal jurisdiction (quaestionibus exercendis).
The dictator appointed to meet the dangers of war, sedition or
crime was technically described as " the administrative dictator "
(rei gerundae causa) . Minor, or merely formal, needs of the state
might lead to the creation of other types of this office. Thus we
find dictators destined to hold the elections, to make out the list
of the senate, to celebrate games, to establish festivals, and to
drive the nail into the temple of Jupiter — an act of natural
magic which was believed to avert pestilence. These dictators
appointed for minor purposes were expected to retire from office
as soon as their function was completed. The " administrative
dictator " held office for at least six months.

The powers of a dictator were a temporary revival of those
of the kings; but there were some limitations to his authority.
He was never concerned with civil jurisdiction, and was
dependent on the senate for supplies of money. His military
authority was confined to Italy; and his power of life and death
over the citizens was at an early period limited by law. It was
probably the lex Valeria of 300 B.C. that made him subject to the
right of criminal appeal (provocatio) within the limits of the city.
But during his tenure of power all the magistrates of the people
were regarded as his subordinates; and it was even held that
the right of assistance (auxilium), furnished by the tribunes of the
plebs to members of the citizen body, should not be effectively
exercised when the state was under this type of martial law. The
dictator was nominated by one of the consuls. But here as else-
where the senate asserted its authority over the magistrates, and
the view was finally held that the senate should not only suggest
the need of nomination but also the name of the nominee. After
the nomination, the imperium of the dictator was confirmed by
a lex curiata (see COMITIA). To emphasize the superiority of this
imperium over that of the consuls, the dictator might be preceded
by twenty-four lictors, not by the usual twelve; and, at least in
the earlier period of the office, these lictors bore the axes, the
symbols of life and death, within the city walls.

Tradition represents the dictatorship as having a life of three
centuries in the history of the Roman state. The first dictator
is said to have been created in 501 B.C.; the last of the
" administrative " dictators belongs to the year 216 B.C. It was
an office that was incompatible both with the grov/ing spirit of
constitutionalism and with the greater security of the city; and
the epoch of the Second Punic War was marked by experiments
with the office, such as the election of Q. Fabius Maximus by the
people, and the co-dictatorship of M. Minucius with Fabius, which
heralded its disuse (see PUNIC WARS). The emergency office of
the early and middle Republic has few points of contact, except
those of the extraordinary position and almost unfettered
authority of its holder, with the dictatorship as revised by Sulla
and by Caesar. Sulla's dictatorship was the form taken by a
piovisional government. He was created " for the establishment
of the Republic." It is less certain whether the dictatorships held
by Caesar were of a consciously provisional character. Since the
office represented the only supreme Imperium in Rome, it was
the natural resort of the founder of a monarchy (see SULLA and
CAESAR) . Ostensibly to prevent its further use for such a purpose,
M. Antonius in 44 B.C. carried a law abolishing the dictatorship as
a part of the constitution.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Mommsen, Romiscfos Staatsrecht, ii. 141 foil.
(3rd ed., Leipzig, 1887); Herzog, Geschichte und System der romi-
schen Staatsverfassung, i. 718 foil. (Leipzig, 1884); Pauly-Wissowa,
Rcalcncyclopddie, v. 370 foil, (new edition, Stuttgart, 1893, &c.);

i86

DICTIONARY

Lange, Romische Alterthumer, i. 542 foil. (Berlin, 1856, &c.) ; Darem-
berg-Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquites grecques et romaines, ii. 161
foil. (1875, &c.); Haverfield, " The Abolition of the Dictatorship,"
in Classical Review, iii. 77. (A. H. J. G.)

DICTIONARY. In its proper and most usual meaning a
dictionary is a book containing a collection of the words of a
language, dialect or subject, arranged alphabetically or
Definition jn some other definite order ,and with explanations in the
"history. sameorsomeother language. When the words are few in
number, being only a small part of those belonging to
the subject, or when they are given without explanation, or some
only are explained, or the explanations are partial, the work is
called a vocabulary; and when there is merely a list of explana-
tions of the technical words and expressions in some particular
subject, a glossary. An alphabetical arrangement of the words
of some book or author with references to the places where
they occur is called an index (q.v.). When under each word
the phrases containing it are added to the references, the work is
called a concordance. Sometimes, however, these names are given
to true dictionaries; thus the great Italian dictionary of the
Accademia della Crusca, in six volumes folio, is called Vocabolario,
and Ernesti's dictionary to Cicero is called Index. When the
words are arranged according to a definite system of classification
under heads and subdivisions, according to their nature or their
meaning, the book is usually called a classed vocabulary; but
when sufficient explanations are given it is often accepted as a
dictionary, like the Onomasticon of Julius Pollux, or the native
dictionaries of Sanskrit, Manchu and many other languages.

Dictionaries were originally books of reference explaining the
words of a language or of some part of it. As the names of
things, as well as those of persons and places, are words, and
often require explanation even more than other classes of words,
they were necessarily included in dictionaries, and often to a very
great extent. In time, books were devoted to them alone, and
were limited to special subjects, and these have so multiplied,
that dictionaries of things now rival in number and variety those
of words or of languages, while they often far surpass them in bulk.
There are dictionaries of biography and history, real and fictitious,
general and special, relating to men of all countries, characters
and professions; the English Dictionary of National Biography
(see BIOGRAPHY) is a great instance of one form of these;
dictionaries of bibliography, relating to all books, or to those
of some particular kind or country; dictionaries of geography
(sometimes called gazetteers) of the whole world, of particular
countries, or of small districts, of towns and of villages, of
castles, monasteries and other buildings. There are dictionaries
of philosophy; of the Bible; of mathematics; of natural history,
zoology, botany; of birds, trees, plants and flowers; of
chemistry, geology and mineralogy; of architecture, painting
and music; of medicine, surgery, anatomy, pathology and
physiology; of diplomacy; of law, canon, civil, statutory and
criminal; of political and social sciences; of agriculture, rural
economy and gardening; of commerce, navigation, horse-
manship and the military arts; of mechanics, machines and
the manual arts. There are dictionaries of antiquities, of
chronology, of dates, of genealogy, of heraldry, of diplomatics, of
abbreviations, of useful receipts, of monograms, of adulterations
and of very many other subjects. These works are separately
referred to in the bibliographies attached to the articles on the
separate subjects. And lastly, there are dictionaries of the arts
and sciences, and their comprehensive offspring, encyclopaedias
(q.v.), which include in themselves every branch of knowledge.
Neither under the heading of dictionary nor under that of
encyclopaedia do we propose to include a mention of every work
of its class, but many of these will be referred to in the separate
articles on the subjects to which they pertain. And in this
article we confine ourselves to an account of those dictionaries
which are primarily word-books. This is practically the most
convenient distinction from the subject-book or encyclopaedia;
though the two characters are often combined in one work. Thus
the Century Dictionary has encyclopaedic features, while the
present edition of the Encyclopaedia Brilannica, restoring its

earlier tradition but carrying out the idea more systematically,
also embodies dictionary features.

Dictionarium is a word of low or modern Latinity;1 dictio,
from which it was formed, was used in medieval Latin to mean
a word. Lexicon is a corresponding word of Greek origin,
meaning a book of or for words — a dictionary. A glossary is
properly a collection of unusual or foreign words requiring
explanation. It is the name frequently given to English
dictionaries of dialects, which the Germans usually call idioticon,
and the Italians vocabolario. Worterbuch, a book of words, was
first used among the Germans, according to Grimm, by Kramer
(1719), imitated from the -Dutch woordenboek. From the Germans
the Swedes and Danes adopted ordbok, ordbog. The Icelandic
ordabdk, like the German, contains the genitive plural. The
Slavonic nations use slovar, slovnik, and the southern Slavs
ryetshnik, from slow, ryetsh, a word, formed, like dictionary
and lexicon, without composition. Many other names have been
given to dictionaries, as thesaurus, Sprachschatz, cornucopia,
gazophylacium, comprehensorium, calholicon, to indicate their
completeness ; manipulus predicantium, promptorium puerorum,
liber memorialis, hortus vocabulorum, ionia (a violet bed), alveary
(a beehive), kamoos (the sea), haft kulzum (the seven seas), tsze
tkn*(a. standard of character), onomasticon, nomenclator, biblio-
theca, elucidario, Mundart-sammlung, clavis, scala, pharetra? La
Crusca from the great Italian dictionary, and Calepino (in Spanish
and Italian) from the Latin dictionary of Calepinus.

The tendency of great dictionaries is to unite in themselves all
the peculiar features of special dictionaries. A large dictionary
is most useful when a word is to be thoroughly studied, or when
there is difficulty in making out the meaning of a word or phrase.
Special dictionaries are more useful for special purposes; for
instance, synonyms are best studied in a dictionary of synonyms.
And small dictionaries are more convenient for frequent use, as
in translating from an unfamiliar language, for words may be
found more quickly, and they present the words and their
meanings in a concentrated and compact form, instead of being
scattered over a large space, and separated by other matter.
Dictionaries of several languages, called polyglots, are of different
kinds. Some are polyglot in the vocabulary, but not in the
explanation, like Johnson's dictionary of Persian and Arabic
explained in English; some in the interpretation, but not in the
vocabulary or explanation, like Calepini ocloglotton, a Latin
dictionary of Latin, with the meanings in seven languages.
Many great dictionaries are now polyglot in this sense. Some are
polyglot in the vocabulary and interpretation, but are explained
in one language, like Jal's Glossaire nautique, a glossary of sea
terms in many languages, giving the equivalents of each word in
the other languages, but the explanation in French. Pauthier's
Annamese Dictionary is polyglot in a peculiar way. It gives
the Chinese characters with their pronunciation in Chinese and
Annamese. Special dictionaries are of many kinds. There are
technical dictionaries of etymology, foreign words, dialects,
secret languages, slang, neology, barbarous words, faults of ex-
pression, choice words, prosody, pronunciation, spelling, orators,
poets, law, music, proper names, particular authors, nouns, verbs,
participles, particles, double forms, difficulties and many others.
Pick's dictionary (Gottingen, 1868, 8vo; 1874-1876, 8vo, 4 vols.)
is a remarkable attempt to ascertain the common language of
the Indo-European nations before each of their great separations.
In the second edition of his Etymologische Forschungen (Lemgo
and Detmoldt, 1850-1873, 8vo, 7217 pages) Pott gives a
comparative lexicon of Indo-European roots, 2226 in number,
occupying 5140 pages.

1 Joannes de Garlandia (John Garland; fl. 1202-1252) gives
the following explanation in his Dictionarius, which is a classed
vocabulary: — " Dictionarius dicitur libellus iste a dictionibus magis
necessariis, quas tenetur quilibet scolaris, non tantum in scrinio de
lignis facto, sed in cordis armariolo firmiter retinere." This has been
supposed to be the first use of the word.

2 An excellent dictionary of quotations, perhaps the first of the
kind; a large folio volume printed in Strassburg about 1475 is
entitled " Pharetra auctoritates et dicta doctorum, philosophorum,
et poetarum continens."

DICTIONARY

187

At no time was progress in the making of general dictionaries
so rapid as during the second half of the igth century. It is to
be seen in three things: in the perfecting of the theory of what
Methods a 8enera^ dictionary should be; in the elaboration
of methods of collecting and editing lexicographic
materials; and in the magnitude and improved quality of the
work which has been accomplished or planned. Each of these
can best be illustrated from English lexicography, in which the
process of development has in all directions been carried farthest.
The advance that has been made in theory began with a radical
change of opinion with regard to the chief end of the general
dictionary of a language. The older view of the matter was that
the lexicographer should furnish a standard of usage — should
register only those words which are, or at some period of the
language have been, " good " from a literary point of view, with
their " proper " senses and uses, or should at least furnish the
means of determining what these are. In other words, his chief
duty was conceived to be to sift and refine, to decide authori-
tatively questions with regard to good usage, and thus to fix the
language as completely as might be possible within the limits
determined by the literary taste of his time. Thus the Accademia
della Crusca, founded near the close of the i6th century, was
established for the purpose of purifying in this way the Italian
tongue, and in 1612 the Vocabolario degli Accademici della
Crusca, long the standard of that language, was published. The
Academic Franchise, the first edition of whose dictionary
appeared in 1694, had a similar origin. In England the idea of
constructing a dictionary upon this principle arose during the
second quarter of the iSth century. It was imagined by men of
letters — among them Alexander Pope — that the English language
had then attained such perfection that further improvement was
hardly possible, and it was feared that if it were not fixed by
lexicographic authority deterioration would soon begin. Since
there was no English " Academy," it was necessary that the task
should fall to some one whose judgment would command respect,
and the man who undertook it was Samuel Johnson. His dic-~
tionary, the first edition of which, in two folio volumes, appeared
in 1755, was in many respects admirable, but it was inade-
quate even as a standard of the then existing literary usage.
Johnson himself did not long entertain the belief that the natural
development of a language can be arrested in that or in any
other way. His work was, however, generally accepted as a final
authority, and the ideas upon which it was founded dominated
English lexicography for more than a century. The first effective
protest in England against the supremacy of this literary view was
made by Dean (later Archbishop) Trench, in a paper on " Some
Deficiencies in Existing English Dictionaries " read before the
Philological Society in 1857. " A dictionary," he said, "accord-
ing to that idea of it which seems to me alone capable of being
logically maintained, is an inventory of the language; much more,
but this primarily. ... It is no task of the maker of it to select
the good words of the language. . . . The business which he has
undertaken is to collect and arrange all words, whether good or
bad, whether they commend themselves to his judgment or other-
wise. . . . He is an historian of [the language], not a critic."
That is, for the literary view of the chief end of the general
dictionary should be substituted the philological or scientific.
In Germany this substitution had already been effected by Jacob
and Wilhelm Grimm in their dictionary of the German language,
the first volume of which appeared in 1854. In brief, then, the
modern view is that the general dictionary of a language
should be a record of all the words— current or obsolete — of
that language, with all their meanings and uses, but should not
attempt to be, except secondarily or indirectly, a guide to
" good " usage. A " standard " dictionary has, in fact, been
recognized to be an impossibility, if not an absurdity.

This theoretical requirement must, of course, be modified
considerably in practice. The date at which a modern language
is to be regarded by the lexicographer as " beginning " must, as
a rule, be somewhat arbitrarily chosen; while considerable
portions of its earlier vocabulary cannot be recovered because
of the incompleteness of the literary record. Moreover, not even

the most complete dictionary can include all the words which the
records — earlier and later— actually contain. Many words, that
is to say, which are found in the literature of a language cannot
be regarded as, for lexicographic purposes, belonging to that
language; while many more may or may not be held to belong
to it, according to the judgment — almost the whim — of the
individual lexicographer. This is especially true of the English
tongue. " That vast aggregate of words and phrases which
constitutes the vocabulary of English-speaking men presents, to
the mind that endeavours to grasp it as a definite whole, the
aspect of one of those nebulous masses familiar to the astronomer,
in which a clear and unmistakable nucleus shades off on all sides,
through zones of decreasing brightness, to a dim marginal film
that seems to end nowhere, but to lose itself imperceptibly in
the surrounding darkness " (Dr J. A. H. Murray, Oxford
Diet. General Explanations, p. xvii). This " marginal film " of
words with more or less doubtful claims to recognition includes
thousands of the terms of the natural sciences (the New-Latin
classificatory names of zoology and botany, names of chemical
compounds and of minerals, and the like); half-naturalized
foreign words; dialectal words; slang terms; trade names
(many of which have passed or are passing into common use) ;
proper names and many more. Many of these even the most
complete dictionary should exclude; others it should include;
but where the line shall be drawn will always remain a vexed
question.

Another important principle upon which Trench insisted, and
which also expresses a requirement of modern scientific philology,
is that the dictionary shall be not merely a record, but also an
historical record of words and their uses. From the literary point
of view the most important thing is present usage. To that alone
the idea of a " standard " has any application. Dictionaries of
the older type, therefore, usually make the common, or " proper "
or " root " meaning of a word the starting point of its definition,
and arrange its other senses in a logical or accidental order
commonly ignoring the historical order in which the various
meanings arose. Still less do they attempt to give data from
which the vocabulary of the language at any previous period may
be determined. The philologist, however, for whom the growth,
or progressive alteration, of a language is a fact of central
importance, regards no record of a language as complete which
does not exhibit this growth in its successive stages. He desires
to know when and where each word, and each form and sense
of it, are first found in the language; if the word or sense is
obsolete, when it died; and any other fact that throws light upon
its history. He requires, accordingly, of the lexicographer that,
having ascertained these data, he shall make them the foundation
of his exposition — in particular, of the division and arrangement
of his definitions, that sense being placed first which appeared
first in order of time. In other words, each article in the dictionary
should furnish an orderly biography of the word of which it
treats, each word and sense being so dated that the exact time
of its appearance and the duration of its use may as nearly as
possible be determined. This, in principle, is the method of the
new lexicography. In practice it is subject to limitations similar
to those of the vocabulary mentioned above. Incompleteness
of the early record is here an even greater obstacle; and there
are many words whose history is, for one reason or another, so
unimportant that to treat it elaborately would be a waste of
labour and space.

The adoption of the historical principle involves a further note-
worthy modification of older methods, namely, an important
extension of the use of quotations. To Dr Johnson belongs the
credit of showing how useful, when properly chosen, they may be,
not only in corroborating the lexicographer's statements, but also
in revealing special shades of meaning or variations of use which
his definitions cannot well express. No part of Johnson's work
is more valuable than this. This idea was more fully developed
and applied by Dr Charles Richardson, whose New Dictionary
of the English Language . . . Illustrated by Quotations from the
Best Authors (1835-1836) still remains a most valuable collection
of literary illustrations. Lexicographers, however, have, with

i88

DICTIONARY

few exceptions, until a recent date, employed quotations chiefly
for the ends just mentioned — as instances of use or as illustra-
tions of correct usage — with scarcely any recognition of their
value as historical evidence; and they have taken them almost
exclusively from the works of the " best " authors. But since all
the data upon which conclusions with regard to the history of
a word can be based must be collected from the literature of
the language, it is evident that, in so far as the lexicographer
is required to furnish evidence for an historical inference, a
quotation is the best form in which he can give it. In fact,
extracts, properly selected and grouped, are generally sufficient to
show the entire meaning and biography of a word without the aid
of elaborate definitions. The latter simply save the reader the
trouble of drawing the proper conclusions for himself. A further
rule of the new lexicography, accordingly, is that quotations
should be used, primarily, as historical evidence, and that the
history of words and meanings should be exhibited by means of
them. The earliest instance of use that can be found, and (if the
word or sense is obsolete) the latest, are as a rule to be given;
while in the case of an important word or sense, instances taken
from successive periods of its currency also should be cited.
Moreover, a quotation which contains an important bit of
historical evidence must be used, whether its source is "good,"
from the literary point of view, or not — whether it is a classic
of the language or from a daily newspaper; though where choice
is possible, preference should, of course, be given to quotations
extracted from the works of the best writers. This rule does not
do away with the illustrative use of quotations, which is still
recognized as highly important, but it subordinates it to their
historical use. It is necessary to add that it implies that the
extracts must be given exactly and in tho original spelling and
capitalization, accurately dated, and furnished with a precise
reference to author, book, volume, page and edition; for
insistence upon these requirements — which are obviously im-
portant, whatever the use of the quotation may be — is one of the
most noteworthy of modern innovations. Johnson usually gave
simply the author's name, and often quoted from memory and
inaccurately; and many of his successors to this day have
followed — altogether or to some extent — his example.

The chief difficulty in the way of this use of quotations — after
the difficulty of collection — is that of finding space for them in a
dictionary of reasonable size. Preference must be given to those
which are essential, the number of those which are cited merely
on methodical grounds being made as small as possible, It is
hardly necessary to add that the negative evidence furnished by
quotations is generally of little value; one can seldom, that is,
be certain that the lexicographer has actually found the earliest
or the latest use, or that the word or sense has not been current
during some intermediate period from which he has no quotations.

Lastly, a much more important place in the scheme of the ideal
dictionary is now assigned to the etymology of words. This may
be attributed, in part, to the recent rapid development of ety-
mology as a science, and to the greater abundance of trustworthy
data; but it is chiefly due to the fact that from the historical
point of view the connexion between that section of the biography
of a word which lies within the language — subsequent, that is,
to the time when the language may, for lexicographical purposes,
be assumed to have begun, or to the time when the word was
adopted or invented — and its antecedent history has become more
vital and interesting. Etymology, in other words, is essentially
the history of the form of a word up to the time when it became
a part of the language, and is, in a measure, an extension of the
history of the development of the word in the language. More-
over, it is the only means by which the exact relations of allied
words can be ascertained, and the separation of words of the same
form but of diverse origin (homonyms) can be effected, and is
thus, for the dictionary, the foundation of all family history and
correct genealogy. In fact, the attention that has been paid to
these two points in the best recent lexicography is one of its
distinguishing and most important characteristics. Related to
the etymology of words are the changes in their form which may
have occurred while they have been in use as parts of the language

— modifications of their pronunciation, corruptions by popular
etymology or false associations, and the like. The facts with
regard to these things which the wide research necessitated
by the historical method furnishes abundantly to the modern
lexicographer are often among the most novel and interesting
of his acquisitions.

It should be added that even approximate conformity to the
theoretical requirements of modern lexicography as above out-
lined is possible only under conditions similar to those under which
the Oxford New English Dictionary was undertaken (see below).
The labour demanded is too vast, and the necessary bulk of the
dictionary too great. When, however, a language is recorded
in c/ne such dictionary, those of smaller size and more modest
pretensions can rest upon it as an authority and conform to it
as a model so far as their special limitations permit.

The ideal thus developed is primarily that of the general
dictionary of the purely philological type, but it applies also to
the encyclopaedic dictionary. In so far as the latter is strictly
lexicographic — deals with words as words, and not with the things
they denote — it should be made after the model of the former,
and is defective to the extent in which it deviates from it. The
addition of encyclopaedic matter to the philological in no way
affects the genera! principles involved. It may, however, for
practical reasons, modify their application in various ways. For
example, the number of obsolete and dialectal words included
may be much diminished and the number of scientific terms (for
instance, new Latin botanical and zoological names) be increased;
and the relative amount of space devoted to etymologies and
quotations may be lessened. In general, since books of this kind
are designed to serve more or less as works of general reference,
the making of them must be governed by considerations of
practical utility which the compilers of a purely philological
dictionary are not obliged to regard. The encyclopaedic type
itself, although it has often been criticized as hybrid — as a mixture
of two things which should be kept distinct — is entirely defensible.
Between the dictionary and the encyclopaedia the dividing line
cannot sharply be drawn. There are words the meaning of which
cannot be explained fully without some description of things,
and, on the other hand, the description of things and processes
often involves the definition of names. To the combination of
the two objection cannot justly be made, so long as it is effected
in a way — with a selection of material — that leaves the dictionary
essentially a dictionary and not an encyclopaedia. Moreover,
the large vocabulary of the general dictionary makes it possible
to present certain kinds of encyclopaedic matter with a degree of
fulness and a convenience of arrangement which are possible in
no single work of any other class. In fact, it may be said that if
the encyclopaedic dictionary did not exist it would have to be
invented; that its justification is its indispensableness. Not
the least of its advantages is that it makes legitimate the use of
diagrams and pictorial illustrations, which, if properly selected
and executed, are often valuable aids to definition.

On its practical side the advance in lexicography has consisted
in the elaboration of methods long in use rather than in the in-
vention of new ones. The only way to collect the data upon which
the vocabulary, the definitions and the history are to be based
is, of course, to search for them in the written monuments of the
language, as all lexicographers who have not merely borrowed from
their predecessors have done. But the wider scope and special
aims of the new lexicography demand that the investigation shall
be vastly more comprehensive, systematic and precise. It is
necessary, in brief, that, as far as may be possible, the literature
(of all kinds) of every period of the language shall be examined
systematically, in order that all the words, and senses and forms
of words, which have existed during any period may be found,
and that enough excerpts (carefully verified,credited and dated) to
cover all the essential facts shall be made. The books, pamphlets,
journals, newspapers, and so on which must thus be searched will
be numbered by thousands, and the quotations selected may (as
in the case of the Oxford New English Dictionary) be counted by
millions. This task is beyond the powers of any one man, even
though he be a Johnson, or a Littr6 or a Grimm, and it is now

DICTIONARY

189

assigned to a corps of readers whose number is limited only by the
ability of the editor to obtain such assistance. The modern
method of editing the material thus accumulated— the actual
work of compilation — also is characterized by the application of
the principle of the division of labour. Johnson boasted that his
dictionary was written with but little assistance from the learned,
and the same was in large measure true of that of Littre. Such
attempts on the part of one man to write practically the whole of
a general dictionary are no longer possible, not merely because of
the vast labour and philological research necessitated by modern
aims, but more especially because the immense development of
the vocabulary of the special sciences renders indispensable the
assistance, in the work of definition, of persons who are expert in
those sciences. The tendency, accordingly, has been to enlarge
greatly the editorial staff of the dictionary, scores of sub-editors
and contributors being now employed where a dozen or fewer
were formerly deemed sufficient. In other words, the making of
a " complete " dictionary has become a co-operative enterprise,
to the success of which workers in all the fields of literature and
science contribute.

The most complete exemplification of these principles and
methods is the Oxford New English Dictionary, on historical
principles, founded mainly on materials collected by ihe Philo-
logical Society. This monumental work originated in the sug-
gestion of Trench that an attempt should be made, under the
direction of the Philological Society, to complete the vocabulary
of existing dictionaries and to supply the historical information
which they lacked. The suggestion was adopted, considerable
material was collected, and Mr Herbert Coleridge was appointed
general editor. He died in 1861, and was succeeded by Dr F. J.
Furnivall. Little, however, was done, beyond the collection of
quotations — about 2,000,000 of which were gathered — until in
1878 the expense of printing and publishing the proposed
dictionary was assumed by the Delegates of the University Press,
and the editorship was entrusted to Dr (afterwards Sir) J. A. H.
Murray. As the historical point of beginning, the middle of the
1 2th century was selected, all words that were obsolete at that
date being excluded, though the history of words that were
current both before and after that date is given in its entirety;
and it was decided that the search for quotations — which, accord-
ing to the original design, was to cover the entire literature down
to the beginning of the i6th century and as much of the subse-
quent literature (especially the works of the more important
writers and works on special subjects) as might be possible —
should be made more thorough. More than 800 readers, in all
parts of the world, offered their aid ; and when the preface to the
first volume appeared in 1888, the editor was able to announce
that the readers had increased to 130x5, and that 3,50x3,000 cf
quotations, taken from the writings of more than 5000 authors,
had already been amassed. The whole work was planned to be
completed in ten large volumes, each issued first in smaller parts.
The first part was issued in 1884, and by the beginning of 1910
the first part of the letter S had been reached.

The historical method of exposition, particularly by quota-
tions, is applied in the New English Dictionary, if not in all cases
with entire success, yet, on the whole, with a regularity and a
precision which leave little to be desired. A minor fault is that
excerpts from second or third rate authors have occasionally been
used where better ones from writers of the first class either must
have been at hand or could have been found. As was said above,
the literary quality of the question is highly important even
in historical lexicography, and should not be neglected un-
necessarily. Other special features of the book are the complete-
ness with which variations of pronunciation and orthography
(with dates) are given; the fulness and scientific excellence of the
etymologies, which abound in new information and corrections
of old errors; the phonetic precision with which the present
(British) pronunciation is indicated; and the elaborate sub-
division of meanings. The definitions as a whole are marked by
a high degree of accuracy, though in a certain number of cases
(not explicable by the date of the volumes) the lists of meanings
are not so good as one would expect, as compared (say) with

the Century Dictionary. Work of such magnitude and quality is
possible, practically,onlywhentheeditorof the dictionary can com-
mand not merely the aid of a very large number of scholars and
men of science, but their gratuitous aid. In this the New English
Dictionary has been singularly fortunate. The conditions under
which it originated, and its aim, have interested scholars every-
where, and led them to contribute to the perfecting of it their
knowledge and time. The long list of names of such helpers in Sir
J. A. H. Murray's preface is in curious contrast with their absence
from Dr Johnson's and the few which are given in that of Littre.
The editor's principal assistants were Dr Henry Bradley and
Dr W. A. Craigie. Of the dictionary as a whole it may be said
that it is one of the greatest achievements, whether in literature
or science, of modern English scholarship and research.

The New English Dictionary furnishes for the first time data from
which the extent of the English word-store at any given period, and
the direction and rapidity of its growth, can fairly be estimated.
For this purpose the materials furnished by the older dictionaries are
quite insufficient, on account of their incompleteness and unhistorical
character. For example 100 pages of the New English Dictionary
(from the letter H) contain 1002 words, of which, as the dated quota-
tions show, 585 were current in 1750 (though some, of course, were
very rare, some dialectal, and so on), 191 were obsolete at that date,
ana 226 have since come into use. But of the more than 700 words —
current or obsolete — which Johnson might thus have recorded, he
actually did record only about 300. Later dictionaries give more of
them, but they in no way show their status at the date in question.
It is worth noting that the figures given seem to indicate that not
very many more words have been added to the vocabulary of the
language during the past 150 years than had been lost by 1750. The
pages selected, however, contain comparatively few recent scientific
terms. A broader comparison would probably show that the gain
has been more than twice as great as the loss.

In the Deutsches Worterbuch of Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm
the scientific spirit, as was said above, first found expression in
general lexicography. The desirability of a complete inventory
and investigation of German words was recognized by Leibnitz
and by various 18th-century scholars, but the plan and methods
of the Grimms were the direct product of the then new scientific
philology. Their design, in brief, was to give an exhaustive
account of the words of the literary language (New High German)
from about the end of the isth century, including their earlier
etymological and later history, with references to important
dialectal words and forms; and to illustrate their use and history
abundantly by quotations. The first volume appeared in 1854.
Jacob Grimm (died 1863) edited the first, second (with his
brother, who died in 1859), third and a part of the fourth
volumes; the others have been edited by various distinguished
scholars. The scope and methods of this dictionary have been
broadened somewhat as the work has advanced. In general it
may be said that it differs from the New English Dictionary
chiefly in its omission of pronunciations and other pedagogic
matter; its irregular treatment of dates; its much less systematic
and less lucid statement of etymologies; its less systematic and
less fruitful use of quotations; and its less convenient and less
intelligible arrangement of material and typography.

These general principles lie also at the foundation of the
scholarly Dictionnaire de la langue franqaise of E. Littre, though
they are there carried out less systematically and less completely.
In the arrangement of the definitions the first place is given to
the most primitive meaning of the word instead of to the most
common one, as in the dictionary of the Academy; but the other
meanings follow in an order that is often logical rather than
historical. Quotations also are frequently used merely as literary
illustrations, or are entirely omitted; in the special paragraphs
on the history of words before the i6th century, however, they
are put to a. strictly historical use. This dictionary — perhaps the
greatest ever compiled by one man — was published 1863-1872.
(Supplement, 1878.)

The Thesaurus Linguae Lalinae, prepared under the auspices of
the German Academies of Berlin, Gottingen, Leipzig, Munich
and Vienna, is a notable application of the principles and
practical co-operative method of modern lexicography to the
classical tongues. The plan of the work is to collect quotations
which shall register, with its full context, every word (except

DICTIONARY

the most familiar particles) in the text of each Latin author
down to the middle of the 2nd century A.D., and to extract
all important passages from all writers of the following
centuries down to the 7th: and upon these materials to found
a complete historical dictionary of the Latin language. The
work of collecting quotations was begun in 1894, and the first
part of the first volume has been published.

In the making of all these great dictionaries (except, of course,
the last) the needs of the general pubh'c as well as those of scholars
have been kept in view. But the type to which the general
dictionary designed for popular use has tended more and more
to conform is the encyclopaedic. This combination of lexicon
and encyclopaedia is exhibited in an extreme — and theoretically
objectionable — form in the Grand dictionnaire universel du XIX'
siecle of Pierre Larousse. Besides common words and their
definitions, it contains a great many proper names, with a
correspondingly large number of biographical, geographical,
historical and other articles, the connexion of which with the
strictly lexicographical part is purely mechanical. Its utility,
which — notwithstanding its many defects — is very great, makes
it, however, a model in many respects. Fifteen volumes were
published (1866-1876), and supplements were brought out later
(1878-1890). The Nouveau Larousse illustre started publication
in 1901, and was completed in 1904 (7 vols.). This is not an
abridgment or a fresh edition of the Grand Dictionnaire of Pierre
Larousse, but a new and distinct publication.

The most notable work of this class, in English, is the Century
Dictionary, an American product, edited by Professor W. D.
Whitney, and published 1889-1891 in six volumes, containing
7046 pages (large quarto). It conforms to the philological mode
in giving with great fulness the older as well as the present
vocabulary of the language, and in the completeness of its
etymologies; but it does not attempt to give the full history
of every word within the language. Among its other more note-
worthy characteristics are the inclusion of a great number of
modern scientific and technical words, and the abundance of its
quotations. The quotations are for the most part provided with
references, but they are not dated. Even when compared with
the much larger New English Dictionary, the Century's great
merit is the excellent enumeration of meanings, and the ac-
curacy of its explanations; in this respect it is often better and
fuller than the New English. In the application of the encyclo-
paedic method this dictionary is conservative, excluding, with a
few exceptions, proper names, and restricting, for the most part,
the encyclopaedic matter to descriptive and other details which
may legitimately be added to the definitions. Its pictorial
illustrations are very numerous and well executed. In the
manner of its compilation it is a good example of modern co-
operative dictionary-making, being the joint product of a large
number of specialists. Next to the New English Dictionary it
is the most complete and scholarly of English lexicons.

Bibliography. — The following list of dictionaries (from the 9th
edition of this work, with occasional corrections) is given for its
historical interest, but in recent years dictionary-making has been
so abundant that no attempt is made to be completely inclusive of
later works; the various articles on languages may be consulted
for these. The list is arranged geographically by families of
languages, or by regions. In each group the order, when not
alphabetical, is usually from north to south, extinct languages
generally coming first, and dialects being placed under their
language. Dictionaries forming parts of other works, such as
travels, histories, transactions, periodicals, reading-books, &c.,
are generally excluded. The system here adopted was chosen
as on the whole the one best calculated to keep together
dictionaries naturally associated. The languages to be considered
are too many for an alphabetical arrangement, which ignores all
relations both natural and geographical, and too few to require a
strict classification by affinities, by which the European languages,
which for many reasons should be kept together, would be
dispersed. Under either system, Arabic, Persian and Turkish,
whose dictionaries are so closely connected, would be widely
separated. A wholly geographical arrangement would be in-

convenient, especially in Europe. Any system, however, which
attempts to arrange in a consecutive series the great network of
languages by which the whole world is enclosed, must be open
to some objections; and the arrangement adopted in this list
has produced some anomalies and dispersions which might cause
inconvenience if not pointed out. The old Italic languages
are placed under Latin, all dialects of France under French
(but Provencal as a distinct language), and Wallachian among
Romanic languages. Low German and its dialects are not
separated from High German. Basque is placed after Celtic;
Albanian, Gipsy and Turkish at the end of Europe, the last being
thus separated from its dialects and congeners in Northern
and Central Asia, among which are placed the Kazan dialect of
Tatar, Samoyed and Ostiak. Accadian is placed after Assyrian
among the Semitic languages, and Maltese as a dialect of Arabic;
while the Ethiopic is among African languages as it seemed
undesirable to separate it from the other Abyssinian languages,
or these from their neighbours to the north and south. Circassian
and Ossetic are joined to the first group of Aryan languages lying
to the north-west of Persia, and containing Armenian, Georgian
and Kurd. The following is the order of the groups, some of the
more important languages, that is, of those best provided with
dictionaries, standing alone: —

EUROPE: Greek, Latin, French, Romance, Teutonic (Scandi-
navian and German), Celtic, Basque, Baltic, Slavonic, Ugrian,
Gipsy, Albanian.

ASIA: Semitic, Armenian, Persian, Sanskrit, Indian, Indo-
Chinese, Malay Archipelago, Philippines, Chinese, Japanese,
Northern and Central Asia.

AFRICA: Egypt and Abyssinia, Eastern Africa, Southern,
Western, Central, Berber.

AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA.

AMERICA: North, Central (with Mexico), South.

EUROPE

Greek. — Athenaeus quotes 35 writers of works, known or sup-
posed to be dictionaries, for, as they are all lost, it is often difficult to
decide on their nature. Of these, Anticlides, who lived after the reign
of Alexander the Great, wrote 'E£rry7;TiK<h, which seems to have been a
sort of dictionary.perhaps explaining the words and phrases occurring
in ancient stories. Zenodotus, the first superintendent of the great
library of Alexandria.who lived in the reigns of Ptolemyl. andPtolemy
II., wrote rXwffo-ai, and alsoAe£«s fffvmai, a dictionary of barbarous or
foreign phrases. Aristophanesof Byzantium, son of Apelles the painter,
who lived in the reigns of Ptolemy II. and Ptolemy III., and had the
supreme management of the Alexandrian library, wrote a number
of works, as 'AT-TKCOI Ae£«s, A.a.Kuvuca.1 T\uiaaa.i which, from the titles,
should be dictionaries, but a fragment of his At{«s printed by
Boissonade, in his edition of Herodian (London, 1869, 8vo, pp.
181-189), is not alphabetical. Artemidorus. a pupil of Aristophanes,
wrote a dictionary of technical terms used in cookery. Nicander
Colophonius, hereditary priest of Apollo Clarius, born at Claros,
near Colophon in Ionia, in reputation for 50 years, from 181 to
135, wrote rXuffcroi in at least three books. Parthenius, a pupil
of the Alexandrian grammarian Dionysius (who lived in the 1st
century before Christ), wrote on choice words used by historians.
Didymus, called \a\KkvTtfxn , who, according to Athenaeus, wrote
3500 books, and, according to Seneca, 4000, wrote lexicons of the
tragic poets (of which book 28 is quoted), of the comic poets, of
ambiguous words and of corrupt expressions. Glossaries of Attic
words were written by Crates, Philemon, Philetas and Theodorus;
of Cretan, by Hermon or Hermonax; of Phrygian, by Neoptolemus;
of Rhodian, by Moschus; of Italian, by Diodorus of Tarsus; of
foreign words, by Silenus; of synonyms, by Simaristus; of cookery,
by Heracleon; and of drinking vessels, by Apollodorus of Cyrene.
According to Suidas, the most ancient Greek lexicographer was
Apollonius the sophist, son of Archibius. According to the common
opinion, he lived in the time of Augustus at Alexandria. He com-
posed a lexicon of words used by Homer, A«f«s 'Oinipucal , a very
valuable and useful work, though much interpolated, edited by
Villoison, from a MS. of the loth century, Paris, 1773, 410, 2 vols.;
and by Tollius, Leiden, 1788, 8vo; ed. Bekker, Berlin, 1833, 8vo.
Erotian or Herodian, physician to Nero, wrote a lexicon on Hippo-
crates, arranged in alphabetical order, probably by some copvist,
whom Klein calls " homo sciplus." It was first published in
Greek in H. Stephani Dictionarium Medicum, Paris, 1564, 8vo; ed.
Klein, Lipsiae, 1865, 8vo, with additional fragments. Timaeus the
sophist, who, according to Ruhnken, lived in the 3rd century, wrote
a very short lexicon to Plato, which, though much interpolated, is of
great value, 1st ed. Ruhnken, Leiden, 1754; ed. locupletior, Lugd.
Bat. 1789, 8vo. Aelius Moeris, called the Atticist, lived about 190

DICTIONARY

191

A.D., and wrote an Attic lexicon, 1st ed. Hudson, Oxf. 1712, Bekker,
1833. Julius Pollux ('lo&Xios no\ufouic»js) of Naucratis, in Egypt, died,
aged fifty-eight, in the reign of Commodus (180^192), who made him
professor of rhetoric at Athens. He wrote, besides other lost works,
an Onomasticon in ten books, being a classed vocabulary, intended to
supply all the words required by each subject with the usage of the
best authors. It is of trie greatest value for the knowledge both of
language and of antiquities. First printed by Aldus, Venice, 1500,
fol.; often afterwards; ed. Lederlinus and Hemsterhuis, Amst. 1706,
2 vols. ; Dindorf, 1824, 5 vols., Bethe (1900 f.). Harpocration of
Alexandria, probably of the and century, wrote a lexicon on the ten
Attic orators, first printed by Aldus, Ven. 1503, fol.; ed. Dindorf,
Oxford, 1853, 8vo, 2 vols. from 14 MSS. Orion, a grammarian of
Thebes, in Egypt, who lived between 390 and 460, wrote an etymo-
logical dictionary, printed by Sturz, Leipzig, 1820, 4to. Helladius
a priest of Jupiter at Alexandria, when the heathen temples there
were destroyed byTheophilusin389or39i escaped toConstantinople,
where he was living in 408. He wrote an alphabetical lexicon, now
lost, chiefly of prose, called by Photius the largest (iroXvvnx&TaTov)
which he knew. Ammonius, professor of grammar at Alexandria,
and priest of the Egyptian ape, fled to Constantinople with Helladius,
jjnd wrote a dictionary of words similar in sound but different in
meaning, which has been often printed in Greek lexicons, as Aldus,
1497, Stephanus, and separately by Valckenaer, Lugd. Bat. 1739,
4to, 2 vols., and by others. Zenodotus wrote on the cries of animals,
printed in Valckenaer's Ammonius; with this may be compared
the work of Vincentio Caralucci, Lexicon vocum quae a brutis animalibus
emiltuntur, Perusia, 1779, I2mo. Hesychius of Alexandria wrote a
lexicon, important for the knowledge of the language and literature,
containing many dialectic and local expressions and quotations from
other authors, 1st ed. Aldus, Ven. 1514, fol.; the best is Alberti and
Ruhnken, Lugd. Bat. 17^6-1766, fol. 2 vols.; collated with the MS.
in St Mark's library, Venice, the only MS. existing, by Niels Iversen
Schow, Leipzig, 1792, 8vo; ed. Schmidt, Jena, 1867, 8vo. The
foundation of this lexicon is supposed to have been that of Pamphilus,
an Alexandrian grammarian, quoted by Athenaeus, which, according
to Suidas, was in 95 books from E to fl; A to A had been compiled
by Zopirion. Photius, consecrated patriarch of Constantinople, 25th
December 857, living in 886, left a lexicon, partly extant, and printed
with Zonaras, Lips. 1808, 410, 3 vols., being vol. iii. ; ed. Naber,
Leidae, 1864-1865, 8vo, 2 vols. The most celebrated of the Greek
glossaries is that of Suidas, of whom nothing is known. He probably
lived in the loth century. His lexicon is an alphabetical dictionary
of words including the names of persons and places — a compilation
of extracts from Greek writers, grammarians, scholiasts and lexico-
graphers, very carelessly and unequally executed. It was first
printed by Demetrius Chalcondylas, Milan, 1499, fol.; the best
edition, Bernhardy, Halle, 1853, 4to, 2 vols. John Zonaras, a cele-
brated Byzantine historian and theologian, who lived in the 1 2th
century, compiled a lexicon, first printed by Tittmann, Lips. 1808.
4to, 2 vols. An anonymous Greek glossary, entitled 'Ervfio^oyiKov iuya,
Etymologicum magnum, has been frequently printed. The first
edition is by Musurus, Venitia, 1499, fol.; the best by Gaisford,
Oxonii, 1848, fol. It contains many grammatical remarks by famous
authorities, many passages of authors, and mythological and
historical notices. The MSS. vary so much that they IOOK like the
works of different authors. To Eudocia Augusta of Makrembolis, wife
of the emperors Cpnstantine XI. and Romanus IV. (1059 to 1071),
was ascribed a dictionary of history and mythology, 'Ia>cid(bed
of violets), first printed by D'Ansse de Villoison, Anecdota Graeca,
Venetiis, 1781, 410, vol. i. pp. 1-442. It was supposed to have been
of much value before it was published. Thomas, Magister Officiorum
under Andronicus Palaeologus, afterward called as a mpnkTheodulus,
wrote 'EicXo7<u bvonaruv '\TTIKUV, printed by Callierges, Romae,
1517, 8vo: Papias, Vocabularium, Mediolani, 1476, fol.: Craston,
an Italian Carmelite monk of Piacenza, compiled a Greek and Latin
lexicon, edited by Bonus Accursius, printed at Milan, 1478, fol. :
Aldus, Venetiis, 1497, fol.: Guarino, born about 1450 at Favora,
near Camarino, who called himself both Phavorinus and Gamers,
published his Thesaurus in 1504. Thesethreelexiconswerefrequently
reprinted. Estienne, Thesaurus, Geneyae, 1572, fol., 4 vols.; ed.
Valpy, Lond.i8i6-i826, 6 vols. fol.; Paris, 1831-1865, gvols.fol., 9902
pages: Ki£wr6s, the ark, was intended to give the whole language,
ancient and modern, but vol. i., Constantinople, 1819, fol., 763 pages,
A to A, only appeared, as the publication was put an end to by the
events of 1821. ENGLISH. — Jones, London, 1823, 8vo: Dunbar,
Edin. 3rd ed. 1850, 410: Liddell and Scott, 8th ed. Oxford, 1897,410.
FRENCH. — Alexandra, I2th ed. Paris, 1863, 8vo; 1860-1871, 2 vols:
Chassang, ib. 1872, 8vo. ITALIAN. — Cammi, Torino, 1865, 8vo, 972
pages: Miiller, ib. 1871, 8vo. SPANISH. — Diccionario manual, porles
padres Esculapios, Madrid, 1859, 8vo. GERMAN. — Passow, 5th ed.
Leipzig, 1841-1857, 410: Jacobitz and Seller, 4th ed. ib. 1856, 8vo:
Benseler, ib. 1859, 8yo: Pape, Braunschweig, 1870-1874, 8vo, 4 vols.
Prellwitz, Etymologisches Worterbuch der griechischen Sprache, new
edition, 1906: Herwerden, Lexicon Graecum suppletorium el dialec-
ticunt, 1902. DIALECTS. — Attic: Moeris, ed. Pierson, Lugd. Bat.
i?59i 8vo. Attic Orators: Reiske, Oxon. 1828, 8vo, 2 vols. Doric:
Portus, Franckof. 1605, 8vo. Ionic: Id. ib. 1603, 8vo; 1817; 1825.
PROSODY. — Morell, Etonae, 1762, 410; ed. Maltby, Lond. 1830, 4to:
Brasse, Lond. 1850, 8vo. RHETORIC. — Ernesti, Lips. 1795, 8vo.

Music. — Drieberg, Berlin, 1855. ETYMOLOGY. — Curtius, Leipzigi
1858-1862 : Lancelot, Paris,i863, 8vo. SYNONYMS. — Peucer, Dresden>
1766, 8vo: Pillon, Paris, 1847, 8vo. PROPER NAMES. — Pape, ed-
Sengebusch, 1866, 8vo, 969 pages. VERBS. — Veitch, 2nd ed. Oxf-
1866. TERMINATIONS. — Hoogeveen, Cantab. 1810, 4to: Pape,
Berlin, 1836, 8vo. PARTICULAR AUTHORS. — Aeschylus: Wellauer,
2 vols. Lips. 1830-1831, 8vo. Aristophanes: Caravella, Oxonii, 1822,
8vo. Demosthenes: Reiske, Lips. 1775, 8vo. Euripides: Beck,
Cantab. 1829, 8vo. Herodotus: Schweighauser, Strassburg, 1824, 8vo,
2 vols. Hesiod: Osoruis, Neapol. 1791, 8vo. Homer: Apollunius
Sophista, ed. Tollius, Lugd. Bat., 1788, 8vo: Schaufelberger, Zurich,
1761-1768, 8vo, 8 vols.: Crusius, Hanover, 1836, 8vo: Wittich,
London, 1843, 8vo: Doderlein, Erlangen, 8vo, 3 vols.: Eberling,
Lipsiae, 1875, 8vo: Autenrieth, Leipzig, 1873, 8vo; London, 1877,
8vo. Isocrates: Mitchell, Oxon. 1828, 8vo. Pindar: Portus,
Hanov. 1606, 8vo. Plato: Timaeus, ed. Koch, Lips. 1828, 8vo:
Mitchell, Oxon. 1832, 8vo: Ast,- Lips. 1835-1838, 8vo, 3 vols.
Plutarch: Wyttenbach, Lips. 1835, 8vo, 2 vols. Sophocles: Ellendt,
Regiomonti, 1834-1835, 8vo eci. ; Genthe, Berlin, 1872, 8vo. Thucy-
dides: Betant, Geneva, 1843-1847, 8vo, 2 vols. Xenophon: Sturtz,
Lips. 1801-1804, 8vo, 4 vols. : Cannesin (Anabasis, Gr. -Finnish), Hel-
sirgissa, 1868, 8vo: Sauppe, Lipsiae, 1869, 8vo. Septuagint: Hutter,
Noribergae, 1598, 4to: Biel, Hagae, 1779-1780, 8vo. New Testament:
Lithocomus, Colon, 1552, 8vo: Parkhurst, ed. Major, London, 1845,
8vo: Schleusner (juxta ed. Lips, quartam), Glasguae, 1824, 4to.

Medieval and Modern Greek. — Meursius, Lugd. Bat. 1614, 4to:
Critopulos, Stendaliae, 1787, 8vo: Portius, Par. 1635, 4t°: Du
Cange, Paris, 1682, fol., 2 vols.; Ludg. 1688, fol. ENGLISH.
— Polymera, Hermopolis, 1854, 8vo: Sophocles, Cambr. Mass.
1860-1887: Contopoulos, Athens, 1867, 8vo; Smyrna, 1868-1870,
8vo, 2 parts, 1042 pages. FRENCH. — Skarlatos, Athens, 1852, 4to:
Byzantius, ib. 1856, 8vo, 2 vols.: Varvati, 4th ed. ib., 1860, 8vo.
ITALIAN.— Germane, Romae, 1622, 8vo: Somavera, Parigi, 1709,
fol., 2 vols.: Pericles, Hermopolis, 1857, 8yo. GERMAN. — Schmidt,
Lips. 1825-1827, I2mo, 2 vols.: Petraris, Leipz. 1897. POLYGLOTS. —
Kqniaz (Russian and Fr.), Moscow, 1811, 4to; Schmidt (Fr.-Germ.),
Leipzig, 1837-1840, I2mo, 3 vols.: Theocharopulas de Patras (Fr.-
Eng.), Munich, 1840, 121110.

Latin. — Johannes de Janua, Catholicon or Summa, finished in
1286, printed Moguntiae 1460, fol.; Venice, 1487; and about 20
editions before 1500: Johannes, Comprehensorium, Valentia, 1475,
fol.: Nestor Dionysius, Onomasticon, Milan, 1477, fol.: Stephanus,
Paris, 1531, fol., 2 vols.: Gesner, Lips. 1749, fol., 4 vols.: Forcellini,
Patavii, 1771, fol., 4 yqls. POLYGLOT. — Calepinus, Reggio, 1502, fol.
(Aldus printed 16 editions, with the Greek equivalents of the Latin
words; Venetiis, 1575, fol., added Italian, French and Spanish;
Basileae, 1590, fol., is in n languages; several editions, from 1609,
are called Octolingue; many of the latter 2 vol. editions were edited
by John Facciolati) : Verantius (Ital., Germ., Dalmatian, Hungarian),
Venetiis, 1595, 4to: Lodereckerus (Ital., Germ., Dalm., Hungar.,
Bohem., Polish), Pragae, 1605, 410. ENGLISH. — Promptorium
parvulorum, compiled in 14^.0 by GalfridusGrammaticus, a Dominican
monk of Lynn Episcopi, in Norfolk, was printed by Pynson, 1499;
8 editions, 1508-1528, ed. Way, Camden Society, 1843-1865, 3 vols.
4to; Medulla grammaticis, probably by the same author, MS. written
1483; printed as Ortus vocabulorum, by Wynkyn de Worde, 1500;
13 editions 1500-1523 ; Sir Thomas Elyot, London, 1538, fol. ; 2nd ed.
'543; Bibliotheca Eliotae, ed. Cooper, ib. 1545, fol.: Huloet,
Abecedarium, London, 1552, fol.; Dictionarie, 1572, fol.: Cooper,
London,- 1565, fol. ; 4th edition, 1584, fol. : Baret, Alvearie, ib. 1575,
fol.; 1580, fol.: Fleming, ib. 1583, fol.: Ainsworth, London, 1736,
dto; ed. Morell, London, 1796, 4to, 2 vols.; ed. Beatson and Ellis,
ib. i860, 8vo: Scheller, translated by Riddle, Oxford, 1835, fol.:
Smith, London, 1855, 8vo; 1870: Lewis and Short, Oxford, 1879.
ENG.-LATIN. — Levins, Manipuluspuerorum, Lond. 1570,410: Riddle,
ib. 1838, 8vo: Smith, ib. 1855, 8vo. FRENCH. — Catholicon parvum,
Geneva, 1487: Estienne, Dictionnaire, Paris, 1539, fol. 675 pag^es;
enlarged 1549; ed. Huggins, Lond. 1572: Id. Dictionarium Latino-
Gallicum, Lutetiae, 1546, fol.; Paris, 1552; 1560: Id., Dictionariolum
puerorum, Paris, 1542, 410: Les Mots franc.ais, Paris, 1544, 4to; the
copy in the British Museum has the autograph of Queen Catherine
Parr: Thierry (Fr.-Lat.), Paris, 1564, fol.: Danet, Ad usum
Delphini, Pans, 1700, 4to, 2 vols.; and frequently: Quicherat, 9th
ed. Paris, 1857, 8vo: Theil, 3rd ed. Paris, 1863, 8vo: Freund, ib.
1835-1865, 410, 3 yols. GERMAN. — Joh. Melber, of Gerolzhofen,
Vocabularius praedicantium, of which 26 editions are described by
Hain (Repertorium, No. 11,022, &c.), 15 undated, 7 dated 1480-1495,
4to, and 3 after 1504: Vocabularius gemma gemmarum, Antwerp,
1484,410; 1487; 12 editions, 1505-1518: Herman Torentinus, Eluci-
darius carminum, Daventri, 1501, 4to; 22 editions, 1504-1536 :Binnart,
Ant. 1649, 8vo: Id., Biglotton, ib. 1661 ; 4th ed. 1688: Faber, ed.
Gesner, flagae Com. 1735, fol., 2 vols.: Hederick, Lips. 1766, 8vo,
2 vols. : Ingerslev, Braunschweig, 1835-1855, 8yq, 2 vols. : Thesaurus
linguae Latinae, Leipzig, 1900: Walde, Lateinisches etymologisches
Worterbuch, 1906. ITALIAN. — Seebar (Sicilian translation of
Lebrixa), Venet. 1525, 8vo: Venuti, 1589, 8vo: Galesini, Venez.
1605, 8vo: Bazzarini and Bellini, Torino, 1864, 4to, 2 vols. 3100
pages. SPANISH. — Salmanticae, 1494, fol.; Antonio de Lebrixa,
Nebrissenis, Compluti, 1520, fol., 2 vols.: Sanchez de la Ballesta,
Salamanca, 1587, 410: Valbuena, Madrid, 1826, fol. PORTUGUESE. —

192

DICTIONARY

Bluteau, Lisbon, 1712-1728, fol., 10 vols: Fonseca, ib. 1771, fol.:
Ferreira, Paris, 1834, 410; 1852. ROMANSCH. — Promptuario < di voci
volgari, Valgrisii, 1565, 4to. VLACH. — Divalitu, Bucuresci, 1852,
8vo. SWEDISH. — Vocabula, Rostock, 1574, 8vo; Stockholm, 1579:
Lindblom, Upsala, 1790, 410. DUTCH. — Binnart, Antw. 1649, 8vo:
Scheller, Lugd. Bat. 1799, 4to, 2 ypls. FLEMISH. — Paludanus,
Gandavi, 1544, 4to. POLISH. — Macinius, Konigsberg, 1564, fol.:
Garszynski, Breslau, 1823, 8vo, 2 vols. BOHEMIAN. — Johannes
Aquensis, Pilsnae, 1511,410: Reschel, Olmucii, 1 560- 1562,41:0, 2 vols. :
Cnapius, Cracovia, 1661, fol., 3 vols. ILLYRIAN. — Bellosztenecz,
Zagrab, 1740, 4to: Jambresich (also Germ, and Hungar.), Zagrab,
1742, 4to. SERVIAN. — Swotlik, Budae, 1721, 8vo. HUNGARIAN. —
Molnar, Frankf. a. M. 1645, 8vo: Pariz-Papai, Leutschen, 1708, 8vo;
1767. FINNISH. — Rothsen, Helsingissa, 1864, 8vo. POETIC. —
Epithetorum et synonymorum thesaurus, Paris, 1662, 8vo, attributed
to Chatillon ; reprinted by Paul Aler, a German Jesuit, as Gradus ad
Parnassum, Pans, 1687, 8vo; many subsequent editions : Schirach,
Hal. 1768, 8vo: Noel, Paris, 1810, 8vo; 1826: Quicherat, Paris,
1852, 8vo: Young, London, 1856, 8vo. EROTIC. — Rambach,
Stuttgart, 1836, 8vo. RHETORICAL. — Ernesti, Lips. 1797, 8vo.
CIVIL LAW. — Dirksen, Berolini, i837,4to. SYNONYMS. — Hill, Edinb.
1804, 4to: Doderlein, Lips. 1826-1828, 8vo, 6 vols. ETYMOLOGY. —
Danet, Paris, 1677, 8vo: Vossius, Neap. 1762, fol., 2 vols.: Salmon,
London, 1796, 8vo, 2 vols.: Nagel, Berlin, 1869, 8vo; Latin roots,
with their French and English derivatives, explained in German:
Zehetmayr, Vindobonae, 1873, 8vo: Vanicek, Leipz. 1874, 8vo.
BARBAROUS.— Marchellus, Mediol. 1753, 4to; Krebs, Frankf. a. M.
1834, 8vo; 1837. PARTICULAR AUTHORS.- — Caesar: Crusius, Hanoy.

1838, 8vo. Cicero: Nizzoli, Brescia, 1535, fol.; ed. Facciolati,
Patavii, 1734, fol.; London, 1820, 8vo, 3 vols. : Ernesti, Lips. 1739,
8vo; Halle, 1831. Cornelius Nepos: Schmieder, Halle, 1798, 8yo;
1816: Billerbeck, Hanover, 1825, 8vo. Curtius Rufus: Crusius,
Hanov. 1844, 8vo. Horace: Ernesti, Berlin, 1802-1804, 8vo, 3 vols.:
Doring, Leipz. 1829, 8vo. Justin: Meinecke, Lemgo, 1793, 8vo; 2nd
ed. 1818. Livy: Ernesti, Lips. 1784, 8vo; ed Schafer, 1804. Ovid:
Gierig, Leipz. 1814: (Metamorphoses) Meinecke, 2nd ed., Lemgo, 1825,
8vo: Billerbeck (Do.), Hanover, 1831, 8vo. Phaedrus: Oertel,
Nurnberg, 1798, 8vo: Horstel, Leipz. 1803, 8vo: Billerbeck
Hanover, 1828, 8vo. Plautus: Paraeus, Franki. 1614, 8vo. Pliny:
Denso, Rostock, 1766, 8vo. Pliny, jun.: Wensch, Wittenberg, 1837-

1839, 4to. Quintilian: Bonnellus, Leipz. 1834, 8vo. Sallust:
Schneider, Leipz. 1834, 8vo: Crusius, Hanover, 1840, 8vo. Tacitus:
Botticher, Berlin, 1830, 8vo. Velleius Paterculus: Koch, Leipz.
1857, 8vo. Virgil: Clavis, London, 1742, 8vo: Braunhard, Coburg,
1834, 8vo. Vitruvius: Rode, Leipz. 1679, 410, 2 vols.: Orsini,
Perugia, 1801, 8vo.

OLD ITALIAN LANGUAGES. — Fabretti, Torini, 1858, 4to. Umbrian :
Huschke, Leipz. 1860, 8vo. Oscan and Sabellian: Id. Elberfeld,
1856, 8vo.

MEDIEVAL LATIN. — Du Cange, Glossarium, Paris, 1733-1736, fol.,

6 vols. ; Carpentier, Suppl., Paris, 1766, fol., 4 vols. ; ed. Adelung,
Halae, 1772-1784, 8vo, 6 vols.; ed. Henschel, Paris, i84p-;i85O, 410,

7 vols. (vol. vii. contains a glossary of Old French) : Brinckmeier,
Gotha, 1850-1863, 8vp, 2 vols.: Hildebrand (Glossarium saec. ix.),
Getting. 1854, 410: Diefenbach, Glossarium, Frankf. 1857, 4to: Id.
Gloss, novum, ib. 1867,410. ECCLESIASTICAL. — Magri, Messina, 1644,
4to; 8th ed. Venezia, 1732; Latin translation, Magri Hierolexicon,
Romae, 1677, fol.; 6th ed. Bologna, 1765, 4to, 2 vols.

Romance Languages.

Romance Languages generally. — Diez, Bonn, 1853, 8vo; 2nd ed.
ib. 1861-1862, 8vo, 2 vols.; 3rd ed. ib. 1869-1870, 8vo, 2 vols.;
transl. by Donkin, 1864, 8vo.

French. — Ranconet, Thresor, ed. Nicot, Paris, 1606, fol.; ib.
1618, 410: Richelet, Geneve, 1680, fol., 2 vols.; ed. Gattel, Paris,

1840, 8vo, 2 vols.

The French Academy, after five years' consideration, beg?m their
dictionary, on the 7th of February 1639, by examining the letter A,
which took them nine months to go through. The word Academic was
for some time omitted by oversight. They decided, on the 8th of March
1638, not to cite authorities, and they have since always claimed the
right of making their own examples. Olivier justifies them by saying
that for eighty years all the best writers belonged to their body, and
they could not be expected to cite each other. Their design was to
raise the language to its last perfection, and to open a road to reach
the highest eloquence. Antoine Furetiere, one of their members^
compiled a dictionary which he says cost him forty years' labour for
ten hours a day, and the manuscript filled fifteen chests. He gave
words of all kinds, especially technical, names of persons and places,
and phrases. As a specimen, he published his Essai, Paris, 1684,
4to; Amst. 1685, I2mo. The Academy charged him with using the
materials they had prepared for their dictionary, and expelled him, on
the 22nd of January 1685, for plagiarism. He died on the I4th of May
1688, in the midst of the consequent controversy and law suit. His
complete work was published, with a preface by Bayle, La Haye and
Rotterdam, 1690, fol., 3 vols. ; again edited by Basnage de Beauval,
1701; La Haye, 1707, fol., 4 vols. From the edition of 1701 the
very popular so-called Dictionnaire de Trevoux, Trevoux, 1704, fol.,
2 vols., was made by the Jesuits, who excluded everything that
seemed to favour the Calvinism of Basnage. The last of its many

editions is Paris, 1771, fol., 8 vols. The Academy's dictionary was
first printed Paris, 1694, fol., 2 vols. They began the revision in 1700;
second edition 1718, fol., 2 vols.; 3rd, 1740, fol., 2 vols.; 6th, 1835,
2 vols. 410, reprinted 1855; Supplement, by F. Raymond, 1836,
4to; Complement, 1842, 410, reprinted 1856, Dictionnaire historique,
Paris, 1858-1865, 4to, 2 parts (A to Actu), 795 pages, published by the
Institut: Dochez, Paris, 1859,410: Bescherelle, 16.1844, 4to, 2 vols.;
5th ed. Paris, 1857, 410, 2 vols. ; 1865; 1887: Landais, Paris, 1835;
I2th ed. ib. 1854, 4to, 2 vols.: Littre, Paris, 1863-1873, 410, 4 vols.
7118 pages: Supplement, Paris, 1877, 410: Godefroy (with dialects
from gth to 15th cent.), Paris, 1881-1895, and Complement : Hatzfield,
Darmesteter, and Thomas, Paris, 1890-1900: Larive and Fleury,
(mots et chases, Ulustre), Paris, 1884-1891. ENGLISH. — Palsgrave,
Lesdaircissement de la langue francoyse, London, 1530, 4to, 2 parts;
1852: Hollyband, London, 1533, 4to: Cotgrave, ib. 1611, fol.:
Boyer, La Have, 1702, 4to, 2 vols. ; 37th ed. Paris, 1851, 8vo, 2 vols. :
Fleming and Tibbins, Paris, 1846-1849, 410, 2 vols.; ib. 1854, 4to,

2 vols.; ib. 1870-1872, 410, 2 vols.: Tarver, London, 1853-1854,
8vo, 2 vols.; 1867-1872: Bellows, Gloucester, 1873, i6mo; ib.
1876. IDEOLOGICAL, or ANALOGICAL. — Robertson, Paris, 1859, 8vo:
Boissiere, Paris, 1862, 8vo. ETYMOLOGY/ — Lebon, Paris, 1571, 8vo:
Menage, ib. 1650, 410. Pougens projected a Tresor des origines, his
extracts for which, filling nearly 100 volumes folio, are in the library
of the Institut. He published a specimen, Paris, 1819, 4to. After
his death, Archeologie franc.aise, Paris, 1821, 8vo, 2 yols., was com-
piled from his MSS., which were much used by Littre: Scheler,
Bruxelles, 1862, 8vo; 1873: Brachet, 2nd ed. Paris, 1870, I2mo;
English trans. Kitchin, Oxf. 1866, 8vo. GREEK WORDS. — Trippault,
Orleans. 1580, 8vo: Morin, Paris, 1809, 8vo. GERMAN WORDS. —
Atzler, Cothen, 1867, 8vo. ORIENTAL WORDS. — Pihan, Paris, 1847,
8vo; 1866: Devic, ib. 1876, 8vo. NEOLOGY. — Desfontaines, 3rd ed.
Amst. 1728, I2mo: Mercier, Paris, 1801, 8vo, 2 vols.: Richard, ib.
1842, 8vo; 2nd ed. 1845. POETIC. — Diet, des rimes (by La Noue),
Geneve, 1596, 8vo; Cologny, 1624, 8vo: Carpentier, Le Gradus
franfais, Paris, 1825, 8vo, 2 vols. EROTIC. — De Landes, Bruxelles,

1861, I2mp. ORATORY. — Demandreand Fontenai, Paris, 1802, 8vp:
Planche, ib. 1819-1820, 8vo, 3 vols. PRONUNCIATION. — Feline, ib.

1857, 8yo. DOUBLE FORMS. — Brachet, ib. 1871, 8vo. EPITHETS. —
Daire, ib. 1817, 8vo. VERBS. — Bescherelle, ib. 1855, 8vo, 2 vols.:
3rd ed. 1858. PARTICIPLES. — Id., ib. 1861, I2mo. DIFFICULTIES. —
Boiste, London, 1828, I2mo: Laveaux, Paris, 1872, 8vo, 843 pages.
SYNONYMS. — Boinvilliers, Paris, 1826, 8vo: Lafaye, ib. 1858,
8vo; 1861; 1869: Guizot, ib. 1809, 8vo; 6th ed. 1863; 1873.
HOMONYMS. — Zlatagorski (Germ., Russian, Eng.), Leipzig, 1862,
8vo, 664 pages. IMITATIVE WORDS. — Nodier, Onomatopees, ib. 1828,
8vo. TECHNOLOGY. — D'Hautel, ib. 1808, 8vo, 2vols. : Desgranges,
ib. 1821, 8vo: Tolhausen (Fr., Eng., Germ.), Leipz. 1873, 8vp, 3 vols.
FAULTS OF EXPRESSION. — Roland, Gap, 1823, 8vo: Blondin, Paris,
1823, 8vo. PARTICULAR AUTHORS. — Corneille: Godefroy, ib. 1862,
8vo, 2 yols.: Marty-La veaux, ib. 1868, 8vp, 2 vols. La Fontaine:
Lorin, ib. 1852, 8vo. Malherbe: Regnier, ib. 1869, 8yo. Moliere:
Genin, ib. 1846, 8vo: Marty-Laveaux, ib. 8vo. Racine: Marty-
Laveaux, ib. 1873, 8vo, 2 vols. M"" de Sevigne: Sommer, ib. 1867,
8vo, 2 vols. OLD FRENCH. — La Curne de St Palaye prepared a
dictionary, of which he only published Projet d'un glossaire, Paris,
1756, 410. His MSS. in many volumes are in the National Library,
and were much used by Littre. They were printed by L. Fayre, and
fasciculi 21-30 (torn, iii.), Niort, 4to. 484 pages, were published in
February 1877. Lacombe (vieux langage), Paris, 1766, 2 vols. 4to:
Kelham (Norman and Old French), London, 1779, 8vo: Roquefort
(langue romane), Paris, 1808, 8vo; Supplement, ib. 1820, 8vo:
Pougens, Archeologie, ib. 1821, 8vo, 2 vols.: Burguy, Berlin, 1851-
1856, 8vo, 3 vols. : Laborde (Notice des emaux . . . du Louvre, part ii.),
Paris, 1853, 8vo, 564 pages: ' Cachet (rhymed chronicles), Bruxelles,
1859, 4to: Le Hericher (Norman, English and French), Paris, 1862,

3 vols. 8vo: Hippeau (l2th and I3th centuries), Paris, 1875, 8vo.
DIALECTS. — Jaubert (central), Paris, 1856-1857, 8vo, 2 yols.:
Baumgarten (north and centre), Coblentz, 1870, 8vo: Azais, Idiomes
romans du midi, Montpellier, 1877. Austrasian: Francois. Metz,
1773, 8vo. Auvergne: Mege, Riom, 1861, I2mo. Beam: Lespi, Pau,

1858, 8vo. Beaucaire: Bonnet (Bouguiren), Nismes, 1840, 8vo.
Pays de Bray: Decorde, Neufchatel, 1852, 8vo. Burgundy:
Mignard, Dijon, 1870, 8vo. Pays de Castres: Couzinie, Castres,
1850,410. Dauphine: Champollion-Figeac, Paris, 1809, 8vo: Jules,
Valence, 1835, 8vo; Paris, 1840, 410. Dep. of Doubs: Tissot
(Patois des Fourg, arr. de Pontarlier) Besancon, 1865, 8vo.
Forez: Gras, Pans, 1864, 8vo; Neolas, Lyon, 1865, 8vo. Franche
Comte: Maisoiforte, 2nd ed. Besancon, 1753, 8vo. Gascony: Des-
grouais (Gasconismes corriges), Toulouse, 1766, 8vo; 1769; 1812,
I2mo, 2 vols. ; 1825, 8vo, 2 vols. Dep.ofGers: Censc-Montaut, Paris,
1863, 8vo. Geneva: Humbert, Geneve, 1820, 8vo. Languedoc: Odde,
Tolose, 1578, 8vo: Doujat, Toulouse, 1638, 8vo: De S.[auvages],
Nismes, 1756, 2 vols.; 1785; Alais, 1820: Azais, Beziers, 1876.
&c., 8vo: Hombres, Alais, 1872, 4tp: Thomas (Greek words) Mont-
pellier, 1843, 4to. Liege: Forir, Liege, 1866, 8vo, vol i. 455 pages.
Lille: Vermesse, Lille, 1861, I2mo: Debuire du Buc ib., 1867,
8vo. Limousin: Beronie, ed. Vialle (Correze), Tulle, 1823, 4to.

1 This volume was issued with a new title-page as Glossaire du
moyen Age, Paris, 1872.

DICTIONARY

'93

Lyonnais, Forez, Beaujolais: Onofrio, Lyon, 1864, 8vo. Haul
Maine: R.[aoul] de M. [ontesson], Paris, 1857; 1859, 503 pages.
Mentone: Andrews, Nice, 1877, I2mo. Dep. de la Meuse : Cordier,
Paris, 1853, 8vo. Norman: Edelestand and Alfred Dumeril, Caen,
1849, 8vo: Dubois, ib. 1857, 8vo: Le Hericher (Philologie topo-
graphique), Caen, 1863, 4to: Id. (elements scandinaves), Avranches,
1861, I2mo: Metivier (Guernsey), London, 1870, 8vo: Vasnier
(arrond de Pont Audemer), Rouen, 1861, 8vo: Delboulle (Vallee
d'Yeres), Le Havre, 1876. Picardy: Corblet, Amiens, 1851, 8vo.
Poitou, Saintonge, Aunis: Favre, Niort, 1867, 8vo. Poitou:
Beauchet-Filleau, Paris, 1864, 8yo: Levrier, Niort, 1867, 8vo:
Lalanne, Poitiers, 1868, 8vo. Saintonge: Boucherie, Angouleme,
1865, 8vo: Jonain, Royan, 1867, 8vo. Savoy: Pont (Terratzu de
la Tarantaise), Chambery, 1869, 8vo. La Suisse Romande: Bridel,
Lausanne, 1866, 8yo. Dep. of Tarn: Gary, Castre, 1845, 8vo. Dep.
of Vaucluse: Barjavel, Carpentras, 1849, 8vo. Walloon (Rouchf):
Cambresier, Liege, 1787, 8vo: Grandgagnage, ib. 1845-1850, 8vo.
2 vols. : Chav6e, Paris, 1857, i8mo: Vermesse, Doudi, 1867, 8vo.
Sigart (Montois), Bruxelles, 1870, 8vo. SLANG. — Oudin, Curiositez
Frangaises, Paris, 1640, 8vo: Baudeau de Saumaise (Precieuses,
Langue de Ruelles), Paris, 1660, I2mo; ed. Livet, ib. 1856: Le
Roux, Diet. Comique, Amst. 1788, and 6 other editions: Cargme
Prenant [i.e. Taumaise], (argot reforme), Paris, 1829, 8vo: Larchey
(excentricitees du langage), Paris, 1860, I2mo; 5th ed. 1865:
Delvau (langue verte, Parisian), Paris, 1867, 8vo: Larchey, Paris,
1873, 410, 236 pages.

Provencal. — Pallas, Avignon, 1723, 4to: Bastero, La Crusca Pro-
venzale, Roma, 1724, fol. vol. i. only: Raynouard, Paris, 1836-1844,
8vo, 6 vols.: Garcm, Draguignand, 1841, 8vo, 2 vols. : Honnorat,
Digne, 1846-1849, 410, 4 vols. 107,201 words: Id., Vocab.fr. prov.,
ib. 1848, I2mo, 1174 pages.

Spanish. — Covarruvias Orosco, Madrid, i6n,fol.; ib. 1673-1674,
fol. 2 vols. ; Acadamia Espanola, Madrid, 1726-1739, fol. 6 vols. ; 8th
ed. 1837 : Caballero, Madrid, 1849, fol. ; 8th ed. ib. 1860, 4to, 2 vols. :
Cuesta, ib. 1872, fol. 2 vols. : Campano, Paris, 1876, i8mo, 1015 pages.
Cuervo, 1886-1894; Monlau, 1881 ; Zerola, Toro y Gomes, and Isaza,
1895; Serrano (encyclopaedic) 1876-1881. ENGLISH. — Percivall,
London, 1591, 4to: Pineda, London, 1740, fol.: Connelly and
Higgins, Madrid, 1 797-1 798, 410,4 vols. : Neuman and Baretti,9th ed.
London, 1831, 8vo, 2 vols. ; 1874. FRENCH. — Oudin, Paris, 1607, 4to,
1660; Gattel, Lyon, 1803, 410, 2 vols.: Dominguez, Madrid, 1846,
8vo, 6 vols. : Blanc, Paris, 1862, 8vo, 2 vols. GERMAN. — Wagener,
Hamb. 1801-1805, 8vo, 4 vols.: Seckendorp, ib. 1823, 8vo, 3 vols.:
Franceson, 3rd ed. Leipzig, 1862, 8vo, 2 vols. ITALIAN. — Franciosini,
Venezia, 1735, 8vo, 2 vojs. ; Cormon y Manni, Leon, 1843, i6mo,
2 vols.: Romero, Madrid, 1844, 4to. SYNONYMS. — Dicctonario de
Sinonimos, Paris, 1853, 410. ETYMOLOGY. — Aldrete, Madrid, 1682,
fol.: Monlau y Roca, ib. 1856, I2mo; Barcia, 1881-1883. ARABIC
WORDS. — Hammer Purgstall, Wien, 1855, 8vo: Dozy and Engel-
niann, 2d ed. Leiden, 1869, 8vo. ANCIENT. — Sanchez, Paris, 1842,
8vo. RHYMING. — Garcia de Rengifo (consonancias) Salmantica,
1592, 4to; 1876. DON QUIXOTE. — Beneke (German), Leipzig, 1800,
l6mo; 4th ed. Berlin, 1841, i6mo. DIALECTS. — Aragonese: Peralta,
Zaragoza, 1836, 8vo: Borao, ib. 1859, 410. Catalan: Rocha de
Girona (Latin), Barcinone, 1561, fol.: Dictionari Catala (Lat. Fr.
Span.), Barcelona, 1642, 8vo: Lacavalleria (Cat.-Lat.), ib. 1696, fol. :
Esteve, ed. Belvitges, &c. (Catal.-Sp. Lat.), Barcelona, 1805-1835,
fol. 2 vols. : Saura (Cat.-Span.), ib. 1851, i6mp; 2nded.(Span.-Cat.),
ib. 1854; 3rd ed. (id.) ib. 1862, 8vo: Labernia, ib. 1844-1848, 8vo, 2
vols. 1864. Gattegan: Rodriguez, Coruna, 1863, 4to: Cuveira y Pifiol,
Madrid, 1877, 8vo. Majorca: Figuera, Palma, 1840, 410: Amengual,
16.1845,410. Minorca: Diccionario, Madrid, 1848, 8vo. Valencian:
Palmyreno, Valentiae, 1569: Ros, Valencia, 1764, 8vo: Fuster, ib.
1827, 8vo: Lamarca, 2nd ed. ib. 1842, i6mo. Cuba: Glossary of
Creole Words, London, 1840, 8vo: Pichardo, 1836; 2nd ed. Havana,
1849, 8vo; 3rd ed. ib. 1862, 8vo; Madrid, 1860, 410.

Portuguese. — Lima, Lisbon, 1783, 410: Moraes da Silva, ib.
1789, 4to, 2 vols._; 6th ed. 1858: Academia real das Sciencas, ib.
'793> torn, i., ccvi. and 544 pages (A to Azurrar); Faria, ib. 1849,
fol. 2 vols. ; 3rd ed. ib. 1850-1857, fol. 2 vols. 2220 pages. ENGLISH. —
Vieyra, London, 1773, 2 vols. 410: Lacerda, Lisboa, 1866-1871, 4to,
2 vols. FRENCH. — Marquez, Lisboa, 1756-1 761, fol. 2 vols. : Roquette,
Paris, 1841, 8vo, 2 vols.; 4th ed. 1860: Marques, Lisbonne, 1875,
fol. 2 vols.: S_ouza Pinto, Paris, 1877, 32mo, 1024 pages. GERMAN. —
Wagener, Leipzig, 1811-1812, 8vo, 2 vols. : Wollheim, ib. 1844, I2mo,
2 vols. : Bosche, Hamburg, 1858, 8vo, 2 vols. 1660 pages. ITALIAN. —
Costa e Sa, Lisboa, 1773-1774, fol. 2 vols. 1652 pages: Prefumo,
Lisboa, 1853, 8vo, 1162 pages. ANCIENT. — Joaquim de Sancta Rosa
de Viterbo, tb. 1798, fol. 2 vols. ; 1824, 8vo. ARABIC WORDS. — Souza,
ib. 1789, 4to; 2nd ed. by S. Antonio Moura, ib. 1830, 224 pages.
ORIENTAL AND AFRICAN WORDS, NOT ARABIC. — Sao Luiz, ib. 1837,
4to, 123 pages. FRENCH WORDS. — Id., ib. 1827, 4to; 2nd ed. Rio de
Janeiro, 1835, 8v°. SYNONYMS. — Id., ib. 1821, 410; 2nd ed. ib.
1824-1828, 8vo. Fonseca, Paris, 1833, 8vo; 1859, i8mo, 863 pages.
HOMONYMS. — De Couto, Lisboa, 1842, fol. POETIC. — Luzitano (i.e.
Freire), ib. 1765, 8vo, 2 vols. ; 3rd ed. ib. 1820, 4to, 2 vols. RHYMING.
— Couto Guerreiro, Lisboa, 1763, 410. NAVAL. — Tiberghien, Rio de
Janeiro, 1870, 8yo. CEYLON-PORTUGUESE. — Fox, Colombo, 1819,
8vo: Callaway, ib. 1823, 8vo.

Italian. — Accarigi, Vocabulario, Cento, 1543, 4to: Alunno, La
VIII. 7

fabrica del mundo, Vinezia, 1548, fol. : Porccachi, Venetia, 1588, fol. :
Accademici della Crusca, Vocabulario, Venez. 1612, fol.; 4th ed.
Firenze, 1729-1738, fol. 6 vols. : Costa and Cardinali, Bologna, 1819-
1826, 4to, 7 vols.: Tommaseo and Bellini, Torino, 1861, &c., 410, 4
vols. : Petrocchi, 1884-1891. ENGLISH. — Thomas, London, 1598, 4to :
Florio, London, 1598, 4to, 1611: Baretti, London, 1794, 2 vols.;
1854, 8vo, 2 vols. : Petronj and Davenport, Londra, 1828, 8vo, 3 vols. :
Grassi, Leipz. 1854, I2mo: Millhouse, Lend., 1868, 8vo, 2 vols. 1348
pages. FRENCH. — Albert!, Paris, 1771, 410, 2 vols.; Milan, 1862:
Barberi, Paris, 1838, 410,2 vols. : Renzi, Paris, 1850, 8vp. GERMAN. —
Libra utilissimo,Venetiis, 1499,410: Valentin!, Leipzig, 1834-1836,
410,4 vols. ETYMOLOGY. — Menage, Geneva, 1685, fol.: Bolza, Vienna,
1852, 410. PROVENCAL WORDS. — Nannucci, Firenze, 1840, 8vo.
SYNONYMS. — Rabbi, Venezia, 1774, 410; loth ed. 1817: Tommaseo,
Firenze, 1839-1840, 410, 2 vols. : Milano, 1856, 8vo; 1867. VERBS. —
Mastrofini, Roma, 1814, 410, 2 vols. SELECT WORDS AND PHRASES.
— Redi, Brescia, 1769, 8vo. INCORRECT WORDS AND PHRASES. —
Molassi, Parma, 1830-1841, 8vo, 854 pages. SUPPOSED GALLICISMS. —
Viani, Firenze, 1858-1860, 8vo, 2 vols. ADDITIONS TO THE DICTION-
ARIES.— Gherardini, Milano, 1819-1821, 8vo, 2 vols.; ib. 1852-1857,
8vo, 6 vols. RHYMING. — Falco, Napoli, 1535, 410: Ruscelli, Venetia,
1563, 8vo; 1827: Stigliani, Roma, 1658, 8vo: Rosasco, Padova,
1763, 410; Palermo, 1840, 8vo. TECHNICAL. — Bona villa- Aquilino,
Mil. 1819-1821, 8vo, 5 vols. ; 2nded. 1829-1831, 4to, 2 vols. :Vogtberg
(Germ.), Wein, 1831, 8vo. PARTICULAR AUTHORS. — Boccaccio:
Aluno, Le ricchezze della lingua volgare, Vinegia, 1543, fol. Dante:
Blanc, Leipzig, 1852, 8vo; Firenze, 1859, 8vo. DIALECTS. —
Bergamo: Gasparini, Mediol. 1565: Zappetini, Bergamo, 1859, 8vo:
Tiraboschi (anc. and mod.), Turin, 1873, 8vo. Bologna: Bumaldi,
Bologna, 1660, 121110: Ferrari, ib. 1820, 8vo; 1838, 4to. Bfescia:
Gagliardi, Brescia, 1759, 8vo: Melchiori, ib. 1817-1820, 8vo: Vocabu-
lanetto, ib. 1872, 410. Como: Monti, Milano, 1845, 8vo. Ferrara:
Manini, Ferrara, 1805, 8vo: Azzi, ib. 1857, 8vo. Friuli: Scala,
Pordenone, 1870, 8vo. Genoa: Casaccia, Gen. 1842-1851, 8vo; 1873,
&c. : Paganini, ib. 1857, 8vo. Lombardy: Margharini, Tuderti,
1870, 8vo. Mantua: Cherubini, Milano, 1827, 4to. Milan: Varon,
ib. 1606, 8vo: Cherubini, ib. 1814, 8vo, 2 vols.; 1841-1844, 8vo,
4 vols.; 1851-1861, 8vo, 5 vols.: Banfi, ib. 1857, 8vo: 1870, 8vo.
Modena: Galvani, Modena, 1868, 8vo. Naples: Galiani, Napoli,
1789, I2mo, 2 vols. Parma: Peschieri, Parma, 1828-1831, 8vo, 3
vols. 1840; Malespina, ib. 1856, 8vo, 2 vols. Pavia : Dizionario domes-
ticp pavese, Pavia, 1829, 8vo: Gambini, ib. 1850, 410, 346 pages.
Piacenza: Nicolli, Piacenza, 1832: Foresti, ib. 1837-1838, 8vo, 2 pts.
Piedmont: Pino, Torino, 1784, 410: Capello (Fr.), Turin, 1814, 8vo,
2 pts.: Zalli (Ital. Lat. Fr.), Carmagnola, 1815, 8vo, 2 vols: Sant'
Albino, Torino, 1860, 4to. Reggio: Vocabulario Reggiano, 1832.
Romagna: Morri, Fienza, 1840. Rome: Raccolto di yoci Romani e
Marchiani, Osimo, 1769, 8vo. Roveretano and Trentino: Azzolini,
Venezia, 1856, 8vo. Sardinia: Porru, Casteddu, 1832, fol.: Spano,
Cagliari, 1851-1852, fol. 3 vols. Sicily: Bono (It. Lat.), Palermo,
I75I-I754. 4to, 3 vols. ; 1783-1785, 4to, 5 vols. : Pasqualino, ib. 1785-
J795. 4to, 5 vols. : Mortillaro, 16.1853, 4to, 956 pages: Biundi, »6.i857,
I2mo, 578 pages: Traina, ib. 1870, 8vo. Siena: Barbagli, Siena,
1602, 410. Taranto: Vincentiis, Taranto, 1872, 8vo. Turin:
Somis di Chavrie, Torino, 1843, 8 vo. Tuscany: Luna, Napoli, 1536,
410: Politi, Roma, 1604, 8vo; Venezia, 1615; 1628; 1665; Paulo,
ib. 1740, 410. Vaudois: Callet, Lausanne, 1862, I2mo. Venetian:
Patriarch! (Veneziano e padevano), Padova, 1755, 4to; 1796, 1821:
Boerio, Venezia, 1829, 410; 1858-1859; 1861. Verona: Angeli,
Verona, 1821, 8vo. Vicenza: Conti, Vicenza, 1871, 8vo. LINGUA
FRANCA. — Dictionnaire de la langue Franque, ou Petit Mauresque,
Marseille, 1830, i6mo, 107 pages. SLANG. — Sabio (lingua Zerga),
Venetia, 1556, 8vo; 1575: Trattato degli bianti, Pisa, 1828, 8vo.

Romansh. — Promptuario de voci volgari e Latine, Valgrisii,
1565, 410: Der, die, das, oder Nomenclatura (German nouns
explained in Rom.), Seoul, 1744, 8vo: Conradi, Zurich, 1820, 8vo;
1826, izmo, 2 vols.: Carisch, Chur, 1821, 8vo; 1852, l6mo.

Vlach. — Lesicon Rumanese (Lat. Hung. Germ.), Budae, 1825,
4tq: Bobb (Lat. Hung.), Clus, 1822-1823, 410, 2 vols. FRENCH. —
Vaillant, Boucoureshti, 1840, 8vo: Poyenar, Aaron and Hill,
Boucourest, 1840-1841, 410, 2 vols.; Jassi, 1852, i6mo, 2 vols.:
De Pontbriant, Bucuresci, 1862, 8vo: Cihac, Frankf. 1870, 8vo:
Costinescu, Bucuresci, 1870, 8vo, 724 pages: Antonescu, Bucharest,
1874, i6mo, 2 vols. 919 pages. GERMAN. — Clemens, Hermanstadt,
1823, 8vo: Isser, Kronstadt, 1850: Polyzu, ib. 1857, 8vo.

TEUTONIC : (i) Scandinavian.

Icelandic. — LATIN. — Andreae, Havniae, 1683, 8vo: Halderson
(Lat. Danish), ib. 1814, 4to, 2 vols. ENGLISH. — Cleasby-Vigfusson,
Oxford, 1874, 4*o. GERMAN. — Dieterich, Stockholm, 1844, 8vo:
Mobius, Leipzig, 1866, 8vo. DANISH. — Jonssen, Kjobenhavn, 1863,
8vo. NORWEGIAN. — Kraft, Christiania, 1863, 8vo: Fritzner,
Kristiania, 1867, 8vo. POETIC. — Egilsson (Latin), Hafniae, 1860,
8vo; 1864.

Swedish. — Kindblad, Stockholm, 1840, 410: Almqvist, Orebro,
1842-1844, 8vo: Dalin, Ordbog. Stockholm, 1850-1853, 8vo, 2 vols.
1668 pages; 1867, &c. 4to (vol. i. ii., A to Fjermare, 928 pages):
Id., Handordbog, ib. 1868, I2mo, 804 pages: Svenska Academien.
Stockholm, 1870, 410 (A) pp. 187. LATIN.— Stjernhjelm, Holm,
1643, 410: Verelius, Upsala, 1691, 8vo: Ihre (Suco-Gothicum),

DICTIONARY

Upsala, 1769, fol. 2 vols. ENGLISH. — Serenius, Nykoping, 1757,
4to: Brisnon, Upsala, 1784, 410: Widegren, Stockholm, 1788, 410;
Brisman, Upsala, 1801, 410; 3rd ed. 1815, 2 vols. : Deleen Orebro,
1829, 8vo: Granberg, ib. 1832, 121110: Nilssen, Widmark, &c.,
Stockholm, 1875, 8vo. FRENCH. — Moller, Stockholm, 1745, 4to:
Biorkengren, ib. 1795, 2 vols. : Nordforss, ib. 1805, 8vo, 2 vols. : 2nd
ed. Orebro, 1827, I2mo: West, Stockh. 1807, 8vo: Dalin, ib. 1842-
1843, 4to, 2 vols.; 1872. GERMAN. — Dahnert, Holmiae, 1746, 410:
Heinrich, Christiansund, 1814, 4to, 2 vols.; 4th ed. Orebro, 1841,
'I2mo: Helms, Leipzig, 1858, 8vo; 1872. DANISH. — Host,
Kjobenhavn, 1799, 4to: Welander, Stockholm, 1844, 8vo: Dalin,
ib. 1869, i6mo: Kaper, Kjobenhavn, 1876, i6mo. ETYMOLOGY. —
Tamm, Upsala, 1874, &c., 8vo (A and B), 200 pages. FOREIGN
WORDS. — Sahlstedt, Wasteras, 1769, 8vo: Andersson (20,000),
Stockholm, 1857, l6mo: Tullberg, ib. 1868, 8vo: Ekbohrn, ib. 1870,
I2mo: Dalin, ib. 1870, &c., 8vo. SYNONYMS. — Id., ib. 1870, I2mo.
NAVAL. — Ramsten, ib. 1866, 8vo. TECHNICAL. — Jungberg, ib. 1873,
8vo. DIALECTS. — Ihre, Upsala, 1766, 410: Rietz, Lund, 1862-1867,
4to, 859 pages. Bohusldn: Idioticon Bohusiense, Gotaborg, 1776,
410. Dalecarlia: Arborelius, Upsala, 1813, 410. Gothland: Hof
(Sven), Stockholmiae, 1772, 8vo: Raaf (Ydre), Orebro, 1859, 8vo.
Holland,: Moller, Lund, 158, 8vo. Helsingland: Lenstrom, ib.
1841, 8vo: Fornminnessallskap, Hudikswall, 1870, 8vo.

Norwegian. — Jenssen, Kjobenhavn, 1646, 8vo: Pontoppidan,
Bergen, 1749, 8vo: Hanson (German), Christiania, 1840, 8vo:
Aasen, ib. 1873, 8vo, 992 pages.

Danish. — Aphelen, Kopenh, 1764, 4to, 2 vols.; 1775, 4to, 3 vols.:
Molbech, Kjobenhavn, 1833, 8vo, 2 vols.: ib. 1859, 2 vols.: Videns-
kabernes Selskab, ib. 1793-1865, Kalkar. ENGLISH. — Berthelson
(Eng. Dan.), 1754, 4to: Wolff, London, 1779, 410. Bay, ib. 1807,
8vo, 2 vols. ; 1824, 8vo: Hornbeck, ib. 1863, 8vo: Ferrall and Repp,
ib. 1814, i6mo; 1873, 8vo: Rosing, Copenhagen, 1869, 8vo: Ancker,
ib. 1874, 8vo. FRENCH. — Aphelen, ib. 1754, 8vo: Id., ib. 1759,
4to, 2 vols.; 2nd ed. 1772-1777, vol. i. ii. GERMAN. — Id., ib. 1764,
4to, 2 vols.: Gronberg, 2nd ed. Kopenh. 1836-1839, I2mo, 2 vols.;
1851, Helms, Leipzig, 1858, 8vo. SYNONYMS. — Miiller, Kjobenhavn,
1853, 8vo. FOREIGN WORDS. — Hansen, Christiania, 1842, I2mo.
NAVAL. — Wilsoet, Copenhagen, 1830, 8vo: Fisker (French),
Kjobenhavn, 1839, 8vo. OLD DANISH. — Molbech, ib. 18.57-1868,
8vo, 2 vols. DIALECTS. — Id., ib. 1841, 8vo. Bornholm: Adler. ib.
1856, 8vo. South Jutland: Kok, 1867, 8vo. SLANG. — Kristiansen
(Gadesproget), ib. 1866, 8vo. p. 452.

(2) Germanic.

Teutonic. — COMPARATIVE. — Meidinger, Frankf. a. M. 1833, 8vo,
2nd ed. 1836, 8vo.

Gothic. — Junius, Dortrecht, 1665, 4to: 1671; 1684, Diefen-
bach (comparative), Franckf. a. M. 1846-1851, 2 vols. 8vo: Schulze,
Magdeburg, 1848, 410: 1867, 8vo: Skeat, London, 1868, 4to:
Balg (Comparative Glossary), Magvike, Wisconsin, 1887-1889.
ULPHILAS (editions with dictionaries). — Castilionaeus, Mediol, 1829,
4to :Gabelentz and Lobe, Altenburg, 1836-1 843, 410, 2 vols. : Gaugen-
gigl, Passau, 1848, 8vo: Stamm, Paderborn, 1857: Stamm and
Heyne, ib. 1866, 8vo.

Anglo-Saxon. — LATIN. — Somner (Lat. Eng.), Oxonii, 1659,
fol.: Benson, ib. 1701, 8vo: Lye (A.-S. and Gothic), London, 1772,
fol. 2 vols. : Ettmuller, Quedlinburg, 1851, 8vo. 838 pages. ENGLISH.
— Bosworth, London, 1838, 8vo, 721 pa^es: Id. (Compendious),
1848, 278 pages. Corson (A.-S. and Early English), New York, 1871,
8vo, 587 pages; Toller (based on Bosworth), Oxford, 1882-1898.
GERMAN. — Bouterwek, Gutersloh, 1850, 8vo, 418 pages: Grein
(Poets), Gottingen, 1861-1863, 8vo, 2 vols.: Leo, Halle, 1872, 8vo.

English. — Cockeram, London, 1623, 8vo: 9th ed. 1650: Blount,
ib. 1656, 8vo: Philips, The new World of Words, London, 1658, fol.:
Bailey, London, 1721, 8vo; 2nd ed. ib. 1736, fol.; 24th ed. ib. 1782,
8vo: Johnson, ib. 1755, fol. 2 vols.; ed. Todd, London, 1818,
4to, 4 vols.; ib. 1827. 410, 3 vols.; ed. Latham, ib. 1866-1874, 4to,
4 vols. (2 in 4 parts): Barclay, London, 1774, 4to; ed. Woodward,
tb. 1848: Sheridan, ib. 1780, 4to, 2 vols. : Webster, New York, 1828,
4to, 2 vols.; London, 1832, 4to, 2 vols.; ed. Goodrich and Porter,
1865, 4to: Richardson, 16. 1836, 4to, 2 vols.; Supplement, 1856:
Ogilvie, Imperial Dictionary, Glasgow, 1850-1855, 8vo, 3 vols. (the
new edition of Ogilvie by Charles Annandale, 4 vols., 1882, was an
encyclopaedic dictionary, which served to some extent as the founda-
tion of the Century Dictionary) ; Boag, Do., Edinburgh, 1852-1853,
8vo, 2 vols.: Craik, ib. 1856, 8vo: Worcester, Boston, 1863, jto.
Stormouth and Bayne, 1885; Murray and Bradley, The Oxford
English Dictionary, 1884- ; Whitney, The Century Diet., New
York, 1889-1891; Porter, Webs/er's Internal. Diet., Springfield,
Massachusetts, 1890; Funk, Standard Diet., New York, 1 894; Hunter,
The Encyclopaedic Diet., 1879-1888. ETYMOLOGY. — Skinner.Londini,
1671, fol.: Junius, Oxonii, 1743, fol.: Wedgewood, London, 1859-
1865, 3 vols. ; ib. 1872, 8vo. Skeat, Oxford, 1881 ; Fennell (Anglicized
words), Camb. 1892. PRONOUNCING. — Walker, London, 1774, 4to:
by Smart, 2nd ed. ib. 1846, 8vo. PRONOUNCING IN GERMAN. —
Hausner, Frankf. 1793, 8vo ; 3rd ed. 1807 ; Winkelmann, Berlin, 1818,
8vo: Voigtmann, Coburg, 1835, 8vo: Albert, Leipz. 1839, 8vo:
Bassler, ib. 1840, ibmo. ANALYTICAL. — Booth, Bath, 1836, 4to:
Roget, Thesaurus, London, 1852, 8vo; 6th ed. 1857; Boston, 1874.
SYNONYMS. — Piozzi, London, 1794, 8vo, 2 vols.: L. [abarthe], Paris,

1803, 8vo, 2 vols.: Crabb, London, 1823, 8vo; nth ed. 1859:
C. J. Smith, ib. 1871, 8vo, 610 pages. REDUPLICATED WORDS. —
Wheatley, ib. 1866, 8vo. SURNAMES. — Arthur, New York, 1857,
I2mo, about 2600 names: Lower, ib. 1860, 410. PARTICLES. —
Le Febure de Villebrune, Paris, 1774, 8vo. RHYMING. — Levins,
Manipulus Puerorum, London, 1570, 4to; ed. Wheatley, ib. 1867,
8vo: Walker, London, 1775, 8vo; 1865, 8vo. SHAKESPEARE. —
Nares, Berlin, 1822, 410; ed. Halliwell and Wright, London, 1859,
8vo: Schmidt, Berlin, 1874. OLD ENGLISH. — Spelman, London
[1626], fol. (A to I only); 1664 (completed); 1687 (best ed.):
Coleridge (1250-1300), ib. 1859, 8vo: Stratmann (Early Eng.),
Krefeld, 1867, 8vo; 2nd ed. 1873, 410: Bradley (new edition of
Stratman), Oxford, 1891; Matzner and Bieling, Berlin, 1878-
OLD AND PROVINCIAL. — Halliwell, London, 1844-1846, 8vo; 2nd ed.
ib. 1850, 2 vols.: 6th ed. 1904: Wright, ib. 1857, 8vo, 2 vols.; 1862.
DIALECTS. — Ray, ib. 1674, I2mo: Grose, ib. 1787, 8vo; 1790:
Holloway, Lewes, 1840, 8vo; Wright, Eng. Dialect Diet., London,
1898-1905, 28 vols. Scotch: Jamieson, Edin. 1806, 410, 2 vols.;
Supplement, 1826, 2 vols.; abridged by Johnstpne, ib. 1846, 8vo:
Brown,Edin,lS45,8vo: Motherby(German), Konigsberg, 1826-1828,
8vo: (Shetland and Orkney), Edmonston, London, 1866, 8vo:
(Banff shire), Gregor, ib. 1866, 8vo. North Country: Brockett,
London, 1839, 8vo, 2 vols. Berkshire: [Lousley] ib. 1852, 8vo,
Cheshire: Wilbraham, ib. 1817, 4to; 1826, 121110: Leigh, Chester,
1877, 8vo. Cumberland: Glossary, ib. 1851, I2mo: Dickenson,
Whitehaven, 1854, I2mo; Supplement, 1867: Ferguson (Scandin-
avian Words), London, 1856, 8vo. Derbyshire: Hooson (mining),
Wrexham, 1747, 8vo: Sleigh, London, 1865, 8vo. Dorset: Barnes,
Berlin, 1863, 8vo. Durham: [Dinsdale] (Teesdale), London, 1849,
I2mo. Gloucestershire: Huntley (Cotswold), ib. 1868, 8vo. Hereford-
shire: [Sir George Cornewall Lewis,] London, 1839, I2mo. Lanca-
shire: Nodal and Milner, Manchester Literary Club, 1875, 8vo,
Morris (Furness), London, 1869, 8vo: R. B. Peacock (Lonsdale,
North and South of the Sands), ib. 1869, 8vo. Leicestershire:
A. B. Evans, ib. 1848, 8vo. Lincolnshire: Brogden, ib. 1866, I2mo:
Peacock (Manley & Corringham), ib. 1877, 8vo. Norfolk and Suffolk :
Forby, London, 1830, 8vo, 2 vols. Northamptonshire: Sternberg,
ib. 1851, 8vo: Miss Anne E. Baker, ib. 1866, 8vo, 2 vols. 868 pages.
Somersetshire: Jennings, ib. 1869, 8vo: W. P. Williams and W. A.
Tones, Taunton, 1873, 8vo. Suffolk: Moor, Woodbridge, 1823, I2mo:
Bowditch (Surnames), Boston, U.S., 1851, 8vo; 1858; 3rd ed.
London, 1861, 8vo, 784 pages. Sussex: Cooper, Brighton, 1836,
8vo: Parish, Farncombe, 1875, 8vo. Wiltshire: Akerman, London,
1842, I2mo. Yorkshire (North and East), Toone, ib. 1832, 8vo:
(Craven), Carr, 2nd ed. London, 1828, 8vo, 2 vols.: (Swaledale),
Harland, ib. 1873, 8vo: (Cleveland), Atkinson, ib. 1868, 410, 653
pages: (Whitby) [F. K. Robinson], ib. 1876, 8vo: (Mid- Yorkshire
and Lower Niddersdale), C. Clough Robinson, ib. 1876, 8vo: (Leeds),
Id., ib. 1861, I2mo: (Wakefield), Banks, ib. 1865, i6mo: (Hallam-
shire), Hunter, London, 1829, 8vo. Ireland: (Forth and Bargy, Co.
Wexford), Poole, London, 1867, 8vo. America: Pickering, Boston,
1816, 8vo: Bartlett, New York, 1848, 8vo; 3rd ed. Boston, 1860.
8vo; Dutch transl. by Keijzer, Gorinchen, 1854, I2mo; Germ,
transl. by Kohler, Leipz. 1868, 8vo. Elwyn, Philadelphia, 1859.
8vo. Negro English: Kingos, St Croix, 1770, 8vo: Focke (Dutch),
Leiden, 1855, 8vo: Wullschlaegel, Lobau, 1856, 8vo. 350 pages.
SLANG. — Grose, London, 1785, 8vo; 1796: Hotten, ib. 1864, 8vo;
1866; Farmer & Henley (7 vols., 1890-1904).

Frisic. — Wassenbergh, Leeuwarden, 1802, 8vo: Franeker, 1806,
8vo: Outzen, Kopenh. 1837, 4to: Hettema (Dutch), Leuwarden,
1832, 8yo; 1874, 8 vo, 607 pages: Winkler (Nederdeutsch en Friesch
Dialectikon), 's Gravenhage, 1874, 8vo, 2 vols. 1025 pages. OLD
FRISIC. — Wiarda (Germ.), Aurich, 1786, 8vo: Richthofen, Gottingen,
1840, 4to. NORTH FRISIC. — Bendson (Germ.), Leiden, 1860, 8vo:
Johansen (Fohringer und Amrumer Mundart), Kiel, 1862, 8vo.
EAST FRISIC. — Stiirenburg, Aurich, 1857, 8vo. HELIGOLAND. —
Oelrichs, i. /., 1836, i6mo.

Dutch. — Kok, 2nd ed. Amst. 1785-1798, 8vo, 38 vols.: Weiland,
Amst. 1790-1811, 8vo, II vols.: Harrebomee, Utrecht, 1857, 410;
1862-1870, 8vo, 3 vols. : De Vries and Te Winkel, Gravenh. 1864, &c.,
4to (new ed. 1882- ); Dale, ib. 4th ed. 1898; ENGLISH. — Hex-
ham, ed. Manley, Rotterdam, 1675-1678, 4to: Holtrop, Dortrecht,
1823-1824, 8vo, 2 vols. : Bomhoff, Nimeguen, 1859, 8vo, 2 vols. 2323
pages: Jaeger, Gouda, 1862, i6mo: Calisch, Tiel, 1871, &c., 8vo.
FRENCH. — Halma, Amst. 1710, 410; 4th ed. 1761 : Marin, ib. 1793,
4to, 2 vols.: Winkelman, ib. 1793, 4to, 2 vols.: Mook, Zutphen,
1 824-1 825, 8vo, 4 vols. ; Gouda, 1857, 8vo, 2 vols. 281 8 pages : Kramers,
ib. 1859-1862, 2 vols. i6mo. GERMAN. — Kramer, Niirnb. 1719, fol.;:
1759, 410, 2 vols.; ed. Titius, 1784, Weiland, Haag, 1812, 8vo:
Terwen, Amst. 1844, 8vo. ETYMOLOGY. — Franck, 1884-1892.
ORIENTAL WORDS. — Dozy, 's Gravenhage, 1867, 8vo. GENDERS OF
NOUNS. — Bilderdijk, Amst. 1822, 8vo, 2 vols. SPELLING. — Id.,
's Gravenhage, 1829, 8vo. FREQUENTATIVES. — De Jager, Gouda,
1875, 8vo, vol. i. OLD DUTCH. — Suringer, Leyden, 1865, 8yo.
MIDDLE DUTCH. — De Vries, 's Gravenhage, 1864, &c., 4to. Verwijs
and Verdam, ib. 1885-

Flemish. — Kilian, Antw. 1511, 8vo; ed. Hasselt, Utrecht, 1777,
4to, 2 vols. FRENCH. — Berlemont, Anvers, 1511, 4to: Meurier, ib.
1557, 8vo: Rouxell and Halma, Amst. 1708, 410; 6th ed. 1821:
Van de Velde and Sleeckx, Brux. 1848-1851, 8vo, 2440 pages; ib.

DICTIONARY

1860, 6vo, 2 vols. ANCIENT NAMES OF PLACES. — Grandgagnage
<East Belgium), Bruxelles, 1859, 8vo.

German. — Josua Pictorius (Maaler), Die teiitsch Spraach, Tiguri,
1561, 8vo; Stieler, Niirnb. 1691,410: Adelung, Leipz. 1774-1786,
410, 5 vols.; 1793-1818, 5 vols.: Campe, Braunschweig, 1807-1811,
4to, 5 vols.: Grimm, Leipzig, 1854, &c., 410: Sanders, ib. 1860-
1865, 410, 3 vols. 1885: Diefenbach and Wiilcker (High and Low
German, to supplement Grimm), Frankf. a. M. 1874, 1885, 8vo. ;
Kluge, Strassburg, 1883; Heine, Leipzig, 1890-1895; Wcigand,
Giessen, 1873. ENGLISH. — Adelung, 1783-1796, 8vo, 3 vols.: Hilpert,
Karlsruhe, 1828-1829, 8vo, 2 vols.; 1845-1846, 4to, 2 vols.: Fliigel,
Leipz. 1830, 8vo, 2 vols.; London, 1857, 8vo; Leipzig, 1870:
Miiller, Cothen, 1867, 8vo, 2 vols. FRENCH. — Laveaux, Strassburg,
1812, 4to: Mozin, Stuttgard, 1811-1812, 4to, 4 vols. ; 1842-1846, 8yo,
4 vols., 3rd ed. 1850-1851, 8vo: Schuster, Strasb. 1859, 8vo: Daniel,
Paris, 1877, i6mo. OLD HIGH GERMAN. — Haltaeus, Lipsiae, 1758,
fol. 2 vols.: Graff, Berlin, 1834-1846, 4to, 7 vols.: Brinckmeier,
Gotha, 1850-1863, 410, 2 vols.: Kehrein (from Latin records), Nord-
hausen, 1863, 8vo. Schade, Halle, 1872-1882. MIDDLE HIGH GERMAN.
— Ziemann, Quedlinburg, 1838, 8vo: Benecke, Miiller and Zarnche,
Leipz. 1854-1866, 8vp, 3 vols.: Lexer, Leipzig, 1870, 8vo. MIDDLE
Low GERMAN. — Schiller and Liibben, Bremen, 1872, &c., 8vo, in
progress. Low GERMAN. — Vollbeding, Zerbst, 1806, 8vo: Kose-
garten, Griefswald, 1839, 4to; 1856, &c., 4to. ETYMOLOGY. —
Helvigius, Hanov. 1620, 8vo: Wachter, Lipsiae, 1737, fol. 2 vols.:
Kaindl, Salzbach, 1815-1830, 8vo, 7 vols. : Heyse, Magdeburg, 1843-
1849, 8vo, 3 vols. : Kehrein, Wiesbaden, 1847-1852, 2 vols. SYNONYMS.
— Eberhard, Maas, and Griiber, 4th ed. Leipzig, 1852-1863, 8vo, 4
vols.: Aue (Engl.), Edinb. 1836, 8 vo: Eberhard, llthed. Berlin, 1854,
I2mo: Sanders, Hamburg, 1872, 8vo, 743 pages.' FOREIGN WORDS.
— Campe, Braunschweig, 1813, 4to: Heyse, Fremdworterbuch,
Hannover, 1848, 8vo. NAMES. — Pott. Leipz. 1853, 8vo: Michaelis
(Taufnamen), Berlin, 1856, 8vo: Forstemann (Old Germ.) Nord-
hausen, 1856-1859, 4to, 2 vols. 1573 pages, 12,000 names: Steub
(Oberdeutschen), Miinchen, 1871, 8vo. LUTHER. — Dietz, Leipzig,
1869-1872, 8vo, 2 vols. DIALECTS. — Popowitsch, Wien, 1780, 8vo:
Fulda, Berlin, 1788, 8vo: Klein, Frankf. 1792, 8vo, 2 vols.: Kalt-
schmidt, Nordlingen, 1851, 410; 1854, 5th ed. 1865. Aix-la-
Chapelle, Miiller and Weitz, Aachen, 1836, I2mo. Appenzell: Tobler,
Zurich, 1837, 8vo. Austria: Hofer, Linz, 1815, 8vo; Castelli, Wien,
1847, I2mo: Scheuchenstul (mining), ib. 1856, 8vo. Bavaria:
Zaupser, Miinchen, 1789, 8vo: Deling, ib. 1820, 2 vols.: Schmeller,
Stuttg. 1827-1837, 8vo, 4 vols. ; 2nd ed. Miinchen, 1872, 410, vol.
i. 1799 pages. Berlin: Trachsel. Berlin, 1873, 8vo. Bremen:
Bremisch Deutsch Gesellschaft, Bremen, 1767-1771, 1869, 8vo, 6 vols.
Oelrich (anc. statutes), Frankf. a. M. 1767, 8yo. Carinthia: Ueber-
felder, Klagenfurt, 1862, 8vo: Lexe, Leipzig, 1862, 8vo. Cleves:
De Schueren, Teuthonista, Colon, 1477, fol.; Leiden, 1804, 4to.
Cottingen: Schambach, Hannover, 1838, 8vo. Hamburg: Richey,
Hamb. 1873, 410; 1755, 8vo. Henneberg: Reinwold, Berlin and
Stettin, 1793, 1801, 8vo, 2 vols.: Bruckner, Meiningen, 1843, 410.
Hesse: Vilmar, Marburg, 1868, 8vo, 488 pages. Holslein: Schiitz
Hamb. i8oo-ri8o6, 8vo, 4 vols. Hungary: Schoer, Wien, 1858.
Livonia: Bergmann, Salisburg, 1785, 8vo: Gutzeit, Riga, 1859-1864,
8vo, 2 parts. Upper Lusatia: Anton, Gorlitz, 1825-1839, 13 parts.
Luxembourg: Gangler, Lux. 1847, 8vo, 406 pages. Mecklenburg and
Western Pomerania: M., Leipzig, 1876, 8vo, 114 pages. Nassau:
Kehrein, Weilburg, 1860, 8vo. Osnaburg: Strodtmann, Leipz. 1756,
8vo. Pomerania and Rugen: Dahnert, Stralsund, 1781, 4to. Posen:
Bernd, Bonn, 1820, 8vo. Prussia: Bock, Konigsb. 1759, 8vo:
Hennig, ib. 1785, 8vo. Saxony Schmeller (from Heliand, &c.),
Stuttg. 1840, 410. Silesia: Berndt, Stendal, 1787, 8vo. Swabia:
Schmid, Berlin, 1795, 8vo; Stuttg. 1831, 8vo. Switzerland:
Stalder, Aarau, 1807-1813, 8vo, 2 vols. Thuringia: Keller, Jena,
1819, 8vo. Transylvania: Schuller, Prag, 1865, 8vo. Tirol:
Schopf, Innspruck, 1866, 8vo. Venetian Alps: Schmeller, Wien,
1854, 8vo. Vienna: Hugel, ib. 1873, 8vo. HUNTING. — Westerwald:
Schmidt, Hadamar, 1800, 8vo; Kehrein, Wiesbaden, 1871, I2mo.
SLANG.— Gauner Sprache : Schott, Erlangen, 1821, 8vo: Grolmann,
Giessen, 1822, 8vo: Train, Meissen, 1833, 8vo: Anton, 2nd ed.
Magdeburg, 1843, 8vo; 1859: Ave-Lallemant, Das Deutsche
Caunerthun, Leipzig, 1858-1862, 8vo, vol. iv. pp. 515-628. Student
Slang: Vollmann (Burschicoses), Ragaz, 1846, l6mo, 562 pages.

Celtic.

Celtic generally. — Lluyd, Archaeologia Britannica, Oxford,
1707, folio: Bullet, Besangon, 1754-1860, fol. 2 vols.

Irish. — Cormac, bishop of Cashel, born 831, slain in battle 903,
•wrote a Glossary, Sanas Cormaic, printed by Dr Whitley Stokes,
London, 1862, 8vo, with another, finished in 1569, by O'Davoren,
a schoolmaster at Burren Castle, Co. Clare : O'Clery, Lpvanii, 1643,
8vo: Mac Cuirtin (Eng.-Irish), Paris, 1732, 4to: O'Brien, ib. 1768,
410; Dublin, 1832, 8vo: O'Reilly, 1817, 4to: 1821; ed. O' Donovan,
tb. 1864, 410, 725 pages: Foley (Eng.-Irish), ib. 1855, 8vo: Connellan
(do.), 1863, 8vo.

Gaelic. — Macdonald, Edin. 1741, 8vo: Shaw, London, 1780,
4to, 2 vols.: Allan, Edin. 1804, 410: Armstrong, London, 1825,
4to: Highland Society, ib. 1828, 410, 2 vols.: Macleod and Dewar,
Glasgow, 1853, 8vo.

Manx. — Cregeen, Douglas, 1835, 8vo: Kelly, ib. 1866, 8vo, 2 vols.

Welsh. — LATIN. — Davies, London, 1632, fol.: Boxhornius,
Amstelodami, 1654, 410. ENGLISH. — Salesbury, London, 1547, 410:
1551 : Richards, Bristol, 1759, 8vo: Owen (W.), London, 1793-1794,
8vo, 2 vols.; 1803, 410, 3 vols.: Walters, ib. 1794, 410: Owen-
Pughe, Denbigh, 1832, 8vo; 3rd ed. Pryse, ib. 1866, 8vo: D. S. Evans
(Eng.- Welsh), ib. 1852-1853, 8vo; 1887.

Cornish. — Pryce, Archaeologia, Sherborne, 1770, 410: Williams,
Llandovery, 1862-1865, 4to. NAMES. — Bannister (20,000), Truro,
1869-1871, 8vo.

Breton. — Legadeuc, Le Catholicon breton, finished 1464, printed
at Lantrequier, 1499, fol. 210 pages; 1501, 4to; L'Orient, 1868,
8vo: Quicquerde Roskoff, Morlaix, 1633, 8vo: Rostrenen, Rennes,
1732, 410, 978 pages; ed. Jolivet, Guingamps, 1834, 8vo, 2 vols.:
l'A.[rmerie], Leyde, I744i 8vo; La Haye, 1756: Lepelletier, Paris,
1752, fol.: Legonidec, Angouleme,^l82i, 8vo; St Brieuc, 1847-1850,
410, 924 pages. DIALECT OF LEON. — Troude (Fr.-Bret.), Brest,
1870, 8vo; Id. (Bret.-Fr.), ib. 1876, 8vo, 845 pages. DIOCESE OF
VANNES. — Armerie, Leyde, 1774, 8vo.

Basque.

Basque. — Larramendi, St Sebastian, 1745, fol. 2 vols.; ed-
Zuazua, ib. 1854, fol.; Chaho, Bayonne, 1856, 410, 1867: Fabre,
ib. 1870, 8vo: Van Eys, Paris, 1873, 8vo: Egiiren, Madrid, 1877.

Baltic.

Lithuanian. — Szyrwid, 3rd ed., Vilnae, 1642, 8vo; $th ed. 1713:
Schleicher, Prag, 1856^1857, 8vo, 2 vols.: Kurmin, Wilno, 1858, 8vo:
Kurschat, Halle, 1870, &c., 8vo.

Lettic. — Mancelius, Riga, 1638, 4to: Elvers, ib. 1748, 8vo:
Lange, Mitau, 1777, 4to: Sjogren, Petersburg, 1861, 410: Ulmann,
ed. Bielenstein, Riga, 1872, &c., 8vo.

Prussian. — Bock, Konigsberg, 1759, 8vo: Hennig, 16.1785, 8vo:
Nesselmann, Berlin, 1873, 8vo: Pierson, ib. 1875, 8v°-

Slavonic.

Slavonic generally. — Franta-Sumavski (Russ. Bulg. Old Slav.
Boh. Polish), Praga, 1857, 8vo, Miklosich, Wien, 1886.

Old Slavonic. — Beruinda, Kiev, 1627, 8vo; Kuteinsk, 1653,
4to: Polycarpi (Slav. Greek, Latin), Mosque, 1704, 4to: Alexyccv,
St Petersb. 1773, 8vo; 4th ed. ib. 1817-1819, 8vo, 5 vols.: Russian
Imp. Academy, ib. 1847, 4to, 4 vols. : Miklosich, Vindobonae, 1850:
4to ; 1862-1865, 8vo, Mikhailovski, St Petersb. l875,.8vo : Charkovski,
Warschaw, 1873, 8vo.

Russian. — Russian Academy, St Petersburg, 1789-1794, 410, 6
vols.; 1806-1822, ib. 1869, 8vo, 3 vols.: Dahl, Moskva, 1862-1866,
fol. 4 vols.; d., ib. 1873, &c., 410; a 3rd edition, 1903, &c. FRENCH-
GERM.-ENG. — Reiff, ib. 1852-1854, 4to. GERMAN, LATIN. — Holterhof,
Moskva, I778,8vo,2 vols.;3rded. i853-i855,8vo, 2 vols. : Weismann,
ib. 1731, 410; 1782, and frequently. FRENCH, GERMAN. — Nordstet,
ib. 1780-1782, 4to, 2 vols.: Heym, Moskau, 1796-1805, 4to, 4 vols.:
Booch-Arkossi and Frey, Leipzig, 1871, &c., 8vo. ENGLISH. —
Nordstet, London, 1780, 4to: Grammatin and Parenogo, Moskva,
1808-1817, 4to, 4 vols.FRENCH. — Tatischeff, 2nd ed. St Petersb. 1798,
8vo, 2 vols. ; Moskau, 1816, 410, 2 vols. : Reiff, St Petersb. 1835-1836,
8vo, 2 vols. : Makaroff, ib. 1872, 8vo, 2 vols. mo pages; 1873-1874,
I2mo, 2 vols. GERMAN. — Pawlowski, Riga, 1859, 8vo: Lenstrom,
Mitau, 1871, 8vo. SWEDISH. — Geitlin, Helsingfors, 1833, I2mo:
Meurmann, ib. 1846, 8vo. POLISH. — Jakubowicz, VVarszawa, 1825-
1828, Svo^-a-vols. : Amszejewicz, ib. 1866, 8vo : Szlezigier,i6. 1867, 8vo.
TECWNfcAL. — Grakov (Germ.), St Petersb. 1872, 8vo. NAVAL. —
Butakov, ib. 1837. DIALECTS. — North-west Russia: Gorbachevski
(old language, in Russian), Vilna, 1874, 8vo, 418 pages. White
Russia: Nosovich (Russian), St Petersburg, 1870, 4to, 760 pages.
Red Russia: Patritzkii (German), Lemberg, 1867, 8vo, 2 vols.
842 pages. Ukraine: Piskanov (Russian), Odessa, 1873, 410, 156
pages.

Polish. — Linde (explained in Lat. Germ, and 13 Slav dialects),
Warszawie, 1807-1814, 4to, 6 vols. 4574 pages. ENGLISH. — [Ryka-
czewski], Complete Dictionary, Berlin, 1849-1851, 8vo, 2 vols.: Ryka-
czewski, Berlin, 1866, i6mo, 1161 pages. FRENCH AND GERMAN. —
Troc, Leipz. 1742-1764, 8vo, 4 vols. ; 4th ed. ib. 1806-1822,410, 4 vols. :
Bandtke, Breslau, 1806, 8vo, 2 vols.; 1833-1839, 8vo. FRENCH. —
Schmidt, Leipzig, 1870, i6mo. RUSSIAN AND GERMAN. — Schmidt
(J. A. E.), Breslau, 1834, 8vo. GERMAN. — Mrongovius, Konigsberg,
1765; 1835, 4to; 1837: Troianski, Berlin, 1835-1838, 8vo, 2 vols.:
Booch-Arkossi, Leipzig, 1864-1868, 8vo, 2 vols.: Jordan, ib. 1866,
8vo. ITALIAN. — Plazowski, Warszawa, 1860. 8vo. 2 vols. 730 pages.
RUSSIAN. — Potocki, Lipsk, 1873, &c., I2mo.

Wendish. — Matthai, Budissen, 1721, 8vo: Bose, Grimma, 1840,
8vo: Pfuhl, w Budzsinje, 1866, 8vo, 1210 pages. UPPER LUSATIAN.
— Pfuhl and Jordan, Leipz. 1844, 8vo- LOWER LUSATIAN. — Zwahr,
Spremberg, 1847, 8vo.

Czech. — Rohn (Germ. Lat.), Prag, 1780, 4to, 4 vols. :
Dobrowski and Hanka, ib. 1802-1821, 410, 2 vols. LAT. GERM.
HUNGAR. — Jungmann, Praze, 1835-1839, 6 vols. 410, 5316 pages.
GERMAN. — Tham, Prag. 1805-1807, 8vo, 2 vols. : Sumavski, ib. 1844-
1846, 8vo, 2 vols.: Koneney, ib. 1855, i8mo, 2 vols.: Rank (Germ.
Boh.), ib. 1860, i6mo, 775 pages. TECHNICAL. — Spatny, ib. 1864,
8vo: Kheil (names of goods, Germ. Boh.), ib. 1864, 8vo, 432 pages.
HUNTING. — Spatny, ib. 1870, 8vo, 137 pages.

ig6

DICTIONARY

South Slavic. — Richterand Ballman.Wien, 1839-1840, 8vo, 2 vols.
SERVIAN. — Karajic (Germ. Lat.), ib. 1818, 8vo; 1852: Lavrovski
(Russian), St Petersb. 1870, 8vo, 814 pages. BOSNIAN.—
Micalia, Laureti, 1649, 8vo. SLOVAK.- — Bernolak (Lat. Germ.
Hung.), Budae, 1825-1827, 8vo, 6 vols.: Loos (Hung, and Germ.),
Pest, 1869, &c., 3 vols. SLOVENE. — Gutsmann, Klagenfurt, 1789,
4to: Relkovich, Wien, 1796, 410, 2 vols. : Murko, Gratz, 1838, 8vp,
2 vols.: Janezic, Klagenfurt, 1851, I2mo. DALMATIAN. — Ardelio
delta Bella, Venezia, 1728, 8vo; 2nd ed. Ragusae, 1785,410: Stulli,
ib. 1801-1810, 4to, 2 vols. CROATIAN.— Habdelich, Gratz, 1670, 8vo:
Sulek, Agram, 1854-1860, 8vo, 2 vols. 1716 pages. CARINTHIAN. —
Lexer, Leipzig, 1862, 8vo. OLD SERVIAN. — Danitziye (Servian),
Belgrad, 1864, 8vo, 3 vols.

Bulgarian. — Daniel (Romaic, Albanian, Rumanian, and Bulgarian) ,
Moschopolis, 1770; Venice, 1802, 410. ENGLISH. — Morse and
Vassiliev, Constantinople, 1860, 8vo. RUSSIAN. — Borogoff, Vienna,
1872, &c., 8vo.

Ugrian.

TJgrian, Comparative. — Donner, Helsingfors, 1874, 8vo, in pro-
gress: Budenz (Ugrian-Magyar), Budapest, 1872-1875, 8vp.

Lappish. — Manuale, Holmiae, 1648, 8vo: Fjellstrom, ib. 1738,
8vo: Leem and Sandberg, Havn. 1768-1781, 410, 2 parts: Lindahl
and Oehrling, Holm. 1780, 8vo. NORTH LAPPISH.— Stockfleht,
Christiania, 1852, 8vo.

Finnish. — Juslenius, Holmiae, 1745, 4to, 567 pages: Renvall,
Aboae, 1826, 410, 2 vols. : Europaeus, Helsingissa, 1852—1853, l6mo,
2 vols. 742 pages: Lunin, Derpt, 1853, 8vo: Euren, Tavashuus, 1860,
8vo: Ahlman, ib. 1864, 8vp: Wiedemann, St Petersb. 1869, 41:0 :
Godenhjelm (Germ.), Helsingfors, 1871: Lonnrot, Helsingissa,
1874. NAVAL. — Stjerncreutz, ib. 1863, 8vo.

Esthonian. — Hupel, Mitau, 1818, 8vo, 832 pages: Korber,
Dorpat, 1860, 8vp: Wiedemann, St Petersb. 1869, Ato, 1002 pages:
Aminoff (Esth.-Finnish), Helsingissa, 1869, 8vo: Meves (Russian),
Riga, 1876, I2mo.

Permian. — -Rogord (Russian), St Petersb. 1869, 8vo, 420 pages.

Votiak. — Wiedemann, Reval, 1847, 8vo : Ahlquist, Helsingfors,
1856, 410.

Cheremiss. — Budenz, Pest, 1866, 8vo.

Ersa-Mordvine. — Wiedemann, St Petersb. 1865, 4to. MOKSHA-
MORDVINE. — Ahlquist, ib. 1862, 8vo.

Magyar. — Szabo, Kassan, 1792, 8vo: Guczor and Fogarazi
(Hung. Academy), Pesth, 1862, 8vo, in progress. ENGLISH. —
Dallos, Pesth, 1860, 8vo. FRENCH. — Kiss, ib. 1844, I2mo, 2 vols. :
Karady, Leipz. 1848, 12mo: Mole, Pest, 1865, 8vo, 2 vols. GERMAN. —
Schuster, Wien, 1838, 8vo: Bloch, Pesth, 1857, 4to, 2 vols. : Ballagi,
ib. 1857, 8vo; 6th ed. 1905, 8vo, 2 vols. : Loos, ib. 1870, 8vo, 914 pages.
ETYMOLOGICAL. — Dankoysky (Lat.-Germ.), Pressburg, 1853, 8vo:
Kresznerics (under roots, in Hung.), Sudan, 1831-1832, 410, 2 vols. :
Podhorsky (from Chinese roots, in Germ.), Budapest, 1877, 8vo.
NEW WORDS. — Kunoss, Pesth, 1836, 8vo; 1844.

Turkish. — ARAB. PERS. — Esaad Effendi, Constantinople, 1802,
fol. ROMAIC. — Alexandrides, Vienna, 1812, 410. POLYGLOTTS. —
Pianzola (Ital. Grec. volgare, e Turca), Padova, 1789, 4to: Ciakciak
(Ital. Armeno, Turco), Venice, 1804, 410; 2nd ed. 1829: Azarian
(Ellenico, Ital. Arm. Turco), Vienna, 1848, 8vo: Mechitarist
Congregation (Ital. Francese, Arm. Turco), ib. 1846, 8vo. LATIN. —
Mesgnien-Meninski, Viennae, 1680, fol. 3 vols.; ed. Jenisch and
Klezl, ib. 1780-1802, fol. 4 vols. ENGLISH. — Sauerwein, London,
1855, I2mo: Redhouse, t&. 1856, 8vo, 1176 pages: Id., Eng. Turkish,
ib. 860, 8vo. FRENCH. — Kieffer and Bianchi (Turk.-Fr.), Paris,
1835-1837, 2 vols. 2118 pages: Bianchi (Fr.-Turk.) Paris, 1843-1846,
8vo, 2 vols. 2287 pages; 1850, 8vo, 2 vols. : Mallouf, ib. 1863-1867,
8vo, 2 vols. FRENCH AND GERMAN. — Zenker (Arab. Pers.), Leipz,
1862-1876, 410, 2 vols, 982 pages. GERMAN. — Korabinsky, Pressburg,
1788, 8vo: Vambery, Constantinople, 1858, 8vo. ITALIAN. —
Molina, Roma, 1641, 8vo: Masais, Firenze, 1677, 8vo: Ciadyrgy,
Milano, 1832-1834, 4to, 2 vols. RUSSIAN. — Budagov (Comparative
lexicon of the Turkish-Tartar dialects), St Petersburg, 1869, 8vo,
2 vols.

Gipsy. — Bischoff, Ilmenau, 1827, 8vo: Truxillo, Madrid, 1844,
8vo: Jimenes, Sevilla, 1846, l6mo: Baudrimont, Bordeaux, 1862,
8vo: Vaillant, Paris, 1868, 8vo: Paspati, Constantinople, 1870,
4to: Borrow, Romany Lavo Lil, London, 1874, 8vo: Smart and
Crofton, London, 1875, 8vo.

Albanian. — Blanchus, Romae, 1635, 8vo: Kaballioti (Romaic,
Wallach. Alb.), Venice, 1770, 8vo: Xylander, Frankfurt a. M. 1835,
8vo: Hahn, Jena, 1854, 410: Rossi da Montalto, Roma, 1866, 8vo.

ASIA

Semitic. — POLYGLOTTS. — Thurneissius, Berolini, 1585, fol.:
Thorndike, London, 1635, fol.: Schindler, Pentaglotton, Frankf,
ad M. 1653, fol.: Hottinger, Heptaglotton, ib. 1661, fol.: Castellus,
London, 1669, fol. 2 vols. (Hebrew, Chaldaic, Syriac, Samaritan,
Aethippic and Arabic in one alphabet; Persian separately. It
occupied him for seventeen years, during which he worked sixteen
to eighteen hours a day): Otho, Frankf. a. M. 1702, 410 (the same
languages with Rabbinical).

Hebrew.— Abdut 875, Zemab, head of the school of Pum-
beditha, wrote a Talmudical dictionary of words and things, arranged
in alphabetical order, which is lost. About 880, Jehudah ben
'Alan, of Tiberias, and Jehudah ibnKoreish, ofTahurt, in Morocco
wrote Hebrew dictionaries. Saadia ben Joseph (born 892, died 942),
of Fayum, in Upper Egypt, wrote [rax npp, probably a Hebrew-
Arabic dictionary. Menabem ben Jacob Ibn Saruq (born 910, died
about 970), of Tortosa and Cordova, wrote a copious Hebrew
dictionary, first printed by Herschell F. Filipowski, Edinburgh, 1855,
8vo, from five MSS. David ben Abraham, of Fas, wrote, in Arabic,
a large Hebrew dictionary, the MS. of which, a quarto of 313 leaves
on cotton paper, was found about 1 830 by A. Firkowitz, of Eupatoria,
in the cellar of a Qaraite synagogue in Jerusalem. The age of this
work cannot be ascertained. About 1050, AH ben Suleiman wrote a
dictionary in Arabic, on the plan of that of David ben Abraham. The
MS. of 429 leaves belongs to Firkowitz. Haja ben Sherira, the
famous teacher of the Academy of Pumbeditha, wrote a Hebrew
dictionary in Arabic, called al Ham (The Gathering), arranged
alphabetically in the order of the last radical letter. This dictionary
is lost, as well as that of the Spaniard Isaac ben Saul, of Lucena.
lona ibn Ganah, of Cordova, born about 985, wrote a Hebrew
dictionary in Arabic called Kiidb al Azul (Book of Roots). This,
as well as a Hebrew translation by Samuel ibn Tabon, is extant
in MS., and was used by Gesenius in his Thesaurus. Rabbi David
ben Joseph Kimhi died soon after 1232. His lexicon of roots, called
D'trw, was printed at Naples 1490, fol.; Constantinople, 1513, fol.;
Naples, 1491, 8vp; Venice, 1552; Berolini, 1838, 410. Tishbi (The
Tishbite), by Elijah ben Asher, the Levite, so called because it con-
tained 712 roots, was printed at Isny 1541, 8vo and 4to, and often
afterwards. LATIN. — Miinster, Basileae, 1523, 8vo; 5 editions to
1564: Zamora, Compluti, 1526, fol.: Pellicanus, Argentorati, 1540,
fol.: Reuchlin, Basil, 1556, fol.: Avenarius, Wittebergae, 1568, fol.;
auctus, 1589: Pagnini, Lugd. Bat. 1575, fol.; 1577; Genevae, 1614;
Buxtorf, Basil. 1607, 8vo; 1615, and many other editions: Frey
(Lat.-Eng.), 2nd ed. London, 1815, 8vo: Gesenius, Thesaurus, Leipz.
1829-1858, 410, 3 vols. ENGLISH. — Bale, London, 1767, 4to: Park-
hurst, ib. 1792, 410: Lee, ib. 1840, 8vo: Gesenius, translated by
Robinson, ib. 1844, 8vo; by Tregelles, ib. 1846, 410: Fuerst, 4th ed.
transl. by Davidson, ib. 1866, 8vo: 1871, 8vo, 1547 pages. FRENCH.
— Leigh, Amst. 1703, 410: Glaire, Paris, 1830, 8vo; 1843. GERMAN.
— Gesenius, Leipzig, 1810-1812, 8vo, 2 vols. : Fuerst, ib. 1842, l6mo:
ib. 1876, 8vp, 2 vols. ITALIAN. — Modena, Venetia, 1612, 410; 1640:
Coen, Reggio, 1811, 8vo: Fontanella, Venezia, 1824, 8vo. DUTCH. —
Waterman, Rotterdam, 1859, &c., 8vo. HUNGARIAN. — Ehrentheil
(Pentateuch), Pest, 1868, 8vo. ROMAIC. — Loundes, Melit6, 1845,
8vo, 987 pages.

Rabbinical and Chaldee. — Nathan ben Yehiel of Rome wrote in the
beginning of the I2th century a Talmudic dictionary, Aruch, printed
1480 (?), 5. I., fol.; Pesaro, 1517, fol.; Venice, 1531; and often:
Isaiah ben Loeb, Berlin, wrote a supplement to Aruch, vol. i. Breslau.
1830, 8vo; vol. ii. (S ton), Wien, 1859, 8vo: Miinster, Basil. 1527.
4to, 1530, fol. : Elijah ben Asher, the Levite, transl, by Fagius,
Isnae, 1541, fol.; Venet. 1560: David ben Isaac de Pomis, Zamah
David, Venet. 1587, fol.: Buxtorf, Basileae, 1639, fol.: ed. Fischer,
Leipz. 1866-1875, 4to: Otho, Geneva, 1675, 8vo; Altona, 1757, 8vo:
Zanolini, Patavii, 1747, 8vo: Hornheim, Halle, 1807, 8vo: Landau,
Prag, 1819-1824, 8vo, 5 vols. : Dessauer, Erlangen, 1838, 8vo: Nork
(i.e. Korn), Grimma, 1842, 4to: Schonhak, Warschau, 1858, 8vo,
2 vols. TARGUMS. — Levy, Leipzig, 1866-68 410, 2 vols.; 1875:
Id. (Eng.), London, 1869, 8vo, 2 vols. TALMUD. — Lowy (in Heb.),
Wien, 1863, 8vo: Levy, Leipzig, 1876, &c., 410. PRAYER-BOOK.
— Hecht, Kreuznach, 1860, 8vo: Nathan, Berlin, 1854, I2mo.
SYNONYMS. — Pantavitius, Lodevae, 1640, fol. FOREIGN WORDS. —
Rabeini, Lemberg, 1857, 8vp, &c. JEWISH-GERMAN. — Callenberg.
Halle, 1736, 8vo: Vollbeding, Hamburg, 1808, 8vo: Stern,
Miinchen, 1833, 8vo, 2 vols. : Theile, Berlin, 1842-1843, 8vo, 2 vols. :
Ave-Lallemant, Das deutsche Gaunerthum, Leipzig, 1858, 8vo, 4 vols. ;
vol. iv. pp. 321-512.

Phoenician.— M. A. Levy, Breslau, 1864, 8vo.

Samaritan. — Crinesius, Altdorphi, 1613, 4to: Morinj, Parish's,
1657, I2mo: Hilligerus, Wittebergae, 1679, 410: Cellarius, Cizae,
1682, 4to; Frankof. 1705: Uhlemann, Leipsiae, 1837, 8vo: Nicholls,
London, 1859, 8vo.

Assyrian. — Norris, London, 1868, 8vo, 3 vols. PROPER NAMES. —
Menant, Paris, 1861, 8vo.

Accadian. — Lenormant, Paris, 1875, 8vo.

Syriac. — Joshua ben AH, a physician, who lived about 885, made
a Syro-Arabic lexicon, of which there is a MS. in the Vatican.
Hoffmann printed this lexicon from Alif to Mim, from a Gotha MS.,
Kiel, 1874, 4to. Joshua bar Bahlul, living 963, wrote another, great
part of which Castelli put into his lexicon. His MS. is now at
Cambridge, and, with those at Florence and Oxford, was used by
Bernstein. Elias bar Shinaya, born 975, metropolitan of Nisibis,
1009, wrote a Syriac and Arabic lexicon, entitled Kitab ut Tarjuman
fi Taalem Loghat es Sunan (Book cajled the Interpreter for teaching
the Language of the Syrians), of which there is a MS. in the British
Museum. It was translated into Latin by Thomas a Novaria, a
Minorite friar, edited by Germanus, and published at Rome by
Obicinus, 1636, 8vo. It is a classified vocabulary, divided in 30
chapters, each containing several sections. Crinesius, Wittebergae,

DICTIONARY

197

1612, 4to: Buxforf, Basileae, 1622, 410: Ferrarius, Romae, 1622,
4to: Trost, Cothenis Anhaltor, 1643, 4to: Gutbir, Hamburg!, 1667,
8vo: Schaaf, Lugd. Bat, 1708, 410: Zanolini, Patavii, 1742, 4to:
Castellus, ed. Michaelis, Gottingen, 1788, 410, 2 vols. : Bernstein,
Berlin, 1857, &c. fol.: Smith (Robt. Paine), Dean of Canterbury,
Oxonii, 1868, &c. fol.: fasc. 1-3 contain 538 pages: Zingerle,
Romae, 1873, 8vo, 148 pages.

Arabic. — The native lexicons are very many, voluminous and
copious. In the preface to his great Arabic-English lexicon, Lane
describes 33, the most remarkable of which are — the 'A in, so called
from the letter which begins its alphabet, commonly ascribed to al
Khalil (who died before A.H. 175 [A.D. 791], aged seventy-four) : the
Sihah of Jauhari (died 398 [1003]) : the Mohkam of Ibn Sidah the
Andalusian, who was blind, and died A.H. 458 [A.D. 1066], aged about
sixty: the Asas of Zamakhshari (born 467 [1075], died 538 [1144]),
"a most excellent repertory of choice words and phrases": the
Lisanel 'Arab of Ibn Mukarram (born 630 [1232], died 711 [1311]);
Lane's copy is in 28 vols. 4to : the Kamus (The Sea) of Fairuzabadi
(born 729 [1328], died 816 [14.13], : the Taj el Arus, by Murtada
Ez Zebadi (born A.D. 1732, died 1791) — the copy made for Lane
is in 24 vols. thick 4to. The Sihah was printed Hardervici Getorum,
1774, 4to; Bulak, 1865, fol. 2 vols.: Kamus, Calcutta, 1817, fol.

2 vols.; Bombay, 1855, fol. 920 pages: Sirr el Lagal, by Farish esh
Shidiac, Tunis, fol. 609 pages: Muhlt al Muhit, by Beitrus Al
Bustani Beirut, 1867-1870, 2 vols. 4to, 2358 pages (abridged as
Katr Al Muhit, ib. 1867-1869, 2 vols. 8vo, 2352 pages), is excellent for
spoken Arabic. PERSIAN. — The Surah, by Jumal, Calcutta, 1812-
1815, 2 vols. 4to: Samachsharii Lexicon, ed. Wetzstein, Leipz. 1845,
4to; 1850: Muntakhal al Loghat, Calcutta, 1808; ib. 1836; Lucknow,
1845; Bombay, 1862, 8vo, 2 vols.: Muntaha I'Arabi, 4 vols. fol.
1840: Shams al Loghat, Bombay, 1860, fol. 2 vols. 509 pages.
TURKISH. — Achteri Kabir, Constantinople. 1827, fol.: El Kamus,
ib. 1816, fol. 3 vols.; translated by Acan Effendi, Bulak, fol.

3 vols.; El Sihah, translated by Al Vani, Constantinople, 1728, fol.
2 vols. : 1755-1756; Scutari, 1802, fol. 2 vols. LATIN. — Raphelengius,
Leiden, 1613, fol.: Giggeius, Mediolani, 1632, fol. 4 vofs. : Golius
Lugd. Bat. 1653, fol. (the best before Lane's) : Jahn, Vindobonae,
1802, 8vo: Freytag, Halle, 1830-1838, 4 vols. 410; abridged, ib. 1837,
4to. ENGLISH. — Catafago (Arab.-Eng. and Eng. -Arab.), London,
1858, 8vo, 2 vols.; 2nd ed. 1873, 8vo: Lane, London, 1863-1893
(edited after Lane's death, from 1876, by his grandnephew, Stanley
Lane-Poole. The Arabic title is Medd el Kamoos, meaning either the
Flow of the Sea, or The Extension of the Kamus. It was under-
taken in 1842, at the suggestion and at the cost of the 6th duke of
Northumberland, then Lord Prudhoe, by Mr Lane, who returned to
Egypt for the purpose, and lived in Cairo for seven years to study, and
obtain copies of, the great MS. lexicons in the libraries of the mosques,
few of which had ever been seen by a European, and which were so
quickly disappearing through decay, carelessness and theft, that the
means of composing such a work would not long have existed).
Newman (modern), ib. 1872, 8vo, 2 vols. 856 pages. FRENCH. —
Ruphy (Fr.-Ar.), Paris, 1802, 4to: Bochtor (do.), Paris, 1828, 410,
2 vols.; 2nd ed. ib. 1850: Roland de Bussy (Algiers, Fr.-Ar.), Alger,
(835, i6mo: Id., 1836, 8vo; 1839: Berggren (Fr.-vulg. Ar., Syria
and Egypt.), Upsala, 1844, 4to: Farhat (Germanps), reyu par
Rochaid ed Dahdah, Marseille, 1849, 410: Biberstein Kasimirski,
Paris, 1846, 8vo, 2 vols.; 1853-1856; 1860, 2 vols. 3032 pages: Marcel
(vulgar dialects of Africa), Paris, 1830; 1835, 8vo; 1837; enlarged,
1869, 8vo; Paulmier (Algeria), 2nd ed. Paris, 1860, 8vo, 931 pages;
1872: Bernard (Egypt), Lyon, 1864, l8mo: Cuche, Beirut, 1862,
8vo; 1867: Nar Bey (A. Calfa), 2nd ed. Paris, 1872, I2mo, 1042
pages: Cherbonneau (written language), Paris, 1876, 2 vols. 8vo:
Id. (Fr.-Ar.), Paris, 1872, 8vo: Beausier (Algiers, Tunis, legal,
epistolary), Alger, 1871, 4to, 764 pages; 1873. GERMAN. — Seyfarth
(Algeria), Grimma, 1849, i6mo: Wolff (Mod. Ar.), Leipzig, 1867,
8vo: Wahrmund (do.), Giessen, 1870-1875, 8vo, 4 vols. ITALIAN.
— Germano, Roma, 1636, 8vo; (Ar. Lat. It.), Romae, 1639, fol.:
Dizionario, Bulak. 1824, 4to: Schiaparelli, Firenze, 1871, 4to,
641 pages. SPANISH. — Alcala, Grenada, 1505, 4to: Canes, Madrid,
1787, fol. 3 vols. SUFI TECHNICAL TERMS. — Abd Errahin, ed.
Sprenger, Calcutta, 1845, 8vo. TECHNICAL TERMS OF THE MUSSUL-
MAN SCIENCES.— Abd al Hagg and Gholam Kadir, Calcutta, 1853-
1862, 410, 1593 pages. MEDICAL TERMS. — PharaonandBertherand,
Paris, 1860, I2mo. MATERIA MEDICA. — Muhammed Abd Allah
Shirazi, Ulfaz Udiviyeh, translated by Gladwin (Eng. Pers. Hindi),
Calcutta, 1793, 4to, 1441 words. NOMS DBS VETEMENTS. — Dozy,
Amst. 1845, 8vo. WORTER IN ENTGEGENGESETZTEN BEDEUTUNGEN.
— Redslob, Gottingen, 1873, 8vo. KORAN. — Willmet (also in
Haririum et vitam Timuri), Lugd. Bat. 1784, 4to; Amst. 1790:
Fluegel, Concordantia, Leipz. 1842, 410: Penrice, Dictionary and
Glossary, London, 1873, 410. EL TABRIZI'S LOGIC. — Mir Abufeth
(French), Bulak, 184^2, 8vo. MALTESE. — Vassal!, Romae, 1796,
4to: Falzon (Malt. Ital. Eng.), Malta, s.a. 8vo: Vella, Livorno,
1843, 8vo.

Armenian. — Mechitar, Venice, 1749-1769, 410, 2 vols.: Avedi-
chiam, Siirmelian and Aucher (Aukerian), ib. 1836-1837, 410, 2 vols. :
Aucher, ib. 1846, 410. POLYGLOT. — Villa (Arm.-vulg., litteralis, Lat.
Indicae et Gallicae), Romae, 1780. GREEK AND LATIN. — Lazarists,
Venice, 1836-1837, 4to, 2 vols. 2217 pages. LATIN. — Rivola, Medio-
lani, 1621, fol.: Nierszesovicz, Romae, 1695, 4to; Villotte, ib. 1714,

fol. : Mechitar, Venetiae, 1 747-1 763 , 4to, 2 vols. ENGLISH. — Aucher,
Venice, 1821-1825, 4t°, 2 vols. FRENCH. — Aucher, Venise, 1812-1817,
8vo, 2 vols. ; (Fr.-Arm. Turc.), ib. 1840, 4to: Eminian, Vienna, 1853,
4to: Calfa, Paris, 1861, 8vo, 1016 pages; 1872. ITALIAN. —
Ciakciak, Venezia, 1837, 4to. RUSSIAN. — Khudobashev [Khuta-
pashian], Moskva, 1838, 8vo, 2 vols. Russ. ARM. — Adamdarov, ib.
1821, 8vo: Popov, ib. 1841, 8vo, 2 vols. MODERN WORDS. — Riggs,
Smyrna, 1847, 8vo.

Georgian. — Paolini (Ital.), Roma, 1629, 410: Klaproth (Fr.),
Paris, 1827, 8vo: Tshubinov (Russian, French), St Petersburg, 1840,
4to; 1846, 8vo, 2 vols. 1187 pages.

Circassian. — Loewe, London, 1854, 8vo.

Ossetic. — Sjorgen, St Petersb. 1844, 4to.

Kurd. — Garzoni, Roma, 1787, 8vo: Lerch (German), St Peters-
burg, 1857, 8vo: Id. (Russian), ib. 1856-1858, 8vo.

Persian. — Burhani Qatiu, arranged by J. Roebuck, Calcutta,

1818, 4to: Burhan i Kali, Bulak, 1836, fol.: Muhammed Kazim,
Tabriz, 1844, fol.: Haft Kulzum (The Seven Seas), by Ghazi ed din
Haidar, King of Oude, Lucknow, 1822, fol. 7 vols. ARABIC. — Shums
ul Loghat, Calcutta, 1806, 410, 2 vols. TURKISH. — Ibrahim Effendi,
Farhangi Shu'uri, ib. 1742, fol. 2 vols. 22,530 words, and 22,450
poetical quotations: Burhan Kati, by Ibn Kalif, translated by
Ahmed Asin Aintabi, ib. 1799, fol.; Bulak, 1836, fol.: Hayret
Effendi, ib. 1826, 8vo. ARMENIAN. — Douzean, Constantinople,
1826, fol. BENGALI. — Jay Gopal, Serampore, 1818, 8vo. LATIN. —
Vullers (Zend appendix), Bonnae ad Rhen, 1855-1868, 4to, 2 vols.
2544 pages; Supplement of Roots, 1867, 142 pages. ENGLISH. —
Gladwin, Malda in Bengal, 1780, 4to; Calcutta, 1797: Kirkpatrick,
London, 1785, 4to: Moises, Newcastle, 1794, 4to: Rousseau,
London, 1802, 8vo; 1810: Richardson (Arab, and Pers.), ib. 1780-
1800, fol. 2 vols. ; ed. Wilkins, ib. 1806-1810, 4to, 2 vols. ; ed Johnson,
ib. 1829,410: Ramdhen Sen, Calcutta, 1829, 8vo; 1831: Tucker
(Eng.-Pers.), London, 1850, 410: Johnson (Pers. and Arab.), ib.
1852, 410: Palmer, ib. 1876, 8vo, 726 pages. FRENCH. — Handjeri
(Pers. Arab, and Turkish), Moscou, 1841, 4to, 3 vols. 2764 pages:
Berge, Leipzig, 1869, I2mo. GERMAN. — -Richardson, translated by
Wahl as Orientalische Bibliotheque, Lemg, 1788-1792, 8vo, 3 vols.
ITALIAN. — Angelusa S. Josepho [i.e. Labrosse] (Ital. Lat. Fr.), Amst.
1684, fol.

Old Persian. — (Cuneiform), Benfey (German), Leipzig, 1847, 8vo:
Spiegel (id.), ib. 1862, 8yo: Kossovich (Latin), Petropofi, 1872, 8vo.

Zend. — Justi, Leipzig, 1864, 4to: Vullers, Persian Lexicon,
Appendix: Lagarde, Leipzig, 1868, 8vo.

Pahlavi. — An old Pahlayi and Pazend Glossary, translated by
Destur Hoshengi Jamaspji, ed. Haug, London, 1867, 8vo; 1870,
8vo: West, Bombay, 1874, 8vo.

INDIAN TERMS. — The Indian Vocabulary, London, 1788, i6mo:
Gladwin, Calcutta, 1797, 410: Roberts, London, 1800, 8vo: Rous-
seau, ib. 1802, 8vo: Roebuck (naval), ib. 1813, izmo: C. P. Brown,
Zillah Diet., Madras, 1852, 8vo: Robinson (Bengal Courts), Calcutta,
1854, 8vo; 1860: Wilson, London, 1855, 410: Fallen, Calcutta,
1858, 8vo.

Sanskrit. — Amarasimha (lived before A.D. 1000), Amarakosha
Calcutta, 1807, 8vo; ib. 1834, 4to; Bombay, 1860, 4to; Lucknow,
1863, 4to; Madras, 1870, 8vo, in Grantha characters; Cottayam,
1873, 8yo, in Malaylim characters; Benares, 1867, fol. with
Amaraviveka, a commentary by Mahesvara: Rajah Radhakanta
Deva, Sabdakalpadruma, Calcutta, 1821-1857, 4to, 8 vols. 8730 pages:
2nd ed. 1874, &c. : Bhattachdrya, Sabdastoma Mahanidhi, Calcutta,
1869—1870, 8vo, parts i.-vii. 528 pages: Abhidhanaratnamala, by
Halayudha, ed. Aufrecht, London, 1861, 8vo: Vachaspatya, by
Taranatha Tarkavachaspati, Calcutta, 1873, &c., 4to (parts i.-vii.,
1680 pages). BENGALI. — Sabdasindhu, Calcutta, 1808: Amarakosa,
translated by Ramodoyu Bidjalunker, Calcutta, 1831, 4to:
Mathurana Tarkaratna, Sabdasandarbhasindhu, Calcutta, 1863, 410.
MARATHI. — Ananta Sastri Talekar, Poona, 1853, 8vo, 495 pages:
Madhava Chandora, Bombay, 1870, 410, 695 pages. TELUGU.—
Amarakosha, Madras, l86i,ed. Kala, with Gurubalala prabodhika, a
commentary, ib. 1861, 410; with the same, ib. 1875, 4to, 516 pages;
with Amarapadaparijata (Sans, and Tel.), by Vavilla Ramasvani
Sastri, ib. 1862, 4to; ib. 1863, 8vo; 3rd ed. by Jaganmohana
Tarkalankara and Khetramohana, 1872, &c., parts i.-iv. 600 pages:
Suria Pracasa Row, Sarva-Sabda-Sambodhim, ib. 1875, 410, 1064
pages. TIBETAN AND MONGOL. — Schiefner, Buddhistische Triglotte,
St Petersburg, 1859, fol., the Vyupatti or Mahavyupatli from the
Tanguir, vol. 123 of the Sutra. LATIN. — Paulinus a Sancto
Bartholomeo, Amarasinha, sectio i. de coelo, Romae, 1798, 4to:
Bopp. Berlin, 1828-1830, 4to; 2nd ed. 1840-1844; 3rd, 1866, 410.
ENGLISH. — Amarakosha, trans, by Colebrooke, Serampore, 1808,
4to; 1845, 8vo: Rousseau, London, 1812, 4to: Wilson, Calcutta,

1819, 4to; 2nd ed. 1832: ed. Goldstucker, Berlin, 1862, &c., folio,
to be in 20 parts: Yates, Calcutta, 1846, 4to: Benfey, London, 1865,
8vo: Ram Jasen, Benares, 1871, 8vo, 713 pages: Williams, Oxford,
1872, 410. ENGLISH-SANSKRIT. — Williams, London, 1851, 4to.
FRENCH. — Amarakosha, transl. by Loiseleur Deslongchamps, Paris,
1839-1845, 8vo, 2 vols. 796 pages: Burnouf and Leupol, Nancy,
1863-1864, 8vo. GERMAN. — Bohtlingk and Roth, St Petersb. 1853,
&c., 4to, 7 vols. to 1875. ITALIAN. — Gubernatis, Torino, 1856, &c.
8vo, unfinished, 2 parts. RUSSIAN. — Kossovich, St Petersburg, 1859,

198

DICTIONARY

8vo. ROOTS. — Wilkins, London, 1815, 4to: Rosen, Berolini, 1827,
8vo: Westergaard, Bonnae, 1840-1841, 8vo: Vishnu Parasurama
Sastri Pandita (Sans, and Marathi), Bombay, 1865, 8vo: Taranatha
Tarkavachaspati, Dhatupadarsa, Calcutta, 1869, 8vo: Leupql, Paris,
1870, 8vo. SYNONYMS. — Abhidlianacintamani, by Hemachadra, ed.
Colebrooke, Calcutta, 1807, 8vo; translated by Bohtlingk and Rieu
(German), St Petersburg, 1847, 8vo. HOMONYMS. — Medinikara,
Medinikosha, Benares, 1865, 410; Calcutta, 1869, 8vo; ib. 1872,
8vo. DERIVATIVES. — Hirochand and Rooji Rangit, Dhatumanjari,
Bombay, 1865, 8vo. TECHNICAL TERMS OF THE NYAYA PHILO-
SOPHY.— Nydyakosa, by Bhimacharya Jhalakikar (Sanskrit),
Bombay, 1875, 8vo, 183 pages. RIG VEDA. — Grassmann, Leipzig,
1873-1875, 8vo.

Bengali. — Manoel,Lisboa, i743,8vo:Forster,Calcutta, 1799-1802,
4to, 2 vols. 893 pages: Carey, Serampore, 1815-1825, 4to, 2 vols. ;
ed. Marshman, ib. 1827-1828, 8vo, 2 vols.; 3rd ed. ib. 1864-1867,
8 vo; abridged by Marshman, ib. 1865, 8vo; ib. 1871, 8vo, 2 vols.
936 pages: Morton, Calcutta, 1828, 8vo: Houghton, London, 1833,
4to: Adea, Shabdabudhi, Calcutta, 1854, 604 pages. ENGLISH. —
Ram Comul Sen, ib. 1834, 410, 2 vols.; London, 1835, 410:
D'Rozario, Calcutta, 1837, 8vo: Adea, Abhidan, Calcutta, 1854,
761 pages. ENGLISH LAT. — Ramkissen Sen, ib. 1821, 410. ENG.-
BENG. AND MANIPURI. — [Gordon], Calcutta, 1837, 8vo.

Canarese. — Reeve, Madras, 1824-1832, 410,2 vols. ; ed. Sanderson,
Bangalore, 1858, 8vo, 1040 pages; abridged by the same, 1858,
8vo, 276 pages: Diclionarium Canarense, Bengalori, 1855, 8vo:
School Dictionary, Mangalore, 1876, 8vo. 575 pages.

Dardic Languages. — Leitner(Astori,Ghilghiti,Chilasi, and dialects
of Shina, viz. Arnyia, Khajuna and Kalasha), Lahore, 1868, 410.

Guzarati. — (English) Mirza Mohammed Cauzim, Bombay, 1846,
4to; Shapurji Edalji, ib. 1868, 8vo, 896 pages: Karsandas Mulji,
ib. 1868, 8vo, 643 pages.

Hindi. — Rousseau, London, 1812, 4to: Adam, Calcutta, 1829,
8vo: Thompson, ib. 1846, 8vo: J. D. Bate, London, 1876, 8vo, 809
pages. ENGLISH. — Adam, Calcutta, 1833, 8vo. ENGLISH, URDU
AND HINDI. — Mathuraprasada Mirsa, Benares, 1865, 8vo, 1345
pages.

Hindustani. — Ferguson, London, 1773, 4to: Gilchrist, Calcutta,
1800, 8vo; ed. Hunter, Edinb. 1810; Lond. 1825: Taylor, Calcutta,
1808, 4to, 2 vols.: Gladwin (Persian and Hind.), Calcutta, 1809,
8vo, 2 vols.: Shakespeare, London, 1817, 410; 1820; 1834; 1849:
Forbes, London, 1847, 8vo; 1857: Bertrand (French), Paris, 1858,
8vo: Brice, London, 1864, I2mo: Fallon, Banaras, 1876, &c., to
be in about 25 parts and 1200 pages. ENGLISH. — Gilchrist, 1787-
1780, 4to, 2 parts: Thompson, Serampore, 1838, 8vo.

Kashmiri. — Elmslie, London, 1872, 121110.

Khassia. — Roberts, Calcutta, 1875, I2mo.

Malayalim. — Fabricius and Breithaupt, Weperg, 1 779,410: Bailey,
Cottayam, 1846, 8vo: Gundert, Mangalore, 1871, 8vo, 1171 pages.

Marathi. — Carey, Serampore, 1810, 8vo: Kennedy, Bombay,
1824, fol. : Tugunnauth Shastri Kramavant, Bombay, 1829-1831,
4to, 3 vols. : Molesworth, ib. 1831, 410; 2nd ed. 1847, 410; ed. Candy,
Bombay, 1857, 4to, 957 pages; abridged by Baba Padmanji,
ib. 1863, 8vo; 2nd ed. (abridged), London, 1876, 8vo, 644 pages.
ENGLISH. — Molesworth, Bombay, 1847, 410.

Oriya. — Mohunpersaud Takoor, Serampore, iSn, 8vo: Sutton,
Cuttack, 1841-1848, 8vo, 3 vols. 856 pages.

Pali. — Clough, Colombo, 1824, 8vo: Moggallana Thero (a Sin-
halese priest of the I2th century), Abhidhanappika (Pali, Eng.
Sinhalese), ed. Waskeduwe Subheti, Colombo, 1865, 8vo: Childers,
London, 1872-1875, 8vo, 658 pages. ROOTS. — Silavansa, Dhatuman-
jusa (Pali Sing, and Eng.), Colombo, 1872, 8vo.

Prakrit. — Delius, Radices, Bonnae ad Rh., 1839, 8vo.

Punjabi. — Starkey, 1850, 8vo; Lodiana Mission, Lodiana,
1854-1860, 444 pages.

Pushtu or Afghan. — Dorn, St Petersb. 1845, 4to: Raverty,
London, 1860, 4to; 2nd ed. ib. 1867, 4.to: Bellew, 1867, 8vo.

Sindhi. — Eastwick, Bombay, 1843, fol. 73 pages: Stack, ib. 1855,
8vo,2 vols.

Sinhalese. — Clough, Colombo, 1821-1830, 8vo, 2 vols.: Calla-
way (Eng., Portuguese and Sinhalese), ib. 1818, 8yo: Id., School
Dictionary, ib. 1821, 8vo: Bridgenell (Sinh.-Eng.), ib. 1847, i8mo:
Nicholson (Eng.-Sinh.), 1864, 32mo, 646 pages.

Tamil. — Provenza (Portug.), Ambalacotae, 1679, 8vo: Sadur
Agurardi, written by Beschi in 1732, Madras, 1827, fol. ; Pondicherry,
1875, 8vo: Blin (French), Paris, 1834, 8vo: Rottler, Madras, 1834-
1841, 4to, 4 vols.: Jaffna Book Society (Tamil), Jaffna, 1842, 8vo,
about 58,500 words: Knight and Spaulding (Eng. Tarn.), ib. 1844,
8vo; Dictionary, ib. 1852, 410: Pope, 2nd ed. ib. 1859, 8vo: Winslow,
Madras, 1862, 410, 992 pages, 67,452 words.

Telugu. — Campbell, Madras, 1821, 410: C. P. Brown, Madras
(Eng.-Tel.), 1852, 8vo, 1429 pages: Id. (Tel.-Eng.), ib. 1852, 8vo,
1319 pages. MIXED TELUGU. — Id., ib. 1854, 8vo.

Thuggee. — Sleeman, Calcutta, 1830, 8vo, 680 Ramasi words.

Indo-Chinese Languages. — Leyden, Comparative Vocabulary of
Barma, Malaya and Thai, Serampore, 1810, 8vo. Annamese:
Rhodes (Portug. and Lat.), Romae, 1651, 4to: Pigneaux and Taberd,
Fredericinagon, 1838, 410; Legrand de la Liraye, Paris, 1874, 8vo:
Pauthier (Chin. Ann.-Fr. Lat.), Paris, 1867, &c., 8vo. Assamese:
Mrs Cutter, Saipur, 1840, 12 mo; Bronson, London, 1876, 8vo, 617

pages. Burmese: Hough (Eng.-Burm.), Serampore, 1825, Moul-
main, 1845, 8vo, 2 vols. 955 pages: Judson, Calcutta, 1826, 8vo;
(Eng. Burm.), Moulmain, 1849, 410; (Burm. Eng.), ib. 1852, 8vo;
2nd ed., Rangoon, 1866, 8vo, 2 vols. 968 pages: Lane, Calcutta, 1841,
4to. Cambodian: Aymonier (Fr.-Camb.), Saigon, 1874, 4to; Id.
(Camb.-Fr.), ib. 1875, fol. Karen: Sau-kau Too (Karen), Tavoy,
1847, I2mo, 4 vols. : Mason, Tavoy, 1840, <j.to. Sgau-Karen: Wade,
ib. 1849, 8vo. Siamese (Thai): Pallegoix (Lat. French, Eng.),
Paris, 1854, 410: Dictionarium Latinum Thai, Bangkok, 1850,
4to, 498 pages.

Malay. — LATIN. — Haex, Romae, 1631, 410; Batavia, 1707.
DUTCH. — Houtmann (Malay and Malagasy), Amst. 1603, 410;
1673; 1680; 1687; 1703; Batavia, 1707: Wiltens and Dankaarts,
Gravenhage, 1623, 4to; Amst. 1650; 1677; Batavia, 1708, 410:
Heurnius, Amst. 1640, 4to: Gueynier, Batavia, 1677, 4to; 1708:
Loder, ib. 1707-1708, 410: Van der Worm, ib. 1708 410: Roorda van
Eysinga (Low), ib. 1824-1825, 8vo, 2 vols.; I2th ed. 's Gravenhage,
1863, 8vo; Id. (Hof, Volks en Lagen Taal), ib. 1855, 8vo: Dissel
and Lucardie (High Malay), Leiden, 1860, I2mo: Pijnappel, Amst.
1863, 8vo: Badings, Schoonhoven, 1873, 8vo. ENGLISH. — Hout-
mann (Malay and Malagasy), translated by A. Spaulding, London,
1614, 4to: Bowrey, ib. 1701, 410: Howison, ib. 1801, 410: Mars-
den, ib. 1812, 410: Thomsen, Malacca, 1820, 8vo; 1827: Crawford,
London, 1851, 8vo. 2 vols. FRENCH. — Boze, Paris, 1825, i6mo:
Elout (Dutch-Malay and French-Malay), Harlem, 1826, 410:
Bougourd, Le Havre, 1856, 8vo: Richard, Paris, 1873, 8vo, 2 vols.:
Favre, Vienna, 1875, 8vo, 2 vols.

Malay Archipelago. — Batak: Van der Tuuk, Amsterdam, 1861,
8vo, 564 pages. Bugis: Mathes, Gravenh. 1874, 8vo, 1188 pages:
Thomsen (Eng.-Bugis and Malay), Singapore, 1833, 8vo. Dyak:
Hardeland (German), Amst. 1859, 8vo, 646 pages. Javanese: Sener-
pont Domis, Samarang, 1827, 410, 2 vols.: Roorda van Eysinga,
Kampen, 1834-1835, 8vo, 2 vols.: Gericke, Amst. 1847, 8vo; ed.
Taco Roorda, ib. 1871, &c. parts i.-v., 880 pages: Jansz and
Klinkert, Samarang, 1851, 8vo; 1865: Favre (French), Vienne,
1870, 8vo. Macassar: Matthes, Amst. 1859, 8vo, 951 pages.
Sunda: De Wilde (Dutch, Malay and Sunda), Amsterdam.
1841, 8vo: Rigg (Eng.), Batavia, 1862, 4to, 573 pages. Formosa:
Happart (Favorlang dialect, written about 1650), Parrapattan,

1840, I2mo.

Philippines. — Bicol: Marcos, Sampaloc, 1754, fol. Bisaya: San-
chez, Manila, 1711, fol.: Bergano, ib. 1735, fol.: Noceda, ib. 1841:
Mentrida (also Hiliguena and Haraya) ib. 1637, 410; 1841, fol. 827
pages: Felis de la Encarnacion, ib. 1851, 410, 2 vols. 1217 pages.
Ibanac: Bugarin, ib. 1854, 410. Ilocana, Carro, ib. 1849, fol.
Pampanga: Bergafio, ib. 1732, fol. Tagala: Santos, Toyabas, 1703,
fol. ; ib. 1835, 410, 857 pages: Noceda and San Lucar, Manila, 1754,
fol.; 1832.

Chinese. — Native Dictionaries are very numerous. Many are
very copious and voluminous, and have passed through many
editions. Shwo wan, by Hu Shin, is a collection of the ancient char-
acters, about 10,000 in number, arranged under 540 radicals, published
150 B.C., usually in 12 vols.: Yu pien, by Ku Ve Wang, published
A.D. 530, arranged under 542 radicals, is the basis of the Chinese
Japanese Dictionaries used in Japan : Ping tseu loui pien, Peking,
1726, 8vo, 130 vols. : Peiwanyunfu (Thesaurus of Literary Phrases),
1711, 131 vols. 8vo, prepared by 66 doctors of the Han lin Academy
in seven years. It contains 10,362 characters, and countless combina-
tions of two, three or four characters, forming compound words
and idioms, with numerous and copious quotations. According to
Williams (On the word Shin, p. 79), an English translation would fill
140 volumes octavo of 1000 pages each. Kanghi tsze tien (Kanghi's
Standard or Canon of the Character), the dictionary of Kanghi, the
first emperor of the present dynasty, was composed by 30 members
of the Han lin, and published in 1716, 40 vols. 4to, with a preface by
the emperor. It contains 49,030 characters, arranged under the 214
radicals. It is generally in 12 vols., and is universally used in China,
being the standard authority among native scholars for the readings
as well as the meanings of characters. LATIN. — De Guignes (French,
Lat.), Paris, 1813, fol.; Klaproth, Supplement, 1819; ed. Bazil
(Latin), Hong-Kong, 1853, 4to: Gongalves (Lat.-Chin.), Macao,

1841, fol.: Gallery, Systema phoneticum, Macao, 1841, 8vo: Schott,
Vocabularium, Berlin, 1844, 410. ENGLISH. — Raper, London, 1807,
fol. 4 vols.: Morrison, Macao, 1815-1823, 410, 3 parts in 6 vols.:
Medhurst, Batavia, 1842-1843, 8vo, 2 vols.: Thorn, Canton, 1843,
8vo: Lobscheid, Hong-Kong, 1871, 4to: Williams, Shanghai, 1874,
4to. ENG. CHINESE. — Morrison, part iii.: Williams, Macao, 1844,
8vo: Medhurst, Shanghai, 1847-1848, 8vo, 2 vols.: Hung Maou,
Tung yung fan hwa (Common words of the Red-haired Foreigners),
1850, 8 vo. Doolittle, Foochow, 1872,410, vol. i. 550 pages. FRENCH,
— Gallery, Diet, encydopedique, Macao and Paris, 1845 (radicals 1-20
only): M. A. H., 1876, 8vo, autographic, 1730 pages. FRENCH-
CHIN. — Perny (Fr.-Latin, Spoken Mandarin), Paris, 1869, 410;
Appendice, 1770; Lemaire and Giguel, Shanghai, 1874, l6mo.
PoRTUGUESE.—Goncalves (Port.-Chin.), Macao, 1830, 8vo, 2 vols.:
Id. (Chin.-Port.), ib. 1833, 8vo. IDIOMS. — Giles, Shanghai, 1873,
410. PHRASES. — Yaou Pei-keen, Luy yih, 1742-1765, 8vo, 55 vols.:
Tseen Ta-hin, Shing luy, 1853, 8vo, 4 vols. CLASSICAL EXPRESSIONS.
— -Keang Yang and 30 others, Sue Shoo teen Lin, 1795, 8vo, 30 vols.
ELEGANT EXPRESSIONS. — Chang ting yuh, Fun luy tsze kin, 1722,

DICTIONARY

199

8vo, 64 vols. PHRASES OF THREE WORDS. — Julien (Latin), Paris,
1864, 8vo. POETICAL. — Pei wan she yun, 1800, 8vo, 5 vols. PROPER
NAMES. — F. Porter Smith (China, Japan, Corea, Annam, &c.,
Chinese-Eng.), Shanghai, 1870, 8vo. TOPOGRAPHY.— Williams,
Canton, 1841, 8vo. NAMES OF TOWNS. — Biot, Paris, 1842, 8vo.
ANCIENT CHARACTERS. — Foo Lwantseang, Luh shoo fun luy, 1800,
8vo, 12 vols. SEAL CHARACTER. — Heu Shin, Shwo wan, ed. Seu
Heuen, 1527, 8vo, 12 vols. RUNNING HAND. — St Aulaire and
Groeneveld (Square Characters, Running Hand; Running, Square),
Amst. 1861, 4to, 117 pages. TECHNICAL TERMS (in Buddhist trans-
lations from Sanskrit) — Yuen Ying, Yih 'see king pin e, 1848, 8vo.
DIALECTS. — Amoy: Douglas, London, 1873, 4to, 632 pages:
Macgowan, Hong- Kong, 1869, 8vo. Canton: Yu Heo-poo and Wan
ke-shih, Keang hoo chih tuh fun yun (so yaou ho tseih, Canton, 1772,
8vo, 4 vols.; 1803, 8vo, 4 vols.; Fuh-shan, 1833, 8vo, 4 vols.:
Morrison, Macao, 1828, 8vo: Wan ke shih, Canton, 1856, 8vo:
Williams (tonic, Eng.-Chinese), Canton, 1856, 8vo: Chalmers, Hong-
Kong, 1859, I2mo; 3rd ed. 1873, 8vo. Changchowin Fuhkeen: Seay
Sew-lin, Ya suh lung shih woo yin, 1818, 8vp, 8 vols.; 1820. Foo-
chow: Tseih (a Japanese general) and Lin Peih shan, Pa yin ho ting,
ed. Tsin Gan, 1841, 8vo: Maclay and Baldwin, Foochow, 1870, 8vo,
1123 pages. Hok-keen: Medhurst, Macao, 1832, 4to: Peking,
Stent, Shanghai, 1871, 8vo.

Corean. — CHINESE, COREAN AND JAPANESE. — Cham Seen Wo
Kwo tsze mei, translated by Medhurst, Batavia, 1835, 8vo. RUSSIAN.
— Putzillo, St Petersburg, 1874, I2mo, 746 pages.

Japanese. — SioKen Zi Ko (Examination of Words and Characters),
1608, 8vo, 10 vols. : Wa Kan Won Se Ki Sio Gen Zi Ko, lithographed
by Siebold, Lugd. Bat., 1835, fol. JAP.-CHINESE.— Faga biki set yo
stu. CHINESE-JAP. — Kanghi Tse Tein, 30 vols. I2mo: Zi rin gioku
ben. DUTCH DICTIONARIES PRINTED BY JAPANESE. — Nieeuverzameld
Japansch en Hollandsch Woordenbock, by the interpreter, B. Sadayok,
1810: Minampto Masataka, Prince of Nakats (Jap. Chinese-Dutch),
5 vols. 4to, printed at Kakats by his servants: Jedo-Halma (Dutch-
Jap.), Jedo, 4to, 20 vols.: Nederduitsche tool. Dutch Chinese, for
the use of interpreters. LATIN AND PORTUGUESE. — Calepinus, Dic-
tionarium, Amacusa, 1595, 4to. LATIN. — Collado, Compendium,
Romae, 1632, 410: Lexicon, Romae, 1870, 4to, from Calepinus.
ENGLISH. — Medhurst, Batavia, 1830, 8vo: Hepburn, Shanghai,
1867, 8vo; 1872. ENG.-JAP. — Hori Tatnoskoy, Vedo, 1862, 8vo;
2nd ed. Yeddo, 1866, 8vo: Satow and Ishibashi Masakata (spoken
language), London, 1876, 8vo. FRENCH. — Rosny (Jap. Fr. Eng.),
Pans, 1857, 4to, vol. i. : Pages, Paris, 1869, 4to, translated from
Calepinus. FR.-JAP. — Soutcovey, Paris, 1864, 8vo. FR. ENG. JAP.
— Mermet de Cachon, Paris, 1866, 8vo, unfinished. GERMAN. —
Pfizmaier (Jap.-Ger., Eng.), Wien, 1851, 4to, unfinished. SPANISH. —
Vocabulario del Japan, Manila, 1630, 4to, translated from the next.
PORTUGUESE. — Vocabulario da Lingua de Japam, Nagasaki, 1603,
4to. RUSSIAN. — Goshkevich, St Petersburg, 1857, 8vo, 487 pages.
CHINESE CHARACTERS WITH JAPANESE PRONUNCIATION. — Rosny,
Paris, 1867, 8vo. CHINESE AND JAPANESE NAMES OF PLANTS. —
Hoffmann, Leyde, 1864, 8vo.

Aino. — Pfizmaier, Wien, 1854, 4to.

Northern and Central Asia. — Burial: Castren, St Petersburg, 1857,
8vo. Calmuck: Zwick, Villingen, 1853, 410: Smirnov, Kazan,
1857, I2mo: Jiigl. Siddhi Kur, Leipzig, 1866, 8vo. Chuvash:
Clergy of the school of the Kazan Eparchia, Kazan, 1836, 8vo, 2481
words: Lyule (Russ.-Chuv. French), Odessa, 1846, 8vo, 244 pages:
Zolotnitski, Kazan, 1875, 8vo, 287 pages. Jagatai: Mir Ah Shir,
Abuska, ed. Vambery, with Hungarian translation, Pesth, 1862, 8vo:
Vambery, Leipzig, 1867, 8vo: Pavet de Courteille, Paris, 1870, 8vo.
Koibal and Karagas: Castren, St Petersburg, 1857, 8vo. Manchu:
Yutchi tseng ting t.sing wen kian (Manchu Chinese), 1771, 4to, 6 vols. :
Sze ti hnh pik wen kian (Manchu-Mongol, Tibetan, Chinese) 10 vols.
410, the Chinese pronunciation represented in Manchu: San hoh
pien Ian (Manchu-Chinese, Mongol), 1792, 8vo, 12 vols.; — all three
classed vocabularies : Langles (French), Paris, 1789-1790, 4to, 3 vols. :
Gabelentz (German), Leipzig, 1864, Svo: Zakharov (Russian), St
Petersburg, 1875, 8vo, 1235 pages: Mongol: I. J. Schmidt (German,
Russian), St Petersburg, 1835, 4to: Schergin, Kazan, 1841, 8vo:
Kovalevski, Kasan, 1844-1849, 4to, 3 vols. 2703 pages. Osliak:
Castren, St Petersb. 1858, 8vo. Samoyed: Castren, St Petersb. 1855,
8vo, 308 pages. Tartar: Giganov (Tobolsk), St Petersburg, 1804,
4to; (Russ.-Tartar), ib. 1840, /fto: Troyanski (Karan), Kasan,
1 835-1 855, 410. Tibetan: Minggi djamtoo (Tibet-Mongol) : Bodschi
dajig togpar lama: Kad shi schand scharwi melonggi jige (Manchu-
Mongol-Tibetan-Chinese), Kanghi's Dictionary with the Tibetan
added in the reign of Khian lung (1736-1795) ; Csoma de Koros (Eng.),
Calcutta, 1834, 4to: I. J. Schmidt (German), St Petersburg, 1841,
4to: Id. (Russian), ib. 1843, 4to: Jaeschke (Eng.), London, 1870,
8vo, 160 pages: Id. (Germ.), Gnadau, 1871, 658 pages: (Bhotanta),
Schroeter, Serampore, 1826, 4to. Tungusian: Castren, St Peters-
burg, 1856, 8vp, 632 pages. Uigur: Vambery, Innspruck, 1870, 410.
Yakut: Bohtlingk, i&. 1854, 4to, 2 vols. Yenissei Ostiak: Castren,
ib. 1849, 8vo.

AFRICA

Egyptian. — Young (enchorial), London, 1830-1831, 8vo: Sharpe,
London, 1837, 410: Birch, London, 1838, 4to: Champollion (died
March 4, 1832), Dictionnaire egyptien, Paris, 1841, 4to: Brugsch,

Hieroglyphisch-Demotisches Worterbuch, Leipzig, 1867-1868, 410,
4 vols. 1775 pages, nearly 4700 words, arranged according to the
hieroglyphic alphabet of 28 letters : Pierret, Vocabulaire hierog., Paris,
1875, 8vo, containing also names of persons and places: Birch, in
vol. v. pp. 337-580 of Bunsen's Egypt's Place, 2nd ed. London, 1867,
&c. 8vo, 5010 words. PROPER NAMES. — Brugsch, Berlin, 1851, 8vo,
726 names: Parthey, ib. 1864, 8vo, about 1500 names: Lieblein,
Christiania, 1871, 8vo, about 3200 from hieroglyphic texts. BOOK
OF THE DEAD. — Id., Paris, 1875, lamo.

Coptic. — Veyssiere de la Croze, Oxon. 1775, 8vo: Rossi, Romae,
1807, 4to: Tattam, Oxon. 1855, 8vo: Peyron, 1835, 410 (the
standard): Parthey, Berolini, 1844, 8vo.

Ethiopic. — Wemmer, Romae, 1638, 4to: Ludolf, London, 1661,
4tp: Francof. ad M., 1699, f°l- Dillmann (Tigre appendix),
Leipzig, 1863-1865, dto, 828 pages.

Amharic. — Ludolphus, Franc, ad Maenum, 1698, fol.: Isenberg,
London, 1841, 4tp, 442 pages. Tigre: Munzinger, Leipzig, 1865,
8vo: Beurmann. ib. 1868, 8vo.

East Coast. — Dankali: Isenberg, London, 1840, I2mo. Galla:
Krapf, London, 1842, 8vo: Tutschek, Miinchen, 1844, 8yo. Engu-
tuklloigob: Erhardt, Ludwigsberg, 1857, 8vo. Kisuaheli: Vocabu-
lary of the Soahili, Cambridge, U.S. 1845, 8vo: Steere, London,
1870, 8vo, about 5800 words. Kisuaheli, Kinika, Kikamba, Kipokono,
Kikian, Kigalla: Krapf, Tubingen, 1850, 8vo.

Malagasy. — Houtmann (Malaysche en Madagask Talen), Amst.
1603, 2nd ed. Matthysz, ib. 1680, 8vo: Huet de Froberville, Isle de
France, fol. 2 vols.: Flacourt, Paris, 1658, 8vo: Challand (Southern),
Isle de France, 1773, 4to: Freeman and Johns, London, 1835, Svo,
2 vols.: Dalmont (Malgache, Salalave, et Betsimara), 1842, 8vo:
Kessler, London, 1870, Svo.

Southern Africa,— Bleek, The Languages of Mozambique, London,
1856, Svo. Kaffre: Bennie, Lovedale, '1826, i6mo: Aylifie,
Graham's Town, 1846, I2mo: Appleyard, 1850, Svo: Bleek, Bonn,
1853, 4to, 646 pages. Zulu-Kaffre: Pen-in (Kaffre-Eng.), London,
1855, 24mo, 172 pages: Id. (Eng.-Kaffre), Pietermaritzburg, 1855,
24mo, 227 pages: Id. (Eng.-Zulu), ib. 1865, I2mo, 226 pages:
Dohne, Cape Town, 1857, Svo, 428 pages: Colenso, Pietermaritz-
burg, 1861, Svo, 560 pages, about 8000 words. Hottentot: Bleek,
Cape Town, 1857, 4to, 261 pages. Namaqua: Tindall, ib. 1852, 8vo:
Vocabulary, Barmen, 1854, Svo: Hahn, Leipzig, 1870, I2mo.
Sechuana: Casalis, Paris, 1841, Svo. Herero: Hahn, Berlin, 1857,
Svo, 207 pages, 4300 words.

Western Africa. — Akra or Go: Zimmermann, Stuttgart, 1858,
Svo, 690 pages. Ashantei: Christaller (also Akra), Basel, 1874,
8vo, 299 pages. Bullom: Nylander, London, 1814, I2mo. Bunda
or Angola: Cannecatim, Lisboa, 1804, 4to, 722 pages. Duatia
Grammatical Elements, &c., Cameroons, 1855, Svo. Efik or Old
Calabar: Waddell, Old Calabar, 1846, I6mo, 126 page's; Edinb.
1849, Svo, 95 pages. Eyo: Raban, London, 1830-1831, 12mq, 2 parts.
Grebo: Vocabulary, Cape Palmas, 1837, 8vo; Dictionary, ib. 1839,
8vo, 119 pages. If a: Schlegel, Stuttgart, 1857, Svo. Mpongwe:
De Lorme (Franc.-Pongoue), Paris, 1876, I2mo, 354 pages. Oji:
Riis, Basel. 1854, 8vo, 284 pages. Sherbro': Schpn, s. a. et I.
Svo, written in 1839, 42 pages. Sum: Brunton, Edinburgh, 1802,
Svo, 145 pages. Vei: Koelle, London, 1854, Svo, 266 pages.
Wolof and Bambarra: Dard, Paris, 1825, Svo. Wolof: Roger, ib.
1829, Svo: Missionnaires de S. Esprit, Dakar, 1855, &c. i6mo.
Faidherbe (French-Wolof, Poula and Soninke), St Louis, Sene-
gambia, 1860, I2mp. Ycruba: Crowther, London, 1843, Svo;
1852, 298 pages: Vidal, ib. 1852, Svo: Bowen, Washington, 1858,
4to.

Central Africa. — Barth, Vocabularies. Gotha, 1862-1866, 4to. Sari:
Mitterreutzner, Brixen, 1867, 8vo: Reinisch, Vienna, 1874, 8vo.
Dinka: Mitterreutzner, Brixen, 1866, Svo. Haussa: Schon (Eng.),
London, 1843, Svo.

Berber. — Venture de Paradis, Paris, 1844, Svo: Brosselard, ib.
1844, Svo: Delaporte, ib. 1844, 4to> by order of the Minister of
War: Creusat, Franc.-Kabyle (Zouaoua), Alger, 1873, Svo. Saiiah:
Minutoli, Berlin, 1827, 4to.

AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA

Australia. — New South Wales: Threlkeld (Lake Macquarie
Language), Sydney, 1834, Svo. Victoria: Bunce, Melbourne, 1856,
I2mo, about 2200 words. South Australia: Williams, South
Australia, 1839, Svo: Teichelmann and Schiirmann, Adelaide,
1840, Svo: Meyer, ib. 1843, Svo. Murray River: Moorhouse, ib.
1846, 8vo. Parnkalla: Schiirmann, Adelaide, 1844, Svo. Woolner
District: Vocabulary, ib. 1869, I2mo. Western Australia: Sir
George Grey, Perth, 1839, 410; London, 1840, 8vo: Moore, ib. 1843:
Brady, Roma, 1845, 24mo, Svo, 187 pages. Tasmania: Millegan,
Tasmania, 1857.

Polynesia. — Hale, Grammars and Vocabularies of all the Poly-
nesian Languages, Philadelphia, 1846, 4to. Marquesas, Sandwich
Gambler: Mosblech, Paris, 1843, Svo. Hawaiian: Andrews,
Vocabulary, Lahainaluna, 1636, 8vo: Id., Dictionary, Honolulu,
1865, Svo, 575 pages, about 15,500 words. Marquesas: Pierquin,
de Gembloux, Bourges, 1843, Svo: Buschmann, Berlin, 1843, Svo.
Samoan: Dictionary, Samoa, 1862, Svo. Tahitian: A Tahitian and
English Dictionary, Tahiti, 1851, Svo, 314 pages. Tonga: Rabone,
Vavau, 1845, Svo. Fijian: Hazlewood (Fiji-Eng.), Vewa. 1850,

2OO

DICTYOGENS— DIDACHE

I2mo: Id. (Eng.-Fiji), ib. 1852, I2mo: Id., London, 1872, 8vo.
Maori: Kendall, 1820, I2mo: Williams, Paihia, 1844, 8vo; 3rd ed.
London, 1871, 8vo: Taylor, Auckland, 1870, I2mo.

AMERICA

North America. — Eskimo: Washington, London, 1850, 8vo:
Petitot (Mackenzie and Anderson Rivers), Paris, 1876, 4to.
Kinai: Radloff, St Petersburg, 1874, 4to- Greenland: Egede (Gr.
Dan. Lat., 3 parts), Hafn, 1750, 8vo; 1760, Fabricius, Kjobenhavn,
1804, 410. Hudson's Bay Indians: Bowrey, London, 1701, fol.
Abnaki: Rasles, Cambridge, U.S., 1833, 410. Chippewa: Baraga,
Cincinnati, 1853, I2mo, 622 pages: Petitot, Paris, 1876, 4to, 455
pages. Massachusetts or Natick : Cotton, Cambridge, U.S. 1829, 8vo.
Onondaga: Shea (French-Onon.), from a MS. (of I7th century),
London, 1860, 4to, 109 pages. Dacota: Riggs, New York, 1851, 410,
424 pages:] Williamson (Eng. Dae.), Santos Agency, Nebraska,
izrno, 139 pages. Mohawk: Bruyas, New York, 1863, 8vo.
Hidatsa (Minnetarees, Gros Venires of the Missouri) : Matthews,
ib. 1874, 8vo. Chpctaw: Byington, ib. 1852, i6mo. Clattam and
Lummi: Gibbs, ib. 1863, 8vo. Yakama: Pandosy, translated by
Gibbs and Shea, ib. 1862, 8vo. Chinook: Gibbs, New York, 1863,
4to. Chinook jargon, the trade language of Oregon: Id., ib. 1863,
8vo. Tatche or Telame: Sitjar, ib. 1841, 8vo.

Mexico and Central America. — Tepehuan: Rinaldini, Mexico,
1743,410. Cora- Ortega, Mexico, 1732,410. Tarahumara: Steffel,
Briinn, 1791, 8vo. Otomi: Carochi, Mexico, 1645, 4*0: Neve y
Molina, ib. 1767, 8vo: Yepes, ib. 1826, 4to: Piccolomini, Roma,
1841, 8vo. Mexican or Aztec: Molina, Mexico, 1555, 4to; 1571,
fol. 2 vols.: Arenas, ib. 1583; 1611, 8vo; 1683; 1725; 1793,
I2mo: Biondelli, Milan, 1869, fol. Mexican, Tontonacan, and
Huastecan: Olmos, Mexico, 1555-1560, 410, 2 vols. Huastecan:
Tapia Zenteno, ib. 1767, 410, 128 pages. Opata or Tequima:
Lombardo, t'6. 1702, 4to. Tarasca: Gilberti, ib. 1559, 4to: Lagunas,
ib. 1574, 8yo. Mixtecan: Alvarado, Mexico, 1593, 4to. Zapoteca:
Cordova, ib. 1578, 4.to. Maya: Beltran de Santa Rosa Maria, ib.
1746, 4to; Merida de Yucatan, 1859, 4to, 250 pages: Brasseur de
Bourbourg, Paris, 1874, 8vo, 745 pages. Quiche: Id. (also Cak-
chiquel and Trutuhil dialects), ib. 1862, 8vo.

South America. — Chibcha: Uricoechea, Paris, 1871, 8vo.
Chayma: Tauste, Madrid, 1680, 4to: Yanguas, Burgos, 1683, 4to.
Carib: Raymond, Auxerre, 1665-1666, 8vo. Galibi: D.[e]. L.[a]
S.[auvage], Paris, 1763, 8vo. Tupi: Costa Rubim, Rio de Janeiro,
1853, 8vo: Silva Guimaraes, Bahia, 1854, 8vp: Diaz, Lipsia, 1858,
i6mo. Guarani: Ruiz de Montoyo, Madrid, 1639, 4to; 1640;
1722, 4to; ed. Platzmann, Leipzig, 1876, &c., 8vo, to be in 4 vols.
1850 pages. Moxa: Marban, Lima, 1701, 8vo. Lule: Machoni
deCorderia, Madrid, 1732, I2mo. Quichua: Santo Thomas, Ciudad
de los Reyes, 1586, 8vo: Torres Rubio, Sevilla, 1603, 8vo; Lima,
1609, 8vo; ed. Figueredo, Lima, 1754, 8vo; Holguin, Ciudad de
los Reyes, 1608, 8vo: Tschudi, Wien, 1853, 8vo, 2 vols. : Markham,
London, 1 864, 8vo : Lopez, Les Races A ryennes de Perou, Paris, 1 87 1 ,
8vo, comparative vocabulary, pp. 345-421. Aymara: Bertonio,
Chicuyto, 1612, 4to, 2 vols. Chileno: Valdivia (also Allentiac
and Milcocayac), Lima, 1607, 8vo: Febres, ib. 1765, I2mo; ed.
Hernandez y Caluza, Santiago, 1846, 8vo, 2 vols. Tsonecan
(Patagonian) : Schmid, Bristol, 1860, I2mo.

The above article incorporates the salient features of the 9th-
edition article by the Rev. Ponsonby A. Lyons, and the loth-edition
article by Benjamin E. Smith.

- DICTYOGENS (Gr. &KTVOV, a net, and the termination -ytvr)s,
produced), a botanical name proposed by John Lindley for a
class including certain families of Monocotyledons which have
net-veined leaves. The class was not generally recognized.

DICTYS CRETENSIS, of Cnossus in Crete, the supposed com-
panion of Idomeneus during the Trojan War, and author of a
diary of its events. The MS. of this work, written in Phoenician
characters, was said to have been found in his tomb (enclosed in a
leaden box) at the time of an earthquake during the reign of Nero,
by whose order it was translated into Greek. In the 4th century
A.D. a certain Lucius Septimius brought out Dictys Cretensis
Ephemeris belli Trojani, which professed to be a Latin translation
of the Greek version. Scholars were not agreed whether any
Greek original really existed; but all doubt on the point was
removed by the discovery of a fragment in Greek amongst the
papyri found by B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt in 1905-1906.
Possibly the Latin Ephemeris was the work of Septimius himself.
Its chief interest lies in the fact that (together with Dares
Phrygius's De excidio Trojae) it was the source from which the
Homeric legends were introduced into the romantic literature
of the middle ages.

Best edition by F. Meister (1873), with short but useful introduc-
tion and index of Latinity; see also G. Korting, Diktys und Dares

(1874), with concise bibliography; H. Dunger, Die Sage vom tro-
janischen Kriege in den Bearbeitungen des Mittelalters und ihren
antiken Quellen (l 869, with a literary genealogical table) ; E. Collilieux,
Etude sur Dictys de Crete el Dares de Phrygie (1887), with biblio-
graphy; W. Greif, " Die mittelalterlichen Bearbeitungen der Tro-
janersage," in E. M. Stengel's Ausgaben und Abhandlungen aus dem
Gebieteder romanischen Philolpgie, No. 61 (1886, esp. sections 82, 83,
168-172); F. Colagrosso, " Ditte Cretese " in AM dellar. Accadetma
di Archeologia (Naples, 1897, vol. 18, pt. ii. 2); F. Noack, " Der
griechische Dictys, in Philologus, supp. vi. 403 ff. ; N. E. Griffin,
Dares and Dictys, Introduction to the Study of the Medieval Versions
of the Story of Troy (1907).

DICUIL (fl. 825), Irish monastic scholar, grammarian and
geographer. He was the author of the De mensura orbis lerrae,
finished in 825, which contains the earliest clear notice of a
European discovery of and settlement in Iceland and the most
definite Western reference to the old freshwater canal between
the Nile and the Red Sea, finally blocked up in 767. In 795
(February i-August i) Irish hermits had visited Iceland; on
their return they reported the marvel of the perpetual day at
midsummer in " Thule," where there was then " no darkness to
hinder one from doing what one would." These eremites also
navigated the sea north of Iceland on their first arrival, and
found it ice-free for one day's sail, after which they came to
the ice-wall. Relics of this, and perhaps of other Irish religious
settlements, were found by the permanent Scandinavian colonists
of Iceland in the pth century. Of the old Egyptian freshwater
canal Dicuil learnt from one " brother Fidelis," probably another
Irish monk, who, on his way to Jerusalem, sailed along the
" Nile " into the Red Sea — passing on his way the " Barns of
Joseph " or Pyramids of Giza, which are well described. Dicuil's
knowledge of the islands north and west of Britain is evidently
intimate; his references to Irish exploration and colonization,
and to (more recent) Scandinavian devastation of the same, as
far as the Faeroes, are noteworthy, like his notice of the elephant
sent by Harun al-Rashid (in 801) to Charles the Great, the most
curious item in a political and diplomatic intercourse of high
importance. Dicuil's reading was wide; he quotes from, or
refers to, thirty Greek and Latin writers, including the classical
Homer, Hecataeus, Herodotus, Thucydides, Virgil, Pliny and
King Juba, the sub-classical Solinus, the patristic St Isidore and
Orosius, and his contemporary the Irish poet Sedulius; — in
particular, he professes to utilize the alleged surveys of the
Roman world executed by order of Julius Caesar, Augustus and
Theodosius (whether Theodosius the Great or Theodosius II.
is uncertain). He probably did not know Greek; his references
to Greek authors do not imply this. Though certainly Irish
by birth, it has been conjectured (from his references to
Sedulius and the caliph's elephant) that he was in later life
in an Irish monastery in the Prankish empire. Letronne in-
clines to identify him with Dicuil or Dichull, abbot of Pahlacht,
born about 760.

There are seven chief MSS. of the De mensura (Dicuil's tract
on grammar is lost); of these the earliest and best are (i) Paris,
National Library, Lat. 4806; (2) Dresden, Regius D. 182; both
are of the loth century. Three editions exist: (i) C. A. Walckenaer's,
Paris, 1807; (2) A. Letronne's, Paris, 1814, best as to commentary;
(3) G. Parthey's, Berlin, 1870, best as to text. See also C. R. Beazley,
Dawn of Modern Geography (London, 1897), i. 317-327. 522-523. 52.9:
T. Wright, Biographia Britannica literaria, Anglo-Saxon Period
(London, 1842), pp. 372-376. (C. R. B.)

DIDACHE, THE, or Teaching of the (twelve) Apostles,— the
most important of the recent recoveries in the region of early
Christian literature (see APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE). It was
previously known by name from lists of canonical and extra-
canonical books compiled by Eusebius and other writers. More-
over, it had come to be suspected by several scholars that a lost
book, variously entitled The Two Ways or The Judgment of Peter,
had been freely used in a number of works, of which mention
must presently be made. In 1882 a critical reconstruction of
this book was made by Adam Krawutzcky with marvellous
accuracy, as was shown when in the very next year the Greek
bishop and metropolitan, Philotheus Bryennius, published The
Teaching of the Twelve Apostles from the same manuscript from

DIDACHE

201

which he had previously published the complete form of the
Epistle of Clement.1

TheDidache, as we now have it in the Greek, falls into two
marked divisions: (a) a book of moral precepts, opening with the
words, " There are two ways"; (6) a manual of church ordin-
ances, linked on to the foregoing by the words, "Having first
said all these things, baptize, &c." Each of these must be
considered separately before we approach the question of the
locality and date of the whole book in its present form.

1 . The Two Ways. — The author of the complete work, as we
now have it, has modified the original Two Ways by inserting near
the beginning a considerable section containing, among other
matter, passages from the Sermon on the Mount, in which the
language of St Matthew's Gospel is blended with that of St
Luke's. He has also added at the close a few sentences, begin-
ning, " If thou canst not bear (the whole yoke of the Lord), bear
what thou canst " (vi. 2) ; and among minor changes he has
introduced, in dealing with confession, reference to " the church "
(iv. 14). No part of this matter is to be found in the following
documents, which present us in varying degrees of accuracy with
The Two Ways: (i.) the Epistle of Barnabas, chaps, xix., xx. (in
which the order of the book has been much broken up, and a
good deal has been omitted) ; (ii.) the Ecclesiastical Canons of the
Holy Apostles, usually called the Apostolic Church Order, a book
which presents a parallel to the Teaching, in so far as it consists
first of a form of The Two Ways, and secondly of a number of
church ordinances (here, however, as in the Syriac Didascalia,
which gives about the same amount of The Two Ways, various
sections are ascribed to individual apostles, e.g. " John said,
There are two ways," &c.); (iii.) a discourse of the Egyptian
monk Schnudi (d. 451), preserved in Arabic (see Iselin, Texte
u. Unters., 1895); (iv.) a Latin version, of which a fragment
was published by O. von Gebhardt in 1884, and the whole by
J. Schlecht in 1900. When by the aid of this evidence The Two
Ways is restored to us free of glosses, it has the appearance of
being a Jewish manual which has been carried over into the
use of the Christian church. This is of course only a probable
inference; there is no prototype extant in Jewish literature, and,
comparing the moral (non-doctrinal) instruction for Christian
catechumens in Hermas, Shepherd (Mand. i.-ix.), no real need to
assume one. There was a danger of admitting Gentile converts
to the church on too easy moral terms; hence the need of such
insistence on the ideal as in The Two Ways and the Mandates.
The recent recovery of the Latin version is of singular interest,
as showing that, even without the distinctively Christian
additions and interpolations which our full form of the Teaching
presents, it was circulating under the title Doctrina apostolorum?

2. The second part of our Teaching might be called a church
directory. It consists of precepts relating to church life, which
are couched in the second person plural; whereas The Two Ways
uses throughout the second person singular. It appears to be
a composite work. First (vii. i-xi. 2) is a short sacramental
manual intended for the use of local elders or presbyters, though
such are not named, for they were not yet a distinctive order or
clergy. This section was probably added to The Two Ways before
the addition of the remainder. It orders baptism in the three-
fold name, making a distinction as to waters which has Jewish
parallels, and permitting a threefold pouring on the head, if
sufficient water for immersion cannot be had. It prescribes a
fast before baptism for the baptizer as well as the candidate.
Fasts are to be kept on Wednesday and Friday, not Monday and
Thursday, which are the fast days of " the hypocrites," i.e. by
a perversion of the Lord's words, the Jews. " Neither pray ye as

1 The MS. was found in the Library of the Jerusalem Monastery
of the Most Holy Sepulchre, in Phanar, the Greek quarter of
Constantinople. It is a small octavo volume of 120 parchment
leaves, written throughout by Leo, " notary and sinner," who
finished his task on the iithof June 1156. Besides Tke Didache and
the Epistles of Clement it contains several spurious Ignatian epistles.

2 The word twelve had no place in the original title and was inserted
when the original Didache or Teaching (e.g. The Two Ways) was
combined with the church manual which mentions apostles outside
of the twelve. It may be noted that the division of the Didache into
chapters is due to Bryennius, that into verses to A. Harnack.

the hypocrites; but as the Lord commanded in His Gospel."
Then follows the Lord's Prayer, almost exactly as in St Matthew,
with a brief doxology — " for Thine is the power and the glory
for ever. " This is to be said three times a day. Next come three
eucharistic prayers, the language of which is clearly marked off
from that of the rest of the book, and shows parallels with the
diction of St John's Gospel. They are probably founded on
Jewish thanksgivings, and it is of interest to note that a portion
of them is prescribed as a grace before meat in (pseudo-)
Athanasius' De nrginitate. A trace of them is found in one of the
liturgical prayers of Serapion, bishop of Thmui, in Egypt, but
they have left little mark on the liturgies of the church. As in
Ignatius and other early writers, the eucharist, a real meal (x. i)
of a family character, is regarded as producing immortality
(cf. " spiritual food and drink and eternal life "). None are to
partake of it save those who have been " baptized in the name
of the Lord " (an expression which is of interest in a document
which prescribes the threefold formula). The prophets are not
to be confined to these forms, but may " give thanks as much as
they will." This appears to show that a prophet, if present,
would naturally preside over the eucharist. The next section
(xi. 3-xiii.) deals with the ministry of spiritual gifts as exercised
by apostles, prophets and teachers. An apostle is to be " re-
ceived as the Lord "; but he must follow the Gospel precepts,
stay but one or two days, and take no money, but only bread
enough for a day's journey. Here we have that wider use of the
term " apostle " to which Lightfoot had already drawn attention.
A prophet, on the contrary, may settle if he chooses, and in that
case he is to receive tithes and first-fruits; " for they are your
high priests." If he be once approved as a true prophet, his
words and acts are not to be criticized; for this is the sin that
shall not be forgiven. Next comes a section (xiv., xv.) reflecting
a somewhat later development concerning fixed services and
ministry; the desire for a stated service, and the need of regular
provision for it, is leading to a new order of things. The
eucharist is to be celebrated every Lord's Day, and preceded by
confession of sins, " that your sacrifice may be pure ... for this
is that sacrifice which was spoken of by the Lord, In every place
and time to offer unto Me a pure sacrifice. Appoint therefore
unto yourselves bishops and deacons, worthy of the Lord, men
meek and uncovetous, and true and approved; for they also
minister unto you the ministration of the prophets and teachers.
Therefore despise them not; for they are your honoured ones,
together with the prophets and teachers." This is an arrange-
ment recommended by one who has tried it, and he reassures the
old-fashioned believer who clings to the less formal regime (and
whose protest was voiced in the Montanist movement), that there
will be no spiritual loss under the new system. The book closes
(chap, xvi.) with exhortations to steadfastness in the last days,
and to the coming of the " world-deceiver " or Antichrist, which
will precede the coming of the Lord. This section is perhaps the
actual utterance of a Christian prophet, and may be of earlier
origin than the two preceding sections.

3. It will now be clear that indications of the locality and date
of our present Teaching must be sought for only in the second
part, and in the Christian interpolations in the first part. We
have no ground for thinking that the second part ever existed
independently as a separate book. The whole work was in the
hands of the writer of the seventh book of the Apostolic Consti-
tutions, who embodies almost every sentence of it, interspersing
it with passages of Scripture, and modifying the precepts of the
second part to suit a later (4th-century) stage of church develop-
ment; this writer was also the interpolator of the Epistles of
Ignatius, and belonged to the Syrian Church. Whether the
second part was known to the writer of the Apostolic Church
Order is not clear, as his only quotation of it comes from one of the
eucharistic prayers. The allusions of early writers seem to point
to Egypt, but their references are mostly to the first part, so that
we must be careful how we argue from them as to the provenance
of the book as a whole. Against Egypt has been urged the
allusion in one of the eucharistic prayers to " corn upon the
mountains." This is found in the Prayer-book of Serapion

202

DIDACTIC POETRY

(c. 350) but omitted in a later Egyptian prayer; the form as
we have it in The Didache may have passed into Egypt with
the authority of tradition which was afterwards weakened. The
anti- Jewish tone of the second part suggests the neighbourhood
of Jews, from whom the Christians were to be sharply dis-
tinguished. Either Egypt or Syria would satisfy this condition,
and in favour of Syria is the fact that the presbyterate there was
to a late date regarded as a rank rather than an office. If we can
connect the injunctions(vi. 3)concerning (abstinence from certain)
food and that which is offered to idols with the old trouble that
arose at Antioch (Acts xv. i) and was legislated for by the
Jerusalem council, we have additional support for the Syrian
claim. But all that we can safely say as to locality is that the
community here represented seems to have been isolated, and
out of touch with the larger centres of Christian life.

This last consideration helps us in discussing the question of
date. For such an isolated community may have preserved
primitive customs for some time after they had generally dis-
appeared. Certainly the stage of development is an early one, as
is shown, e.g., by the prominence of prophets, and the need that
was felt for the vindication of the position of the bishops and
deacons (there is no mention at all of presbyters); moreover,
there is no reference to a canon of Scripture (though the written
Gospel is expressly mentioned) or to a creed. On the other hand
the " apostles " of the second part are obviously not " the
twelve apostles " of the title; and the prophets seem in some
instances to have proved unworthy of their high position. The
ministry of enthusiasm which they represent is about to give way
to the ministry of office, a transition which is reflected in the New
Testament in the 3rd Epistle of John. Three of the Gospels have
clearly been for some time in circulation; St Matthew's is used
several times, and there are phrases which occur only in St Luke's,
while St John's Gospel lies behind the eucharistic prayers which
the writer has embodied in his work. There are no indications
of any form of doctrinal heresy as needing rebuke; the warnings
against false teaching are quite general. While the first part
must be dated before the Epistle of Barnabas, i.e. before A.D. 90,
it seems wisest not to place the complete work much earlier than
A.D. 1 20, and there are passages which may well be later.

A large literature has sprung up round The Didache since 1884.
Harnack's edition in Texte u. Unters. vol. ii. (1884) is indispensable
to the student; and his discussions in Altchristl. Litteratur and
Chronologic give clear summaries of his work. Other editions of the
text are those of F. X. Funk, Patres Apostolici, vol. i. (Tubingen,
1901); H. Lietzmann (Bonn, 1903; with Latin version). Dr J. E.
Odgers has published an English translation with introduction and
notes (London, 1906). Dr C. Taylor in 1886 drew attention to some
important parallels in Jewish literature; his edition contains an
English translation. Dr Rendel Harris published in 1 887 a complete
facsimile, and gathered a great store of patristic illustration. Text
and translation will also be found in Lightfoot's Apostolic Fathers
(ed. min.) The fullest critical treatment in English is by Dr Vernon
Bartlet in the extra volume of Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible;
the most complete commentary on the text is by P. Drews in
Hennecke's Handbuch zu den N.T. Apocryphen (1904). Other
references to the literature may be found by consulting Harnack's
Altchristl. Litteratur.

DIDACTIC POETRY, that form of verse the aim of which is,
less to excite the hearer by passion or move him by pathos,
than to instruct his mind and improve his morals. The Greek
word 5t5cucTuc6s signifies a teacher, from the verb 5tSd(TKetv,
and poetry of the class under discussion approaches us with the
arts and graces of a schoolmaster. At no time was it found
convenient to combine lyrical verse with instruction, and there-
fore from the beginning of literature the didactic poets have
chosen a form approaching the epical. Modern criticism, which
discourages the epic, and is increasingly anxious to limit the word
" poetry " to lyric, is inclined to exclude the term " didactic
poetry " from our nomenclature, as a phrase absurd in itself.
It is indeed more than probable that didactic verse is hopelessly
obsolete. Definite information is now to be found in a thousand
shapes, directly and boldly presented in clear and technical prose.
No farmer, however elegant, will any longer choose to study
agriculture in hexameters, or even in Tusser's shambling metre.
The sciences and the professions will not waste their time on

methods of instruction which must, from their very nature, be
artless, inexact and vague. But in the morning of the world, those
who taught with authority might well believe that verse was the
proper, nay, the only serious vehicle of their instruction. What
they knew was extremely limited, and in its nature it was
simple and straightforward; it had little technical subtlety; it
constantly lapsed into the fabulous and the conjectural. Not
only could what early sages knew, or guessed, about astronomy
and medicine and geography be conveniently put into rolling
verse, but, in the absence of all written books, this was the
easiest way in which information could be made attractive to the
ear and be retained by the memory.

In the prehistoric dawn of Greek civilization there appear
to have been three classes of poetry, to which the literature of
Europe looks back as to its triple fountain-head. There were
romantic epics, dealing with the adventures of gods and heroes;
these Homer represents. There were mystic chants and religious
odes, purely lyrical in character, of which the best Orphic Hymns
must have been the type. And lastly there was a great body of
verse occupied entirely with increasing the knowledge of citizens in
useful branches of art and observation; these were the beginnings
of didactic poetry, and we class them together under the dim name
of Hesiod. It is impossible to date these earliest didactic poems,
which nevertheless set the fashion of form which has been
preserved ever since. The Works and Days, which passes as the
direct masterpiece of Hesiod (<?.».), is the type of all the poetry
which has had education as its aim. Hesiod is supposed to have
been a tiller of the ground in a Boeotian village, who determined
to enrich his neighbours' minds by putting his own ripe stores of
useful information into sonorous metre. Historically examined,
the legend of Hesiod becomes a shadow, but the substance of
the poems attributed to him remains. The genuine parts of
the Works and Days, which Professor Gilbert Murray has called
" a slow, lowly, simple poem," deal with rules for agriculture.
The Theogony is an annotated catalogue of the gods. Other
poems attributed to Hesiod, but now lost, were on astronomy, on
auguries by birds, on the character of the physical world; still
others seem to have been genealogies of famous women. All this
mass of Boeotian verse was composed for educational purposes,
in an age when even preposterous information was better than
no knowledge at all. In slightly later times, as the Greek nation
became better supplied with intellectual appliances, the stream
of didactic poetry flowed more and more closely in one, and that
a theological, channel. The great poem of Parmenides On Nature
and those of Empedocles exist only in fragments, but enough
remains to show that these poets carried on the didactic method
in mythology. Cleostratus of Tenedos wrote an astronomical
poem in the 6th century, and Periander a medical one in the
4th, but didactic poetry did not flourish again in Greece until
the 3rd century, when Aratus, in the Alexandrian age, wrote his
famous Phenomena, a poem about things seen in the heavens.
Other later Greek didactic poets were Nicander, and perhaps
Euphorion.

It was from the hands of these Alexandrian writers that the
genius of didactic poetry passed over to Rome, since, although it
is possible that some of the lost works of the early republic, and in
particular those of Ennius, may have possessed an educational
character, the first and by far the greatest didactic Latin poet
known to us is Lucretius. A highly finished translation by
Cicero into Latin hexameters of the principal works of Aratus is
believed to have drawn the attention of Lucretius to this school
of Greek poetry, and it was not without reference to the Greeks,
although in a more archaic and far purer taste, that he composed,
in the ist century before Christ, his magnificent De rerum
natura. By universal consent, this is the noblest didactic poem
in the literature of the world. It was intended to instruct man-
kind in the interpretation and in the working of the system of
philosophy revealed by Epicurus, which at that time was exciting
the sympathetic attention of all classes of Roman society. What
gave the poem of Lucretius its extraordinary interest, and what
has prolonged and even increased its vitality, was the imaginative
and illustrative insight of the author, piercing and lighting up the

DIDACTIC POETRY

203

recesses of human experience. On a lower intellectual level, but
of a still greater technical excellence, was the Georgics of Virgil,
a poem on the processes of agriculture, published about 30 B.C.
The brilliant execution of this famous work has justly made it the
type and unapproachable standard of all poetry which desires
to impart useful information in the guise of exquisite literature.
Himself once a farmer on the banks of the Mincio, Virgil, at the
apex of his genius, set himself in his Campanian villa to recall
whatever had been essential in the agricultural life of his boyish
home, and the result, in spite of the ardours of the subject, was
what J. W. Mackail has called " the most splendid literary pro-
ductioji of the Empire." In the rest of surviving Latin didactic
poetry, the influence and the imitation of Virgil and Lucretius
are manifest. Manilius, turning again to Alexandria, produced
a fine Aslronomica towards the close of the reign of Augustus.
Columella, regretting that Virgil had omitted to sing of gardens,
composed a smooth poem on horticulture. Natural philosophy
inspired Lucilius junior, of whom a didactic poem on Etna
survives. Long afterwards, under Diocletian, a poet of Carthage,
Nemesianus, wrote in the manner of Virgil the Cynegetica, a
poem on hunting with dogs, which has had numerous imitations
in later European literatures. These are the most important
specimens of didactic poetry which ancient Rome has handed
down to us.

In Anglo-Saxon and early English poetic literature, and
especially in the religious part of it, an element of didacticism is
not to be overlooked. But it would be difficult to say that any-
thing of importance was written in verse with the sole purpose of
imparting information, until we reach the i6th century. Some of
the later medieval allegories are didactic or nothing. The first
poem, however, which we can in any reasonable way compare
with the classic works of which we have been speaking is the
Httndreth Poinles of Good Husbandrie, published in 1557 by
Thomas Tusser; these humble Georgics aimed at a practical
description of the whole art of English farming. Throughout the
early part of the i7th century, when our national poetry was in
its most vivid and brilliant condition, the last thing a poet
thought of doing was the setting down of scientific facts in
rhyme. We come across, however, one or two writers who were
as didactic as the age would permit them to be, Samuel Daniel with
his philosophy, Fulke Greville, Lord Brooke with his " treatises "
of war and monarchy. After the Restoration, as the lyrical
element rapidly died out of English poetry, there was more and
more room left for educational rhetoric in verse. The poems
about prosody, founded upon Horace, and signed by John
Sheffield, 3rd earl of Mulgrave (1648-1 721), and Lord Roscommon,
were among the earliest purely didactic verse-studies in English.
John Philips deserves a certain pre-eminence, as his poem called
Cyder, in 1706, set the fashion which lasted all down the i8th
century, of writing precisely in verse about definite branches of
industry or employment. None of the greater poets of the age of
Anne quite succumbed to the practice, but there is a very distinct
flavour of the purely didactic about a great deal of the verse of
Pope and Gay. In such productions as Gilbert West's (1703-
1756) Education, Dyer's Fleece, and Somerville's Chase, we see
technical information put forward as the central aim of the poet.
Instead of a passionate pleasure, or at least an uplifted enthusi-
asm, being the poet's object, he frankly admits that, first and
foremost, he has some facts about wool or dogs or schoolmasters
which he wishes to b:ing home to his readers, and that, secondly,
he consents to use verse, as brilliantly as he can, for the purpose
of gilding the pill and attracting an unwilling attention. As we
descend the i8th century, these works become more and more
numerous, and more dry, especially when opposed by the de-
scriptive and rural poets of the school of Thomson, the poet of
The Seasons. But Thomson himself wrote a huge poem of
Liberty (1732), for which we have no name if we must not call it
didactic. Even Gray began, though he failed to finish, a work of
this class, on The Alliance of Education and Government. These
poems were discredited by the publication of The Sugar-Cane
(1764), a long verse-treatise about the cultivation of sugar by
negroes in the West Indies, by James Grainger (1721-1766), but,

though liable to ridicule, such versified treatises continued to
appear. Whether so great a writer as Cowper is to be counted
among the didactic poets is a question on which readers of The
Task may be divided; this poem belongs rather to the class of
descriptive poetry, but a strong didactic tendency is visible in
parts of it. Perhaps the latest frankly educational poem which
enjoyed a great popularity was The Course of Time by Robert
Pollok (1798-1827), in which a system of Calvinistic divinity is
laid down with severity and in the pomp of blank verse. This
kind of literature had already been exposed, and discouraged, by
the teaching of Wordsworth, who had insisted on the imperative
necessity of charging all poetry with imagination and passion.
Oddly enough, The Excursion of Wordsworth himself is perhaps
the most didactic poem of the ipth century, but it must be
acknowledged that his influence, in this direction, was saner
than his practice. Since the days of Coleridge and Shelley it
has been almost impossible to conceive a poet of any value com-
posing in verse a work written with the purpose of inculcating
useful information.

The history of didactic poetry in France repeats, in great
measure, but in drearier language, that of England. Boileau, like
Pope, but with a more definite purpose as a teacher, offered
instruction in his Art poetique and in his Epistles. But his
doctrine was always literary, not purely educational. At the
beginning of the i8th century, the younger Racine (1692-1763)
wrote sermons in verse, and at the close of it the Abbe Delille
(1738-1813) tried to imitate Virgil in poems about horticulture.
Between these two there lies a vast mass of verse written for the
indulgence of intellect rather than at the dictates of the heart;
wherever this aims at increasing knowledge, it at once becomes
basely and flatly didactic. There is nothing in French literature
of the transitional class that deserves mention beside The Task or
The Excursion.

During the century which preceded the Romantic revival of
poetry in Germany, didactic verse was cultivated in that country
on the lines of imitation of the French, but with a greater dryness
and on a lower level of utility. Modern German literature
began with Martin Opitz (r 597-1639) and the Silesian School,
who were in their essence rhetorical and educational, and who
gave their tone to German verse. Albrechtvon Haller (1708-
1777) brought a very considerable intellectual force to bear on
his huge poems, The Origin of Evil, which was theological, and
The Alps (1729), botanical and topographical. Johann Peter Uz
(1720-1796) wrote a Theodicee, which was very popular, and not
without dignity. Johann Jacob Dusch (i 725-1787) undertook to
put The Sciences into the eight books of a great didactic poem.
Tiedge (1752-1840) was the last of the school; in a once-famous
Urania, he sang of God and Immortality and Liberty. These
German pieces were the most unswervingly didactic that any
modern European literature has produced. There was hardly
the pretence of introducing into them descriptions of natural
beauty, as the English poets did, or of grace and wit like the
French. The German poets simply poured into a lumbering
mould of verse as much solid information and direct instruction
as the form would hold.

Didactic poetry has, in modern times, been antipathetic to
the spirit of the Latin peoples, and neither Italian nor Spanish
literature has produced a really notable work in this class. An
examination of the poems, ancient and modern, which have been
mentioned above, will show that from primitive times there have
been two classes of poetic work to which the epithet didactic has
been given. It is desirable to distinguish these a little more
exactly. One is the pure instrument of teaching, the poetry
which desires to impart all that it knows about the growing of
cabbages or the prevention of disasters at sea, the revolution of
the planets or the blessings of inoculation. This is didactic poetry
proper, and this, it is almost certain, became irrevocably obsolete
at the close of the i8th century. No future Virgil will give the
world a second Georgics. But there is another species which it
is very improbable that criticism has entirely dislodged; that is
the poetry which combines, with philosophical instruction, an im-
petus of imaginative movement, and a certain definite cultivation

204

DIDEROT

of fire and beauty. In hands so noble as those of Lucretius
and Goethe this species of didactic poetry has enriched the world
with durable masterpieces, and, although the circle of readers
which will endure scientific disquisition in the bonds of verse
grows narrower and narrower, it is probable that the great poet
who is also a great thinker will now and again insist on being
heard. In Sully-Prudhomme France has possessed an eminent
writer whose methods are directly instructive, and both La
Justice (1878) and Le Bonheur (1888) are typically didactic poems.
Perhaps future historians may name these as the latest of their
class. (E. G.)

DIDEROT, DENIS (1713-1784), French man of letters and
encyclopaedist, was born at Langres on the sth of October 1713.
He was educated by the Jesuits, like most of those who after-
wards became the bitterest enemies of Catholicism; and, when
his education was at an end, he vexed his brave and worthy
father's heart by turning away from respectable callings, like law
or medicine, and throwing himself into the vagabond life of a
bookseller's hack in Paris. An imprudent marriage (1743) did
not better his position. His wife, Anne Toinette Champion, was
a devout Catholic, but her piety did not restrain a narrow and
fretful temper, and Diderot's domestic life was irregular and
unhappy. He sought consolation for chagrins at home in attach-
ments abroad, first with a Madame Puisieux, a fifth-rate female
scribbler, and then with Sophie Voland, to whom he was constant
for the rest of her life. His letters to her are among the most
graphic of all the pictures that we have of the daily life of the
philosophic circle im Paris. An interesting contrast may be
made between the Bohemianism of the famous English literary
set who supped at the Turk's Head with the Tory Johnson and
the Conservative Burke for their oracles, and the Bohemianism of
the French set who about the same time dined once a week at the
baron D'Holbach's, to listen to the wild sallies and the inspiring
declamations of Diderot. For Diderot was not a great writer;
he stands out as a fertile, suggestive and daring thinker, and a
prodigious and most eloquent talker.

Diderot's earliest writings were of as little importance as
Goldsmith's Enquiry into the Stale of Polite Learning or Burke's
Abridgement of English History. He earned 100 crowns by
translating Stanyan's History of Greece (1743); with two
colleagues he produced a translation of James's Dictionary of
Medicine (1746-1748) and about the same date he published a
free rendering of Shaftesbury's Inquiry Concerning Virtue and
Merit (1745), with some original notes of his own. With strange
and characteristic versatility, he turned from ethical speculation
to the composition of a volume of stories, the Bijoux indiscrets
(1748), gross without liveliness, and impure without wit. In later
years he repented of this shameless work, just as Boccaccio is
said in the day of his grey hairs to have thought of the sprightli-
ness of the Decameron with strong remorse. From tales Diderot
went back to the more congenial region of philosophy. Between
the morning of Good Friday and the evening of Easter Monday he
wrote the Pensees philosophiques (1746), and he presently added
to this a short complementary essay on the sufficiency of natural
religion. The gist of these performances is to press the ordinary
rationalistic objections to a supernatural revelation; but though
Diderot did not at this time pass out into the wilderness
beyond natural religion, yet there are signs that he accepted that
less as a positive doctrine, resting on grounds of its own, than as
a convenient point of attack against Christianity. In 1747 he
wrote the Promenade du sceptique, a rather poor allegory — point-
ing first to the extravagances of Catholicism; second, to the
vanity of the pleasures of that world which is the rival of
the church; and third, to the desperate and unfathomable
uncertainty of the philosophy which professes to be so high
above both church and world.

Diderot's next piece was what first introduced him to the world
as an original thinker, his famous Leltre sur les aveugles (1749).
The immediate object of this short but pithy writing was to show
the dependence of men's ideas on their five senses. It considers
the case of the intellect deprived of 'the aid of one of the senses;
and in a second piece, published afterwards, Diderot considered

the case of a similar deprivation in the deaf and dumb. The
Leltre sur les sourds el muets, however, is substantially a digressive
examination of some points in aesthetics. The philosophic
significance of the two essays is in the advance they make
towards the principle of Relativity. But what interested the
militant philosophers of that day was an episodic application
of the principle of relativity to the master-conception of God.
What makes the Leltre sur les aveugles interesting is its presenta-
tion, in a distinct though undigested form, of the modern theory
of variability, and of survival by superior adaptation. It is worth
noticing, too, as an illustration of the comprehensive freedom
with which Diderot felt his way round any subject that he
approached, that in this theoretic essay he suggests the possibility
of teaching the blind to read through the sense of touch. If the
Lettre sur les aveugles introduced Diderot into the worshipful
company of the philosophers, it also introduced him to the
penalties of philosophy. His speculation was too hardy for the
authorities, and he was thrown into the prison of Vincennes.
Here he remained for three months; then he was released, to
enter upon the gigantic undertaking of his life.

The bookseller Lebreton had applied to him with a project
for the publication of a translation into French of Ephraim
Chambers's Cyclopaedia, undertaken in the first instance by an
Englishman, John Mills, and a German, Gottfried Sellius (for
particulars see ENCYCLOPAEDIA) . Diderot accepted the proposal ,
but in his busy and pregnant intelligence the scheme became
transformed. Instead of a mere reproduction of Chambers, he
persuaded the bookseller to enter upon a new work, which should
collect under one roof all the active writers, all the new ideas, all
the new knowledge, that were then moving the cultivated class
to its depths, but still were comparatively ineffectual by reason of
their dispersion. His enthusiasm infected the publishers; they
collected a sufficient capital for a vaster enterprise than they had
at first planned; D'Alembert was persuaded to become Diderot's
colleague; the requisite permission was procured from the
government; in 173° an elaborate prospectus announced the
project to a delighted public; and in 1751 the first volume was
given to the world. The last of the letterpress was issued in
1765, but it was 1772 before the subscribers received the final
volumes of the plates. These twenty years were to Diderot years
not merely of incessant drudgery, but of harassing persecution,
of sufferings from the cabals of enemies, and of injury from the
desertion of friends. The ecclesiastical party detested the
Encyclopaedia, in which they saw a rising stronghold for their
philosophic enemies. By 1757 they could endure the sight no
longer. The subscribers had grown from 2000 to 4000, and this
was a right measure of the growth of the work in popular influence
and power. To any one who turns over the pages of these re-
doubtable volumes now, it seems surprising that their doctrines
should have stirred such portentous alarm. There is no atheism,
no overt attack on any of the cardinal mysteries of the faith, no
direct denunciation even of the notorious abuses of the church.
Yet we feel that the atmosphere of the book may well have been
displeasing to authorities who had not yet learnt to encounter
the modern spirit on equal terms. The Encyclopaedia takes for
granted the justice of religious tolerance and speculative freedom.
It asserts in distinct tones the democratic doctrine that it is
the common people in a nation whose lot ought to be the main
concern of the nation's government. From beginning to end
it is one unbroken process of exaltation of scientific knowledge on
the one hand, and pacific industry on the other. All these things
were odious to the old governing classes of France; their spirit
was absolutist, ecclesiastical and military. Perhaps the most
alarming thought of all was the current belief that the Encyclo-
paedia was the work of an organized band of conspirators against
society, and that a pestilent doctrine was now made truly
formidable by the confederation of its preachers into an open
league. When the seventh volume appeared, it contained an
article on " Geneva," written by D'Alembert. The writer
contrived a panegyric on the pastors of Geneva, of which every
word was a stinging reproach to the abbes and prelates of
Versailles. At the same moment Helvetius's book, L'Esprit,

DIDEROT

205

appeared, and gave a still more profound and, let us add, a more
reasonable shock to the ecclesiastical party. Authority could
brook no more, and in 1759 the Encyclopaedia was formally
suppressed.

The decree, however, did not arrest the continuance of the
work. The connivance of the authorities at the breach of their
own official orders was common in those times of distracted
government. The work went on, but with its difficulties in-
creased by the necessity of being clandestine. And a worse thing
than troublesome interference by the police now befell Diderot.
D'Alembert, wearied of shifts and indignities, withdrew from
the enterprise. Other powerful colleagues, Turgot among them,
declined to contribute further to a book which had acquired
an evil fame. Diderot was left to bring the task to an end as he
best could. For seven years he laboured like a slave at the oar.
He wrote several hundred articles, some of them very slight, but
many of them most laborious, comprehensive and ample. He
wore out his eyesight in correcting proofs, and he wearied his soul
in bringing the manuscript of less competent contributors into
decent shape. He spent his days in the workshops, mastering the
processes of manufactures, and his nights in reproducing on paper
what he had learnt during the day. And he was incessantly
harassed all the time by alarms of a descent from the police. At
the last moment, when his immense work was just drawing to
an end, he encountered one last and crowning mortification: he
discovered that the bookseller, fearing the displeasure of the
government, had struck out from the proof sheets, after they had
left Diderot's hands, all passages that he chose to think too hardy.
The monument to which Diderot had given the labour of twenty
long and oppressive years was irreparably mutilated and defaced.
It is calculated that the average annual salary received by
Diderot for his share in the Encyclopaedia was about £120
sterling. " And then to think," said Voltaire, " that an army
contractor makes £800 in a day! "

Although the Encyclopaedia was Diderot's monumental work,
he is the author of a shower of dispersed pieces that sowed nearly
every field of intellectual interest with new and fruitful ideas.
We find no masterpiece, but only thoughts for masterpieces; no
creation, but a criticism with the quality to inspire and direct
creation. He wrote plays — Le Fih naturel (1757) and Le Pere de
famille (1758) — and they are very insipid performances in the sen-
timental vein. But he accompanied them by essays on dramatic
poetry, including especially the Paradoxe sur le comedian, in
which he announced the principles of a new drama, — the serious,
domestic, bourgeois drama of real life, in opposition to the stilted
conventions of the classic French stage. It was Diderot's lessons
and example that gave a decisive bias to the dramatic taste of
Lessing, whose plays, and his Hamburgische Dramaturgic (1768),
mark so important an epoch in the history of the modern theatre.
In the pictorial art, Diderot's criticisms are no less rich, fertile
and wide in their ideas. His article on " Beauty " in the
Encyclopaedia shows that he had mastered and passed beyond
the metaphysical theories on the subject, and the Essai sur la
peinture was justly described by Goethe, who thought it worth
translating, as " a magnificent work, which speaks even more
helpfully to the poet than to the painter, though to the painter
too it is as a blazing torch." Diderot's most intimate friend was
Grimm, one of the conspicuous figures of the philosophic body.
Grimm wrote news-letters to various high personages in Germany,
reporting what was going on in the world of art and literature
in Paris, then without a rival as the capital of the intellectual
activity of Europe. Diderot helped his friend at one time and
another between 1759 and 1779, by writing for him an account
of the annual exhibitions of paintings. These Salons are among
the most readable of all pieces of art criticism. They have a
freshness, a reality, a life, which take their readers into a different
world from the dry and conceited pedantries of the ordinary
virtuoso. As has been said by Sainte-Beuve, they initiated the
French into a new sentiment, and introduced people to the
mystery and purport of colour by ideas. " Before Diderot,"
Madame Necker said, " I had never seen anything in pictures
except dull and lifeless colours; it was his imagination that gave

them relief and life, and it is almost a new sense for which I am
indebted to his genius."

Greuze was Diderot's favourite among contemporary artists,
and it is easy to see why. Greuze's most characteristic pictures
were the rendering in colour of the same sentiment of domestic
virtue and the pathos of common life, which Diderot attempted
with inferior success to represent upon the stage. For Diderot
was above all things interested in the life of men, — not the
abstract life of the race, but the incidents of individual character,
the fortunes of a particular family, the relations of real and
concrete motives in this or that special case. He delighted with
the enthusiasm of a born casuist in curious puzzles of right
and wrong, and in devising a conflict between the generalities of
ethics and the conditions of an ingeniously contrived practical
dilemma. Mostly his interest expressed itself in didactic and
sympathetic form; in two, however, of the most remarkable
of all his pieces, it is not sympathetic, but ironical. Jacques le
fataliste (written in 1773, but not published until 1796) is in
manner an imitation of Tristram Shandy and The Sentiinental
Journey. Few modern readers will find in it any true diversion.
In spite of some excellent criticisms dispersed here and there,
and in spite of one or two stories that are not without a certain
effective realism, it must as a whole be pronounced savourless,
forced, and as leaving unmoved those springs of laughter and
of tears which are the common fountain of humour. Le Neveu
de Rameau is a far superior performance. If there were any in-
evitable compulsion to name a masterpiece for Diderot, one must
select this singular " farce-tragedy." Its intention has been
matter of dispute; whether it was designed to be merely a satire
on contemporary manners, or a reduction of the theory of self-
interest to an absurdity, or the application of an ironical clincher
to the ethics of ordinary convention, or a mere setting for a
discussion about music, or a vigorous dramatic sketch of a
parasite and a human original. There is no dispute as to its
curious literary flavour, its mixed qualities of pungency, bitter-
ness, pity and, in places, unflinching shamelessness. Goethe's
translation (1805) was the first introduction of Le Neveu de
Rameau to the European public. After executing it, he gave
back the original French manuscript to Schiller, from whom he
had it. No authentic French copy of it appeared until the writer
had been nearly forty years in his grave (1823).

It would take several pages merely to contain the list of
Diderot's miscellaneous pieces; from an infinitely graceful trifle
like the Regrets sur ma vieille robe de chambre up to Le Rfrve de
D'Alembert, where he plunges into the depths of the controversy
as to the ultimate constitution of matter and the meaning of life.
It is a mistake to set down Diderot for a coherent and systematic
materialist. We ought to look upon him " as a philosopher in
whom all the contradictions of the time struggle with one another "
(Rosenkranz). That is to say, he is critical and not dogmatic.
There is no unity in Diderot, as there was in Voltaire or in
Rousseau. Just as in cases of conduct he loves to make new
ethical assumptions and argue them out as a professional sophist
might have done, so in the speculative problems as to the organiza-
tion of matter, the origin of life, the compatibility between
physiological machinery and free will, he takes a certain stand-
point, and follows it out more or less digressively to its conse-
quences. He seizes a hypothesis and works it to its end, and
this made him the inspirer in others of materialist doctrines
which they held more definitely than he did. Just as Diderot
could not attain to the concentration, the positiveness, the
finality of aim needed for a masterpiece of literature, so he could
not attain to those qualities in the way of dogma and system.
Yet he drew at last to the conclusions of materialism, and con-
tributed many of its most declamatory pages to the Systeme de la
nature of his friend D'Holbach, — the very Bible of atheism, as
some one styled it. All that he saw, if we reduce his opinions to
formulae, was motion in space: "attraction and repulsion, the
only truth." If matter produces life by spontaneous generation,
and if man has no alternative but to obey the compulsion of
nature, what remains for God to do?

In proportion as these conclusions deepened in him, the more

206

DIDIUS SALVIUS JULIANUS— DIDON

did Diderot turn for the hope of the race to virtue; in other
words, to such a regulation of conduct and motive as shall make
us tender, pitiful, simple, contented. Hence his one great literary
passion, his enthusiasm for Richardson, the English novelist.
Hence, also, his deepening aversion for the political system of
France, which makes the realization of a natural and con-
tented domestic life so hard. Diderot had almost as much to say
against society as even Rousseau himself. The difference between
them was that Rousseau was a fervent theist. The atheism of
the Holbachians, as he called Diderot's group, was intolerable
to him; and this feeling, aided by certain private perversities of
humour, led to a breach of what had once been an intimate
friendship between Rousseau and Diderot (1757)- Diderot was
still alive when Rousseau's Confessions appeared, and he was so
exasperated by Rousseau's stories about Grimm, then and always
Diderot's intimate, that in 1782 he transformed a life of Seneca,
that he had written four years earlier, into an Essai sur les regnes
de Claude et de Ntron (1778-1782), which is much less an account
of Seneca than a vindication oi Diderot and Grimm, and is one of
the most rambling and inept productions in literature. As for the
merits of the old quarrel between Rousseau and Diderot, we may
agree with the latter, that too many sensible people would be in
the wrong if Jean Jacques was in the right.

Varied and incessant as was Diderot's mental activity, it was
not of a kind to bring him riches. He secured none of the posts
that were occasionally given to needy men of letters; he could
not even obtain that bare official recognition of merit which was
implied by being chosen a member of the Academy. The time
came for him to provide a dower for his daughter, and he saw
no other alternative than to sell his library. When the empress
Catherine of Russia heard of his straits, she commissioned an
agent in Paris to buy the library at a price equal to about £1000
of English money , and then handsomely requested the philosopher
to retain the books in Paris until she required them, and to
constitute himself her librarian, with a yearly salary. In 1773
Diderot started on an expedition to thank his imperial bene-
factress in person, and he passed some months at St Petersburg.

. The empress received him cordially. The strange pair passed their
afternoons in disputes on a thousand points of high philosophy,

1 and they debated with a vivacity and freedom not usual in
courts. " Fi, done," said Catherine one day, when Diderot
hinted that he argued with her at a disadvantage, " is there any
difference among men?" Diderot returned home in 1774. Ten
years remained to him, and he spent them in the industrious
acquisition of new knowledge, in the composition of a host of
fragmentary pieces, some of them mentioned above, and in
luminous declamations with his friends. All accounts agree that
Diderot was seen at his best in conversation. " He who only
knows Diderot in his writings," says Marmontel, " does not know
him at all. When he grew animated in talk, and allowed his
thoughts to flow in all their abundance, then he became truly
ravishing. In his writings he had not the art of ensemble; the
first operation which orders and places everything was too slow
and too painful to him." Diderot himself was conscious of the
want of literary merit in his pieces. In truth he set no high value
on what he had done. It is doubtful whether he was ever alive to
the waste that circumstance and temperament together made of
an intelligence from which, if it had been free to work system-
atically, the world of thought had so much to hope. He was one
of those simple, disinterested and intellectually sterling workers
to whom their own personality is as nothing in presence of the
vast subjects that engage the thoughts of their lives. He wrote
what he found to write, and left the piece, as Carlyle has said,
" on the waste of accident, with an ostrich-like indifference."
When he heard one day that a collected edition of his works was
in the press at Amsterdam, he greeted the news with " peals of
laughter," so well did he know the haste and the little heed with
which those works had been dashed off.

Diderot died on the 3oth of July 1784, six years after Voltaire
and Rousseau, one year after his old colleague D'Alembert, and
five years before D'Holbach, his host and intimate for a lifetime.
Notwithstanding Diderot's peals of laughter at the thought, an

elaborate and exhaustive collection of his writings in twenty
stout volumes, edited by MM. Assezat and Tourneux, was com-
pleted in 1875-1877.

AUTHORITIES. — Studies on Diderot by Scherer (1880); by

E. Faguet (1890); by Sainte-Beuve in the Causeries du lundi; by

F. Brunetiere in the Etudes critiques, 2nd series, may be consulted.
In English, Diderot has been the subject of a biography by John
Morley [Viscount Morley of Blackburn] (1878). See also Karl
Rosenkranz, Diderots Leben und Werke (1866). For a discussion of
the authenticity of the posthumous works of Diderot see R. Dominic
in the Revue des deux mondes (October 15, 1902). (J. Mo.)

DIDIUS SALVIUS JULIANUS, MARCUS, Roman emperor for
two months (March 28-June 2) during the year A.D. 193. He
was the grandson of the famous jurist Salvius Julianus (under
Hadrian and the Antonines), and the son of a distinguished
general, who might have ascended the throne after the death of
Antoninus Pius, had not his loyalty to the ruling house prevented
him. Didius filled several civil and military offices with dis-
tinguished success, but subsequently abandoned himself to
dissipation. On the death of Pertinax, the praetorian guards
offered the throne to the highest bidder. Flavius Sulpicianus,
the father-in-law of Pertinax and praefect of the city, had already
made an offer; Didius, urged on by the members of his family,
his freedmen and parasites, hurried to the praetorian camp to
contend for the prize. He and Sulpicianus bid against each
other, and finally the throne was knocked down to Didius. The
senate and nobles professed their loyalty; but the people
made no attempt to conceal their indignation at this insult ta
the state, and the armies of Britain, Syria and Illyricum broke
out into open revolt. Septimius Severus, the commander of
the Pannonian legions, was declared emperor and hastened by
forced marches to Italy. Didius, abandoned by the praetorians,
was condemned and executed by order of the senate, which at
once acknowledged Severus.

AUTHORITIES. — Dio Cassius Ixxiii. 11-17, who was actually in
Rome at the time; Aelius Spartianus, Didius Julianus; Julius
Capitolinus, Pertinax; Herodian ii.; Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus,
19; Zosimus i. 7; Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chap. 5.

DIDO, or ELISSA, the reputed founder of Carthage (?.».), in
Africa, daughter of the Tyrian king Metten (Mutto, Methres,
Belus), wife of Acerbas (more correctly Sicharbas; Sychaeus in
Virgil) , a priest of Hercules. Her husband having been slain by
her brother Pygmalion, Dido fled to Cyprus, and thence to the
coast of Africa, where she purchased from a local chieftain
larbas a piece of land on which she built Carthage. The city
soon began to prosper and larbas sought Dido's hand in marriage,
threatening her with war in case of refusal. To escape from him,
Dido constructed a funeral pile, on which she stabbed herself
before the people (Justin xviii. 4-7). Virgil, in defiance of the
usually accepted chronology, makes Dido a contemporary of
Aeneas, with whom she fell in love after his landing in Africa, and
attributes her suicide to her abandonment by him at the command
of Jupiter (Aeneid, iv.). Dido was worshipped at Carthage as a
divinity under the name of Caelestis, the Roman counterpart of
Tanit, the tutelary goddess of Carthage. According to Timaeus,.
the oldest authority for the story, her name was Theiosso, in
Phoenician Heh'ssa, and she was called Dido from her wanderings,
Dido being the Phoenician equivalent of irKav^ra (Etymo-
logicum Magnum, s.v.); some modern scholars, however,
translate the name by " beloved." Timaeus makes no mention
of Aeneas, who seems to have been introduced by Naevius in his
Bellum Poenicum, followed by Ennius in his Annales.

For the variations of the legend in earlier and later Latin authors,
see O. Rossbach in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie, v. pt. I (1905) ;
O. Meltzer's Geschichte der Karthager, i. (1879), and his article in
Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie.

DIDON, HENRI (1840-1900), French Dominican, was born
at Trouvet, Isere, on the I7th of March 1840. He joined the
Dominicans, under the influence of Lacordaire, in 1858, and
completed his theological studies at the Minerva convent at
Rome. The influence of Lacordaire was shown in the zeal dis-
played by Didon in favour of a reconciliation between philosophy
and science. In 1871 his fame had so much grown that he was.
chosen to deliver the funeral oration over the murdered arch-
bishop of Paris, Monseigneur G. Darboy. He also delivered some;

DIDOT— DIDYMI

207

discourses at the church of St Jean de Beauvais in Paris on the
relations between science and religion; but his utterances,
especially on the question of divorce, were deemed suspicious by
his superiors, and his intimacy with Claude Bernard the physi-
ologist was disapproved. He was interdicted from preaching and
sent into retirement at the convent of Corbara in Corsica. After
eighteen months he emerged, and travelled in Germany, publish-
ing an interesting work upon that country, entitled Les-Allemands
(English translation by R. Ledos de Beaufort, London, 1884).
On his return to France in 1890 he produced his best known
work, Jesus-Christ (2 vols., Paris), for which he had qualified
himself by travel in the Holy Land. In the same year he became
director of the College Albert-le-Grand at Arcueil, and founded
three auxiliary institutions, Ecole Lacordaire, Ecole Laplace and
Ecole St Dominique. He wrote, in addition, several works on
educational questions, and augmented his fame as an eloquent
preacher by discourses preached during Lent and Advent. He
died at Toulouse on the i3th of March 1900.

See the biographies by J. de Romano (1891), and A. de Coulanges
(Paris, 1900); and especially the work of Stanislas Reynaud,
entitled Le Pert Didon, sa vie et son ceuvre (Paris, 1904).

DIDOT, the name of a family of learned French printers and
publishers. FRANCOIS DIDOT (1689-1757), founder of the
family, was born at Paris. He began business as a bookseller and
printer in 1713, and among his undertakings was a collection
of the travels of his friend the Abbe Prevost, in twenty volumes
(1747). It was remarkable for its typographical perfection,
and was adorned with many engravings and maps. FRANCOIS
AMBROISE DIDOT (1730-1804), son of Francois, made important
improvements in type-founding, and was the first to attempt
printing on vellum paper. Among the works which he published
was the famous collection of French classics prepared by order
of Louis XVI. for the education of the Dauphin, and the folio
edition of L' 'Art de verifier les dates. PIERRE FRANCOIS DIDOT
(1732-1795), his brother, devoted much attention to the art of
type-founding and to paper-making. Among the works which
issued from his press was an edition in folio of the Imitalio
Christi (1788). HENRI DIDOT (1765-1852), son of Pierre Francois,
is celebrated for his " microscopic " editions of various standard
works, for which he engraved the type when nearly seventy years
of age. He was also the engraver of the assignats issued by the
Constituent and Legislative Assemblies and the Convention.
DIDOT SAINT-LEGER, second son of Pierre Frangois, was the
inventor of the paper-making machine known in England as
the Didot machine. PIERRE DIDOT (1760-1853), eldest son of
Francois Ambroise, is celebrated as the publisher of the beautiful
" Louvre " editions of Virgil, Horace and Racine. The Racine,
in three volumes folio, was pronounced in 1801 to be " the most
perfect typographical production of all ages." FIRMIN DIDOT
(1764-1836), his brother, second son of Frangois Ambroise,
sustained the reputation of the family both as printer and type-
founder. He revived (if he did not invent — a distinction which
in order of time belongs to William Ged) the process of stereotyp-
ing, and coined its name, and he first used the process in his
edition of Callet's Tables of Logarithms ( 1 7 9 5) , in which he secured
an accuracy till then unattainable. He published stereotyped
editions of French, English and Italian classics at a very low
price. He was the author of two tragedies — La Reine de
Portugal and La Mart d'Annibal; and he wrote metrical transla-
tions from Virgil, Tyrtaeus and Theocritus. AMBROISE FIRMIN
01001(1790-1876) was his eldest son. After receiving a classical
education, he spent three years in Greece and in the East; and on
the retirement of his father in 1827 he undertook, in conjunction
with his brother Hyacinthe, the direction of the publishing
business. Their greatest undertaking was a new edition of the
Thesaurus Graecae linguae of Henri Estienne, under the editorial
care of the brothers Dindorf and M. Hase (9 vols., 1855-1859).
Among the numerous important works published by the brothers,
the 200 volumes forming the Bibliotheque des auteurs grecs,
Bibliotheque latine, and Bibliotheque fran$aise deserve special
mention. Ambroise Firmin Didot was the first to propose
(1823) a subscription in favour of the Greeks, then in insurrection

against Turkish tyranny. Besides a translation of Thucydides
(1833), he wrote the articles " Estienne " in the Nomelle Bio-
graphie generale, and " Typographic " in the Ency. mod., as well
as Observations sur I' orthographic francflise (1867), &c. In 1875
he published a very learned and elaborate monograph on Aldus
Manutius. His collection of MSS., the richest in France, was
said to have been worth, at the time of his death, not less than
2,000,000 francs.

DIDRON, ADOLPHE NAPOLEON (1806-1867), French
archaeologist, was born at Hautvillers, in the department of
Marne, on the I3th of March 1806. At first a student of law,
he began in 1830, by the advice of Victor Hugo, a study of the
Christian archaeology of the middle ages. After visiting and
examining the principal churches, first of Normandy, then of
central and southern France, he was on his return appointed by
Guizot secretary to the Historical Committee of Arts and Monu-
ments (1835); and in the following years he delivered several
courses of lectures on Christian iconography at the Bibliotheque
Royale. In 1839 he visited Greece for the purpose of examining
the art of the Eastern Church, both in its buildings and its
manuscripts. In 1844 he originated the Annales archfologiques,
a periodical devoted to his favourite subject, which he edited
until his death. In 1845 he established at Paris a special archaeo-
logical library, and at the same time a manufactory of painted
glass. In the same year he was admitted to the Legion of
Honour. His most important work is the Iconographie chretienne,
of which, however, the first portion only, Hisloirede Dieu (1843),
was published. It was translated into English by E. J. Millington.
Among his other works may be mentioned the Manuel d'icono-
graphie chrelienne grecque et latine (1845), the Iconographie des
chapiteaux du palais ducal de Venise (1857), and the Manuel des
objets de bronze et d'orfevrerie (1859). He died on the I3th of
November 1867.

DIDYMI, or DIDYMA (mod. Hieronta), an ancient sanctuary
of Apollo in Asia Minor situated in the territory of Miletus, from
which it was distant about 10 m. S. and on the promontory
Poseideion. It was sometimes called Branchidae from the name
of its priestly caste which claimed descent from Branchus, a
youth beloved by Apollo. As the seat of a famous oracle, the
original temple attracted offerings from Pharaoh Necho (in whose
army there was a contingent of Milesian mercenaries), and the
Lydian Croesus, and was plundered by Darius of Persia. Xerxes
finally sacked and burnt it (481 B.C.) and exiled the Branchidae
to the far north-east of his empire. This exile was believed to
be voluntary, the priests having betrayed their treasures to the
Persian; and on this belief Alexander the Great acted 150 years
later, when, finding the descendants of the Branchidae established
in a city beyond the Oxus, he ordered them to be exterminated
for the sin of their fathers (328). The celebrated cult-statue of
Apollo by Canachus, familiar to us from reproductions on Milesian
coins, was also carried to Persia, there to remain till restored by
Seleucus I. in 295, and the oracle ceased to speak for a century
and a half. The Milesians were not able to undertake the re-
building till about 332 B.C., when the oracle revived at the bidding
of Alexander. The work proved too costly, and despite a special
effort made by the Asian province nearly 400 years later, at the
bidding of the emperor Caligula, the structure was never quite
finished: but even as it was, Strabo ranked the Didymeum the
greatest of Greek temples and Pliny placed it among the four
most splendid and second only to the Artemisium at Ephesus.
In point of fact it was a little smaller than the Samian Heraeum
and the temple of Cybele at Sardis, and almost exactly the same
size as the Artemisium. The area covered by the platform
measures roughly 360X160 ft.

When Cyriac of Ancona visited the spot in 1446, it seems that
the temple was still standing in great part, although the cella had
been converted into a fortress by the Byzantines: but when the
next European visitor, the Englishman Dr Pickering, arrived
in 1673, it had collapsed. It is conjectured that the cause was
the great earthquake of 1493. The Society of Dilettanti sent two
expeditions to explore the ruins, the first in 1764 under Richard
Chandler, the second in 1812 under Sir Wm. Cell; and the French

208

DIDYMIUM— DIE

" Rothschild Expedition " of 1873 under MM. O. Rayet and
A. Thomas sent a certain amount of architectural sculpture to
the Louvre. But no excavation was attempted till MM. E.
Pontremoli and B. Haussoullier were sent out by the French
Schools of Rome and Athens in 1895. They cleared the western
facade and the prodomos, and discovered inscriptions giving
information about other parts which they left still buried.
Finally the site was purchased by, and the French rights were
ceded to, Dr Th. Wiegand, the German explorer of Miletus, who
in 1905 began a thorough clearance of what is incomparably the
finest temple ruin in Asia Minor.

The temple was a decastyle peripteral structure of the Ionic
order, standing on seven steps and possessing double rows of outer
columns 60 ft. high, twenty-one in each row on the flanks. It
is remarkable not only for its great size, but (inter alia) for (i) the
rich ornament of its column bases, which show great variety of
design; (2) its various developments of the Ionic capital, e.g.
heads of gods, probably of Pergamene art, spring from the
" eyes " of the volutes with bulls' heads between them; (3) the
massive building two storeys high at least, which served below
for prodomos, and above for a dispensary of oracles (xpijcr^crypa^ta
mentioned in the inscriptions) and a treasury; two flights of
stairs called " labyrinths " in the inscriptions, led up to these
chambers; (4) the pylon and staircase at the west; (5) the
frieze of Medusa heads and foliage. Two outer columns are still
erect on the north-east flank, carrying their entablature, and one
of the inner order stands on the south-west. The fact that the
temple was never finished is evident from the state in which some
bases still remain at the west. There were probably no pedi-
mental sculptures. A sacred way led from the temple to the sea
at Panormus, which was flanked with rows of archaic statues, ten
of which were excavated and sent to the British Museum in 1858
by C. T. Newton. Fragments of architectural monuments, which
once adorned this road, have also been found. Modern Hieronta
is a large and growing Greek village, the only settlement within a
radius of several miles. Its harbour is Kovella, distant about
i\ m., and on the N. of the promontory.

See Dilettanti Society, Ionian Antiquities, ii. (1821); C. T.
Newton, Hist, of Discoveries, &c. (1862) and Travels in the Levant,
ii. (1865); O. Rayet and A. Thomas, Milet et le Golfe Latmique
(1877); E. Pontremoli and B. Haussoullier, Didymes (1904).

(D. G. H.)

DIDYMIUM (from the Gr. SWupios, twin), the name given to
the supposed element isolated b.y C. G. Mosander from cerite
(1839-1841). In 1879, however, Lecoq de Boisbaudran showed
that Mosander's "didymium " contained samarium; while the
residual " didymium," after removal of samarium, was split
by Auer v. Welsbach (Monats. f. Chemie, 1885, 6, 477) into
two components (known respectively as neodymium and
praseodymium) by repeated fractional crystallization of the
double nitrate of ammonium and didymium in nitric acid.
Neodymium (Nd) forms the chief portion of the old " didymium. "
Its salts are reddish violet in colour, and give a characteristic
absorption spectrum. It forms oxides of composition Nd2O3
and Nd2O5, the latter being obtained by ignition of the nitrate
(B. Brauner). The atomic weight of neodymium is 143-6
(B. Brauner, Proc. Chem. Soc., 1897-1898, p. 70). Praseody-
mium (Pr) forms oxides of composition PrjOs, Pr2Os,xH2O
(B. Brauner), and P^O?. The peroxide, P^O?, forms a dark
brown powder, and is obtained by ignition of the oxalate or
nitrate. The sesquioxide, Pr2Os, is obtained as a greenish white
mass by the reduction of the peroxide. The salts of praseodymium
are green in colour, and give a characteristic spark spectrum.
The atomic weight of praseodymium is 140-5.

DIDYMUS (?309-?394), surnamed " the Blind," ecclesiastical
writer of Alexandria, was born about the year 309. Although
he became blind at the age of four, before he had learned to read;
he succeeded in mastering the whole circle of the sciences then
known ; and on entering the service of the Church he was placed
at the head of the Catechetical school in Alexandria, where he
lived and worked till almost the close of the century. Among
his pupils were Jerome and Rufinus. He was a loyal follower of

Origen, though stoutly opposed to Arian and Macedonian teach-
ing. Such of his writings as survive show a remarkable knowledge
of scripture, and have distinct value as theological literature.
Among them are the De Trinitate, De Spirilu Sancto (Jerome's
Latin translation), Adversus Mar.ichae.os, and notes and exposi-
tions of various books, especially the Psalms and the Catholic
Epistles.

See Migne, Patrol. Graec. xxxix. ; O. Bardenhewer, Patrologie,
pp. 290-293 (Freiburg, 1894).

DIDYMUS CHALCENTERUS (c. 63 B.C.-A.D. 10), Greek
scholar and grammarian, flourished in the time of Cicero and
Augustus. His surname (Gr. Xa\Kivrepos, brazen-bowelled)
came from his indefatigable industry; he was said to have
written so many books (more than 3500) that he was unable to
recollect their names (/3t/3\ioXa0as). JJe lived and taught in
Alexandria and Rome, where he became the friend of Varro.
He is chiefly important as having introduced Alexandrian
learning to the Romans. He was a follower of the school of
Aristarchus, upon whose recension of Homer he wrote a treatise,
fragments of which have been preserved in the Venetian Scholia.
He also wrote commentaries on many other Greek poets and
prose authors. In his work on the lyric poets he treated of the
various classes of poetry and their chief representatives, and
his lists of words and phrases (used in tragedy and comedy
and by orators and historians), of words of doubtful meaning,
and of corrupt expressions, furnished the later grammarians with
valuable material. His activity extended to all kinds of subjects :
grammar (orthography, inflexions), proverbs, wonderful stories,
the law-tablets (amoves) of Solon, stones, and different kinds of
wood. His polemic against Cicero's De republica (Ammianus
Marcellinus xxii. 16) provoked a reply from Suetonius. In spite
of his stupendous industry, Didymus was little more than a
compiler, of little critical judgment and doubtful accuracy, but
he deserves recognition for having incorporated in his numerous
writings the works of earlier critics and commentators.

See M. W. Schmidt, De Didymo Chalcentero (1853) and Didymi
Chalcenteri fragmenta (1854) ; also F. Susemihl, Geschichte der griech.
Literatur in der Alexandnnerzeit, ii. (1891); J. E. Sandys, History of
Classical Scholarship, i. (1906).

DIE, a town of south-eastern France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Dr6me, 43 m. E.S.E. of Valence on the
Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 3090. The town is situated in a
plain enclosed by mountains on the right bank of the Dr6me
below its confluence with the Meyrosse, which supplies power to
some of the industries. The most interesting structures of Die
are the old cathedral, with a porch of the nth century supported
on granite columns from an ancient temple of Cybele; and the
Porte St Marcel, a Roman gateway flanked by massive towers.
The Roman remains also include the ruins of aqueducts and altars.
Die is the seat of a sub-prefect, and of a tribunal of first instance.
The manufactures are silk, furniture, cloth, lime and cement, and
there are flour and saw mills. Trade is in timber, especially
walnut, and in white wine known as dairette de Die. The mulberry
is largely grown for the rearing of silkworms. Under the Romans,
Die (Dea A ugusta Vocontiorum) was an important colony. It was
formerly the seat of a bishopric, united to that of Valence from
1 276 to 1687 and suppressed in 1790. Previous to the revocation
of the edict of Nantes in 1685 it had a Calvinistic university.

DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given), a word used in various
senses, for a small cube of ivory, &c. (see DICE), for the engraved
stamps used in coining money, &c., and various mechanical
appliances in engineering. In architecture a " die " is the term
used for the square base of a column, and it is applied also to
the vertical face of a pedestal or podium.

The fabrics known as " dice " take their name from the
rectangular form of the figure. The original figures would
probably be perfectly square, but to-day the same principle of
weaving is applied, and the name dice is given to all figures of
rectangular form. The different effects in the adjacent squares or
rectangles are due to precisely the same reasons as those explained
in connexion with the ground and the figure of damasks. The
same weaves are used in both damasks and dices, but simpler

DIEBITSCH— DIEPENBECK

209

weaves are generally employed for the commoner classes of the
latter. The effect is, in every case, obtained by what are technic-
ally called warp and weft float weaves. The illustration B shows

the two double damask, weaves
arranged to form a dice pat-
tern, while A shows a similar
pattern made from two four-
thread twill weaves. C and D
represent respectively the dis-
position of the threads in A
and B with the first pick,
and the solid marks represent
the floats of warp. The four
squares, which are almost as
pronounced in the cloth as
those of a chess-board, may

be made of any size by repeat-
ing each weave for the amount
of surface required. It is only in the finest cloths that the double
damask weaves B are used for dice patterns, the single damask
weaves and the twill weaves being employed to a greater extent.
This class of pattern is largely employed for the production of
table-cloths of lower and medium qualities. The term damask
is also often applied to cloths of this character, and especially so
when the figure is formed by rectangles of different sizes.

DIEBITSCH, HANS KARL FRIEDRICH ANTON, count von
Diebitsch and Narden, called by the Russians Ivan Ivanovich,
Count Diebich-Zabalkansky (1785-1831), Russian field-marshal,
was born in Silesia on the I3th of May 1785. He was educated
at the Berlin cadet school, but by the desire of his father, a
Prussian officer who had passed into the service of Russia, he also
did the same in 1801. He served in the campaign of 1805, and
was wounded at Austerlitz, fought at Eylau and Friedland, and
after Friedland was promoted captain. During the next five
years of peace he devoted himself to the study of military science,
engaging once more in active service in the War of 1812. He
distinguished himself very greatly in Wittgenstein's campaign,
and in particular at Polotzk (October 18 and 19), after which
combat he was raised to the rank of major-general. In the latter
part of the campaign he served against the Prussian contingent
of General Yorck (von Wartenburg), with whom, through
Clausewitz, he negotiated the celebrated convention of Tauroggen,
serving thereafter with Yorck in the early part of the War of
Liberation. After the battle of Ltitzen he served in Silesia
and took part in negotiating the secret treaty of Reichenbach.
Having distinguished himself at the battles of Dresden and
Leipzig he was promoted lieutenant-general. At the crisis of
the campaign of 1814 he strongly urged the march of the allies on
Paris; and after their entry the emperor Alexander conferred on
him the order of St Alexander Nevsky. In 1815 he attended the
congress of Vienna, and was afterwards made adjutant -general
to the emperor, with whom, as also with his successor Nicholas,
he had great influence. By Nicholas he was created baron, and
later count. In 1820 he had become chief of the general staff,
and in 1825 he assisted in suppressing the St Petersburg emeule.
His greatest exploits were in the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-
1829, which, after a period of doubtful contest, was decided by
Diebitsch's brilliant campaign of Adrianople; this won him the
rank of field-marshal and the honorary title of Zabalkanski
to commemorate his crossing of the Balkans. In 1830 he was
appointed to command the great army destined to suppress the
insurrection in Poland. He won the terrible battle of Grochow on
the 25th of February, and was again victorious at Ostrolenka on
the 26th of May, but soon afterwards he died of cholera (or by his
own hand) at Klecksewo near Pultusk, on the loth of June 1831.

See Belmont (Schumberg), Graf Diebitsch (Dresden, 1830);
Sturmer, Der Tod des Graf en Diebitsch (Berlin, 1832); Bantych-
Kamenski, Biographies of Russian Field- Marshals (in Russian,
St Petersburg, 1841).

DIEDENHOFEN (Fr. Thionville), a fortified town of Germany,
in Alsace-Lorraine, dist. Lorraine, on the Mosel, 22 m. N. from
Metz by rail. Pop. (1905) 6047. It is a railway junction of

some consequence, with cultivation of vines, fruit and vegetables,
brewing, tanning, &c. Diedenhofen is an ancient Frank town
(Theudonevilla, Totonisvilla), in which imperial diets were held
in the 8th century; was captured by Condein 1643 and fortified
by Vauban; capitulated to the Prussians, after a severe bom-
bardment, on the 25th of November 1870.

DIEKIRCH, a small town in the grand duchy of Luxemburg,
charmingly situated on the banks of the Sure. Pop. (1905)
3705. Its name is said to be derived from Dide or Dido, grand-
daughter of Odin and niece of Thor. The mountain at the foot of
which the town lies, now called Herrenberg, was formerly known
as Thorenberg, or Thor's mountain. On the summit of this rock
rises a perennial stream which flows down into the town under the
name of Bellenflesschen. Diekirch was an important Roman
station, and in the I4th century John of Luxemburg, the blind
king of Bohemia, fortified it, surrounding the place with a
castellated wall and a ditch supplied by the stream mentioned.
It remained more for less fortified until the beginning of the igth
century when the French during their occupation levelled the old
walls, and substituted the avenues of trees that now encircle the
town. Diekirch is the administrative centre of one of the three
provincial divisions of the grand duchy. It is visited during the
summer by many thousand tourists and travellers from Holland,
Belgium and Germany.

DIELECTRIC, in electricity, a non-conductor of electricity; it
is the same as insulator. The " dielectric constant " of a medium
is its specific inductive capacity, and on the electromagnetic
theory of light it equals the square of its refractive index for light
of infinite wave length (see ELECTROSTATICS; MAGNETO-OPTICS).

DIELHANN, FREDERICK (1847- ), American portrait
and figure painter, was born at Hanover, Germany, on the 25th
of December 1847. He was taken to the United States in
early childhood; studied under Diez at the Royal Academy at
Munich; was first an illustrator, and became a distinguished
draughtsman and painter of genre pictures. His mural decora-
tions and mosaic panels for the Congressional library, Washington ,
are notable. He was elected in 1899 president of the National
Academy of Design.

DIEMEN, ANTHONY VAN (1593-1645), Dutch admiral and
governor-general of the East Indian settlements, was born at
Kuilenburg in 1593. He was educated in commerce, and on
entering the service of the East India Company speedily attained
high rank. In 1631 he led a Dutch fleet from the Indies to
Holland, and in 1636 he was raised to the governor-generalship.
He came into conflict with the Portuguese, and took their
possessions in Ceylon and Malacca from them. He greatly
extended the commercial relationships of the Dutch, opening up
trade with Tong-king, China and Japan. As an administrator
also he showed ability, and the foundation of a Latin school and
several churches in Batavia is to be ascribed to him. Exploring
expeditions were sent to Australia under his auspices in 1636 and
1642, and Abel Tasman named after him (Van Diemen's Land)
the island now called Tasmania. Van Diemen died at Batavia on
the igth of April 1645.

DIEPENBECK, ABRAHAM VAN (1599-1675), Flemish
painter, was born at Herzogenbusch, and studied painting at
Antwerp, where he became one of Rubens's " hundred pupils."
But he was not one of the cleverest of Rubens's followers, and
he succeeded, at the best, in imitating the style and aping the
peculiarities of his master. We see this in his earliest pictures —
a portrait dated 1629 in the Munich Pinakothek, and a " Distribu-
tion of Alms " of the same period in the same collection. Yet even
at this time there were moments when Diepenbeck probably
fancied that he might take another path. A solitary copperplate
executed with his own hand in 1630 represents a peasant sitting
under a tree holding the bridle of an ass, and this is a minute and
finished specimen of the engraver's art which shows that the
master might at one time have hoped to rival the animal draughts-
men who flourished in the schools of Holland. However, large
commissions now poured in upon him; he was asked for altar-
pieces, subject-pieces and pagan allegories. He was tempted to
try the profession of a glass-painter, and at last he gave up every

2IO

DIEPPE— DIERX

other occupation for the lucrative business of a draughtsman and
designer for engravings. Most of Diepenbeck's important can-
vases are in continental galleries. The best are the " Marriage of
St Catherine " at Berlin and " Mary with Angels Wailing over the
Dead Body of Christ " in the Belvedere at Vienna, the first a very
fair specimen of the artist's skill, the second a picture of more
energy and feeling than might be expected from one who knew
more of the outer form than of the spirit of Rubens. Then we
have thefine "Entombment" at Brunswick,and "St Francis Ador-
ing the Sacrament " at the museum at Brussels, " Clelia and her
Nymphs Flying from the Presence and Pursuit of Porsenna " in
two examples at Berlin and Paris, and " Neptune and Amphitrite"
at Dresden. In all these compositions the drawing and execution
are after the fashion of Rubens, though inferior to Rubens in
harmony of tone and force of contrasted light and shade. Occa-
sionally a tendency may be observed to imitate the style of Van-
dyck, for whom, in respect of pictures, Diepenbeck in his lifetime
was frequently taken. But Diepenbeck spent much less of his
leisure on canvases than on glass-painting. Though he failed to
master the secrets of gorgeous tinting, which were lost, apparently
for ever in the i6th century, he was constantly employed during
the best years of his life in that branch of his profession. In 1 63 5
he finished forty scenes from the life of St Francis of Paula in the
church of the Minimes at Antwerp. In 1644 he received payment
for four windows in St Jacques of Antwerp, two of which are still
preserved, and represent Virgins to whom Christ appears after
the Resurrection. The windows ascribed to him at St Gudule
of Brussels were executed from the cartoons of Theodore van
Thulden. On the occasion of his matriculation at Antwerp in
1638-1639, Diepenbeck was registered in the guild of St Luke as a
glass-painter. He resigned his membership in the Artist Club of
the Violette in 1542, apparently because he felt hurt by a valua-
tion then made of drawings furnished for copperplates to the
engraver Pieter de Jode. The earliest record of his residence at
Antwerp is that of his election to the brotherhood (Sodalitat)
" of the Bachelors " in 1634. It is probable that before this time
he had visited Rome and London, as noted in the work of
Houbraken. In 1636 he was made a burgess of Antwerp. He
married twice, ini637 and 1652. He died in December 1675, and
was buried at St Jacques of Antwerp.

DIEPPE, a seaport of northern France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Seine-Inferieure, on the English
Channel, 38 m. N. of Rouen, and 105 m. N.W. of Paris by the
Western railway. Pop. (1906) 22,120. It is situated at the
mouth of the river Arques in a valley bordered on each side
by steep white cliffs . The main part of the town lies to the west,
and the fishing suburb of Le Pollet to the east of the river and
harbour. The sea-front of Dieppe, which in summer attracts
large numbers of visitors, consists of a pebbly beach backed by a
handsome marine promenade. Dieppe has a modern aspect; its
streets are wide and its houses, in most cases, are built of brick.
Two squares side by side and immediately to the west of the outer
harbour form the nucleus of the town, the Place Nationale, over-
looked by the statue of Admiral A. Duquesne, and the Place St
Jacques, named after the beautiful Gothic church which stands
in its centre. The Grande Rue, the busiest and handsomest
street, leads westward from the Place Nationale. The church
of St Jacques was founded in the i3th century, but consists in
large measure of later workmanship and was in some portions
restored in the igth century. The castle, overlooking the beach
from the summit of the western cliff, was erected in 1435. The
church of Notre-Dame de Bon Secours on the opposite cliff, and
the church of St Remy, of the i6th and lyth centuries, are other
noteworthy buildings. A well-equipped casino stands at the
west end of the sea-front. The public institutions include the sub-
prefecture, tribunals of first instance and commerce, a chamber
of commerce, a communal college and a school of navigation.

Dieppe has one of the safest and deepest harbours on the
English Channel. A curved passage cut in the bed of the Arques
and protected by an eastern and a western jetty gives access to
the outer harbour, which communicates at the east end by a lock-
gate with the Bassin Duquesne and the Bassin Berigny, and at

the west end by the New Channel, with an inner tidal harbour
and two other basins. Vessels drawing 20 ft. can enter the new
docks at neap tide. A dry-dock and a gridiron are included
among the repairing facilities of the port. The harbour railway
station is on the north-west quay of the outer harbour alongside
which the steamers from Newhaven lie. The distance of Dieppe
from Newhaven, with which there has long been daily communica-
tion, is 64 m. The imports include silk and cotton goods, thread,
oil- seeds, timber, coal and mineral oil; leading exports are wine,
silk, woollen and cotton fabrics, vegetables and fruit and flint-
pebbles. The average annual value of imports for the five years
1901-1905 was £4,916,000 (£4,301,000 for the years 1896-1900);
the exports were valued at £9,206,000 (£7,023,000 for years
1896-1900). The industries comprise shipbuilding, cotton-
spinning, steam-sawing, the manufacture of machinery, porcelain,
briquettes, lace, and articles in ivory and bone, the production
of which dates from the isth century. There is also a tobacco
factory of some importance. The fishermen of Le Pollet, to
whom tradition ascribes a Venetian origin, are among the main
providers of the Parisian market. The sea-bathing attracts
many visitors in the summer. Two miles to the north-east of
the town is the ancient camp known as the Cite de Limes, which
perhaps furnished the nucleus of the population of Dieppe.

It is suggested on the authority of its name, that Dieppe owed
its origin to a band of Norman adventurers, who found its " diep "
or inlet suitable for their ships, but it was unimportant till the
latter half of the 1 2th century. Its first castle was probably built
in 1188 by Henry II. of England, and it was counted a place of
some consideration when Philip Augustus attacked it in 1195.
By Richard I. of England it was bestowed in 1197 on the arch-
bishop of Rouen in return for certain territory in the neighbour-
hood of the episcopal city. In 1339 it was plundered by the
English, but it soon recovered from the blow, and in spite of the
opposition of the lords of Han tot managed to surround itself with
fortifications. Its commercial activity was already great, and it
is believed that its seamen visited the coast of Guinea in 1339,
and founded there a Petit Dieppe in 1365. The town was
occupied by the English from 1420 to 1435. A siege undertaken
in 1442 by John Talbot, first earl of Shrewsbury, was raised by
the dauphin, afterwards Louis XI., and the day of the deliverance
continued for centuries to be celebrated by a great procession
and miracle plays. In the beginning of the i6th century Jean
Parmentier, a native of the town, made voyages to Brazil and
Sumatra; and a little later its merchant prince, Jacques Ango,
was able to blockade the Portuguese fleet in the Tagus. Francis
I. began improvements which were continued under his successor.
Its inhabitants in great number embraced the reformed religion;
and they were among the first to acknowledge Henry IV., who
fought one of his great battles at the neighbouring village of
Arques. Few of the cities of France suffered more from the
revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685; and this blow was
followed in 1694 by a terrible bombardment on the part of the
English and Dutch. The town was rebuilt after the peace of
Ryswick, but the decrease of its population and the deterioration
of its port prevented the restoration of its commercial prosperity.
During the loth century it made rapid advances, partly owing to
Marie Caroline, duchess of Berry, who brought it into fashion as a
watering-place; and also because the establishment of railway
communication with Paris gave an impetus to its trade. During
the Franco-German War the town was occupied by the Germans
from December 1870 till July 1871.

See L. Vitet, Histoire de Dieppe (Paris, 1844); D. Asseline, Les
Antiquites et chroniques de la ville de Dieppe, a 17th-century account
published at Paris in 1874.

DIERX, LfiON (1838- ), French poet, was born in the
island of Reunion in 1838. He came to Paris to study at the
Central School of Arts and Manufactures, and subsequently
settled there, taking up a post in the education office. He
became a disciple of Leconte de Lisle and one of the most
distinguished of the Parnassians. In the death of Stephane
Mallarme in 1898 he was acclaimed " prince of poets "
by " les jeunes." His works include: Palmes et poesies (1864);

DIES, C. A.— DIET

211

Lcvres closes (1867); Paroles d'un vaincu (1871) ; La Rencontre, a
dramatic scene (1875) and Les Amants (1879). His Poesies
completes (1872) were crowned by the French Academy. A com-
plete edition of his works was published in 2 vols., 1894-1896.

DIES, CHRISTOPH ALBERT (1755-1822), German painter,
was born at Hanover, and learned the rudiments of art in his
native place. For one year he studied in the academy of Dussel-
dorf, and then he started at the age of twenty with thirty ducats
in his pocket for Rome. There he lived a frugal life till 1796.
Copying pictures, chiefly by Salvator Rosa, for a livelihood, his
taste led him to draw and paint from nature in Tivoli, Albano
and other picturesque places in the vicinity of Rome. Naples,
the birthplace of his favourite master, he visited more than once
for the same reasons. In this way he became a bold executant in
water-colours and in oil, though he failed to acquire any origin-
ality of his own. Lord Bristol, who encouraged him as a copyist,
predicted that he would be a second Salvator Rosa. But Dies
was not of the wood which makes original artists. Besides other
disqualifications, he had necessities which forced him to give
up the great career of an independent painter. David, then
composing his Horatii at Rome, wished to take him to Paris.
But Dies had reasons for not accepting the offer. He was courting
a young Roman whom he subsequently married. Meanwhile he
had made the acquaintance of Volpato, for whom he executed
numerous drawings, and this no doubt suggested the plan, which
he afterwards carried out, of publishing, in partnership with
Median, Reinhardt and Frauenholz, the series of plates known
as the Collection de vues pittoresques de I'ltalie, published in
seventy-two sheets at Nuremberg in 1799. With so many
irons in the fire Dies naturally lost the power of concentration.
Other causes combined to affect his talent. In 1787 he swallowed
by mistake three-quarters of an ounce of sugar of lead. His re-
covery from this poison was slow and incomplete. He settled at
Vienna, and lived there on the produce of his brush as a landscape
painter, and on that of his pencil or graver as a draughtsman and
etcher. But instead of getting better, his condition became
worse, and he even lost the use of one of his hands. In this
condition he turned from painting to music, and spent his leisure
hours in the pleasures of authorship. He did not long survive,
dying at Vienna in 1822, after long years of chronic suffering.
From two pictures now in the Belvedere gallery, and from
numerous engraved drawings from the neighbourhood of Tivoli,
we gather that Dies was never destined to rise above a respectable
mediocrity. He followed Salvator Rosa's example in imitating
the manner of Claude Lorraine. But Salvator adapted the style
of Claude, whilst Dies did no more than copy it.

DIEST, a small town in the province of Brabant, Belgium,
situated on the Demer at its junction with the Sever. Pop.
(1904) 8383. It lies about half-way between Hasselt and
Louvain, and is still one of the five fortified places in Belgium.
It contains many breweries, and is famous for the excellence of
its beer.

DIESTERWEG, FRIEDRICH ADOLF WILHELM (1790-1866),
German educationist, was born at Siegen on the 2gth of October
1790. Educated at Herborn and Tubingen universities, he took
to the profession of teaching in 1811. In 1820 he was appointed
director of the new school at Mors, where he put in practice the
methods of Pestalozzi. In 1832 he was summoned to Berlin to
direct the new state-schools seminary in that city. Here he
proved himself a strong supporter of unsectarian religious teach-
ing. In 1846 he established the Pestalozzi institution at Pankow,
and the Pestalozzi societies for the support of teachers' widows
and orphans. In 1850 he retired on a pension, but continued
vigorously to advocate his educational views. In 1858 he was
elected to the chamber of deputies as member for the city of
Berlin, and voted with the Liberal opposition. He died in Berlin
on the 7th of July 1866. Diesterweg was a voluminous writer
on educational subjects, and was the author of various school
text-books.

DIET, a term used in two senses, (i) food or the regulation
of feeding (see DIETARY and DIETETICS), (2) an assembly
or council (Fr. diete; It. dieta; Low Lat. diaeta; Ger. Tag).

We are here concerned only with this second sense. In
modern usage, though in Scotland the term is still sometimes
applied to any assembly or session, it is practically confined to
the sense of an assembly of estates or of national or federal
representatives. The origin of the word in this connotation is
somewhat complicated. It is undoubtedly ultimately derived
from the Greek SiaiTO. (Lat. diaeta), which meant " mode of
life " and thence " prescribed mode of life," the English " diet "
or " regimen." This was connected with the verb diairav, in
the sense of " to rule," " to regulate " ; compare the office of
Siainjnfc at Athens, and dieteta, " umpire," in Late Latin.
In both Greek and Latin, too, the word meant " a room," from
which the transition to " a place of assembly " and so to " an
assembly " would be easy. In the latter sense the word, however,
actually occurs only in Low Latin, Du Cange (Glossarium,s.v.)
deriving it from the late sense of " meal " or " feast," the Germans
being accustomed to combine their political assemblies with
feasting. It is clear, too, that the word diaeta early became
confused with Lat. dies, " day " (Ger. Tag), " especially a set
day, a day appointed for public business; whence, by extension,
meeting for business, an assembly " (Skeat). Instances of this
confusion are given by Du Cange, e.g. diaeta for dieta, " a day's
journey " (also an obsolete sense of " diet " in English), and
dieta for " the ordinary course of the church," i.e. " the daily
office," which suggests the original sense of diaeta as " a pre-
scribed mode of life."

The word " diet " is now used in English for the Reichstag,
" imperial diet " of the old Holy Roman Empire; for the
Bundestag ," federal diet, "of the former Germanic confederation;
sometimes for the Reichstag of the modern German empire; for
the Landtage, " territorial diets " of the constituent states of the
German and Austrian empires; as well as for the former or
existing federal or national assemblies of Switzerland, Hungary,
Poland, &c. Although, however, the word is still sometimes used
of all the above, the tendency is to confine it, so far as con-
temporary assemblies are concerned, to those of subordinate
importance. Thus " parliament " is often used of the German
Reichstag or of the Russian Landtag, while the Landtag, e.g. of
Styria, would always be rendered " diet." In what follows we
confine ourselves to the diet of the Holy Roman Empire and its
relation to its successors in modern Germany.

The origin of the diet, or deliberative assembly, of the Holy
Roman Empire must be sought in the placitum of the Prankish
empire. This represented the tribal assembly of the Franks,
meeting (originally in March, but after 755 in May, whence it is
called the Campus Maii) partly for a military review on the eve
of the summer campaign, partly for deliberation on important
matters of politics and justice. By the side of this larger
assembly, however, which contained in theory, if not in practice,
the whole body of Franks available for war, there had developed,
even before Carolingian times, a smaller body composed of the
magnates of the Empire, both lay and ecclesiastical. The germ
of this smaller body is to be found in the episcopal synods, which,
afforced by the attendance of lay magnates, came to be used
by the king for the settlement of national affairs. Under the
Carolingians it was usual to combine the assembly of magnates
with the generalis convenlus of the " field of May," and it was
in this inner assembly, rather than in the general body (whose
approval was merely formal, and confined to matters momentous
enough to be referred to a general vote), that the centre of power
really lay. It is from the assembly of magnates that the diet
of medieval Germany springs. The general assembly became
meaningless and unnecessary, as the feudal array gradually
superseded the old levy en masse, in which each freeman had
been liable to service; and after the close of the loth century
it no longer existed.

The imperial diet (Reichstag) of the middle ages might some-
times contain representatives of Italy, the regnum Italicum; but
it was practically always confined to the magnates of Germany,
the regnum Teutonicum. Upon occasion a summons to the diet
might be sent even to the knights, but the regular members were
the princes ( Fiirsten), both lay and ecclesiastical. In the i3th

212

DIETARY

century the seven electors began to disengage themselves from
the prince as a separate element, and the Golden Bull (1356)
made their separation complete; from, the i4th century onwards
the nobles (both counts and other lords) are regarded as regular
members; while after 1250 the imperial and episcopal towns
often appear through their representatives. By the i4th century,
therefore, the originally homogeneous diet of princes is already,
at any rate practically if not yet in legal form, divided into three
colleges — the electors, the princes and nobles, and the repre-
sentatives of the towns (though, as we shall see, the latter can
hardly be reckoned as regular members until the century of the
Reformation). Under the Hohenstaufen it is still the rule that
every member of the diet must attend personally, or lose his vote;
at a later date the principle of representation by proxy, which
eventually made the diet into a mere congress of envoys, was
introduced. By the end of the I3th century the vote of the
majority had come to be regarded as decisive; but hi accordance
with the strong sense of social distinctions which marks German
history, the quality as well as the quantity of votes was weighed,
and if the most powerful of the princes were agreed, the opinion
of the lesser magnates was not consulted. The powers of the
medieval diet extended to matters like legislation, the decision
upon expeditions (especially the expeditio Romano), taxation and
changes in the constitution of the principalities or the Empire.
The election of the king, which was originally regarded as one of
the powers of the diet, had passed to the electors by the middle
of the I3th century.

A new era in the history of the diet begins with the Reforma-
tion. The division of the diet into three colleges becomes definite
and precise; the right of the electors, for instance, to constitute
a separate college is explicitly recognized as a matter of established
custom in 1544. The representatives of the towns now become
regular members. In the isth century they had only attended
when special business, such as imperial reform or taxation, fell
under discussion; in 1500, however, they were recognized as a
separate and regular estate, though it was not until 1648 that
they were recognized as equal to the other estates of the diet.
The estate of the towns, or college of municipal representatives,
was divided into two benches, the Rhenish and the Swabian.
The estate of the princes and counts, which stood midway
between the electors and the towns, also attained, in the years
that followed the Reformation, its final organization. The vote
of the great princes ceased to be personal, and began to be
territorial. This had two results. The division of a single
territory among the different t,ons of a family no longer, as of old,
multiplied the voting power of the family; while in the opposite
case, the union of various territories in the hands of a single
person no longer meant the extinction of several votes, since the
new owner was now allowed to give a vote for each of his terri-
tories. The position of the counts and other lords, who joined
with the princes in forming the middle estate, was finally fixed
by the middle of the i7th century. While each of the princes
enjoyed an individual vote, the counts and other lords were
arranged in groups, each of which voted as a whole, though the
whole of its vote (Kuriatstimme) only counted as equal to the
vote of a single prince (Virilstimme). There were six of these
groups; but as the votes of the whole college of princes and
counts (at any rate in the i8th century) numbered 100, they
could exercise but little weight.

The last era in the history of the diet may be said to open with
the treaty of Westphalia (1648) . The treaty acknowledged that
Germany was no longer a unitary state, but a loose confederation
of sovereign princes; and the diet accordingly ceased to bear the
character of a national assembly, and became a mere congress of
envoys. The " last diet " which issued a regular recess (Reichs-
dbschied — the term applied to the acta of the diet, as formally
compiled and enunciated at its dissolution) was that of Regens-
burg in 1654. The next diet, which met at Regensburg in 1663,
never issued a recess, and was never dissolved; it continued in
permanent session, as it were, till the dissolution of the Empire
in 1806. This result was achieved by the process of turning the
diet from an assembly of principals into a congress of envoys.

The emperor was represented by two commissarii; the electors,
princes and towns were similarly represented by their accredited
agents. Some legislation was occasionally done by this body; a
conclusum imperil (so called in distinction from the old recessus
imperii of the period before 1663) might slowly (very slowly —
for the agents, imperfectly instructed, had constantly to refer
matters back to their principals) be achieved; but it rested with
the various princes to promulgate and enforce the conclusum in
their territories, and they were sufficiently occupied in issuing
and enforcing their own decrees. In practice the diet had
nothing to do; and its members occupied themselves in
" wrangling about chairs " — that is to say, in unending disputes
about degrees and precedences.

In the Germanic Confederation, which occupies the interval
between the death of the Holy Roman Empire and the forma-
tion of the North German Confederation (1815-1866), a diet
(Bundestag) existed, which was modelled on the old diet of the i8th
century. It was a standing congress of envoys at Frankfort-on-
Main. Austria presided in the diet, which, in the earlier years of
its history, served, under the influence of Metternich, as an organ
for the suppression of Liberal opinion. In the North German
Confederation (1867-1870) a new departure was made, which has
been followed in the constitution of the present German empire.
Two bodies were instituted — a Bundesrat, which resembles the old
diet in being a congress of envoys sent by the sovereigns of the
different states of the confederation, and a Reichstag, which bears
the name of the old diet, but differs entirely in composition. The
new Reichstag is a popular representative assembly, based on
wide suffrage and elected by ballot; and, above all, it is an
assembly representing, not the several states, but the whole
Empire, which is divided for this purpose into electoral districts.
Both as a popular assembly, and as an assembly which represents
the whole of a united Germany, the new Reichstag goes back, one
may almost say, beyond the diet even of the middle ages, to the
days of the old Teutonic folk-moot.

See R. Schroder, Lehrbuch der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte (1902),
pp. 149, 508, 820, 880. Schroder gives a bibliography of monographs
bearing on the history of the medieval diet. (E. BR.)

DIETARY, in a general sense, a system or course of diet, in the
sense of food; more particularly, such an allowance and regula-
tion of food as that supplied to workhouses, the army and navy,
prisons, &c. Lowest in the scale of such dietaries comes what
is termed " bare existence " diet, administered to certain classes
of the community who have a claim on their fellow-countrymen
that their lives and health shall be preserved in statu quo, but
nothing further. This applies particularly to the members of
a temporarily famine-stricken community. Before the days of
prison reform, too, the dietary scale of many prisons was to
a certain extent penal, in that the food supplied to prisoners
was barely sufficient for existence. Nowadays more humane
principles apply; there is no longer the obvious injustice of
applying the same scale of quantity and quality to all prisoners
under varying circumstances of constitution and surroundings,
and whether serving long or short periods of imprisonment.

The system of dietary in force in the local and convict prisons of
England and Wales is that recommended by the Home Office on the
advice of a departmental committee. As to the local prison dietary,
its application is based on (l) the principle of variation of diet with
length of sentence; (2) the system of progressive dietary; (3) the
distinction between hard labour diets and non-hard labour diets;
(4) the differentiation of diet according to age and sex. There are
three classes of diet, classes A, B and C. Class A diet is given
to prisoners undergoing not more than seven days' imprisonment.
The food is good and wholesome, but sufficiently plain and un-
attractive, so as not to offer temptation to the loafer or mendicant.
It is given in quantity sufficient to maintain health and strength
during the single week. Prisoners sentenced to more than seven days
and not more than fourteen days are given class A diet for the first
seven days and class B for the remainder of the sentence. In most
of the local prisons in England and Wales prisoners sentenced to
hard labour received hard labour diet, although quite 60% were
unable to perform the hardest forms of prison labour either through
physical defect, age or infirmity. The departmental committee
of 1899 in their report recommended that no distinction should be
made between hard labour and non-hard labour diets. Class A diet
is as follows: — Breakfast, Bread, 8 oz. daily (6 oz. for women and
juveniles) with i pint of gruel. Juveniles (males and females under

DIETARY

213

sixteen years of age) get, in addition, J pint of milk. Dinner, 8 oz. of
bread daily, with I pint of porridge on three days of the week, 8 oz.
of potatoes (representing the vegetable element) on two other days,

TABLE I.

Men.

Women. Juveniles.

Breakfast.

Daily:—

Bread . . .

8 oz.

6 oz. 6 oz.

Gruel

i pt:

i pt. I pt.

Milk ....

ipt.

Dinner.

Sunday : —

Bread . . .

6 oz.

6 oz.

Potatoes . .

8 „

8 „

Cooked meat, pre-

served by heat

4 .,

3 ..

Monday : —

Bread . . .

6 oz.

6 oz.

Potatoes .

8 „

8 „

Beans

10 „

8 „

Fat bacon

2 „

I „

Tuesday : —
Bread . . .

6 oz.

6 oz.

Potatoes . . .

8 „

8 „

Soup ....

ipt.

ipt.

Wednesday : —

Bread . . .

6 oz.

6 oz.

Potatoes . .

8 „

8 „

Suet pudding

10 „

8 „

Thursday : —

Bread . . .

6 oz.

6 oz.

Potatoes .

8 „

8 „

Cooked beef,

.

without bone

4 ..

3 -,

Friday : —

Bread . . .

6 oz.

6 oz.

Potatoes . . .

8 „

8 „

Soup ....

ipt.

ipt.

Saturday: — .

Bread . . .

6 oz.

6 oz.

Potatoes .

8 „

8 „

Suet pudding

10 „

8 „

Supper.

Daily : —
Bread . .

8 oz.

6 oz. 6 oz.

Porridge .

I pt.

Gruel

i pt.

Cocoa

f »-•

ipt.

and 8 oz. of suet pudding (representing the fatty element) on the
other two days. Supper, the breakfast fare repeated.

C}ass B diet, which is also given to (i) prisoners on remand or
awaiting trial, (2) offenders of the 1st division who do not maintain
themselves, (3) offenders of the 2nd division and (4) debtors, is as
shown in Table I.

Class C diet is class B amplified, and is given to those prisoners
serving sentences of three months and over.

The dietary of convict prisons, in which prisoners are all under long
sentence, is divided into a diet for convicts employed at hard labour
and a diet for convicts employed at sedentary, indoor and light
labour. It will be found set forth in the Blue-book mentioned above.
The sparest of all prison diets is called " punishment diet," and is
administered for offences against the internal discipline of the prison.
It is limited to a period of three days. It consists of i ft of bread
and as much water as the prisoner chooses to drink.

In French prisons the dietary is nearly two pounds weight of braad,
with two meals of thin soup (breakfast and dinner) made from
potatoes, beans or other vegetables, and on two days a week made
from meat. In France the canteen system is in vogue, additional
food, such as sausages, cheese, fruit, &c., may be obtained by the
prisoner, according to the wages he receives for his labours. The
dietary of Austrian prisons is ii Ib of bread daily, a dinner of soup
on four days of the week, and of meat on the other three days,
with a supper of soup or vegetable stew. Additional food can be
purchased by the prisoner out of his earnings.

These dietaries may be taken as more or less typical of the ordinary
prison fare in most civilized countries, though in some countries it
may err on the side of severity, as in Sweden, prisoners being given
only two meals a day, one at mid-day and one at seven P.M., porridge
or gruel being the principal element in both meals. On the other
hand, the prison dietaries of many of the United States prisons go
to the other extreme, fresh fish, green vegetables, even coffee and
fruit, figuring in the dietary.

Another class of dietary is that given to paupers. In England,
until 1900, almost every individual workhouse had its own special
dietary, with the consequence that many erred on the side of scanti-
ness and unsuitability, while others were too lavish. By an order of
the Local Government Board of that year, acting on a report of a
committee, all inmates of workhouses, with the exception ofthe sick,
children under three years of age, and certain other special cases,
are dieted in accordance with certain dietary tables as framed and
settled by the board. The order contained a great number of different
rations, it being left to the discretion of the guardians as to the final
settlement of the tables. For adult inmates the dietary tables are
for each sex respectively, two in number, one termed " plain diet "
and the other " infirm diet." All male inmates certified as healthy
able-bodied persons receive plain diet only. All inmates, however,
in workhouses are kept employed according to their capacity and
ability, and this is taken into consideration in giving allowances of
food. _ For instance, for work with sustained exertion, such as stone-
breaking, digging, &c., more food is given than for work without
sustained exertion, such as wood-chopping, weeding or sewing.
Table II. shows an example of a workhouse dietary.

In the casual wards of workhouses the dietary is plainer, consisting
of 8 oz. of bread, or 6 oz. of bread and one pint of gruel or broth for
breakfast; the same for supper; for dinner 8 oz. ofbread and ii oz.
of cheese or 6 oz. of bread and one pint of soup. The American poor
law system is based broadly on that of England, and the methods
of relief are much the same. Each state, however, makes its own
regulations, and there is considerable diversity in workhouse dietaries
in consequence. The German system of poor relief is more methodical
than those of England and America. Thereally deserving are treated

TABLE II.

Breakfast.

Dinner.

Supper.

•6
§

pa

Porridge.

•d
8

CO

tp
B

a

Vegetables.

It
<S<2

.*

1

CO

a
A

1

J3

•

£

Cheese.

1

P9

A

CO

ja

(A

T

•a

8
M

*
o

3

—

rt

£

"3
0

1
M

Cheese.

oz.

pt.

oz.

oz.

oz.

pt.

oz.

oz.

oz.

oz.

pt.

Pt.

oz.

OZ.

Pt.

pt.

pt.

oz.

Sunday

8

*

4

4i

12

8

i

i

Monday .

4

i*

6

ii

6

ii

Tuesday .*

4

ii

4i

12

6

it

Wednesday
Thursday .
Friday
Saturday .

4
4
4
4

ii
ii

ii
ii

4
4
8
6

4i

12
12

IO

6
8
6
6

•-

< .

ii

ii
ii

i

2

3

I

I

* On Sundays i pint of tea and 2j oz. of butter are given instead of porridge.

214

DIETETICS

with more commiseration, and a larger amount of outdoor relief is
given than in England. There is no casual ward, tramps and beggars
being liable to penal treatment, but there are " relief stations,"
somewhat corresponding to casual wards, where destitute persons
tramping from one place to another can obtain food and lodging in
return for work done.

In the British navy certain staple articles of diet are supplied to
the men to the value approximately of 6d. per diem — the standard
government ration-^-and, in addition, a messing allowance cf 4d. per
diem, which may either be expended on luxuries in the canteen, or
in taking up government provisions on board ship, in addition to
the standard ration. The standard ration as recommended in 1907
by a committee appointed to inquire into the question of victualling
in the navy is as follows : —

Service Afloat.

l ft bread (or J ft bread and J ft trade flour).

J Ib fresh meat.

i ft fresh vegetables.

J pint spirit.

4 oz. sugar.

oz. tea (or I oz. coffee for every J oz. tea).

oz. ordinary or soluble chocolate (or I oz. coffee).

oz. condensed milk.
I oz. jam or marmalade.
4 oz. preserved meat on one day of the week in harbour, or on

two days at sea.

Mustard, pepper, vinegar, and salt as required.
Substitute for soft bread when the latter is not available —

i ft biscuit (new type) or I ft flour.
Substitutes for fresh meat when the latter is not available : —

(1) Salt pork day: —

ft salt pork,
ft split peas.

elery seed, i oz. to every 8 ft of split peas put
into the coppers,
ft potatoes (or i oz. compressed vegetables).

(2) Preserved meat day: —

6 oz. preserved meat.

8 oz. trade flour. }

f oz. refined suet > or 4 oz. rice.

2 oz. raisins )

i ft potatoes (or i oz. compressed vegetables).
On shore establishments and depot ships J pt. fresh milk is issued
in lieu of the | oz. of condensed milk.

In the United States navy there is more liberality and variety of
diet, the approximate daily cost of the rations supplied being is. 3d.
per head. In the American mercantile marine, too, according to
the scale sanctioned by act of Congress (December 21, 1898) for
American ships, the seaman is better off than in the British merchant
service. The scale is shown in Table III.

TABLE III.

On
alternate -

days.

In the British mercantile marine there is no scale of provisions
prescribed by the Board of Trade; there is, however, a traditional
scale very generally adopted, having the sanction of custom only
and seldom adhered to. The following dietary scale for steerage
passengers, laid down in the I2th schedule of the Merchant Shipping
Act 1 894, is of interest. See Table IV.

Certain substitutions may be made in this scale at the option
of the master of any emigrant ship, provided that the substituted
articles are set forth in the contract tickets of the steerage passengers.
_ In the British army the soldier is fed partly by a system of co-opera-
tion. He gets a free ration from government of I ft of bread and
j ft of meat; in addition there is a messing allowance of 3^d. per
man per day. He is able to supplement his food by purchases from
the canteen. Much depends on the individual management in each

—

Scale A.

ScaleB.

For voyages not ex-

For voyages ex-

ceeding 84 days
for sailing ships

ceeding 84 days
for sailing ships

or 50 days for

or 50 days for

steamships.

steamships.

ft oz.

ft oz.

Bread or biscuit, not in-

ferior to navy biscuit

3 8

3 8

Wheaten flour

0

2 0

Oatmeal

8

I 0

Rice .

8

o 8

Peas ....

8

i 8

Beef .

4

1 4

Pork

0

I O

Butter

o 4

Potatoes

2 0

2 0

Sugar

I 0

I 0

Tea .

O 2

0 2

Salt ....

0 2

O 2

Pepper (white or black),

ground

0 O*

o oj

Vinegar
Preserved meat .

I gill

i gill

I 0

Suet ....

. o 6

Raisins

o 8

Lime juice .

o 6

Weekly
Scale.

Articles.

Weekly
Scale.

Articles.

3ift

Biscuits.

ioz.

Tea.

3f

Salt beef.

21 ,,

Sugar.

3

„ pork.

li ft

Molasses.

i*

Flour.

9 oz.

Fruits, dried.

2

Meats, preserved.

ipt.

Pickles.

IOJ

Bread, fresh (8 ft flour

i „

Vinegar.

in lieu).

8 oz.

Corn Meal.

I

Fish, dried.

12

Onions.

7

Potatoes or yams.

7

Lard.

i

Tomatoes, preserved.

7

Butter.

§

Peas.

1

Mustard.

|

Calavances.
Rice.

i

Pepper.
Salt.

5i oz.

Coffee, green.

regiment as to the satisfactory expenditure of the messing allowance.
In some regiments an allowance is made from the canteen funds
towards messing in addition to that granted by the government.
The ordinary field ration of the British soldier is ij ft of bread or
i ft of biscuit; i ft of fresh, salt or preserved meat; J oz. of coffee;
Joz. of tea; 2 oz. of sugar; § oz. of salt, fa oz. of pepper, the
whole weighing something over 2 ft 3 oz. This cannot be looked
on as a fixed ration, as it varies in different campaigns, according to
the country into which the troops may be sent. The Prussian soldier
during peace gets weekly from his canteen 1 1 ft I oz. of rye bread
and not quite 2 J ft of meat. This is obviously insufficient, but under

TABLE IV.— Weekly, per Statute Adult.

the conscription system it is reckoned that he will be able to make
up the deficiency out of his own private means, or obtain charitable
contributions from his friends. In the French infantry of the line
each man during peace gets weekly 15 Ib of bread, 3ft ft of meat,
2} ft of haricot beans or other vegetables, with salt and pepper, and
if oz. of brandy.

An Austrian under the same circumstances receives 13-9 ft of
bread, J ft of flour and 3-3 ft of meat.

The Russian conscript is allowed weekly : —
Black bread 7 ft.

7ft.

Meat

Kvass (beer)
Sour cabbage
Barley
Salts .
Horse-radish
Pepper
Vinegar

7-7 quarts.

243 gills =I22j OZ.

243 gills = 1225 oz.

lo| oz.

28 grains.

28 grains.

5J gills = 26J oz.

DIETEflCS, the science of diet, i.e. the food and nutrition of
man in health and disease (see NUTRITION). This article deals
mainly with that part of the subject which has to do with the
composition and nutritive values of foods and their adaptation
to the use of people in health. The principal topics considered
are: (i) Food and its functions; (2) Metabolism of matter and
energy; (3) Composition of food materials; (4) Digestibility of
food; (5) Fuel value of food; (6) Food consumption; (7) Quan-
tities of nutrients needed; (8) Hygienic economy of food; (9)
Pecuniary economy of food.

i. Food and its Functions. — For practical purposes, food may be
denned as that which, when taken into the body, may be utilized
for the formation and repair of body tissue, and the production
of energy. More specifically, food meets the requirements of the
body in several ways. It is used for the formation of the tissues
and fluids of the body, and for the restoration of losses of sub-
stance due to bodily activity. The potential energy of the food
is converted into heat or muscular work or other forms of energy.
In being thus utilized, food protects body substance or previously
acquired nutritive material from consumption. When the amount

DIETETICS

215

of food taken into the body is in excess of immediate needs, the
surplus may be stored for future consumption.

Ordinary food materials, such as meat, fish, eggs, vegetables,
&c., consist of inedible materials, or refuse, e.g. bone of meat
and fish, shell of eggs, rind and seed of vegetables; and edible
material, as flesh of meat and fish, white and yolk of eggs, wheat
flour, &c. The edible material is by no means a simple sub-
stance, but consists of water, and some or ail of the compounds
variously designated as food stuffs, proximate principles, nutritive
ingredients or nutrients, which are classified as protein, fats,
carbohydrates and mineral matters. These have various functions
in the nourishment of the body.

The refuse commonly contains compounds similar to those
in the food from which it is derived, but since it cannot be eaten,
it is usually considered as a non-nutrient. It is of importance
chiefly in a consideration of the pecuniary economy of food.
Water is also considered as a non-nutrient, because although it is a
constituent of all the tissues and fluids of the body, the body may
obtain the water it needs from that drunk; hence, that contained
in the food materials is of no special significance as a nutrient.

Mineral matters, such as sulphates, chlorides, phosphates and
carbonates of sodium, potassium, calcium, &c., are found in
different combinations and quantities in most food materials.
These are used by the body in the formation of the various
tissues, especially the skeletal and protective tissues, in digestion,
and in metabolic processes within the body. They yield little
or no energy, unless perhaps the very small amount involved in
their chemical transformation.

Protein ' is a term used to designate the whole group of
nitrogenous compounds of food except the nitrogenous fats. It
includes the albuminoids, as albumin of egg-white, and of blood
serum, myosin of meat (muscle), casein of milk, globulin of blood
and of egg yolk, fibrin of blood, gluten of flour; the gelatinoids,
as gelatin and allied substances of connective tissue, collagen of
tendon, ossein of bone and the so-called extractives ( e.g. creatin)
of meats; and the amids (e.g. asparagin) and allied compounds of
vegetables and fruits.

The albuminoids and gelatinoids, classed together as proteids,
are the most important constituents of food, because they alone
can supply the nitrogenous material necessary for the formation
of the body tissues. For this purpose, the albuminoids are most
valuable. Both groups of compounds, however, supply the body
with energy, and the gelatinoids in being thus utilized protect
the albuminoids from consumption for this purpose. When their
supply in the food is in excess of the needs of the body, the surplus
proteids may be converted into body fat and stored.

The so-called extractives, which are the principal constituents
of meat extract, beef tea and the like, act principally as stimulants
and appetizers. It has been believed that they serve neither
to build tissue nor to yield energy, but recent investigations2
indicate that creatin may be metabolized in the body.

The/a/i of food include both the animal fats and the vegetable
oils. The carbohydrates include such compounds as starches,
sugars and the fibre of plants or cellulose, though the latter has
but little value as food for man. The more important function
of both these classes of nutrients is to supply energy to the body
to meet its requirements above that which it may obtain from the
proteids. It is not improbable that the atoms of their molecules
as well as those from the proteids are built up into the proto-
plasmic substance of the tissues. In this sense, these nutrients
may be considered as being utilized also for the formation of
tissue; but they are rather the accessory ingredients, whereas the
proteids are the essential ingredients for this purpose. The fats
in the food in excess of the body requirements may be stored as
body fat, and the surplus carbohydrates may also be converted
into fat and stored.

1 The terms applied by different writers to these nitrogenous
compounds are conflicting. For instance, the term " proteid " is
sometimes used as protein is here used, and sometimes to designate
the group here called albuminoids. The classification and terminology
here followed are those tentatively recommended by the Association
of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations.

'Folin, Festschrift fiir Ola} Hammarsten, iii. (Upsala, 1906).

To a certain extent, then, the nutrients of the food may
substitute each other. All may be incorporated into the proto-
plasmic structure of body tissue, though only the proteids can
supply the essential nitrogenous ingredients; and apart from
the portion of the proteid material that is indispensable for this
purpose, all the nutrients are used as a source of energy. If the
supply of energy in the food is not sufficient, the body will use
its own proteid and fat for this purpose. The gelatinoids, fats
and carbohydrates in being utilized for energy protect the body
proteids from consumption. The fat stored in the body from the
excess of food is a reserve of energy material, on which the body
may draw when the quantity of energy in the food is insufficient
for its immediate needs.

What compounds are especially concerned in intellectual
activity is not known. The belief that fish is especially rich in
phosphorus and valuable as a brain food has no foundation in
observed fact.

2. Metabolism of Matter and Energy. — The processes of nutri-
tion thus consist largely of the transformation of food into body
material and the conversion of the potential energy of both food
and body material into the kinetic energy of heat and muscular
work and other forms of energy. These various processes are
generally designated by the term metabolism. The metabolism
of matter in the body is governed largely by the needs of the body
for energy. The science of nutrition, of which the present subject
forms a part, is based on the principle that the transformations
of matter and energy in the body occur in accordance with the
laws of the conservation of matter and of energy. That the body
can neither create nor destroy matter has long been universally
accepted. It would seem that the transformation of energy must
likewise be governed by the law of the conservation of energy;
indeed there is every reason a priori to believe that it must; but
the experimental difficulties in the way of absolute demonstration
of the principle are considerable. For such demonstration it is
necessary to prove that the income and expenditure of energy
are equal. Apparatus and methods of inquiry devised in recent
years, however, afford means for a comparison of the amounts of
both matter and energy received and expended by the body, and
from the results obtained in a large amount of such research,
it seems probable that the law obtains in the living organism in
general.

The first attempt at such demonstration was made by
M. Rubner3 in 1894, experimenting with dogs doing no external
muscular work. The income of energy (as heat) was computed,
but the heat eliminated was measured. In the average of eight
experiments continuing forty-five days, the two quantities agreed
within 0-47 %, thus demonstrating what it was desired to prove
— that the heat given off by the body came solely from the
oxidation of food within it. Results in accordance with these
were reported by Studenski4 in 1897, and by Laulanie6 in 1898.

The most extensive and complete data yet available on the
subject have been obtained by W. O. Atwater, F. G. Benedict and
associates6 in experiments with men in the respiration calori-
meter, in which a subject may remain for several consecutive days
and nights. These experiments involve actual weighing and
analyses of the food and drink, and of the gaseous, liquid and
solid excretory products; determinations of potential energy
(heat of oxidation) of the oxidizable material received and given
off by the body (including estimation of the energy of the material
gained or lost by the body) ; and measurements of the amounts of
energy expended as heat and as external muscular work. By
October 1906 eighty-eight experiments with fifteen different sub-
jects had been completed. The separate experiments continued
from two to thirteen days, making a total of over 270 days.

3 Ztschr. Biol. 30, 73.

4 In Russian. Cited in United States Department of Agriculture,
Office of Experiment Stations, Bui. No. 45, A Digest of Metabolism
Experiments, by W. O. Atwater and C. F. Langworthy.

6 Arch, physiol. norm, et path. (1894) 4-

6 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations,
Bulletins Nos. 63, 69, 109, 136, 175. For a description of the respira-
tion calorimeter here mentioned see also publication No. 42 of the
Carnegie Institution of Washington.

2l6

DIETETICS

In some cases the subjects were at rest; in others they per-
formed varying amounts of external muscular work on an
apparatus by means of which the amount of work done was
measured. In some cases they fasted, and in others they received

body. The variations for individual days, and in the average for
individual experiments as well, were in some cases appreciable,
amounting to as much as 6%, which is not strange in view of the
uncertainties in physiological experimenting; but in the average

TABLE I. — Percentage Composition of some Common Food Materials.

Food Material.

Refuse.

Water.

Protein.

Fat.

Carbo-
hydrates.

Mineral
Matter.

Fuel Value
per lb.

%

%

o/
/o

%

»/
/o

°/

/o

Calories.

Beef, fresh (medium fat) —

Chuck ....

16-3

52-6

15-5

15-0

. .

0-8

910

Loin .....

13-3

52-5

16-1

17-5

. .

0-9

1025

Ribs
Round .....

20-8

7-2

43-8
60-7

13-9
19-0

21-2
12-8

0-7

I-O

1135
800

Shoulder

16-4

56-8

16-4

9-8

0-9

715

Beef, dried and smoked

47

53-7

26-4

6-9

. .

8-9

790

Veal-

Leg

14-2

60- 1

15-5

7-9

. .

0-9

625

Loin .....

16-5

57-6

16-6

9-0

0-9

685

Breast ....

21-3

52-0

15-4

I I-O

, t

0-8

745

Mutton —

Leg . - . . .

18-4

51-2

I5-I

14-7

. .

0-8

890

Loin .....

16-0

42-0

13-5

28-3

0-7

HIS

Flank

9'9

39-o

13-8

36-9

0-6

1770

Pork-

Loin . . ...

19-7

41-8

13-4

24-2

, .

0-8

1245

Ham, fresh ....

10-7

48-0

I3-5

25-9

t t

0-8

1320

Ham, smoked and salted

13-6

34-8

14-2

33-4

4-2

1635

Fat, salt ....

7-9

1-9

86-2

. .

3'9

3555

Bacon .....

77

17-4

9-1

62-2

4-1

2715

Lard, refined

IOO-O

4100

Chicken ....

25-9

47-1

137

12-3

f

0-7

765

Turkey .....

22-7

42-4

16-1

18-4

, ,

0-8

1060

Goose .....

I7-6

38-5

13-4

29-8

0-7

1475

Eggs ...

II-2

65-5

13-1

9'3

. .

0-9

635

Cod, fresh ....

29-9

58-5

n-i

O-2

. .

0-8

220

Cod, salted ....

24-9

40-2

16-0

0-4

18-5

325

Mackerel, fresh

44'7

40-4

10-2

4'2

0-7

370

Herring, smoked

44.4

19-2

20-5

8-8

7'4

755

Salmon, tinned

63-5

21-8

I2-I

2-6

915

Oysters, shelled

88-3

6-0

1-3

3'3

i-i

225

Butter

I I-O

I-O

85-0

3-o

34io

Cheese .....

34-2

25-9

337

2-4

3-8

1885

Milk, whole ....

87-0

3'3

4-0

5-o

0-7

310

Milk, skimmed

9C-5

3'4

0-3

5-1

0-7

165

Oatmeal .....

77

16-7

7'3

66-2

2-1

1800

Corn (maize) meal

12-5

9-2

1-9

75-4

I-O

!635

Rye Hour .....

12-9

6-8

0-9

78-7

0-7

1620

Buckwheat flour

13-6

6-4

1-2

77-9

0-9

1605

Rice . . . ' .

12-3

8-0

0-3

79-0

0-4

1620

Wheat flour, white

12-O

1 1 -4

I'O

75-1

°'5

'635

Wheat flour, graham

1 1 '3

13-3

2-2

71-4

•8

1645

Wheat, breakfast food

9-6

•I2-I

1-8

75-2

•3

1680

Wheat bread, white .

35-3

9-2

1-3

53-1

•i

1200

Wheat bread, graham

357

8-9

1-8

52-1

•5

"95

Rye bread ....

357

9-0

0-6

53-2

•5

1170

Biscuit (crackers)

6-8

97

I2-I

69-7

7

1925

Macaroni .....

10-3

13-4

O-O

74-1

•3

1645

Sugar .....

IOO-O

1750

Starch (corn starch)

90-0

1680

Beans, dried ....

12-6

22-5

1-8

59-6

3-5

1520

Peas, dried ....

9-5

24-6

I-O

62-0

2-9

1565

Beets ._, ....

20-0

70-0

1-3

O'l

77

0-9

1 60

Cabbage .....

iS'O

777

1-4

O-2

4-8

0-9

"5

Squash .....

50-0

44-2

0-7

0-2

4-5

0-4

IOO

Potatoes . .

20-0

62-6

1-8

O-I

14-7

o-S

295

Sweet potatoes . •>„•'••

20-0

55'2

1-4

0-6

21-9

0-9

440

Tomatoes .....

94-3

0-9

0-4

3-9

0-5

IOO

Apples .....

25-0

63-3

o-3

o-3

10-8

0-3

190

Bananas .....

35-o

48-9

0-8

0-4

14-3

0-6

260

Grapes . . . . .

25-0

58-0

I-O

1-2

14-4

0-4

295

Oranges .....

27-0

63-4

0-6

O-I

8-5

0-4

150

Strawberries ....

5-o

85-9

0-9

0-6

7-0

0-6

150

Almonds .....

45-o

27

n-5

30-2

9-5

i-i

1515

Brazil nuts .

49-6

2-6

8-6

337

3-5

2-O.

1485

Chestnuts. .

16-0

37-8

5'2

4'5

35-4

i-i

915

Walnuts . . . . , •

58-1

I-O

6-9

26-6

6-8

0-6

1250

diets generally not far from sufficient to maintain nitrogen, and
usually carbon, equilibrium in the body. In these experiments
the amount of energy expended by the body as heat and as
external muscular work measured in terms of heat agreed on
the average very closely with the amount of heat that would be
produced by the oxidation of all the matter metabolized in the

of all the experiments the energy of the expenditure was above
99-9% of the energy of the income, — an agreement within one
part in 1000. While these results do not absolutely prove the
application of the law of the conservation of energy in the human
body, they certainly approximate very closely to such demonstra-
tion. It is of course possible that energy may have given off

DIETETICS

217

from the body in other forms than heat and external muscular
work. It is conceivable, for example, that intellectual activity
may involve the transformation of physical energy, and that the
energy involved may be eliminated in some form now unknown.
But if the body did give off energy which was not measured in
these experiments, the quantity must have been extremely small.
It seems fair to infer from the results obtained that the meta-
bolism of energy in the body occurred in conformity with the law
of the conservation of energy.

3. Composition of Food Materials. — The composition of food
is determined by chemical analyses, the results of which are
conventionally expressed in terms of the nutritive ingredients
previously described. As a result of an enormous amount of
such investigation in recent years, the kinds and proportions of
nutrients in our common sorts of food are well known. Average

actually digested and absorbed. Thus, two foods may contain
equal amounts of the same nutrient, but the one most easily
digested will really be of most value to the body, because less
effort is necessary to utilize it. Considerable study of this factor
is being made, and much valuable information is accumulating,
but it is of more especial importance in cases of disordered
digestion.

The digestibility of food in the sense of thoroughness of
digestion, however, is of particular importance in the present
discussion. Only that portion of the food that is digested
and absorbed is available to the body for the building of tissue
and the production of energy. Not all the food eaten is thus
actually digested; undigested material is excreted in the faeces.
The thoroughness of digestion is determined experimentally by
weighing and analysing the food eaten and the faeces pertaining

TABLE II. — Coefficients of Digestibility (or Availability) of Nutrients in Different Classes of Food Materials.

Kind of Food.

Protein.

Fat.

Carbo-
hydrates.

Kind of Food.

Protein.

Fat.

Carbo-
hydrates.

/o

o/
/o

%

/o

%

o/
la

Meats ....

98

98

Corn meal

So

99

Fish ....

96

97

Wheat meals without bran

83

93

Poultry ....
Eggs ....

96
97

97

Wheat meals with bran
White bread .

B

92
98

Dairy products
Total animal food of

97

96

98

Entire wheat bread
Graham bread

82
76

94
90

mixed diet

97

97

98

Rice ....

76

91

Potatoes

73

98

Fruits and nuts

So

86

96

Beets, carrots, &c.

72

97

Sugars and starches

98

Cabbage, lettuce. &c.
Legumes
Oatmeal ....

78
78

90
90

83
95
97

Total vegetable food of
mixed diet .
Total food of mixed diet .

85
92

90
95

97
97

values for percentage composition of some ordinary food materials
are shown in Table I. (Table I. also includes figures for fuel
value.)

It will be observed that different kinds of food materials vary
widely in their proportions of nutrients. In general the animal
foods contain the most protein and fats, and vegetable foods are
rich in carbohydrates. The chief nutrient of lean meat and fish is
protein ; but in medium fat meats the proportion of fat is as large
as that of protein, and in the fatter meats it is larger. Cheese
is rich in both protein and fat. Among the vegetable foods, dried
beans and peas are especially rich in protein. The proportion in
oatmeal is also fairly large, in wheat it is moderate, and in maize
meal and rice it is rather small. Oats contain more oil than any
of the common cereals, but in none of them is the proportion
especially large. The most abundant nutrient in all the cereals is
starch, which comprises from two-thirds to three-fourths or more
of their total nutritive substance. Cotton-seed is rich in edible
oil, and so are olives. Some of the nuts contain fairly large
proportions of both protein and fat. The nutrient of potatoes is
starch, present in fair proportion. Fruits contain considerable
carbohydrates, chiefly sugar. Green vegetables are not of much
account as sources of any of the nutrients or energy.

Similar food materials from different sources may also differ
considerably in composition. This is especially true of meats.
Thus, the leaner portions from a fat animal may contain nearly as
much fat as the fatter portions from a lean animal. The data
here presented are largely those for American food products,
but the available analyses of English food materials indicate
that the latter differ but little from the former in composition.
The analyses of meats produced in Europe imply that they
commonly contain somewhat less fat and more water, and
often more protein, than American meats. The meats of English
production compare with the American more than with the
European meats. Similar vegetable foods from the different
countries do not differ so much in composition.

4. Digestibility or Availability of Food Materials. — The value
of any food material for nutriment depends not merely upon the
kinds and amounts of nutrients it contains, but also upon the
ease and convenience with which the nutrients may be digested,
and especially upon the proportion of the nutrients that will be

to it. The difference between the corresponding ingredients of
the two is commonly considered to represent the amounts of
the ingredients digested. Expressed in percentages, these are
called coefficients of digestibility. See Table II.

Such a method is not strictly accurate, because the faeces do
not consist entirely of undigested food but contain in addition
to this the so-called metabolic products, which include the resi-
duum of digestive juices not resorbed, fragments of intestinal
epithelium, &c. Since there is as yet no satisfactory method of
separating these constituents of the excreta, the actual digesti-
bility of the food is not determined. It has been suggested that
since these materials must originally come from food, they
represent, when expressed in terms of food ingredients, the cost of
digestion; hence that the values determined as above explained
represent the portion of food available to the body for the build-
ing of tissue and the yielding of energy, and what is commonly
designated as digestibility should be called availability. Other
writers retain the term " digestibility," but express the results
as " apparent digestibility," until more knowledge regarding
the metabolic products of the excreta is available and the actual
digestibility may be ascertained.

Experimental inquiry of this nature has been very active in
recent years, especially in Europe, the United States and Japan;
and the results of considerably over 1000 digestion experiments
with single foods or combinations of food materials are available.
These were mostly with men, but some were with women
and with children. The larger part of these have been taken
into account in the following estimations of the digestibility
of the nutrients in different classes of food materials. The
figures here shown are subject to revision as experimental data
accumulate. They are not to be taken as exact measures of
the digestibility (or availability) of every kind of food in each
given class, but they probably represent fairly well the average
digestibility of the classes of food materials as ordinarily utilized
in the mixed diet.

5. Fuel Value of Food. — The potential energy of food is
commonly measured as the amount of heat evolved when the
food is completely oxidized. In the laboratory this is determined
by burning the food in oxygen in a calorimeter. The results,
which are known as the heat of combustion of the food, are

DIETETICS

expressed in calories, one calory being the amount of heat
necessary to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water one
degree centigrade. But it is to be observed that this unit is

TABLE III. — Estimates of Heals of Combustion and of Fuel Value
of Nutrients in Ordinary Mixed Diet.

Nutrients.

Heat of
Combustion.

Fuel Value.

Calories.

Calories.

One gram of protein
One gram of fats .
One gram of carbohydrates

5-65
9-40

4-15

4-05
8-93
4-03

employed simply from convenience, and without implication
as to what extent the energy of food is converted into heat in
the body. The unit employed in the measurement of some other

greater than that which the body will actually derive from it.
In the first place, as previously shown, part of the food will not
be digested and absorbed. In the second place, the nitrogenous
compounds absorbed are not completely oxidized in the body,
the residuum being excreted in the urine as urea and other bodies
that are capable of further oxidation in the calorimeter. The
total heat of combustion of the food eaten must therefore be
diminished by the heat of combustion of the oxidizable material
rejected by the body, to find what amount of energy is actually
available to the organism for the production of work and heat.
The amount thus determined is commonly known as the fuel
value of food.

Rubner's1 commonly quoted estimates for the fuel value of the
nutrients of mixed diet are, — for protein and carbohydrates 4-1,
and for fats 9-3 calories per gram. According to the method of
deduction, however, these factors were more applicable to digested
than to total nutrients. Atwater2 and associates have deduced,

TABLE IV. — Quantities of Available Nutrients and Energy in Daily Food Consumption of Persons in

Different Circumstances.

Number of
Studies.

Nutrients and Energy per Man per Day.

Protein.

Fat.

Carbo-
hydrates.

Fuel Value.

Persons with Active Work.

Grams.

Grams.

Grams.

Calories.

English royal engineer's ....

I
I

132

1 20

79

IO7

612

6s7

3835

49/)C

Swedish mechanics .

5

**7
174

*w/
105

wo/
693

T-^^O

459°

Bavarian lumbermen .

3

1 20

277

702

6015

American lumbermen

5

155

327

804

6745

Japanese rice cleaner

i

103

II

917

4415

Japanese jinrikshaw runner
Chinese farm labourers in California

i
i

137
132

22
90

1010

621

5050
3980

American athletes

19

178

192

525

4740

American working-men's families

13

156

226

694

5650

Persons with Ordinary Work.

Bavarian mechanics .

ii

112

32

553

3060

Bavarian farm labourers

5

126

52

526

3200

Russian peasants

119

31

57i

3155

Prussian prisoners

i

117

28

620

3320

Swedish mechanics .

6

123

75

5°7

3325

American working-men's families

69

105

J35

426

3480

Persons with Light Work.

American artisans' families

21

93

107

358

2880

English tailors (prisoners)

I

121

37

509

2970

German shoemakers ....

I

99

73

367

2629

Japanese prisoners .....

I

43

6

444

2IIO

Professional and Business Men.

Japanese professional men

13

75

15

408

2I9O

Japanese students

8

85

18

537

28OO

Japanese military cadets

II

98

20

61 1

3185

German physicians .

2

121

90

317

2685

Swedish medical students

5

117

1 08

291

2725

Danish physicians

i

124

133

242

2790

American professional and business men and

students ......

5i

98

125

411

3285

Persons with Little or no Exercise.

Prussian prisoners .....

2

90

27

427

2400

Japanese prisoners .....

I

36

6

360

1725

Inmates of home for aged — Germany

I

85

43

322

2097

Inmates of hospitals for insane — America .

49

80

86

353

2590

Persons in Destitute Circumstances.

Prussian working people ....

13

63

43

372

2215

Italian mechanics .....

5

70

36

384

2225

American working-men's families

ii

69

75

263

2085

form of energy might be used instead, as, for example, the foot-
ton, which represents the amount of energy necessary to raise
one ton through one foot.

The amount of energy which a given quantity of food will
produce on complete oxidation outside the body, however, is

from data much more extensive than those available to Rubner,
factors for total nutrients somewhat lower than these, as shown

1Ztschr. Biol. 21 (1885), p. 377.
2 Connecticut (Storrs) Agricultural
(1899), 73-

Experiment Station Report

DIETETICS

219

in Table III. These estimates seem to represent the best
average factors at present available, but are subject to revision
as knowledge is extended.

The heats of combustion of all the fats in an ordinary mixed
diet would average about 9-40 calories per gram, but as only
95% of the fat would be available to the body, the fuel value
per gram would be (9-40X0-95 = ) 8-93 calories. Similarly, the
average heat of combustion of carbohydrates of the diet would be
about 4-15 calories per gram, and as 97% of the total quantity
is available to the body, the fuel value per gram would be 4-03.
(It is commonly assumed that the resorbed fats and carbo-
hydrates are completely oxidized in the body.) The heats of
combustion of all the kinds of protein in the diet would average
about 5-65 calories per gram. Since about 92% of the total
protein would be available to the body, the potential energy of
the available protein would be equivalent to (5-65X0-92 = ) 5-20
calories; but as the available protein is not completely oxidized
allowance must be made for the potential energy of the incom-
pletely oxidized residue. This is estimated as equivalent to 1-15
calories for the 0-92 gram of available protein; hence, the fuel
value of the total protein is (5-20-1-15 = ) 4-05 calories per gram.
Nutrients of the same class, but from different food materials,
vary both in digestibility and in heat of combustion, and hence
in fuel value. These factors are therefore not so applicable to the
nutrients of the separate articles in a diet as to those of the diet as
a whole.

6. Food Consumption. — Much information regarding the food
consumption of people in various circumstances in different parts
of the world has accumulated during the past twenty years, as a
result of studies of actual dietaries in England, Germany, Italy,
Russia, Sweden and elsewhere in Europe, in Japan and other
oriental countries, and especially in the United States. These
studies commonly consist in ascertaining the kinds, amounts
and composition of the different food materials consumed by a
group of persons during a given period and the number of meals
taken by each member of the group, and computing the quantities
of the different nutrients in the food on the basis of one man for
one day. When the members of the group are of different age,
sex, occupation, &c., account must be taken of the effect of these
factors on consumption in estimating the value " per man."
Men as a rule eat more than women under similar conditions,
women mo re than children, and persons at active work more than
those at sedentary occupation. The navvy, for example, who
is constantly using up more nutritive material or body tissue to
supply the energy required for his muscular work needs more
protein and energy in his food than a bookkeeper who sits at his
desk all day.

In making allowance for these differences, the various indi-
viduals are commonly compared with a man at moderately active
muscular work, who is taken as unity. A man at hard muscular
work is reckoned at 1-2 times such an individual; a man with
light muscular work or a boy 15-16 years old, -9; a man at
sedentary occupation, woman at moderately active muscular
work, boy 13-14 or girl 15-16 years old, -8; woman at light work,
boy 12 or girl 13-14 years old, -7; boy 10-11 or girl 10-12
years old, -6; child 6-9 years old, -5; child 2-5 years old, -4;
child under 2 years, -3. These factors are by no means absolute
or final, but are based in part upon experimental data and in
part upon arbitrary assumption.

The total number of dietary studies on record is very large,
but not all of them are complete enough to furnish reliable
data. Upwards of 1000 are sufficiently accurate to be included
in statistical averages of food consumed by people in different
circumstances, nearly half of which have been made in the United
States in the past decade. The number of persons in the indi-
vidual studies has ranged from one to several hundred. Some
typical results are shown in Table IV.

7. Quantities of Nutrients needed. — For the proper nourish-
ment of the body, the important problem is how much protein,
fats and carbohydrates, or more simply, what amounts of protein
and potential energy are needed under varying circumstances,
to build and repair muscular and other tissues and to supply

energy for muscular, work, heat and other forms of energy.
The answer to the problem is sought in the data obtained in
dietary studies with considerable numbers of people, and in
metabolism experiments with individuals in which the income
and expenditure of the body are measured. From the informa-
tion thus derived, different investigators have proposed so-called
dietary standards, such as are shown in the table below, but
unfortunately the experimental data are still insufficient for
entirely trustworthy figures of this sort; hence the term
" standard " as here used is misleading. The figures given are
not to be considered as exact and final as that would suggest;
they are merely tentative estimates of the average daily amounts
of nutrients and energy required. (It is«to be especially noted
that these are available nutrients and fuel value rather than
total nutrients and energy.) Some of the values proposed by
other investigators are slightly larger than these, and others
are decidedly smaller, but these are the ones that have hitherto
been most commonly accepted in Europe and America.

TABLE V. — Standards for Dietaries. Available Nutrients and
Energy per Man per Day.

Protein.

Fat.

Carbo-
hydrates.

Fuel
Value.

Voit's Standards.

Grams.1

Grams.

Grams.

Calories.

Man at hard work
Man at moderate work

133

109

95
53

437
485

3270
2965

Atwater's Standards.

Man at very hard

muscular work

161

z

t

5500

Man at hard muscular

work

138

4150

Man at moderately

active muscular work

"5

3400

Man at light to

moderate muscular

work

103

3050

Man at " sedentary "

or woman at moder-

ately active work

92

2700

Woman at light mus-

cular work, or man

without muscular

exercise

83

2450

8. Hygienic Economy of Food. — For people in good health, there
are two important rules to be observed in the regulation of the
diet. One is to choose the foods that " agree " with them, and
to avoid those which they cannot digest and assimilate without
harm; and the other is to use such sorts and quantities of foods
as will supply the kinds and amounts of nutrients needed by the
body and yet to avoid burdening it with superfluous material to
be disposed of at the cost of health and strength.

As for the first-mentioned rule, it is practically impossible to
give information that may be of more than general application.
There are people who, because of some individual peculiarity,
cannot use foods which for people in general are wholesome
and nutritious. Some persons cannot endure milk, others suffer
if they eat eggs, others have to eschew certain kinds of meat, or
are made uncomfortable by fruit; but such cases are exceptions.
Very liltle is known regarding the cause of these conditions. It
is possible that in the metabolic processes to which the ingredients
of the food are subjected in the body, or even during digestion
before the substances are actually taken into the body, com-
pounds may be formed that are in one way or another injurious.
Whatever the cause may be, it is literally true in this sense that
"what is one man's meat is another man's poison," and each
must learn for himself what foods " agree " with him and what
ones do not. But for the great majority of people in health,

1 One ounce equals 28-35 grams.

2 As the chief function of both fats and carbohydrates is to furnish
energy, their exact proportion in the diet is of small account. The
amount of either may vary largely according to taste, available
supply, or other condition, as long as the total amount of both is
sufficient, together with the protein to furnish the required energy.

220

DIETETICS

suitable combinations of the ordinary sorts of wholesome food
materials make a healthful diet. On the other hand, some foods
are of particular value at times, aside from their use for nourish-
ment. Fruits and green vegetables often benefit people greatly,
not as nutriment merely, for they may have very little actual
nutritive material, but because of fruit or vegetable acids or

other substances which they contain, and which sometimes
serve a most useful purpose.

The proper observance of the second rule mentioned requires
information regarding the demands of the body for food under
different circumstances. To supply this information is one
purpose of the effort to determine the so-called dietary standards

TABLE VI. — Amounts of Nutrients and Energy Furnished for One Shilling in Food Materials at Ordinary Prices.

Food Materials as Purchased.

Prices
per lb

One Shilling will buy

Total Food
Materials.

Available Nutrients.

Fuel

Value.

Protein.

Fat.

Carbo-
hydrates.

Beef, round .....

s. d.

O IO

o 8|
o 5

ft.

1-20
I-4I
2-40

lb.

•22
•26

•44

lb.
•H
•17
•29

ft.

Calories.
1,155
1,235
2,105

Beef, sirloin .....

O IO

o 9
o 8
o 5

I -2O

i-33
1-50
2-40

•19

•21

•20

•22

1,225
1,360

Beef, rib ....

o 9
o 7*

o 4J

1-33
i -60

2-67

•I9

•19

1,200

Mutton, leg ....

o 9
o 5

1-33
2-40

•2O

•37

•20

•35

. .

1,245
2,245

Pork, spare-rib ....

o 9

o 7

1-33
1-71

•17

•22

•3>
•39

'.645
2,110

Pork, salt, fat ....

o 7
o 5

1-71
2-40

•03
•04

1-40
1-97

6,025
8,460

Pork, smoked ham ....

o 8
o 4i

i-5«
2-67

•20
•36

•48
•85

2,435
4,33°

Fresh cod ....

o 4
o 3

3-00
4-00

•34
•45

•01
•OI

710

945

Salt cod

o 3?

0 10

3'43
i -20

•54
•07

•07

•OI

•04

1.370
275

Milk, whole, 4d. a qt.
3d. aqt.
2d aqt.

O 2
0 I-J
O I

6-00
8-00

I2-OO

•19
•26

•38

•23

•30
•46

•3«
•40
•60

1-915
2,55°
3-825

Milk, skimmed, ad. a qt. .

O I

12-00

•40

•03

•61

2,085

Butter

I 6
i 3

I O

•67
•80

I -CO

•01
•01
•OI

•54

•64
•81

2,320
2,770
3,460

Margarine ....

o 4

3-00

2-37

10,080

Eggs, 2s. a dozen . ;
,, l$s. a dozen ....
,, is. a dozen .

i 4

I O

o 8

•75

I-OO

1-50

•IO

•13
•19

•07
•09
•13

475
635
950

Cheese ......

o 8
o 7
o 5

1-50
1-71
2-40

•3«
•43
•60

•48
•55

•77

•04
•04
•06

2,865
3,265
4,585

Wheat bread . _••;

0 I)

10-67

•76

•13

5-57

12,421

Wheat flour ....

0 I?
0 1^

7-64

8-16

•67

•72

•07
•07

5-63
6-01

12,110

12,935

Oatmeal ....

0 I?
0 I*

8-39
8-16

I«II

i -08

•54
•53

5-54
5-39

14.835
14-430

Rice I ....

0 If

6-86

•45

•02

5-27

10,795

Potatoes ....

o of
o oj

18-00
24-00

•25

•34

•02
•O2

2-70
3-6o

5-605
7,470

Beans ......

0 2

6-00

1-05

•IO

3-47

8,960

Sugar ......

I 1

6-86

6-86

12,760

DIETRICH, C. W. E.— DIETRICH OF BERN

221

mentioned above. It should be observed, however, that these
are generally more applicable to the proper feeding of a group
or class of people as a whole than for particular individuals
in this class. The needs of individuals will vary largely from
the average in accordance with the activity and individuality.
Moreover, it is neither necessary nor desirable for the individual
to follow any standard exactly from day to day. It is requisite
only that the average supply shall be sufficient to meet the
demands of the body during a given period.

The cooking of food and other modes of preparing it for
consumption have much to do with its nutritive value. Many
materials which, owing to their mechanical condition or to
some other cause, are not particularly desirable food materials
in their natural state, are quite nutritious when cooked or other-
wise prepared for consumption. It is also a matter of common
experience that well-cooked food is wholesome and appetizing,
whereas the same material poorly prepared is unpalatable.
There are three chief purposes of cooking; the first is to change
the mechanical condition of the food. Heating changes the
structure of many food materials very materially, so that they
may be more easily chewed and brought into a condition in which
the digestive juices can act upon them more freely, and in this
way probably influencing the ease and thoroughness of digestion.
The second is to make the food more appetizing by improving
the appearance or flavour or both. Food which is attractive to
the eye and pleasing to the palate quickens the flow of saliva
and other digestive juices and thus aids digestion. The third
is to kill, by heat, disease germs, parasites or other dangerous
organisms that may be contained in food. This is often a very
important matter and applies to both animal and vegetable foods.
Scrupulous neatness should always be observed in storing,
handling and serving food. If ever cleanliness is desirable it
must be in the things we eat, and every care should be taken to
ensure it for the sake of health as well as of decency. Cleanliness
in this connexion means not only absence of visible dirt, but
freedom from undesirable bacteria and other minute organisms
and from worms and other parasites. If food, raw or cooked, is
kept in dirty places, peddled from dirty carts, prepared in dirty
rooms and in dirty dishes, or exposed to foul air, disease germs
and other offensive and dangerous substances may easily enter it.

9. Pecuniary Economy of Food. — Statistics of economy and of
cost of living in Great Britain, Germany and the United States
show that at least half, and commonly more, of the income of
wage-earners and other people in moderate circumstances is
expended for subsistence. The relatively large cost of food, and
the important influence of diet upon health and strength, make a
more widespread understanding of the subject of dietetics very
desirable. The maxim that " the best is the cheapest " does not
apply to food. The " best " food, in the sense of that which is
the finest in appearance and flavour and which is sold at the
highest price, is not generally the most economical.

The price of food is not regulated largely by its value for
nutriment. Its agreeableness to the palate or to the buyer's
fancy is a large factor in determining the current demand and
market price. There is no more nutriment in an ounce of protein
or fat from the tender-loin of beef than from the round or shoulder.
The protein of animal food has, however, some advantage over
that of vegetable foods in that it is more thoroughly, and perhaps
more easily, digested, for which reason it would be economical to
pay somewhat more for the same quantity of nutritive material
in the animal food. Furthermore, animal foods such as meats,
fish and the like, gratify the palate as most vegetable foods do
not. For persons in good health, foods in which the nutrients
are the most expensive are like costly articles of adornment.
People who can well afford them may be justified in buying
them, but they are not economical. The most economical food
is that which is at the same time most healthful and cheapest.

The variations in the cost of the actual nutriment in different
food materials may be illustrated by comparison of the amounts
of nutrients obtained for a given sum in the materials as bought
at ordinary market prices. This is done in Table VI., which
shows the amounts of available nutrients contained in the quan-

tities of different food materials that may be purchased for one
shilling at prices common in England.

When proper attention is given to the needs of the body for
food and the relation between cost and nutritive value of food
materials, it will be found that with care in the purchase and skill
in the preparation of food, considerable control may be had over
the expensiveness of a palatable, nutritious and healthful diet.

AUTHORITIES. — COMPOSITION OF FOODS: — Konig, Chemit der
menschlichen Nahrungs- und Genussmittel; Atwater and Bryant,
" Composition of American Food Materials," Bui. 28, Office of
Experiment Stations, U.S. Department of Agriculture. NUTRITION
AND DIETETICS: — Armsby, Principles of Animal Nutrition; Lusk,
The Science of Nutrition; Burney Yeo, Food in Health and Disease;
Munk and Uffelmann, Die Erndhrung des gesunden und kranken
Menschen; Von Leyden, Erndhrungstherapie und Diatetik; Dujardin-
Beaumetz, Hygiene alimentaire; Hutchison, Food and Dietetics; R.
H. Chittenden, Physiological Economy in Nutrition(igo^), Nutrition of
Man (1907) ; Atwater, " Chemistry and Economy of Food," Bui. 21,
Office of Experiment Stations, U.S. Department of Agriculture. See
also other Bulletins of the same office on composition of food, results
of dietary studies, metabolism experiments, &c., in the United States.
GENERAL METABOLISM: — Voit, Physiologic des allgemeinen Staff -
wechsels und der Erndhrung; Hermann, Handbuch der Physiologic,
Bd. vi. ; Von Noorden, Pathologie des Stoffwechsels; Schafer, Text-
Book of Physiology, vol. i.; Atwater and Langworthy, " Digest of
Metabolism Experiments," Bull. 45, Office of Experiment Stations,
U.S. Department of Agriculture. (W. O. A. ; R. D. M.)

DIETRICH, CHRISTIAN WILHELM ERNST (1712-1774),
German painter, was born at Weimar, where he was brought up
early to the profession of art by his father Johann George, then
painter of miniatures to the court of the duke. Having been sent
to Dresden to perfect himself under the care of Alexander Thiele,
he had the good fortune to finish in two hours, at the age of
eighteen, a picture which attracted the attention of the king of
Saxony. Augustus II. was so pleased with Dietrich's readiness
of hand that he gave him means to study abroad, and visit in
succession the chief cities of Italy and the Netherlands. There
he learnt to copy and to imitate masters of the previous century
with a versatility truly surprising. Winckelmann, to whom he
had been recommended, did not hesitate to call him the Raphael
of landscape. Yet in this branch of his practice he merely
imitated Salvator Rosa and Everdingen. He was more successful
in aping the style of Rembrandt, and numerous examples of this
habit may be found in the galleries of St Petersburg, Vienna and
Dresden. At Dresden, indeed, there are pictures acknowledged
to be his, bearing the fictitious dates of 1636 and 1638, and the
name of Rembrandt. Among Dietrich's cleverest reproductions
we may account that of Ostade's manner in the " Itinerant
Singers " at the National Gallery. His skill in catching the
character of the later masters of Holland is shown in candle-
light scenes, such as the " Squirrel and the Peep-Show " at St
Petersburg, where we are easily reminded of Godfried Schalcken.
Dietrich tried every branch of art except portraits, painting
Italian and Dutch views alternately with Scripture scenes and
still life. In 1 741 he was appointed court painter to Augustus III.
at Dresden, with an annual salary of 400 thalers (£60) , conditional
on the production of four cabinet pictures a year. This condition,
no doubt, accounts for the presence of fifty-two of the master's
panels and canvases in one of the rooms at the Dresden museum.
Dietrich, though popular and probably the busiest artist of his
time, never produced anything of his own; and his imitations
are necessarily inferior to the originals which he affected to copy.
His best work is certainly that which he gave to engravings.
A collection of these at the British Museum, produced on the
general lines of earlier men, such as Ostade and Rembrandt,
reveal both spirit and skill. Dietrich, after his return from the
Peninsula, generally signed himself " Dietericij," and with this
signature most of his extant pictures are inscribed. He died at
Dresden, after he had successively filled the important appoint-
ments of director of the school of painting at the Meissen porcelain
factory and professor of the Dresden academy of arts.

DIETRICH OF BERN, the name given in German popular
poetry to Theodoric the Great. |The legendary history of Dietrich
differs so widely from the life of Theodoric that it has been
suggested that the two were originally unconnected. Medieval

222

DIEZ, F. C.

chroniclers, however, repeatedly asserted the identity of Dietrich
and Theodoric, although the more critical noted the anachronisms
involved in making Ermanaric (d. 376) and Attila (d. 453) con-
temporary with Theodoric (b. 455)- That the legend is based
on vague historical reminiscences is proved by the retention of
the names of Theodoric (Thiuda-reiks, Dietrich) and his father
Theudemir (Dietmar), by Dietrich's connexion with Bern
(Verona) and Raben (Ravenna) . Something of the Gothic king's
character descended to Dietrich, familiarly called the Beruer,
the favourite of German medieval saga heroes, although his
story did not leave the same mark on later German literature as
did that of the Nibelungs. The cycle of songs connected with his
name in South Germany is partially preserved in the Heldenbuch
(q.v.) in Dietrich's Flucht, the RabensMacht and Alpharts Tod;
but it was reserved for an Icelandic author, writing in Norway
in the I3th century, to compile, with many romantic additions, a
consecutive account of Dietrich. In this Norse prose redaction,
known as the Vilkina Saga, cr more correctly the Thidrekssaga,
is incorporated much extraneous matter from the Nibelungen
and Wayland legends, in fact practically the whole of south
German heroic tradition.

There are traces of a form of the Dietrich legend in which he
was represented as starting out from Byzantium, in accordance
with historical tradition, for his conquest of Italy. But this
early disappeared, and was superseded by the existing legend,
in which, perhaps by an " epic fusion " with his father Theudemir,
he was associated with Attila, and then by an easy transition
with Ermanaric. Dietrich was driven from his kingdom of
Bern by his uncle Ermanaric. After years of exile at the court
of Attila he returned with a Hunnish army to Italy, and defeated
Ermanaric in the Rabenschlacht, or battle of Ravenna. Attila 's
two sons, with Dietrich's brother, fell in the fight, and Dietrich
returned to Attila 's court to answer for the death of the young
princes. This very improbable renunciation of the advantages of
his victory suggests that in the original version of the story the
Rabenschlacht was a defeat. In the poem of Ermenrichs Tod
he is represented as slaying Ermanaric, as in fact Theodoric slew
Odoacer. '' Otacher " replaces Ermanaric as his adversary in the
Hildebrandslied, which relates how thirty years after the earlier
attempt he reconquered his Lombard kingdom. Dietrich's long
residence at Attila's court represents the youth and early man-
hood of Theodoric spent at the imperial court and fighting in the
Balkan peninsula, and, in accordance with epic custom, the period
of exile was adorned with war-like exploits, with fights with
dragons and giants, most of which had no essential connexion
with the cycle. The romantic poems of Konig Laurin, Sigcnot,
Eckenlied and Virginal are based largely on local traditions
originally independent of Dietrich. The court of Attila (Etzel)
was a ready bridge to the Nibelungen legend. In the final catas-
trophe he was at length compelled, after steadily holding aloof
from the. combat, to avenge the slaughter of his Amelungs by
the Burgundians, and delivered Hagen bound into the hands of
Kriemhild. The flame breath which anger induced from him
shows the influence of pure myth, but the tales of his demonic
origin and of his being carried off by the devil in the shape of a
black horse may safely be put down to the clerical hostility to
Theodoric's Arianism.

Generally speaking, Dietrich of Bern was the wise and just
monarch as opposed to Ermanaric, the typical tyrant of Germanic
legend. He was invariably represented as slow of provocation
and a friend of peace, but once roused to battle not even Siegfried
could withstand his onslaught. But probably Dietrich's fight
with Siegfried in Kriemhild's rose garden at Worms is a late
addition to the Rosengarten myth. The chief heroes of the
Dietrich cycle are his tutor and companion in arms, Hildebrand
(see HILDEBRAND, LAY or), with his nephews the Wolfings
Alphart and Wolfhart; Wittich, who renounced his allegiance
to Dietrich and slew the sons of Attila; Heime and Biterolf.

The contents of the poems dealing with the Dietrich cycle are
summarized by Uhland in Schriften zur Geschichte der Dichlung und
Sage (Stuttgart, 1873). The Thidrekssaga (ed. C. Unger, Christiania,
1853) is translated into German by F. H. v. der Hagen in Altdcutsche
und altnordische Heldensagen (vols. i. and ii. 3rd ed., Breslau, 1872).

A summary of it forms the concluding chapter of T. Hodgkin's
Theodoric the Goth (1891). The variations in the Dietrich legend in
the Latin historians, in Old and Middle High German literature,
and in the northern saga, can be studied in W. Grimm's Deutsche
Heldensage (2nd ed., Berlin, 1867). There is a good account in English
in F. E. Sandbach's Heroic Saga-cycle of Dietrich of Bern (1906),
forming No. 15 of Alfred Nutt's Popular Studies in Mythology, and
another in M. Bentinck Smith's translation of Dr O. L. Jinczek's
Deutsche Heldensage (Northern Legends, London, 1902). For modern
German authorities and commentators see B. Symons, " Deutsche
Heldensage " in H. Paul's Grd. d. german. Phil. (Strassburg, new ed.,
I9°5) ; also Goedeke, Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung (i. 241-246).

DIEZ, FRIEDRICH CHRISTIAN (1794-1876), German
philologist, was born at Giessen, in Hesse- Darmstadt, on the 1 5th
of March 1794. He was educated first at the gymnasium and
then at the university of his native town. There he studied
classics under Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker (1784-1868) who had
just returned from a two years' residence in Italy to fill the chair
of archaeology and Greek literature. It was Welcker who
kindled in him a love of Italian poetry, and thus gave the first
bent to his genius. In 1813 he joined the Hesse corps as a
volunteer and served in the French campaign. Next year he
returned to his books, and this short taste of military service was
the only break in a long and uneventful life of literary labours.
By his parents' desire he applied himself for a short time to law,
but a visit to Goethe in 1818 gave a new direction to his studies,
and determined his future career. Goethe had been reading
Raynouard's Selections from the Romance Poets, and advised the
young scholar to explore the rich mine of Provencal literature
which the French savant had opened up. This advice was
eagerly folio wed, and henceforth Diezdevoted himself to Romance
literature. He thus became the founder of Romance philology.
After supporting himself for some years by private teaching, he
removed in 1822 to Bonn, where he held the position of privat-
docent. In 1823 he published his first work, An Introduction
to Romance Poetry; in the following year appeared The Poetry
of the Troubadours, and in 1829 The Lives and Works of the
Troubadours. In 1830 he was called to the chair of modern
literature. The rest of his life was mainly occupied with the
composition of the two great works on which his fame rests, the
Grammar of the Romance Languages (1836-1844), and the Lexicon
of the Romance Languages — Italian, Spanish and French (1853);
in these two works Diez did for the Romance group of languages
what Jacob Grimm did for the Teutonic family. He died at
Bonn on the 2gth of May 1876.

The earliest French philologists, such as Perion and Henri Estienne,
had sought to discover the origin of French in Greek and even in
Hebrew. For more than a century Menage's Etymological Dictionary
held the field without a rival. Considering the time at which it was
written (1650), it was a meritorious work, but philology was then in
the empirical stage, and many of Menage's derivations (such as
that of "rat "from the Latin "mus,"orof " haricot " from " faba ")
have since become bywords among philologists. A great advance
was made by Raynouard, who by his critical editions of the works
of the Ttoubadours, published in the first years of the igth century,
laid the foundations on which Diez afterwards built. The difference
between Diez's method and that of his predecessors is well stated by
him in the preface to his dictionary. In sum it is the difference
between science and guess-work. The scientific method is to follow
implicitly the discovered principles and rules of phonology, and not
to swerve a foot's breadth from them unless plain, actual exceptions
shall justify it; to follow the genius of the language, and by cross-
questioning to elicit its secrets; to gauge each letter and estimate
the value which attaches to it in each position; and lastly to possess
the true philosophic spirit which is prepared to welcome any new
fact, though it may modify or upset the most cherished theory.
Such is the historical method which Diez pursues in his grammar
and dictionary. To collect and arrange facts is, as he tells us, the
sole secret of his success, and he adds in other words the famous
apophthegm of Newton, " hypotheses non fingo." The introduction
to the grammar consists of two parts: — the first discusses the Latin,
Greek and Teutonic elements common to the Romance languages;
the second treats of the six dialects separately, their origin and the
elements peculiar to each. The grammar itself is divided into four
books, on phonology, on flexion, on the formation of words by
composition and derivation, and on syntax.

His dictionary is divided into two parts. The first contains words
common to two at least of the three principal groups of Romance :
— Italian, Spanish and Portuguese, and Provencal and French. The
Italian, as nearest the original, is placed at the head of each article.

DIEZ— DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF

223

The second part treats of words peculiar to one group. There is no
separate glossary of Wallachian.

Of the introduction to the grammar there is an English translation
by C. B. Cayley. The dictionary has been published in a remodelled
form for English readers by T. C. Donkin.

DIEZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-
Nassau, romantically situated in the deep valley of the Lahn,
here crossed by an old bridge, 30 m. E. from Coblenz on the
railway to Wetzlar. Pop. 4500. It is overlooked by a former
castle of the counts of Nassau-Dillenburg, now a prison. Close
by, on an eminence above the river, lies the castle of Oranien-
stein, formerly a Benedictine nunnery and now a cadet school,
with beautiful gardens. There are a Roman Catholic and two
Evangelical churches. The new part of the town is well built
and contains numerous pretty villa residences. In addition to
extensive iron-works there are sawmills and tanneries. In the
vicinity are Fachingen, celebrated for its mineral waters, and
the majestic castle of Schaumburg belonging to the prince of
Waldeck-Pyrmont.

DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences},
that branch of mathematics which deals with the successive
differences of the terms of a series.

1. The most important of the cases to which mathematical
methods can be applied are those in which the terms of the series
are the values, taken at stated intervals (regular or irregular), of
a continuously varying quantity. In these cases the formulae
of finite differences enable certain quantities, whose exact value
depends on the law of variation (i.e. the law which governs the
relative magnitude of these terms) to be calculated, often with
great accuracy, from the given terms of the series, without
explicit reference to the law of variation itself. The methods
used may be extended to cases where the series is a double series
(series of double entry), i.e. where the value of each term depends
on the values of a pair of other quantities.

2. The first differences of a series are obtained by subtracting
from each term the term immediately preceding it. If these are
treated as terms of a new series, the first differences of this series
are the second differences of the original series; and so on.
The successive differences are also called differences of the first,
second, . . . order. The differences of successive orders are most
conveniently arranged in successive columns of a table thus: —

Term.

ist Diff.

2nd Diff.

3rd Diff.

4th Diff.

a
b

b-a

r h

c— 2b+a

c
d

d-c
e-d

d-2c+b
e—2d+c

de-ld+y-b

e— 4d+6c— 46+0

e

(A)

Algebra of Differences and Sums.

3. The formal relations between the terms of the series and the
differences may be seen by comparing the arrangements (A) and (B)
in fig. i. In (A) the various terms and differences are the same as in

§2, but placed differently. In
(B) we take a new series of
terms a, /3, 7, 5, commencing
with the same term a, and take
the successive sums of pairs of
terms, instead of the successive
I- differences, but place them to
the left instead of to the right.
It will be seen, in the first
place, that the successive terms

in (A), reading downwards to the right, and the successive
terms in (B), reading downwards to the left, consist each of
a series of terms whose coefficients follow the binomial law; i. e.
the coefficients in b—a, c — 2b+a, d—y+^b—a, . . . and in
O+/3, 0+2/3+7, 0+3/3+37+5, . . . are respectively the same as
in y—x, (y—x)1, (y—x)*, . . . and in x+y, (x+y)2, (x+y)3, . . .
In the second place, it will be seen that the relations between the
various terms in (A) are identical with the relations between the
similarly placed terms in (B) ; e.g. 0+y is the difference of 0+2/8+7
and o+/3, just asc — 6 is the difference of c and b: and d— cis the sum
of c — band d—2c+b, just as /3+2y+& is the sum of £+7 and 7+8.
Hence if we take ff, y, S, . . . of (B) as being the same as b—a,
c—2b+a,d—y+3b—a, . . . of (A), all corresponding terms in the
two diagrams will be the same.

Thus we obtain the two principal formulae connecting terms and
differences. If we provisionally described— a,c— 26+0, . . . as the

first, second, . . . differences of ,the particular term a (§ 7), then
(i.) the nth difference of a is

where/, k . . . are the (n + i)th, nth, . . . terms of the series a, b, c,
. . . ; the coefficients being those of the terms in the expansion of
(y— *)": and (ii.) the (n + i)th term of the series, i.e. the nth term
after a, is

a+n0+^^y+...

where 0, y, . . . are the first, second, . . . differences of a; the
coefficients being those of the terms in the expansion of (x+y)n.

4. Now suppose we treat the terms a, b, c, ... as being them-
selves the first differences of another series. Then, if the first term
of this series is N, the subsequent terms are N+o, N+o+6, N+a+
b+c, . . .; i.e. the difference between the (» + i)th term and the
first term is the sum of the first n terms of the original series. The
term N, in the diagram (A), will come above and to the left of a; and
we see, by (ii.) of §3, that the sum of the first n terms of the original
series is

n.n — i

,, , n.n-i0 , n.n-i.n-2
5«<H — r^T- P-\ — . 2 3 1

(^M+no+ I2 ,. , ... f . , I2 ,. , i

5. As an example, take the arithmetical series

a, a+p, a+2p, . . .
The first differences are p, p,p, . . ., and the differences of any higher
order are zero. Hence, by (ii.)of § 3,the(n + i)th term isa+np,and,
by §4, the sum of the first ra terms is no+J»(ra — 1)/> = %n\2a + (n — l)p\.

6. As another example, take the series i, 8, 27, . . . the terms of
which are the cubes of i, 2, 3, ... The first, second and third
differences of the first term are 7, 12 and 6; and it may be shown
(§ 14 (i.)) that all differences of a higher order are zero. Hence the
sum of the first n terms is

n.n — i.n— 2 , , «.n — i.n— 2.n— 3
+6-

1.2.3.4

1.2.3

7. In § 3 we have described b—a, c — 26+0, ... as the first,
second, . . . differences of a. This ascription of the differences
to particular terms of the series is quite arbitrary. If we read the
differences in the table of § 2 upwards to the right instead of down-
wards to the right, we might describe e— d, e — 2d+c, ... as the
first, second, . . . differences of e. On the other hand, the term of
greatest weight in c— 2b+a, i.e. the term which has the numerically
greatest coefficient, is b, and therefore c — 2b+a might properly be
regarded as the second difference of b; and similarlye— 4d+6c — 46+0
might be regarded as the fourth difference of c. These three
methods of regarding the differences lead to three different systems
of notation, which are described in §§ 9, 10 and 1 1.

•Notation of Differences and Sums.

8. It is convenient to denote the terms a, b, c, . . . of the series
by «o, «i, «s, MS .... If we merely have the terms of the series, «„
may be regarded as meaning the (n + i)th term. Usually, however,
the terms are the values of a quantity u, which is a function of
another quantity *, and tha values of x, to which a, b, c, . . . corre-
spond, proceed by a constant difference h. If xa and «o are a pair
of corresponding values of x and «, and if any other value Xt>+mh of x
and the corresponding value of » are denoted by xm and «m, then
the terms of the series will be. . .«it_i, «»_i, «„, «n+i, Mn+j. . ., corre-
sponding to values of x denoted by. . .Xn-s, Xa-i, xn, x*+t, Xn+t. . . .

9. In the advancing-difference notation Un+i— ua is denoted by
Ati,,. The differences Au», AMI, A«2 . . . may then be regarded as
values of a function Aw corresponding to values of x proceeding by
constant difference A; and therefore Awn+i — Awn is denoted by AAM«,
or, more briefly, A2Mn; and so on. Hence the table of differences in
§2, with the corresponding values of x and of « placed opposite each
other in the ordinary manner of mathematical tables, becomes

X

U

ISt Diff.

2nd Ditf.

3rd Diff.

4th Diff.

Xn-i

W.i-2

•

A*L

A«*i

*„_!

«„-,

A'tt^2

A%^,...

Xn

ttr,

»-l

^2^^

n-2

A4Mij_2

Att,

A'Mn-!

Xn+1

tt.v+1

A**)

A^Wii

A'""

Lc

The terms of the series of which . . . u*-i, «„, «»+i, . . . are
the first differences are denoted by SM, with proper suffixes, so

224

DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF

that this series is ... Vun-i, 21*,, 2»n+i .... The suffixes are
chosen so that we may have A2Mn = Mn, whatever n may be; and
therefore (§ 4) 2«n may be regarded as being the sum of the terms
of the series up to and including «n_i. Thus if we write Sw^i =
C+K»_2, where C is any constant, we shall have

and so on. This is true whatever C may be, so that the knowledge
of ... Un-i, Un, . • • gives us no knowledge of the exact value
of 2ttn; in other words, C is an arbitrary constant, the value of
which must be supposed to be the same throughout any operations in
which we are concerned with values of 2u corresponding to different
suffixes.

There is another symbol E, used in conjunction with u to denote
the next term in the series. Thus Ewn means Mn+i, so that

n*n.

10. Corresponding to the advancmg-difference notation there is
a receding-difference notation, in which «„+!-«» is regarded as
a difference of M»+I, and may be denoted by A'ttn+i, and similarly
Un+i— 2un+un-i may be denoted by A'2un+i. This notation is only
required for certain special purposes, and the usage is not settled
(§ 19 (ii.)).

11. The central -difference notation depends on treating
«»+i— 2«»+«n-i as the second dfference of «„, and therefore as
corresponding to the value *„; but there is no settled system of
notation. The following seems to be the most convenient. Since un is
a function of *„, and the second difference u^2-2un+i+un is a func-
tion of *„+!, the first difference un+r-u, must be regarded as a func-
tion of *»+}, i.e. of Kx.+Sn+i). We therefore write ua+i-un = 8tt,,+j,
and each difference in the table in § 9 will have the same suffix
as the value of * in the same horizontal line; or, if the difference
is of an odd order, its suffix will be the means of those of the two
nearest values of x. This is shown in the table below.

In this notation, instead of using the symbol E, we use a symbol M
to denote the mean of two consecutive values of «, or of two consecu-
tive differences of the same order, the suffixes being assigned on the
same principle as in the case of the differences. Thus

), &c.

If we take the means of the differences of odd order immediately
above and below the horizontal line through any value of x, these
means, with the differences of even order in that line, constitute the
central differences of the corresponding value of «. Thus the table
of central differences is as follows, the values obtained as means
being placed in brackets to distinguish them from the actual
differences : —

X

U

ist Diff.

2nd Diff.

3rd Diff.

4th Diff.

X.-1

«»-2

(Mfci. 2)

«•«. 2

(M*3*,-,

I**J

*.-!

«„-!

fjfc)

«2«n-,

(M«3M«-l)

«'«„_! . . .

*»

H.

tei

52«n

So

S'w. . . .

*»+!

Mn*,

0*8«»+i)

5^wn+j

r ix5 'M nj. i )
5^W 4,3

«<«n+I . . .

*»+«

«n-H

("5""+2)

S^Mn+1

(liS^Mn-l-z)

"""'

Similarly, by taking the means of consecutive values of u and also
of consecutive differences of even order, we should get a series of
terms and differences central to the intervals xn_2 to *n_i, *n-i to

The terms of the series of which the values of u are the first differ-
ences are denoted by O-M, with suffixes on the same principle; the
suffixes being chosen so that &aun shall be equal to «„. Thus, if

», &C.,

then
and also

C being an arbitrary constant which must remain the same through-
out any series of operations.

Operators and Symbolic Methods.

12. There are two further stages in the use of the symbols A, 2,
4, <r, &c., which are not essential for elementary treatment but
lead to powerful methods of deduction.

(i.) Instead of treating AM as a function of *, so that A«n means
(A«)», we may regard A as denoting an operation performed on u,
and take AM, as meaning A.«n. This applies to the other symbols

E, i, &c., whether taken simply or in combination. Thus AEu»
means that we first replace un by «n+i, and then replace this by

+r-U,+l.

(ii.) The operations A, E, 8, and n, whether performed separately
or in combination, or in combination also with numerical multipliers
and with the operation of differentiation denoted by D( = d/d:t),
follow the ordinary rules of algebra: e.g. A(un+vn)=Aun+Avn,
ADi<n = DAwn, &c. Hence the symbols can be separated from the
functions on which the operations are performed, and treated as
if they were algebraical quantities. For instance, we have

E.«n = Mn+i =

so that we may write E = i-i-<S, or A = E-i. The first of these is
nothing more than a statement, in concise form, that if we take two
quantities, subtract the first from the second, and add the result to
the first, we get the second. This seems almost a truism. But, \f
we deduce E"=(i+A)n, A"=(E-i)", and expand by the binomial
theorem and then operate on MO, we get the general formulae

+A"tt0,

which are identical with the formulae in (ii.) and (i.) of § 3.

(iii.) What hasbeensaid under (ii.) applies, with certain reservations,
to the operations 2 and a, and to the operation which represents
integration. The latter is sometimes denoted by D~'; and, since
A2wn = Mn, and So-Mn = «n, we might similarly replace 2 and <r by
A"1 and I"1. These symbols can be combined with A, E, &c.
according to the ordinary laws of algebra, provided that proper
account is taken of the arbitrary constants introduced by the
operations D"1, A"1, S~l.

Applications to Algebraical Series.

13. Summation of Series. — If «, denotes the (r+i)th term of a
series, and if v, is a function of r such that Ai/r = «r for all integral
values of r, then the sum of the terms um, «m+i, .... un is
Vn+i-Vm. Thus the sum of a number of terms of a series may often
be found by inspection, in the same kind of way that an integral
is found.

14. Rational Integral Functions.^ — (i.) If «, is a rational integral
function of r of degree p, then Au, is a rational integral function of r
of degree p-i.

(ii.) A particular case is that of a factorial, i.e. a product of the
form (r+a+i) (r+a+2) . . . (r+b), each factor exceeding the pre-
ceding factor by i. We have

A. (r+a+i) (r+a+2) .. . . (r+b) = (b-a).(r+a+2) . . . (r+b),
whence, changing a into o-i,
2(r+a+l) (r+a+2) . . . (r+b) =const. + (r+a)(r+a+l) . .

A similar method can be applied to the series whose (r-r-l)th
term is of the form lj(r+a+l) (r+a+2) . . . (r+b).

(iii.) Any rational integral function can be converted into the sum
of a number of factorials; and thus the sum of a series of which such
a function is the general term can be found. For example, it may-
be shown in this way that the sum of the pth powers of the first n
natural numbers is a rational integral function of n of degree p+i,
the coefficient of n^1 being l/(p+l).

15. Difference- equations. — The summation of the series . . .
+ttn+2+»n-i+«n is a solution of the difference-equation A»n =«n+i,
which may also be written (E-i)fn = «n+1. This is a simple form
of difference-equation. There are several forms which have been
investigated ; a simple form, more general than the above, is the
linear equation with constant coefficients —

where 01, 02, . . . am are constants, and N is a given function of ».
This may be written

(E-fc) (E-fc)... (£-/>„) r. = N.

The solution, if pi, p ..... pm are all different, is va = Cipi*+
Cipi"+ . . . +Cmpm"+V,,, where Q, C2 . . . are constants, and
tin = Vn is any one solution of the equation. The method of finding
a value for V» depends on the form of N. Certain modifications are
required when two or more of the p's are equal.

It should be observed, in all cases of this kind, that, in describing
Ci, C2 as " constants," it is meant that the value of any one, as Ci, is
the same for all values of n occurring in the series. A " constant "
may, however, be a periodic function of n.

Applications to Continuous Functions.

1 6. The cases of greatest practical importance are those in which
u is a continuous function of x. The terms «i, Ut . . . of the series
then represent the successive values of u corresponding to x = xit x,
. . . The important applications of the theory in these cases are to
(i.) relations between differences and differential coefficients, (ii.)

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

225

interpolation, or the determination of intermediate values of u, and
(iii ) relations between sums and integrals.

17 Starting from any pair of values *o and «o, we may suppose
the interval h from *o to Xi to be divided into q equal portions. I
we suppose the corresponding values of u to be obtained, and their
differences taken, the successive advancing differences of «o being
denoted by d«o, d2«o .... we have (§ 3 (ii.))

When q is made indefinitely great, this (writing /(*) for «) becomes
Taylors Theorem (INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS)

which, expressed in terms of operators, is

This gives the relation between A and D. Also we have

and, if p is any integer,

From these equations uplq could be expressed in terms of «o, «i,
«»,... ; this is a particular case of interpolation (q.v.).

' 18. Differences and Differential Coefficients. — The various formulae
are most quickly obtained by symbolical methods; i.e. by dealing
with the operators A, E, D, . . . as if they were algebraical
quantities. Thus the relation E = e"o (§ 17) gives

The formulae connecting central differences with differential
coefficients are based on the relations n=coshiAD = J(el*D+e~i*D),
6 = 2 sinh JAD=e»AD— e-JAD, and may be grouped as follows: —

. . .)MO

)«!

tto

1

When u is a rational integral function of x, each of the above series
is a terminating series. In other cases the series will be an infinite
one, and may be divergent; but it may be used for purposes o:
approximation up to a certain point, and there will be a " remainder,1'
the limits of whose magnitude will be determinate.

19. Sums and Integrals. — The relation between a sum and an
integral is usually expressed by the Euler-Maclaurin formula. The
principle of this formula is that, if um and «m+i, are ordinates of a
curve, distant h from one another, then for a first approximation to
the area of the curve between Mm and «m-n we have %h(um+um+i)
vill. 8

and the difference between this and the true value of the area can
De expressed as the difference of two expressions, one of which is a
unction of xm, and the other is the same function of

Denoting these by 4>(xm) and <t>(xm+i), we have

'+

/xm+
Xm

Adding a series of similar expressions, we find

/:

The function i>(x) can be expressed in terms either of differential
coefficients of u or of advancing or central differences; thus there
are three formulae.

(i.) The Euler-Maclaurin formula, properly so called, (due inde-
pendently to Euler and Maclaurin) is

udx =

where Bi, Bu, Bs . . . are Bernoulli's numbers.

(ii.) If we express differential coefficients in terms of advancing
differences, we get a theorem which is due to Laplace :—

i fXn

-r I «(ix=/i<r(ttn-Mo)-iIj(AMn-AMo)+j'»(A2«»-A2«o)

n J xo - ,% (A3«, - A'tto) + yfo (A4wn - A4«0)

For practical calculations this may more conveniently be written

rfc

*/ -to

where accented differences denote that the values of u are read back-
wards from Mn; i.e. A'«n denotes Mn-i-Wn, not (as in § io)«n-«n_i.
(iii.) Expressed in terms of central differences this becomes

udx =

(iv.) There are variants of these formulae, due to taking Attm+j as
the first approximation to the area of the curve between it™ and
Um+i', the formulae involve the sum MJ+MJ+ . . . +u^^£<r(u*-u<i)
(see MENSURATION).

20. The formulae in the last section can be obtained by symbolical
methods from the relation

Thus for central differences, if we write 9 = JAD, we] have n =cosh 0,
5 = 2 sinh 9, a = S~l, and the result in (iii.) corresponds to the formula

sinh 0=9 cosh 9/(l+J sinh I9-,?B sinh V+f.ft sinh 60- . . .).

REFERENCES. — There is no recent English work on the theory of
finite differences as a whole. G. Boole's Finite Differences (ist ed.,
1860, 2nd ed., edited by J. F. Moulton, 1872) is a comprehensive
treatise, in which symbolical methods are employed very early.
A. A. Markoff's Differ enzenrechnung (German trans., 1896) contains
general formulae. (Both these works ignore central differences.)
Encycl. der math. Wiss. vol. i. pt. 2, pp. 919-935, may also be con-
sulted. An elementary treatment of the subject will be found in
many text-books, e.g. G. Chrystal's Algebra (pt. 2, ch. xxxi.).
A. W. Sunderland, Notes on Finite Differences (1885), is intended for
actuarial students. Various central-difference formulae with refer-
ences are given in Proc. Land. Math. Soc. xxxi. pp. 449-488. For
other references see INTERPOLATION. (W. F. SH.)

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION, in mathematics, a relation be-
tween one or more functions and their differential coefficients.
The subject is treated here in two parts: (i) an elementary
introduction dealing with the more commonly recognized types
of differential equations which can be solved by rule; and (2) the
general theory.

Part I. — Elementary Introduction.

Of equations involving only one independent variable, x (known
as ordinary differential equations), and one dependent variable, y,
and containing only the first differential coefficient dy/dx (and there-
fore said to be of the first order), the simplest form is that reducible
to the type

dy/dx =f(x)/F(y),

leading to the result fF(y)dy-ff(x)dx = A, where A is an arbitrary
constant; this result is said to solve the differential equation, the
problem of evaluating the integrals belonging to the integral calculus.

226

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

Another simple form is

dy/dx+yP=Q,

where P, Q are functions of * only; this is known as the linear equa-
tion, since it contains y and dy/dx only to the first degree.
fPdx = u, we clearly have

If

so that y = e~u(fe"Qdx+A.) solves the equation, and is the only
possible solution, A being an arbitrary constant. The rule for the
solution of the linear equation is thus to multiply the equation by
«", where u =fPdx.

A third simple and important form is that denoted by

where* is an abbreviation for dy/dx; this is known as Clairaut's
form. By differentiation in regard to x it gives

where

thus, either (i.) dp/dx = o, that is, f is constant on the curve satis-
fying the differential equation, which curve is thus any one of the
straight lines y = cx+f(c), where c is an arbitrary constant, or else,
(ii.) x+f(p) =o; if this latter hypothesis be taken, andp be eliminated
between x+f'(p)=o and y = px+f(p), a relation connecting x and y,
not containing an arbitrary constant, will be found, which obviously
represents the envelope of the straight lines y = cx+f(c).

In general if a differential equation <t>(x, y, dy/dx) =o be satisfied
by any one of the curves F(x, y, c) = o,where cisan arbitrary constant,
it is clear that the envelope of these curves, when existent, must
also satisfy the differential equation; for this equation prescribes
a relation connecting only the co-ordinates x, y and the differential
coefficient dy/dx, and these three quantities are the same at any
point of the envelope for the envelope and for the particular curve
of the family which there touches the envelope. The relation ex-
pressing the equation of the envelope is called a singular solution of
the differential equation, meaning an isolated solution, as not being
one of a family of curves depending upon an arbitrary parameter.

An extended form of Clairaut's equation expressed by
y=xF(p)+f(p)

may be similarly solved by first differentiating in regard to p, when
it reduces to a linear equation of which x is the dependent and p the
independent variable; from the integral of this linear equation, and the
original differential equation, the quantity p is then to be eliminated.
Other types of solvable differential equations of the first order
are (l)

where M, N are homogeneous polynomials in x and y, of the same
order; by putting v=y/x and eliminating y, the equation becomes
of the first type considered above, in » and x. An equation (oB^iA)

(ax+by+c)dy/dx=Ax+'By+C

may be reduced to this rule by first putting x-\-h, y+k for x and y,
and determining h, k so that ah+bk+c — o, AA+B£+C = o.

(2) An equation in which y does not explicitly occur,

/(*, dy/dx) =o,

may, theoretically, be reduced to the type dy/dx = F(x); similarly
an equation F(y, dy/dx) —o.

(3) An equation

J(dy/dx, x, y) =o,

which is an integral polynomial in dy/dx, may, theoretically, be
solved for dy/dx, as an algebraic equation ; to any root dy/dx = FI (x,y)
corresponds, suppose, a solution <tn(x, y, c) =o, where c is an arbi-
trary constant; the product equation <h(x, y, c)fa(x,y,c) ... =o,
consisting of as many factors as there were values of dy/dx, is
effectively as general as if we wrote <tn(x, y, Ci)<h(x, y, Ci) . . ,=o;
for, to evaluate the first form, we must necessarily consider the
factors separately, and nothing is then gained by the multiple
notation for the various arbitrary constants. The equation
<h(x,y, c)<h(x, y, c) . . . =o is thus the solution of the given differ-
ential equation.

In all these cases there is, except for cases of singular solutions, one
and only_ one arbitrary constant in the most general solution of the
differential equation; that this must necessarily be so we may take
as obvious, the differential equation being supposed to arise _by
elimination of this constant from the equation expressing its solution
and the equation obtainable from this by differentiation in regard
to x.

A further type of differential equation of the first order, of the form

in which A, B, C are functions of x, will be briefly considered below
under differential equations of the second order.

When we pass to ordinary differential equations of the second order,
that is, those expressing a relation between x, y, dy/dx and d^y/dx2,

the number of types for which the solution can be found by a known
procedure is very considerably reduced. Consider the general linear
equation

where P, Q, R are functions of x only. There is no method always
effective; the main general result for such a linear equation is that
if any particular function of x, say yi, can be discovered, for which

then the substitution y=y\i\ in the original equation, with R on
the right side, reduces this to a linear equation of the first order with
the dependent variable dy/dx. In fact, if y = yiri we have

and thus
if then

and z denote dy/dx, the original differential equation becomes

From this equation z can be found by the rule given above for
the linear equation of the first order, and will involve one arbi-

trary constant; thence y — y\ ii = y\ I zdx+Ayt, where A is another

will be the general solution of the original
to be expected, involves two arbitrary

arbitrary constant,
equation, and, as was
constants.

The case of most frequent occurrence is that in which the co-
efficients P, Q are constants; we consider this case in some detail.
If0 be a root of the quadratic equation 0»+0P-|-Q = o, it can be at
once seen that a particular integral of the differential equation with
zero on the right side is yi=ee*. Supposing first the roots of the
quadratic equation to be different, and </> to be the other root, so that
= -P, the auxiliary differential equation for z, referred to above,

becomes - + (9 - <t>) z = Re-"1, which leads to zeC*"*)* = B +
where B is an arbitrary constant, and hence to

or say to y = Aee*+Ce**+U, where A, C are arbitrary constants and
U is a function of x, not present at all when R = o. If the quadratic
equation 02 + P0+Q=o has equal roots, so that 26=— P, the

auxiliary equation in z becomes dz/dx = Re"91, giving z = B + j Re~e*dx,
where 8 is an arbitrary constant, and hence

or, say, y= (A.+Bx)ee*+U, where A, B are arbitrary constants, and
U is a function of x not present at all when R = o. The portion
Ae**-r-Be«* or (A+Ex)eex of the solution, which is known as the com-
plementary function, can clearly be written down at once by inspec-
tion of the given differential equation. The remaining portion U
may, by taking the constants in the complementary function
properly, be replaced by any particular solution whatever of the
differential equation

for if u be any particular solution, this has a form

or a form

« = (Ao+Bo*)e*"+U;
thus the general solution can be written

(A-A0)eSI+(B-Bo)e*'-l-M, or {A-Aa+(B-E<1)x}e<>'+u,
where A— Ao, B — Bo, like A, B, are arbitrary constants.

A similar result holds for a linear differential equation of any order,
say

~

where PI, PS, ... Pn are constants, and R is a function of x. If
we form the algebraic equation 6"+PiO"-1 + ... +Pn = o, and all the
roots of this equation be different, say they are 0i, 0s, • • • 0n, the
general solution of the differential equation is

where Ai, As, ... An are arbitrary constants, and u is any

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

227

particular solution whatever; but if there be one root 9i re-

' must be replaced by

peated r times, the terms A^ l + . . .

8 f

(Ai+A2x + . . . +Arxr-1)e ' where Ai, . . . A, are arbitrary con-
stants; the remaining terms in the complementary function will
similarly need alteration of form if there be other repeated roots.

To complete the solution of the differential equation we need some
method of determining a particular intagral u; we explain a pro-
cedure which is effective for this purpose in the cases in which R is
a sum of terms of the form e°x<t>(x), where <t>(x) is an integral poly-
nomial in x; this includes cases in which R contains terms of the
form cos bx.j>(x) or sin bx.<p(x). Denote d/dx by D ; it is clear that if
u be any function of x, D(e°*u)=e/1*Du+ae'"u, or say, D(e"*u) =

««(D+a)w; hence D>(«"tt), i.e.jg(e°*u), being equal to D(e»"T),

where » = (D+o)«, is equal to e" (D+o)p, that is to e°*(D+a)*u.
In this way we find D*(e"u) =ea'(D+a)"u, where n is any positive
integer. Hence if rf-(D) be any polynomial in D with constant co-

efficients, ^(D) (eOIij)=eaV(D+a)«. Next, denoting \ udx by

D — *«, and any solution of the differential equation j^~^-oz = u by

z = (D+o)-'«, we have D[e«(D-t-a)-1«] = D(e"z) = eM(D+o)z =
e"u, so that we may write D-l(e"u)=e"(D+a)-lu, where the
meaning is that one value of the left side is equal to one value of the
right side; from this, the expression D~~*(e°xu), which means
D-'ID-He"*)], is equal to D-'(e"z) and hence to ^
which we write e"(D+a)~*«<; proceeding thus we obtain

where n is any positive integer, and the meaning, as before, is that
one value of the first expression is equal to one value of the second.
More generally, if ^(D) be any polynomial in D with constant co-

efficients, and we agree to denote by ./,/p\" any solution z of the

differential equation ^(D)z = M, we have, if v = .A/n +a)u' tne identity
(e°*v) =e"x\lf(D+a)v=e'"u, which we write in the form

This gives us the first step in the method we are explaining,
namely that a solution of the differential equation iff(D)y = eaIu+
«**p+ . . . where u, v, . . . are any functions of x, is any function
denoted by the expression

It is now to be shown how to obtain one value of,/p . »u, when u

is a polynomial in x, namely one solution of the differential equation
tt. Let the highest power of * entering in u be x"; if /

were a variable quantity, the rational fraction in t, ,;/ ., by first

writing it as a sum of partial fractions, or otherwise, could be identic-
ally written in the form

where <t>(t) is a polynomial in t; this shows that there exists an
identity of the form

and hence an identity

. . . +HmD»]«

in this, since u contains no power of x higher than xm, the second
term on the right may be omitted. We thus reach the conclusion
that a solution of the differential equation ^(D+o)z = w is given by

+K1D-»+H+H1D+ . . . + HmD-)«,

of which the operator on the right is obtained simply by expanding
iM(D+a) in ascending powers of D, as if D were a numerical
quantity, the expansion being carried as far as the highest power of
D which, operating upon u, does not give zero. In this form every
term in z is capable of immediate calculation.
Example. — For the equation

t cos x or

cos x,

o are 8= ±»,

the roots of the associated algebraic equation ((P-l-i)*
each repeated ; the complementary function is thus

(A+Bx)e"+(C+Dx)e-<*,
where A, B, C, D are arbitrary constants; this is the same as

(H+Kx) cos x+(M+Nx) sin x,

where H, K, M, N are arbitrary constants. To obtain a particular
integral we must find a value of (l+D*)-*xl cos x; this is the real

part of (i-r-D1)-1 e<*x* and hence of eiI[i+(D+i)t]-tx*
or e*''[2»D(i-|tD)]-V,

or -le^D-'Ci+iD-fD'-frD'+ftD^VD1. . .)*»,

or -iev*(?1B*5 + l«*4-!:cl-i«!+¥*+S*') ;

the real part of this is

-l_(A*6-i*!+ ¥*) cos x+lds'-f^+S) sin x.
This expression added to the complementary function found above
gives the complete integral; and no generality is lost by omitting
from the particular integral the terms -H * cos x+fe sin x, which
are of the types of terms already occurring in the complementary
function.

The symbolical method which has been explained has wider appli-
cations than.that to which we have, for simplicity of explanation,
restricted it. For example, if 4/(x) be any function of x, and
Oi, Oj, . . .a, be different constants, and [(<+Oi) (t+at) . . . (t+a*)]~l
when expressed in partial fractions be written ^cm(t-\-a^)~l, a par-
ticular integral of the differential equation (D+<Ji)(D-(-aj) . . .
)}> = tf<(x) is given by

The particular integral is thus expressed as a sum of n integrals.
A linear differential equation of w

f which the left side has the form

where PI, . . . P« are constants, can be reduced to the case considered
above. Writing x — et we have the identity

x"j£=e($-l)(0-2)...(6-m + i) u, where 0=d/dt.

When the linear differential equation, which we take to be of the
second order, has variable coefficients, though there is no general rule
for obtaining a solution in finite terms, there are some results which
it is of advantage to have in mind. We have seen that if one solution
of the equation obtained by putting the right side zero, say yi, be
known, the equation can be solved. If yt be another solution of

where m, n, k are

there being no relation of the form my\ +nyt
constants, it is easy to see that

A exp. ( |

Pdx

so that we have yi'yt-yiyi

where A is a suitably chosen constant, and exp. z denotes e1. In terms
of the two solutions y\, yi of the differential equation having zero on
the right side, the general solution of the equation with R = #(*) on
the right side can at once be verified to be
where u, v respectively denote the integrals

The equation

by writing y=v exp. ( — i \ Pdx), is at once seen to be reduced to

T

o, where

d*v

,dP

.
If

i do
-~-^, the equation

becomes dx = l+r?< a non-linear equation of the first

order.

More generally the equation

where A, B, C are functions of x, is, by the substitution

i dy

reduced to the linear equation
The equation

=o.

dx~

known as Riccati's equation, is transformed into an equation of
the same form by a substitution of the form Tf=-(aY+6)/(cY-|-</),
where a, b, c, d are any functions of x, and this fact may be utilized
to obtain a solution when A, B, C have special forms; in particular
if any particular solution of the equation be known, say rjt, the

228

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

substitution »j = ixri/Y enables us at once to obtain the general
solution ; for instance, when

a particular solution is TJO = V (— A/C). This is a case of the remark,
often useful in practice, that the linear equation

where M »s a constant, is reducible to a standard form by taking a new
independent variable z=J <

We pass to other types of equations of which the solution can be
obtained by rule. We may have cases in which there are two
dependent variables, * and y, and one independent variable /, the
differential coefficients dx/dt, dy/dt being given as functions^ of x, y
and /. Of such equations a simple case is expressed by the pair

%-ax+by+c, tjt-a's+Vy+<f,

wherein the coefficients a, 6, c, a', b', c', are constants. To integrate
these, form with the Constant X the differential coefficient of
z = x+\y, that is dz/dt = (a+*a')x+(b+'>J>')y+c+)*£', the quantity
X being so chosen that b+\b' = \(a+\a'), so that we have
<fz/<i/ = (a+Xa')z+e+Xc'; this last equation is at once integrable
in the form z(<z-)-Xa')+c+Xc' = Ae(a+*0')<, where A is an arbitrary
constant. In general, thecondition 6+X6' = X(a+Xo') is satisfied by
two different values of X, say Xi, Xz; the solutions corresponding to
these give the values of x+\iy and x+\ty, from which x and y can
be found as functions of /, involving two arbitrary constants. If,
however, the two roots of the quadratic equation for X are equal,
that is, if (a-&')2+4<z'& = o, the method described gives only one
equation, expressing x+\y in terms of /; by means of this equation
y can be eliminated from dx/dt = ax +by+c, leading to an equation
of the form dx/dt = P*+p,+Re(a+*''>', where P, Q, R are constants.
The integration of this gives x, and thence y can be found.

A similar process is applicable when we have three or more
dependent variables whose differential coefficients in regard to the
single independent variables are given as linear functions of the
dependent variables with constant coefficients.

Another method of solution of the equations

dx/dt = ax+by+c, dy/dt = a'x+b'y+c',
consists in differentiating the first equation, thereby obtaining

d?x dx . ,dy

dP=adi+bdx'

from the two given equations, by elimination of y, we can express
dy/dt as a linear function of x and dx/dt; we can thus form an
equation of the shape dtx/dP^P+Qx+RdxIdt, where P, Q, R are
constants; this can be integrated by methods previously ex-
plained, and the integral, involving two arbitrary constants, gives,
by the equation dx/dt = ax+by+c, the corresponding value of y.
Conversely it should be noticed that any single linear differential
equation

<Px . . dx

where «, v, w are functions of /, by writing y for dx/dt, is equivalent
with the two equations dx/dt = y, dy/dt = u+vx+wy. In fact a
similar reduction is possible for any system of differential equations
with one independent variable.

Equations occur to be integrated of the form

Xdx+Ydy+Zdz = o,

where X, Y, Z are functions of x, y, z. We consider only the case in
which there exists an equation <j>(x, y, z)=C whose differential

is equivalent with the given differential equation ; that is, p being
a proper function of x, y, z, we assume that there exist equations

Off) -mf Otft -*r Q(P rj

these equations require

and hence

X (dy'Jz'J ~T * \te~dx) T" \te~dy

conversely it can be proved that this is sufficient in order that /JL
may exist to render n(Xdx+\dy+Zdz) a perfect differential; in
particular it may be satisfied in virtue of the three equations such as

— -— = o

dy dz '

in which case we may take p = i. Assuming the condition in

its general form, take in the given differential equation a plane
section of the surface <t> = C parallel to the plane z, viz. put z con-
stant, and consider the resulting differential equation in the two
variables x, y, namely Xdx+Ydy = o; let <l>(x, y, z) =constant, be its
integral, the constant z entering, as a rule, in \j/ because it enters in
X and Y. Now differentiate the relation $(x, y, z)=/(z), where/
is a function to be determined, so obtaining

there exists a function a of x, y, z such that

because ^ = constant, is the integral of ~X.dx-\-\dy=o; we desire to
prove that /can be chosen so that also, in virtue of t(x, y, z) =/(z),
we have

W d\

£, namely j =5*-— aZ;
az dz

if this can be proved the relation y>(x, y, z)-/(z) =constant, will be
the integral of the given differential equation. To prove this it is
enough to show that, in virtue of ^(x, y, z) =/(z), the function

rp — wZ can be expressed in terms of z only. Now in consequence
of the originally assumed relations,

r ?*_..v- ^-..-7

we have

and hence

dx

dy'

_
dxdy dydx~ '

this shows that, as functions of x and y, $ is a function of <t> (see the
note at the end of part i. of this article, on Jacobian determinants),
so that we may write ^ = F(z, <j>), from which

dF ^ dj dF,dFd<t> dF , a 7 dF dt dF

'-

in virtue of 4>(x, y, z)=/(z), and ^ = F(z, <t>), the function <t>can be
written in terms of z only, thus dF/dz can be written in terms of 2 only,
and what we required to prove is proved.

Consider lastly a simple type of differential equation containing
two independent variables, say x and y, and one dependent variable
z, namely the equation

p|5+Q|l=Ri
dx *dy

where P, Q, R are functions of x, y, z. This is known as Lagrange's
linear partial differential equation of the first order. To integrate
this, consider first the ordinary differential equations dx/dz = P/R,
dy/dz = Q/R, and suppose that two functions u, v, of x, y, z can be
determined, independent of one another, such that the equations
u = a, v = b, where a, b are arbitrary constants, lead to these ordinary
differential equations, namely such that

JHu , ~3tt . r.du , .JSv . f^dv . Dd»

P^+Q^+% = ° and Pdx+Qdy+Rdz=0-

Then if F(x, y, z) =o be a relation satisfying the original differential
equations, this relation giving rise to

It follows that the determinant of three rows and columns vanishes
whose first row consists of the three quantities dF/dx, dF/dy, dF/dz,
whose second row consists of the three quantities dujdx, du/dy, du/dz,
whose third row consists similarly of the partial derivatives of v.
The vanishing of this so-called Jacobian determinant is known to
imply that F is expressible as a function of u and v, unless these are
themselves functionally related, which is contrary to hypothesis
(see the note below on Jacobian determinants). Conversely, any
relation <t>(u, v)=o can easily be proved, in virtue of the equations
satisfied by u and f, to lead to

The solution of this partial equation is thus reduced to the solu-
tion of the two ordinary differential equations expressed by
dx/P = dy/Q = dz/R. In regard to this problem one remark may be
made which is often of use in practice: when one equation u=a
has been found to satisfy the -differential equations, we may utilize
this to obtain the second equation v = b; for instance, we may, by
means of u = a, eliminate z — when then from the resulting equations
in x and y a relation !» = & has been found containing x and y and a,
the substitution a = u will give a relation involving x, y, z.

Note on Jacobian Determinants. — The fact assumed above that the
vanishing of the Jacobian determinant whose elements are the partial
derivatives of three functions F, «, v, of three variables x, y, i,

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

229

involves that there exists a functional relation connecting the three
functions F, u, v, may be proved somewhat roughly as follows: —

The corresponding theorem is true for any number of variables.
Consider first the case of two functions p, q, of two variables x, y.
The function p, not being constant, must contain one of the variables,
say x ; we can then suppose x expressed in terms of y and the function
p ; thus the function q can be expressed in terms of y and the function
p, say q = Q(p, y). This is clear enough in the simplest cases which
arise, when the functions are rational. Hence we have

these give

_=

dx~dpdxdy dpdydy'

_
dxdy dydx~dxdy '

by hypothesis dp/dx is not identically zero; therefore if the Jacobian
determinant of p and q in regard to x and y is zero identically, so is
dQ/dy, or Q does not contain y, so that q is expressible as a function
of p only. Conversely, such an expression can be seen at once to
make the Jacobian of p and q vanish identically.

Passing now to the case of three variables, suppose that the
Jacobian determinant of the three functions F, u, v in regard to
x, y, z is identically zero. We prove that if u, v are not themselves
functionally connected, F is expressible as a function of u and v.
Suppose first that the minors of the elements of dF/dx, dF/dy, dF/dz
in the determinant are all identically zero, namely the three deter-
minants such as

dudv _dudv

dydz~dzdy'

then by the case of two variables considered above there exist three
functional relations^ (u,v,x) = o,^2(«,p,y) =o, ^s(u,v,z) = o, of which
the first, for example, follows from the vanishing of

dudv_dudy_

dy dz dz dy'

We cannot assume that x is absent from fa, or y from ^2, or z from ^3 ;
but conversely we cannot simultaneously have x entering in ^i, and
y in fa, and z in ^3, or else by elimination of u and v from the three
equations ^1=0, ^2=0, ^3 = 0, we should find a necessary relation
connecting the three independent quantities x, y, z; which is absurd.
Thus when the three minors of dF/dx, dF/dy, dF/dz in the Jacobian
determinant are all zero, there exists a functional relation connecting
u and » only. Suppose no such relation to exist; we can then
suppose, for example, that

^__

dydz dzdy

isnotzero. Then from the equations u(x, y, z) =u, v(x,y,z) =rwecan
express y and z in terms of u, v, and x (the attempt to do this could
only fail by leading to a relation connecting u, v and x, and the
existence of such a relation would involve that the determinant

dudv dudv

dydz~dzdy

was zero), and so write F in the form F(*, y: z) =*(«, v, x). We then
have

dF =d&d_U,d$d_v d* dF_dJbdu ,S^dv_ dF_dJI>du ,v

dx ~dudx'dvdx~i~dx' dy ~dudy'dv dy' dz ~dudz~^dv dz'

thereby the Jacobian determinant of F, u, v is reduced to

d* /dudv_dudv\ _

dx \dydz dz dy) '

by hypothesis the second factor of this does not vanish identically ;
hence d$/dx = o identically, and * does not contain x; so that F
is expressible in terms of u, v only ; as was to be proved.

Part II.— General Theory.

Differential equations arise in the expression of the relations
between quantities by the elimination of details, either unknown
or regarded as unessential to the formulation of the relations in
question. They give rise, therefore, to the two closely connected
problems of determining what arrangement of details is consistent
with them, and of developing, apart from these details, the general
properties expressed by them. Very roughly, two methods of
study can be distinguished, with the names Transformation-
theories, Function-theories; the former is concerned with the
reduction of the algebraical relations to the fewest and simplest
forms, eventually with the hope of obtaining explicit expressions
of the dependent variables in terms of the independent variables;
the latter is concerned with the determination of the general
descriptive relations among the quantities which are involved by
the differential equations, with as little use of algebraical calcula-
tions as may be possible. Under the former heading we may,
with the assumption of a few theorems belonging to the latter,

arrange the theory of partial differential equations and Pfaff's
problem, with their geometrical interpretations, as at present
developed, and the applications of Lie's theory of transforma-
tion-groups to partial and to ordinary equations; under the
latter, the study of linear differential equations in the manner
initiated1 by Riemann, the applications of discontinuous groups,
the theory of the singularities of integrals, and the study of
potential equations with existence-theorems arising therefrom.
In order to be clear we shall enter into some detail in regard
to partial differential equations of the first order, both those
which are linear in any number of variables and those not
linear in two independent variables, and also in regard to the
function-theory of linear differential equations of the second
order. Space renders impossible anything further than the
briefest account of many other matters; in particular, the theories
of partial equations of higher than the first order, the function-
theory of the singularities of ordinary equations not linear and the
applications to differential geometry, are taken account of only in
the bibliography. It is believed that on the whole the article will
be more useful to the reader than if explanations of method had
been further curtailed to include more facts.

When we speak of a function without qualification, it is to be
understood that in the immediate neighbourhood of a particular
set x0, ym . . of values of the independent variables x, y, . . .
of the function, at whatever point of the range of values for
x, y, . . . under consideration xa, y0, . . may be chosen, the
function can be expressed as a series of positive integral powers
of the differences x— X0, y—y0,..., convergent when these are
sufficiently small (see FUNCTION: Functions of Complex Vari-
ables). Without this condition, which we express by saying that
the function is developable about *„, y0, . . . , many results
provisionally stated in the transformation theories would be
unmeaning or incorrect. If, then, we have a set of k functions,
fi . . . ft, of n independent variables x\ . . . xn, we say that
they are independent when n>Ji and not every determinant of
k rows and columns vanishes of the matrix of k rows and »
columns whose r-th row has the constituents dfr/dxi, . . .dfrldxn',
the justification being in the theorem, which we assume, that if
the determinant involving, for instance, the first k columns be not
zero for x\ = x\ . . . xn=xn0, and the functions be developable
about this point, then from the equations f\ = c\, . . .ft—Ck we
can express x\, . . . x* by convergent power series in the
differences **+!— *t°+i, . . . Xn—xn°, and so regard x\, . . . **
as functions of the remaining variables. This we of t en express by
saying that the equations /i = Ci, . . ./*=£* can be solved for
*i,... Xk. The explanation is given as a type of explanation
often understood in what follows.

We may conveniently begin by stating the theorem : If each of
the n functions 0i, . . .<j>nol the (n + i) variables *i,. . .x^t be develop-
able about the values xi°, . . . xn"t°, the n differential
equations of the form dxi/dt = <t>i(txi, ...*„) are satisfied e
by convergent power series

„ v°-4-f/ — /*AA -L(V — / \2A ,L o/ MM? first

reducing respectively to xi", . . .x,f when t = t°;&nd the °™er"
only functions satisfying the equations and reducing respectively to
*i°, . . . xn° when* = <", are those determined by continuation of these
series. If the result of solving these n equations for xi", . . •. xa° be
written in the forma>i(jCi, . . . xnt) = x\°, . . .u,,(xi, . . . xnt) =xa°,
it is at once evident that the differential equation Single

df/dt+<t>,df/dXl+. . .+<t>adf/dXn = 0 homogene-

possesses n integrals, namely, the functions «i, . . . «„, °*
which are developable about the values (xf. . . . Xn°t") and e?"f ? .
reduce respectively to x i, . . .*„ wheni = /°. And in fact it °'lne'"
has no other integrals so reducing. Thus this equation
also possesses a unique integral reducing when t = t° to an arbitrary
function $(xi, . . . #„), this integral being <f>(ui, . . . «„). Conversely
the existence of these principal integrals «i, . . . w, of the partial
equation establishes the existence of the specified solutions of the
ordinary equations dxi/dt = <tn. The following sketch of the proof of
the existence of these principal integrals for the case n = 2 will show
the character of more general investigations. Put x for*— x", &c.,
and consider the equation a(xyt)df/dx+b(xyt)df/dy = df/dt, wherein
the functions a, b are developable about x = o, y = o, t — o; say

a(xyt)=a0+lai+Pa2/2\+..., b(xyt)=b,+tbi-\-Pbi/2\+...,
so that

where Sr=Ord/dx+brd/dy. In order that

230

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

wherein p,, pi . . . are power series in *, y, should satisfy the equa-
tion, it is necessary, as we find by equating like terms, that

Pro°f and in general

existence wl££~ ° ' *' j,=\s!)/(r!)~(s-r)!

Now compare with the given equation another equation
«"*• ^xyt)dF/dx+B(xyt)dF/dy = dF/dt,

wherein each coefficient in the expansion of either A or B is real and
positive, and not less than the absolute value of the corresponding
coefficient in the expansion of a or 6. In the second equation let us
substitute a series

wherein the coefficients in P, are real and positive, and each not less
than the absolute value of the corresponding coefficient in pa ; then
putting ^r — Ard/dx-^-BTd/dy we obtain necessary equations of the
same form as before, namely,

and in general P.+i=A,,P,+iiAiP^i+. • .+A.P,. These give for
every coefficient in P.+I an integral aggregate with real positive
coefficients of the coefficients in P., P,_i, . . . , P0 and the coefficients
in A and B ; and they are the same aggregates as would be given by
the previously obtained equations for the corresponding coefficients
in PHI in terms of the coefficients in .p,, p^.i, . . . p0 and the co-
efficients in o and b. Hence as the coefficients in P» and also in A, B
are real and positive, it follows that the values obtained in succession
for the coefficients in Pi, Pj, . . . are real and positive; and further,
taking account of the fact that the absolute value of a sum of terms
is not greater than the sum of the absolute values of the terms, it
follows, for each value of s, that every coefficient in £•+; is> 'n absolute
value, not greater than the corresponding coefficient in PHJ. Thus
if the series for F be convergent, the series for / will also be ; and we
are thus reduced to (i), specifying functions A, B with real positive
coefficients, each in absolute value not less than the corresponding
coefficient in a, b; (2) proving that the equation

MF/dx+BdF/dy =dF(dt

possesses an integral Po+tPi+CPi/2\ + ... in which the coefficients
in P. are real and positive, and each not less than the absolute value
of the corresponding coefficient in p0. If a, 6 be developable for *, y
both in absolute value less than r and for / less in absolute value than
R, and for such values o, 6 be both less in absolute value than the
real positive constant M, it is not difficult to verify that we may

take A = B = M (i -£±2) "' (l -Q ~\ and obtain

and that this solves the problem when *, y, t are sufficiently small
for the two cases pa = x, p<,=y. One obvious application of the
general theorem is to the proof of the existence of an integral of
an ordinary linear differential equation given by the n equations
dy/dx=yi, dyi/dx=yi . . ,

dyn-i/dx=p-piy«-i- . • .-p_*y;

but in fact any simultaneous system of ordinary equations is re-
ducible to a system of the form

dxi/dt = <t>i(txi, . . . *»)•

Suppose we have k homogeneous linear partial equations of the
first order in n independent variables, the general equation being

andf/dxi+. . .+a<rndf/dxn=o, where »=!,... fc.andthat

Slmultaae- we Desire to know whether the equations have common

"SJi i r solutions, and if so, how many. It is to be understood

"! that the equations are linearly independent, which implies

that k 5n and not every determinant of k rows and columns
is identically zero in the matrix in which the t-th element of the <r-th
row is o<ri(t = l, . . . n, <r = l, . . . k). Denoting the left side of the
<r-th equation by P<rf, it is clear that every common solution of the
two equations Po/=o, PP/=O is also a solution of the equation
Pp(P<7/)-P<r(Pp/)=o. We immediately find, however, that this is
also a linear equation, namely, ZH<d//<&< =owhere Hi =Ppo<7i-P<7api,
and if it be not already contained among the given equations, or be
linearly deducible from them, it may be added to them, as not intro-
ducing any additional limitation of the possibility of their having
common solutions. Proceeding thus with every pair of the original
equations, and then with every pair of the possibly augmented
system so obtained, and so on continually, we shall arrive at a
system of equations, linearly independent of each other and therefore
not more than n in number, such that the combination, in the way
described, of every pair of them, leads to an equation which is
linearly deducible from them. If the number of this so-called
. complete system is n, the equations give dfldx\=o . . . df/dx, = o,
leading to the nugatory result /=a constant. Suppose, then, the
number of this system to be r, <n; suppose, further, that from the

matrix of the coefficients a determinant of r rows and
Complete coiumns not vanishing identically is that formed by the

coefficients of the differential coefficients of / in regard
"ef to xi ... XT; also that the coefficients are all developable
afloat about the values *t=*i*. • • • *» = *••. and that for these

values the determinant just spoken of is not zero.
Then the main theorem is that the complete system of r equa-
tions, and therefore the originally given set of fe equations,

have in common n-r solutions, say w,+i, . . . wn, which reduce
respectively to x,+i, . . . xn when in them for xi, . . . XT are respec-
tively put Xi°, . . . XT'; so that also the equations have in common a
solution reducing when xi = xi°, . . . xT=xra to an arbitrary function
4>(x,+i, ...*„) which is developable about xS+i, • • • x,°, namely,
this common solution is ^(uv+i, . . . <on). It is seen at once
that this result is a generalization of the theorem for r — i, and its
proof is conveniently given by induction from that case. It can be
verified without difficulty (i) that if from the r equations of the
complete system we form r independent linear aggregates, with
coefficients not necessarily constants, the new system is also a com-
plete system; (2) that if in place of the independent variables
*i,... *„ we introduce any other variables which are independent
functions of the former, the new equations also form a complete
system. It is convenient, then, from the complete system of r
equations to form r new equations by solving separately for df/dxi, . . ,
df/dxr ; suppose the general equation of the new system to be

Qvf=df/dx<,+c*,r+ldfldxr+i+ . . . +c<,ndfldx*=o(v = i, . . . r).
Then it is easily obvious that the equation QpQ<rf-QaQpf=o con-
tains only the differential coefficients of /in regard to x,+i . . .x,; as
it is at most a linear function of Qif, . . . Q,f, it must be identically
zero. So reduced the system is called a Jacobian system. Of this
system Qi/=o has n-l principal solutions reducing re-
spectively to Xi, . . . *„ when

X\ s=Xi°,

and its' form shows that of these the first r-i are exactly xt . . . XT.
Let these n-l functions together with xi be introduced as n new
independent variables in all the r equations. Since the first equation
is satisfied by n-i of the new independent variables, it will contain
no differential coefficients in regard to them, and will reduce therefore
simply to df/dxi = o, expressing that any common solution of the r
equations is a function only of the n-i remaining variables. Thereby
the investigation of the common solutions is reduced to the same
problem for r-i equations in n-i variables. Proceeding thus, we
reach at length one equation in n-^r+l variables, from which, by
retracing the analysis, the proposition stated is seen to follow.

The analogy with the case of one equation is, however, still closer.
With the coefficients Caj of the equations Q<r/ = o in transposed
array (» = i, ... r, j = r+i, ... n) we can put down the
(n-r) equations, dxj=cndxi+. . .-\-c,jdx,, equivalent to ^y ,£..
the r(n-r) equations dxi/dxa-=c^j. That consistent f""tl~.
with them we may be able to regard XT+I, . . . *„ as ™,t,*
functions of x\,... XT, these being regarded as independent
variables, it is clearly necessary that when we differentiate c<r, in
regard to xp on this hypothesis the result should be the same as when
we differentiate Cpj in regard to x<r on this hypothesis. The differ-
ential coefficient of a function / of x\, . . . xn on this hypothesis, in
regard to xp, is, however,

namely, is Qp/. Thus the consistence of the n-r total equations
requires the conditions QpC<rj-Q<rCpj=o, which are, however,
verified in virtue of Q/>(Q<r/)-Q<r(Qp/)=o. And it can in fact be
easily verified that if UT+I, . . . «, be the principal solutions of the
Jacobian system, Q<r/=o, reducing respectively toxr+i, . . . xn when
xi=xi", . . . xr=xT°, and the equations UT+I=XT°+I, . . . w,=xn°
be solved for x,+i, . . . *„ to give*, =M*i, • • • *r, aV+i, . x,°), these
values solve the total equations and reduce respectively to x,°+i,. . . x,'
when xi=xi° . . . xT=xr°. And the total equations have no
other solutions with these initial values. Conversely, the existence
of these solutions of the total equations can be deduced a priori
and the theory of the Jacobian system based upon them. The
theory of such total equations, in general, finds its natural place
under the heading Pfaffian Expressions, below.

A practical method of reducing the solution of the r equations
of a Jacobian system to that of a single equation in n-r+l variables
may be explained in connexion with a geometrical inter-
pretation which will perhaps be clearer in a particular *.°.™f "
case, say « = 3, r = 2. There is then only one total Mlo'a
equation, say dz = ads+bdy; if we do not take account ^
of the condition of integrability, which is in this case so/(lWoo
da/dy+bda/dz=dbldx+adb/dz, this equation may be re-
garded as defining through an arbitrary point (*„, >•<,, z») of three-
dimensioned space (about which a, b are developable) a plane, namely,
z-s,=a,(x-x,)+b,(y-y,'), and therefore, through this arbitrary
point oo 2 directions, namely, all those in the plane. If now there be
a surface z = ^(x, y), satisfying dz = adz+bdy and passing through
(xa, ya, z,,), this plane will touch the surface, and the operations of
passing along the surface from (x,, ya, z») to

(xa-\-dxo, ya, za+dzc)

and then to (x.-\-dxa, y,+dy0, z,+dlz,), ought to lead to the same
value of dlza as do the operations of passing along the surface trom
(*,. y,, z,) to (xo, ya+dy<,, z»+«z0), and then to

(x,,+dx,, y,+dy,, Zo-H'z,),
namely, J'z. ought to be equal to dlza. But we find

and so at once reach the condition of integrability. If now we put

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

231

x = Xo+t, y — y,+mt, and regard m as constant, we shall in fact be
considering the section of the surface by a fixed plane y-y0 = m(x-x0) ;
along this section dz = dt(a+bm) ; if we then integrate the equation
dx/dt = a+bm, where a, b are expressed as functions of m and /, with
m kept constant, finding the solution which reduces to z, for / = o,
and in the result again replace m by (y-y«)/(x-xa), we shall have the
surface in question. In the general case the equations

dXj=CijdXl+. ,C,jdXr

Mayer"* similarly determine through an arbitrary point Xi°, . ._. xn°
method of a planar manifold of r dimensions in space of n dimensions,
Integra- and when the conditions of integrability are satisfied,
tlon. every direction in this manifold through this point is

tangent to the manifold of r dimensions, expressed by ur+i=xr\i,
. . un = Xn°, which satisfies the equations and passes through this
point. If we put xi-x\° = t, x^-xi" = ntit, . . . xr-xr° = mrt, and
regard MI, ... m, as fixed, the (n-r) total equations take the form
dxj/dt = Cij+miCij+. . .+mrcrj, and their integration is equivalent to
that of the single partial equation

n

df/dt+ 2(Cij+miCn+. . . +mrc,j)dfldxj = o

in the n-r + i variables /, av+i, . . . xn. Determining the solutions
Qr+i,. . . .a, which reduce.to respectively *r+i,- . .*„ when* = o, and sub-
stituting t = xi-xi", mi = (xi-xi°)/(xi-x,°), . . . mr = (xr-xr°)/(xi-xl°),
we obtain the solutions of the original system of partial equa-
tions previously denoted by ov+i, . . . o>n. It is to be remarked,
however, that the presence of the fixed parameters mi, ... m, in
the single integration may frequently render it more difficult than if
they were assigned numerical quantities.
We have above considered the integration of an equation

dz = adz+bdy
on the hypothesis that the condition

da / dy-}-bda/dz = db/dz -\-adbfdz.

p. „. It is natural to inquire what relations among x, y, z, if any,
are implied by, or are consistent with, a differential relation
adx+bdy+cdx = o, when a, b, c are unrestricted functions
of x, y, z. This problem leads to the consideration of the
so-called Pfaffian Expression adx+bdy+cde. It can be shown (i) if
each of the quantities db/dz-dc/dy, dc/dx-da/dz, da/dy-db/dz, which
we shall denote respectively by w2s, ««, un, be identically zero, the
expression is the differential of a function of x, y, z, equal to dt say;
(2) that if the quantity auii+buai+cua is identically zero, the ex-
pression is of the form udt, i.e. it can be made a perfect differential
by multiplication by the factor i/u; (3) that in general the ex-
pression is of the form dt+Uidti. Consider the matrix of four
rows and three columns, in which the elements of the first row are
a, b, c, and the elements of the (r+i)-th row, for r = i, 2, 3, are the
quantities Uri, Urt, UT>, where ttn = «s2 = Ms»=o. Then it is easily
seen that the cases (i), (2), (3) above correspond respectively to the
cases when (i) every determinant of this matrix of two rows and
columns is zero, (2) every determinant of three rows and columns
is zero, (3) when no condition is assumed. This result can be general-
ized as follows: if 01, . . . an be any functions of xi, . . . *„, the so-
called Pfaffian expression atdxi+. . .+andx* can be reduced to one
or other of the two forms

Uidti+. . .-{-utdti,, dt-\-uidti-\-. . .-\-Uk-idtt-i,

wherein t, u\, . . .,t\, . . . are independent functions of xi, . . .xn, and k
is such that in these two cases respectively 2k or 2k-i is the rank of
a certain matrix of n + i rows and n columns, that is, the greatest
number of rows and columns in a non-vanishing determinant of the
matrix; the matrix is that whose first row is constituted by the
quantities 01, . . . on, whose s-th element in the (r-f l)-th row is the
quantity da,ldx,-da,ldx,. The proof of such a reduced form can
be obtained from the two results: (i) If t be any given functjon
of the 2m independent variables MI, ... Mm, <i, • • • tm, the expression
dt+uidh+. . .+Umdtm can be put into the form u'idt\+. . .+u'mdt'm.
(2) If the quantities MI, . . . , Um, h, • • • tm be connected by a relation,
theexpression nidh+. . .+Umdtm can be put into the form dt'+u\dt'i
+. . .+u'm-idt'm-i; and if the relation connecting MI,. . . Mm, h,. ..tm
be homogeneous in MI, ... «*,, then t' can be taken to be zero. These
two results are deductions from the theory of contact transformations
(see below), and their demonstration requires, beside elementary
algebraical considerations, only the theory of complete systems of
linear homogeneous partial differential equations of the first order.
When the existence of the reduced form of the Pfaffian expression
containing only independent quantities is thus once assured, the
identification of the number k with that defined by the specified
matrix may, with some difficulty, be made a posteriori.

In all cases of a single Pfaffian equation we are thus led to consider

what is implied by a relation dt-utdti~. . .-Umdtm = o, in which

s:n i ?• **!•••• w»i*i • • •, tm are, except for this equation,

independent variables. This is to be satisfied in virtue of

_. „. one or several relations connecting the variables; these

must involve relations connecting t, t\, . . . tm only, and

in one of these at least t must actually enter. We can

then suppose that in one actual system of relations in virtue of which

the Pfaffian equation is satisfied, all the relations connecting t,tt . . .

tm only are given by

t—^(t,+i. . .!„), /I=^I(/,-H. . .tm), • • • /» = ^«(<«+l • • • tm);

so that the equation

is identically true in regard to «i, . . . um, t^i . . , t*; equating to
zero the coefficients of the differentials of these variables, we thus
obtain m-s relations of the form

these m-s relations, with the previous s+i relations, constitute a set
of m + i relations connecting the 2>n + i variables in virtue of which
the Pfaffian equation is satisfied independently of the form of the
functions <f>, <l/i, . . .<//,. There is clearly such a set for each of the
values s = o, s = i, . . ,,s = m-i,s — m. And for any value of s there
may exist relations additional to the specified m + i relations, pro-
vided they dp not involve any relation connecting t, h, . . . <mOnly,
and are consistent with the m-s relations connecting iti, . . . Mm. It
is now evident that, essentially, the integration of a Pfaffian equation

wherein <ti, . . . a* are functions of x\, . . . xn, is effected by the
processes necessary to bring it to its reduced form, involving only
independent variables. And it is easy to see that if we suppose this
reduction to be carried out in all possible ways, there is no need to
distinguish the classes of integrals corresponding to the various
values of s; for it can be verified without difficulty that by putting

t'^t-Uid-. . .-Uj., t'i=Ui, . . . <', = «„ U\=-ti, . . ., «'.= -/.,

*'HJ =*•+!• - - •*'m = <m, U'I+I=UH.I, . . . u'm = Um, the reduced equation
becomes changed to dt'-u\dt\-. . .-u'mdt'm = o, and the general
relations changed to

t' = W^i, . . . fm)-t'iW»i, • • • t'm)-.. .-O.f/,+1, . . . t'm),=<t>,
say, together with u'i = d<t>/dt'i ..... u'm=d<t>/dt'm,'wh\ch contain only
one relation connecting the variables /', t\, . . . t'm only.

This method for a single Pfaffian equation can, strictly speaking,
be generalized to a simultaneous system of (n-r) Pfaffian equations
dxj = cijdxi+. . .+cTjdxr only in the case already treated, ... ,
when this system is satisfied by regarding av+i, . . . *„ as .
suitable functions of the independent variables x\, . . . x,; %?eff!"
in that case the integral manifolds are of r dimensions.
When these are non-existent, there may be integral mani- equa
folds of higher dimensions ; for if

d<t> = <M*i + . . . + <M*r +<t>r+i (ci r+idxi + . . . +cr,r+idxr) + tfy+j ( ) + . . .
be identically zero, then 0ff+ca,r+i«#v+i+. . .+cir,n0n=p, or <£ satisfies
the r partial differential equations previously associated with the
total equations; when these are not a complete system, but in-
cluded in a complete system of r-it equations, having therefore
n-r-p independent integrals, the total equations are satisfied over
a manifold of r+n dimensions (see E. v. Weber, Math. Annal. Iv.
(1901), p. 386).

It seems desirable to add here certain results, largely of algebraic
character, which naturally arise in connexion with the theory of
contact transformations. For any two functions of the 2n
independent variables xi,...x*,pi,... pn we denote by (jrf) CoatKt

&&£ d*d<t> _ transfer.

the sum of the n terms such as , / - , , . For two matlons.

(i'P \CLXi dPidjCi

functions of the (2n + l) independent variables z,xt, . . . x,,pi, ... pn
we denote by [<£^] the sum of the n terms such as

d<t> (dt ,.dy\
dpi (dxl+^Tz) ~

d<t>

It can at once be verified that for any three functions[/[^]] + [0[^/]]

which when/, *, *do not contain z

becomes the identity (/(<WO) + (<#>(#)) + GK./V>)) =o. Then.if Xi,. ..Xn,
PI, ... P» be such functions of xi, . . . xn,p\ . . . pn that PidXi
+ . . . +PndXn is identically equal to pidx!+ . . . +pndx,, it can be
shown by elementary algebra, after equating coefficients of inde-
pendent differentials, (i) that the functions Xi, . . . P» are independ-
ent functions of the 2n variables *i, . . . pn, so that the equations
*',=Xi, p'i = Pi]can be solved ford, ...*„, pi, . . . £n,and represent
therefore a transformation, which we call a homogeneous contact
transformation ; (2) that the Xj, . . . Xn are homogeneous functions of
pi,. . . pn of zero dimensions the PI,... P» are homogeneous functions
of pi, . . . pn of dimension one, and the in(n-i) relations (X<X.) =o
are verified. So also are the n2 relations (PiX,-) = i, (PiX,-) = o,
(PiP,-) =o. Conversely, if Xi, . . . X« be independent functions, each
homogeneous of zero dimension in pi, . . . p, satisfying the ^n(n-i)
relations (XiX,-) =o, then PI, ... PB can be uniquely determined, by
solving linear algebraic equations, such that PidXi+. . .-fPnrfX,
= pidxi+. . .+pndxn. If now we put n-fi for n, put z for *»+!,
Z for Xn+i, Qi for-Pi/P^.!, for * = i, ... n, put q> ior-pi/p^.i and <r
for ffn+1/Q.H.i, and then finally write Pi, ... Pn, pi, ...pn for Qi, . . . On,
?!,... gn, we obtain the following results: If ZXi . . . XB, PI, . . . Pn
be functions of z, xi,. . . x,, p\, .. . pn, such that the expression
dZ-PidX^. . .-PndX, is identically equal to <r(dz-pidxi~. . .-p,dxn),
and <r not zero, then (i) the functions Z, Xi, . . . Xn, Pi, ... P,
are independent functions of z, xi, . . . *„, 61, ... p,, so that the
equations z' = Z, x'i = X,, p'i = P< can be solved for z,Xi,...xn,pi,...p,
and determine a transformation which we call a (non-homogeneous)
contact transformation; (2) the Z, Xi, . . . Xn verify the fn(w

232

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

identities [ZXil=o, [XiX,]=o. And the further identities
[PiXi] = «7, [PiX,]=o, [PiZ^vPi, [PiPj]=o,

are also verified. Conversely, if Z, Xi, . . . Xn be independent func-
tions satisfying the identities [ZX;] =o, [X,X,] =o, then a, other than
zero, and Pi, ... P» can be uniquely determined, by solution of
algebraic equations, such that

dZ-PidXi- . . .-PadXn = <r(dz-pidxi- . . . -pndxa).
Finally, there is a particular case of great importance arising when
0 = 1, which gives the results: (l) If U, Xt, . . . Xn, Pi, ... Pn be
2n+i functions of the 2n independent variables a, . . . xn, pi,
...£„, satisfying the identity

dU+Pi<?*i+ • • • +PndX.n=pidx!+ . . . +padxn,
then the 2n functions Pi, ... Pn,X,, . . . Xn are independent,

=i,,,,),,,
where & denotes the operator pid/dpi+ . . . +pnd/dpn; (2) If
Xi, . . . Xn be independent functions of Xi, ... xn, pi, . . . pn,
such that (XiX,-) =o, then U can be found by a quadrature, such that

(XiU) =SXj;

and when X<, . . . Xn, U satisfy these |n(«+i) conditions, then
P, Pn can be found, by solution of linear algebraic equations, to
render' true the identity <fU+PidXi+... +Pn<2X0 •= pidxt +... +pndxn ;
(i) Functions Xi, . . . Xn, Pi, ... Pn can be found to satisfy
this differential identity when U is an arbitrary given function of
*i . . . xn, pi, • • • pn', but this requires integrations. In order
to' see' what integrations, it is only necessary to verify the statement
that if U be an arbitrary given function of xi, . . . xn, pi, . . . pn,
and, for r<n, Xi, . . . Xr be independent functions of these vari-
ables, such that (Xo-U)=SX<r, (XpX<r)=o, for p, <r = l . . . r, then
the r+i homogeneous linear partial differential equations of the
first order (U/)+«/=o, (Xp/)=o, form a complete system. It will
be seen that the assumptions above made for the reduction of
Pfaffian expressions follow from the results here enunciated for
contact transformations.

We pass on now to consider the solution of any partial
differential equation of the first order; we attempt to explain
certain ideas relatively to a single equation with any
aittena- number of independent variables (in particular, an
tialequa- ordinary equation of the first order with one inde-
tion of tho pendent variable) by speaking of a single equation with
nrst two independent variables x, y, and one dependent

variable z. It will be seen that we are naturally led to
consider systems of such simultaneous equations, which we
consider below. The central discovery of the transformation
theory of the solution of an equation F(x, y, z, dz/dx, dz/dy)=o
is that its solution can always be reduced to the solution of
partial equations which are linear. For this, however, we must
regard dz/dx, dz/dy, during the process of integration, not as the
differential coefficients of a function z in regard to x and y, but as
variables independent of x, y, z, the too great indefiniteness that
might thus appear to be introduced being provided for in another
way. We notice that if z = \l/(x, y) be a solution of the differ-
ential equation, then dz=dxd\pldx+dyd\l//dy; thus if we denote
the equation by F(x,'y, z, p, q,)=o, and prescribe the condition
dz=pdx+qdy for every solution, any solution such as z-^(x, y)
will necessarily be associated with the equations p= dz/dx,
q = dz/dy, and z will satisfy the equation in its original form. We
have previously seen (under Pfaffian Expressions) that if five
variables x, y, z, p, q, otherwise independent, be subject to
dz—pdx—qdy-o, they must in fact be subject to at least three
mutual relations. If we associate with a point (x, y, z) the plane

Z-z=p(X-x)+q(Y-y)

passing through it, where X, Y, Z are current co-ordinates, and
call this association a surface-element; and if two consecutive
elements of which the point(*-N*, y+dy, z+dz)oi one lies on the
plane of the other, for which, that is, the condition dz = pdx+qdy
is satisfied, be said to be connected, and an infinity of connected
elements following one another continuously be called a con-
nectivity, theft our statement is that a connectivity consists of not
more than ao 2 elements, the whole number of elements (x, y,z, p, q)
that are possible being called oo 6. The solution of an equation
F(x, y , z, dz/dx, dzjdy) = o is then to be understood to mean finding
in all possible ways, from the oo 4 elements (x, y, z, p, q) which
satisfy F(x, y, z, p, q)=o a set of oo2 elements forming a con-
nectivity; or, more analytically, finding in all possible ways two

relations G = o, H = o connecting x, y,z,p, q and independent of
F = o, so that the three relations together may involve

dz=pdx+qdy.

Such a set of three relations may, for example, be of the form
z = \p(x, y), p=d\l//dx, q = d\{//dy; but it may also, as another
case, involve two relations z — \j/(y), x = \l/\(y) connecting x, y, z,
the third relation being

the connectivity consisting in that case, geometrically, of a curve
in space taken with xi1oi its tangent planes; or, finally, a
connectivity is constituted by a fixed point and all the planes
passing through that point. This generalized view of the mean-
ing of a solution of F=o is of advantage, moreover, in view of
anomalies otherwise arising from special forms of the equation
itself. For instance, we may include the case, some- Meaning
times arising when the equation to be solved is obtained ota sola-
by transformation from another equation, in which F tloa of the
does not contain either p or q. Then the equation has e<tuatloa-
oo 2 solutions, each consisting of an arbitrary point of the surface
F = o and all the oo2 planes passing through this point; it also
has oo 2 solutions, each consisting of a curve drawn on the surface
F=o and all the tangent planes of this curve, the whole consisting
of oo 2 elements; finally, it has also an isolated (or singular)
solution consisting of the points of the surface, each associated
with the tangent plane of the surface thereat, also oo 2 elements in
all. Or again, a linear equation F = Pp+Qq— R = o, wherein
P, Q, R are functions of x, y, z only, has oo 2 solutions, each
consisting of one of the curves defined by
dx/P = dy/q=dz/R

taken with all the tangent planes of this curve; and the same
equation has oo 2 solutions, each consisting of the points of a
surface containing oo 1 of these curves and the tangent planes of
this surface. And for the case of n variables there is similarly
the possibility of n+i kinds of solution of an equation
F(*i, . . . xn, z, pi, . . . pn)=o; these can, however, by a
simple contact transformation be reduced to one kind, in which
there is only one relation z' = if/(x'i, . . . x'n) connecting the
new variables x\, . . . x'n, z' (see under Pfaffian Expressions) ;
just as in the case of the solution

of the equation P^+Q<? = R the transformation z'=z—px,
x' = p, p' = —x,y' = y,q' = q gives the solution

z' = t(y')+x'ti(y'), p' = dz'/dx', q' = dz'/dy'
of the transformed equation. These explanations take no
account of the possibility of p and q being infinite; this can be
dealt with by writing p=—ujw, q=—v/w, and considering
homogeneous equations in u, v, w, with udx+vdy+wdz = o as the
differential relation necessary for a connectivity; in practice we
use the ideas associated with such a procedure more often without
the appropriate notation.

In utilizing these general notions we shall first consider
the theory of characteristic chains, initiated by Cauchy, which
shows well the nature of the relations implied by the given
differential equation; the alternative ways of carrying
out the necessary integrations are suggested by con-
sidering the method of Jacob! and Mayer, while a good
summary is obtained by the formulation in terms of a Pfaffian
expression.

Consider a solution of F = o expressed by the three independent
equations F=o, G=o, H=o. If it be a solution in which there is
more than one relation connecting x, y, z, let new variables x' ,y' ,z' ,p' ,q'
be introduced, as before explained under Pfaffian Ex- Caarac-
pressions, in which z' is of the form terlstic

z' = z— £1*1 — . . . —p,x,(s = l or 2), chains.

so that the solution becomes of a form z' = ^(x'y'),
p'=dt/dx', q' = d<(<ldy', which then will identically satisfy the trans-
formed equations F'=o, G'=o, H' = o. The equation F' = o, if x',y,'z'
be regarded as fixed, states that the plane Z-zr=p'(X.-x')+q'(Y-y")
is tangent to a certain cone whose vertex is (x', y, z'), the consecutive
point (x'+dx', y'+dz', z'+dz') of the generator of contact being such

Passing in this direction on the surface z' = <j/(x', y') the tangent

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

233

,dF'

plane of the surface at this consecutive point is (p'+dp', q'+dq'),
where, since F'(x', y', t, dt/dx', d^ldy) =o is identical, we have
dx' (dF'/dx'+p'dF'/dz')+dp'dF'/dp' = o. Thus the equations, which
we shall call the characteristic equations,

dF' ,dF'\ ,.,/ dF'

dF'

are satisfied along a connectivity of oo1 elements consisting of a curve
on z' = iK*'i y') and the tangent planes of the surface along this curve.
The equation F'=o, when *', q' are fixed, represents a curve in the
plane Z-z' = p'(X-3c')+2'(Y-y') passing through (x', y', z'); if
(x'+Sx', y' = &y', e'+Sz') be a consecutive point of this curve, we
find at once

Sx' \~d~x1 ~^P'~3z') ~^Sy'\dyr^~2~dz') =o;

thus the equations above give Sx'dp'+5y'dq'=o, or the tangent line
of the plane curve, is, on the surface z' =$(x', y'), in a direction con-
jugate to that of the generator of the cone. Putting each of the
fractions in the characteristic equations equal to dt, the equations
enable us, starting from an arbitrary element x'a, y'a, z'«, p'o, q'a,
about which all the quantities F', dF'/dp', &c., occurring in the
denominators, are developable, to define, from the differential
equation F' = o alone, a connectivity of oo1 elements, which we call
a characteristic^ chain ; and it is remarkable that when we transform
again to the original variables (x, y, z, p, q), the form of the differential
equations for the chain is unaltered, so that they can be written
down at once from the equation F = o. Thus we have proved that
the characteristic chain starting from any ordinary element of any
integral of this equation F=o consists only of elements belonging
to this integral. For instance, if the equation do not contain p, q,
the characteristic chain, starting from an arbitrary plane through
an arbitrary point of the surface F = o, consists of a pencil of planes
whose axis is a tangent line of the surface F=o. Or if F=o be of
the form Pp+Qg = R, the chain consists of a curve satisfying
dx/P=dy/Q=dz/'R. and a single infinity of tangent planes of this
curve, determined by the tangent plane chosen at the initial point.
In all cases there are oo 3 characteristic chains, whose aggregate may
therefore be expected to exhaust the oo 4 elements satisfying F = o.
Consider, in fact, a single infinity of connected elements each
satisfying F = o, say a chain connectivity T, consisting of elements
Specified by xa, ya, z0, pa, qa, which we suppose expressed as

functions of a parameter u, so that

Uo = dza/du — padxaldu — qodya/du

is everywhere zero on this chain; further, suppose that
T"rt d eacn ^' dF/dp, . . . , dF/dx+pdF/dz is developable

about each element of this chain T, and that T is not a
w' characteristic chain. Then consider the aggregate of the

c *™ "" characteristic chains issuing from all the elements of T.

The oo 2 elements, consisting of the aggregate of these
chain*. characteristic chains, satisfy F=o, provided the chain
connectivity T consists of elements satisfying F=o; for each
characteristic chain satisfies dF=o. It can be shown that these
chains are connected ; in other words, that if x, yf z, p, q, be any
element of one of these characteristic chains, not only is

dz/dt - pdx/dt - qdy/dt = o,
as we know, but also U =dz/du— pdx/du — qdy/du is also zero. For

we have ™*(*L-& -^ d <dz ^ d'

_ip_dx dj>dic dijdy_ dqdy
~du di~ dt du+(lu~di~ dtdu'

which is equal to

dpdF . dx/dF , dF\ . dqdF . ay (dF . dF\ dF

As TT is a developable function of t, this, giving

shows that U is everywhere zero. Thus integrals of F=o are
obtainable by considering the aggregate of characteristic chains
issuing from arbitrary chain connectivities T satisfying F=o; and
such connectivities T are, it is seen at once, determinable without
integration. Conversely, as such a chain connectivity T can be taken
out from the elements of any given integral all possible integrals
are obtainable in this way. For instance, an arbitrary curve in
space, given by x0=8(u), ya = <t>(u),zc = \f'(u), determines by the two
equations F(*b, y,, z,, p,, g«,)=o, 4>'(u) = pjB' (u) +q,<t>' (u) , such a
chain connectivity T, through which there passes a perfectly
definite integral of the equation F = o. By taking oo 2 initial chain
connectivities T, as for instance by taking the curves x<,=8, yo = <t>
Zo = iA to be the oo 2 curves upon an arbitrary surface, we thus obtair
oo 2 integrals, and so oo * elements satisfying F = o. In general, ii
functions G, H, independent of F, be obtained, such that the
equations F = o, G = 6, H—c represent an integral for all values of the
constants b, c, these equations are said to constitute a complete

ntegral. Then oo 4 elements satisfying F = o are known, and in fact
:yery other form of integral can be obtained without further integra-
ions.

In the foregoing discussion of the differential equations of a
characteristic chain, the denominators dF/dp, . . . may be supposed
;o be modified in form by means of F = o in any way conducive to
a simple integration. In the immediately following explanation of
ideas, however, we consider indifferently all equations F= constant;
when a function of x, y, z, p, q is said to be zero, it is meant that this
^s so identically, not in virtue of F = o; in other words, we consider
:he integration of F=o, where a is an arbitrary constant. In the
theory of linear partial equations we have seen that the integration
of the equations of the characteristic chains, from whjch, ooenKtons
as has just been seen, that of the equation F=a follows ' -fssan,
at once, would be involved in completely integrating .
the single linear homogeneous partial differential equation .
of the first order [F/] =o where the notation is that "
explained above under Contact Transformations. One "'
obvious integral is/=F. Putting F = a, where a is arbi-
trary , and eliminating one of the independent variables, we can reduce
this equation [F/] = o to one in four variables ; and sojon. Calling, then,
the determination of a single integral of a single homogeneous partial
differential equation of the first order in n independent variables, an
operation of order »-i, the characteristic chains, and therefore the
most general integral of F = o, can be obtained by successive opera-
tions of orders 3, 2, I. If, however, an integral of F=o be repre-
sented by F = a, G = b, H =c, where b and c are arbitrary constants,
the expression of the fact that a characteristic chain of F =a satisfies
dG = o, gives [FG]=o; similarly, [FH] = o and [GH]=o, these
three relations being identically true. Conversely, suppose that an
integral G, independent of F, has been obtained of the equation
[F/] = o, which is an operation of order three. Then it follows from

theidentity lfl*t}]+[4[m+WM=[W+W]+[f<t>] before

remarked, by putting <t> = F, <1> = G, and then (F/]=A(/), [G/] = B(/),
that AB(/)-BA(/) = -^B (/)--^A(/), so that the two linear equations

[F/] =o, [G/] =o form a complete system; as two integrals F, G are
known, they have a common integral H, independent of F, G, deter-
minable by an operation of order one only. The three functions
F, G, H thus identically satisfy the relations (FG] = [GH] = [FH] =o.
The oo 2 elements satisfying F = a, G = b, H=c, wherein o, b, c are
assigned constants, can then be seen to constitute anintegralpf F =a.
For the conditions that a characteristic chain of G = b issuing from
an element satisfying F=a, G = b, H=c should consist only of
elements satisfying these three equations are simply[FG] =o,[GH] =o.
Thus, starting from an arbitrary element of (F=a, G = 6, H =c),we
can single out a connectivity of elements of (F = o, G — b, H=c)
forming a characteristic chain of G = ft; then the aggregate of the
characteristic chains of F = a issuing from the elements of this
characteristic chain of G =b will be a connectivity consisting only of
elements of

(F=o, G = b, H=c),

and will therefore constitute an integral of F=a; further, it will
include all elements of (F =a, G=b, H=c). This result follows also
from a theorem given under Contact Transformations, which shows,
moreover, that though the characteristic chains of F = a are not
determined by the three equations F=a, G = b, H=c, no further
integration is now necessary to find them. By this theorem, since
identically [FG] = [GH] = [FH]=o, we can find, by the solution of
linear algebraic equations only, a non-vanishing function a and two
functions A, C, such that

dG-AdF-CdH =a(dz-pdz-qdy) ;

thus all the elements satisfying F = a,G = 6,H=c, satisfy dz = pdx+qdy
and constitute a connectivity, which is therefore an integral of
F=a. While, further, from the associated theorems, F, G, H, A, C
are independent functions and [FC]=o. Thus C may be taken to
be the remaining integral independent of G, H, of the equation
[F/] =o, whereby the characteristic chains are entirely determined.

When we consider the particular equation F=o, neglecting the
case when neither p nor q enters, and supposing p to enter, we may
express p from F = o in terms of x, y, z, q, and then eliminate it from
all other equations. Then instead of the equation [Ff] = o, we
have, if F =o give p = 4>(x, y, z, q), the equation

moreover obtainable by omitting the term in df/dp in [p-<lt, /]=o.
Let xa, ya, z0, q0, be values about which the coefficients in Tfc-sin~ju
this equation are developable, and let f, TJ, to be the eauatiog
principal solutions reducing respectively to z, y and q f o
when * = *<,. Then the equations p = ^, f-=zc,ri = y/» u = q0 Mafflaa
represent a characteristic chain issuing from the element . *nla°
xa, ya, Zo, &>, g»; we have seen that the aggregate of
such chains issuing from the elements of an arbitrary
chain satisfying

d Za — podxa — q<4y0 = o
constitute an integral of the equation p = <l/. Let this arbitrary

234

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

chain be taken so that *.' is constant; then the condition for initial
values is only

dza— qadya—O,

and the elements of the integral constituted by the characteristic
chains issuing therefrom satisfy

Hence this equation involves dz — <ffdx—qdy = o, or we have

dz — \l>dx—qdy = <r(d(—codri) ,

where a is not zero. Conversely, the integration of p = \l* is, essentially,
the problem of writing the expression dz — ^dx—qdy in the form
<r(d?—tadri), as must be possible (from what was said under Pfqffian
Expressions).

To integrate a system of simultaneous equations of the first
order Xi = ai, . . . Xr = or in n independent variables *i, . . . «„

and one dependent variable z, we write pi for dz/dxi, &c.,

System of an(j attempt to find n + i—r further functions Z, Xr+i

equations . . . x», such that the equations Z = a, X< = at (i = I , . . . n)

benrst involve dz-pidxi-. . .-pndxn = o. By an argument

already given, the common integral, if existent, must be sat-
isfied by the equations of the characteristic chains of any one equation
Xi=0i; thus each of the expressions [XiX,] must vanish in virtue
of the equations expressing the integral, and we may without loss of
generality assume that each of the corresponding $r(r — i ) expressions
Formed from the r given differential equations vanishes in virtue of
these equations. The determination of the remaining n-fi— r
functions may, as before, be made to depend on characteristic chains,
which in this case, however, are manifolds of r dimensions obtained
by integrating the equations [Xi/]=o, . . . [X,/]=o; or having
obtained one integral of this system other than Xi, . . . Xr, say
Xr^i, we may consider the system [Xi/]=o, . . . fXr+i/]=o, for
which, again, we have a choice ; and at any stage we may use Mayer's
method and reduce the simultaneous linear equations to one equation
involving parameters; while if at any stage of the process we find
some but not all of the integrals of the simultaneous system, they
can be used to simplify the remaining work; this can only be clearly
explained in connexion with the theory of so-called function groups
for which we have no space. One result arising is that the simul-
taneous system pi = <t>i, . p, = <t>r, wherein pi, . pr are not involved in
<tn, . 0r, if it satisfies the ir(r — i) relations [pi — <t>t, pj—4>i\=o,
has a solution z = <l/(xi, . . . *„), pi = d^ldxi, . . . pn=dif'/dxn,
reducing to an arbitrary function of xr+i, . . . xn only, when xi = xf,
. . . x, = x,° under certain conditions as to developability ; a
generalization of the theorem for linear equations. The problem of
integration of this system is, as before, to put

dz — <t>idxi — ... — <t>rdxr — pr+idxr+i — ... — pn dxn
into the form <r(df — u,+id{r+i— . . . —wnd£n) ; and here f, £r+i, . . .{„,
(ar+i, . . . un may be taken, as before, to be principal integrals
of a certain complete system of linear equations; those, namely,
determining the characteristic chains.

If L be a function of t and of the an quantities *i, . . . x,, xi, . . .
xn, where x< denotes dx^/dt, &c., and if in the n equations
d_(dL\ = d\-L
dt \dxi) dxi

we put />«=;jp and so express xt, . . . *„ in terms of t, xit . . .
x,, pi, . . . pn, assuming that the determinant of the quantities
, IA is not zero; if, further, H denote the function of t, xt, . . .

*„, pi, . . . pn, numerically equal to pi±i+. . .+pnXn — L, it is easy

to prove that dpt/dl = -dHjdxi, dXi/dt = dH/dpi. These
Equations so.caned canonical equations form part of those for

the characteristic chains of the single partial equation
dynamics. dz/^+H«, *,, . . . xn, dzjdxi, _. . ., dz/dx,) = o, to which
then the solution of the original equations for xi . . . xn can be
reduced. Itmay beshown (i) that ifz = ^(t, *i, . . . *n, ci, • • cn)+c
be a complete integral of this equation, then pi=d\f>ldxi, d<ff/dci = et
are an equations giving the solution of the canonical equations
referred to, where c\ . . . cn and e\, . . . en are arbitrary constants ;
(2) that if Xi=Xi(t, x°},.. ./>„»), pi = Pi(t, Xi0,. . .p°n) be the principal
solutions of the canonical equations for t = f, and o> denote the result
of substituting these values in pidH/dpi+. . .+pndHidpn—H, and
«= f't wdt, where, after integration, SI is to be expressed as a function
of /, Xi . . . Xn, xi", . . . Xn°, then 2 = 12+2° is a complete integral of
the partial equation.

A. system of differential equations is said to allow a certain
continuous group of transformations (see GROUPS, THEORY OF)

when the introduction for the variables in the differen-
Appika- ^ eqUations of the new variables given by the
'theory of equations of the group leads, for all values of the
coatiou- parameters of the group, to the same differential equa-
ou* groups tions in tne new variables. It would be interesting
Theories.' to verifX in examples that this is the case in at least

the majority of the differential equations which are
known to be integrable in finite terms. We give a theorem of
very general application for the case of a simultaneous complete

system of linear partial homogeneous differential equations of the
first order, to the solution of which the various differential equa-
tions discussed have been reduced. It will be enough to consider
whether the given differential equations allow the infinitesimal
transformations of the group.

It can be shown easily that sufficient conditions in order that a
complete system IIi/=o. . .n*/ = o, in n independent variables,
should allow the infinitesimal transformation P/=o are expressed
by fe equations niP/-Pni/=Xiin,/+...+XitIIi/. Suppose now
a complete system of n — r equations in n variables to allow a
group of r infinitesimal transformations (Pi/, . . ., Pr/) which has
an invariant subgroup of r—i parameters (Pi/, . . ., Pr_i/), it
being supposed that the n quantities tti/, . . ., Hn-rf, PI/, . . .,
Prf are not connected by an identical linear equation (with co-
efficients even depending on the independent variables). Then
it can be shown that one solution of the complete system is deter-
minable by a quadrature. For each of IliPo-/— Palli/ is a linear
function of Uif, . . ., Un-rf and the simultaneous system of inde-
pendent equations IIi/=o, . . . n»_r/=o, PI/=O, . . . Pr_i/=o
is therefore a complete system, allowing the infinitesimal trans-
formation P,/. This complete system of n — I equations has there-
fore one common solution a, and Pr(a>) is a function of a. By
choosing u suitably, we can then make Pr(u) = i. From this
equation and the n — i equations Hita = o, P<7">=o, we can determine
w by a quadrature only. Hence can be deduced a much more
general result, that if the group of r parameters be integrable, the
complete system can be entirely solved by quadratures; it is only
necessary to introduce the solution found by the first quadrature as
an independent variable, whereby we obtain a complete system of
n—r equations in n — I variables, subject to an integrable group of
r — i parameters, and to continue this process. We give some
examples of the application of the theorem, (i) If an equation of
the first order y' = $(x, y) allow the infinitesimal transformation
tdf/dx+ridf/dy, the integral curves u(x, y)=y°, wherein w(x, y) is

the solution of 5+^(3C.y) = ° reducing to y for x=x°, are

interchanged among themselves by the infinitesimal transformation,
or <a(x, y) can be chosen to make £dw/dx+ridia/dy = i; this, with
do>ldx+tda>/dy = o, determines <a as the integral of the complete
differential (dy — ^(te)/(ij — *l£). This result itself shows that every
ordinary differential equation of the first order is subject to an
infinite number of infinitesimal transformations. But every infinit-
esimal transformation £df/dx+ijdf/dy can by change of variables
(after integration) be brought to the form df/dy, and all differential
equations of the first order allowing this group can then be reduced
to the form F(x, dy/dx)=o. (2) In an ordinary equation of the
second order y" = <Kx,y, y') , equivalent tody /dx = yi,dyi/dx = <[>(x, y,yi) ,
if H,Hi be the solutions for y and yi chosen to reduce to y° and
yi" when x = x°, and the equations H=y, Hi = yi be equivalent
to ci)=y, <*i—yi°, then w, 101 are the principal solutions of
nf=df/dx+yidf/dy+<t'df/dyi = o. If the original equation allow
an infinitesimal transformation whose first extended form (see
GROUPS) is Pf=£df/dx+iidf/dy-t-Tiidf/dyi, where ruSt is the increment
of dy/dx when ?8i, i?« are the increments of x, y, and is to be
expressed in terms 'of x, y, yi, then each of P&> and Pw; must
be functions of a and ui, or the partial differential equation nf
must allow the group P/. Thus by our general theorem, if the
differential equation allow a group of two parameters (and such
a group is always integrable), it can be solved by quadratures, our
explanation sufficing, however, only provided the form Uf and the
two infinitesimal transformations are not linearly connected. It
can be shown, from the fact that jji is a quadratic polynomial in yi,
that no differential equation of the second order can allow more
than 8 really independent infinitesimal transformations, and that
every homogeneous linear differential equation of the second order
allows just 8, being in fact reducible to d?y/dx* = o. Since every
group of more than two parameters has subgroups of two para-
meters, a differential equation of the second order allowing a group
of more than two parameters can, as a rule, be solved by quadratures.
By transforming the group we see that if a differential equation of
the second order allows a single infinitesimal transformation, it can
be transformed to the form F(x,d-y/dx, tfy/dx*) ; this is not the case
for every differential equation of the second order. (3) For an
ordinary differential equation of the third order, allowing an integ-
rable group of three parameters whose infinitesimal transformations
are not linearly connected with the partial equation to which |the
solution of the given ordinary equation is reducible, the similar
result follows that it can be integrated by quadratures. But if the
group of three parameters be simple, this result must be replaced
by the statement that the integration is reducible to quadratures
and that of a so-called Riccati equation of the first order, of the
form dy/dx = A+By+Cy*, where A, B, C are functions of x. (4) Simi-
larly for the integration by quadratures of an ordinary equation
yn = ^(*, y, yi, • • • y«-i) of any order. Moreover, the group allowed
by the equation may quite well consist of extended contact transfor-
mations. An important application is to the case where the differ-
ential equation is the resolvent equation defining the group of

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

235

transformations or rationality group of another differential equation
(see below) ; in particular, when the rationality group of an ordinary
linear differential equation is integrable, the equation can be solved
by quadratures.

Following the practical and provisional division of theories
of differential equations, to which we alluded at starting, into

transformation theories and function theories, we pass

now to Siye some account of the latter. These are both
function a necessary logical complement of the former, and the
theories of only remaining resource when the expedients of the
differen- former have been exhausted. While in the former
equations, investigations we have dealt only with values of the

independent variables about which the functions are
developable, the leading idea now becomes, as was long ago
remarked by G. Green, the consideration of the neighbourhood of
the values of the variables for which this developable character
ceases. Beginning, as before, with existence theorems applicable
for ordinary values of the variables, we are to consider the cases of
failure of such theorems.

When in a given set of differential equations the number of
equations is greater than the number of dependent variables, the
equations cannot be expected to have common solutions unless
certain conditions of compatibility, obtainable by equating
different forms of the same differential coefficients deducible from
the equations, are satisfied. We have had examples in systems
of linear equations, and in the case of a set of equations
Pi = <t>i, . . . ,p,=<t>r. For the case when the number of equations
is the same as that of dependent variables, the following is a
general theorem which should be referred to: Let there be r
equations in r dependent variables z\, . . . z, and n independent

variables x\, . . . x*; let the differential coefficient of

A general Za of highest order which enters be of order ha, and

existence

theorem, suppose (rWaldxfa to enter, so that the equations can be

written d*ffZ(r/<tei*ff = <£><,, where in the general differen-

tial coefficient of zp which enters in

, say

we have ki<hp and

+kn"<hp. Let

61, ... br and bP^ . . . »„ be a set of values of

*!,... *n, Zi, . . . 3r

and of the differential coefficients entering in <lv about which
all the functions $1, . . . <£, are developable. Corresponding
to each dependent variable za, we take now a set of ha functions of

*2, . . .*„, say 4>a, <£<r(1), . . . , <f>a'h~l) arbitrary save that they must
be developable about aj, a», . . . an, and such that for these
values of &, . . . x*, the function <t>p reduces to bp, and the
differential coefficient

reduces to i''*, •••*„• Then the theorem is that there exists
one, and only one, set of functions z\, . . . z, oi x*, . . . xn
developable about a\, . . . On satisfying the given differential
equations, and such that for x\ — a\ we have

Zv = <t>a, dZr/dx^t™, . . . ^-V<**ff~\ = <*>>""•

And, moreover, if the arbitrary functions <£ff, <j>^ . . . contain a
certain number of arbitrary variables t\, . . . lm, and be de-
velopable about the values t\, . . . tm° of these variables, the
solutions Zi, . . . zT will contain l\, . . . tm, and be developable
about t°, . . . tm°.

The proof of this theorem may be given by showing that if
ordinary power series in *i— Oi, . . . x»—a*, ti— h", . . . tm—tm0
be substituted in the equations wherein in Za the coefficients of
(xi— oi)", xi— oi, .... (*i— oOV"1 are the arbitrary functions
4>a, <l>aw, . . . </>ff(*~1), divided respectively by I, l!, 2!, &c., then the
differential equations determine uniquely all the other coefficients,
and that the resulting series are convergent. We rely, in fact,
upon the theory of monogenic analytical functions (see FUNCTION),
a function being determined entirely by its development in the
neighbourhood of one set of values of the independent variables,
from which all its other values arise by continuation-, it being of
course understood that the coefficients in the differential equations
are to be continued at the same time. But it is to be remarked that
there is no ground for believing, if this method of continuation be

utilized, that the function is single- valued ; we may quite well return
to the same values of the independent variables with a different
value of the function, belonging, as we say, to a different
branch of the function; and there is even no reason for
assuming that the number of branches is finite, or that
different branches have the same singular points and
regions of existence. Moreover, and this is the most difficult con-
sideration of all, all these circumstances may be dependent upon the
values supposed given to the arbitrary constants of the integral ; in
other words, the singular points may be either fixed, being deter-
mined by the differential equations themselves, or they may be
movable with the variation of the arbitrary constants of integration.
Such difficulties arise even in establishing the reversion of an elliptic
integral, in solving the equation

(its) = (* '~ '

(* ~ ^ (x-a3)(x -a,);

about an ordinary value the right side is developable; if we put
x—ai=h*, the right side becomes developable about <i = o; if we
put x = i/t, the right side of the changed equation is developable
about t = o; it is quite easy to show that the integral reducing to a
definite value xa for a value sa is obtainable by a series in integral
powers; this, however, must be supplemented by showing that for
no value of s does the value of x become entirely undetermined.

These remarks will show the place of the theory now to be
sketched of a particular class of ordinary linear homogeneous
differential equations whose importance arises from
the completeness and generality with which they can Linear
be discussed. We have seen that if in the equations dltfenu-
lt . . ., d^dx = ^i, tlalequa-

where a\, 02, . . . , an are now to be taken to be rational efficients.
functions of x, the value x=x° be one for which no one of
these rational functions is infinite, and y°, y°\, . . . , yv_i be quite
arbitrary finite values, then the equations are satisfied by

where u, HI, . . . , u*-i are functions of x, independent of 31°, ...
y°»-i, developable about x=x°; this value of y is such that for
x = x° the functions y, yi . . ;y»_i reduce respectively to y°, yf,
. . . y°»_i ; it can be proved that the region of existence of these
series extends within a circle centre x° and radius equal to the
distance from x° of the nearest point at which one of 01, . . . an
becomes infinite. Now consider a region enclosing x°, and only one
of the places, say 2, at which one of 01, . . . a* becomes infinite.
When x is made to describe a closed curve in this region, including
this point 2 in its interior, it may well happen that the continuations
of the functions it, ui, . . . , u^-i give, when we have returned to
the point x, values v, vj, . . ., v^-i, so that the integral under con-
sideration becomes changed to y°v+yi°vi+ . . . +y"n-iv^.\. At
x° let this branch and the corresponding values of y\, . . . yn-\ be
ri°, TJ°I, . . . i)°n-i; then, as there is only one series satisfying the
equation and reducing to (j)°, ij°i, ._ . . ijV.i) for x = x°, and the
coefficients in the differential equation are single-valued functions,
we must have T)O«+TH°WI+ . . . +i7°«-itt»-i = 3'0p+yVi-f . . . +
?%_A-ii as this holds for arbitrary values of y°, . . . y°^.\, upon
which u, . . . «n-i and v, . . . Vn-i do not depend, it follows that
each of », . . . i>n_i is a linear function of «, . . . wn_i with constant
coefficients, say fi =Aii«+ . . . Ai*u*-i. Then

y°v+. . . +yVif^-i = (2iAiIy<°) «+. . . +(2iAiny0,)«^i:

this is equal to u(y°u+ . . . +y°«-i*._i) if 2;Airy0i =/1ji°r_1;
eliminating y°, . . . y°n-i from these linear equations, we have a
determinantal equation of order « forp; let m be one of its roots;
determining the ratios of 31°, y\°, . . . y°n_i to satisfy the linear
equations, we have thus proved that there exists an integral,
H, of the equation, which when continued round the point 2 and
back to the starting-point, becomes changed to Hi =MiH. Let now
{ be the value of x at 2 and r\ one of the values of (i/2vi) log MI ; con-
sider the function (x— fJ^iH; when x makes a circuit round * = $,
this becomes changed to

exp(-2xirt) (x-Q-'mH,

that is, is unchanged; thus we may put H = (*— £)ri<£i, ^i being a
function single-valued for paths in the region considered described
about 2, and therefore, by Laurent's Theorem (see FUNCTION),
caoable of expression in the annular region about this point by a
series of positive and negative integral powers of x— {, which in
general may contain an infinite number of negative powers; there is,
however, no reason to suppose n to be an integer, or even real.
Thus, if all the roots of the determinantal equation inn are different,
we obtain n integrals of the forms (*— f)pi^i, . . ., (*— |)r»0n.
In general we obtain as many integrals of this form as there are
really different roots; and the problem arises to discover, in case a
root be k times repeated, k — I equations of as simple a form as
possible to replace the k — I equations of the form y°v+ . . . +
y0n-i0n-i=p(y «+ • • • +;y°n-iWn-i) which would have existed had
the roots been different. The most natural method of obtaining
a suggestion lies probably in remarking that if rj = ri+ft, there is an
integral [(x— £)ri+*<fc — (x— |)ri^i]/A, where the coefficients in fa are

236

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

the same functions of ri+fc as are the coefficients in <tn of
h vanishes, this integral takes the form

i; when

or say (x — £)ri [<fo +fa log (* — £)];

denoting this by 2«ViK, and (* — £)ri <t>t by H, a circuit of the point

£ changes K into

A similar artifice suggests itself when three of the roots of the deter-
minantal equation are the same, and so on. We are thus led to the
result, which is justified by anexamination of the algebraic conditions,
that whatever may be the circumstances as to the roots of the
determinantal equation, n integrals exist, breaking up into
batches, the values of the constituents Hi, Hi, ... of a batch after
circuit about x = £ being Hi' = /aiHi, H2' = MiH2+Hi, H3'=MiH3+H2,
and so on. And this is found to lead to the forms (x — £)ri0i,

and so on. Here each of <t>i, fa, xi, X2, • • • is a series of positive
and negative integral powers of x — £ in which the number of negative
powers may be infinite.

It appears natural enough now to inquire whether, under proper
conditions for the forms of the rational functions ai, . . . an, it may

be possible to ensure that in each of the series &, fa, \i, • • .

the number of negative powers shall be finite. Herein
equations. jjgs> jn fact> tne limitation which experience has shown

to be justified by the completeness of the results obtained. Assum-
ing n integrals in which in each of <fa, fa, Xi • • • the number of
negative powers is finite, there is a definite homogeneous linear
differential equation having these integrals; this is found by
forming it to have the form

where 61, . . . bn are finite for x = !-. Conversely, assume the
equation to have this form. Then on substituting a series of
the form (*-£)r[i+Ai(*-J)-)-A2(x-£)2+ . . .] and equating the
coefficients of like powers of x — £, it is found that r must be a root of
an algebraic equation of order n ; this equation, which we shall call
the index equation, can be obtained at once by substituting for y
only (x — £)r and replacing each of 61, ... &„ by their values at
x = £; arrange the roots r\, ra, ... of this equation so that the
real part of ri is equal to, or greater than, the real part of rt+i,
and take r equal to TI; it is found that the coefficients Ai, A2 . . .
are uniquely determinate, and that the series converges within a
circle about * = £ which includes no other of the points at which
the rational functions oi, . . . <i» become infinite. We have thus a
solution Hi = (* — £)ri<fo of the differential equation. If we now
substitute in the equation y = Hifridx, it is found to reduce to an
equation of order n — i for TJ of the form

where Ci, . . . Cn-i are not infinite at x = £. To this equation
precisely similar reasoning can then be applied ; its index equation
has in fact the roots rt— ri — I, . . . , rn— r\ — i; if rt — ri be zero,
the integral (* — £)~lfa of the ij equation will give an integral of the
original equation containing log (x — £); if r2— r\ be an integer, and
therefore a negative integer, the same will be true, unless in ^i the
term in (x — £)ri~r2 be absent; if neither of these arise, the original
equation will have an integral (x — £)r2<fe. The t\ equation can now,
by means of the one integral of it belonging to the index r2— r\ — I,
be similarly reduced to one of order n— 2, and so on. The result will
be that stated above. We shall say that an equation of the form in
question is regular about x = {.

We may examine in this way the behaviour of the integrals at
all the points at which any one of the rational functions u, . . , n.:
becomes infinite; in general we must expect that beside
these the value x = oo will be a singula.- point for the
equations. soiutiOns of the differential equation. To test this we
put x = i/t throughout, and examine as before at t = o. For instance,
the ordinary linear equation with constant coefficients has no singular
point for finite values of x; at x = 00 it has a singular point and is not
regular; or again, Bessel's equation x*y"+xy' + (x2 — n?)y = o is
regular about x = o, but not about * = oo . An equation regular at all
the finite singularities and also at x = x is called a Fuchsian equation.
We proceed to examine particularly the case of an equation of the
second order

y"+ay'+by = o.
Putting x = l/t, it becomes

which is not regular about t = o unless 2— at'1 and ftr1, that is,
unless ax and bx1 are finite at # = ao ; which we thus assume; putting
a n y = tT(l+Att+ . ..), wefindfor the index equation at # = oo
ftthl theequationr(r-i)+r(2-a*)0+(&*2)o = o. If there be
second finite Sm8ular points at It, . . . |m, where we assume
ord,r m>l, the cases m = o, m = i being easily dealt with, and

if «*(*) = (*-£i) . . . (*-&»), we must have a.$(x)
and &.[#(«)]* finite for all finite values of x, equal say to the re-
spective polynomials ^(x) and 0(x), of which by the conditions at
x =» the highest respective orders possible are m — I and 2(m — i).

and if 01, A be its roots, we have ai+ft = i — iA(6)/*'(fi) and
«tift=0(£i)/[#'(£i)]2. Thus by an elementary theorem of algebra,
the sum S(l — ai— 0i)/(x — fc), extended to the m finite singular
points, is equal to t(x)/<t>(x), and the sum 2(i -oi-ft) is equal to
the ratio of the coefficients of the highest powers of x in t(x) and
<t>(x), and therefore equal to l+a+0, where a, 0 are the indices at
x = oo . Further, if (x, l)m_2 denote the integral part of the quotient
B(x)/<t>(x), we have2a,ft0'(&)/(*-£i) equal to-(x, i)m-2+9(*)/0(*),
and the coefficient of ac™-2 in (x, l)m-2 is a/3. Thus the differential
equation has the form

y"+/2(i-oi-ft)/(*-ii)+y[(*. i)«-i+2o<&0'(&)/(*-&)]/*(*) =0.
If, however, .we make a change in the dependent variable, putting
y = (x — £i)°i . . . (x — £m)°m>i, it is easy to see that the equation
changes into one having the same singular points about each of
which it is regular, and that the indices at x = {,- become o and ft— a,,
which we shall denote by X;, for (x — {,)"j can be developed in positive
integral powers of x — £, about * = &; by this transformation the
indices at x = oo are changed to

a+oi + . . . +am, /3+ft + . . . +/3ra

which we shall denote by A, /*. If we suppose this change to have
been introduced, and still denote the independent variable by y,
the equation has the form

y"+y"S(i-\i)l(x-^+y(x, i),_,/0(*) =o,

while X+M+XI+ . . . +\m = m — I. Conversely, it is easy to verify
that if XM be the coefficient of *m~2 in (x, l)m_2, this equation has
the specified singular points and indices whatever be the other
coefficients in (*, l)m-2.

Thus we see that (beside the cases m = o, m = i) the " Fuchsian
equation " of the second order with two finite singular points is
distinguished by the fact that it has a definite form
when the singular points and the indices are assigned. *w«|sw
In that case, putting («-&)/(*—&)- t/(t - 1 ) , the singular "
points are transformed to o, I , op , and, as is clear, without e1"atloa-
change of indices. Still denoting the independent variable by x,
the equation then has the form

*(i -x)y"+y'[i -Ai -x(i +X+M)] -X/ry =o,

which is the ordinary hypergeometric equation. Provided none
of AI, X2, X — M be zero or integral about x = o, it has the solutions

F(X, n, i -X,, *), x\F(\+\i, M+XI, i+Ai, x) ;
about x = I it has the solutions

F(X, M, I -X2, i -*), (i -x)^P(\+\i, M+X2, i +X2, i -*),
where X+M+Xi + X2 = i ; about * = oo it has the solutions

*-*F(X, X+X,, X-M+i, *-i)
where F(o, /3, y, x) is the series

a0x a

h 7 1.2.7(7 + 1) •• •'

which converges when |*i<l, whatever o, /3, 7 may be, converges
f or all values of x for which \x\ = I provided the real part of 7 — o— /S<o
algebraically, and converges for all these values except x = i provided
the real part of 7 — o — /3 > — I algebraically.

In accordance with our general theory, logarithms are to be ex-
pected in the solution when one of Xj, X2, X— ju is zero or integral.
Indeed when Xi is a negative integer, not zero, the second solution
about x = o would contain vanishing factors in the denominators
of its coefficients; in case X or n be one of the positive integers
I, 2, ... ( — Xi), vanishing factors occur also in the numerators;
and then, in fact, the second solution about x = o becomes x\ times
an integral polynomial of degree ( — Xi)— X or of degree ( — Xi)— it.
But when Xi is a negative integer including zero, and neither X nor ji
is one of the positive integers I, 2 ... ( — Xi), the second solution
about x = o involves a term having the factor log x. When Xi is a
positive integer, not zero, the second solution about x = o persists as
a solution, in accordance with the order of arrangement of the roots
of the index equation in our theory; the first solution is then
replaced by an integral polynomial of degree — X or — in, when Xor PL
is one of the negative integers o, — I,— 2, . . ., I— Xi, but otherwise
contains a logarithm. Similarly for the solutions about x = i or
x — <x> ; it will be seen below how the results are deducible from
those for x = o.

Denote now the solutions about x = o by «i, «*; those about * = i
by PI, »2; and those about x = <x by t»i, a>2; in the region (S0Si)
common to the circles Sa, Si of radius I whose centres
are the points x = o, * = i, all the first four are valid,
and there exist equations «i=Ari+Bti2, «2 = Cwi + Dt;2 , .
where A, B, C, D are constants; in the region (S.S)
lying inside the circle Si and outside the circle So, those that are
valid are v\, t>2, 101, wt, and there exist equations »i = Paii+Qt»2)
vi = Rwi+Twt, where P, Q, R, T are constants; thus considering
any integral whose expression within the circle S<, is aui+bu,, where
o, 6 are constants, the same integral will be represented within the
circle Si by (oA+6C)»i + (aB+6D)u2, and outside these circles will be
represented by

_

A single-valued branch of such integral can be obtained by making
a barrier in the plane joining oo to o and I to oo ; for instance, by
excluding the consideration of real negative values of x and of real

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

237

positive values greater than i, and defining the phase of x and x-i
for real values between o and I as respectively o and r.

We can form the Fuchsian equation of the second order with
three arbitrary singular points &, £2, {s, and no singular point
_ . at x = oo, and with respective indices a!, /Si, at, ft, a3, /Sjsuch
ntloaof thatai-h8i+aj+ft+a«-t-0» = l. This equation can then be
the eaua- transformed mto the hypergepmetric equation in 24 ways;
lloa into' f°r out °f £'' ^2l ^3 we can 'n s*x wavs choose two, say
itself &' &' wnicn are to be transformed respectively into

o and i, by (x-fi)/(x-|2)=<(<-i); and then there
are four possible transformations of the dependent variable which
will reduce one of the indices at t = o to zero and one of the indices
at t = i also to zero, namely, we may reduce either 01 or /3i at / = o,
and simultaneously either o2 or fa at t=i. Thus the hypergeo-
metric equation itself can be transformed into itself in 24 ways,
and from the expression F(X, ju, i-Ai, x) which satisfies it follow 23
other forms of solution; they involve four series in each of the argu-
ments, x, x-i, ijx, i/(i-x), (x-i)/x, x/(x-i). Five of the 23
solutions agree with the fundamental solutions already described
about x = o, x = l, x = ao ; and from the principles by which these
were obtained it is immediately clear that the 24 forms are, in value,
equal in fours.

The quarter periods K, K' of Jacobi's theory of elliptic functions,

of which K = j"f*(i-h sin *))~*d<j, and K' is the same function of

i-h, can easily be proved to be the solutions of a hypergeometric
equation of which « is the independent variable. When K, K' are
Inversion. regarded as defined in terms of h by the differential
Modular ' equation, the ratio K'/K is an infinitely many valued
functions, function of h. But it is remarkable that Jacobi's own
theory of theta functions leads to an expression for h in
terms of K'/K (see FUNCTION) in terms of single-valued functions.
We may then attempt to investigate, in general, in what cases the
independent variable x of a hypergeometric equation is a single- valued
function of the ratio s of two independent integrals of the equation.
The same inquiry is suggested by the problem of ascertaining in what
cases the hypergeometric series F(a, /3, y, x) is the expansion of an
algebraic (irrational) function of x. In order to explain the meaning
of the question, suppose that the plane of x is divided along the real
axis from -o> to o and from i to +» , and, supposing logarithms
not to enter about x = o, choose two quite definite integrals yi, yi of
the equation, say

j>i = F(X, M, i-Xi,*),yi = xAiF(X+Xi,/«+Xi, l+Xi,x),

with the condition that the phase of x is zero when x is real
and between o and i. Then the value of s=yi/yi is definite for all
values of * in the divided plane, s being a single-valued monogenic
branch of an analytical function existing and without singularities
all over this region. If, now, the values of s that so arise be plotted
on to another plane, a value p+iq of s being represented by a point
(p, q) of this j-plane, and the value of x from which it arose being
mentally associated with this point of the s-plane, these points will
fill a connected region therein, with a continuous boundary formed
of four portions corresponding to the two sides of the two barriers
of the x-plane. The question is then, firstly, whether the same value
of s can arise for two different values of x, that is, whether the same
point (p , q) of the s-plane can arise twice, or in other words, whether
the region of the s-plane overlaps itself or not. Supposing this is not
so, a second part of the question presents itself. If in the x-plane the
barrier joining - oo to o be momentarily removed, and x describe a
small circle with centre at x = o starting from a point x= -h-ik,
where h, k are small, real, and positive and coming back to this point,
the original value s at this point will be changed to a value a, which in
the original case did not arise for this value of x, and possibly not
at all. If, now, after restoring the barrier the values arising by
continuation from <r be similarly plotted on the s-plane, we shall
again obtain a region which, while not overlapping itself, may quite
possibly overlap the former region. In that case two values of x
would arise for the same value or values of the quotient yi/y\, arising
from two different branches of this quotient. We shall understand
then, by the condition that x is to be a single-valued function .of x,
that the region in the s-plane corresponding to any branch is not to
overlap itself, and that no two of the regions corresponding to the
different branches are to overlap. Now in describing the circle
about x = o from x = -h-ik to -h+ik, where h is small and k
evanescent,

s = x*iF(X+X!, ju+X,, i +x,, x)/F(X, n, l-Xi, x)

is changed to <r = j^lr«Ai. Thus the two portions of boundary of the
s-region corresponding to the two sides of the barrier (-00,0) meet
(at s = o if the real part of Xi be positive) at an angle 2-irLi, where LI
is the absolute value of the real part of Xi ; the same is true for the
ff-region representing the branch a-. The condition that the s-region
shall not overlap itself requires, then, Li=l. But, further, we may
form an infinite number of branches <r = se2ir<Ai, ai=ei"'^i, ... in
the same way, and the corresponding regions in the plane upon which
yily\ is represented will have a common point and each have an
angle 2;rLi ; if neither overlaps the preceding, it will happen, if LI
is not zero, that at length one is reached overlapping the first, unless
for some positive integer a we have 2iraLi = 2jr, in other words

Li = i/a. If this be so, the branch »a-i=se2ir«**l will be represented
by a region having the angle at the common point common with the
region for the branch s ; but not altogether coinciding with this last
region unless Xi be real, and therefore = ±1/0; then there is only
a finite number, a, of branches obtainable in this way by crossing
the barrier (-« , o). In precisely the same way, if we had begun
by taking the quotient

, i+X2, l-x)/F(X,M, i-X2, i-x)

of the two solutions about * = i , we should have found that x is not
a single-valued function of $' unless X2 is the inverse of an integer, or
is zero; as $' is of the form (As-|-B)/(Cs + D), A, B, C, D constants,
the same is true in our case; equally, by considering the integrals
about x = «> we find, as a third condition necessary in order that x
may be a single-valued function of s, that X-/» must be the inverse
of an integer or be zero. These three differences of the indices,
namely, Xi, X2, X-AI, are the quantities which enter in the differential
equation satisfied by x as a function of ?, which is easily found to be

where xi=dxlds, &c. ; and hi = i-yi1, h> = i-X22, h3 = i-(X-ji)1. Into
the converse question whether the three conditions are sufficient
to ensure (i) that the s region corresponding to any branch does
not overlap itself, (2) that no two such regions overlap, we have no
space to enter. The second question clearly requires the inquiry
whether the group (that is, the monodromy group) of the differential
equation is properly discontinuous. ( See GROUPS, THEORY OF.)

The foregoing account will give an idea of the nature of the
function theories of differential equations; it appears essential
not to exclude some explanation of a theory intimately related
both to such theories and to transformation theories, which is a
generalization of Galois's theory of algebraic equations. We deal
only with the application to homogeneous linear differential
equations.

In general a function of variables Xi, Xi . . . is said to be rational
when it can be formed from them and the integers i, 2, 3, ... by a
finite number of additions, subtractions, multiplications pa</ona/»
and divisions. We generalize this definition. Assume that «L,U/, 0/
we have assigned a fundamental series of quantities and f^^ar
functions of x, in which x itself is included, such that all equation
quantities formed by a finite number of additions, subtrac-
tions, multiplications, divisions and differentiations in regard to x,
of the terms of this series, are themselves members of this series.
Then the quantities of this series, and only these, are called rational.
By a rational function of quantities p, q, r, ... is meant a function
formed from them and any of the fundamental rational quantities
by a finite number of the five fundamental operations. Thus it is a
function which would be called, simply, rational if the fundamental
series were widened by the addition to it of the quantities p,q,r, ...
and those derivable from them by the five fundamental operations.
A rational ordinary differential equation, with x as independent and
y as dependent variable, is then one which equates to zero a rational
function of y, the order k of the differential equation being that of the
highest differential coefficient /*' which enters; only such equations
are here discussed. Such an equation P = o is called irreducible when,
firstly, being arranged as an integral polynomial in y<*>, this poly-
nomial is not the product of other polynomials in /''also
of rational .form ; and, secondly, the equation has no
solution satisfying also a rational equation of lower order.
From this it follows that if an irreducible equation P=o
have one solution satisfying another rational equation Q = o
of the same or higher order, then all the solutions of P =o also satisfy
Q = o. For from the equation P = o we can by differentiation express
,y(t+i>) jK*+2)> ... jn terms of x, y, yW, .... y1", and so put the
function Q rationally in terms of these quantities only. It is
sufficient, then, to prove the result when the equation Q = o is of the
same order as P = o. Let both the equations be arranged as integral
polynomials in /*> ; their algebraic eliminant in regara to /*> must
then vanish identically, for they are known to have one common
solution not satisfying an equation of lower order; thus the equation
P =o involves Q =o for all solutions of P =o.

Now let jK»>=aiy<"-j> + . . . +any be a given rational homo-
geneous linear differential equation; let y\, . . . yn be n particular
functions of x, unconnected by any equation with constant co-
efficients of the form Ciyi+ • • • -\-cayn=o, all satisfying
the differential equation; let iji, . . . ijn be linear functions
of y\, . . . yn, say in=h.nyi+ . . . +Ai,yn, where the
constant coefficients A;,- have a non-vanishing deter-
minant ; write (y) = A(y), these being the equations of a
general linear homogeneous group whose transformations
may be denoted by A, B, .... We desire to form a
rational function 0(ij), or say <£(A(y)), of iji, . . . >j, in which the
i)2 constants A,-/ shall all be essential, and not feduce effectively to a
fewer number, as they would, for instance, if the yi, . . . y* were
connected by a linear equation with constant coefficients. Such a
function is in fact given, if the solutions yit . . . yn be developable

Irreducl-
bllity of a
rational
equation.

The

variant

function

fora

linear

equation.

238

DIFFLUGIA— DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

by its

in positive integral powers about x =

(x— a)1"-1'"!),. Such a function, V, we call a variant.

Then differentiating V in regard to *, and replacing
value Oii)("-l) +. . . +O»TI, we can arrange dV/dx, and similarly each
of d*V/dx* . . . d^V/dx^, where N=n*, as a linear function of
the N quantities m, . . .17., . . . m*"-1', • • • W-^.and
thence by elimination obtain a linear differential equation
for V of order N with rational coefficients. This we
equation. denoteby F=o. Further, each of iji, . . . ij» is expressible
as a linear function of V, dV/dx, . . . dN-1V/d*N-1, with rational co-
efficients not involving any of the n2 coefficients Ai,-, since otherwise
V would satisfy a linear equation of order less than N, which is
impossible, as it involves (linearly) the w2 arbitrary coefficients Ai,-,
which would not enter into the coefficients of the supposed equation.
In particular, yi, . . . yn are expressible rationally as linear functions
of u, du/dx, . . . dF-Lw/dx*1-1, where u> is the particular function
<t>(y). Any solution W of the equation F = o is derivable from
functions flt. . . f», which are linear functions of yi, . . . yn, just
as V was derived from iji, . . .ij»; but it does not follow that these
functions fi, . . . f.are obtained from yi, . . . y» by a transforma-
tion of the linear group A, B, . . . ; for it may happen that the
determinant d(fi,. . . fn)/(dyi, . . . ?„) is zero. In that case
fi,. . . fn may be called a singular set, and W a singular solution ; it
satisfiesan equation of lower than the N-th order. But every solution
V, W, ordinary or singular, of the equation F=o, is expressible
rationally in terms of «, du/dx, . . . d^-^/dx^-1; we shall write,
simply, V=r(u). Consider now the rational irreducible equation
of lowest order, not necessarily a linear equation, which is satisfied
by «>; as y\, . . . yn are particular functions, it may quite well
be of order less than N ; we call it the resolvent equation, suppose it
of order p, and denote it by y(v). Upon it the whole theory turns.
In the first place, as y(v) =o is satisfied by the solution « of F=o, all
the solutions of y(v) are solutions F = o, and are therefore rationally
expressible by «; any one may then be denoted by r(o>). If this
solution of F = o be not singular, it corresponds to a transformation
A of the linear group (A, B, . . .), effected upon yi, . . . y». The
coefficients Ai,- of this transformation follow from the expressions
before mentioned for iji. . .i^in terms of VjdV/dx.&V/dx1, ... by
substituting V = r(u); thus they depend on the p arbitrary para-
meters which enter into the general expression for the integral of
the equation y(v) =o. Without going into further details, it is then
clear enough that the resolvent equation, being irreducible and such
that any solution is expressible rationally, with p parameters, in
terms of the solution a, enables us to define a linear homogeneous
group of transformations of yi . . . yn depending on p parameters ;
and every operation of this (continuous) group corresponds to a
rational transformation of the solution of the resolvent equation.
This is the group called the rationality group, or the group of trans-
formations of the original homogeneous linear differential equation.
The group must not be confounded with a subgroup of itself,
the monodromy group of the equation, often called simply the group
of the equation, which is a set of transformations, not depend-
ing on arbitrary variable parameters, arising for one particular
fundamental set of solutions of the linear equation (see GROUPS,
THEORY OF).

The importance of the rationality group consists in three proposi-
tions. (i) Any rational function of yi, . . . y» which is unaltered in

* value by the transformations of the group can be written
The fan- ;n rat;onal form. (2) If any rational function be changed

* in form, becoming a rational function of yi, . . . yn, a
"", transformation of the group applied to its new form will

leave its value unaltered. (3) Any homogeneous linear
ration- transformation leaving unaltered the value of every
allty ' rational function of yi, . . . y» which has a rational value,
rroup. belongs to the group. It follows from these that any

group of linear homogeneous transformations having the
properties (i) (2) is identical with the group in question. It is clear
that with these properties the group must be of the greatest import-
ance in attempting to'discover what functions of x must be regarded as
rational in order that the values of yi . . . yn may be expressed.
And this is the problem of solving the equation from another point
of view.

LITERATURE. — (o) Formal or Transformation Theories for Equations
of the First Order: — E. Goursat, Lemons sur I' integration des equa-
tions aux derivees partielles du premier ordre (Paris, 1891); E. v.
Weber, Vorlesungen uber das Pfajfsche Problem und die Theorie der
partiellen Differentialgleichungen erster Ordnung (Leipzig, 1900);
S. Lie und G. Scheffers, Geometrie der Beruhrungstransformationen,
Bd. i. (Leipzig, 1896); Forsyth, Theory of Differential Equations,
Part i., Exact Equations and P faffs Problem (Cambridge, 1890);
S. Lie, "Allgemeine Untersuchungen fiber Differentialgleichungen, die
eine continuirliche endliche Gruppe gestatten " (Memoir), Mathem.
Annal. xxv. (1885), pp. 71-151 ; S. Lie und G. Scheffers, Vorlesungen
uber Differentialgleichungen mil bekannten infinitesimalen Transforma-
tionen (Leipzig, 1891). A very full bibliography is given in the book
of E. v. Weber referred to ; those here named are perhaps sufficiently
representative of modern works. Of classical works may be named :
Jacobi, Vorlesungen uber Dynamik (von A. Clebsch, Berlin, 1866);
Werke, Supplementband; G Monge, Application de I'analyse a la
geometrie (par M. Liouville, Paris, 1850); J. L. Lagrange, Lemons

sur le calcul des fonctions (Paris, 1806), and Theorie des fonctions
analytiques (Paris, Prairial, an V); G. Boole, A Treatise on Differ-
ential Equations (London, 1859); and Supplementary Volume
(London, 1865); Darboux, Lefons sur la theorie generals des
surfaces, tt. i.-iv. (Paris, 1887-1896); S. Lie, Theorie der transforma-
tionsgruppen ii. (on Contact Transformations) (Leipzig, 1890).

(/3) Quantitative or Function Theories for Linear Equations: —
C. Jordan, Cours d' analyse, t. iii. (Paris, 1896); E. Picard, Traite
d'analyse, tt. ii. and iii. (Paris, 1893, 1896); Fuchs, Various
Memoirs, beginning with that in Crelle's Journal, Bd. Ixvi. p. 121;
Riemann, Werke, 2' Aufl. (1892); Schlesinger, Handbuch der
Theorie der linearen Differentialgleichungen, Bde. i.-ii. (Leipzig,
18957-1898); Heffter, Einleitung in die Theorie der linearen Differen-
tialgleichungen mil einer unabhdngigen Variablen (Leipzig, 1894) ;
Klein, Vorlesungen uber lineare Diflerentialgleichungen der zweiten
Ordnung (Autographed, Gottingen, 1894); and Vorlesungen uber
die hypergeometrische Function (Autographed, Gottingen, 1894);
Forsyth, Theory of Differential Equations, Linear Equations.

(y) Rationality Group (of Linear Differential Equations): —
Picard, Traite d' Analyse, as above, t. iii.; Vessiot, Annales de
I'Ecole Normale, serie III. t. ix. p. 199 (Memoir); S. Lie,
Transformationsgruppen, as above, iii. A connected account is
given in Schlesinger, as above, Bd. ii., erstes Theil.

(i) Function Theories of Non-Linear Ordinary Equations: —
Painlev6, Lemons sur la theorie analytique des equations differentielles
(Paris, 1897, Autographed); Forsyth, Theory of Differential Equa-
tions, Part ii.. Ordinary Equations not Linear (two volumes, ii. and iii.)
(Cambridge, 1900) ; Kpnigsberger, Lehrbuch der Theorie der Differen-
tialgleichungen (Leipzig, 1889); Painlev6, Lefons sur Vintegration
des Equations differentielles de la mecanique et applications (Paris,

1895)-

(f) Formal Theories of Partial Equations of the Second and Higher
Orders: — E. Goursat, Lemons sur Vintegration des equations aux
derivees partielles du second ordre, tt. i. and ii. (Paris, 1896, 1898);
Forsyth, Treatise on Differential Equations (London, 1889); and
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (A.), vol. cxci. (1898), pp. 1-86.

(f) See also the six extensive articles in the second volume of
the German Encyclopaedia of Mathematics. (H. F. BA.)

DIFFLUGIA (L. Leclerc), a genus of lobose Rhizopoda, char-
acterized by a shell formed of sand granules cemented together;
these are swallowed by the animal, and during the process of
bud-fission they pass to the surface of the daughter-bud and
are cemented there. Centropyxis (Steia) and Lecqueureuxia
(Schlumberg) differ only in minor points.

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT.— i. When light proceeding from
a small source falls upon an opaque object, a shadow is cast upon
a screen situated behind the obstacle, and this shadow is found to
be bordered by alternations of brightness and darkness, known
as " diffraction bands." The phenomena thus presented were
described by Grimaldi and by Newton. Subsequently T. Young
showed that in their formation interference plays an important
part, but the complete explanation was reserved for A. J. Fresnel.
Later investigations by Fraunhofer, Airy and others have
greatly widened the field, and under the head of " diffraction "
are now usually treated all the effects dependent upon the
limitation of a beam of light, as well as those which arise from
irregularities of any kind at surfaces through which it is trans-
mitted, or at which it is reflected.

2. Shadows. — In the infancy of the undulatory theory the
objection most frequently urged against it was the difficulty of
explaining the very existence of shadows. Thanks to Fresnel
and his followers, this department of optics is now precisely the
one in which the theory has gained its greatest triumphs. The
principle employed in these investigations is due to C. Huygens,
and may be thus formulated. If round the origin of waves an
ideal closed surface be drawn, the whole action of the waves in the
region beyond may be regarded as due to the motion continually
propagated across the various elements of this surface. The wave
motion due to any element of the surface is called a secondary
wave, and in estimating the total effect regard must be paid to the
phases as well as the amplitudes of the components. It is usually
convenient to choose as the surface of resolution a wave-front, i.e.
a surface at which the primary vibrations are in one phase. Any
obscurity that may hang over Huygens's principle is due mainly to
the indefiniteness of thought and expression which we must be
content to put up with if we wish to avoid pledging ourselves as
to the character of the vibrations. In the application to sound,
where we know what we are dealing with, the matter is simple
enough in principle, although mathematical difficulties would
often stand in the way of the calculations we might wish to make.

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

239

FIG. i.

The ideal surface of resolution may be there regarded as a flexible
lamina; and we know that, if by forces locally applied every
element of the lamina be made to move normally to itself exactly
as the air at that place does, the external aerial motion is fully
determined. By the principle of superposition the whole effect
may be found by integration of the partial effects due to each
element of the surface, the other elements remaining at rest.

We will now consider in detail the important case in which uniform
plane waves are resolved at a surface coincident with a wave-front
(OQ). We imagine a wave-front divided
0 * Q into elementary rings or zones — often named
after Huygens, but better after Fresnel —
by spheres described round P (the point at
which the aggregate effect is to be estimated),
the first sphere, touching the plane at O, with
a radius equal to PO, and the succeeding
spheres with radii increasing at each step
by $X. There are thus marked out_ a series
of circles, whose radii * are given by
x*+r2 = (r+inX)2, or x? =nXr nearly ; so that
the rings are at first of nearly equal area.
Now the effect upon P of each element of the
plane is proportional to its area; but it
depends also upon the distance from P, and possibly upon the
inclination of the secondary ray to the direction of vibration and
to the wave-front.

The latter question can only be treated in connexion with the
dynamical theory (see below, § 1 1) ; but under all ordinary circum-
stances the result is independent of the precise answer that may be
given. All that it is necessary to assume is that the effects of the
successive zones gradually diminish, whether from the increasing
obliquity of the secondary ray or because (on account of the limita-
tion of the region of integration) the zones become at last more and
more incomplete. The component vibrations at P due to the
successive zones are thus nearly equal in amplitude and opposite in
phase (the phase of each corresponding to that of the infinitesimal
circle midway between the boundaries), and the series which we have
to sum is one in which the terms are alternately opposite in sign
and, while at first nearly constant in numerical magnitude, gradually
diminish to zero. In such a series each term may be regarded as very
nearly indeed destroyed by the halves of its immediate neighbours,
and thus the sum of the whole series is represented by half the first
term, which stands over uncompensated. The question is thus
reduced to that of finding the effect of the first zone, or central
circle, of which the area is ir\r.

We have seen that the problem before us is independent of the
law of the secondary wave as regards obliquity; but the result of
the integration necessarily involves the law of the intensity and
phase of a secondary wave as a function of r, the distance from the
origin. And we may in fact, as was done by A. Smith (Camb. Math.
Journ., 1843, 3, p. 46), determine the law of the secondary wave, by
comparing the result of the integration with that obtained by sup-
posing the primary wave to pass on to P without resolution.

Now as to the phase of the secondary wave, it might appear
natural to suppose that it starts from any point Q with the phase
of the primary wave, so that on arrival at P, it is retarded by the
amount corresponding to QP. But a little consideration will prove
that in that case the series of secondary waves could not reconstitute
the primary wave. For the aggregate effect of the secondary waves
is the half of that of the first Fresnel zone, and it is the central
element only of that zone for which the distance to be travelled is
equal to r. Let us conceive the zone in question to be divided
into infinitesimal rings of equal area. The effects due to each of
these rings are equal in amplitude and of phase ranging uniformly
over half a complete period. The phase of the resultant is midway
between those of the extreme elements, that is to say, a quarter of
a period behind that due to the element at the centre of the circle.
It is accordingly necessary to suppose that the secondary waves
start with a phase one-quarter of a period in advance of that of the
primary wave at the surface of resolution.

Further, it is evident that account must be taken of the variation
of phase in estimating the magnitude of the effect at P of the first
zone. The middle element alone contributes without deduction;
the effect of every other must be found by introduction of a resolv-
ing factor, equal to cos 6, if 9 represent the difference of phase
between this element and the resultant. Accordingly, the amplitude
of the resultant will be less than if all its components had the same
phase, in the ratio

-+JT

cos 9d6 : JT,

or 2: r. Now 2 area /ir = 2Xr; so that, in order to reconcile the
amplitude of the primary wave (taken as unity) with the half effect
of the first zone, the amplitude, at distance r, of the secondary wave
emitted from the element of area dS must be taken to be

dS/Xr ........ (1).

_2j /"
Xjo

By this expression, in. conjunction with the quarter-period accelera-
tion of phase, the law of the secondary wave is determined.

That the amplitude of the secondary wave should vary as r~l was
to be expected from considerations respecting energy; but the
occurrence of the factor X~l, and the acceleration of phase, have
sometimes been regarded as mysterious. It may be well therefore
to remember that precisely these laws apply to a secondary wave
of sound, which can be investigated upon the strictest mechanical
principles.

The recomposition of the secondary waves may also be treated
analytically. If the primary wave at O be cos kat, the effect of the
secondary wave proceeding from the element dS> at Q is

rfS dS .

j^ cos k(al-p+l\) - -j^ sin k(at— p).

If dS = 2vxdx, we have for the whole effect

sink(at-p)xdx
o ~ P

or, since xdx — pdp, k = 2ir/X,

— k£°° sin k(at—p)dp= [—cos k(at — p)]"^

In order to obtain the effect of the primary wave, as retarded by
traversing the distance r, viz. cos k(at-r), it is necessary to suppose
that the integrated term vanishes at the upper limit. And it is im-
portant to notice that without some further understanding the
integral is really ambiguous. According to the assumed law of
the secondary wave, the result must actually depend upon the
precise radius of the outer boundary of the region of integration,
supposed to be exactly circular. This case is, however, at most
very special and exceptional. We may usually suppose that a large
number of the outer rings are incomplete, so that the integrated term
at the upper limit may properly be taken to vanish. If a formal
proof be desired, it may be obtained by introducing into the integral
a factor such as tf"**", in which h is ultimately made to diminish
without limit.

When the primary wave is plane, the area of the first Fresnel
zone is irXr, and, since the secondary waves vary as r~l, the intensity
is independent of r, as of course it should be. If, however, the
primary wave be spherical, and of radius a at the wave-front of
resolution, then we know that at a distance r further on the
amplitude of the primary wave will be diminished in the ratio
o:(r+a). This may be regarded as a consequence of the altered
area of the first Fresnel zone. For, if * be its radius, we have

so that

xt = \ar/(a+r) nearly.

Since the distance to be travelled by the secondary waves is still
r, we see how the effect of the first zone, and therefore of the whole
series is proportional to a/(a+r). In like manner may be treated
other cases, such as that of a primary wave-front of unequal principal
curvatures.

The general explanation of the formation of shadows may also
be conveniently based upon Fresnel's zones. If the point under
consideration be so far away from the geometrical shadow that a
large number of the earlier zones are complete, then the illumina-
tion, determined sensibly by the first zone, is the same as if there
were no obstruction at ajl. If, on the other hand, the point be well
immersed in the geometrical shadow, the earlier zones are altogether
missing, and, instead of a series of terms beginning with finite
numerical magnitude and gradually diminishing to zero, we have
now to deal with one of which the terms diminish to zero at both
ends. The sum of such a series is very approximately zero, each term
being neutralized by the halves of its immediate neighbours, which
are of the opposite sign. The question of light or darkness then
depends upon whether the series begins or ends abruptly. With few
exceptions, abruptness can occur only in the presence of the first
term, viz. when the secondary wave of least retardation is unob-
structed, or when a ray passes through the point under consideration.
According to the undulatory theory the light cannot be regarded
strictly as travelling along a ray ; but the existence of an unobstructed
ray implies that the system of Fresnel's zones can be commenced,
and, if a large number of these zones are fully developed and do not
terminate abruptly, the illumination is unaffected by the neighbour-
hood of obstacles. Intermediate cases in which a few zones only are
formed belong especially to the province of diffraction.

An interesting exception to the general rule that full brightness
requires the existence of the first zone occurs when the obstacle
assumes the form of a small circular disk parallel to the plane of
the incident waves. In the earlier half of the i8th century R. Delisle
found that the centre of the circular shadow was occupied by a
bright point of light, but the observation passed into oblivion
until S. D. Poisson brought forward as an objection to Fresnel's
theory that it required at the centre of a circular shadow a point as
bright as if no obstacle were intervening. If we conceive the primary
wave to be broken up at the plane of the disk, a system of Fresnel s
zones can be constructed which begin from the circumference;
and the first zone external to the disk plays the part ordinarily
taken by the centre of the entire system. The whole effect is the

240

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

half of that of the first existing zone, and this is sensibly the same
as if there were no obstruction.

When light passes through a small circular or annular aperture,
the illumination at any point along the axis depends upon the
precise relation between the aperture and the distance from it at
which the point is taken. If, as in the last paragraph, we imagine
a system of zones to be drawn commencing from the inner circular
boundary of the aperture, the question turns upon the manner in
which the series terminates at the outer boundary. If the aperture
be such as to fit exactly an integral number of zones, the aggregate
effect may be regarded as the half of those due to the first and last
zones. If the number of zones be even, the action of the first and last
zones are antagonistic, and there is complete darkness at the point.
If on the other hand the number of zones be odd, the effects con-
spire; and the illumination (proportional to the square of the ampli-
tude) is four times as great as if there were no obstruction at all.

The process of augmenting the resultant illumination at a par-
ticular point by stopping some of the secondary rays may be carried
much further (Soret, Pogg. Ann., 1875, 156, p. 99). By the aid of
photography it is easy to prepare a plate, transparent where the zones
of oda order fall, and opaque where those of even order fall. Such
a plate has the power of a condensing lens, and gives an illumination
out of all jproportion to what could be obtained without it. An even
greater effect (fourfold) can be attained by providing that the
stoppage of the light from the alternate zones is replaced by a
phase-reversal without loss of amplitude. R. W. Wood (Phil. Mag.,
1898, 45, p 513) has succeeded in constructing zone plates upon this
principle.

In such experiments the narrowness of the zones renders necessary
a pretty close approximation to the geometrical conditions. Thus
in the case of the circular disk, equidistant (r) from the source of
light and from the screen upon which the shadow is observed, the
width of the first exterior zone is given by

2x being the diameter of the disk. If 2r = ioop cm., 2x = i cm.,
X = 6Xio~» cm., then d* = -oois cm. Hence, in order that this
zone may be perfectly formed, there should be no error in the circum-
ference of the order of -ooi cm. (It is easy to see that the radius of
the bright spot is of the same order of magnitude.) The experiment
succeeds in a dark room of the length above mentioned, with a
threepenny bit (supported by three threads) as obstacle, the origin
ctf light being a small needle hole in a plate of tin, through which the
sun's rays shine horizontally after reflection from an external mirror.
In the absence of a heliostat it is more convenient to obtain a point of
light with the aid of a lens of short focus.

The amplitude of the light at any point in the axis, when plane
waves are incident perpendicularly upon an annular aperture, is,
as above,

cos k(at-ri)-cos k(at-ri) =2 sin kat sin k(ri-rt),

fj, r\ being the distances of the outer and inner boundaries
from the point in question. It is scarcely necessary to remark
that in all such cases the calculation applies in the first instance
to homogeneous light, and that, in accordance with Fourier's
theorem, each homogeneous component of a mixture may be treated
separately. When the original light is white, the presence of some
components and the absence of others will
usually give rise to coloured effects, variable
with the precise circumstances of the case.

Although the matter can be fully treated
only upon the basis of a dynamical theory, it
is proper to point out at once that there is an
element of assumption in the application of
Huygens's principle to the calculation of the
effects produced by opaque screens of limited
extent. Properly applied, the principle could
not fail; but, as may readily be proved in
the case of sonorous waves, it is not in strict-
ness sufficient to assume the expression for
a secondary wave suitable when the primary
wave is undisturbed, with mere limitation of
the integration to the transparent parts of the screen. But, except
perhaps in the case of very fine gratings, it is probable that the error
thus caused is Insignificant; for the incorrect estimation of the
secondary waves will be limited to distances of a few wave-lengths
only from the boundary of opaque and transparent parts.

3. Fraunhofer's Diffraction Phenomena. — A very general
problem in diffraction is the investigation of the distribution
of light over a screen upon which impinge divergent or con-
vergent spherical waves after passage through various diffracting
apertures. When the waves are convergent and the recipient
screen is placed so as to contain the centre of convergency — the
image of the original radiant point, the calculation assumes a less
complicated form. This class of phenomena was investigated
by J. von Fraunhofer (upon principles laid down by Fresnel),
and are sometimes called after his name. We may conveniently

FIG. 2.

commence with them on account of their simplicity and great
importance in respect to the theory of optical instruments.

If / be the radius of the spherical wave at the place of resolution,
where the vibration is represented by cos kat, then at any point
M (fig. 2) in the recipient screen the vibration due to an element <iS
of the wave-front is (§ 2)

JC

—j^ sink(at-p) ,

p being the distance between M and the element <ZS.

Taking co-ordinates in the plane of the screen with the centre of
the wave as origin, let us represent M by {, TJ, and P (where dS is
situated) by x, y, z.
Then

so that

In the applications with which we are concerned, |, rj are very
small quantities; and we may take

fmf\ 1 — -ft— \ •

At the same time dS may be identified with dxdy, and in the de-
nominator p may be treated as constant and equal to/. Thus the
expression for the vibration at M becomes

_«,_ i

. . (i);

and for the intensity, represented by the square of the amplitude,

. (2).

This expression for the intensity becomes rigorously applicable when
/ is indefinitely great, so that ordinary optical aberration disappears.
The incident waves are thus plane, and are limited to a plane aper-
ture coincident with a wave-front. The integrals are then properly
functions of the direction in which the light is to be estimated.

In experiment under ordinary circumstances it makes no differ-
ence whether the collecting lens is in front of or behind the diffract-
ing aperture. It is usually most convenient to employ a telescope
focused upon the radiant point, and to place the diffracting apertures
immediately in front of the object-glass. What is seen through the
eye-piece in any case is the same as would be depicted upon a screen
in the focal plane.

Before proceeding to special cases it may be well to call attention
to some general properties of the solution expressed by (2) (see
Bridge, Phil. Mag., 1858).

If when the aperture is given, the wave-length (proportional to
k~l) varies, the composition of the integrals is unaltered, provided
£ and i) are taken universely proportional to X. A diminution of
X thus leads to a simple proportional shrinkage of the diffraction
pattern, attended by an augmentation of brilliancy in proportion
to X~2.

If the wave-length remains unchanged, similar effects are pro-
duced by an increase in the scale of the aperture. The linear
dimension of the diffraction pattern is inversely as that of the
aperture, and the brightness at corresponding points is as the
square of the area of aperture.

If the aperture and wave-length increase in the same proportion,
the size and shape of the diffraction pattern undergo no change.

We will now apply the integrals (2) to the case of a rectangular
aperture of width a parallel to x and of width b parallel to y. The
limits of integration for x may thus be taken to be -j<z and + i<z,
and for y to be -ji, +%b. We readily find (with substitution for

k Of 27T/X)

-iroj . -Trbri
Z-JT^ sin 2-^-'

(3),

as representing the distribution of light in the image of a mathe-
matical point when the aperture is rectangular, as is often the case
in spectroscopes.

The second and third factors of (3) being each of the form sin 2«/«2,
we have to examine the character of this function. It vanishes'
when u = mK, m being any whole number other than zero. When
« = o, it takes the value unity. The maxima occur when

and then

w=tan «,
sin 2«/#2 = cos 2

(4),
(5).

To calculate the roots of (5) we may assume

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

241

where y is a positive quantity which is small when u is large. Substi-
tuting this, we find cot y = U-y, whence

This equation is to be solved by successive approximation. It will
readily be found that

«-U-y-U-U-'-lu--}fu--l$U-- . . (6).

In the first quadrant there is no root after zero, since tan u>u,
and in the second quadrant there is none because the signs of « and
tan u are opposite. The first root after zero is thus in the third
quadrant, corresponding to m = l. Even in this case the series
converges sufficiently to give the value of the root with considerable
accuracy, while for higher values of m it is all that could be desired.
The actual values of u/v (calculated in another manner by F. M.
Schwerd) are 1-4303, 2-4590, 3-4709, 4-4747. 5'48i8, 6-4844, &c.

Since the maxima occur when M = (m + i)ir nearly, the successive
values are not very different from

&c
'

4 _L
9"2' 25"'

The application of these results to (3) shows that the field is
brightest at the centre f = o, 17 = 0, viz. at the geometrical image
of the radiant point. It is traversed by dark lines whose equations

| = mf\/a, T? = mf\/b.

Within the rectangle formed by pairs of consecutive dark lines,
and not far from its centre, the brightness rises to a maximum;
but these subsequent maxima are in all cases much inferior to the
brightness at the centre of the entire pattern (£ = o, 17=0).

By the principle of energy the illumination over the entire focal
plane must be equal to that pyer the diffracting area ; and thus, in
accordance with the suppositions by which (3) was obtained, its
value when integrated from J = co to {=+», and from i)=— ao
to 17 =+» should be equal to ah. This integration, employed
originally by P. Kelland (Edin. Trans. 15, p. 315) to determine the
absolute intensity of a secondary wave, may be at once effected by
means of the known formula

It will be observed that, while the total intensity is proportional to
ab, the intensity at the focal point is proportional to O262. If the
aperture be increased, not only is the total brightness over the focal
plane increased with it, but there is also a concentration of the
diffraction pattern. The form of (3) shows immediately that, if
a and 6 be altered, the co-ordinates of any characteristic point in the
pattern vary as a-1 and b-*.

The contraction of the diffraction pattern with increase of aperture
is of fundamental importance in connexion with the resolving power
of optical instruments. According to common optics, where images
are absolute, the diffraction pattern is supposed to be infinitely
small, and two radiant points, however near together, form separated
images. This is tantamount to an assumption that X is infinitely
small. The actual finiteness of X imposes a limit upon the separating
or resolving power of an optical instrument.

This indefiniteness of images is sometimes said to be due to
diffraction by the edge' of the aperture, and proposals have even been
made for curing it by causing the transition between the interrupted
and transmitted parts of the primary wave to be less abrupt. Such
a view of the matter is altogether misleading. What requires
explanation is not the imperfection of actual images so much as the
possibility of their being as good as we find them.

At the focal point (i = o, ij = o) all the secondary waves agree in
phase, and the intensity is easily expressed, whatever be the form
of the aperture. From the general formula (2), if A be the area of
aperture,

I»!=AVX*P (7).

The formation of a sharp image of the radiant point requires
that the illumination become insignificant when £, ») attain small
values, and this insignificance can only arise as a consequence of
discrepancies of phase among the secondary waves from various
parts of the aperture. So long as there is no sensible discrepancy
of phase there can be no sensible diminution of brightness as com-
pared with that to be found at the focal point itseTf. We may go
further, and lay it down that there can be no considerable loss of
brightness until the difference of phase of the waves proceeding from
the nearest and farthest parts of the aperture amounts to JX.

When the difference of phase amounts to X, we may expect the
resultant illumination to be very much reduced. In the particular
case of a rectangular aperture the course of things can be readily
followed, especially if we conceive/ to be infinite. In the direction
(suppose horizontal) for which 17=0, |//=sin 6, the phases of the
secondary waves range over a complete period when sin 0 = X/a, and,
since all parts of the horizontal aperture are equally effective, there
is in this direction a complete compensation and consequent absence
of illumination. When sin 0 = fX/a, the phases range one and a half

periods, and there is revival of illumination. We may compare
the brightness with that in the direction 8=0. The phase of the
resultant amplitude is the same as that due to the central secondary
wave, and the discrepancies of phase among the components reduce
the amplitude in the proportion

d<t> : i ,

or — 2/3*-:! ; so that the brightness in this direction is 4/9*' of the
maximum at 6 = 0. In like manner we may find the illumination
in any other direction, and it is obvious that it vanishes when sin 6
is any multiple of X/a.

The reason of the augmentation of resolving power with aperture
will now be evident. The larger the aperture the smaller are the
angles through which it is necessary to deviate from the principal
direction in order to bring in specified discrepancies of phase — the
more concentrated is the image.

In many cases the subject of examination is a luminous line of
uniform intensity, the various points of which are to be treated as
independent sources of light. If the image of the line be £ = o,
the intensity at any point £, it of the diffraction pattern may be
represented by

(S),

FIG. 3.

the same law as obtains for a luminous point when horizontal
directions are alone considered. The definition of a fine vertical
line, and consequently the resolving power for contiguous vertical
lines, is thus independent of the vertical aperture of the instrument,
a law of great importance in the theory of the spectroscope.

The distribution of illumination in the image of a luminous line
is shown by the curve ABC (fig. 3), representing the value of the
function sin2w/«2 from w=p to M = 2jr. The part corresponding to
negative values of u is similar, OA being a line of symmetry.

Let us now consider the distribution of brightness in the image
of a double line whose components are of equal strength, and at
such an angular interval that the central line in the image of one
coincides with the first zero of brightness in the image of the other.
In fig. 3 the curve of brightness for one component is ABC, and
for the other OA'C'; and the curve representing half the combined
brightnesses is E'BE. The brightness (cor-
responding to B) midway between the two A
central points AA' is -8106 of the bright-
ness at the central points themselves. We
may consider this to be about the limit pf
closeness at which there could be any
decided appearance of resolution, though
doubtless an observer accustomed to his
instrument would recognize the duplicity
with certainty. The obliquity, corre-
sponding to M = w, is such that the phases
of the secondary waves range over a com-
plete period, i.e. such that the projection of
the horizontal aperture upon this direction
is one wave-length. We conclude that a double line cannot be
fairly resolved unless Us components subtend an angle exceeding that
subtended by the wave-length of light at a distance equal to the horizontal
aperture. This rule is convenient on account of its simplicity ; and
it is sufficiently accurate in view of the necessary uncertainty as to
what exactly is meant by resolution.

If the angular interval between the components of a double line
be half as great again as that supposed in the figure, the brightness
midway between is -1802 as against 1-0450 at the central lines of
each image. Such a falling off in the middle must be more than
sufficient for resolution. If the angle subtended by the components
of a double line be twice that subtended by the wave-length at a
distance equal to the horizontal aperture, the central bands are
just clear of one another, and there is a line of absolute blackness
in the middle of the combined images.

The resolving power of a telescope with circular or rectangular
aperture is easily investigated experimentally. The best object for
examination is a grating of fine wires, about fifty to the inch, backed
by a sodium flame. The object-glass is provided with diaphragms
pierced with round holes or slits. One of these, of width equal, say,
to one-tenth of an inch, is inserted in front of the object-glass, and
the telescope, carefully focused all the while, is drawn gradually back
from the grating until the lines are no longer seen. From a measure-
ment of the maximum distance the least angle between consecutive
lines consistent with resolution may be deduced, and a comparison
made with the rule stated above.

Merely to show the dependence of resolving power on aperture it is
not necessary to use a telescope at all. It is sufficient to look at wire
gauze backed by the sky or by a flame, through a piece of blackened
cardboard, pierced by a needle and held close to the eye. By
varying the distance the point is easily found at which resolution
ceases ; and the observation is as sharp as with a telescope. The

242

DIFFRACTION. OF LIGHT

function of the telescope is in fact to allow the use of a wider, and
therefore more easily measurable, aperture. An interesting modi-
fication of the experiment may be made by using light of various
wave-lengths.

Since the limitation of the width of the central band in the image
of a luminous line depends upon discrepancies of phase among the
secondary waves, and since the discrepancy is greatest for the waves
which come from the edges of the aperture, the question arises
how far the operation of the central parts of the aperture is ad-
vantageous. If we imagine the aperture reduced to two equal
narrow slits bordering its edges, compensation will evidently be
complete when the projection on an oblique direction is equal to
iX, instead of X as for the complete aperture. By this procedure
the width of the central band in the diffraction pattern is halved,
and so far an advantage is attained. But, as will be evident, the
bright bands bordering the central band are now not inferior to it
in brightness; in fact, a band similar to the central band is repro-
duced an indefinite number of times, so long as there is no sensible
discrepancy of phase in the secondary waves proceeding from the
various parts of the same slit. Under these circumstances the
narrowing of the band is paid for at a ruinous price, and the arrange-
ment must be condemned altogether.

A more moderate suppression of the central parts is, however,
sometimes advantageous. Theory and experiment alike prove that
a double line, of which the components are equally strong, is better
resolved when, for example, one-sixth of the horizontal aperture is
blocked off by a central screen ; or the rays quite at the centre may
be allowed to pass, while others a little farther removed are blocked
off. Stops, each occupying one-eighth of the width, and with centres
situated at the points of tnsection, answer well the required purpose.

It has already been suggested that the principle of energy requires
that the general expression for I2 in (2) when integrated over the
whole of the plane J, TJ should be equal to A, where A is the area of
the aperture. A general analytical verification has been given by
Sir G. G. Stokes (Edin. Trans., 1853, 20, p. 317). Analytically
expressed —

ff+£Vdtdr,=ffdxdy = A . (9).

We have seen that IJ (the intensity at the focal point) was equal to
A2/X!/2. If A' be the area over which the intensity must be I§ in
order to give the actual total intensity in accordance with

the relation between A and A' is AA' = X5/2. Since A' is in some
sense the area of the diffraction pattern, it may be considered to be a
rough criterion of the definition, and we infer that the definition of a
point depends principally upon the area of the aperture, and only in
a very secondary degree upon the shape when the area is maintained
constant.

4. Theory of Circular Aperture. — We will now consider the
important case where the form of the aperture is circular.

Writing for brevity

*{//-#, fc|//-S. ..... 0).

we have for the general expression (§ n) of the intensity

X»/»P = S»+C» ..... (2),

where S>=ffsin(px+qy)dxdy, . . . (3),

C=ffcos(px+qy)dxdy, . . . (4).

When, as in the application to rectangular or circular apertures,
the form is symmetrical with respect to the axes both of x and y,
S = o, and C reduces to

C=JJ"cospxcosqydxdy, . . . (o).

In the case of the circular aperture the distribution of light is of
course symmetrical with respect to the focal point p = o, g = o; and
C is a function of p and q only through V (t>*+<f)- It is thus
sufficient to determine the intensity along the axis of p. Putting
<l = o, we get

C =ffcos px dx dy = 2/**cos px V (R1 -*1) dx,

R being the radius of the aperture. This integral is the Bessel's
function of order unity, defined by

. . . (6).
(7);

Thus, if

Ji(z) = -
cos 0,

and the illumination at distance r from the focal point is

X2f2

(8).

/2jrRr\2

V7T7

The ascending series for Ji(z), used by Sir G. B. Airy (Camb. Trans.,

1834) in his original investigation of the diffraction of a circular
object-glass, and readily obtained from (6), is

r+

22.42.6 22.4J.62.8
When 2 is great, we may employ the semi-convergent series

(9).

3.5.7.9.1.3.5
8.16.24.32

-] cos(z-l,, ( g
3.5.7.9.11.1.3.5.

/1N4 . )
\z/ "*"•••)

1 3.5.7.1.3

' z ~ 8.16.24

/1\»
(z)

8.16.24.32.40

z©'--i-

(10).

A table of the values-of 2z-'Ji(z) has been given by E. C. J. Lommel
(SMomilch, 1870, 15, p. 166), to whom is due the first systematic
application of Bessel's functions to the diffraction integrals.

The illumination vanishes in correspondence with the roots of the
equation j!(z)=o. If these be called zi, zj, zt, . . . the radii of the
dark rings in the diffraction pattern are

2irR ' 2ir

being thus inversely proportional to R.

The integrations may also be effected by means of polar co-
ordinates, taking first the integration with respect to 0 so as to
obtain the result for an infinitely thin annular aperture. Thus, if

x = p cos <t>, y = p sin <t>,

C =/f cos px dx dy =/0R f02" cos (pp cos B)pdpdO.
Now by definition

J0(z) =

(z cos 9) dO = 1 -

The value of C for an annular aperture of radius r and width dr is

dC = 2,]o(pp)pdp ....... (12).

For the complete circle,

as before.
F»

In these expressions we are to replace p by k£/f, or rather, since
the diffraction pattern is symmetrical, by kr/f, where r is the distance
of any point in the focal plane from the centre of the system.

The roots of Jo(z) after the first may be found from

-050661 -053041 , -262051 ,. „>

. . U<v.

and those of Ji(z) from

z .,.„- "151982
-=.+•25— 1jTr-

-015399
(4*+l)a

'245835

(14),

formulae derived by Stokes (Camb. Trans., 1850, vol. ix.) from the
descending series.1 The following table gives the actual values : —

i

|forJ0(z)-0

|forj,(z)=0

i

|forJ,(z)-0

jforj,(z)-0

1

2
3

4
5

•7655
1-7571
2-7546
3-7534
4-7527

1-2197
22330
32383
42411
5-2428

6
7
8
9
10

5-7522
67519
7-7516
8-7514
97513

62439
7-2448
82454
9-2459
10-2463

In both cases the image of a mathematical point is thus a
symmetrical ring system. The greatest brightness is at the centre,
where

dC=2Tpdp, C = TR».

For a certain distance outwards this remains sensibly unimpaired
and then gradually diminishes to zero, as the secondary waves
become discrepant in phase. The subsequent revivals of brightness
forming the bright rings are necessarily of inferior brilliancy as
compared with the central disk.

The first dark ring in the diffraction pattern of the complete
circular aperture occurs when

r//=i-2i97XX/2R (15).

1 The descending series for JoW appears to have been first given
by Sir W. Hamilton in a memoir on " Fluctuating Functions,
Roy. Irish Trans., 1840.

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

243

We may compare this with the corresponding result for a rectangular
aperture of width a,

t//=X/o;

and it appears that in consequence of the preponderance of the
central parts, the compensation in the case of the circle does not
set in at so small an obliquity as when the circle is replaced by a
rectangular aperture, whose side is equal to the diameter of the
circle.

Again, if we compare the complete circle with a narrow annular
aperture of the same radius, we see that in the latter case the first
dark ring occurs at a much smaller obliquity, viz.
r//=7655XX/2R.

It has been found by Sir William Herschel and others that the
definition of a telescope is often improved by stopping off a part of
the central area of the object-glass; but the advantage to be obtained
in this way is in no case great, and anything like a reduction of the
aperture to a narrow annulus is attended by a development of the
external luminous rings sufficient to outweigh any improvement
due to the diminished diameter of the central area.1

The maximum brightnesses and the places at which they occur
are easily determined with the aid of certain properties of the
Bessel's functions. It is known (see SPHERICAL HARMONICS) that

(17);
(18).

The maxima of C occur when

dz

or by (17 when Jj(z)=o.
determined,

z

When z has one of the values thus

The accompanying table is given by Lommel, in which the first
column gives the roots of Js(z) =o, and the second and third columns
the corresponding values of the functions specified. If appears that
the maximum brightness in the first ring is only about ,^ of the
brightness at the centre.

z 2*-»Ji(z) 4z~sji2(z)

•oooooo

5-135630
8-417236
11-619857
14-795938
17-959820

+ I-OOOOOO

- -132279

+ -064482
— -040008
+ -027919
- -020905

I-OOOOOO

•017498
•004158
•001601
•000779
•000437

We will now investigate the total illumination distributed over
the area of the circle of radius r. We have

(19),

(20).

where
Thus

irR'. 2JV'J1'(z)<fe.
.!•(*) -Ji'W;

Now by (17), (18)
so that

and

If r, or z, be infinite, Jo(z), Ji(z) vanish, and the whole illumination
is expressed by irR2, in accordance with the general principle. In
any case the proportion of the whole illumination to be found outside
the circle of radius r is given by

Jo2(z)+J,'(z).

For the dark rings Ji(z)=o; so that the fraction of illumination
outside any dark ring is simply J02(z). Thus for the first, second,
third and fourth dark rings we get respectively -161, -090, -062, -047,
showing that more than Aths of the whole light is concentrated
within the area of the second dark ring (Phil. Mag., 1881).
When z is great, the descending series (10) gives

so that the places of maxima and minima occur at equal intervals.

1 Airy, loc. cit. " Thus the magnitude of the central spot is
diminished, and the brightness of the rings increased, by covering
the central parts of the object-glass."

The mean brightness varies as «-' (or as f-»), and the integral
found by multiplying it by zdi and integrating between o and oo
converges.

It may be instructive to contrast this with the case of an infinitely
narrow annular aperture, where the brightness is proportional to
Jo*(z). When z is great,

The mean brightness varies as g~l; and the integral JoJoI(z)ziiz
is not convergent.

5. Resolving Power of Telescopes. — The efficiency of a tele-
scope is of course intimately connected with the size of the disk
by which it represents a mathematical point. In estimating
theoretically the resolving power on a double star we have to
consider the illumination of the field due to the superposition of
the two independent images. If the angular interval between the
components of a double star were equal to twice that expressed
in equation (15) above, the central disks of the diffraction patterns
would be just in contact. Under these conditions there is no
doubt that the star would appear to be fairly resolved, since the
brightness of its external ring system is too small to produce any
material confusion, unless indeed the components are of very
unequal magnitude. The diminution of the star disks with
increasing aperture was observed by Sir William Herschel, and in
1823 Fraunhofer formulated the law of inverse proportionality.
In investigations extending over a long series of years, the
advantage of a large aperture in separating the components of
close double stars was fully examined by W. R. Dawes.

The resolving power of telescopes was investigated also by
J. B. L. Foucault, who employed a scale of equal bright and dark
alternate parts; it was found to be proportional to the aperture
and independent of the focal length. In telescopes of the best
construction and of moderate aperture the performance is not
sensibly prejudiced by outstanding aberration, and the limit
imposed by the finiteness of the waves of light is practically
reached. M. E. Verdet has compared Foucault's results with
theory, and has drawn the conclusion that the radius of the
visible part of the image of a luminous point was equal to half the
radius of the first dark ring.

The application, unaccountably long delayed, of this principle
to the microscope by H. L. F. Helmholtz in 1 87 1 is the; foundation
of the important doctrine of the microscopic limit. It is true that
in 1823 Fraunhofer, inspired by his observations upon gratings,
had very nearly hit the mark.2 And a little before Helmholtz,
E. Abbe published a somewhat more complete investigation, also
founded upon the phenomena presented by gratings. But
although the argument from gratings is instructive and convenient
in some respects, its use has tended to obscure the essential unity
of the principle of the b'mit of resolution whether applied to
telescopes or microscopes.

In fig. 4, AB represents the axis of an optical instrument (tele-
scope or microscope), A being a point of the object and B a point
of the image. By the operation of the object-glass LL' all the rays
issuing from A arrive in the same phase at B. Thus if A be self-
luminous, the illumination is
a maximum at B, where all
the secondary waves agree in
phase. B is in fact the centre
of the diffraction disk which
constitutes the image of A.
At neighbouring points the
illumination is less, in conse-
quence of the discrepancies of
phase which there enter. In
like manner if we take a neigh-
bouring point P, also self-

FIG. 4.

luminous, in the plane of the object, the waves which issue from
it will arrive at B with phases no longer absolutely ^concordant,
and the discrepancy of phase will increase as the interval AP

8 " Man kann daraus sMiessen, was moglicher Weise durch Mikro-
skope noch zu sehen ist. Ein mikroskopischer Gegenstand z. B, dessen
Durchmesser = (\) ist, und der aus zwei Theilen besteht, kann nicht
mehr als aus zwei Theilen bestehend erkannt werden. Dieses zeigt uns
eine Grenze des Sehvermogens durch Mikroskope " (Gilbert's Ann.
74> 337)- Lord Rayleigh has recorded that he was himself convinced
by Fraunhofer's reasoning at a date antecedent to the writings of
Helmholtz and Abbe.

244

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

increases. When the interval is very small the discrepancy,
though mathematically existent, produces no practical effect, and
the illumination at B due to P is as important as that due to A,
the intensities of the two luminous sources being supposed equal.
Under these conditions it is clear that A and P are not separated in
the image. The question is to what amount must the distance AP
be increased in order that the difference of situation may make itself
felt in the image. This is necessarily a question of degree; but it
does not require detailed calculations in order to show that the
discrepancy first becomes conspicuous when the phases corresponding
to the various secondary waves which travel from P to B range over
a complete period. The illumination at B due to P then becomes
comparatively small, indeed for some forms of aperture evanescent.
The extreme discrepancy is that between the waves which travel
through the outermost parts of the object-glass at L and L' ; so that
if we adopt the above standard of resolution, the question is where
must P be situated in order that the relative retardation of the rays
PL and PL' may on their arrival at B amount to a wave-length (X).
In virtue of the general lawthat the reduced optical path is stationary
in value, this retardation may be calculated without allowance for
the different paths pursued on the farther side of L, L', so that the
value is simply PL — PL'. Now since AP is very small, AL' — PL' =
AP sin a, where a is the angular semi-aperture L'AB. In like manner
PL— AL has the same value, so that

PL-PL'=2APsina.

According to the standard adopted, the condition of resolution is
therefore that AP, or «, should exceed ^X/sin a. If e be less than this,
the images overlap too much; while if « greatly exceed the above
value the images become unnecessarily separated.

In the above argument the whole space between the object and
the lens is supposed to be occupied by matter of one refractive index,
and X represents the wave-length in this medium of the kind of light
employed. If the restriction as to uniformity be violated, what we
have ultimately to deal with is the wave-length in the medium
immediately surrounding the object.

Calling the refractive index M, we have as the critical value of «,

e = jXo/A'sin a (1),

Xo being the wave-length in vacua. The denominator n sin a is the
quantity well known (after Abbe) as the " numerical aperture."

The extreme value possible for o is a right angle, so that for the
microscopic limit we have

e = JXo//K ..<?).

The limit can be depressed only by a diminution in Xo, such as
photography makes possible, or by an increase in M, the refractive
index of the medium in which the object is situated.

The statement of the law of resolving power has been made in a
form appropriate to the microscope, but it admits also of immediate
application to the telescope. If 2R be the diameter of the object-
glass and D the distance of the object, the angle subtended by AP is
e/D, and the angular resolving power is given by

X/2Dsino= X/2R (3).

This method of derivation (substantially due to Helmholtz) makes
it obvious that there is' no essential difference of principle between
the two cases, although the results are conveniently stated in different
forms. In the case of the telescope we have to deal with a linear
measure of aperture and an angular limit of resolution, whereas in
the case of the microscope the limit of resolution is linear, and it is
expressed in terms of angular aperture.

It must be understood that the above argument distinctly assumes
that the different parts of the object are self-luminous, or at least
that the light proceeding from the various points is without phase
relations. As has been emphasized by G. ]. Stoney, the restriction
is often, perhaps usually, violated in the microscope. A different
treatment is then necessary, and for some of the problems which
arise under this head the method of Abbe is convenient.

The importance of the general conclusions above formulated, as
imposing a limit upon our powers of direct observation, can hardly
be overestimated; but there has been in some quarters a tendency
to ascribe to it a more precise character than it can bear, or even to
mistake its meaning altogether. A few words of further explanation
may therefore be desirable. The first point to be emphasized is that
nothing whatever is said as to the smallness of a single object that
may be made visible. The eye, unaided or armed with a telescope,
is able to see, as points of light, stars subtending no sensible angle.
The visibility of a star is a question of brightness simply, and has
nothing to do with resolving power. The latter element enters only
when it is a question of recognizing the duplicity of a double star,
or of distinguishing detail upon the surface of a planet. So in the
microscope there is nothing except lack of light to hinder the visi-
bility of an object however small. But if its dimensions be much
less than the half wave-length, it can only be seen as a whole, and its
parts cannot be distinctly separated, although incases near the border
line some inference may be possible, founded upon experience of what
appearances are presented in various cases. Interesting observa-
tions upon particles, ultra-microscopic in the above sense, have been
recorded by H. F. W. Siedentopf and R. A. Zsigmondy (Drude's Ann.,
1903, 10, p. l).

In a somewhat similar way a dark linear interruption in a bright
jround may be visible, although its actual width is much inferior
to the half wave-length. In illustration of this fact a simple experi-
ment may be mentioned. In front of the naked eye was held a piece
of copper foil perforated by a fine needle hole. Observed through
this the structure of some wire gauze just disappeared at a distance
from the eye equal to 17 in., the gauze containing 46 meshes to
the inch. On the other hand, a single wire 0-034 'n- in diameter
remained fairly visible up to a distance of 20 ft. The ratio between
the limiting angles subtended by the periodic structure of the gauze
and the diameter of the wire was (-O22/-O34)X (240/17) =9-1. For
further information upon this subject reference may be made to
Phil. Mag., 1896, 42, p. 167; Journ. R. Micr. Soc., 1903, p. 447.

6. Coronas or Glories. — The results of the theory of the diffrac-
tion patterns due to circular apertures admit of an interesting
application to coronas, such as are often seen encircling the sun
and moon. They are due to the interposition of small spherules
of water, which act the part of diffracting obstacles. In order to
the formation of a well-defined corona it is essential that the
particles be exclusively, or preponderatingly, of one size.

If the origin of light be treated as infinitely small, and be seen
in focus, whether with the naked eye or with the aid of a telescope,
the whole of the light in the absence of obstacles would be concen-
trated in the immediate neighbourhood of the focus. At other
parts of the field the effect is the same, in accordance with the
principle known as Babinet's, whether the imaginary screen in front
of the object-glass is generally transparent but studded with a number
of opaque circular disks, or is generally opaque but perforated with
corresponding apertures. Since at these points the resultant due to
the whole aperture is zero, any two portions into which the whole
may be divided must give equal and opposite resultants. Consider
now the light diffracted in a direction many times more oblique than
any with which we should be concerned, were the whole aperture
uninterrupted, and take first the effect of a single small aperture.
The light in the proposed direction is that determined by the size of
the small aperture in accordance with the laws already investigated,
and its phase depends upon the position of the aperture. If we take
a direction such that the light (of given wave-length) from a single
aperture vanishes, the evanescence continues even when the whole
series of apertures is brought into contemplation. Hence, whatever
else may happen, there must be a system of dark rings formed,
the same as from a single small aperture. In directions other than
these it is a more delicate question how the partial effects should be
compounded. If we make the extreme suppositions of an infinitely
small source and absolutely homogeneous light, there is no escape
from the conclusion that the light in a definite direction is arbitrary,
that is, dependent upon the chance distribution of apertures. If,
however, as in practice, the light be heterogeneous, the source of
finite area, the obstacles in motion, and the discrimination of different
directions imperfect, we are concerned merely with the mean bright-
ness found by varying the arbitrary phase-relations, and this is
obtained by simply multiplying the brightness due to a single
aperture by the number of apertures (n) (see INTERFERENCE OF
LIGHT, § 4). The diffraction pattern is therefore that due to a single
aperture, merely brightened n times.

In his experiments upon this subject Fraunhofer employed plates
of glass dusted over with lycopodium, or studded with small metallic
disks of uniform size ; and he found that the diameters of the rings
were proportional to the length of the waves and inversely as the
diameter of the disks.

In another respect the observations of Fraunhofer appear at
first sight to be in disaccord with theory; for his measures of the
diameters of the red rings, visible when white light was employed,
correspond with the law applicable to dark rings, and not to the
different law applicable to the luminous maxima. Verdet has,
however, pointed out that the observation in this form is essentially
different from that in which homogeneous red light is employed,
and that the position of the red rings would correspond to the
absence of blue-green light rather than to the greatest abundance of
red light. Verdet's own observations, conducted with great care,
fully confirm this view, and exhibit a complete agreement with
theory.

By measurements of coronas it is possible to infer the size of the
particles to which they are due, an application of considerable
interest in the case of natural coronas — the general rule being the
larger the corona the smaller the water spherules. Young employed
this method not only to determine the diameters of cloud particles
(«•?• ijVtrin.), but also those of fibrous material, for which the
theory is analogous. His instrument was called the eriometer
(see Chromatics," vol. iii. of supp. to Ency. Brit., 1817).

7. Influence of Aberration. Optical Power of Instruments. —
Our investigations and estimates of resolving power have thus
far proceeded upon the supposition that there are no optical
imperfections, whether of the nature of a regular aberration or
dependent upon irregularities of material and workmanship. In

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

245

practice there will always be a certain aberration or error of phase,
which we may also regard as the deviation of the actual wave-
surface from its intended position. In general, we may say that
aberration is unimportant when it nowhere (or at any rate over a
relatively small area only) exceeds a small fraction of the wave-
length (X). Thus in estimating the intensity at a focal point,
where, in the absence of aberration, all the secondary waves would
have exactly the same phase, we see that an aberration nowhere
exceeding j\ can have but little effect.

The only case in which the influence of small aberration upon
the entire image has been calculated (Phil. Mag., 1875) is that of a
rectangular aperture, traversed by a cylindrical wave with aberration
equal to ex3. The aberration is here unsymmetrical, the wave being
in advance of its proper place in one half of the aperture, but behind
in the other half. No terms in x or x2 need be considered. The
first would correspond to a general turning of the beam; and the
second would imply imperfect focusing of the central parts. The
effect of aberration may be considered in two ways. We may
suppose the aperture (a) constant, and inquire into the operation
of an increasing aberration ; or we may take a given value of c (i.e.
a given wave-surface) and examine the effect of a varying aperture.
The results in the second case show that an increase of aperture
up to that corresponding to an extreme aberration of half a period
has no ill effect upon the central band (§ 3), but it increases unduly
the intensity of one of the neighbouring lateral bands; and the
practical conclusion is that the best results will be obtained from an
aperture giving an extreme aberration of from a quarter to half a
period, and that with an increased aperture aberration is not so
much a direct cause of deterioration as an obstacle to the attainment
of that improved definition which should accompany the increase
of aperture.

If, on the other hand, we suppose the aperture given, we find
that aberration begins to be distinctly mischievous when it amounts
to about a quarter period, i.e. when the wave-surface deviates at
each end by a quarter wave-length from the true plane.

As an application of this result, let us investigate what amount
of temperature disturbance in the tube of a telescope may be ex-
pected to impair definition. According to J. B. Biot and F. J. D.
Arago, the index M for air at t° C. and at atmospheric pressure is given
by

•00029
~l + -0037r

If we take o° C. as standard temperature,

Thus, on the supposition that the irregularity of temperature /
extends through a length /, and produces an acceleration of a quarter
of a wave-length,

or, if we take X = 5-3Xio~5,

//=I2,

the unit of length being the centimetre.

We may infer that, in the case of a telescope tube 12 cm. long,
a stratum of air heated i ° C. lying along the top of the tube, and
occupying a moderate fraction of the whole volume, would produce
a not insensible effect. If the change of temperature progressed
uniformly from one side to the other, the result would be a lateral
displacement of the image without loss of definition ; but in general
both effects would be observable. In longer tubes a similar dis-
turbance would be caused by a proportionally less difference of
temperature. S. P. Langley has proposed to obviate such ill-effects
by stirring the air included within a telescope tube. It has long been
known that the definition of a carbon bisulphide prism may be much
improved by a vigorous shaking.

We will now consider the application of the principle to the
formation of images, unassisted by reflection or refraction (Phil. Mag.,
1881). The function of a lens in forming an image is to compensate
by its variable thickness the differences of phase which would other-
wise exist between secondary waves arriving at the focal point from
various parts of the aperture. If we suppose the diameter of the
lens to be given (zR), and its focal length /gradually to increase, the
original differences of phase at the image of an infinitely distant
luminous point diminish without limit. When / attains a certain
value, say /i, the extreme error of phase to be compensated falls
to JX. But, as we have seen, such an error of phase causes no sensible
deterioration in the definition; so that from this point onwards
the lens is useless, as only improving an image already sensibly as
perfect as the aperture admits of. Throughout the operation of
increasing the focal length, the resolving power of the instrument,
which depends only upon the aperture, remains unchanged; and
we thus arrive at the rather startling conclusion that a telescope
of any degree of resolving power might be constructed without an
object-glass, if only there were no limit to the admissible focal length.
This last proviso, however, as we shall see, takes away almost all
practical importance from the proposition.

To get an idea of the magnitudes of the quantities involved, let us
take the case of an aperture of 1 in., about that of the pupil of the
eye. The distance /i, which the actual focal length must exceed, is
given by

so that
Thus, if X =

(1).

= 1IB, we find

/i = 800 inches.

The image of the sun thrown upon a screen at a distance exceeding
66 ft., through a hole J in. in diameter, is therefore at least as well
defined as that seen direct.

As the minimum focal length increases with the square of the
aperture, a quite impracticable distance would be required to rival
the resolving power of a modern telescope. Even for an aperture of
4 in., /i would have to be 5 miles.

A similar argument may be applied to find at what point an
achromatic lens becomes sensibly superior to a single one. The
question is whether, when the adjustment of focus is correct for the
central rays of the spectrum, the error of phase for the most extreme
rays (which it is necessary to consider) amounts to a quarter of a
wave-length. If not, the substitution of an achromatic lens will be
of no advantage. Calculation shows that, if the aperture be J in.,
an achromatic lens has no sensible advantage if the focal length
be greater than about 1 1 in. If we suppose the focal length to be
66 ft., a single lens is practically perfect up to an aperture of 1-7 in.

Another obvious inference from the necessary imperfection of
optical images is the uselessness of attempting anything like an
absolute destruction of spherical aberration. An admissible error
of phase of JX will correspond to an error of jX in a reflecting and iX
in a (glass) refracting surface, the incidence in both cases being
perpendicular. If we inquire what is the greatest admissible longi-
tudinal aberration (Sf) in an object-glass according to the above
rule, we find

«/=Xa-2 ....... (2),

o being the angular semi-aperture.

In the case of a single lens of glass with the most favourable curva-
tures, «/ is about equal to a2/, so that a4 must not exceed X//. For
a lens of 3 ft. focus this condition is satisfied if the aperture does
not exceed 2 in.

When parallel rays fall directly upon a spherical mirror the
longitudinal aberration is only about one-eighth as great as for the
most favourably shaped single lens of equal focal length and aper-
ture. Hence a spherical mirror of 3 ft. focus might have an
aperture of 2\ in., and the image would not suffer materially from
aberration.

On the same principle we may estimate the least visible displace-
ment of the eye-piece of a telescope focused upon a distant object,
a question of interest in connexion with range-finders. It appears
(Phil. Mag., 1885, 20, p. 354) that a displacements/ from the true focus
will not sensibly impair definition, provided

2R being the diameter of aperture. The linear accuracy required
is thus a function of the ratio of aperture to focal length. The
formula agrees well with experiment.

The principle gives an instantaneous solution of the question of
the ultimate optical efficiency in the method of " mirror-reading,"
as commonly practised in various physical observations. A rotation
by which one edge of the mirror advances \\ (while the other edge
retreats to a like amount) introduces a phase-discrepancy of a whole
period where before the rotation there was complete agreement. A
rotation of this amount should therefore be easily visible, but the
limits of resolving power are being approached ; and the conclusion
is independent of the focal length of the mirror, and of the employ-
ment of a telescope, provided of course that the reflected image is
seen in focus, and that the full width of the mirror is utilized.

A comparison with the method of a material pointer, attached to
the parts whose rotation is under observation, and viewed through
a microscope, is of interest. The
limiting efficiency of the microscope
is attained when the angular aperture
amounts to 180°; and it is evident
that a lateral displacement of the point
under observation through ^X entails
(at the old image) a phase-discrepancy
of a whole period, one extreme ray
being accelerated and the other re-

FIG. 5.

tarded by half that amount. We may infer that the limits of
efficiency in the two methods are the same when the length of the
pointer is equal to the width of the mirror.

We have seen that in perpendicular reflection a surface error not
exceeding JX may be admissible. In the case of oblique reflection
at an angle <t>, the error of retardation due to an elevation BD (fig. 5)

246

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

from which it follows that an error of given magnitude in the figure
of a surface is less important in oblique than in perpendicular
reflection. It must, however, be borne in mind that errors can
sometimes be compensated by altering adjustments. If a surface
intended to be flat is affected with a slight general curvature, a
remedy may be found in an alteration of focus, and the remedy is
the less complete as the reflection is more oblique.

The formula expressing the optical power of prismatic spectro-
scopes may readily be investigated upon the principles of the wave
theory. Let AoBo be a plane wave-surface of the light before it falls
upon the prisms, AB the corresponding wave-surface for a particular
part of the spectrum after the light has passed the prisms, or after it
has passed the eye-piece of the observing telescope. The path of a
ray from the wave-surface Ao Bo to A or B is determined by the con-
dition that the optical distance, Jpds, is a minimum; and, as AB
is by supposition a wave-surface, this optical distance is the same
for both points. Thus

jnds(lorA.)=jnds (for B) .... (4).

We have now to consider the behaviour of light belonging to a
neighbouring part of the spectrum. The path of a ray from the
wave-surface AoBo to the point A is changed; but in virtue of the
minimum property the change may be neglected in calculating the
optical distance.as it influences the result by quantities of the second
order only in the changes of refrangibility. Accordingly, the optical
distance fromAoBo to A is represented by f(n+Sii)ds, the integration
being along the original path Ao . . . A; and similarly the optical
distance between AoB0 and B is represented by f(n+Sn)ds, the
integration being along Bo ... B. In virtue of (4) the difference
of the optical distances to A and B is

fads (along B« . . . B)-JWi (along Ao ... A) (5).

The new wave-surface is formed in such a position that the optical
distance is constant; and therefore the dispersion, or the angle
through which the wave-surface is turned by the change of refrangi-
bility, is found simply by dividing (5) by the distance AB. If, as
in common flint-glass spectroscopes, there is only one dispersing
substance, (&nds = &p.s, where s is simply the thickness traversed
by the ray. If h and <i be the thicknesses traversed by the extreme
rays, and o denote the width of the emergent beam, the dispersion
0 is given by

or, if <i be negligible,

(6).

The condition of resolution of a double line whose components
subtend an angle 0 is that 6 must exceed X/a. Hence, in order
that a double line may be resolved whose components have indices
M and H+&P, it is necessary that / should exceed the value given
by the following equation : —

........ (7)-

8. Diffraction Gratings. — Under the heading " Colours of
Striated Surfaces," Thomas Young (Phil. Trans., 1802) in his
usual summary fashion gave a general explanation of these
colours, including the law of sines, the striations being supposed
to be straight, parallel and equidistant. Later, in his article
" Chromatics " in the supplement to the 5th edition of this
encyclopaedia, he shows that the colours " lose the mixed
character of periodical colours, and resemble much more the
ordinary prismatic spectrum, with intervals completely dark
interposed," and explains it by the consideration that any phase-
difference which may arise at neighbouring striae is multiplied in
proportion to the total number of striae.

The theory was further developed by A. J. Fresnel (1815), who
gave a formula equivalent to (5) below. But it is to J. von
Fraunhofer that we owe most of our knowledge upon this subject.
His recent discovery of the " fixed lines " allowed a precision of
observation previously impossible. He constructed gratings up
to 340 periods to the inch by straining fine wire over screws.
Subsequently he ruled gratings on a layer of gold-leaf attached to
glass, or on a layer of grease similarly supported, and again by
attacking the glass itself with a diamond point. The best gratings
were obtained by the last method, but a suitable diamond point
was hard to find, and to preserve. Observing through a telescope
with light perpendicularly incident, he showed that the position
of any ray was dependent only upon the grating interval, viz. the
distance from the centre of one wire or line to the centre of the

next, and not otherwise upon the thickness of the wire and the
magnitude of the interspace. In different gratings the lengths
of the spectra and their distances from the axis were inversely
proportional to the grating interval, while with a given grating
the distances of the various spectra from the axis were as i, 2, 3,
&c. To Fraunhofer we owe the first accurate measurements
of wave-lengths, and the method of separating the overlapping
spectra by a prism dispersing in the perpendicular direction.
He described also the complicated patterns seen when a point of
light is viewed through two superposed gratings, whose lines cross
one another perpendicularly or obliquely. The above observa-
tions relate to transmitted light, but Fraunhofer extended his
inquiry to the light reflected. To eliminate the light returned
from the hinder surface of an engraved grating, he covered it with
a black varnish. It then appeared that under certain angles of
incidence parts of the resulting spectra were completely polarized.
These remarkable researches of Fraunhofer, carried out in the
years 1817-1823, are republished in his Collected Writings
(Munich, 1888).

The principle underlying the action of gratings is identical with
that discussed in § 2, and exemplified in I. L. Soret's " zone plates."
The alternate Fresnel's zones are blocked out or otherwise modified;
in this way the original compensation is upset and a revival of light
occurs in unusual directions. If the source be a point or a line, and
a collimating lens be used, the incident waves may be regarded as
plane. If, further, on leaving the grating the light be received by a
focusing lens, e.g. the object-glass of a telescope, the Fresnel's zones
are reduced to parallel and equidistant straight strips, which at
certain angles coincide with the ruling. The directions of the lateral
spectra are such that the passage from one element of the grating
to the corresponding point of the next implies a retardation of
an integral number of wave-lengths. If the grating be composed
of alternate transparent and opaque parts, the question may be
treated by means of the general integrals (§ 3) by merely limiting
the integration to the transparent parts of the aperture. For an
investigation upon these lines the reader is referred to Airy's
Tracts, to Verdet's Lemons, or to R. W. Wood's Physical Optics. If,
however, we assume the theory of a simple rectangular aperture
(§ 3) ; the results of the ruling can be inferred by elementary methods,
which are perhaps more instructive.

Apart from the ruling, we know that the image of a mathematical
line will be a series of narrow bands, of which the central one is
by far the brightest. At the middle of this band there is complete
agreement of phase among the secondary waves. The dark lines
which separate the bands are the places at which the phases of the
secondary wave range over an integral number of periods. If now
we suppose the aperture AB to be covered by a great number of
opaque strips or bars of width d, separated by transparent intervals
of width a, the condition of things in the directions just spoken of
is not materially changed. At the central point there is still complete
agreement of phase ; but the amplitude is diminished in the ratio of
a: a+d. In another direction, making a small angle with the last,
such that the projection of AB upon it amounts to a few wave-
lengths, it is easy to see that the mode of interference is the same as
if there were no ruling. For example, when the direction is such that
the projection of AB upon it amounts to one wave-length, the
elementary components neutralize one another, because their phases
are distributed symmetrically, though discontinuously, round the
entire period. The only effect of the ruling is to diminish the
amplitude in the ratio a: a+d; and, except for the difference in
illumination, the appearance of a line of light is the same as if the
aperture were perfectly free.

The lateral (spectral) images occur in such directions that the
projection of the element (a+d) of the grating upon them is an exact
multiple of X. The effect of each of the n elements of the grating
is then the same ; and, unless this vanishes on account of a particular
adjustment of the ratio a:d, the resultant amplitude becomes com-
paratively very great. These directions, in which the retardation
between A and B is exactly mnX, may be called the principal direc-
tions. On either side of any one of them the illumination is dis-
tributed according to the same law as for the central image (m = o),
vanishing, for example, when the retardation amounts to (wm=*i)X.
In considering the relative brightnesses of the different spectra, it
is therefore sufficient to attend merely to the principal directions,
provided that the whole deviation be not so great that its cosine
differs considerably from unity.

We have now to consider the amplitude due to a single element,
which we may conveniently regard as composed of a transparent
part a bounded by two opaque parts of width J<f. The phase of
the resultant effect is by symmetry that of the component which
comes from the middle of o. The fact that the other components
have phases differing from this by amounts ranging between
d=amir/(a+d) causes the resultant amplitude to be less than for
the central image (where there is complete phase agreement).

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

247

If Br, denote the brightness of the mth lateral image, and B0 that
of the central image, we have

Bm:B»=

If B denotes the brightness of the central image when the whole of
the space occupied by the grating is transparent, we have

B0:B=a2:(<z+<Z)!,
and thus

fn\

The sine of an angle can never be greater than unity ; and con-
sequently under the most favourable circumstances only 1/mW of
the original light can be obtained in the mth spectrum. We con-
clude that, with a grating composed of transparent and opaque
parts, the utmost light obtainable in any one spectrum is in the first,
and there amounts to l/ir2, or about Vs. and that for this purpose
a and d must be equal. When d = a the general formula becomes

B»:B-5 ..... (3),

showing that, when m is even, Bm vanishes, and that, when m is odd,

The third spectrum has thus only J of the brilliancy of the first.

Another particular case of interest is obtained by supposing a
small relatively to (a+d). Unless the spectrum be of very high
order, we have simply

Bm:B = (a/(o+<*))* ..... (4);

so that the brightnesses of all the spectra are the same.

The light stopped by the opaque parts of the grating, together
with that distributed in the central image and lateral spectra, ought
to make up the brightness that would be found in the central image,
were all the apertures transparent. Thus, if a = d, we should have

which is true by a known theorem. In the general case

o-N-

a formula which may be verified by Fourier's theorem.

According to a general principle formulated by J. Babinet, the
brightness of a lateral spectrum is not affected by an interchange
of the transparent and opaque parts of the grating. The vibrations
corresponding to the two parts are precisely antagonistic, since if
both were operative the resultant would be zero. So far as the
application to gratings is concerned, the same conclusion may be
derived from (2).

From the value of Bm : Bo we see that no lateral spectrum can
surpass the central image in brightness ; but this result depends upon
the hypothesis that the ruling acts by opacity, which is generally
very far from being the case in practice. In an engraved glass
grating there is no opaque material present by which light could be
absorbed, and the effect depends upon a difference of retardation in
passing the alternate parts. It is possible to prepare gratings which
give a lateral spectrum brighter than the central image, and the ex-
planation is easy. For if the alternate parts were equal and alike
transparent, but so constituted as to give a relative retardation of
jX, it is evident that the central image would be entirely extinguished,
while the first spectrum would be four times as bright as if the
alternate parts were opaque. If it were possible to introduce at
every part of the aperture of the grating an arbitrary retardation,
all the light might be concentrated in any desired spectrum. By
supposing the retardation to vary uniformly and continuously we
, fall upon the case of an ordinary prism : but there
is then no diffraction spectrum in the usual sense.
To obtain such it would be necessary that the
retardation should gradually alter by a wave-
length in passing over any element of the grating,
and then fall back to its previous value, thus
springing suddenly over a wave-length (Phil.
Mag., 1874, 47, p. 193). It is not likely that such
a result will ever be fully attained in practice; but
the case is worth stating, in order to show that
there is no theoretical limit to the concentration
p G ^ of light of assigned wave-length in one spectrum

and as illustrating the frequently observed un-
symmetrical character of the spectra on the two sides of the centra'
image.1

We have hitherto supposed that the light is incident perpen

1 The last sentence is repeated from the writer's article " Wave
Theory " in the gth edition of this work, but A. A. Michelson's
ingenious echelon grating constitutes a realization in an unexpectec
manner of what was thought to be impracticable. — [R.]

dicularly upon the grating; but the theory is easily extended. If
he incident rays make an angle S with the normal (fig. 6), and the
diffracted rays make an angle 4> (upon the same side), the relative
retardation from each element of width (a+d) to the next is
'a+d) (sin 0+sin <t>) ; and this is the quantity which is to be equated

0 m\. Thus

sinfl+sin 0 = 2 sin %(8+<f>) cos 1(6 — <j>) =m\/(a+d) (5).
The "deviation" is (0+<f>), and is therefore a minimum when

1 = <t>, i.e. when the grating is so situated that the angles of incidence
and diffraction are equal.

In the case of a reflection grating the same method applies. If
6 and <t> denote the angles with the normal made by the incident
and diffracted rays, the formula (5) still holds,
and, if the deviation be reckoned from the
direction of the regularly reflected rays, it is
expressed as before ;by (0+<t>), and is a mini-
mum when 6 — <t>, that is, when the diffracted
rays return upon the course of the incident

•ays.
In either case (as also with a prism) the

josition of minimum deviation leaves the

FIG. 7.

width of the beam unaltered, i.e. neither magnifies nor diminishes the
angular width of the object under view.

From (5) we see that, when the light falls perpendicularly upon
grating (0 = o), there is no spectrum formed (the image corre-
sponding to m=o not being counted as a spectrum), if the grating
"nterval <r or (a+d) is less than X. Under these circumstances,
.! the material of the grating be completely transparent, the whole
of the light must appear in the direct image, and the ruling is not
perceptible. From the absence of spectra Fraunhofer argued that
there must be a microscopic limit represented by X; and the infer-
ence is plausible, to say the least (Phil. Mag., 1886). Fraunhofer
should, however, have fixed the microscopic limit at JX, as appears
from (5), when we suppose 0 = |jr, <£ = iir.

We will now consider the important subject of the resolving
power of gratings, as dependent upon the
number of lines (n) and the order of the spec- Q .~

trum observed (m). Let BP (fig. 8) be the V \ \
direction of the principal maximum (middle \\
of central band) for the wave-length X in the \\
mth spectrum. Then the relative retardation ^\

of the extreme rays (corresponding to the A.

edges A, B of the grating) is mn\. If BQ A B

be the direction for the first minimum (the FIG. 8.

darkness between the central and first lateral
band), the relative retardation of the extreme rays is (tnn + i)\.
Suppose now that X+5X is the wave-length for which BQ gives the
principal maximum, then

whence

«X/X=i/mn ..... (6).

According to our former standard, this gives the smallest difference
of wave-lengths in a double line which can be just resolved; and
we conclude that the resolving power of a grating depends only
upon the total number of lines, and upon the order of the spectrum,
without regard to any other considerations. It is here of course
assumed that the n lines are really utilized.

In the case of the D lines the value of 5X/X is about i/iooo; so
that to resolve this double line in the first spectrum requires 1000
lines, in the second spectrum 500, and so on.

It is especially to be noticed that the resolving power does not
depend directly upon the closeness of the ruling. Let us take the
case of a grating I in. broad, and containing loop lines, and consider
the effect of interpolating an additional 1000 lines, so as to bisect
the former intervals. There will be destruction by interference of
the first, third and odd spectra generally; while the advantage
gained in the spectra of even order is not in dispersion, nor in
resolving power, but simply in brilliancy, which is increased four
times. If we now suppose half the grating cut away, so as to leave
lopo lines in half an inch, the dispersion will not be altered, while the
brightness and resolving power are halved.

There is clearly no theoretical limit to the resolving power of
gratings, even in spectra of given order. But it is possible that,
as suggested by Rowland,* the structure of natural spectra may
be too coarse to give opportunity for resolving powers much higher
than those now in use. However this may be, it would always
be possible, with the aid of a grating of given resolving power, to
construct artificially from white light mixtures of slightly different
wave-length whose resolution or otherwise would discriminate
between powers inferior and superior to the given one.3

'Compare also F. F. Lippich, Pogg. Ann. cxxxix. p. 465, 1870;
Rayleigh, Nature (October 2, 1873).

* The power of a grating to construct light of nearly definite wave-
length is well illustrated by Young's comparison with the production
of a musical note by reflection of a sudden sound from a row of
palings. The objection raised by Herschel (Light, § 703) to this
comparison depends on a misconception

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

If we define as the " dispersion " in a particular part of the
spectrum the ratio of the angular interval dB-to the corresponding
increment of wave-length d\ we may express it by a very simple
formula. For the alteration of wave-length entails,_ at the two
limits of a diffracted wave-front, a relative retardation equal to
mnd\. Hence, if a be the width of the diffracted beam, and d» the
angle through which the wave-front is turned,

ad6 = mn d\,
dispersion =mn/a

(7)-

The resolving power and the width of the emergent beam fix
the optical character of the instrument. The latter element must
eventually be decreased until less than the diameter of the pupil
of the eye. Hence a wide beam demands treatment with further
apparatus (usually a telescope) of high magnifying power.

In the above discussion it has been supposed that the ruling is
accurate, and we have seen that by increase of m a high resolving
power is attainable with a moderate number of lines. But this
procedure (apart from the question of illumination) is open to the
objection that it makes excessive demands upon accuracy. Accord-
ing to the principle already laid down it can make but little difference
in the principal direction corresponding to the first spectrum,
provided each line lie within a quarter of an interval (a+d) from its
theoretical position. But, to obtain an equally good result in the
mth spectrum, the error must be less than ijm of the above amount.1

There are certain errors of .a systematic character which demand
special consideration. The spacing is usually effected by means of
a screw, to each revolution of which corresponds a large number
(e.g. one hundred) of lines. In this way it may happen that although
there is almost perfect periodicity with each revolution of the screw
after (say) 100 lines, yet the 100 lines themselves are not equally
spaced. The " ghosts " thus arising were first described by G. H.
Quincke (Fogg. Ann., 1872, 146, p. i), and have been elaborately
investigated by C. S. Peirce (Ann. Journ. Math., 1879, 2, p. 330), both
theoretically and experimentally. The general nature of the effects
to be expected in such a case may be made clear by means of an illus-
tration already employed for another purpose. Suppose two similar
and accurately ruled transparent gratings to be superposed in such
a manner that the lines are parallel. If the one set of lines exactly
bisect the intervals between the others, the grating interval is
practically halved, and the previously existing spectra of odd order
vanish. But a very slight relative displacement will cause the
apparition of the odd spectra. In this case there is approximate
periodicity in the half interval, but complete periodicity only after
the whole interval. The advantage of approximate bisection lies
in the superior brilliancy of the surviving spectra ; but in any case
the compound grating may be considered to be perfect in the
longer interval, and the definition is as good as if the bisection were
accurate.

The effect of a gradual increase in the interval (fig. 9) as we
pass across the grating has been investigated by M. A. Cornu
(C.R., 1875, 80, p. 655), who thus explains an anomaly observed by

FIG. 9.— x*. FIG. io.— y. FIG. ii.— *

FIG. 12. — xf.

E. E. N. Mascart. The latter found that certain gratings exercised
a converging power upon the spectra formed upon one side, and a
corresponding diverging power upon the spectra on the other side.
Let us suppose that the light is incident perpendicularly, and that
the grating interval increases from the centre towards that edge
which lies nearest to the spectrum under observation, and decreases
towards the hinder edge. It is evident that the waves from both

halves of the
grating are ac-
celerated in an
increasing degree,
as we pass from
the centre out-
wards, as com-
pared with the
phase they would possess were the central value of the grating
interval maintained throughout. The irregularity of spacing has
thus the effect of a convex lens, which accelerates the marginal
relatively to the central rays. On the other side the effect is
reversed. This kind of irregularity may clearly be present in a

FIG. 13.— xy. FIG. 14.— x*y. FIG. 15.— y*.

1 It must not be supposed that errors of this order of magnitude are
unobjectionable in all cases. The position of the middle of the bright
band representative of a mathematical line can be fixed with a
spider-line micrometer within a small fraction of the width of the
band, just as the accuracy of astronomical observations far transcend:
the separating power of the instrument.

degree surpassing the usual limits, without loss of definition, when
;he telescope is focused so as to secure the best effect.

It may be worth while to examine further the other variations
rrom correct ruling which correspond to the various terms expressing
:he deviation of the wave-surface from a perfect plane. If x and y
je co-ordinates in the plane of the wave-surface, the axis of y being
parallel to the lines of the grating, and the origin corresponding
:o the centre of the beam, we may take as an approximate equation
to the wave-surface

(8);

and, as we have just seen, the term in *2 corresponds to a linear
error in the spacing. In like manner, the term in y2 corresponds
:o a general curvature of the lines (fig. 10), and does not influence
the definition at the (primary) focus, although it may introduce
astigmatism.2 If we suppose that everything is symmetrical on
the two sides of the primary plane y = o, the coefficients B, 0, 5
vanish. In spite of any inequality between p and p', the definition
will be good to this order of approximation, provided a and y vanish.
The former measures the thickness of the primary focal line, and the
latter measures its curvature. The error of ruling giving rise to a is
one in which the intervals increase or decrease in both directions
from the centre outwards (fig. Ii), and it may often be compensated
by a slight rotation in azimuth of the object-glass of the observing
telescope. The term in y corresponds to a variation of curvature
in crossing the grating (fig. 12).

When the plane zx is not a plane of symmetry, we have to consider
the terms in xy, x^y, and y3. The first of these corresponds to a devia-
tion from parallelism, causing the interval tpalter gradually as we pass
along the lines (fig. 13). The error thus arising may be compensated
by a rotation of the object-glass about one of the diameters y — =t*.
The term in x*y corresponds to a deviation from parallelism in the
same direction on both sides of the central line (fig. 14); and that in
y3 would be caused by a curvature such that there is a point of
inflection at the middle of each line (fig. 15).

All the errors, except that depending on o, and especially those
depending on y and {, can be diminished, without loss of resolving
power, by contracting the vertical aperture. A linear error in the
spacing, and a general curvature of the lines, are eliminated in the
ordinary use of a grating.

The explanation of the difference of focus upon the two sides as
due to unequal spacing was verified by Cornu upon gratings purposely
constructed with an increasing interval. He has also shown how to
rule a plane surface with lines so disposed that the grating shall of
itself give well-focused spectra.

A similar idea appears to have guided H. A. Rowland to his
brilliant invention of concave gratings, by
which spectra can be photographed without
any further optical appliance. In these
instruments the lines are ruled upon a
spherical surface of speculum metal, and
mark the intersections of the surface by a
system of parallel and equidistant planes, O; —
of which the middle member passes through V
the centre of the sphere. If we consider for
the present only the primary plane of_sym-
metry, the figure is reduced to two dimen-
sions. Let AP (fig. 1 6) represent the surface
of the grating, O being the centre of the
circle. Then, if Q be any radiant point and
Q' its image (primary focus) in the spherical mirror AP, we have

1.1 _2cos<t>

Vi u~ a '

where t))=AQ', u=AQ, o = OA, <*> = angleof incidence QAO, equal to
the angle of reflection Q'AO. If Q be on the circle described upon
OA as diameter, so that u-a cos <j>, then Q' lies also upon the same
circle; and in this case it follows from the symmetry that the
unsymmetrical aberration (depending upon a) vanishes.

This disposition is adopted in Rowland's instrument; only, in
addition to the central image formed at the angle <t>' = <t>, there are
a series of spectra with various values of 4>', btit all disposed upon
the same circle. Rowland's investigation is contained in the paper
already referred to; but the following account of the theory is in
the form adopted by R. T. Glazebrook (Phil. Mag., 1883).

In order to find the difference of optical distances between the
courses QAQ', QPQ', we have to express QP-QA, PQ'-AQ'. To
find the former, we have, if OAQ = <£, AOP = «,

= (tt+a sin <i> sin u>)2— a2 sin 20sin 2a>+4a sin 2ju(a-» cos <j>).

FIG.

2 " In the same way we may conclude that in flat gratings any
departure from a straight line has the effect of causing the dust in
the slit and the spectrum to have different foci — a fact sometimes
observed " (Rowland, " On Concave Gratings for Optical Purposes,
Phil. Mag., September 1883).

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

249

Now as far as «4

4 sin 4w =
and thus to the same order

QP2 = (u+a sin <t> sin w)*

—a cos <f>(u—a cos <i>) sin 2aj + j<z(<i — M cos <t>) sin 4w.
But if we now suppose that Q lies on the circle u=a cos <t>, the
middle term vanishes, and we get, correct as far as w4,

QP = (M+asin <t>sin a)
so that

in which it is to be noticed that the adjustment necessary to secure
the disappearance of sin 2&> is sufficient also to destroy the term in
sin3 w.

A similar expression can be found for Q'P— Q'A; and thus, if
Q'A = ii, Q'AO=<£' , where v = a cos <t>' , we get

/) . . . (10).

If (£' = <£, the term of the first order vanishes, and the reduction of
the difference of path via P and via A to a term of the fourth order
proves not only that Q and Q' are conjugate foci, but also that the
foci are exempt from the most important term in the aberration.
In the present application <t>' is not necessarily equal to </>; but if
P correspond to a line upon the grating, the difference of retarda-
tions for consecutive positions of P, so far as expressed by the term
of the first order, will be equal to =FJM\ (m integral), and therefore
without influence, provided

a (sin <t>-sin<t>') = =F mX (11),

where a denotes the constant interval between the planes contain-
ing the lines. This is the ordinary formula for a reflecting plane
grating, and it shows that the spectra are formed in the usual
directions. They are here focused (so far as the rays in the primary
plane are concerned) upon the circle OQ'A, and the outstanding
aberration is of the fourth order.

In order that a large part of the field of view may be in focus at
once, it is desirable that the locus of the focused spectrum should
be nearly perpendicular to the line of vision. For this purpose
Rowland places the eye-piece at O, so that <t> = o, and then by (n)
the value of <t>' in the m" spectrum is

If u now relate to the edge of the grating, on which there are
altogether n lines,

n<r = 2a sin u,

and the value of the last term in (10) becomes
r sin 3o> sin <£'tan <t>' ,

^a mnXsin' wtan <t>' (13).

This expresses the retardation of the extreme relatively to the
central ray, and is to be reckoned positive, whatever may be the
signs of u, and 0'. If the semi-angular aperture (u) be Tj0, and
tan 4>' = i, mn might be as great as four millions before the error of
phase would reach JX. If it were desired to use an angular aperture
so large that the aberration according to (13) would be injurious,
Rowland points out that on his machine there would be no difficulty
in applying a remedy by making a slightly variable towards the
edges. Or, retaining a constant, we might attain compensation by so
polishing the surface as to bring the circumference slightly forward
in comparison with the position it would occupy upon a true sphere.

It may be remarked that these calculations apply to the rays in
the primary plane only. The image is greatly affected with astig-
matism ; but this is of little consequence, if 7 in (8) be small enough.
Curvature of the primary focal line having a very injurious effect
upon definition, it may be inferred from the excellent performance
of these gratings that y is in fact small. Its value does not appear
to have been calculated. The other coefficients in (8) vanish in
virtue of the symmetry.

The mechanical arrangements for maintaining the focus are of
great simplicity. The grating at A and the eye-piece at O are
rigidly attached to a bar AO, whose ends rest on carriages, moving
on rails OQ, AQ at right angles to each other. A tie between the
middle point of the rod OA and Q can be used if thought desirable.

The absence of chromatic aberration gives a great advantage in
the comparison of overlapping spectra, which Rowland has turned
to excellent account in his determinations of the relative wave-
lengths of lines in the solar spectrum (Phil. Mag., 1887).

For absolute determinations of wave-lengths plane gratings are
used. It is found (Bell, Phil. Mag., 1887) that the angular
measurements present less difficulty than the comparison of the
grating interval with the standard metre. There is also some
uncertainty as to the actual temperature of the grating when in
use. In order to minimize the heating action of the light, it might
be submitted to a preliminary prismatic analysis before it reaches
the slit of the spectrometer, after the manner of Helmholtz.

In spite of the many improvements introduced by Rowland and

of the care with which his observations were made, recent workers
have come to the conclusion that errors of unexpected amount
have crept into his measurements of wave-lengths, and there is
even a disposition to discard the grating altogether for funda-
mental work in favour of the so-called " interference methods,"
as developed by A. A. Michelson, and by C. Fabry and J. B. Perot.
The grating would in any case retain its utility for the reference of
new lines to standards otherwise fixed. For such standards
a relative accuracy of at least one part in a million seems now
to be attainable.

Since the time of Fraunhofer many skilled mechanicians have
given their attention to the ruling of gratings. Those of Nobert
were employed by A. J. Angstrom in his celebrated researches
upon wave-lengths. L. M. Rutherfurd introduced into common
use the reflection grating, finding that speculum metal was less
trying than glass to the diamond point, upon the permanence of
which so much depends. In Rowland's dividing engine the
screws were prepared by a special process devised by him, and
the resulting gratings, plane and concave, have supplied the
means for much of the best modern optical work. It would
seem, however, that further improvements are not excluded.

There are various copying processes by which it is possible
to reproduce an original ruling in more or less perfection. The
earliest is that of Quincke, who coated a glass grating with a
chemical silver deposit, subsequently thickened with copper in
an electrolytic bath. The metallic plate thus produced formed,
when stripped from its support, a reflection grating reproducing
many of the characteristics of the original. It is best to com-
mence the electrolytic thickening in a silver acetate bath. At
the present time excellent reproductions of Rowland's speculum
gratings are on the market (Thorp, Ives, Wallace), prepared, after
a suggestion of Sir David Brewster, by coating the original with a
varnish, e.g. of celluloid. Much skill is required to secure that
the film when stripped shall remain undeformed.

A much easier method, applicable to glass originals, is that
of photographic reproduction by contact printing. In several
papers dating from 1872, Lord Rayleigh (see Collected Papers,
i. 157, 160, 199, 504; iv. 226) has shown that success may
be attained by a variety of processes, including bichromated
gelatin and the old bitumen process, and has investigated the
effect of imperfect approximation during the exposure between the
prepared plate and the original. For many purposes the copies,
containing lines up to 10,000 to the inch, are not inferior. It is
to be desired that transparent gratings should be obtained from
first-class ruling machines. To save the diamond point it might
be possible to use something softer than ordinary glass as the
material of the plate.

9. Talbot's Bands. — These very remarkable bands are seen
under certain conditions when a tolerably pure spectrum is re-
garded with the naked eye, or with a telescope, half the aperture
being covered by a thin plate, e.g. of glass or mica. The view of the
matter taken by the discoverer (Phil. Mag., 1837, 10, p. 364) was
that any ray which suffered in traversing the plate a retardation
of an odd number of half wave-lengths would be extinguished,
and that thus the spectrum would be seen interrupted by a
number of dark bars. But this'explanation cannot be accepted as
it stands, being open to the same objection as Arago's theory of
stellar scintillation.1 It is as far as possible from being true that
a body emitting homogeneous light would disappear on merely
covering half the aperture of vision with a half- wave plate.
Such a conclusion would be in the face of the principle of energy,
which teaches plainly that the retardation in question leaves
the aggregate brightness unaltered. The actual formation of

1 On account of inequalities in the atmosphere giving a variable
refraction, the light from a star would be irregularly distributed over
a screen. The experiment is easily made on a laboratory scale, with
a small source of light, the rays from which „ in their course
towards a rather distant screen, are disturbed by the neighbourhood
of a heated body. At a moment when the eye, or object-glass of a
telescope, occupies a dark position, the star vanishes. A fraction
of a second later the aperture occupies a bright place, and the star
reappears. According to this view the chromatic effects depend
entirely upon atmospheric dispersion.

250

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

the bands comes about in a very curious way, as is shown by a
circumstance first observed by Brewster. When the retarding
plate is held on the side towards the red of the spectrum, the bands
are not seen. Even in the contrary case , the thickness of the plate
must not exceed a certain limit, dependent upon the purity of
the spectrum. A satisfactory explanation of these bands was first
given by Airy (Phil. Trans., 1840, 225; 1841, i), but we shall here
follow the investigation of Sir G. G. Stokes ( Phil. Trans., 1848,
227), limiting ourselves, however, to the case where the retarded
and unretarded beams are contiguous and of equal width.

The aperture of the unretarded beam may thus be taken to be
limited by x= —h, * = o, y— —I, y=+l; and that of the beam re-
tarded by R to be given by * = o, x = h, y=—l, y = +l. For the
former (i) § 3 gives

2lh

. kr,l 2f_ . kth . ,( , &)

sm -j • kth sin w • sm * I at~J % I •

on integration and reduction.

For the retarded stream the only difference is that we must sub-
tract R from at, and that the limits of * are o and -\-h. We thus
get for the disturbance at £, ij, due to this stream

2lh

kril2

kth

~

If we put for shortness T for the quantity under the last circular
function in (i), the expressions (i), (2) may be put under the forms
u sinr, » sin (T— o) respectively; and, if I be the intensity, I will be
measured by the sum of the squares of the coefficients of sin r and
cos T in the expression

u sin T+» sin (T— a),
so that

I =«2+»*+2«i) cos o,
which becomes on putting for u, v, and a their values, and putting

(3),

(4).

If the subject of examination be a luminous line parallel to ij, we
shall obtain what we require by integrating (4) with respect to i\
from — oo to + 00. The constant multiplier is of no especial interest
so that we may take as applicable to the image of a line

2 . jlrfft I /2irR 2ir£ft\ )

If R = JX, I vanishes at £=o; but the whole illumination, repre-
sented by | I d£, is independent of the value of R. If R=o,

J — oe
1 2ir? h

I =|jsin2-r^-, in agreement with § 3, where o has the meaning

here attached to 2ft.

The expression (5) gives the illumination at £ due to that part
of the complete image whose geometrical focus is at £ = o, the
retardation for this component being R. Since we have now to
integrate for the whole illumination at a particular point O due to
all the components which have their foci in its neighbourhood, we
may conveniently regard O as origin. £ is then the co-ordinate
relatively to O of any focal point O' for which the retardation is R;
and the required result is obtained by simply integrating (5) with
respect to £ from — oo to +00. To each value of £ corresponds
a different value of X, and (in consequence of the dispersing power
of the plate) of R. The variation of X may, however, be neglected
in the integration, except in 2?rR/X, where a small variation of X
entails a comparatively large alteration of phase. If we write

p = 2jrR/X (6),

we must regard p as a function of £, and we may take with sufficient
approximation under any ordinary circumstances

_ f I £ (tf\

where p' denotes the value of p at O, and o is a constant, which is
positive when the retarding plate is held at the side on which the
blue of the_spectrum is seen. The possibility of dark bands depends
upon o being positive. Only in this case can

retain the constant value — i throughout the integration, and then
only when

ra = 2xA/X/ (8)

and

cosp'=-i (9).

The first of these equations is the condition for the formation of

dark bands, and the second marks their situation, which is the
same as that determined by the imperfect theory.

The integration can be effected without much difficulty. For
the first term in (5) the evaluation is effected at once by a known
formula. In the second term if we observe that

cos (p' + (a - 2rhl\f) t] = cos [p' - g,|)
= cos p' cos gi£ +sin p' sin gi{,

we see that the second part vanishes when integrated, and that
the remaining integral is of the form

where

(10).

By differentiation with respect to g! it may be proved that

t0 = 0 fromgi = — oo togi = — ahi,

t0 = iir(2&i+gi) from gi= -2hi to gi=0,

t0 = iir(2Ai-fr) fromgi = 0 togi=2fc,

w = 0 fromgi = 2Ai togi = oo.

The integrated intensity, I', or

2rht+2 COS pW,

is thus

I' = 2Tftj ...... (11),

when gi numerically exceeds ahi; and, when gi lies between =2&i,
I =» {2fti + (2ft, -V ft1) cos p') . . . (12).

It appears therefore that there are no bands at all unless ro lies
between o and +4*1, and that within these limits the best bands are
formed at the middle of the range when er=2ft,. The formation
of bands thus requires that the retarding plate be held upon the
side already specified, so that BJ be positive ; and that the thickness
of the plate (to which CT is proportional) do not exceed a certain
limit, which we may call 2T0. At the best thickness To the bands
are black, and not otherwise.

The linear width of the band (?) is the increment of £ which alters
p by 2ir, so that

e=2ir/CT ...... (13).

With the best thickness

CT=27rft/X/ ...... (14).

so that in this case

« = A//A ...... (15).

The bands are thus of the same width as those due to two infinitely
narrow apertures coincident with the central lines of the retarded
and unretarded streams, the subject of examination being itself a
fine luminous line.

If it be desired to see a given number of bands in the whole or
in any part of the spectrum, the thickness of the retarding plate
is thereby determined, independently of all other considerations.
But in order that the bands may be really visible, and still more in
order that they may be black, another condition must be satisfied.
It is necessary that the aperture of the pupil be accommodated
to the angular extent of the spectrum, or reciprocally. Black
bands will be too fine to be well seen unless the aperture (2/1) of
the pupil be somewhat contracted. One-twentieth to one-fiftieth
of an inch is suitable. The aperture and the number of bands being
both fixed, the condition of blackness determines the angular magni-
tude of a band and of the spectrum. The use of a grating is very
convenient, for not only are there several spectra in view at the same
time, but the dispersion can be varied continuously by sloping the
grating. The slits may be cut out of tin-plate, and half covered by
mica or " microscopic glass," held in position by a little cement.

If a telescope be employed there is a distinction to be observed,
according as the half-covered aperture is between the eye and the
ocular, or in front of the object-glass. In the former case the
function of the telescope is simply to increase the dispersion, and
the formation of the bands is of course independent of the par-
ticular manner in which the dispersion arises. If, however, the
half-covered aperture be in front of the object-glass, the pheno-
menon is magnified as a whole, and the desirable relation between
the (unmagnified) dispersion and the aperture is the same as with-
out the telescope. There appears to be no further advantage in the
use of a telescope than the increased facility of accommodation,
and for this of course a very low power suffices.

The original investigation of Stokes, here briefly sketched, extends
also to the case where the streams are of unequal width h, k,
and are separated by an interval 2g. In the case of unequal width
the bands cannot be black; but if h = k, the finiteness of 2g does
not preclude the formation of black bands.

The theory of Talbot's bands with a half-covered circular aperture
has been considered by H. Struve (St Peters. Trans., 1883, 31, No. i).

The subject of " Talbot's bands " has been treated in a very
instructive manner by A. Schuster (Phil. Mag., 1904), whose point
of view offers the great advantage of affording an instantaneous
explanation of the peculiarity noticed by Brewster. A plane
pulse, i.e. a disturbance limited to an infinitely thin slice of the
medium, is supposed to fall upon a parallel grating, which again may

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

251

be regarded as formed of infinitely thin wires, or infinitely narrow
lines traced upon glass. The secondary pulses diverted by the ruling
fall upon an object-glass as usual, and on arrival at the focus
constitute a procession equallyspaced in time, the interval between
consecutive members depending upon the obliquity. If a retarding
plate be now inserted so as to operate upon the pulses which come
from one side of the grating, while leaving the remainder unaffected,
we have to consider what happens at the focal point chosen. A full
discussion would call for the formal application of Fourier's theorem,
but some conclusions of importance are almost obvious.

Previously to the introduction of the plate we have an effect
corresponding to wave-lengths closely grouped around the principal
wave-length, viz. a sin <t>, where a is the grating-interval and <#> the
objiquity, the closeness of the grouping increasing with the number
of intervals. In addition to these wave-lengths there are other groups
centred round the wave-lengths which are submultiples of the
principal one — the overlapping spectra of the second and higher
orders. Suppose now that the plate is introduced so as to cover half
the aperture and that it retards those pulses which would otherwise
arrive first. The consequences must depend upon the amount of the
retardation. As this increases from zero, the two processions which
correspond to the two halves of the aperture begin to overlap, and
the overlapping gradually increases until there is almost complete
superposition. The stage upon which we will fix our attention is
that where the one procession bisects the intervals between the
other, so that a new simple procession is constituted, containing the
same number of members as before the insertion of the plate, but
now spaced at intervals only half as great. It is evident that the
effect at the focal point is the obliteration of the first and other
spectra of odd order, so that as regards the spectrum of the first order
we may consider that the two beams interfere. The formation of
black bands is thus explained, and it requires that the plate be
introduced upon one particular side, and that the amount of the
retardation be adjusted to a particular value. If the retardation
be too little, the overlapping of the processions is incomplete, so that
besides the procession of half period there are residues of the original
processions of full period. The same thing occurs if the retardation
be too great. If it exceed the double of the value necessary for
black bands, there is again no overlapping and consequently no
interference. If the plate be introduced upon the other side, so as
to retard the procession originally in arrear, there is no overlapping,
whatever may be the amount of retardation. In this way the
principal features of the phenomenon are accounted for, and
Schuster has shown further how to extend the results to spectra
having their origin in prisms instead of gratings.

10. Diffraction when the Source of Light is not seen in Focus.
—The phenomena to be considered under this head are of less
importance than those investigated by Fraunhofer, and will be
treated in less detail; but in view of their historical interest and
of the ease with which many of the experiments may be tried,
some account of their theory cannot be omitted. One or two
examples have already attracted our attention when considering
Fresnel's zones, viz. the shadow of a circular disk and of a screen
circularly perforated.

Fresnel commenced his researches with an examination of the
fringes, external and internal, which accompany the shadow of a
narrow opaque strip, such as a wire. As a source of light he used
sunshine passing through a very small hole perforated in a metal
plate, or condensed by a lens of short focus. In the absence of a
heliostat the latter was the more convenient. Following, un-
known to himself, in the footsteps of Young, he deduced the
principle of interference from the circumstance that the darkness
of the interior bands requires the co-operation of light from both
sides of the obstacle. At first, too, he followed Young in the view
that the exterior bands are the result of interference between the
direct light and that reflected from the edge of the obstacle, but
he soon discovered that the character of the edge — e.g. whether
it was the cutting edge or the back of a razor — made no material
difference, and was thus led to the conclusion that the explanation
of these phenomena requires nothing more than the application of
Huygens's principle to the unobstructed parts of the wave. In
observing the bands he received them at first upon a screen of
finely ground glass, upon which a magnifying lens was focused;
but it soon appeared that the ground glass could be dispensed with,
the diffraction pattern being viewed in the same way as the image
formed by the object-glass of a telescope is viewed through the
eye-piece. This simplification was attended by a great saving of
light, allowing measures to be taken such as would otherwise have
presented great difficulties.

In theoretical investigations these problems are usually treated
as of two dimensions only, everything being referred to the plane

passing through the luminous point and perpendicular to the diffract-
ing edges, supposed to be straight and parallel. In strictness this
idea is appropriate only when the source is a luminous line, emitting
cylindrical waves, such as might be obtained from a luminous point
with the aid of a cylindrical lens. When, in order to apply Huygens's
principle, the wave is supposed to be broken up, the phase is the same
at every_ element of the surface of resolution which lies upon a line
perpendicular to the plane of reference, and
thus the effect of the whole line, or rather
infinitesimal strip, is related in a constant
manner to that of the element which lies
in the plane of reference, and may be
considered to be represented thereby. The
same method of representation is applicable
to spherical waves, issuing from a point, if
the radius of curvature be large; for, al-
though there is variation of phase along the

1 ul_ _f o_l •_£_•*_ • 1 _.«_•_ * «_ _ . * I *•

FIG. 17.

length of the infinitesimal strip, the whole effect depends practically
upon that of the central parts where the phase is sensibly constant.1

In fig. 17 APQ is the arc of the circle representative of the wave-
front of resolution, the centre being at O, and the radius OA being
equal to a. B is the point at which the effect is required, distant
a+b from O, so that AB=ft, AP = j, PQ=ds.

Taking as the standard phase that of the secondary wave from
A, we may represent the effect of PQ by

where S=BP-AP is the retardation at B of the wave from P

relatively to that from A.

Now

..... . . (1),

so that, if we write

the effect at B is

\ 2FF5) \ '' \ COS?T/

COS

(3),

the limits of integration depending upon the disposition of the
diffracting edges. When a, b, \ are regarded as constant, the first
factor may be omitted, — as indeed should be done for consistency's
sake, inasmuch as other factors of the same nature have been
omitted already.

The intensity I2, the quantity with which we are principally
concerned, may thus be expressed

I1={/cosjTt>2.<fo^+{/sin|«>I.<to^ . • • (4).

These integrals, taken from »=o, are known as Fresnel's integrals;
we will denote them by C and S, so that

= I cos

= L'si

(5).

When the upper limit is infinity, so that the limits correspond to
the inclusion of half the primary wave, C and S are both equal to
£, by a known formula; and on account of the rapid fluctuation
of sign the parts of the range beyond very moderate values of v
contribute but little to the result.

Ascending series for C and S were given by K. W. Knockenhauer,
and are readily investigated. Integrating by parts, we find

r L -c Cv *'•»*** '-I"** /"» »-ilr*s

C+*S=Joe dv = e J-i
and, by continuing this process,

(6),

(7),

By separation of real and imaginary parts,

C = M cos i«i*+N sin
S = M sin Jar2— N cos
where

, ,, v irV . TT%'
M=7~ -0+3X7:9 -

NTV-
=TT;—

1.3.5.7.9.11 - ' ' ' •-
These series are convergent for all values of », but are practically
useful only when v is small .

Expressions suitable for discussion when v is large were obtained

1 In experiment a line of light is sometimes substituted for a point
in order to increase the illumination. The various parts of the line
are here independent sources, and should be treated accordingly.
To assume a cylindrical form of primary wave would be justifiable
only when there is synchronism among the secondary waves issuing
from the various centres.

252

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

by L. P. Gilbert (Mem. cow. de I'Acad. de Bruxelles, 31, p. i). Taking

Jir^ = tt ....... (9),

we may write

Again, by a known formula,

<*dx

v^~v!^o ~w •

Substituting this in (10), and inverting the order of integration, we
get

dx

*dx <;"«-*) -1
V* t — *

Thus, if we take

- - (12).

(13),

i-Gcostt+Hsinw, S = §-G sin w-H cos « . (14).

The constant parts in (14), viz. \, may be determined by direct
integration of (12), or from the observation that by their constitu-
tion G and H vanish when « = oo , coupled with the fact that C and
S then assume the value J.

Comparing the expressions for C, S in terms of M, N, and in terms
of G, H, we find that

G = J(cos w+sin«)-M, H = j(costt-sinw)+N . (15),

formulae which may be utilized for the calculation of G, H when
u (or v) is small. For example, when « = o, M =o, N =o, and con-
sequently G = H = J.

Descending series of the semi-convergent class, available for
numerical calculation when u is moderately large, can be obtained
from (12) by writing x — uy, and expanding the denominator in
powers of y. The integration of the several terms may then be
effected by the formula

,.

Jo

T(g+i)= (q- J)(2-f

and we get in terms of ti

1.3.5 , 1.3.5.7.9

. . (16),

„__ 1 1.3

~ir» W

1.3.5.7

(17).

The corresponding values of C and S were originally derived by
A. L. Cauchy, without the use of Gilbert's integrals, by direct
integration by parts.

From the series for G and H just obtained it is easy to verify that

dG

(18).

We now proceed to consider more particularly the distribution of
light upon a screen PBQ near the shadow of a straight edge A.
At a point P within the geometrical shadow of the obstacle, the
half of the wave to the right of C (fig. 18), the nearest point on the
wave-front, is wholly intercepted, and on the left the integration
is to be taken from s = CA to s = w. If V be the value of v corre-
sponding to CA, viz.

i / f\ t _ I 1\ \

.... (19),

we may write

or, according to our previous notation,

• (20),

Now in the integrals represented by G and H every element
diminishes as V increases from zero. Hence,
as CA increases, viz. as the point P is more
and more deeply immersed in the shadow,
the illumination continuously decreases, and
that without limit. It has long been known
from observation that there are no bands
on the interior side of the shadow of the
' edge.

The law of diminution when V is moder-
ately large is easily expressed with the aid
of the series (16), (17) for G, H. We have
ultimately G =o, H = OrV)-', so that
FIG 18 I2 = i/jr2V2,

or the illumination is inversely as the square
of the distance from the shadow of the edge.

For a point Q outside the shadow the integration extends over

more than half the primary wave. The intensity may be expressed by

I2 = (J+Cv)2+(i+Sv)2
and the maxima and minima occur when

whence

(22);

(23).

When V — o, viz. at the edge of the shadow, I2 = J; when V= x,
I2 = 2, on the scale adopted. The latter is the intensity due to the
uninterrupted wave. The quadrupling of the intensity in passing
outwards from the edge of the shadow is, however, accompanied by
fluctuations giving rise to bright and dark bands. The position
of these bands determined by (23) may be very simply expressed
when V is large, for then sensibly G = o, and

!*-V2 = Jir+nir (24),

n being an integer. In terms of S, we have from (2)

x (S. i 1 11 \ f*)^}

The first maximum in face occurs when 8 = |X— OO46X, and the
first minimum when S = |X— ooi6X, the corrections being readily
obtainable from a table of G by substitution of the approximate
value of V.

The position of Q corresponding to a given value of V, that is,
to a band of given order, is by (19)

. . (26).

By means of this expression we may trace the locus of a band of
given order as b varies. With sufficient approximation we may
regard BQ and 6 as rectangular co-ordinates of Q. Denoting them
by x, y, so that AB is axis of y and a perpendicular through A the
axis of x, and rationalizing (26), we have

2o*2 - V'Xy2 - Va\y = o,

which represents a hyperbola with vertices at O and A.

From (24), (26) we see that the width of the bands is of the order
V \b\(a+b)la\. From this we may infer the limitation upon the
width of the source of light, in order that the bands may be properly
formed. If a be the apparent magnitude of the source seen from A,
ub should be much smaller than the above quantity, or

o><V!X(a-r-6)/a6! (27).

If a be very great in relation to b, the condition becomes

a-<V(X/6) (28),

so that if 6 is to be moderately great (i metre), the apparent magni-
tude of the sun must be greatly reduced before it can be used as a
source. The values of V for the maxima and minima of intensity,
and the magnitudes of the latter, were calculated by Fresnel. An
extract from his results is given in the accompanying table.

V

I1

First maximum .

1-2172

2-74I3

First minimum

1-8726

1-5570

Second maximum

2-3449

2-3990

Second minimum

2-7392

1-6867

Third maximum .

3-0820

2-3022

Third minimum .

3-39I3

1-7440

A very thorough investigation of this and other related questions,
accompanied by fully worked-out tables of the functions concerned,
will be found in a paper by E. Lommel (Abh. buyer. Akad. d. Wiss.
II. Cl., 15, Bd., iii. Abth., 1886).

When the functions C and S have once been calculated, the
discussion of vaiious diffraction problems is much facilitated by
the idea, due to M. A. Cornu (Journ. de Phys., 1874, 3, p. i ; a similar
suggestion was made independently by G. F. Fitzgerald), of exhibit-
ing as a curve the relationship between C and S, considered as the
rectangular co-ordinates (x, y) of a point. Such a curve is shown in
fig. 19, where, according to the definition (5) of C, S,

>>= I si
./o

sin jjrt>2.dt>

(29).

The origin of co-ordinates O corresponds to v = o ; and the asymptotic
points J, J', round which the curve revolves in an ever-closing spiral,
correspond to v = =*= w .

The intrinsic equation, expressing the relation between the arc
o- (measured from O) and the inclination <t> of the tangent at any
points to the axis of x, assumes a very simple form. For

dx =cos %irv-.dv, dy = s'\

so that

a =/V(d*2 +(*/)=»,
* = tan-' (dy/dx) = Jirr

(30),
(31).

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

253

Accordingly,

and for the curvature,

(32);
(33).

Cornu remarks that this equation suffices to determine the general
character of the curve. For the osculating circle at any point

includes the whole of the
/" "X curve which lies beyond;
and the successive con-
volutions envelop one an-
other-without intersection.
The utility of the curve
depends upon the fact that
the elements of arc repre-
sent, in amplitude and
phase, the component vi-
brations due to the corre-
sponding portions of the
primary wave-front. For
by (.39) dv = de, and by
(2) dv is proportional to ds.
Moreover by (2) and (31)
the retardation of phase of
the elementary vibration

p,G from PQ (fig. 17) is 2*&/\,

or <t>. Hence, in accordance

with the rule for compounding vector quantities, the resultant
vibration at B, due to any finite part of the primary wave, is
represented in amplitude and phase by the chord joining the ex-
tremities of the corresponding arc (o?-<ri).

In applying the curve in special cases of diffraction to exhibit
the effect at any point P (fig. 18) the centre of the curve O is to be
considered to correspond to that point C of the primary wave-front
which lies nearest to P. The operative part, or parts, of the curve
are of course those which represent the unobstructed portions of
the primary wave.

Let us reconsider, following Cornu, the diffraction of a screen
unlimited on one side, and on the other terminated by a straight
edge. On the illuminated side, at a distance from the shadow, the
vibration is represented by IJ'. The co-ordinates of J, J' being
(i. i). ( — J. — j), Izis2; and the phase is \ period in arrear of
that of the element at O. As the point under contemplation is
supposed to approach the shadow, the vibration is represented by the
chord drawn from J to a point on the other half of the curve, which
travels inwards from J' towards O. The amplitude is thus subject
to fluctuations, which increase as the shadow is approached. At
the point O the intensity is one-quarter of that of the entire wave,
and after this point is passed, that is, when we have entered the
geometrical shadow, the intensity falls off gradually to zero, without
fluctuations. The whole progress of the phenomenon is thus ex-
hibited to the eye in a very instructive manner.

We will next suppose that the light is transmitted by a slit, and
inquire what is the effect of varying the width of the slit upon the
illumination at the projection of its centre. Under these circum-
stances the arc to be considered is bisected at O, and its length is
proportional to the width of the slit. It is easy to see that the
length of the chord (which passes in all cases through O) increases
to a maximum near the place where the phase-retardation is f of
a period, then diminishes to a minimum when the retardation is
about | of a period, and so on.

If the slit is of constant width and we require the illumination
at various points on the screen behind it, we must regard the arc
of the curve as of constant length. The intensity is then, as always,
represented by the square of the length of the chord. If the slit
be narrow, so that the arc is short, the intensity is constant over
a wide range, and does not fall off to an important extent until
the discrepancy of the extreme phases reaches about a quarter of a
period.

We have hitherto supposed that the shadow of a diffracting
obstacle is received upon a diffusing screen, or, which comes to
nearly the same thing, is observed with an eye-piece. If the eye,
provided if necessary with a perforated plate in order to reduce the
aperture, be situated inside the shadow at a place where the illumina-
tion is still sensible, and be focused upon the diffracting edge, the
light which it receives will appear to corne from the neighbourhood
of the edge, and will present the effect of a silver lining. This is
doubtless the explanation of a " pretty optical phenomenon, seen
in Switzerland, when the sun rises from behind distant trees stand-
ing on the summit of a mountain." *

ii. Dynamical Theory of Diffraction. — The explanation of
diffraction phenomena given by Fresnel and his followers is

1 H. Necker (Phil- Mag., November 1832) ; Fox Talbot (Phil.Mag.,
June 1833). " When the sun is about to emerge .... every branch
and leaf is lighted up with a silvery lustre of indescribable beauty. . . .
The birds, as Mr Necker very truly describes, appear like flying
brilliant sparks." Talbot ascribes the appearance to diffraction;
and he recommends the use of a telescope.

independent of special views as to the nature of the aether, at least
in its main features; for in the absence of a more complete
foundation it is impossible to treat rigorously the mode of action
of a solid obstacle such as a screen. But, without entering upon
matters of this kind, we may inquire in what manner a primary
wave may be resolved into elementary secondary waves, and
in particular as to the law of intensity and polarization in a
secondary wave as dependent upon its direction of propagation,
and upon the character as regards polarization of the primary
wave. This question was treated by Stokes in his " Dynamical
Theory of Diffraction " (Camb. Phil. Trans., 1849) on the basis
of the elastic solid theory.

Let x, y, z be the co-ordinates of any particle of the medium in
its natural state, and £, >), f the displacements of the same particle
at the end of time /, measured in the directions of the three axes
respectively. Then the first of the equations of motion may be put
under the form

where <z* and V denote the two arbitrary constants. Put for short-
ness

df ...

=

and represent by v*£ the quantity multiplied by If. According to
this notation, the three equations of motion are • .

. . . . (2).

It is to be observed that 6 denotes the dilatation of volume of the
element situated at (x, y, z). In the limiting case in which the
medium is regarded as absolutely incompressible i vanishes; but,
in order that equations (2) may preserve their generality, we must
suppose o at the same time to become infinite, and replace a25 by
a new function of the co-ordinates.

These equations simplify very much in their application to plane
waves. If the ray be parallel to OX, and the direction of vibration
parallel to OZ, we have { = o, i;=o, while f is a function of x and
/ only. Equation (i) and the first pair of equations (2) are thus
satisfied identically. The third equation gives

(4),

of which the solution is

f =/(*-*)
where / is an arbitrary function.

The question as to the law of the secondary waves is thus an-
swered by Stokes. " Let £ = o, 17 =o, f =f(bt—x) be the displacements
corresponding to the incident light ; let Oi be any point in the plane
P (of the wave-front), dS an element of that plane adjacent to d;
and consider the disturbance due to that portion only of the incident
disturbance which passes continually across dS. Let O be any point
in the medium situated at a distance from the point Oi which is
large in comparison with the length of a wave; let OiO = r, and let
this line make an angle 6 with the direction of propagation of the
incident light, or the axis of x, and <t> with the direction of vibration,
or axis of z. Then the displacement at O will take place in a direction
perpendicular to OiO, and lying in the plane ZOiO ; and, if f ' be the
displacement at O, reckoned positive in the direction nearest to
that in which the incident vibrations are reckoned positive,

.... (5),

In particular, if
we shall have

It is then verified that, after integration with respect to dS>, (6)
gives the same disturbance as if the primary wave had been supposed
to pass on unbroken.

The occurrence of sin <t> as a factor in (6) shows that the relative
intensities of the primary light and of that diffracted in the direc-
tion 9 depend upon the condition of the former as regards polariza-
tion. If the direction of primary vibration be perpendicular to
the plane of diffraction (containing both primary and secondary
rays), sin # = i; but, if the primary vibration be in the plane of
diffraction, sin #=cos 0. This result was employed by Stokes as
a criterion of the direction of vibration; and his experiments, con-
ducted with gratings, led him to the conclusion that the vibrations

254

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

of polarized light are executed in a direction perpendicular to the
plane of polarization.

The factor (i+cos 6) shows in what manner the secondary dis-
turbance depends upon the direction in which it is propagated with
respect to the front of the primary wave.

If, as suffices for all practical purposes, we limit the application
of the formulae to points in advance of the plane at which the wave
is supposed to be broken up, we may use simpler methods of resolu-
tion than that above considered. It appears indeed that the purely
mathematical question has no definite answer. In illustration of
this the analogous problem for sound may be referred to. Imagine
a flexible lamina to be introduced so as to coincide with the plane
at which resolution is to be effected. The introduction of the lamina
(supposed to be devoid of inertia) will make no difference to the
propagation of plane parallel sonorous waves through the position
which it occupies. At every point the motion of the lamina will be
the same as would have occurred in its absence, the pressure of the
waves impinging from behind being just what is required to generate
the waves in front. Now it is evident that the aerial motion in front
of the lamina is determined by what happens at the lamina without
regard to the cause of the motion there existing. Whether the
necessary forces are due to aerial pressures acting on the rear, or to
forces directly impressed from without, is a matter of indifference.
The conception of the lamina leads immediately to two schemes,
according to which a primary wave may be supposed to be broken
up. In the first of these the element dS, the effect of which is to be
estimated, is supposed to execute its actual motion, while every other
element of the plane lamina is maintained at rest. The resulting
aerial motion in front is readily calculated (see Rayleigh, Theory of
Sound, § 278) ; it is symmetrical with respect to the origin, i.e. inde-
pendent of 8. When the secondary disturbance thus obtained is
integrated with respect to dS> over the entire plane of the lamina, the
result is necessarily the same as would have been obtained had the
primary wave been supposed to pass on without resolution, for this
is precisely the motion generated when every element of the lamina
vibrates with a common motion, equal to that attributed to dS.
The only assumption here involved is the evidently legitimate one
that, when two systems of variously distributed motion at the
lamina are superposed, the corresponding motions in front are
superposed also.

The method of resolution just described is the simplest, but it is
only one of an indefinite number that might be proposed, and which
are all equally legitimate, so long as the question is regarded as a
merely mathematical one, without reference to the physical pro-
perties of actual screens. If, instead of supposing the motion at dS
to be that of the primary wave, and to be zero elsewhere, we suppose
the force operative over the element dS of the lamina to be that
corresponding to the primary wave, and to vanish elsewhere, we
obtain a secondary wave following quite a different law. In this
case the motion in different directions varies as cos0, vanishing at
right angles to the direction of propagation of the primary wave.
Here again, on integration over the entire lamina, the aggregate
effect of the secondary waves is necessarily the same as that of the
primary.

In order to apply these ideas to the investigation of the secondary
wave of light, we require the solution of a problem, first treated
by Stokes, viz. the determination of the motion in an infinitely
extended elastic solid due to a locally applied periodic force. If
we suppose that the force impressed upon the element of mass
D dx dy dz is

DZ dx dy dz,

being everywhere parallel to the axis of Z, the only change required
in our equations (i), (2) is the addition of the term Z to the second
member of the third equation (2). In the forced vibration, now
under consideration, Z, and the quantities £, ?j, f, 5 expressing the
resulting motion, are to be supposed proportional to «•'"', where
•i = il( — i), and n = 2jr/T, r being the periodic time. Under these
circumstances the double differentiation with respect to t of any
quantity is equivalent to multiplication by the factor — »a, and thus
our equations take the form

. . . (7).

It will now be convenient to introduce the quantities CTI, sr2, BTS,
which express the rotations of the elements of the medium round axes
parallel to those of co-ordinates, in accordance with the equations

In terms of these we obtain from (7), by differentiation and subtrac-
tion,

(9).

dS

The first of equations (9) gives
For Oi we have

-, = 0

(10).

where r is the distance between the element dxdydz and the point
where ui is estimated, and

(12),

X being the wave-length.

(This solution may be verified in the same manner as Poisson's
theorem, in which k=o.)

We will now introduce the supposition that the force Z acts
only within a small space of volume T, situated at (x, y, z), and for
simplicity suppose that it is at the origin of co-ordinates that the
rotations are to be estimated. Integrating by parts in (11), we get

fe-* dZ , r7e-*-1 f 7 d /e-*\ ,
J — TyAy= \L—\ -J Z3y-(— ) dy'

in which the integrated terms at the limits vanish, Z being finite
only within the region T. Thus

Since the dimensions of T are supposed to be very small in com-
parison with X, the factor j- \f-f-J is sensibly constant ; so that,
if Z stand for the mean value of Z over the volume T, we may write
= TZ y d /e~<*\

In like manner we find

TZ * d /e-*\

From (iq), (13), (14) we see that, as might have been expected,
the rotation at any point is about an axis perpendicular both to
the direction of the force and to the line joining the point to the
source of disturbance. If the resultant rotation be CD , we have

TZ V (**+?*) d (e-**\ _TZsinJ d fe-<tr\
~4rV~ r •Jr\r)~ 4*6" dr\~)'

^denoting the angle between r and z. In differentiating e^^/r
with respect to r, we may neglect the term divided by r1 as altogether
insensible, kr being an exceedingly great quantity at any moderate
distance from the origin of disturbance. Thus

•— • • • • (15),

which completely determines the rotation at any point. For a dis-
turbing force of given integral magnitude it is seen to be everywhere
about an axis perpendicular to r and the direction of the force, and
in magnitude dependent only upon the angle (<£) between these two
directions and upon the distance (r).

The intensity of light is, however, more usually expressed in
terms of the actual displacement in the plane of the wave. This
displacement, which we may denote by f ', is in the plane containing
z and r, and perpendicular to the latter. Its connexion with ra is
expressed by & = df'/dr; so that

,_TZsin0 g'(a<-b-)

(16),

where the factor «'"' is restored.

Retaining only the real part of (16), we find, as the result of a
local application of force equal to

DTZcosn/ ....... (17),

the disturbance expressed by

TZsin.fr cos(n<-fer)
: 47T&* • -- ~ '••'••

,

,,„.
(I8)-

The occurrence of sin <t> shows that there is no disturbance
radiated in the direction of the force, a feature which might have
been anticipated from considerations of symmetry.

We will now apply (18) to the investigation of a law of secondary
disturbance, when a primary wave

sia(nt-kx)

(19)

is supposed to be broken up in passing the plane x = o. The first step
is to calculate the force which represents the reaction between the
parts of the medium separated by x = o. The force operative upon
the positive half is parallel to OZ, and of amount per unit of area
equal to

and to this force acting over the whole of the plane the actual
motion on the positive side may be conceived to be due. The

DIFFUSION

255

secondary disturbance corresponding to the element dS of the plane
may be supposed to be that caused by a force of the above magnitude
acting over dS and vanishing elsewhere; and it only remains to
examine what the result of such a force would be.

Now it is evident that the force in question, supposed to act
upon the positive half only of the medium, produces just double of
the effect that would be caused by the same force if the medium
were undivided, and on the latter supposition (being also localized
at a point) it comes under the head already considered. According
to (18), the effect of the force acting at dS parallel to OZ, and of
amount equal to

2&kD dS cos nt,
will be a disturbance

r = dS_sinJ,cos(n<_fer) (20)>

AT

regard being had to (12). This therefore expresses the secondary
disturbance at a distance r and in a direction making an angle <t>
with OZ (the direction of primary vibration) due to the element dS
of the wave-front.

The proportionality of the secondary disturbance to sin 4> is
common to the present law and to that given by Stokes, but here
there is no dependence upon the angle 0 between the primary and
secondary rays. The occurrence of the factor (Xrj r1, and the
necessity of supposing the phase of the secondary wave accelerated
by a quarter of an undulation, were first established by Archibald
Smith, as the result of a comparison between the primary wave,
supposed to pass on without resolution, and the integrated effect
of al! the secondary waves (§ 2). The occurrence of factors such
as sin <f>, or KI+COS 8), in the expression of the secondary wave
has no influence upon the result of the integration, the effects of
all the elements for which the factors differ appreciably from unity
being destroyed by mutual interference.

The choice between various methods of resolution, all mathe-
matically admissible, would be guided by physical considerations
respecting the mode of action of obstacles. Thus, tojefer again to
the acoustical analogue in which plane waves are incident upon
a perforated rigid screen, the circumstances of the case are best
represented by the first method of resolution, leading to symmetrical
secondary waves, in which the normal motion is supposed to be zero
over the unperforated parts. Indeed, if the aperture is very small,
this method gives the correct result, save as to a constant factor. In
like manner our present law (20) would apply to the kind of obstruc-
tion that would be caused by an actual physical division of the elastic
medium, extending over the whole of the area supposed to be occupied
by the intercepting screen, but of course not extending to the parts
supposed to be perforated.

On the electromagnetic theory, the problem of diffraction becomes
definite when the properties of the obstacle are laid down. The
simplest supposition is that the material composing the obstacle
is perfectly conducting, i.e. perfectly reflecting. On this basis
A. J. W.Sommerfeld (Math. Ann., 1895, 47, p. 317), with great mathe-
matical skill, has solved the problem of the shadow thrown by a
semi-infinite plane screen. A simplified exposition has been given by
Horace Lamb (Proc. Land. Math. Soc., 1906, 4, p. 190). It appears that
Fresnel's results, although based on an imperfect theory, require only
insignificant corrections. Problems not limited to two dimensions,
such for example as the shadow of a circular disk, present great
difficulties, and have not hitherto been treated by a rigorous method ;
but there is no reason to suppose that Fresnel's results would be
departed from materially. (R.)

DIFFUSION (from the Lat. di/undere; dis-, asunder, and
fundere, to pour out), in general, a spreading out, scattering
or circulation; in physics the term is applied to a special
phenomenon, treated below.

i. General Description. — When two different substances are
placed in contact with each other they sometimes remain
separate, but in many cases a gradual mixing takes place. In the
case where both the substances are gases the process of mixing
continues until the result is a uniform mixture. In other cases
the proportions in which two different substances can mix
lie between certain fixed limits, but the mixture is distinguished
from a chemical compound by the fact that between these limits
the composition of the mixture is capable of continuous variation,
while in chemical compounds, the proportions of the different
constituents can only have a discrete series of numerical values,
each different ratio representing a different compound. If we
take, for example, air and water in the presence of each other, air
will become dissolved in the water, and water will evaporate into
the air, and the proportions of either constituent absorbed by the
other will vary continuously. But a limit will come when the air
will absorb no more water, and the water will absorb no more air,
and throughout the change a definite surface of separation will
exist between the liquid and the gaseous parts. When no surface

of separation ever exists between two substances they must
necessarily be capable of mixing in all proportions. If they are
not capable of mixing in all proportions a discontinuous change
must occur somewhere between the regions where the substances
are still unmixed, thus giving rise to a surface of separation.

The phenomena of mixing thus involves the following pro-
cesses:— (i) A motion of the substances relative to one another
throughout a definite region of space in which mixing is taking
place. This relative motion is called " diffusion." (2) The pas-
sage of portions of the mixing substances across the surface of
separation when such a surface exists. These surface actions
are described under various terms such as solution, evaporation,
condensation and so forth. For example, when a soluble salt is
placed in a liquid, the process which occurs at the surface of the
salt is called " solution," but the salt which enters the liquid by
solution is transported from the surface into the interior of the
liquid by " diffusion."

Diffusion may take place in solids, that is, in regions occupied
by matter which continues to exhibit the properties of the solid
state. Thus if two liquids which can mix are separated by a
membrane or partition, the mixing may take place through the
membrane. If a solution of salt is separated from pure water by
a sheet of parchment, part of the salt will pass through the parch-
ment into the water. If water and glycerin are separated in this
way most of the water will pass into the glycerin and a little
glycerin will pass through in the opposite direction, a property
frequently used by microscopists for the purpose of gradually
transferring minute algae from water into glycerin. A still more
interesting series of examples is afforded by the passage of gases
through partitions of metal, notably the passage of hydrogen
through platinum and palladium at high temperatures. When
the process is considered with reference to a membrane or partition
taken as a whole, the passage of a substance from one side to the
other is commonly known as " osmosis " or " transpiration "
(see SOLUTION), but what occurs in the material of the membrane
itself is correctly described as diffusion.

Simple cases of diffusion are easily observed qualitatively. If a
solution of a coloured salt is carefully introduced by a funnel into
the bottom of a jar containing water, the two portions will at first
be fairly well defined, but if the mixture can exist in all propor-
tions, the surface of separation will gradually disappear; and the
rise of the colour into the upper part and its gradual weakening
in the lower part, may be watched for days, weeks or even longer
intervals. The diffusion of a strong aniline colouring matter into
the interior of gelatine is easily observed, and is commonly seen in
copying apparatus. Diffusion of gases may be shown to exist by
taking glass jars containing vapours of hydrochloric acid and
ammonia, and placing them in communication with the heavier
gas downmost. The precipitation of ammonium chloride shows
that diffusion exists, though the chemical action prevents this
example from forming a typical case of diffusion. Again, when
a film of Canada balsam is enclosed between glass plates, the
disappearance during a few weeks of small air bubbles enclosed
in the balsam can be watched under the microscope.

In fluid media, whether liquids or gases, the process of mixing
is greatly accelerated by stirring or agitating the fluids, and
liquids which might take years to mix if left to themselves
can thus be mixed in a few seconds. It is necessary to carefully
distinguish the effects of agitation from those of diffusion proper.
By shaking up two liquids which do not mix we split them up
into a large number of different portions, and so greatly increase
the area of the surface of separation, besides decreasing the
thicknesses of the various portions. But even when we produce
the appearance of a uniform turbid mixture, the small portions
remain quite distinct. If however the fluids can really mix, the
final process must in every case depend on diffusion, and all we
do by shaking is to increase the sectional area, and decrease the
thickness of the diffusing portions, thus rendering the completion
of the operation more rapid. If a gas is shaken up in a liquid
the process of absorption of the bubbles is also accelerated by
capillary action, as occurs in an ordinary sparklet bottle. To
state the matter precisely, however finely two fluids have been

256

DIFFUSION

subdivided by agitation, the molecular constitution of the
different portions remains unchanged. The ultimate process
by which the individual molecules of two different substances
become mixed, producing finally a homogeneous mixture, is in
every case diffusion. In other words, diffusion is that relative
motion of the molecules of two different substances by which the
proportions of the molecules in any region containing a finite
number of molecules are changed.

In order, therefore, to make accurate observations of diffusion in
fluids it is necessary to guard against any cause which may set up
currents; and in some cases this is exceedingly difficult. Thus, if
gas is absorbed at the upper surface of a liquid, and if the gaseous
solution is heavier than the pure liquid, currents may be set up, and
a steady state of diffusion may cease to exist. This has been tested
experimentally by C. G. von Hiifner and W. E. Adney. The same
thing may happen when a gas is evolved into a liquid at the surface
of a solid even if no bubbles are formed ; thus if pieces of aluminium
are placed in caustic soda, the currents set up by the evolution of
hydrogen are sufficient to set the aluminium pieces in motion, and
it is probable that the motions of the Diatomaceae are similarly
caused by the evolution of oxygen. In some pairs of substances
diffusion may take place more rapidly than in others. Of course the
progress of events in any experiment necessarily depends on various
causes, such as the size of the containing vessels, but it is easy to see
that when experiments with different substances are carried out under
similar conditions, however these " similar conditions " be defined,
the rates of diffusion must be capable of numerical comparison, and
the results must be expressible in terms of at least one physical
quantity, which for any two substances can be called their co-
efficient of diffusion. How to select this quantity we shall see later.

2 Quantitative Methods of observing Diffusion. — The simplest
plan of determining the progress of diffusion between two liquids
would be to draw off and examine portions from different strata
at some stage in the process; the disturbance produced would,
however, interfere with the subsequent process of diffusion, and
the observations could not be continued. By placing in the
liquid column hollow glass beads of different average densities,
and observing at what height they remain suspended, it is
possible to trace the variations of density of the liquid column
at different depths, and different times. In this method, which
was originally introduced by Lord Kelvin, difficulties were
caused by the adherence of small air bubbles to the beads.

In general, optical methods are the most capable of giving
exact results, and the following may be distinguished, (a) By
refraction in a horizontal plane. If the containing vessel is in
the form of a prism, the deviation of a horizontal ray of light in
passing through the prism determines the index of refraction,
and consequently the density of the stratum through which the
ray passes, (b) By refraction in a vertical plane. Owing to the
density varying with the depth, a horizontal ray entering the
liquid also undergoes a small vertical deviation, being bent
downwards towards the layers of greater density. The observa-
tion of this vertical deviation determines not the actual density,
but its rate of variation with the depth, i.e. the "density gradient"
at any point, (c) By the saccharimeter. In the cases of solutions
of sugar, which cause rotation of the plane of polarized light,
the density of the sugar at any depth may be determined by
observing the corresponding angle of rotation, this was done
originally by W. Voigt.

2- Elementary Definitions of Coefficient of Diffusion. — The
simplest case of diffusion is that of a substance, say a gas, diffusing
in the interior of a homogeneous solid medium, which remains at
rest, when no external forces act on the system. We may regard
it as the result of experience that: (i) if the density of the diffus-
ing substance is everywhere the same no diffusion takes place, and
(2) if the density of the diffusing substance is different at different
points, diffusion will take place from places of greater to those of
lesser density, and will not cease until the density is everywhere
the same. It follows that the rate of flow of the diffusing sub-
stance at any point in any direction must depend on the density
gradient at that point in that direction, i.e. on the rate at which
the density of the diffusing substance decreases as we move in
that direction. We may define the coefficient of diffusion as the
ratio of the total mass per unit area which flows across any
small section, to the rate of decrease of the density per unit
distance in a direction perpendicular to that section.

In the case of steady diffusion parallel to the axis of x, if p be the
density of the diffusing substance, and q the mass which flows across
a unit of area in a plane perpendicular to the axis of x, then the density
gradient is —dpldx and the ratio of q to this is called the " coefficient
of diffusion." By what has been said this ratio remains finite, how-
ever small the actual gradient and flow may be; and it is natural
to assume, at any rate as a first approximation, that it is constant
as far as the quantities in question are concerned. Thus if the
coefficient of diffusion be denoted by K we have g= —K(dp/dx).

Further, the rate at which the quantity of substance is increasing
in an element between the distances x and x+dx is equal to the
difference of the rates of flow in and out of the two faces, whence as
in hydrodynamics, we have dpldt= —dqjdx.

It follows that the equation of diffusion in this case assumes the
form

</P ^l-ir dp

dt~dx\

which is identical with the equations representing conduction of
heat, flow of electricity and other physical phenomena. For motion
in three dimensions we have in like manner

dp_ _ jl_ / T.- dp\ . d / .r dp\
dt dx \ dx) dy \ dy)

and the corresponding equations in electricity and heat for aniso-
tropic substances would be available to account for any parallel
phenomena, which may arise, or might be conceived, to exist in
connexion with diffusion through a crystalline solid.

In the case of a very dilute solution, the coefficient of diffusion
of the dissolved substance can be defined in the same way as
when the diffusion takes place in a solid, because the effects of
diffusion will not have any perceptible influence on the solvent,
and the latter may therefore be regarded as remaining practically
at rest. But in most cases of diffusion between two fluids, both
of the fluids are in motion, and hence there is far greater difficulty
in determining the motion, and even in defining the coefficient of
diffusion. It is important to notice in the first instance, that it
is only the relative motion of the two substances which consti-
tutes diffusion. Thus when a current of air is blowing, under
ordinary circumstances the changes which take place are purely
mechanical, and do not depend on the separate diffusions of the
oxygen and nitrogen of which the air is mainly composed. It is
only when two gases are flowing with unequal velocity, that
is, when they have a relative motion, that these changes of
relative distribution, which are called diffusion, take place. The
best way out of the difficulty is to investigate the separate motions
of the two fluids, taking account of the mechanical actions
exerted on them, and supposing that the mutual action of the
fluids causes either fluid to resist the relative motion of the other.

4. The Coefficient of Resistance. — Let us call the two diffusing
fluids A and B. If B were absent, the motion of the fluid A
would be determined entirely by the variations of pressure of the
fluid A, and by the external forces, such as that due to gravity
acting on A. Similarly if A were absent, the motion of B would
be determined entirely by the variations of pressure due to the
fluid B, and by the external forces acting on B. When both
fluids are mixed together, each fluid tends to resist the relative
motion of the other, and by the law of equality of action and
reaction, the resistance which A experiences from B is every-
where equal and opposite to the resistance which B experiences
from A. If the amount of this resistance per unit volume be
divided by the relative velocity of the two fluids, and also by the
product of their densities, the quotient is called the "coefficient of
resistance." If then pi, p2 are the densities of the two fluids,
MI, M2 their velocities, C the coefficient of resistance, then the
portion of the fluid A contained in a small element of volume v
will experience from the fluid B a resistance Cpip2ti(wi— w2), and
the fluid B contained in the same volume element will experience
from the fluid A an equal and opposite resistance, Cp2piZ>(w2— Ui).

This definition implies the following laws of resistance to
diffusion, which must be regarded as based on experience, and
not as self-evident truths: (i) each fluid tends to assume, so far
as diffusion is concerned, the same equilibrium distribution that
it would assume if its motion were unresisted by the presence of
the other fluid. (Of course, the mutual attraction of gravitation
of the two fluids might affect the final distribution, but this is
practically negligible. Leaving such actions as this out of

DIFFUSION

257

account the following statement is correct.) In a state of
equilibrium, the density of each fluid at any point thus depends
only on the partial pressure of that fluid alone, and is the same
as if the other fluids were absent. It does not depend on the
partial pressures of the other fluids. If this were not the case,
the resistance to diffusion would be analogous to friction, and
would contain terms which were independent of the relative
velocity ui— u\. (2) For slow motions the resistance to diffusion
is (approximately at any rate) proportional to the relative
velocity. (3) The coefficient of resistance C is not necessarily
always constant; it may, for example, and, in general, does,
depend on the temperature.

If we form the equations of hydrodynamics for the different fluids
occurring in any mixture, taking account of diffusion, but neglecting
viscosity, and using suffixes I, 2 to denote the separate fluids, these
assume the form given by James Clerk Maxwell (" Diffusion," in
Ency. Brit., gth ed.) : —

Pl~l)t~St~ fa~ XlPl+Cl2plp2(tti — «2) +&C. = O,

where

I );/, tl/i, . flu, . du,
-

and these equations imply that when diffusion and other motions
cease, the fluids satisfy the separate conditions of equilibrium
dpi/dx — Xipi—o. The assumption made in the following account is
that terms such as Dui/Dt may be neglected in the cases considered.

A further property based on experience is that the motions set
up in a mixture by diffusion are very slow compared with those
set up by mechanical actions, such as differences of pressure.
Thus, if two gases at equal temperature and pressure be allowed
to mix by diffusion, the heavier gas being below the lighter, the
process will take a long time; on the other hand, if two gases,
or parts of the same gas, at different pressures be connected,
equalization of pressure will take place almost immediately.
It follows from this property that the forces required to overcome
the " inertia " of the fluids in the motions due to diffusion are
quite imperceptible. At any stage of the process, therefore, any
one of the diffusing fluids may be regarded as in equilibrium under
the action of its own partial pressure, the external forces to which
it is subjected and the resistance to diffusion of the other fluids.

5. Slow Diffusion of two Gases. Relation between the Co-
efficients of Resistance and of Diffusion. — We now suppose the
diffusing substances to be two gases which obey Boyle's law, and
that diffusion takes place in a closed cylinder or tube of unit
sectional area at constant temperature, the surfaces of equal
density being perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, so that the
direction of diffusion is along the length of the cylinder, and we
suppose no external forces, such as gravity, to act on the system.

The densities of the gases are denoted by pi, p2, their velocities of
diffusion by u\, u2, and if their partial pressures are pi, p3, we have by
Boyle's law pi = k\pi, £2 = £202, where *t, ki are constants for the two
gases, the temperature being constant. The axis of the cylinder is
taken as the axis of x.

From the considerations of the preceding section, the effects of
inertia of the diffusing gases may be neglected, and at any instant of
the process either of the gases is to be treated as kept in equilibrium
by its partial pressure and the resistance to diffusion produced by
the other gas. Calling this resistance per unit volume R.and putting
R = Cpip2(«i— «2), where C is the coefficient of resistance, the equa-
tions of equilibrium give

•j;f+Cpip2(«i-tt2)=0, and •^+Cp2pi(«2-tti)-o. (1).
These involve

where P is the total pressure of the mixture, and is everywhere
constant, consistently with the conditions of mechanical equilibrium.
Now dpi/dx is the pressure-gradient of the first gas, and is, by
Boyle's law, equal to ki times the corresponding density-gradient.
Again piUi is the mass of gas flowing across any section per unit
time, and kipiUi or p\u\ can be regarded as representing the flux of
partial pressure produced by the motion of the gas. Since the total
pressure is everywhere constant, and the ends of the cylinder are
supposed fixed, the fluxes of partial pressure due to the two gases
are equal and opposite, so that

piui+piui = o or AipiMi+A2p2M2 = o . . . (3).
From (2) (3) we find by elementary algebra

Ullpt = -U-jpl = (Ul—U2)/(pi +/>.) = («, -M2)/P,

vm. 9

and therefore

plUl = — piU2=p1p-1(ui

Hence equations (i) (2) gives

whence also substituting pi =

k\kt dpi
-

= kw, and by transposing
ktk2 dpi

, and p2w2 = —

We may now define the " coefficient of diffusion " of either gas as
the ratio of the rate of flow of that gas to its density-gradient. With
this definition, the coefficients of diffusion of both the gases in a
mixture are equal, each being equal to kik2/CP. The ratios of the
fluxes of partial pressure to the corresponding pressure-gradients are
also equal to the same coefficient. Calling this coefficient K, we also
observe that the equations of continuity for the two gases are

leading to the equations of diffusion

dpi d /,,dpi\ . dpi d

-dt=dx(K-^)'andw=rx[

exactly as in the case of diffusion through a solid.

If we attempt to treat diffusion in liquids by a similar method,
it is, in the first place, necessary to define the " partial pressure "
of the components occurring in a liquid mixture. This leads to
the conception of " osmotic pressure," which is dealt with in the
article SOLUTION. For dilute solutions at constant temperature,
the assumption that the osmotic pressure is proportional to the
density, leads to results agreeing fairly closely with experience,
and this fact may be represented by the statement that a sub-
stance occurring in a dilute solution behaves like a perfect gas.

6. Relation of the Coefficient of Diffusion to the Units of Length
and Time. — We may write the equation defining K in the form

P dx'

Here —dp/pdx represents the " percentage rate " at which the
density decreases with the distance x; and we thus see that the
coefficient of diffusion represents the ratio of the velocity of flow
to the percentage rate at which the density decreases with the
distance measured in the direction of flow. This percentage rate
being of the nature of a number divided by a length, and the
velocity being of the nature of a length divided by a time, we may
state that K is of two dimensions in length and — i in time, i.e.
dimensions L2/T.

Example i. Taking K =0-1423 for carbon dioxide and air (at
temperature o° C. and pressure 76 cm. of mercury) referred to a
centimetre and a second as units, we may interpret the result as
follows: — Supposing in a mixture of carbon dioxide and air, the
density of the carbon dioxide decreases by, say, l, 2 or 3% of
itself in a distance of I cm., then the corresponding velocities
of the diffusing carbon dioxide will be respectively o-oi, 0-02 and
0-03 times 0-1423, that is, 0-001423, 0-002846 and 0-004269 cm.
per second in the three cases.

Example 2. If we wished to take a foot and a second as our units,
we should have to divide the value of the coefficient of diffusion in
Example I by the square of the number of centimetres in I ft., that
is, roughly speaking, by 900, giving the new value of K =000016
roughly.

7. Numerical Values of the Coefficient of Diffusion. — The
table on p. 258 gives the values of the coefficient of diffusion of
several of the principal pairs of gases at a pressure of 76 cm. of
mercury, and also of a number of other substances. In the gases
the centimetre and second are taken as fundamental units, in
other cases the centimetre and day.

8. Irreversible Changes accompanying Diffusion.- — The diffusion
of two gases at constant pressure and temperature is a good
example of an " irreversible process." The gases always tend to
mix, never to separate. In order to separate the gases a change
must be effected in the external conditions to which the mixture
is subjected, either by liquefying one of the gases, or by separating
them by diffusion through a membrane, or by bringing other out-
side influences to bear on them. In the case of liquids, electrolysis
affords a means of separating the constituents of a mixture.
Every such method involves some change taking place outside the
mixture, and this change may be regarded as a " compensating

DIFFUSION

transformation." We thus have an instance of the property
that every irreversible change leaves an indelible imprint some-
where or other on the progress of events in the universe. That
the process of diffusion obeys the laws of irreversible thermo-
dynamics (if these laws are properly stated) is proved by the fact
that the compensating transformations required to separate
mixed gases do not essentially involve anything but transforma-
tion of energy. The process of allowing gases to mix by diffusion,
and then separating them by a compensating transformation,
thus constitutes an irreversible cycle, the outside effects of which

Substances.

Temp.

K.

Author.

Carbon dioxide and air ....

o°C.

0-1423 cm2/sec.

J. Loschmidt.

,, hydrogen .

o°C.

0-5558

,

„ oxygen

o°C.

0-1409 ,

,

„ carbon monoxide

o°C.

o- 1406 ,

,

„ marsh gas (methane)

o°C.

0-1586

,

,, nitrous oxide

o°C.

0-0983

,

Hydrogen and oxygen ....

o°C.

0-7214

,

,, carbon monoxide

o°C.

0-6422 ,

,

„ sulphur dioxide

o°C.

0-4800 ,

,

Oxygen and carbon monoxide .

o°C.

0-1802 ,

Water and ammonia ....

20° C.

1-250

G. Hiifner.

,» 11

5°C.

0-822

j.

,, common salt (density I -0269)

0-355 cmVhour.

J. Graham.

14-33° C.

I -020, 0-996, 0-972,

0-932 cmVday.

F. Heimbrodt.

„ zinc sulphate (0-312 gm/cm3) .

0-1162 „

W. Seitz.

„ zinc sulphate (normal)

0-2355

II

„ zinc acetate (double normal) .

0-II95

n

,, zinc formate (half normal)

0-4654

,,

,, cadmium sulphate (double

normal) ....

0-2456

,,

„ glycerin (|n, $n, In, 1-511)

10-14° C.

0-356, 0-350, 0-342,
0-315 cmVday.

F. Heimbrodt.

„ urea ,, ,,

14-83° C.

0-973, 0-946, 0-926,

0-883 cmVday.

M

,, hydrochloric acid .

14-30° C.

2-208, 2-331,

2-480 cmVday.

Gelatin 20% and ammonia

I7°C.

127-1 ,

A. Hagenbach.

,, , carbon dioxide

0-845

,,

,, , nitrous oxide.

0-509

M

,, , oxygen

0-230

,,

,, , hydrogen

0-0565

"

are that energy somewhere or other must be less capable of trans-
formation than it was before the change. We express this fact by
stating that an irreversible process essentially implies a loss of
availability. To measure this loss we make use of the laws of
thermodynamics, and in particular of Lord Kelvin's statement
that " It is impossible by means of inanimate material agency to
derive mechanical effect from any portion of matter by cooling it
below the temperature of the coldest of the surrounding objects."

Let 'us now assume that we have any system such as the gases
above considered, and that it is in the presence of an indefinitely
extended medium which we shall call the " auxiliary medium." If
heat be taken from any part of the system, only part of this heat can
be converted into work by means of thermodynamic engines; and
the rest will be given to the auxiliary medium, and will constitute
unavailable energy or waste. To understand what this means, we
may consider the case of a condensing steam engine. Only part of
the energy liberated by the combustion of the coal is available for
driving the engine, the rest takes the form of heat imparted to
the condenser. The colder the condenser the more efficient is the
engine, and the smaller is the quantity of waste.

The amount of unavailable energy associated with any given
transformation is proportional to the absolute temperature of the
auxiliary medium. When divided by that temperature the quotient
is called the change of " entropy " associated with the given change
(see THERMODYNAMICS). Thus if a body at temperature T receives
a quantity of heat Q, and if To is the temperature of the auxiliary
medium, the quantity of work which could be obtained from Q by
means of ideal thermodynamic engines would be Q(i — To/T), and
the balance, which is O/IVT, would take the form of unavailable
or waste energy given to the medium. The quotient of this, when
divided by To, is Q/T, and this represents the quantity of entropy
associated with Q units of heat at temperature T.

Any irreversible change for which a compensating transformation
of energy exists represents, therefore, an increase of unavailable
energy, which is measurable in terms of entropy. The increase of
entropy is independent of the temperature of the auxiliary medium.

It thus affords a measure of the extent to which energy has run
to waste during the change. Moreover, when a body is heated, the
increase of entropy is the factor which determines how much of the
energy imparted to the body is unavailable for conversion into work
under given conditions. In all cases we have
increase of unavailable energy

temperature of auxiliary medium = mcrease of entr<W-
When diffusion takes place between two gases inside a closed
vessel at uniform pressure and temperature no energy in the form
of heat or work is received from without, and hence the entropy
gained by the gases from without is zero. But the irreversible
processes inside the vessel may involve a gain of entropy, and this

can only be estimated by ex-
amining by what means mixed
gases can be separated, and, in
particular, under what con-
ditions the process of mixing
and separating the gases could
(theoretically) be made revers-
ible.

9. Evidence derived from
Liquefaction of one or both of
the Gases. — The gases in a
mixture can often be separated
by liquefying, or even solidify-
ing, one or both of the com-
ponents. In connexion with
this property we have the
important law according to
which " The pressure of a
vapour in equilibrium with its
liquid depends only on the
temperature and is indepen-
dent of the pressures of any
other gases or vapours which
may be mixed with it." Thus
if two closed vessels be taken
containing some water and
one be exhausted, the other
containing air, and if the tem-
peratures be equal, evapora-
tion will go on until the
pressure of the vapour in the
exhausted vessel is equal to
its partial pressure in the other vessel, notwithstanding the fact
that the total pressure in the latter vessel is greater by the
pressure of the air.

To separate mixed gases by liquefaction, they must be compressed
and cooled till one separates in the form of a liquid. If no changes are
to take place outside the system, the separate components must be
allowed to expand until the work of expansion is equal to the work
of compression, and the heat given out in compression is reabsorbed
in expansion. The process may be made as nearly reversible as we
like by performing the operations so slowly that the substances
are practically in a state of equilibrium at every stage. This is a
consequence of an important axiom in thermodynamics according
to which " any small change in the neighbourhood of a state of
equilibrium is to a first approximation reversible."

Suppose now that at any stage of the compression the partial
pressures of the two gases are pi and pi, and that the volume is
changed from V to V—dV. The work of compression is (pi+p^dV,
and this work will be restored at the corresponding stage if each
of the separated gases increases in volume from V— 2V to V. The
ultimate state of the separated gases will thus be one in which
each gas occupies the volume V originally occupied by the mixture.

We may now obtain an estimate of the amount of energy rendered
unavailable by diffusion. We suppose two gases occupying volumes
Vi and V2 at equal pressure p to mix by diffusion, so that the final
volume is Vi+V2. Then if before mixing each gas had been allowed
to expand till its volume was Vi+Vj, work would have been done
in the expansion, and the gases could still have been mixed by a
reversal of the process above described. In the actual diffusion this
work of expansion is los{, and represents energy rendered unavailable
at the temperature at which diffusion takes place. When divided
by that temperature the quotient gives the increase of entropy.
Thus the irreversible processes, and, in particular, the entropy
changes associated with diffusion of two gases at uniform pressure,
are the same as would take place if each of the gases in turn were to

Gibbs (see ENERGETICS).

DIFFUSION

259

Another way in which two or more mixed gases can be separated
is by placing them in the presence of a liquid which can freely absorb
one of the gases, but in which the other gas or gases are insoluble.
Here again it is found by experience that when equilibrium exists
at a given temperature between the dissolved and uiidissolved
portions of the first gas, the partial pressure of that gas in the
mixture depends on the temperature alone, and is independent of
the partial pressures of the insoluble gases with which it is mixed,
so that the conclusions are the same as before.

10. Diffusion through a Membrane or Partition. Theory of the
semi- permeable Membrane. — It has been pointed out that diffusion
of gases frequently takes place in the interior of solids; moreover,
different gases behave differently with respect to the same solid at
the same temperature. A membrane or partition formed of such
a solid can therefore be used to effect a moie or less complete
separation of gases from a mixture. This method is employed
commercially for extracting oxygen from the atmosphere, in
particular for use in projection lanterns where a high degree of
purity is not required. A similar method is often applied to
liquids and solutions and is known as " dialysis."

In such cases as can be tested experimentally it has been found
that a gas always tends to pass through a membrane from the side
where its density, and therefore its partial pressure, is greater
to the side where it is less; so that for equilibrium the partial
pressures on the two sides must be equal. This result is un-
affected by the presence of other gases on one or both sides of the
membrane. For example, if different gases at the same pressure
are separated by a partition through which one gas can pass more
rapidly than the other, the diffusion will give rise to a difference of
pressure on the two sides, which is capable of doing mechanical
work in moving the partition. In evidence of this conclusion
Max Planck quotes a test experiment made by him in the Physical
Institute of the university of Munich in 1883, depending on the
fact that platinum foil at white heat is permeable to hydrogen but
impermeable to air, so that if a platinum tube filled with hydrogen
be heated the hydrogen will diffuse out, leaving a vacuum.

The details of the experiment may be quoted here: — " A glass
tube of about 5 mm. internal diameter, blown out to a bulb at the
middle, was provided with a stop-cock at one end. To the other a
platinum tube 10 cm. long was fastened, and closed at the end. The
whole tube was exhausted by a mercury pump, filled with hydrogen
at ordinary atmospheric pressure, and then closed. The closed end
of the platinum portion was then heated in a horizontal position by
a Bunsen burner. The connexion between the glass and platinum
tubes, having been made by means of sealing-wax, had to be kept
cool by a continuous current of water to prevent the softening of the
wax. After four hours the tube was taken from the flame, cooled
to the temperature of the room, and the stop-cock opened under
mercury. The mercury rose rapidly, almost completely filling the
tube, proving that the tube had been very nearly exhausted."

In order that diffusion through a membrane may be reversible
so far as a particular gas is concerned, the process must take place
so slowly that equilibrium is set up at every stage (see § 9 above).

In order to separate one
gas from another con-
sistently with this con-
dition it is necessary
that no diffusion of the
latter gas should ac-
company the process.
The name " semi-per-
meable " is applied to
an ideal membrane or partition through which one gas can
pass, and which offers an insuperable barrier to any diffusion
whatever of a second gas. By means of two semi-permeable
partitions acting oppositely with respect to two different gases
A and B these gases could be mixed or separated by reversible
methods. The annexed figure shows a diagrammatic representa-
tion of the process.

We suppose the gases contained in a cylindrical tube; P, Q, R, S
are four pistons, of which' P and R are joined to one connecting rod,
Q and S to another. P, S are impermeable to both gases; Q is
semi-permeable, allowing the gas A to pass through but not B, simi-
larly R allows the gas B to pass through but not A. The distance PR
is equal to the distance QS, so that if the rods are pushed towards each
other as far as they will go, P and Q will be in contact, as also R and
S. Imagine the space RQ filled with a mixture of the two gases

Gas A Cases A&B Gas B

under these conditions. Then by slowly drawing the connecting
rods apart until R, Q touch, the gas A will pass into the space PQ,
and B will pass into the space RS, and the gases will finally be com-
pletely separated ; similarly, by pushing the connecting rods together,
the two gases will be remixed in the space RQ. By performing the
operations slowly enough we may make the processes as nearly
reversible as we please, so that no available energy is lost in either
change. The gas A being at every instant in equilibrium on the two
sides of the piston Q, its density, and therefore its partial pressure,
is the same on both sides, and the same is true regarding the gas B
on the two sides of R. Also no work is done in moving the pistons, for
the partial pressures of B on the two sides of R balance each other,
consequently, the resultant thrust on R is due to the gas A alone,
and is equal and opposite to its resultant thrust on P, so that the
connecting rods are at every instant in a state of mechanical equili-
brium so far as the pressures of the gases A and B are concerned. We
conclude that in the reversible separation of the gases by this method
at constant temperature without the production or absorption of
mechanical work, the densities and the partial pressures of the two
separated gases are the same as they were in the mixture. These
conclusions are in entire agreement with those of the preceding
section. If this agreement did not exist it would be possible, theo-
retically, to obtain perpetual motion from the gases in a way that
would be inconsistent with the second law of thermodynamics.

Most physicists admit, as Planck does, that it is impossible to
obtain an ideal semi-permeable substance; indeed such a sub-
stance would necessarily have to possess an infinitely great resist-
ance to diffusion for such gases as could not penetrate it. But in
an experiment performed under actual conditions the losses of
available energy arising from this cause would be attributable
to the imperfect efficiency of the partitions and not to the gases
themselves; moreover, these losses are, in every case, found to be
completely in accordance with the laws of irreversible thermo-
dynamics. The reasoning in this article being somewhat con-
densed the reader must necessarily be referred to treatises on
thermodynamics for further information on points of detail
connected with the argument. Even when he consults these
treatises he may find some points omitted which have been
examined in full detail at some time or other, but are not suffi-
ciently often raised to require mention in print.

1 1. Kinetic Models of Diffusion. — Imagine in the first instance
that a very large number of red balls are distributed over one half
of a billiard table, and an equal number of white balls over the
other half. If the balls are set in motion with different velocities
in various directions, diffusion will take place, the red balls find-
ing their way among the white ones, and vice versa; and the
process will be retarded by collisions between the balls. The
simplest model of a perfect gas studied in the kinetic theory of
gases (see MOLECULE) differs from the above illustration in that
the bodies representing the molecules move in space instead of in
a plane, and, unlike billiard balls, their motion is unresisted,
and they are perfectly elastic, so that no kinetic energy is lost
either during their free motions, or at a collision.

The mathematical analysis connected with the application of the
kinetic theory to diffusion is very long and cumbersome. We shall
therefore confine our attention to regarding a medium formed of
elastic spheres as a mechanical model, by which the most important
features of diffusion can be illustrated. We shall assume the results
of the kinetic theory, according to which: — (l) In a dynamical
model of a perfect gas the mean kinetic energy of translation of the
molecules represents the absolute temperature of the gas. (2) The
pressure at any point is proportional to the product of the number
of molecules in unit volume about that point into the mean square
of the velocity. (The mean square of the velocity is different from
but proportional to the square of the mean velocity, and in the
subsequent arguments either of these two quantities can generally
be taken.) (3) In a gas mixture represented by a mixture of mole-
cules of unequal masses, the mean kinetic energies of the different
kinds are equal.

Consider now the problem of diffusion in a region containing two
kinds of molecules A and B of unequal mass. The molecules of A
in the neighbourhood of any point will, by their motion, spread out
in every direction until they come into collision with other molecules
of either kind, and this spreading out from every point of the medium
will give rise to diffusion. If we imagine the velocities of the A
molecules to be equally distributed in all directions, as they would
be in a homogeneous mixture, it is obvious that the process of diffusion
will be greater, ceteris paribus, the greater the velocity of the mole-
cules, and the greater the length of the free path before a collision
takes place. If we assume consistently with this, that the co-
efficient of diffusion of the gas A is proportional to the mean value of
aio/o, where a>a is the velocity and /„ is the length of the path of a

260

DIGBY, SIR E.

molecule of A, this expression for the coefficient of diffusion is of the
right dimensions in length and time. If, moreover, we observe that
when diffusion takes place in a fixed direction, say that of the axis
of x, it depends only on the resolved part of the velocity and length
of path in that direction : this hypothesis readily leads to our taking
the mean value of !sWaL as the coefficient of diffusion for the gas A.
This value was obtained by O. E. Meyer and others.

Unfortunately, however, it makes the coefficients of diffusion
unequal for the two gases, a result inconsistent with that obtained
above from considerations of the coefficient of resistance, and
leading to the consequence that differences of pressure would be
set up in different parts of the gas. To equalize these differences of
pressure, Meyer assumed that a counter current is set up, this current
being, of course, very slow in practice; and J. Stefan assumed that
the diffusion of one gas was not affected by collisions between mole-
cules of the same gas. When the molecules are mixed in equal
proportions both hypotheses lead to the value l([wala]+[wi,lb]),
(square brackets denoting mean values). When one gas preponder-
ates largely over the other, the phenomena of diffusion are too
difficult of observation to allow of accurate experimental tests
being made. Moreover, in this case no difference exists unless the
molecules are different in size or mass.

Instead of supposing a velocity of translation added after the
mathematical calculations have been performed, a better plan is to
assume from the outset that the molecules of the two gases have
small velocities of translation in opposite directions, superposed on
the distribution of velocitv, which would occur in a medium repre-
senting a gas at rest. When a collision occurs between molecules
of different gases a transference of momentum takes place between
them, and the quantity of momentum so transferred in one second
in a unit of volume gives a dynamical measure of the resistance to
diffusion. It is to be observed that, however small the relative
velocity of the gases A and B, it plays an all-important part in
determining the coefficient of resistance; for without such relative
motion, and with the velocities evenly distributed in all directions, no
transference of momentum could take place. The coefficient of
resistance being found, the motion of each of the two gases may be
discussed separately.

One of the most important consequences of the kinetic theory
is that if the volume be kept constant the coefficient of diffusion
varies as the square root of the absolute temperature. To prove
this, we merely have to imagine the velocity of each molecule to
be suddenly increased « fold; the subsequent processes, includ-
ing diffusion, will then go on n times as fast; and the temperature
T, being proportional to the kinetic energy, and therefore to the
square of the velocity, will be increased «2 fold. Thus K, the
coefficient of diffusion, varies as VT.

The relation of K to the density when the temperature remains
constant is more difficult to discuss, but it may be sufficient to
notice that if the number of molecules is increased n fold, the
chances of a collision are n times as great, and the distance
traversed between collisions is (not therefore but as the result of
more detailed reasoning) on the average i/n of what it was before.
Thus the free path, and therefore the coefficient of diffusion,
varies inversely as the density, or directly as the volume. If the
pressure p and temperature T be taken as variables, K varies
inversely as p and directly as VT3.

Now according to the experiments first made by J. C. Maxwell
and J. Loschmidt, it appeared that with constant density K
was proportional to T more nearly than to VT. The inference is
that in this respect a medium formed of colliding spheres fails to
give a correct mechanical model of gases. It has been found by
L. Boltzmann, Maxwell and others that a system of particles
whose mutual actions vary according to the inverse fifth power of
the distance between them represents more correctly the relation
between the coefficient of diffusion and temperature in actual
gases. Other recent theories of diffusion have been advanced
by M. Thiesen, P. Langevin and W. Sutherland. On the other
hand, J. Thovert finds experimental evidence that the coefficient
of diffusion is proportional to molecular velocity in the cases
examined of non-electrolytes dissolved in water at iS° at 2-5
grams per litre.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The best introduction to the study of theories
of diffusion is afforded by O. E. Meyer's Kinetic Theory of Gases,
translated by Robert E. Baynes (London, 1899). The mathematical
portion, though sufficient for ordinary purposes, is mostly of the
simplest possible character. Another useful treatise is R. Ruhlmann's
Handbuch der mechanischen Warmetheorie (Brunswick, 1885). For
a shorter sketch the reader may refer to J. C. Maxwell's Theory of
Heat, chaps, xix. and xxii., or numerous other treatises on physics.
The theory of the semi-permeable membrane is discussed by

M. Planck in his Treatise on Thermodynamics, English translation
by A. Ogg (1903), also in treatises on thermodynamics by W. Voigt
and other writers. For a more detailed study of diffusion in general
the following papers may be consulted: — L. Boltzmann, " Zur
Integration derDiffusionsgleichung," Sitzung. der k. bayer.Akad math.-
phys. Klasse (May 1894); T. des Coudres, " Diffusionsvorgange in
einem Zylinder," Wied. Ann. Iv. (1895), p. 213; J. Loschmidt,
" Experimentaluntersuchungen iiber Diffusion," Wien. Sitz. Ixi.,
Ixii. (1870); J. Stefan, " Gleichgewicht und . . . Diffusion von Gas-
mengen," Wien. Sitz. Ixiii., " Dynamische Theorie der Diffusion,"
Wien. Sitz. Ixv. (April 1872) ; M. Toepler, " Gas-diffusion," Wied.
Ann. Iviii. (1896), p. 599; A. Wretschko, " Experimentalunter-
suchungen iiber die Diffusion von Gasmengen," Wien. Sitz. Ixii.
The mathematical theory of diffusion, according to the kinetic
theory of gases, has been treated by a number of different methods,
and for the study of these the reader may consult L. Boltzmann,
Vorlesungen iiber Gastheorie (Leipzig, 1896-1898); S. H. Burbury,
Kinetic Theory of Gases (Cambridge, 1899), and papers by L. Boltz-
mann in Wien. Sitz. Ixxxvi. (1882), Ixxxvii. (1883); P. G. Tait,
" Foundations of the Kinetic Theory of Gases," Trans. R.S.E.
xxxiii., xxxv., xxvi., or Scientific Papers, ii. (Cambridge, 1900).
For recent work reference should be made to the current issues
of Science Abstracts (London), and entries under the heading
" Diffusion " will be found in the general index at the end of each
volume. (G. H. BR.)

DIGBY, SIR EVERARD (1578-1606), English conspirator, son
of Everard Digby of Stoke Dry, Rutland, was born on the i6th
of May 1578. He inherited a large estate at his father's death
in 1592, and acquired a considerable increase by his marriage in
1596 to Mary, daughter and heir of William Mulsho of Gothurst
(now Gayhurst), in Buckinghamshire. He obtained a place in
Queen Elizabeth's household and as a ward of the crown was
brought up a Protestant; but about 1599 he came under the
influence of the Jesuit, John Gerard, and soon afterwards joined
the Roman Catholics. He supported James's accession and was
knighted by the latter on the 23rd of April 1603. In a letter to
Salisbury, the date of which has been ascribed to May 1605,
Digby offered to go on a mission to the pope to obtain from
the latter a promise to prevent Romanist attempts against the
government in return for concessions to the Roman Catholics;
adding that if severe measures were again taken against them
" within brief there will be massacres, rebellions and desperate
attempts against the king and state." Digby had suffered no
personal injury or persecution on account of his religion, but he
sympathized with his co-religionists; and when at Michaelmas,
1605, the government had fully decided to return to the policy of
repression, the authors of the Gunpowder Plot (q.v.) sought his
financial support, and he joined eagerly in the conspiracy. His
particular share in the plan was the organization of a rising in the
Midlands; and on the pretence of a hunting party he assembled a
body of gentlemen together at Danchurch in Warwickshire on the
5th of November, who were to take action immediately the news
arrived from London of the successful destruction of the king
and the House of Lords, and to seize the person of the princess
Elizabeth, who was residing in the neighbourhood. The con-
spirators arrived late on the evening of the 6th to tell their story
of failure and disaster, and Digby, who possibly might have
escaped the more serious charge of high treason, was persuaded by
Catesby, with a false tale that the king and Salisbury were dead,
to further implicate himself in the plot and join the small band of
conspirators in their hopeless endeavour to raise the country. He
accompanied them, the same day, to Huddington in Worcester-
shire and on the 7th to Holbeche in Staffordshire. The following
morning, however, he abandoned his companions, dismissed his
servants except two, who declared " they would never leave him
but against their will," and attempted with these to conceal him-
self in a pit. He was, however, soon discovered and surrounded.
He made a last effort to break through his captors on horseback,
but was taken and conveyed a prisoner to the Tower. His trial
took place in Westminster Hall, on the 27th of January 1606, and
alone among the conspirators he pleaded guilty, declaring that
the motives of his crime had been his 'friendship for Catesby
and his devotion to his religion. He was condemned to death,
and his execution, which took place on the 3ist, in St Paul's
Churchyard, was accompanied by all the brutalities exacted by
the law.

Digby was a handsome man, of fine presence. Father Gerard

DIGBY, SIR K.

261

extols his skill in sport, his " riding of great horses," as well as his
skill in music, his gifts of mind and his religious devotion, and
concludes " he was as complete a man in all things, that deserved
estimation or might win affection as one should see in a kingdom."
Some of Digby's letters and papers, which include a poem
before his execution, a last letter to his infant sons and corre-
spondence with his wife from the Tower, were published in The
Gunpowder Treason by Thomas Barlow, bishop of Lincoln, in
1679. He left two sons, of whom the elder, Sir Kenelm Digby,
was the well-known author and diplomatist.

See works on the Gunpowder Plot; Narrative of Father Gerard,
in Condition of the Catholics under James I. by J. Morris (1872),
&c. A life of Digby under the title of A Life of a Conspirator,
by a Romish Recusant (Thomas Longueville), was published in
1895- (P. C. Y.)

DIGBY, SIR KENELM (i6o3-!665), English author, diplom-
atist and naval commander, son of Sir Everard Digby (q.v.),
was born on the i ith of July 1603, and after his father's execution
in 1606 resided with his mother at Gayhurst, being brought up
apparently as a Roman Catholic. In 1617 he accompanied his
cousin, Sir John Digby, afterwards ist earl of Bristol, and then
ambassador in Spain, to Madrid. On his return in April 1618 he
entered Gloucester Hall (now Worcester College), Oxford, and
studied under Thomas Allen (1542-1632), the celebrated mathe-
matician, who was much impressed with his abilities and called
him the Mirandula, i.e. the infant prodigy, of his age.1 He left
the university without taking a degree in 1620, and travelled
in France, where, according to his own account, he inspired an
uncontrollable passion in the queen-mother, Marie de' Medici,
now a lady of more than mature age and charms; he visited
Florence, and in March 1623 joined Sir John Digby again at
Madrid, at the time when PrinceCharles and Buckingham arrived
on their adventurous expedition. He- joined the prince's house-
hold and returned with him to England on the 5th of October
1623, being knighted by James I. on the 23rd of October and
receiving the appointment of gentleman of the privy chamber to
Prince Charles. In 1625 he married secretly Venetia, daughter of
Sir Edward Hanley of Tonge Castle, Shropshire, a lady of extra-
ordinary beauty and intellectual attainments, but of doubtful
virtue. Digby was a man of great stature and bodily strength.
Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of Clarendon, who with Ben
Jonson was included among his most intimate friends, describes
him as " a man of very extraordinary person and presence which
drew the eyes of all men upon him, a wonderful graceful
behaviour, a flowing courtesy and civility, and such a volubility
of language as surprised and delighted."2 Digby for sometime
was excluded from public employment by Buckingham's jealousy
of his cousin, Lord Bristol. At length in 1627, on the latter's
advice, Digby determined to attempt " some generous action,"
and on the 22nd of December, with the approval of the king,
embarked as a privateer with two ships, with the object of attack-
ing the French ships in the Venetian harbour of Scanderoon. On
the i8th of January he arrived off Gibraltar and captured several
Spanish and Flemish vessels. From the I5th of February to the
2/th of March he remained at anchor off Algiers on account of the
sickness of his men, and extracted a promise from the authorities
of better treatment of the English ships. He seized a rich Dutch
vessel near Majorca, and after other adventures gained a complete
victory over the French and Venetian ships in the harbour of
Scanderoon on the i ith of June. His successes, however, brought
upon the English merchants the risk of reprisals, and he was urged
to depart. He returned home in triumph in February 1629, and
was well received by the king, and was made a commissioner of
the navy in October 1630, but his proceedings were disavowed on
account of the complaints of the Venetian ambassador. In 1633
Lady Digby died, and her memory was celebrated by Ben Jonson
in a series of poems entitled Eupheme, and by other poets of
the day. Digby retired to Gresham College, and exhibited ex-
travagant grief, maintaining a seclusion for two years. About
this time Digby professed himself a Protestant, but by October
1635, while in France, he had already returned to the Roman
1 Letters by Eminent Persons (Aubrey's Lives), ii. 324.
1 Life and Continuation.

Catholic faith.3 In a letter dated the 27th of March 1636 Laud
remonstrates with him, but assures him of the continuance of his
friendship.4 In 1638 he published A Conference with a Lady about
choice of a Religion, in which he argues that the Roman Church,
possessing alone the qualifications of universality, unity of
doctrine and uninterrupted apostolic succession, is the only true
church, and that the intrusion of error into it is impossible. The
same subject is treated in letters to George Digby, afterwards
2nd earl of Bristol, dated the 2nd of November 1638 and the 29th
of November 1639, which were published in 1651, as well as in
a further Discourse concerning Infallibility in Religion in 1652.
Returning to England he associated himself with the queen and
her Roman Catholic friends, and joined in the appeal to the
English Romanists for money to support the king's Scottish
expedition.5 In consequence he was summoned to the bar of
the House of Commons on the 27th of January 1641, and the
king was petitioned to remove him with other recusants from his
councils. He left England, and while at Paris killed in a duel a
French lord who had insulted Charles I. in his presence. Louis
XIII. took his part, and furnished him with a military escort into
Flanders. Returning home he was imprisoned, by order of the
House of Commons, early in 1642, successively in the " Three
Tobacco Pipes nigh Charing Cross," where his delightful con-
versation is said to have transformed the prison into " a place of
delight," 6 and at Winchester House. He was finally released and
allowed to go to France on the 3oth of July 1643, through the
intervention of the queen of France, Anne of Austria, on condition
that he would neither promote nor conceal any plots abroad
against the English government.

Before leaving England an attempt was made to draw from
him an admission that Laud, with whom he had been intimate,
had desired to be made a cardinal, but Digby denied that the
archbishop had any leanings towards Rome. On the ist of
November 1643 it was resolved by the Commons to confiscate his
property. He published in London the same year Observations
on the 22nd stanza in the plh canto of the 2nd book of Spenser's
" Faerie Queene," the MS. of which is in the Egerton collection
(British Museum, No. 2725 f. 117 b), and Observations on a
surreptitious and unauthorized edition of the Religio Medici, by
Sir Thomas Browne, from the Roman Catholic point of view,
which drew a severe rebuke from the author. After his arrival
in Paris he published his chief philosophical works, Of Bodies
and Of the Immortality of Man's Soul (1644), autograph MSS. of
which are in the Bibliotheque Ste Genevieve at Paris, and made
the acquaintance of Descartes. He was appointed by Queen
Henrietta Maria her chancellor, and in the summer of 1645 he was
despatched by her to Rome to obtain assistance. Digby promised
the conversion of Charles and of his chief supporters. At first his
eloquence made a great impression. Pope Innocent X. declared
that he spoke not merely as a Catholic but as an ecclesiastic.
But the absence of any warrant from Charles himself roused
suspicions as to the solidity of his assurances, and he obtained
nothing but a grant of 20,000 crowns. A violent quarrel with the
pope followed, and he returned in 1646, having consented in the
queen's name to complete religious freedom for the Roman
Catholics, both in England and Ireland, to an independent parlia-
ment in Ireland, and to the surrender of Dublin and all the Irish
fortresses into the hands of the Roman Catholics, the king's
troops to be employed in enforcing the articles and the pope
granting about £36,000 with a promise of further payments in
obtaining direct assistance. In February 1649 Digby was invited
to come to England to arrange a proposed toleration of the Roman
Catholics, but on his arrival in May the scheme had already been
abandoned. He was again banished on the 3ist of August, and
it was not till 1654 that he was allowed by the council of state to
return. He now entered into close relations with Cromwell, from
whom he hoped to obtain toleration for the Roman Catholics, and
whose alliance he desired to secure for France rather than for

3 Strafford's Letters, i. 474.

4 Laud's Works, vi. 447.

* Thomason Tracts, Brit. Mus. E 164 (15).
6 A rchaeologia Cantiana, ii. 190.

262

DIGBY, K. H.— DIGESTIVE ORGANS

Spain, and was engaged by Cromwell, much to the scandal of both
Royalists and Roundheads, in negotiations abroad, of which the
aim was probably to prevent a union between those two foreign
powers. He visited Germany, in 1660 was in Paris, and at the
Restoration returned to England. He was well received in spite
of his former relations with Cromwell, and was confirmed in his
post as Queen Henrietta Maria's chancellor. In January 1661
he delivered a lecture, which was published the same month, at
Gresham College, on the vegetation of plants, and became an
original member of the Royal Society in 1663. In January 1664
he was forbidden to appear at court, the cause assigned being that
he had interposed too far in favour of the 2nd earl of Bristol,
disgraced by the king on account of the charge of high treason
brought by him against Clarendon into the House of Lords. The
rest of his life was spent in the enjoyment of literary and scientific
society at his house in Covent Garden. He died on the nth of
June 1665. He had five children, of whom two, a son and one
daughter, survived him.

Digby, though he possessed for the time a considerable know-
ledge of natural science, and is said to have been the first to
explain the necessity of oxygen to the existence of plants, bears
no high place in the history of science. He was a firm believer in
astrology and alchemy, and the extraordinary fables which he
circulated on the subject of his discoveries are evidence of any-
thing rather than of the scientific spirit. In 1656 he made public
a marvellous account of a city in Tripoli, petrified in a few hours,
which he printed in the Mercurius Politicus. Malicious reports
had been current that his wife had been poisoned by one of his
prescriptions, viper wine, taken to preserve her beauty. Evelyn,
who visited him in Paris in 1651, describes him as an " errant
mountebank." Henry Stubbes characterizes him as "the very
Pliny of our age for lying," and Lady Fanshawe refers to the same
" infirmity." J His famous " powder of sympathy," which seems
to have been only powder of " vitriol," healed without any
contact, by being merely applied to a rag or bandage taken from
the wound, and Digby records a miraculous cure by this means in
a lecture given by him at Montpellier on this subject in 1658,
published in French and English the same year, in German in
1660 and in Dutch in 1663; but Digby 's claim to its original
discovery is doubtful, Nathaniel Highmore in his History of
Generation (1651, p. 113) calling the powder " Talbot's powder,"
and ascribing its invention to Sir Gilbert Talbot. Some of Digby's
pills and preparations, however, described in The Closet of the
Eminently Learned Sir Kenelm Digby Knt. Opened (publ. 1677),
are said to make less demand upon the faith of patients, and his
injunction on the subject of the making of tea, to let the water
" remain upon it no longer than you can say the Miserere Psalm
very leisurely," is one by no means to be ridiculed. As a philo-
sopher and an Aristotelian Digby shows little originality and
followed the methods of the schoolmen. His Roman Catholic
orthodoxy mixed with rationalism, and his political opinions,
according to which any existing authority should receive support,
were evidently derived from Thomas White (1582-1676), the
Roman Catholic philosopher, who lived with him in France.
White published in 1651 Institutionum Peripateticorum libri
quinque, purporting to expound Digby's "peripatetic philo-
sophy," but going far beyond Digby's published treatises.
Digby's Memoirs are composed in the high-flown ."antastic manner
then usual when recounting incidents of love and adventure,
but the style of his more sober works is excellent. In 1632 he
presented to the Bodleian library a collection of 236 MSS., be-
queathed to him by his former tutor Thomas Allen, and described
in Catalogi codicum manuscriptorum bibliothecae Bodleianae, by
W. D. Macray, part ix. Besides the works already mentioned
Digby translated A Treatise of adhering to God written by Albert
the Great, Bishop of Ratisbon (1653); and he was the author of
Private Memoirs, published by Sir N. H. Nicholas from Harleian
MS. 6j$8 with introduction (1827); Journal of the Scanderoon
Voyage in 1628, printed by J. Bruce with preface (Camden
Society, 1868); Poems from Sir Kenelm Digby's Papers . . . with

1 Diet, of Nat. Biog. sub " Digby." See also Robert Boyle's
Works (1744), v. 302.

preface and notes (Roxburghe Club, 1877); in the Add. MSS.
34,362 f. 66 is a poem Of the Miserys of Man, probably by Digby;
Choice of Experimental Receipts in Physick and Chirurgery . . .
collected by Sir K. Digby (1668), and Chymical Secrets and Rare
Experiments ( 1683) , were published by G. Hartman, who describes
himself as Digby's steward and laboratory assistant.

See the Life of Sir Kenelm Digby by one of his Descendants
(T. Longueville), 1896. (P. C. Y.)

DIGBY, KENELM HENRY (1800-1880), English writer,
youngest son of William Digby, dean of Clonfert, was born at
Clonfert, Ireland, in 1800. He was educated at Trinity College,
Cambridge, and soon after taking his B.A. degree there in 1819
became a Roman Catholic. He spent most of his life, which was
mainly devoted to literary pursuits, in London, where he died on
the 22nd of March 1880. Digby's reputation rests chiefly on his
earliest publication, The Broadstone of Honour, or Rules for the
Gentlemen of England (1822), which contains an exhaustive survey
of medieval customs, full of quotations from varied sources. The
work was subsequently enlarged and issued (1826-1827) in four
volumes entitled: Godefridus, Tancredus, Morus and Orlandus
(numerous re-impressions, the best of which is the edition
brought out by B. Quaritch in five volumes, 1876^1877).

Among Digby's other works are: Mores Catholici, or Ages of
Faith (n vols., London, 1831-1840); Compitum; or the Meeting of
the Ways at the Catholic Church (7 vols., London, 2848-1854); The
Lovers' Seat, Kathemerina; or Common Things in relation to Beauty,
Virtue and Faith (2 vols., London, 1856). A complete list is given
in J. Gillow's Bibliographical Dictionary of English Catholics, ii.
81-83.

DIGENES ACRITAS, BASILIUS, Byzantine national hero,
probably lived in the loth century. He is named Digenes (of
double birth) as the son of a Moslem father and a Christian
mother; Acritas (oxpa, frontier, boundary), as one of the fron-
tier guards of the empire, corresponding to the Roman milites
limilanei. The chief duty of these acritae consisted in repelling
Moslem inroads and the raids of the apelatae (cattle-lifters),
brigands who may be compared with the more modern Klephts.
The original Digenes epic is lost, but four poems are extant, in
which the different incidents of the legend have been worked
up by different hands. The first of these consists of about 4000
lines, written in the so-called " political " metre, and was dis-
covered in the latter part of the ipth century, in a 16th-century
MS., at Trebizond; the other three MSS. were found at Grotta
Ferrata, Andros and Oxford. The poem, which has been com-
pared with the Chanson de Roland and the Romance of the Cid,
undoubtedly contains a kernel of fact, although it cannot be
regarded as in any sense an historical record. The scene of action
is laid in Cappadocia and the district of the Euphrates.

Editions of the Trebizond MS. by C. Sathas and E. Legrand in
the Collection des monuments pour servir & V elude de la langue neo-
hellenique, new series, vi. (1875), and by S. Joannides (Constantinople,
1887). See monographs by A. Luber (Salzburg, 1885) and G.
Wartenberg (Berlin, 1897). Full information will be found in
C. Krumbacher's Ceschichle der byzantinischen Litteratur , p. 827
(2nd ed., 1897); see also G. Schlumberger, L'Epopee Byzantine a
la fin du dixicme siecle (1897).

DIGEST, a term used generally of any digested or carefully
arranged collection or compendium of written matter, but more
particularly in law of a compilation in condensed form of a body
of law digested in a systematical method; e.g. the Digest (Digesta)
or Pandects (navStKrai) of Justinian, a collection of extracts
from the earlier jurists compiled by order of the emperor
Justinian. The word is also given to the compilations of the
main points (marginal or hand-notes) of decided cases, usually
arranged in alphabetical and subject order, and published under
such titles as " Common Law Digest," " Annual Digest," &c.

DIGESTIVE ORGANS (PATHOLOGY). Several facts of im-
portance have to be borne in mind for a proper appreciation of
the pathology of the organs concerned in digestive processes (for
the anatomy see ALIMENTARY CANAL and allied articles). In
the first place, more than all other systems, the digestive comprises
greater range of structure and exhibits wider diversity of function
within its domain. Each separate structure and each different
function presents special pathological signs and symptoms.
Again, the duties imposed upon the system have to be performed

DIGESTIVE ORGANS

263

notwithstanding constant variations in the work set them. The
crude articles of diet offered them vary immensely in nature, bulk
and utility, from which they must elaborate simple food-elements
for absorption, incorporate them after absorption into complex
organic substances properly designed to supply the constant needs
of cellular activity, of growth and repair, and fitly harmonized
to fulfil the many requirements of very divergent processes and
functions. Any form of unphysiological diet, each failure to
cater for the wants of any special tissue engaged in, or of any
processes of, metabolism, carry with them pathological signs.
Perhaps in greater degree than elsewhere are the individual
sections of the digestive system dependent upon, and closely
correlated with, one another. The lungs can only yield oxygen
to the blood when the oxygen is uncombined; no compounds
are of use. The digestive organs have to deal with an enormous
variety of compound bodies, from which to obtain the elements
necessary for protoplasmic upkeep and activity. Morbid lesions
of the respiratory and circulatory systems are frequently capable
of compensation through increased activity elsewhere, and the
symptoms they give rise to follow chiefly along one line; diseases
of the digestive organs are more liable to occasion disorders
elsewhere than to excite compensatory actions. The digestive
system includes every organ, function and process concerned
with the utilization of food-stuffs, from the moment of their
entrance into the mouth, their preparation in the canal, assimi-
lation with the tissues, their employment therein, up to their
excretion or expulsion in the form of waste. Each portion
resembles a link of a continuous chain; each link depends upon
the integrity of the others, the weakening or breaking of one
straining or making impotent the chain as a whole.

The mucous membrane lining the alimentary tract is the part
most subject to pathological alterations, and in this connexion
it should be remembered that this membrane differs both in
structure and functions throughout the tract. Chiefly protective
from the mouth to the cardia, it is secretory and absorbent in the
stomach and bowel; while the glandular cells forming part of it
secrete both acid and alkaline fluids, several ferments or mucus.
Over the dorsum of the tongue its modified cells subserve the
sense of taste. Without, connected with it by the submucous
connective tissue, is placed the muscular coat, and externally over
the greater portion of its length the peritoneal serous membrane.
All parts are supplied with blood-vessels, lymph-ducts and
nerves, the last belonging either to local or to central circuits.
Associated with the tract are the salivary glands, the liver and
the pancreas; while, in addition, lymphoid tissue is met with
diffuselyscattered throughout the lining membranes in the tonsils,
appendix, solitary glands and Peyer's patches, and the mesenteric
glands. The functions of the various parts of the system in whose
lesions we are here interested are many in number, and can only
be summarized here. (For the physiology of digestion see
NUTRITION.) Broadly, they may be given as: (i) Ingestion and
swallowing of food, transmission of it through the tract, and
expulsion of the waste material; (2) secretion of acids and
alkalis for the performance of digestive processes, aided by (3)
elaboration and addition of complex bodies, termed enzymes
or ferments; (4) secretion of mucus; (5) protection of the body
against organismal infection, and against toxic products; (6)
absorption of food elements and reconstitution of them into
complex substances fitted for metabolic application; and (7)
excretion of the waste products of protoplasmic action. These
functions may be altered by disease, singly or in conjunction; it
is rare, however, to find but one affected, while an apparently
identical disturbance of function may often arise from totally
different organic lesions. Another point of importance is seen in
the close interdependence which exists between the secretions of
acid and those of alkaline reaction. The difference in reaction
seems to act mutatis mutandis as a stimulant in each instance.

General Diseases.

In all sections of the alimentary canal actively engaged in the
digestion of food, a well-marked local engorgement of the blood-
vessels supplying the walls occurs. The hyperaemia abates soon

after completion of the special duties of the individual sections.
This normal condition may be abnormally exaggerated by over-
stimulation from irritant poisons introduced into the
canal; from too rich, too copious or indigestible
articles of diet; or from too prolonged an experience
of some unvaried kind of food-stuff, especially if large quantities
of it are necessary for metabolic needs; entering into the first
stage of inflammation, acute hyperaemia. More important,
because productive of less tractable lesions, is passive congestion
of the digestive organs. Whenever the flow of blood into the
right side of the heart is hindered, whether it arise from disease
of the heart itself, or of the lungs, or proceed from obstruction in
some part of the portal system, the damming-back of the venous
circulation speedily produces a more or less pronounced stasis of
the blood in the walls of the alimentary canal and in the associated
abdominal glands. The lack of a sufficiently vigorous flow of
blood is followed by deficient secretion of digestive agents from
the glandular elements involved, by decreased motility of the
muscular coats of the stomach and bowel, and lessened adapt-
ability throughout for dealing with even slight irregular demands
on their powers. The mucous membrane of the stomach and
bowel, less able to withstand the effects of irritation, even of a
minor character, readily passes into a condition of chronic
catarrh, while it frequently is the seat of small abrasions,
haemorrhagic erosions, which may cause vomiting of blood and
the appearance of blood in the stools. Obstruction to the flow
of blood from the liver leads to dilatation of its blood-vessels,
consequent pressure upon the hepatic cells adjoining them, and
their gradual loss of function, or even atrophy and degeneration.
In addition to the results of such passive congestion exhibited
by the stomach and bowel as noted above, passive congestion
of the liver is often accompanied by varicose enlargement of the
abdominal veins, in particular of those which surround the lower
end of the oesophagus, the lowest part of the rectum and anus.
In the latter position these dilated veins constitute what are
known as haemorrhoids or piles, internal or external as their
site lies within or outside the anal aperture.

The mucous and serous membranes of the canal and the
glandular elements of the associated organs are the parts most
subject to inflammatory affections. Among the several sections
of the digestive tract itself, the oesophagus and jejunum are
singularly exempt from inflammatory processes; the fauces,
stomach, caecum and appendix, ileum, mouth and duodenum
(including the opening of the common bile-duct), are more
commonly involved. Stomatitis, or inflammation of the mouth,
has many predisposing factors, but it has now been
definitely determined that its exciting cause is always
some form of micro-organism. Any condition favouring
oral sepsis, as carious teeth, pyorrhoea alveolaris (a dis-
charge of pus due to inflamed granulations round carious teeth),
granulations beneath thick crusts of tartar, or an irritating tooth
plate, favours the growth of pyogenic organisms and hence of
stomatitis. Many varieties of this disease have been described,
but all are forms of " pyogenic " or " septic stomatitis." This in
its mildest form is catarrhal or erythematous, and is attended
only by slight swelling tenderness and salivation. In its next
stage of acuteness it is known as " membranous," as a false
membrane is produced somewhat resembling that due to
diphtheria, though caused by a staphylococcus only. A still
more acute form is " ulcerative," which may go on to the forma-
tion of an abscess beneath the tongue. Scarlet fever usually
gives rise to a slight inflammation of the mouth followed by
desquamation, but more rarely it is accompanied by a most
severe oedematous stomatitis with glossitis and tonsillitis.
Erysipelas on the face may infect the mouth, and an acute
stomatitis due to the diphtheria bacillus, Klebs-Loeffler bacillus,
has been described. A distinct and very dangerous form of
stomatitis in infants and young children is known as " aphthous
stomatitis " or " thrush." This is caused by the growth of
Oidium albicans. It is always preceded by a gastro-enteritis and
dry mouth, and if this is not attended to, soon attracts attention
by the little white raised patches surrounded by a dusky red zone

264

DIGESTIVE ORGANS

scattered on tongue and cheeks. Epidemics have occurred in
hospitals and orphanages. Mouth breathing is the cause of many
ills. As a result of this, the mucous membrane of the tongue, &c.,
becomes dry, micro-organisms multiply and the mouth becomes
foul. Also from disease of the nose, the upper jaw, palate and
teeth do not make proper progress in development. There is
overgrowth of tonsils, and adenoids, with resulting deafness, and
the child's mental development suffers. An ordinary " sore
throat " usually signifies acute catarrh of the fauces, and is of
purely organismal origin, " catching cold " being only a secondary
and minor cause. In " relaxed throats " there is a chronic
catarrhal state of the lining membrane, with some passive con-
gestion. The tonsils are peculiarly liable to catarrhal attacks,
as might a priori be expected by reason of their Cerberus-like
function with regard to bacterial intruders. Still, acute attacks
of tonsillitis appear on good evidence to be more common among
individuals predisposed constitutionally to rheumatic manifesta-
tions. Cases of acute tonsillitis may or may not go on to suppura-
tion or quinsy; in all there is great congestion of the glands,
increased mucus secretion, and often secondary involvement of
the lymphatic glands of the neck. Repeated acute attacks often
lead to chronic inflammation, in which the glands are enlarged,
and often hypertrophied in the true sense of the term. The
oesophagus is the seat of inflammation but seldom. In infants
and young children thrush due to Oidium albicans may spread
from the mouth, and also a diphtheritic inflammation spreads
from the fauces into the oesophagus. A catarrhal oesophagitis
is rarely seen, but the commonest form is traumatic, due to the
swallowing of boiling water, corrosive or irritant substances, &c.
A non-malignant ulceration may result which later leads on to
an oesophageal stricture. The physical changes presented by the
coats of the stomach and the intestine, the subjects of catarrhal
attacks, closely resemble one another, but differ symptomatic-
ally. Acute catarrh of the stomach is associated with intense
hyperaemia of its lining coats, with visible engorgement and
swelling of the mucous membrane, and an excessive secretion of
mucus. The formation of active gastric juice is arrested, digestion
ceases, peristaltic movements are sluggish or absent, unless so
over-stimulated that they act in a direction the reverse of the
normal, and induce expulsion of the gastric contents by vomiting.
The gastric contents, in whatever degree of dilution or concentra-
tion they may have been ingested, when ejected are of porridge-
thick consistency, and often but slightly digested. Such
conditions may succeed a severe alcoholic bout, be caused by
irritant substances taken in by the mouth or arise from fer-
mentative processes in the stomach contents themselves. Should
the irritating material succeed in passing from the stomach into
the bowel, similar physical signs are present; but as the quickest
path offered for the expulsion of the offending substances from
the body is downwards, peristalsis is increased, the flow of fluid
from the intestinal glands is larger in bulk, though of less potency
as regards its normal actions, than in health, and diarrhoea, with
removal of the irritant, follows. As a general rule, the more
marked the involvement of the large bowel, the severer and more
fluid is the resultant diarrhoea. Inflammation of the stomach
may be due to mechanical injury, thermal or chemical irritants
or invasion by micro-organisms. Also all the symptoms of
gastric catarrh may be brought on by any acute emotion. The
commonest mechanical injury is that due to an excess of food,
especially when following on a fast; poisons act as irritants, and
also the weevils of cheese and the larvae of insects.

Inflammatory affections of the caecum and its attached
appendix vermiformis are very common, and give rise to several
special symptoms and signs. Acute inflammatory appendicitis
appears to be inci easing in frequency, and is associated by many
with the modern deterioration in the teeth. Constipation
certainly predisposes to it, and it appears to be more prevalent
among medical men, commercial travellers, or any engaged in
arduous callings, subjected to irregular meals, fatigue and
exposure. A foreign body is the exciting cause in many cases,
though less commonly so than was formerly imagined. The
inflammation in the appendix varies in intensity from a very

slight catarrhal or simple form to an ulcerative variety, and much
more rarely to the acute fulminating appendicitis in which
necrosis of the appendix with abscess formation occurs. It is
always accompanied by more or less peritonitis, which is pro-
tective in nature, shutting in the inflammatory process. Very
similar symptomatically is the condition termed perityphlitis,
doubtless in former days frequently due to the appendix, an acute
or chronic inflammation of the walls of the caecum often leading
to abscess formation outside the gut, with or without direct
communication with the canal. The colon is subject to three
main forms of inflammation. In simple colitis the mucous
membrane of the colon is intensely injected, bright red in colour,
and secreting a thick mucus, but there is no accompanying
ulceration. It is often found in association with some constitu-
tional disease, as Bright's disease, and also with cancer of the
bowel. But when it has no association with other trouble it is
probably bacterial in origin, the Bacillus enteritidis spirogenes
having been isolated in many cases. The motions always contain
large quantities of mucus and more or less blood. A second very
severe form of inflammation of the colon is known as " membran-
ous colitis," and this may be either dyspeptic, or secondary to
other diseases. In this trouble membranes are passed per anum,
accompanied by a pain so intense as often to cause fainting. In
severe cases complete tubular casts of the intestine have been
found. Often the motions contain very little faecal matter, but
consist only of membranes, mucus and a little blood. A third
form is that known as " ulcerative colitis." Any part of the large
intestine may be affected, and the ulceration shows no special
distribution. In severe cases the muscular coat is exposed, and
perforation may ensue. The number of ulcers varies from a few
to many dozen, and in size from a pea to a five-shilling piece.
Like all chronic intestinal ulcers they show a tendency to become
transverse.

Chronic catarrhal affections of the stomach are very common,
and often follow upon repeated acute attacks. In them the
connective tissue increases at the expense of the glandular
elements; the mucous membrane becomes thickened and less
active in function. Should the muscular coat be involved, the
elasticity and contractility of the organ suffer; peristaltic move-
ment is weakened; expulsion of the contents through the pylorus
hindered; and, aggravated by these effects, the condition
becomes worse, atonic dyspepsia in its most pronounced form
results, with or without dilatation. Chronic vascular congestion
may occasion in process of time similar signs and symptoms.

Duodenal catarrh is constantly associated with jaundice, indeed
is most probably the commonest cause of catarrhal jaundice; often
it is accompanied by catarrh of the common bile-duct. Chronic
inflammation of the small intestine gives rise to less prominent
symptoms than in the stomach. It generally arises from more than
one cause; or rather secondary causes rapidly become as import-
ant as the primary in its incidence. Chronic congestion and pro-
longed irritation lead to deficient secretion and sluggish peristalsis;
these effects encourage intestinal putrefaction and autointoxi-
cation; and these latter, in turn, increase the local unrest.

The intestinal mucous membrane, the peritoneum and the
mesenteric glands are the chief sites of tubercular infection in
the digestive organs. Rarely met with in the gullet and
stomach, and comparatively seldom in the mouth and 'ksifias'
lips, tubercular inflammation of the small intestine
and peritoneum is common. Tubercular enteritis is a frequent
accompaniment of phthisis, but may occur apart from tubercle
of other organs. Children are especially subject to the primary
form. Tubercular peritonitis often is present also. The in-
flammatory process readily tends towards ulcer formation, with
haemorrhage and sometimes perforation. If in the large bowel,
the symptoms are usually less acute than those characterizing
tubercular inflammation of the small intestine. The appendix
has been found to be the seat of tubercular processes; in the
rectum they form the general cause of the fistulae and abscesses so
commonly met with here. Tubercular peritonitis may be primary
or secondary, acute or chronic; occasionally very acute cases are
seen running a rapid course; the majority are chronic in type.

DIGESTIVE ORGANS

265

The tubercles spread over the surface of the serous membrane,
and if small and not very numerous may give rise in chronic
cases to few symptoms; if larger, and especially when they
involve and obstruct the lymph- and blood-vesseis, ;iscii es follows.
It is hardly possible that tubercular invasion of the mesenteric
glands can ever occur unaccompanied by peritoneal infection;
but when the infection of the glands constitutes the most pro-
minent sign, the term tabes mesenlerica is sometimes employed.
Here the glands, enlarged, forma doughy mass in the abdomen,
leading to marked protrusion of the abdominal walls, with
wasting elsewhere and diarrhoea.

The liver is seldom attacked by tubercle, unless in cases of
general miliary tuberculosis. Now and then it contains large
caseous tubercular masses in its substance.

An important fact with regard to the tubercular processes in
the digestive organs lies in the ready response to treatment shown
by many cases of peritoneal or mesenteric invasion, particularly
in the young.

The later sequelae of syphilis display a predilection for the
rectam and the liver, usually leading to the development of a
stricture in the former, to a diffuse hepatitis or the formation
of gummata in the second. In inherited syphilis the temporary
teeth usually appear early, are discoloured and soon crumble
away. The permanent teeth may be sound and healthy, but are
often — especially the upper incisors — notched aji'd stunted, when
they are known as " Hutchinson's teeth." As the result both of
syphilis and of tubercle, the tissues of the liver and bowel may
present a peculiar alteration; they become amyloid, or lard-
aceous, a condition in which they appear " waxy," are coloured
dark mahogany brown with dilute iodine solutions, and show
degenerative changes in the connective tissue.

The Bacillus typhosus discovered by Eberth is the causal agent
of typhoid fever, and has its chief seat of activity in the small
intestine, more especially in the lower half of the ileum. Attack-
ing the lymphoid follicles in the mucous membrane, it causes first
inflammatory enlargement, then necrosis and ulceration. The
adjacent portions of the mucous membrane show acute catar,rhal
changes. Diarrhoea, of a special " pea-soup " type, may or may
not be present; while haemorrhage from the bowel, if ulcers have
formed, is common. As the ulcers frequently extend down to the
peritoneal coat cf the bowel, perforation of this membrane and
extravasation into the peritoneal cavity is easily induced by
irritants introduced into or elaborated in the bowel, acting
physically or by the excitation of hyper-peristalsis.

True Asiatic cholera is due to the comma-bacillus or spirillum
of cholera, which is found in the rice-water evacuations, in the
contents of the intestine after death, and in the mucous membrane
of the intestine just beneath the epithelium. It has not been
found in the blood. It produces an intense irritation of the bowel,
seldom of the stomach, without giving rise locally to any marked
physical change; it causes violent diarrhoea and copious dis-
charges of " rice-water " stools, consisting largely of serum
swarming with the organism.

Dysentery gives rise to an inflammation of the large intestine
and sometimes of the lower part of the ileum, resulting in exten-
sive ulceration and accompanied by faecal discharges of mucus,
muco-pus or blood. In some forms a protozoan, the Amoeba
dysenteriae, is found in the stools — this is the amoebic dysentery;
in other cases a bacillus, Bacillus dysenteriae , is found — the
bacillary dysentery.

Acute parotitis, or mumps, is an infectious disease of the parotid
glands, chiefly interesting because of the association between it
and the testes in males, inflammation of these glands occasionally
following or replacing the affection of the parotids. The causal
agent is probably organismal, but has as yet escaped detection.

The relative frequency with which malignant growths occur in
the different organs of the digestive system may be gathered from
the tabular analysis, on p. 266, of 1768 cases recorded in
the books of the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary as having
been treated in the medical and surgical wards between
the years 1892 and 1809 inclusive. Of these, 1263, or 71-44 %,
were males; 505, or 28-56%, females. (See Table I. p. 266.)

New
growths.

If the figures there given be classified upon broader lines, the
results are as given in Table II. p. 266, and speak for them-
selves. I

The digestive organs are peculiarly subject to malignant
disease, a result of the incessant changes from passive to active
conditions, and vice versa, called for by repeated introduction
of food; while the comparative frequency with which different
parts are attacked depends, in part, upon the degree of irritation
or changes of function imposed upon them. Scirrhous, en-
cephaloid and colloid forms of carcinoma occur. In the stomach
and oesophagus the scirrhous form is most common, the soft
encephaloid form coming next. The most common situation for
cancerous growth in the stomach is the pyloric region. Walsh out
of 1300 cases found 60-8 % near the pylorus, 11-4 % over the
lesser curvature, and 4-7 % more or less over the whole organ.
The small intestine is rarely attacked by cancer; the large
intestine frequently. The rectum, sigmoid flexure, caecum and
colon are affected, and in this order, the cylindrical-celled form
being the most common. Carcinoma of the peritoneum is
generally colloid in character, and is often secondary to growths in
other organs. Cancer of the liver follows cancer of the stomach
and rectum in frequency of occurrence, and is relatively more
common in females than males. Secondary invasion of the liver
is a frequent sequel to gastric cancer. The pancreas occasionally
is the seat of cancerous growth.

Sarcomata are not so often met with in the digestive organs.
When present, they generally involve the peritoneum or the
mesenteric glands. The liver is sometimes attacked, the stomach
rarely.

Benign tumours are not of common occurrence in the digestive
organs. Simple growths of the salivary glands, cysts of the
pancreas and polypoid tumours of the rectum are the most
frequent.

The intestinal canal is the habitat of the majority of animal
parasites found in man. Frequently their presence leads to no
morbid symptoms, local or general; nor are the symptoms, when
they do arise, always characteristic of the presence of
parasites alone. Discovery of their bodies, or of their parasites
eggs, in the stools is in most instances the only satis-
factory proof of their presence. The parasites found in the bowel
belong principally to two natural groups, Protozoa and Metazoa.
The great class of the Protozoa furnish amoebae, members of
Sporozoa and Infusoria. The amoebae are almost invariably
found in the large intestine; one species, indeed, is termed Amoeba
coli. The frequently observed relation between attacks of
dysentery and the presence of amoebae in the stools has led to the
proposition that an Amoeba dysenlerica exists, causing the disease
— a theory supported by the detection of amoebae in the contents
of dysenteric abscesses of the liver. No symptoms of injury to
health appear to accompany the presence of Sporozoa in the
bowel, while the species of Infusoria found in it, the Cercomonas,
and Trichomonas inleslinalis, and the Balantidium coli, may or
may not be guilty of prolonging conditions within the bowel
as have previously set up diarrhoea.

The Metazoa supply examples of intestinal parasites from the
classes Annuloida and Nematoidea. To the former class belong
the various tapeworms found in the small intestine of man.
They, like other intestinal parasites, are destitute of any power
of active digestion, simply absorbing the nutritious proceeds of
the digestive processes of their hosts. Nematode worms infest
both the small and large intestine; Ascaris lumbricoides, the
common round worm, and the male Oxyuris vermicularis are
found in the small bowel, the adult female Oxyuris vermicitlaris
and the Tricocephalus dispar in the large.

The eggs of the Trichina spiralis, when introduced with the
food, develop in the bowel into larval forms which invade the
tissues of the body, to find in the muscles congenial spots wherein
to reach maturity. Similarly, the eggs of the Echinococcus
arc hatched in the bowel, and the embryos proceed to take
up their abode in the tissues of the body, developing into cysts
capable of growth into mature worms after their ingestion by
dogs.

266

DIGESTIVE ORGANS

Numbers of bacterial forms habitually infest the alimentary
canal. Many of them are non-pathogenic; some develop patho-
genic characters only under provocation or when a
suitable environment induces them to act in such a
manner; others may form the materies morbiot special
lesions, or be casual visitors capable of originating disease if
opportunity occurs. Apart from those organisms associated with
acute infective diseases, disturbances of function and physical

TABLE I.

Males.

Females.

Both Sexes.

Organ or Tissue in
Order of Frequency.

Per-
centage.

Organ or Tissue in
Order of Frequency.

Per-
centage.

Organ or Tissue in
Order of Frequency.

Per-
centage.

I Stomach

22-56

I Stomach

22-37

I Stomach

22-49

2 Lip ....

12-94

2 Rectum .

17-24

2 Rectum

13-12

3 Rectum .

n-57

3 Liver . . .

15-50

3 Liver

IO-O2

4 Tongue .

11-36

4 Peritoneum

7-86

4 Lip . . . .

9-89

5 Oesophagus

10-90

5 Oesophagus

5-33

5 Oesophagus

9-29

6 Liver

7-80

6 Sigmoid

4-53

6 Tongue .

8-96

7 Jaw ....

6-38

7 Pancreas

3-52

7 Jaw ....

5-65

8 Mouth . .

2-88

8 Tongue .

3-12

8 Peritoneum

2-94

9 Tonsils .

2-09

9 Omentum .

2-98

9 Sigmoid

2-56

10 Sigmoid flexure

1-77

10 Lip ....

2-57

10 Mouth .

2-40

II Parotid . . 1

II Jaw ....

1-97

1 1 Pancreas

i -80

12 Pancreas . . )

I- IO

12 Colon . . . )

T Q .

12 Tonsils .

1-35

13 Caecum . . (

13 Abdomen . . )

I-O4

13 Omentum .

1-25

14 Peritoneum. . \

0-94

14 Intestine

1-56

14 Parotid . . )

15 Colon .

0-89

15 Caecum

'•37

15 Colon . . . )

I • 12

16 Pharynx . . "1

16 Mouth . . . )

T T Q

16 Caecum

I -08

17 Intestine (site
unknown) . . J

0-79

17 Parotid . . \
1 8 Splenic flexure

I -10

0-98

17 Intestine . . )
1 8 Abdomen . . \

l-OO

1 8 Abdomen .

0-71

19 Jejunum and

19 Pharynx

O-62

19 Mesentery .. . )
20 Omentum . . $

o-55

ileum .
20 Tonsils .

0-78

0-68

20 Mesentery .
21 Jejunum and "|

0-52

21 Hepatic flexure

o-39

21 Pharynx . . "1

ileum ... 1

22 Submaxillary . "|

22 Hepatic flexure

0-40

22 Hepatic flexure

0-44

gland ... 1

23 Mesentery . . J

23 Splenic flexure J

23 Jejunum and
ileum . . . j

0-31

24 Submaxillary . /
25 Duodenum . . )

O-2O

24 Submaxillary .
25 Duodenum

0-28
O-22

24 Duodenum .

0-23

25 Splenic flexure

0-15

Note. — The figures where several organs are bracketed apply to each organ separately

lesions may be the result of abnormal bacterial activity in the
canal; and these disturbances may be both local and general.
Many of the bacteria commonly present produce putrefactive
changes in the contents of the tract by their metabolic processes.
They render the medium they grow in alkaline, produce different
gases and elaborate more or less virulent toxins. Other species
set up an acid fermentation, seldom accompanied by gas or toxin
formation. The products of either class are inimical to the free

TABLE II.

Bacillus lactis may be found where the child is bottle fed.
If there is trouble with the first dentition and food is allowed
to collect, staphylococci, streptococci, pneumococci and colon
bacilli may be present. Even in healthy babies Oidiwm albicans
may be present, and in older children the pseudo-diphtheria
bacillus. From carious teeth may be isolated streptothrix,
leptothrix, spirilla and fusiform bacilli. Under conditions of
health these micro-organisms live in the mouth as saprophytes,

and show no virulence when culti-
vated and injected into animals.
The two common pyogenetic organ-
isms, Staphylococcus albus and
brevis, show no virulence. Also
the pneumococcus, though often
present, must be raised in virulence
before it can produce untoward
results. The foulness of the mouth
is supposed to be due to the colon
bacillus and its allies, but those
obtained from the mouth are in-
nocuous. Also to enable the Oidium
albicans to attack the mucous mem-
brane there must be some slight
inflammation or injury. The micro-
organisms found in the stomach
gain access to that organ in the
food or by regurgitation from the
small intestine. Most are relatively
inert, but some have a special fer-
mentative action on the food (see
NUTRITION). Abelous isolated six-
teen distinct species of organism
from a healthy stomach, including
Sarcinae, B. lactis, pyocyaneus,
subtilis, lactis erythrogenes, amy-
lobacter, megatherium, and Vibrio
rugula.

Hare-lip, cleft palate, hernia
and imperforate anus are physical

Males.

Per-
centage.

Females.

Per-
centage.

Total.

Per-
centage.

iMouth and
pharynx
2 Oesophagus and
stomach
3 Intestines
4 Liver
5 Peritoneum
6 Pancreas

37-85

33-46
17-04

7-8

2-75
i-i

I Intestines
2 Oesophagus and
stomach
3 Liver . .
4 Peritoneum .
5 M ou t h and
pharynx
6 Pancreas

28-9

27-7
15-5
I3-I

"•3

3-5

i Oesophagus and
stomach
2 Mouth and
pharynx
3 Intestines
4 Liver
5 Peritoneum .
6 Pancreas

3I-78

30-27
20-42

IO-O2

5-71
I -80

growth of members of the other. The specieswhichproduceacids
aremoreresistant to the action of acids. Thus, when the contents
of the stomach possess a normal or excessive proportion of free
hydrochloric acid, a much larger number of putrefactive and
pathogenic organisms in the food are destroyed or inhibited than
of the bacteria of acid fermentation. Diminished gastric acidity
allows of the entry of a greater number of putrefactive (and
pathogenic) types, with, as a consequence, increased facilities
for their growth and activity, and the appearance of intestinal
derangements.

In a healthy new-born infant the mouth is free from micro-
organisms, and very few are found in a breast-fed baby, but

abnormalities which are interesting to the surgeon rather than to
the pathologist. The oesophagus may be the seat of a diverti-
culum, or blind pouch, usually situated in its lower half, which in
most instances is probably partly acquired and partly
congenital; a local weakness succumbing to pressure.
Hypertrophy of the muscular coat of the pyloric region
is an infrequent congenital gastric anomaly in infants,
preventing the passage of food into the bowel, and causing death

in a short time. Incomplete closure
of the vitelline duct results in
the presence of a diverticulum —
Meckel's — generally connected with
the ileum, mainly important by
reason of the readiness with which
it occasions intestinal obstruction.
Idiopathic congenital dilatation of
the colon has been described.

Traction diverticula of the oeso-
phagus not uncommonly occur as
sequels to suppurative inflamma-
tion of cervical lymphatic glands.
More frequently dilatation of a section is met with, due as a
rule to the presence of a stricture. The stomach often diverges
from the normal in size, shape and position. Normally capable
in the adult of containing from fifty to sixty ounces, either by
reason of organic disease, or as the result of functional disturb-
ance, its capacity may vary enormously. The writer has seen
post mortem a stomach which held a gallon (160 ounces), and
again one holding only two ounces. Cancer spread over a large
area and cirrhosis of the stomach wall cause diminution in
capacity; pyloric obstruction, weakness of the muscular coat,
and nervous influences are associated with dilatation. A peculiar
distortion of the shape of the stomach follows cicatrization of

DIGESTIVE ORGANS

267

ulcers of greater or lesser curvature; the gastric cavity becomes
" hour-glass " in shape. In addition, the stomach may be dis-
placed downwards as a whole, a condition known as gastroptosis:
if the pyloric portion only be displaced, the lesion is termed
pyloroptosis. Ptoses of other abdominal organs are described;
the liver, transverse colon, spleen and kidneys may be involved.
Displacements downwards of the stomach and transverse colon,
along with a movable right kidney and associated with dyspepsia
and neurasthenia, form the malady termed by Glenard entero-
ptosis. A general visceroptosis often occurs in those patients
who have some tuberculous lesion of the lungs or elsewhere,
this disease causing a general weakening and subsequent
stretching of all ligaments. Displacements of the abdominal
viscera are almost invariably accompanied by symptoms of
dyspepsia of a neurotic type. The rectum is liable to prolapse,
consequent upon constipation and straining at stool, or following
local injuries of the perineal floor.

Every pathological lesion shown by digestive organs is closely
associated with the state of the nervous system, general or local;
Influence so stoppage of active gastric digestive processes after
of the profound nervous shock, and occurrence of nervous
nervous diarrhoea from the same cause. Gastric dyspepsia
system. of nervous origin presents most varied and contra-
dictory symptoms: diminished acidity of the gastric juice,
hyper-acidity, over-production, arrest of secretion, lessened or
increased movements, greater sensitiveness to the presence of
contents, dilatation or spasm. Often the nervous cause can
be traced back farther, — in females, frequently to the pelvic
organs; in both sexes, to the condition of the blood, the brain or
the bowel. Unhealthy conditions related to evacuation of the
bowel-contents commonly induce reflex nervous manifestations of
abnormal character referred to the stomach and liver. Gastric
disturbances similarly react upon the proper conduct of intestinal
functions.

Local Diseases.

The. Mouth. — The lining membrane of the cheeks inside the
mouth, of the gums and the under-surface and edges of the
tongue, is often the seat of small irritable ulcers, usually associated
with some digestive derangement. A crop of minute vesicles
known as Koplik's spots over these parts has been lately stated
by Koplik to be an early symptom of measles. Xerostomia, or
dry mouth, is a rare condition, connected with lack of salivary
secretion. Gangrenous stomatitis, cancrum oris, or noma,
occasionally attacks debilitated children, or patients convalescing
from acute fevers, more especially after measles. It commences
in the gums or cheeks, and causes widespread sloughing of the
adjacent soft parts. — it may be of the bones.

The Stomach. — It were futile to attempt to enumerate all the
protean manifestations of disturbance which proceed from a dis-
ordered stomach. The possible permutations and combinations
of the causes of gastric vagaries almost reach infinity. Idio-
syncrasy, past and present gastric education, penury or plethora,
actual digestive power, motility, bodily requirements and condi-
tions, environment, mental influences, local or adjacent organic
lesions, and, not least, reflex impressions from other organs, all
contribute to the variance.

Ulcer of the stomach, however — the perforating gastric ulcer
— occupies a unique position among diseases of this organ.
Gastric ulcers are circumscribed, punched out, rarely larger than
a sixpenny-bit, funnel-shaped, the narrower end towards the
peritoneal coat, and distributed in those regions of the stomach
wall which are most exposed to the action of the gastric contents.
They occur most frequently in females, especially if anaemic, and
are usually accompanied by excess of acid, actual or relative
to the state of the blood, in the stomach contents. Local pain,
dorsal pain, generally to the left of the eighth or ninth dorsal
spinous process, and haematemesis and melaena, are symptom-
atic of it. The amount of blood lost varies with the rapidity of
ulcer formation and the size of vessel opened into. Fatal results
arise from ulceration into large blood-vessels, followed by copious
haemorrhage, or by perforation of the ulcer into the peritoneal

cavity.' Scars of such ulcers may be found post mortem, although
no symptoms of gastric disease have been exhibited during life;
gastric ulcers, therefore, may be latent.

Irritation of the sensory nerve-endings in the stomach wall
from the presence of an increased proportion of acid, organic or
mineral, in the stomach contents is accountable for the well-
known symptom heartburn. Water-brash is a term applied to
eructation of a colourless, almost tasteless fluid, probably saliva,
which has collected in the lower part of the oesophagus from
failure of the cardiac sphincter of the stomach to relax; reversed
oesophageal peristalsis causing regurgitation. A similar reversed
action serves in merycism, or rumination, occasionally found in
man, to raise part of the food, lately ingested, from the stomach to
the mouth. Vomiting also is aided by reversed peristaltic action,
both of the stomach and the oesophagus, with the help of the
diaphragm and the muscles of the anterior abdominal wall.
Emesis may be caused both by local nervous influence, and
through the central nervous mechanism either reflexly or from
the direct action of substances circulating in the blood. Further,
the causal agent acting on the central nervous apparatus may be
organic or functional, as well as medicinal. Vomiting without
any apparent cause suggests nervous lesions, organic or reflex.
The obstinate vomiting of pregnancy is a case in point. Here the
primary cause proceeds reflexly from the pelvis. In females the
pelvic organs are often the true source of emesis. Haematemesis
accompanies gastric ulcer, cancer, chronic congestion with
haemorrhagic erosion, congestion of the liver, or may follow
violent acts of vomiting. In cases of ulcer the blood is usually
bright and in considerable amount; in cancer, darker, like coffee-
grounds; and in cases of erosion, in smaller quantity and of bright
colour. The reaction of the stomach contents, if the cause be
doubtful, yields valuable aid towards a diagnosis. Of increased
acidity in gastric ulcer, normal in hepatic congestion, it is
diminished in cancer; but as the acid present in cancer is largely
lactic, analysis of the gastric contents must often be a sine qua
non, because hyperacidity from lactic may obscure hypoacidity of
hydrochloric acid.

Flatulence usually results from fermentative processes in
the stomach and bowel, as the outcome of bacterial activity. A
different form of flatulence is common in neurotic individuals;
in such the gas evolved consists simply in carbonic acid liberated
from the blood, and its evolution is generally characterized by
rapid development and by lack of all fermentative signs.

The Liver. — The liver is an organ frequently libelled for the
delinquencies of other organs, and regarded as a common source of
ill. In catarrhal jaundice it is in most cases the bowel that is at
fault, the liver acting properly, but unable to get rid of all the bile
produced. The liver suffers, however, from several diseases of its
own. Its fibrous or connective tissue is very apt to increase
at the expense of the cellular elements, destroying their functions.
This cirrhotic process usually follows long-continued irritation,
such as is produced by too much alcohol absorbed from the bowel
habitually, the organ gradually becoming harder in texture and
smaller in bulk. Hypertrophic cirrhosis of the liver is not un-
commonly met with, in which the liver is much increased in size,
the " unilobular " form, also of alcoholic origin. In still-born
children and in some infants a form of hypertrophic cirrhosis is
occasionally seen, probably of hereditary syphilitic origin. Acute
congestion of the liver forms an important symptom of malarial
fever, and often leads in time to establishment of cirrhotic changes;
here the liver is generally enlarged, but not invariably so, and the
part played by alcohol in its causation has still to be investigated.
Acute yellow atrophy of the liver is a disease sui generis. Of rare
occurrence, possibly of toxic origin, it is marked by jaundice, at
first of usual type, later becoming most intense; by vomiting;
haemorrhages widely distributed ; rapid diminution in the size of
the liver; the appearance of leucin and tyrosin in the urine, with
lessened urea; and in two or three days, death. The liver after
death is soft, of a reddish colour dotted with yellow patches, and
weighs only about a third part of the normal — about i^ Ib in
place of 3! Ib. A closely analogous affection of the liver, known
as Weil's disease, is of infectious type, and has been noted in

268

DIGGES— DIGITALIS

epidemic form. In this the spleen and liver are commonly but
not always swollen, and the liver is often tender on pressure. As
a large proportion of the sufferers from this disease have been
butchers, and the epidemics have occurred in the hot season of
the year, it probably arises from contact with decomposing
animal matter. Hepatic abscess may follow on an attack of
amoebic dysentery, and is produced either by infection through
the portal vein, or by direct infection from the adjacent colon.
In general pyaemia multiple small abscesses may occur in the
liver.

The Gall- Bladder. — The formation of biliary calculi in the gall-
bladder is the chief point of interest here. At least 75% of such
cases occur in women, especially in those who have borne children.
Tight-lacing has been stated to act as an exciting cause, owing to
the consequent retardation of the flow of bile. Gall-stones may
number from one to many thousands. They are largely com-
posed of cholesterin, combined with small amounts of bile-
pigments and acids, lime and magnesium salts. Their presence
may give rise to no symptoms, or may cause violent biliary colic,
and, if the bile-stream be obstructed, to jaundice. Inflammatory
processes may be initiated in the gall-bladder or the bile-ducts,
catarrhal or suppurative in character.

The Pancreas. — Haemorrhages into the body of the pancreas,
acute and chronic inflammation, calculi, cysts and tumours,
among which cancer is by far the most common, are recognized as
occurring in this organ; the point of greatest interest regarding
them lies in the relations established between pancreatic disease
and diabetes mellitus, affections of the gland frequently being
complicated by, and probably causing, the appearance of sugar in
the urine.

The Small Intestine. — Little remains to be added to the account
of inflammatory lesions in connexion with the small intestine. It
offers but few conditions peculiar to itself, save in typhoid fever,
and the ease with which it contrives to become kinked, or intus-
suscepted, producing obstruction, or to take part in hernial
protrusions. The first section, the duodenum, is subject to
development of ulcers very similar to those of the gastric mucous
membrane. For long duodenal ulceration has been regarded as a
complication of extensive burns of the skin, but the relationship
between them has not yet been quite satisfactorily explained.
The condition of colic in the bowel usually arises from over-
distension of some part of the small gut with gas, the frequent
sharp turns of the gut facilitating temporary closure of its lumen
by pressure of the dilated gut near a curve against the part
beyond. In the large bowel accumulations of gas seldom cause
such acute symptoms, having a readier exit.

The Large Intestine. — The colon, especially the ascending
portion, may become immensely dilated, usually after prolonged
constipation and paralysis of the gut; occasionally the condition
is congenital. Straining efforts made in defaecation may often
account for prolapse of the lower end of the rectum through the
anus. Haemorrhage from the bowel is usually a sign of disease
situated in the large intestine: if bright in colour, the source is
probably low down; if dark, from the caecum or from above the
ileo-caecal valve. Blood after a short stay in any section of the
alimentary canal darkens, and eventually becomes almost black
in colour. (A. L. G.; M. F.*)

DIGGES, WEST (1720-1786), English actor, made his first stage
appearance in Dublin in 1749 as Jaffier in Venice Preserved; and
both there and in Edinburgh until 1764 he acted in many tragic
r61es with success. He was the original " young Norval " in
Home's Douglas (1756). His first London appearance was as
Cato in the Haymarket in 1777, and he afterwards played Lear,
Macbeth, Shylock and Wolsey. In 1881 he returned to Dublin
and retired in 1784.

DIGIT (Lat. digitus, finger) , literally a finger or toe, and so used
to mean, from counting on the fingers, a single numeral, or, from
measuring, a finger's breadth. In astronomy a digit is the twelfth
part of the diameter of the sun or moon; it is used to express the
magnitude of an eclipse.

DIGITALIS. The leaves of the foxglove (q.v.), gathered from
wild plants when about two-thirds of their flowers are expanded,

deprived usually of the petiole and the thicker part of the midrib,
and dried, constitute the drug digitalis or digitalis folia of the
Pharmacopoeia. The prepared leaves have a faint odour and
bitter taste; and to preserve their properties they must be kept
excluded from light in stoppered bottles. They are occasionally
adulterated with the leaves of Inula Conyza, ploughman's
spikenard, which may be distinguished by their greater rough-
ness, their less divided margins, and their odour when rubbed;
also with the leaves of Symphytum officinale, comfrey, and of
Verbascum Thapsus, great mullein, which unlike those of the
foxglove have woolly upper and under surfaces. The earliest
known descriptions of the foxglove are those given by Leonhard
Fuchs and Tragus about the middle of the i6th century, but its
virtues were doubtless known to herbalists at a much remoter
period. J. Gerarde, in his Herbal (1597), advocates the use of
foxglove for a variety of complaints; and John Parkinson, in the
Tlieatrum Botanicum, or Theater of Plants (1640), and later W.
Salmon, in The New London Dispensatory, similarly praised the
remedy. Digitalis was first brought prominently under the
notice of the medical profession by Dr W. Withering, who, in his
Account of the Foxglove (1785), gave details of upwards of 200
cases chiefly dropsical, in which it was used.

Digitalis contains four important glucosides, of which three are
cardiac stimulants. The most powerful is digitoxin C^H^On,
an extremely poisonous and cumulative drug, insoluble in water.
Digilalin, CssHjeOu, is crystalline and is also insoluble in water.
Digitalcin is amorphous but readily soluble in water. It can
therefore be administered subcutaneously, in doses of about one-
hundredth of a grain. Digitonin, on the other hand, is a cardiac
depressant, and has been found to be identical with saponin,
the chief constituent of senega root. There are numerous pre-
parations, patent and pharmacopeial, their composition being
extremely varied, so that, unless one has reason to be certain of
any particular preparation, it is almost better to use only the
dried leaves themselves in the form of a powder (dose 5-2 grains).
The pharmacopeial tincture may be given in doses of five to
fifteen minims, and the infusion has the unusually small dose of
two to four drachms — the dose of other infusions being an ounce
or more. The tincture contains a fair proportion of both digitalin
and digitoxin.

Digitalis leaves have no definite external action. Taken by the
mouth, the drug is apt to cause considerable digestive disturbance,
varying in different cases and sometimes so severe as to cause
serious difficulty. This action is probably due to the digitonin,
which is thus a constituent in every way undesirable. The all-
important property of the drug is its action on the circulation.
Its first action on any of the body-tissues is upon unstriped
muscle, so that the first consequence of its absorption is a con-
traction of the arteries and arterioles. No other known drug has
an equally marked action in contracting the arterioles. As the
vaso-motor centre in the medulla oblongata is also stimulated, as
well as the contractions of the heart, there is thus trebly caused a
very great rise in the blood-pressure.

The clinical influence of digitalis upon the heart is very well
defined. After the taking of a moderate dose the pulse is
markedly slowed. This is due to a very definite influence upon
the different portions of the cardiac cycle. The systole is not
altered in length, but the diastole is very much prolonged, and
since this is the period not only of cardiac rest but also of cardiac
" feeding " — the coronary vessels being compressed and occluded
during systole — the result is greatly to benefit the nutrition of the
cardiac muscle. So definite is this that, despite a great increase
in the force of the contractions and despite experimental proof
that the heart does more work in a given time under the influence
of digitalis, the organ subsequently displays all the signs of having
rested, its improved vigour being really due to its obtaining a
larger supply of the nutrient blood. Almost equally striking is
the fact that digitalis causes an irregular pulse to become regular.
Added to the greater force of cardiac contraction is a permanent
tonic contraction of the organ, so that its internal capacity is
reduced. The bearing of this fact on cases of cardiac dilatation
is evident. In larger doses a remarkable sequel to these actions

DIGNE— DIJON

269

may be observed. The cardiac contractions become irregular, the
ventricle assumes curious shapes — " hour-glass," &c. — becomes
very pale and bloodless, and finally the heart stops in a state of
spasm, which shortly afterwards becomes rigor-mortis. Before
this final change the heart may be started again by the applica-
tion of a soluble potassium salt, or by raising the fluid pressure
within it. Clinically it is to be observed that the drug is cumu-
lative, being very slowly excreted, and that after it has been taken
for some time the pulse may become irregular, the blood-pressure
low, and the cardiac pulsations rapid and feeble. These
symptoms with more or less gastro-intestinal irritation and
decrease in the quantity of urine passed indicate digitalis poison-
ing. The initial action of digitalis is a stimulation of the cardiac
terminals of the vagus nerves, so that the heart's action is slowed.
Thereafter follows the most important effect of the drug, which is
a direct stimulation of the cardiac muscle. This can be proved to
occur in a heart so embryonic that no nerves can be recognized in
it, and in portions of cardiac muscle that contain neither nerve-
cells nor nerve-fibres.

The action of this drug on the kidney is of importance only
second to its action on the circulation. In small or moderate
doses it is a powerful diuretic. Though Heidenhain asserts that
rise in the renal blood-pressure has not a diuretic action per se,
it seems probable that this influence of the drug is due to a rise
in the general blood-pressure associated with a relatively dilated
condition of the renal vessels. In large doses, on the other hand,
the renal vessels also are constricted and the amount of urine falls.
It is probable that digitalis increases the amount of water rather
than that of the urinary solids. In large doses the action of
digitalis on the circulation causes various cerebral symptoms,
such as seeing all objects blue, and various other disturbances of
the special senses. There appears also to be a specific action of
lowering the reflex excitability of the spinal cord.

Digitalis is used in therapeutics exclusively for its action on the
circulation. In prescribing this drug it must be remembered that
fully three days elapse before it gets into the system, and thus it
must always be combined with other remedies to tide the patient
over this period. It must never be prescribed in large doses to
begin with, as some patients are quite unable to take it,intractable
vomiting being caused. The three days that must pass before
any clinical effect is obtained renders it useless in an emergency.
A certain consequence of its use is to cause or increase cardiac
hypertrophy — a condition which has its own dangers and
ultimately disastrous consequences, and must never be provoked
beyond the positive needs of the case. But digitalis is indicated
whenever the heart shows itself unequal to the work it has to
perform. This formula includes the vast majority of cardiac
cases. The drug is contra-indicated in all cases where the heart is
already beating too slowly; in aortic incompetence — where the
prolongation of diastole increases the amount of the blood that
regurgitates through the incompetent valve; in chronic Bright's
disease and in fatty degeneration of the heart — since nothing can
cause fat to become contractile.

DIGNE, the chief town of the department of the Basses Alpes,
in S.E. France, 14 m. by a branch line from the main railway
line between Grenoble and Avignon. Pop. (1906), town, 4628;
commune, 7456. The Ville Haute is built on a mountain spur
running down to the left bank of the Bleone river, and is composed
of a labyrinth of narrow winding streets, above which towers the
present cathedral church, dating from the end of the isth century,
but largely reconstructed in modern times, and the former
bishop's palace (now the prison). The fine Boulevard Gassendi
separates the Ville Haute from the Ville Basse, which is of modern
date. The old cathedral (Notre Dame du Bourg) is a building of
the I3th century, but is now disused except for funerals: it
stands at the east end of the Ville Basse. The neighbourhood of
Digne is rich in orchards, which have long made the town famous
in France for its preserved fruits and confections. It is the Dinia
of the Romans, and was the capital of the Bodiontii. From the
early 6th century at least it has been an episcopal see, which till
1700 was in the ecclesiastical province of Embrun, but since 1802
in that of Aix en Provence. The history of Digne in the middle

ages is bound up with that of its bishops, under whom it prospered
greatly. But it suffered much during the religious wars of the
i6th and I7th centuries, when it was sacked several times. A
little way off, above the right bank of the Bleone, is Charnptercier,
the birthplace of the astronomer Gassendi (1592-1655), whose
name has been given to the principal thoroughfare of the little
town.

See F. Guichard, Souvenirs historiques sur la ville de Digne el ses
environs (Digne, 1847). (W. A. B. C.)

DIGOIN, a town of cast-central France, in the department of
Saone-et-Loirc, on the right bank of the Loire, 55 m. W.N.W.
of Macon on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 5321. It is
situated at the meeting places of the Loire, the Lateral canal of the
Loire and the Canal du Centre, which here crosses the Loire by a
fine aqueduct. The town carries on considerable manufactures of
faience, pottery and porcelain. The port on the Canal du Centre
has considerable traffic in timber, sand, iron, coal and stone.

DIJON, a town of eastern France, capital of the department of
Cote d'Or and formerly capital of the province of Burgundy,
195 m. S.E. of Paris on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906)
65,516. It is situated on the western border of the fertile plain of
Burgundy, at the foot of Mont Afrique, the north-eastern summit
of the Cote d'Or range, and at the confluence of the Ouche and the
Suzon; it also has a port on the canal of Burgundy. The great
strategic importance of Dijon as a centre of railways and roads,
and its position with reference to an invasion of France from the
Rhine, have led to the creation of a fortress forming part of the
Langres group. There is no enceinte, but on the east side detached
forts, 3 to 4 m. distant from the centre, command all the great
roads, while the hilly ground to the west is protected by Fort
Hauteville to the N.W. and the "groups" of Motte Giron and
Mont Afrique to the S.W., these latter being very formidable
works. Including a fort near Saussy (about 8 m. to the N.W.)
protecting the water-supply of Dijon, there are eight forts,
besides the groups above mentioned. The fortifications which
partly surrounded the eld and central portion of the city have
disappeared to make way for tree-lined boulevards with fine
squares at intervals. The old churches and historic buildings of
Dijon are to be found in the irregular streets of the old town, but
industrial and commercial" activity has been transferred to the
new quarters beyond its limits. A fine park more than 80 acres
in extent lies to the south of the city, which is rich in open spaces
and promenades, the latter including the botanical garden and
the Promenade de 1'Arquebuse, in which there is a black poplar
famous for its size and age.

The cathedral of St Benigne, originally an abbey church,
was built in the latter half of the i3th century on the site of a
Romanesque basilica, of which the crypt remains. The west
front is flanked by two towers and the crossing is surmounted by
a slender timber spire. The plan consists of three naves, short
transepts and a small choir, without ambulatory, terminating in
three apses. In the interior there is a fine organ and a quantity of
statuary, and the vaults contain the remains of Philip the Bold,
duke of Burgundy, and Anne of Burgundy, daughter of John
the Fearless. The site of the abbey buildings is occupied by
the bishop's palace and an ecclesiastical seminary. The church
of Notre-Dame, typical of the Gothic style of Burgundy, was
erected from 1252 to 1334, and is distinguished for the grace of
its interior and the beauty of the western facade. The portal
consists of three arched openings, above which are two stages of
arcades, open to the light and supported on slender columns.
A row of gargoyles surmounts each storey of the facade, which is
also ornamented by sculptured friezes. A turret to the right of
the portal carries a clock called the Jaquemart, on which the hours
are struck by two figures. The church of St Michel belongs to the
1 5th century. The west facade, the most remarkable feature of
the church, is, however, of the Renaissance period. The vaulting
of the three portals is of exceptional depth owing to the projection
of the lower storey of the facade. Above this storey rise two
towers of five stages, the fifth stage being formed by an octagonal
cupola. The columns decorating the facade represent all the four
orders. The design of this facade is wrongly attributed to Hugues

270

DIKE— DILAPIDATION

Sarnbin (fl. c. 1540), a native of Dijon, and pupil of Leonardo da
Vinci, but the sculpture of the portals, including " The Last
Judgment " on the tympanum of the main portal, is probably
from his hand. St Jean (isth century) and St Etienne (isth,
i6thand 1 7th centuries), now used as the exchange, are the other
chief churches. Of the ancient palace of the dukes of Burgundy
there remain two towers, the Tour de la Terrasse and the Tour
de Bar, the guard-room and the kitchens; these now form part
of the hotel de ville, the rest of which belongs to the i;th and
1 8th centuries. This building contains an archaeological museum
with a collection of Roman stone monuments; the archives of
the town; and the principal museum, which, besides valuable
paintings and other works of art, contains the magnificent tombs
of Philip the Bold and John the Fearless, dukes of Burgundy.
These were transferred from the Chartreuse of Dijon (or of
Champmol), built by Philip the Bold as a mausoleum, now re-
placed by a lunatic asylum. Relics of it survive in the old Gothic
entrance, the portal of the church, a tower and the well of Moses,
which is adorned with statues of Moses and the prophets by
Claux Sluter (fl. end of I4th century), the Dutch sculptor, who
also designed the tomb of Philip the Bold. The Palais de
Justice, which belongs to the reign of Louis XII., is of interest as
the former seat of the parlement of Burgundy. Dijon possesses
several houses of the isth, i6th and i7th centuries, notably the
Maison Richard in the Gothic, and the Hotel Vogue in the
Renaissance style. St Bernard, the composer J. P. Rameau and
the sculptor Francois Rude have statues in the town, of which
they were natives. There are also monuments to those in-
habitants of Dijon who fell in the engagement before the town
in 1870, and to President Carnot and Garibaldi.

The town is important as the seat of a prefecture, a bishopric, a
court of appeal and a court of assizes, and as centre of an academic
(educational district) . There are tribunals of first instance and of
commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce,
an exchange (occupying the former cathedral of St Etienne), and
an important branch of the Bank of France. Its educational
establishments include faculties of law, of science and of letters, a
preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy, a higher school of
commerce, a school of fine art, a conservatoire of music, lycees and
training colleges, and there is a public library with about 100,000
volumes.

Dijon is well known for its mustard, and for the black currant
liqueur called cassis de Dijon; its industries include the manu-
facture of machinery, automobiles, bicycles, soap, biscuits,
brandy, leather, boots and shoes, candles and hosiery. There
are also flour mills, breweries, important printing works, vinegar
works and, in the vicinity, nursery gardens. The state has a
large tobacco manufactory in the town. Dijon has considerable
trade in cereals and wool, and is the second market for the wines
of Burgundy.

Under the Romans Dijon (Divonense caslrum) was a vicus in
the civitas of Langres. In the 2nd century it was the scene of
the martyrdom of St Benignus (Benigne, vulg. Berin, Berain),
the apostle of Burgundy. About 274 the emperor Aurelian
surrounded it with ramparts. Gregory of Tours, in the 6th
century, comments on the strength and pleasant situation
of the place, expressing surprise that it does not rank as
a civitas. During the middle ages the fortunes of Dijon
followed those of Burgundy, the dukes of which acquired it
early in the nth century. The communal privileges, conferred
on the town in 1182 by Hugh III., duke of Burgundy, were
confirmed by Philip Augustus in 1183, and in the i3th century
the dukes took up their residence there. For the decoration of the
palace and other monuments built by them, eminent artists were
gathered from northern France and Flanders, and during this
period the town became one of the great intellectual centres of
France. The union of the duchy with the crown in 1477 deprived
Dijon of the splendour of the ducal court ; but to cbunterbalance
this loss it was made the capital of the province and seat of a
parlement. Its fidelity to the monarchy was tested in -1513,
when the citizens were besieged by 50,000 Swiss and Germans,
and forced to agree to a treaty so disadvantageous that Louis XII.

refused to ratify it. In the wars of religion Dijon sided with the
League, and only opened its gates to Henry IV. in 1595. The
i8th century was a brilliant period for the city; it became the
seat of a bishopric, its streets were improved, its commerce
developed, and an academy of science and letters founded;
while its literary salons were hardly less celebrated than those of
Paris. The neighbourhood was the scene of considerable fighting
during the Franco-German War, which was, however, indirectly
of some advantage to the city owing to the impetus given to its
industries by the immigrants from Alsace.

See H. Chabeuf, Dijon a trailers les ages (Dijon, 1897), and Dijon,
monuments et souvenirs (Dijon, 1894).

DIKE, or DYKE (Old Eng. die, a word which appears in various
forms in many Teutonic languages, cf . Dutch dijk, German Teich,
Danish dige, and in French, derived from Teutonic, digue; it is
the same word as " ditch " and is ultimately connected with the
root of " dig "), properly a trench dug out of the earth for de-
fensive and other purposes. Water naturally collects in such
trenches, and hence the word is applied to natural and artificial
channels filled with water, as appears in the proverbial expression
" February fill-dyke," and in the names of many narrow water-
ways in East Anglia. " Dike " also is naturally used of the bank
of earth thrown up out of the ditch, and so of any embankment,
dam or causeway, particularly the defensive works in Holland,
the Fen district of England, and other low-lying districts which
are liable to flooding by the sea or rivers (see HOLLAND and FENS).
In Scotland any wall, fence or even hedge, used as a boundary is
called a dyke. In geology the term is applied to wall-like masses
or rock (sometimes projecting beyond the surrounding surface)
which fill up vertical or highly inclined fissures in the strata.

DIKKA, a term in Mahommedan architecture for the tribune
raised upon columns, from which the Koran is recited and the
prayers intoned by the Imam of the mosque.

DILAPIDATION (Lat. for " scattering the stones," lapides, of a
building) , a term meaning in general a falling into decay, but more
particularly used in the plural in English law for (i) the waste
committed by the incumbent of an ecclesiastical living; (2) the
disrepair for which a tenant is usually liable when he has agreed
to give up his premises in good repair (see EASEMENT; FLAT;
LANDLORD AND TENANT). By the general law a tenant for
life has no power to cut down timber, destroy buildings, &c.
(voluntary waste), or to let buildings fall into disrepair (per-
missive waste). In the eye of the law an incumbent of a living is
a tenant for life of his benefice, and any waste, voluntary or per-
missive, on his part must be made good by his administrators to
his successor in office. The principles on which such dilapidations
are to be ascertained, and the application of the money payable in
respect thereof, depend partly on old ecclesiastical law and partly
on acts of parliament. Questions as to ecclesiastical dilapidations
usually arise in respect of the residence house and other buildings
belonging to the living. Inclosures, hedges, ditches and the like
are included in things " of which the beneficed person hath the
burden and charge of reparation." In a leading case (Ross v.
Adcock, 1868, L.R. 3 C.P. 657) it was said that the court was
acquainted with no precedent or decision extending the liability
of the executors of a deceased incumbent to any species of waste
beyond dilapidation of the house, chancel or other buildings or
fences of the benefice. And it has been held that the mere mis-
management or miscultivation of the ecclesiastical lands will not
give rise to an action for dilapidations. To place the law relating
to dilapidations on a more satisfactory footing, the Ecclesiastical
Dilapidations Act 1871 was passed. The buildings to which the
act applies are defined to be such houses of residence, chancels,
walls, fences and other buildings and things as the incumbent of
the benefice is by law and custom bound to maintain in repair.
In each diocese a surveyor is appointed by the archdeacons and
rural deans subject to the approval of the bishop; and such
surveyor shall by the direction of the bishop examine the build-
ings on the following occasions — viz. (i) when the benefice is
sequestrated; (2) when it is vacant; (3) at the request of the
incumbent or on complaint by the archdeacon, rural dean or
patron. The surveyor specifies the works required, and gives an

DILATATION— DILKE

271

estimate of their probable cost. In the case of a vacant benefice,
the new incumbent and the old incumbent or his representatives
may lodge objections to the surveyor's report on any grounds of
fact or law, and the bishop, after consideration, may make an
order for the repairs and their cost, for which the late incumbent
or his representatives are liable. The sum so stated becomes a
debt due from the late incumbent or his representatives to the
new incumbent, who shall pay over the money when recovered
to the governors of Queen Anne's Bounty. The governors pay
for the works on execution on receipt of a certificate from the
surveyor; and the surveyor, when the works have been completed
to his satisfaction, gives a certificate to that effect, the effect of
which, so far as regards the incumbent, is to protect him from
liability for dilapidations for the next five years. Unnecessary
buildings belonging to a residence house may, by the authority
of the bishop and with the consent of the patron, be removed.
An amending statute of 1872 (Ecclesiastical Dilapidations Act
(1871) Amendment) relates chiefly to advances by the governors
of Queen Anne's Bounty for the purposes of the act.

DILATATION (from Lat. dis-, distributive, and latus, wide), a
widening or enlarging; a term used in physiology. &c.

DILATORY (from Lat. dilatus, from dijferre, to put off or
delay), delaying, or slow; in law a " dilatory plea " is one
made merely for delaying the suit.

DILEMMA (Gr. &X?;wua, a double proposition, from Si- and
\anpaveiv), a term used technically in Iqgic, and popularly
in common parlance and rhetoric, (i) The latter use has no
exact definition, but in general it describes a situation wherein
from either of two (or more) possible alternatives an unsatis-
factory conclusion results. The alternatives are called the
" horns " of the dilemma. Thus a nation which has to choose
between bankruptcy and the repudiation of its debts is on the
horns of a dilemma. (2) In logic there is considerable divergence
of opinion as to the best definition. Whatdy defined it as " a
conditional syllogism with two or more antecedents in the major
and a disjunctive minor." Aulus Gellius gives an example as
follows: — " Women are either fair or ugly; if you marry a fair
woman, she will attract other men; if an ugly woman she will
not please you; therefore marriage is absurd." From either
alternative, an unpleasant result follows. Four kinds of dilemma
are admitted: — (a) Simple Constructive: If A, then C; if B,
then C, but either B or A; therefore C. (b) Simple Destructive:
If A is true, B is true; if A is true, C is true; B and C are not both
true; therefore A is not true, (c) Complex Constructive: If A,
then B; if C, then D; but either A or C; therefore either B or D.
(d) Complex Destructive: If A is true, B is true; if C is true, D is
true; but B and D are not both true; hence A and C are not
both true. The soundness of the dilemmatic argument in general
depends on the alternative possibilities. Unless the alternatives
produced exhaust the possibilities of the case, the conclusion is
invalid. The logical form of the argument makes it especially
valuable in public speaking, before uncritical audiences. It is, in
fact, important rather as a rhetorcial subtlety than as a serious
argument.

Dilemmist is also a term used to translate Vaibhashikas, the
name of a Buddhist school of philosophy.

DILETTANTE, an Italian word for one who delights in the fine
arts, especially in music and painting, so a lover of the fine arts
in general. The Ital. dilettare is from Lat. delectare, to delight.
Properly the word refers to an " amateur " as opposed to a
" professional " cultivation of the arts, but like " amateur " it is
often used in a depreciatory sense for one who is only a dabbler,
or who only has a superficial knowledge or interest in art. The
Dilettanti Society founded in 1733-1734 still exists in England.
A history of the society, by Lionel Cust, was published in 1898.

DILIGENCE, in law, the care which a person is bound to
exercise in his relations with others. The possible degrees of
diligence are of course numerous, and the same degree is not
required in all cases. Thus a mere depositary would not be held
bound to the same degree of diligence as a person borrowing an
article for his own use and benefit. Jurists, following the divisions
of the civil law, have concurred in fixing three approximate

standards of diligence — viz. ordinary (diligentia) , less than
ordinary (levissima diligentia) and more than ordinary
(exactissima diligentia). Ordinary or common diligence is defined
by Story (On Bailments) as " that degree of diligence which men
in general exert in respect of their own concerns." So Sir Wilb'am
Jones: — " This care, which every person of common prudence
and capable of governing a family takes of his own concerns, is
a proper measure of that which would uniformly be required in
performing every contract, if there were not strong reasons for
exacting in some of them a greater and permitting in others a less
degree of attention" ( Essay on Bailments) . The highest degree of
diligence would be that which only very prudent persons bestow
on their own concerns; the lowest, that which even careless
persons bestow on their own concerns. The want of these various
degrees of diligence is negligence in corresponding degrees. These
approximations indicate roughly the greater or less severity with
which the law will judge the performance of different classes of
contracts; but English judges have been inclined to repudiate
the distinction as a useless refinement of the jurists. Thus Baron
Rolfe could see no difference between negligence and gross
negligence; it was the same thing with the addition of a vituper-
ative epithet. See NEGLIGENCE.

Diligence, in Scots law, is a general term for the process by
which persons, lands or effects are attached on execution, or in
security for debt.

DILKE, SIR CHARLES WENTWORTH, Bart. (1810-1869),
English politician, son of Charles Wentworth Dilke, proprietor
and editor of The Athenaeum, was born in London on the i8th
of February 1810, and was educated at Westminster school and
Trinity Hall, Cambridge. He studied law, and in 1834 took his
degree of LL.B., but did not practise. He assisted his father in
his literary work, and was for some years chairman of the council
of the Society of Arts, besides taking a prominent part in the
affairs of the Royal Horticultural Society and other bodies. He
was one of the most zealous promoters of the Great Exhibition
(1851), and a member of the executive committee. At the close
of the exhibition he was honoured by foreign sovereigns, and the
queen offered him knighthood, which, however, he did not accept;
he also declined a large remuneration offered by the royal com-
mission. In 1853 Dilke was one of the English commissioners at
the New York Industrial Exhibition, and prepared a report on it.
He again declined to receive any money reward for his services.
He was appointed one of the five royal commissioners for the
Great Exhibition of 1862; and soon after the death of the prince
consort he was created a baronet. In 1865 he entered parliament
as member for Wallingford. In 1869 he was sent to Russia as
representative of England at the horticultural exhibition held
at St Petersburg. His health, however, had been for some time
failing, and he died suddenly in that city, on the loth of May 1 869.
A selection from his writings, Papers of a Critic (2 vols., 1875),
contains a biographical sketch by his son.

His son, SIR CHARLES WENTWORTH DILKE, BART. (1843- ),
became a prominent Liberal politician, as M.P. for Chelsea
(1868-1886), under-secretary for foreign affairs (1880-1882), and
president of the local government board (1882-1885); and he
was then marked out as one of the best-informed and ablest of the
advanced Radicals. He was chairman of the royal commission
on the housing of the working classes in 1884-1885. But his
sensational appearance as co-respondent in a divorce case of a
peculiarly unpleasant character in 1885 cast a cloud over his
career. He was defeated in Chelsea in 1886, and did not return
to parliament till 1892, when he was elected for the Forest of
Dean; and though his knowledge of foreign affairs and his
powers as a critic and writer on military and naval questions were
admittedly of the highest order, his official position in public life
could not again be recovered. His military writings are The
British Army (1888); Army Reform (1898) and, with Mr Spenser
Wilkinson, Imperial Defence (1892). On colonial questions he
wrote with equal authority. His Greater Britain (2 vols., 1866-
1867) reached a fourth edition in 1868, and was followed by
Problems of Greater Britain (2 vols., 1890) and The British
Empire (1899). He was twice married, his second wife (nee

272

DILL— DILLMANN

Dill (A nethum or Peucedanum graveolens) ,
leaf and inflorescence.

Emilia Frances Strong), the widow of Mark Pattison, being
an accomplished art critic and collector. She died in 1904. The
most important of her books were the studies on French Painters
of the Eighteenth Century (1899) and three subsequent volumes on
the architects and sculptors, furniture and decoration, engravers
and draughtsmen of the same period, the last of which appeared
in 1902. A posthumous volume, The Book of the Spiritual Life
(1905), contains a memoir of her by Sir Charles Dilke.

DILL (Anethum or Peucedanum graveolens), a member of the
natural botanical order Umbelliferae, indigenous to the south of
Europe, Egypt and the Cape of Good Hope. It resembles fennel
in appearance. Its root is long and fusiform; the stem is round,
jointed and about a yard high; the leaves have fragrant leaflets;

and the fruits are brown
oval and concavo-con-
vex. The piant flowers
from June till August in
England. The seeds are
sown, preferably as soon
as ripe, either broad-
cast or in drills between
6 and 12 in. asunder.
The young plants should
be thinned when 3 or 4
weeks old, so as to be
at distances of about
10 in. A sheltered spot
and dry soil are needed
for the production of the
seed in the climate of England. The leaves of the dill are used in
soups and sauces, and, as well as the umbels, for flavouring
pickles. The seeds are employed for the preparation of dill-water
and oil of dill; they are largely consumed in the manufacture of
gin, and, when ground, are eaten in the East as a condiment.
The British Pharmacopoeia contains the Aqua Anethi or dill-
water (dose 1-2 oz.), and the Oleum Anethi, almost identical in
composition with caraway oil, and given in doses of 5-3 minims.
Dill-water is largely used as a carminative for children, and as a
vehicle for the exhibition of nauseous drugs.

DILLEN [DILLENIUS], JOHANN JAKOB (1684-1747), English
botanist, was born at Darmstadt in 1684, and was educated at the
university of Giessen, where he wrote several botanical papers for
the Ephcmcrides naturae curiosorum, and printed, in 1719. his
Catalogus plantarum sponte circa Gissam nascentium, illustrated
with figures drawn and engraved by his own hand, and containing
descriptions of many new species. In 1 7 2 1 , at the instance of the
botanist William Sherard (1659-1728), he came to England, and
in 1724 he published a new edition of Ray's Synopsis stirpium
Britannicarum. In 1732 he published Hortus Ellhamensis, a
catalogue of the rare plants growing at Eltham, Kent, in the
collection of Sherard's younger brother, James (1666-1738), who,
after making a fortune as an apothecary, devoted himself to
gardening and music. For this work Dillen himself executed 324
plates, and it was described by Linnaeus, who spent a month
with him at Oxford in 1736, and afterwards dedicated his Critica
botanica to him, as " opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non
vidit." In 1 734 he was appointed Sherardian prof essor of botany
at Oxford, in accordance with the will of W. Sherard, who at his
death in 1728 left the university £3000 for the endowment of the
chair, as well as his library and herbarium. Dillen, who was also
the author of an Historia muscorum (1741), died at Oxford, of
apoplexy, on the 2nd of April 1747. His manuscripts, books and
collections of dried plants, with many drawings, were bought by
his successor at Oxford, Dr Humphry Sibthorp (1713-1797), and
ultimately passed into the possession of the university.

For an account of his collections preserved at Oxford, see The
Dillenian Herbaria, by G. Claridge Druce (Oxford, 1907).

DILLENBUR6, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Hesse-Nassau, delightfully situated in the midst of a well-wooded
country, on the Dill, 25 m. N.W. from Giessen on the railway to
Troisdorf. Pop. 4500. On an eminence above it lie the ruins
of the castle of Dillenburg, founded by Count Henry the Rich

of Nassau, about the year 1255, and the birthplace of Prince
William of Orange (1533). It has an Evangelical church, with
the vault of the princes of Nassau-Dillenburg, a Roman Catholic
church, a classical school, a teachers' seminary and a chamber
of commerce. Its industries embrace iron-works, tanne.ies and
the manufacture of cigars. Owing to its beautiful surroundings
Dillenburg has become a favourite summer resort.

DILLENS, JULIEN (1840-1904), Belgian sculptor, was born at
Antwerp on the 8th of June 1849, son of a painter. He studied
under Eugene Simonis at the Brussels Academy of Fine Arts.
In 1877 he received the prix de Rome for " A Gaulish Chief taken
Prisoner by the Romans." At Brussels, in 1881, he executed
the groups entitled " Justice " and " Herkenbald, the Brussels
Brutus." For the pediment of the orphanage at Uccle, " Figure
Kneeling" (Brussels Gallery), and the statue of the lawyer
Metdepenningen in front of the Palais de Justice at Ghent, he was
awarded the medal of honour in 1889 at the Paris Universal
Exhibition, where, in 1900, his " Two Statues of the Anspach
Monument" gained him a similar distinction. For the town of
Brussels he executed "The Four Continents" (MaisonduRenard,
Grand' Place), " The Lansquenets " crowning the lucarnes of
the Maison de Roi, and the " Monument t' Serclaes " under the
arcades of the Maison de I'Etoile, and, for the Belgian govern-
ment, " Flemish Art," " German Art," " Classic Art " and " Art
applied to Industry " (all in the Palais des Beaux Arts, Brussels),
" The Laurel" (Bqtanic Garden, Brussels), and the statue of
" Bernard van Orley " (Place du petit Sablon, Brussels). Mention
must also be made of " An Enigma " (1876), the bronze busts of
"Rogierde la Pasture" and "P. P. Rubens" (1879), "Etruria "
(1880), "(The Painter Leon Frederic " (1888), " Madame Leon
Herbo," " Hermes." a scheme of decoration for the ogival fagade
of the h6tel de ville at Ghent (1893), " The Genius of the Funeral
Monument of the Moselli Family," " The Silence of Death " (for
the entrance of the cemetery of St Gilles), two caryatides for the
town hall of St Gilles, presentation plaquette to Dr Heger, medals
of MM. Godefroid and Vanderkindere and of " The Three
Burgomasters of Brussels," and the ivories " Allegretto,"
"Minerva" and the " Jamaer Memorial." Dillens died at
Brussels in November 1904.

DILLINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria,
on the left bank of the Danube, 25 m. N.E. from Ulm, on the
railway to Ingolstadt. Pop. (1905) 6078. Its principal buildings
are an old palace, formerly the residence of the bishops of
Augsburg and now government offices, a royal gymnasium, a
Latin school with a library of 75,000 volumes, seven churches
(six Roman Catholic), two episcopal seminaries, a Capuchin
monastery, a Franciscan convent and a deaf and dumb asylum.
The university, founded in 1549, was abolished in 1804, being
converted into a lyceum. The inhabitants are engaged in cattle-
rearing, the cultivation of corn, hops and fruit, shipbuilding and
the shipping trade, and the manufacture of cloth, paper and
cutlery. In the vicinity is the Karolinen canal, which cuts off a
bend in the Danube between Lauingen and Dillingen. In 1488
Dillingen became the residence of the bishops of Augsburg; was
taken by the Swedes in 1632 and 1648, by the Austrians in 170?,
and on the iyth of June 1800 by the French. In 1803 it passed
to Bavaria.

DILLMANN, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1823-1894),
German orientalist and biblical scholar, the son of a Wurttemberg
schoolmaster, was born at Illingen on the 25th of April 1823. He
was educated at Tubingen, where he became a pupil and friend of
Heinrich Ewald, and studied under F. C. Baur, though he did not
join the new Tubingen school. For a short time he worked as
pastor at Gersheim, near his native place, but he soon came to
feel that his studies demanded his whole time. He devoted him-
self to the study of Ethiopic MSS. in the libraries of Paris, London
and Oxford, and this work caused a revival of Ethiopic study in
the igth century. In 1847 and 1848 he prepared catalogues of
the Ethiopic MSS. in the British Museum and the Bodleian
library at Oxford. He then set to work upon an edition of the
Ethiopic bible. Returning to Tubingen in 1848, in 1853 he was
appointed professor extraordinarius. Subsequently he became

DILLON— DINAJPUR

professor of philosophy at Kiel (1854), and of theology at Giessen
(1864) and Berlin (1869). He died on the 4th of July 1894.

In 1851 he had published the Book of Enoch in Ethiopian
(German, 1853), and at Kiel he completed the first part of the
Ethiopic bible, Oclateuchus Aelhiopicus (1853-1855). In 1857
appeared his Grammatik der iithiopischen Sprache (2nd ed. by
C. Bezold, 1899); in 1859 the Book of Jubilees; in 1861 and 1871
another part of the Ethiopic bible, Libri Regum ; in 1865 his
great Lexicon linguae aelhiopicae; in 1866 his Chrestomalhia
aethiopica. Always a theologian at heart, however, he returned
to theology in 1864. Plis Giessen lectures were published under
the titles, Ursprung der altlestamentlichen Religion (1865) and
Die Prophelen des alien Bundes nach Hirer polilischen Wirksamkeit
(1868). In 1869 appeared his CommenlarzumHiob (4th ed. 1891)
which stamped him as one of the foremost Old Testament
exegetes. His renown as a theologian, however, was mainly
founded by the series of commentaries, based on those of August
Wilhelm Knobels' Genesis (Leipzig, 1875; 6th ed. 1892; Eng.
trans, by W. B. Stevenson, Edinburgh, 1897); Exodus und
Leviticus, 1880, revised edition by V. Ryssel, 1897; Numeri,
Deuteronomium und Josua, with a dissertation on the origin of
'the Hexateuch, 1886; Jesaja, 1890 (revised edition by Rudolf
Kittel in 1898). In 1877 he published the Ascension of Isaiah
in Ethiopian and Latin. He was also a contributor to D.
Schenkel's Bibellexikon, Brockhaus's Conversalionslcxikon, and
Herzog's Realencyklopddie. His lectures on Old Testament
theology, Vorlesungen iiber Theologie dcs Allen Teslamentes, were
published by Kittel in 1895.

See the articles in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadic. and the
Allgemeine deutsche Biographic; F. Lichtenberger, History of
German Theology in the Nineteenth Century (1889); Wolf Baudissin,
A. Dillmann (Leipzig, 1895).

DILLON, ARTHUR RICHARD (1721-1807), French arch-
bishop, was the son of Arthur Dillon (1670-1733), an Irish
gentleman who became general in the French service. He was
born at St Germain, entered the priesthood and was successively
cure of Elan near Mezieres, vicar-general of Pontoise (1747),
bishop of Evreux (1753) and archbishop of Toulouse (1758),
archbishop of Narbonne in 1763, and in that capacity, president
of the estates of Languedoc. He devoted himself much less to
the spiritual direction of his diocese than to its temporal welfare,
carrying out many works of public utility, bridges, canals, roads,
harbours, &c.; had chairs of chemistry and of physics created at
Montpellier and at Toulouse, and tried to reduce the poverty,
especially in Narbonne. In 1 787 and in 1 788 he was a member of
the Assembly of Notables called together by Lcuis XVI., and in
1788 presided over the assembly of the clergy. Having refused
to accept the civil constitution of the clergy, Dillon had to leave
Narbonne in 1790, then to emigrate to Coblenz in 1791. Soon
afterwards he went to London, where he lived until his death in
1807, never accepting the Concordat, which had suppressed his
archiepiscopal see.

See L. Audibret, Le Dernier President des Etats du Languedoc, Mgr.
Arthur Richard Dillon, archeveque de Narbonne (Bordeaux, 1868);
L. dc Lavergne, Les Assemblies provinciates sous Louis XVI
(Paris, 1864).

DILLON, JOHN (1851- ), Irish nationalist politician, was
the son of John Blake Dillon (1816-1866), who sat in parliament
for Tipperary, and was one of the leaders of " Young Ireland."
John Dillon was educated at the Roman Catholic university of
Dublin, and afterwards studied medicine. He entered parliament
in 1880 as member for Tipperary, and was at first an ardent
supporter of C. S. Parnell. In August he delivered a speech on
the Land League at Kildare which was characterized as " wicked
and cowardly " by W. E. Forster; he advocated boycotting, and
was arrested in May 1881 under the Coercion Act, and again after
two months of freedom in October. In 1883 he resigned his seat
for reasons of health, but was returned unopposed in 1885 for
East Mayo, which he continued to represent. He was one of the
prime movers in the famous " plan of campaign," which provided
that the tenant should pay his rent to the National League instead
of the landlord, and in case of eviction be supported by the general
fund. Mr Dillon was compelled by the court of queen's bench on

273

the i4th of December 1886 to find securities for good behaviour,
but two days later he was arrested while receiving rents on Lord
Clanricarde's estates. In this instance the jury disagreed, but
in June 1888 under the provisions of the new Criminal Law
Procedure Bill he was condemned to six months' imprisonment.
He was, however, released in September, and in the spring of 1889
sailed for Australia and New Zealand, where he collected funds
for the Nationalist party. On his return to Ireland he was again
arrested, but, being allowed bail, sailed to America, and failed to
appear at the trial. He returned to Ireland by way of Boulogne,
where he and Mr W. O'Brien held long and indecisive conferences
with Parncll. They surrendered to the police in February, and
on their release from Gal way gaol in July declared their opposition
to Parnell. After the expulsion of Mr T. M. Healy and others
from the Irish National Federation, Mr Dillon became the chair-
man (February 1896). His early friendship with Mr O'Brien
gave place to considerable hostility, but the various sections of
the party were ostensibly reconciled in 1900 under the leadership
of Mr Redmond. In the autumn of 1896 he arranged a conven-
tion of the Irish race, which included 2000 delegates from various
parts of the world. In 1897 Mr Dillon opposed in the House
the Address to Queen Victoria on the occasion of the Diamond
Jubilee, on the ground that her reign had not been a blessing to
Ireland, and he showed the same uncompromising attitude in
1901 when a grant to Lord Roberts was under discussion, accusing
him of " systematized inhumanity." He was suspended on the
2oth of March for violent language addressed to Mr Chamberlain.
He married in 1895 Elizabeth (d. 1907), daughter of Lord Justice
J. C. Mathew.

DILUVIUM (Lat. for "deluge," from diluere, to wash away),
a term in geology for superficial deposits formed by flood-like
operations of water, and so contrasted with alluvium (q.v.) or
alluvial deposits formed by slow and steady aqueous agencies.
The term was formerly given to the " boulder clay " deposits,
supposed to have been caused by the Noachian deluge.

DIME (from the Lat. decima, a tenth, through the O. Fr.
disme), the tenth part, the tithe paid as church dues, or as tribute
to a temporal power. In this sense it is obsolete, but is found in
Wycliffe's translation of the Bible — '' He gave him dymes of alle
thingis " (Gen. xiv. 20). A dime is a silver coin of the United
States, in value 10 cents (English equivalent about 5d.) or one-
tenth of a dollar; hence " dime-novel," a cheap sensational
novel, a " penny dreadful "; also " dime-museum."

DIMENSION (from Lat. dimensio, a measuring), in geometry, a
magnitude measured in a specified direction, i.e. length, breadth
and thickness; thus a line has only length and is said to be of
one dimension, a surface has length and breadth, and has two
dimensions, a solid has length, breadth and thickness, and has
three dimensions. This concept is extended to algebra: since
a line, surface and solid are represented by linear, quadratic and
cubic equations, and are of one, two and three dimensions; a
biquadratic equation has its highest terms of four dimensions,
and, in general, an equation in any number of variables which has
the greatest sum of the indices of any term equal to n is said to
have n dimensions. The " fourth dimension " is a type of non-
Euclidean geometry, in which it is conceived that a " solid " has
one dimension more than the solids of experience. For the
dimensions of units see UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF.

DIMITY, derived from the Gr. Siiuros " double thread,"
through the Ital. dimito, " a kind of course linzie-wolzie "
(Florio, 1611); a cloth commonly employed for bed upholstery
and curtains, and usually white, though sometimes a pattern is
printed on it in colours. It is stout in texture, and woven in
raised patterns.

DINAJPUR, a town (with a population in 1901 of 13,430) and
district of Britsh India, in the Raishahi division of Eastern
Bengal aad Assam. The earthquake of the I2th of June 1897
caused serious damage to most of the public buildings of the town.
There is a railway station and a government high school. The
district comprises an area of 3946 sq. m. It is traversed in every
direction by a network of channels and water courses. Along the
banks of the Kulik river, the undulating ridges and long lines of

274

DINAN— DINARCHUS

mango-trees give the landscape a beauty which is not found else-
where. Dinajpur forms part of the rich arable tract lying between
the Ganges and the southern slopes of the Himalayas. Although
essentially a fluvial district, it does not possess any river navigable
throughout the year by boats of 4 tons burden. Rice forms the
staple agricultural product. The climate of the district, although
cooler than that of Calcutta, is very unhealthy, and the people
have a sickly appearance. The worst part of the year is at the
close of the rains in September and October, during which months
few of the natives escape fever. The average maximum tempera-
ture is 92-3° F., and the minimum 74-8°. The average rainfall
is 85-54 in. In 1901 the population was 1,567,080, showing an
increase of 6 % in the decade. The district is partly traversed
by the main line of the Eastern Bengal railway and by two branch
lines. Save between 1404 and 1442, when it was the seat of
an independent raj, founded by Raja Ganesh, a Hindu turned
Mussulman, Dinajpur has no separate history. Pillars and
copper-plate inscriptions have yielded numerous records of the
Pal kings who ruled the country from the 9th century onwards,
and the district is famous for many other antiquities, some of
which are connected by legend with an immemorial past (see
Reports, Arch. Survey of India, xv. ; Epigraphia Indica, ii.).

DINAN, a town of north-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of C6tes-du-Nord, 37 m. E. of
St Brieuc on the Western railway. Pop. (1906) 8588. Dinan is
situated on a height on the left bank of the Ranee (here canalized),
some 17 m. above its mouth at St Malo, with which it com-
municates by means of small steamers. It is united to the village
of Lanvallay on the right bank of the river by a granite viaduct
130 ft. in height. The town is almost entirely encircled by the
ramparts of the middle ages, strengthened at intervals by towers
and defended on the south by a castle of the late i4th century,
which now serves as prison. Three old gateways are also pre-
served. Dinan has two interesting churches; that of St Malo, of
late Gothic architecture, and St Sauveur, in which the Roman-
esque and Gothic styles are intermingled. In the latter church a
granite monument contains the heart of Bertrand Du Guesclin,
whose connexion with the town is also commemorated by an
equestrian statue. The quaint winding streets of Dinan are often
bordered by medieval houses. Its picturesqueness attracts large
numbers of visitors and there are many English residents in the
town and its vicinity. About three-quarters of a mile from the
town are the ruins of the chateau and the Benedictine abbey at
Lehon; near the neighbouring village of St Esprit stands the
large lunatic asylum of Les Bas Foins, founded in 1836; and at
no great distance is the now dismantled chateau of La Garaye,
which was rendered famous in the i8th century by the philan-
thropic devotion of the count and countess whose story is told
.in Mrs Norton's Lady of La Garaye. Dinan is the seat of a sub-
prefect and has a tribunal of first instance, and a communal
college. There is trade in grain, cider, wax, butter and other
agricultural products. The industries include the manufacture
of leather, farm-implements and canvas.

The principal event in the history of Dinan, which was a strong-
hold of the dukes of Brittany, is the siege by the English under the
duke of Lancaster in 1359, during which Du Guesclin and an
English knight called Thomas of Canterbury engaged in single
combat.

DINANT, an ancient town on the right bank of the Meuse in
the province of Namur, Belgium, connected by a bridge with the
left bank, on which are the station and the suburb of St Medard.
Pop. (1904) 7674. The name is supposed to be derived from
Diana, and as early as the 7th century it was named as one of the
dependencies of the bishopric of Tongres. In the loth century it
passed under the titular sway of Liege, and remained the fief of the
prince-bishopric till the French revolution put an end to that
survival of feudalism. In the middle of the 1 5th century Dinant
reached the height of its prosperity. With a population of
60,000, and 8000 workers in copper, it was one of the most
flourishing cities in Walloon Belgium until it incurred the wrath
of Charles the Bold. Belief in the strength of its walls and of the
castle that occupied the centre bridge, thus effectually command-

ing navigation by the river, engendered arrogance and over-
confidence, and the people of Dinant thought they could defy the
full power of Burgundy. Perhaps they also expected aid from
France or Liege. In T466 Charles, in his father's name, laid siege
to Dinant, and on the 27th of August carried the place by storm.
He razed the walls and allowed the women, children and priests
to retire in safety to Liege, but the male prisoners he either
hanged or drowned in the river by causing them to be cast from
the projecting cliff of Bouvignes. In 1675 the capture of Dinant
formed one of the early military achievements of Louis XIV., and
it remained in the hands of the French for nearly thirty years
after that date. The citadel on the cliff, 300 ft. or 408 steps above
the town, was fortified by the Dutch in 1818. It is now dis-
mantled, but forms the chief curiosity of the place. The views
of the river valley from this eminence are exceedingly fine. Half
way up the cliff, but some distance south of the citadel, is the
grotto of Montfat, alleged to be the site of Diana's shrine. The
church of Notre Dame, dating from the I3th century, stands
immediately under the citadel and flanking the bridge. It has
been restored, and is considered by some authorities, although
others make the same claim on behalf of Huy, the most complete
specimen in Belgium of pointed Gothic architecture. The
baptismal fonts date from the i2th century, and the curious spire
in the form of an elongated pumpkin and covered with slates
gives a fantastic and original appearance to the whole edifice.
The present prosperity of Dinant is chiefly derived from its being
a favourite summer resort for Belgians as well as foreigners. It
has facilities for boating and bathing as well as for trips by
steamer up and down the river Meuse. It is also a convenient
central point for excursions into the Ardennes. Although there
are some indications of increased industrial activity in recent
years, the population of Dinant is not one-eighth of what it was
at the time of the Burgundians.

DINAPUR, a town and military station of British India, in the
Patna district of Bengal, on the right bank of the Ganges, 12 m.
W. of Patna city by rail. Pop. (1901) 33,699. It is the largest
military cantonment in Bengal, with accommodation for two
batteries of artillery, a European and a native infantry regiment.
In 1857 the sepoy garrison of the place initiated the mutiny of
that year in Patna district, but after a conflict with the European
troops were forced to retire from the town, and subsequently laid
siege to Arrah.

DINARCHUS, last of the " ten " Attic orators, son of Sostratus
(or, according to Suidas, Socrates), born at Corinth about 361
B.C. He settled at Athens early in life, and when not more than
twenty-five was already active as a writer of speeches for the law
courts. As an alien, he was unable to take part in the debates.
He had been the pupil both of Theophrastus and of Demetrius
Phalereus, and had early acquired a certain fluency and versa-
tility of style. In 324 the Areopagus, after inquiry, reported
that nine men had taken bribes from Harpalus, the fugitive
treasurer of Alexander. Ten public prosecutors were appointed.
Dinarchus wrote, for one or more of these prosecutors, the three
speeches which are still extant — Against Demosthenes, Against
Aristogeiton, Against Philodes. The sympathies of Dinarchus
were in favour of an Athenian oligarchy under Macedonian
control; but it should be remembered that he was not an
Athenian citizen. Aeschines and Demades had no such excuse.
In the Harpalus affair, Demosthenes was doubtless innocent,
and so, probably, were others of the accused. Yet Hypereides,
the most fiery of the patriots, was on the same side as Dinarchus.

Under the regency of his old master, Demetrius Phalereus,
Dinarchus exercised much political influence. The years 3 1 7-307
were the most prosperous of his life. On the fall of Demetrius
Phalereus and the restoration of the democracy by Demetrius
Poliorcetes, Dinarchus was condemned to death and withdrew
into exile at Chalcis in Euboea. About 292, thanks to his friend
Theophrastus, he was able to return to Attica, and took up his
abode in the country with a former associate, Proxenus. He
afterwards brought an action against Proxenus on the ground
that he had robbed him of some money and plate. Dinarchus
died at Athens about 291.

DINARD— DINGELSTEDT

275

According to Suidas, Dinarchus wrote 160 speeches; and
Dionysius held that, out of 85 extant speeches bearing his name,
58 were genuine, — 28 relating to public, 30 to private causes.
Although the authenticity of the three speeches mentioned
above is generally admitted, Demetrius of Magnesia doubted that
of the speech Against Demosthenes, while A. Westermann rejected
all three. Dinarchus had little individual style and imitated
by turns Lysias, Hypereides and Demosthenes. He is called by
Hermogenes 6 Kpi6i.v6s ttaujoadanp, a metaphor taken from
barley compared with wheat, or beer compared with wine, —
a Demosthenes whose strength is rougher, without flavour or
sparkle.

Editions: (text and exhaustive commentary) E. Matzner (1842);
(text) T. Thalheim (1887), F. Blass (1888); see L. L. Forman,
Index Andocideus, Lycurgeus, Dinarcheus (1897) ; and, in general,
F. Blass, Attische Beredsamkeit, iii. There is a valuable treatise on
the life and speeches of Dinarchus by Dionysius of Halicarnassus.

DINARD, a seaside town of north-western France, in the
department of Ille-et-Vilaine. The town, which is the chief
watering-place of Brittany, is situated on a rocky promontory at
the mouth of the Ranee opposite St Malo, which is about i m.
distant. It is a favourite resort of English and Americans as
well as of the French, its attractions being the beauty of its
situation, the mildness of the climate and the good bathing. It
has two casinos and numerous luxurious hotels and elegant villas.
Together with the adjoining watering-place of St Enogat, Dinard
has a population of 4882 (1906).

DINDIGUL, a town of British India, in the Madura district of
Madras, 880 ft. above the sea, 40 m. from Madura by rail. Pop.
(1901) 25,182. Dindigul has risen into importance as the centre
of a trade in tobacco and manufacture of cigars, which are
exported to England. There are two large European cigar
factories here. The town has manufactures of silk, muslin and
blankets, and an export trade in hides and cardamoms; and
there is a large native Christian population, with two churches.
The ancient fort, well preserved, stands on a rock rising 350 ft.
above the town; this was formerly a position of great strategic
importance, commanding passes into Madura from Coimbatore,
and figured prominently in the military operations of the
Mahrattas in the i7th and i8th centuries, and of Hyder Ali in
!75S seq., being thrice captured by the British (1767, 1783, 1790).
After the two first captures it was restored to Hyder Ali under
treaty; after the third it was ceded to the East India Company.

DINDORF, KARL WILHELM (1802-1883), German classical
scholar, was born at Leipzig on the 2nd of January 1802. From
his earliest years he showed a strong taste for classical studies,
and after completing F. Invernizi's edition of Aristophanes at
an early age, and editing several grammarians and rhetoricians,
was in 1828 appointed extraordinary professor of literary history
in his native city. Disappointed at not obtaining the ordinary
professorship when it became vacant in 1833, he resigned his post
in the same year, and devoted himself entirely to study and
literary work. His attention had at first been chiefly given to
Athenaeus, whom he edited in 1827, and to the Greek dramatists,
all of whom he edited separately and combined in his Poetae
scenici Graeci (1830 and later editions). He also wrote a work
on the metres of the Greek dramatic poets, and compiled special
lexicons to Aeschylus and Sophocles. He edited Procopius for
Niebuhr's Corpus of the Byzantine writers, and between 1846 and
1851 brought out at Oxford an important edition of Demosthenes;
he also edited Lucian and Josephus for the Didot classics. His
last important editorial labour was his Eusebius of Caesarea
(1867-1871). Much of his attention was occupied by the re-
publication of Stephanus's Thesaurus (Paris, 1831-1865), chiefly
executed by him and his brother Ludwig, a work of prodigious
labour and utility. His reputation suffered somewhat through
the imposture practised upon him by the Greek Constantine
Simonides, who succeeded in deceiving him by a fabricated
fragment of the Greek historian Uranius. The book was printed,
and a few copies had been circulated, when the forgery was
discovered, just in time to prevent its being given to the world
under the auspices of the university of Oxford. Shortly after the

death of his brother, he lost all his property and his library by
rash speculations. He died on the ist of August 1883.

His brother LUDWIG (1805-1871) was born at Leipzig on the
3rd of January 1 805, and died there on the 6th of September 1871.
He never held any academical position, and led so secluded a
life that many doubted his existence, and declared that he was
a mere pseudonym. The important share which he took in the
edition of the Thesaurus is nevertheless authenticated by his
own signature to his contributions. He also published valuable
editions of Polybius, Dio Cassius and other Greek historians.

D'INDY, PAUL-MARIE-THEODORE-VINCENT (1851- ),
French musical composer, was born in Paris, on the 27th of March
1851. He studied composition and the organ at the Paris Conser-
vatoire under Cesar Franck, and obtained the grand prize offered
by the city of Paris in 1885 with Le Chant de la Cloche, a dramatic
legend after Schiller. His principal works, beside the above, are
the symphonic trilogy Wallenstein, the symphonic works entitled
Saugefleurie, La Fortt enchantZe, Istar, Symphonic sur un air
monlagnard franqais; overture to Anthony and Cleopatra; Sle
Marie Magdeleinc, a cantata; Allendez-moi sous I'orme, a one-act
opera; Fervaal, a musical drama in three acts. Vincent d'Indy
is perhaps the most prominent among the disciples of Cesar
Franck. Imbued with very high aims, he was always guided by
a lofty ideal, and few musicians have attained so complete a
mastery over the art of instrumentation. His music, however,
lacks simplicity, and can never become popular in the widest
sense. His opera Fervaal, which is styled " action musicale," is
constructed upon the system of Leit-motifs. Its legendary
subject recalls both Parsifal and Tristan, and the music is also
suggestive of Wagnerian influence. D'Indy can scarcely be
considered so typical a representative of modern French music as
his juniors Alfred Bruneau, the composer of Le R&ie, L'Altaque du
moulin, Messidor, or Gustave Charpentier, the author of Louise,
who chose subjects of modern life for their operatic works.

DINEIR, a small town in Asia Minor, built amidst the ruins of
Celaenae-Apamea, near the sources of the Maeander (Menderes).
It is the terminus of the Smyrna-Aidin-Dineir railway. Pop.
1400. (See APAMEA.)

DINGELSTEDT, FRANZ VON (1814-1881), German poet and
dramatist, was born at Halsdorf, in Hesse Cassel, on the 3oth of
June 1814. Having studied at the university of Marburg, he
became in 1836 a master at the Lyceum in Cassel, from which he
was transferred to Fulda in 1838. In 1839 he produced a novel,
Unter der Erde, which obtained considerable success, and in 1841
published the book by which he is best remembered, the Lieder
eines kosmopolitischen Nachtwiichters. These poems, animated
as they are by a spirit of bitter opposition to everything that
savours of despotism, were an effective contribution to the
political poetry of the day. The popularity of this book
determined Dingelstedt to take up a literary career, and iri 1841
he obtained an appointment on the staff of the Augsburger
allgemeine Zeitung. In 1843, however, the satirist of German
princes accepted, to the general surprise, the appointment of
private librarian to the king of Wurttemberg, and in the same year
he married the celebrated Bohemian opera singer, Jenny Lutzer.
In 1845 ne published a volume of poems, some of which, treating
of modern life, possessed great literary rather than strictly
poetical merit. A subsequent collection, published in 1852,
attracted little attention. The success of his tragedy Das Haus
der Barneveldt (1850) obtained for him the position of intendant
at the court theatre at Munich, where he soon became the centre
of literary society. He incurred, however, the animosity of the
Jesuit clique at the court, and in 1856 was suddenly dismissed on
the most frivolous charges. A similar position was offered to him
at Weimar through the influence of Liszt, and he remained there
until 1867. His administration was most successful, and he
especially distinguished himself by presenting all Shakespeare's
historical plays upon the stage in an unbroken cycle. In 1867 he
became director of the court opera house in Vienna, and in 1872
of the Hofburgtheater, a position he held until his death on the
1 5th of May 1881. Among his other works may be noticed an
autobiographical sketch of his Munich career, entitled Munchener

276

DINGHY— DINKA

Bilderbogen (1879), Die Amazone, an art novel of considerable
merit (1869), translations of several of Shakespeare's comedies,
and several writings dealing with questions of practical drama-
turgy. He was ennobled in 1867 by the king of Bavaria and in
1876 was created Freihen by the emperor of Austria.

Dingelstedt's Samtliche Werke appeared in 12 vols. (1877-1878),
but this edition is far from complete. On his life see, besides the
autobiography mentioned above, J. Rodenberg, Heimaterinnerungen
an F. Dingelstedt (Berlin, 1882), and by the same author, F. Dingel-
stedt, Blatter aus seinem Nachlass (2 vols., 1891). Also an essay by
A. Stern in Zur Literatur der Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1880).

DINGHY, or DINGEY (from the Hindu dengi a small boat, the
diminutive of denga, a sloop or coasting vessel), a boat of greatly
varying size and shape, used on the rivers of India; the term is
applied also, in certain districts, to a larger boat used for coasting
purposes. The name was adopted by the merchantmen trading
with India, and is now generally used to designate the small extra
boat kept for general purposes on a man-of-war or merchant
vessel, and also, on the Thames, for small pleasure boats built for
one or two pairs of sculls.

DINGLE, a seaport and market town of county Kerry, Ireland,
in the west parliamentary division, the terminus of the Tralee
and Dingle railway. Pop. ( 1 90 1 ) 1 7 86. This may be considered
the most westerly town in the United Kingdom unless
Knightstown at Valencia Island be excepted: it lies on the south
side of the northernmost of the great promontories which pro-
trude into the Atlantic on the south-western coast of Ireland, on
the fine natural harbour of Dingle Bay, in a wild hilly district
abundant in relics of antiquity. The town, which is the centre
of a considerable fishing industry, especially in mackerel, was in
the 1 6th century of no little importance as a seaport; it had also
a noted manufacture of linen. It was incorporated by Queen
Elizabeth, and returned two members to the Irish parliament
until the Union.

DINGO, a name applied apparently by Europeans to the
warrigal, or native Australian dog. the Canis dingo of J. F.
Blumenbach. The dingo is a stoutly-built, rather short-legged,
sandy-coloured dog, intermediate in size between a jackal and a
wolf, and measuring about 51 in. in total length, of which the
tail takes up about eleven. In general appearance it is very like
some of the pariah dogs of India and Egypt; and, except on
distributional grounds, there is no reason for regarding it as
specifically distinct from such breeds. Dingos, which are found
both wild and tame, interbreed freely with European dogs in-
troduced into the country, and it may be that the large amount
of black on the back of many specimens may be the result of
crossing of this nature.

The main point of interest connected with the dingo relates to
its origin; that is to say, whether it is a member of the indigenous
Australian fauna (among which it is the only large placental
mammal), or whether it has been introduced into the country
by man. There seems to be no doubt that fossilized remains of
the dingo occur intermingled with those of the extinct Australian
mammals, such as giant kangaroos, giant wombats and the still
more gigantic Diprotodon. And since remains of man have
apparently not yet been detected in these deposits, it has been
thought by some naturalists that the dingo must be an indigenous
species. This was the opinion of Sir Frederick McCoy, by whom
the deposits in question were regarded as probably of Pliocene age.
A similar view is adopted by D . Ogil vy in a Catalogue of A uslralian
Mammals, published at Sydney in 1892; the writer going how-
ever one step further and expressing the belief that the dingo
is the ancestor of all domesticated dogs. The latter contention
cannot for a moment be sustained; and there are also strong
arguments against the indigenous origin of the dingo. That the
animal now occurs in a wild state is no argument whatever as to
its being indigenous, seeing that a domesticated breed introduced
by man into a new country abounding in game would almost
certainly revert to the wild state. The apparent absence of
human remains in the beds yielding dingo teeth and bones (which
are almost certainly not older than the Pleistocene) is of only
negative value, and liable to be upset by new discoveries. Then,
again (as has been pointed out by R. I. Pocock in the first part of

the Kennel Encyclopaedia, 1907), the absence of any really wild
species of the typical group of the genus Canis between Burma
and Siam on the one hand and Australia on the other is a very
strong argument against the dingo being indigenous, seeing that,
whether brought by man or having travelled thither of its own
accord, the dingo must have reached its present habitat by way
of the Austro-Malay archipelago. If it had followed that route
in the course of nature, it is inconceivable that it would not still
be found on some portions of the route. On the supposition that
the dingo was introduced by man, we have now fairly decisive
evidence that the native Australian, in place of being (as formerly
supposed) a member of the negro stock, is a low type of Caucasian
allied to the Veddahs of Ceylon and the Toalas of Celebes.
Consequently the Australian natives must be presumed to have
reached the island-continent by way of Malaya; and if this be
admitted, nothing is more likely than that they should have been
accompanied by pariah dogs of the Indian type. Confirmation of
this is afforded by the occurrence in the mountains of Java of a
pariah-like dog which has reverted to an almost completely wild
condition; and likewise by the fact that the old voyagers met
with dogs more or less similar to the dingo in New Guinea, New
Zealand and the Solomon and certain other of the smaller Pacific
islands. On the whole, then, the most probable explanation of
the case is that the dingo is an introduced species closely allied to
the Indian pariah dog. Whether the latter represents a truly wild
type now extinct, cannot be determined. If so, all pariahs should
be classed with the Australian warrigal under the name of Canis
dingo. If, on the other hand, pariahs, and consequently the dingo,
cannot be separated specifically from ths domesticated dogs of
western Europe, then the dingo should be designated Canis
familiaris dingo. (R. L.*)

DINGWALL, a royal and police burgh and county town of the
shire of Ross and Cromarty, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 2519. It is
situated near the head of Cromarty Firth where the valley of the
Peffery unites with the alluvial lands at the mouth of the Conon,
i8| m. N.W. of Inverness by the Highland railway. Its name,
derived from the Scandinavian Thingvb'llr, " field or meeting-
place of the thing," or local assembly, preserves the Norse origin of
the town; its Gaelic designation is Inverpefferon," the mouth of
the Peffery." The 18th-century town house, and some remains
of the ancient mansion of the once powerful earls of Ross still
exist. There is also a public park. An obelisk, 57 ft. high, was
erected over the grave of the ist earl of Cromarty. The town
belongs to the Wick district group of parliamentary burghs. It is
a nourishing distributing centre and has an important corn market
and auction marts. Some shipping is carried on at the harbour
at the mouth of the Peffery, about a mile below the burgh.
Branch lines of the Highland railway run to Strathpeffer and to
Strome Ferry and Kyle of Lochalsh (for Skye). Alexander II.
created Dingwall a royal borough in 1226, and its charter was
renewed by James IV. On the top of Knockfarrel (Gaelic, cnoc,
hill; faire, watch, or guard), a hill about 3 m. to the west, is a
large and very complete vitrified fort with ramparts.

DINKA (called by the Arabs Jange), a widely spread negro
people dwelling on the right bank of the White Nile to about
12° N., around the mouth of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, along the right
bank of that river and on the banks of the lower Sobat. Like the
Shilluk, they were greatly harried from the north by Nuba-
Arabic tribes, but remained comparatively free owing to the vast
extent of their country, estimated to cover 40,000 sq. m., and their
energy in defending themselves. They are a tall race with skins
of almost blue black. The men wear practically no clothes,
married women having a short apron, and unmarried girls a
fringe of iron cones round the waist. They tattoo themselves
with tribal marks, and extract the lower incisors; they also
pierce the ears and lip for the attachment of ornaments, and wear
a variety of feather, iron, ivory and brass ornaments. Nearly
all shave the head, but some give the hair a reddish colour by
moistening it with animal matter. Polygamy is general; some
headmen have as many as thirty or more wives; but six is the
average number. They are great cattle and sheep breeders; the
men tend their beasts with great devotion, despising agriculture,

DINKELSBUHL— DINOFLAGELLATA

277

which is left to the women; the cattle are called by means of
drums. Save under stress of famine cattle are never killed
for food, the people subsisting largely on durra. The Dinkas
reverence the cow, and snakes, which they call " brothers."
Their folklore recognizes a good and evil deity; one of the two
wives of the good deity created man, and the dead go to live with
him in a great park filled with animals of enormous size. The
evil deity created cripples. The Dinka came, in 1899, under the
control of the Sudan government, justice being administered
as far as possible in accord with tribal custom. A compendium
of Dinka laws was compiled by Captain H. D. E. O'Sullivan.

See G. A. Schweinfurth, The Heart of Africa (1874); W. Junker,
Travels in Africa, Eng. edit. (London, 1890-1892); The Anglo-
Egyptian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 1905).

DINKELSBUHL, a town of German}', in the kingdom of
Bavaria, on the Wornitz, i6m. N. from Nordlingen, on the rail-
way to Dombiihl. Pop. 5000. It is an interesting medieval town,
still surrounded by old walls -and towers, and has an Evangelical
and two Roman Catholic churches. Notable is the so-called
Deutsches Haus, the ancestral home of the counts of Drechsel-
Deufstetten, a fine specimen of the German renaissance style of
wooden architecture. There are a Latin and industrial school,
several benevolent institutions, and a monument to Christoph
von Schmid (1768-1854), a writer of stories for the young. The
inhabitants carry on the manufacture of brushes, gloves, stock-
ings and gingerbread, and deal largely in cattle.

Fortified by the emperor Henry I., Dinkelsbtihl received in
1305 the same municipal rights as Ulm, and obtained in 1351 the
position of a free imperial city, which it retained till 1802, when
it passed to Bavaria. Its municipal code, the Dinkelsbiihler
Recht, published in 1536, and revised in 1738, contained a very
extensive collection of public and private laws.

DINNER, the chief meal of the day, eaten either in the middle
of the day, as was formerly the universal custom, or in the
evening. The word " dine " comes through Fr. from Med. Lat.
disnare, for disjejunare, to break one's fast (jejunium); it is,
therefore, the same word as Fr. dejeuner, to breakfast, in
modern France, to take the midday meal, diner being used
for the later repast. The term " dinner-wagon," originally

a movable table to hold dishes,
is now used of a two-tier side-
board.

DINOCRATES, a great and
original Greek architect, of the
age of Alexander the Great. He
tried to captivate the ambitious
fancy of that king with a design
for carving Mount Athos into a
gigantic seated statue. This plan
was not carried out, but Dino-
crates designed for Alexander the
plan of the new city of Alex-
andria, and constructed the vast
funeral pyre of Hephaestion.
Alexandria was, like Peiraeus
and Rhodes (see HIPPODAMUS),
built on a regular plan; the streets

After F. Schut, in Engler and Prantl's °f mOSt Carl'er tOWDS being narrOW

and confused.

DINOFLAGELLATA, so called

by O. Biitschli (= the CILIO-

verse grooves in which lie the FLAGELLATA of E. Claparide and
respective flagella /./., t.f. ; s.p., H. Lachmann), a group of Pro-
large "sack pusule" discharging tozoa characterized as Mastigo-
tnrough a tube by pore o : c.p., , ., . . .

" collective pusule discharging Phora> Provided with two flagella,
at o, and surrounded by a ring the one anterior extended in loco-
of formative " or " daughter motion, the other coiled round
pusules"; n, nucleus. its basg) or lying in a transverse

groove. The body is bounded by a firm pellicle, often supple-
mented by an armour (" lorica ") of cuticular cellulose plates,
with usually a marked longitudinal groove from which the
anterior flagellum springs, and an oblique or spiral transverse

cp.

P/ianzcn/amilien, by permission of Wm.
Engelmann.

FIG. I. — Peridiniumdivergens
showing longitudinal and trans-

groove for the second flagellum. In Polykrikos (fig. 2, 9) there
are eight transverse grooves each with its flagellum. The
armour-plates are often exquisitely sculptured, and may be
produced into spines or perpendicular plates to give greater
surface extension, as we find in other plankton organisms.
The cortical plasma may protrude pseudopodia in the longi-
tudinal groove; it contains trichocysts in several species, true
nematocysts in Polykrikos. It contains chromatophores in
many species, coloured by a mixed lipochrome pigment which

FIG. 2.

From Delage and Hfrouard's Troilt de snoloqie concrete,
by permission of Schleicher Freres.

1. Modified from Schiitt, Ornitho- 4. After Steip, Prorocentrum.

ceras. 5, 6. Ceratium, single and series.

2. Diagram of transverse fission 7. Pouchetia fusus (Schiitt).

of a Dinoflagellate.

3. After Schiitt, Exuviaeetta.

8. Cithanstes.

9. After Biitschli, Polykrikos.

appears to be distinct from diatomin. The endoplasm is
ramified between alveoli; it contains a large nucleus (in
Polykrikos there are eight nuclei, accompanied by smaller,
more numerous bodies regarded by O. Biitschli as micro-
nuclei). Besides the other spaces are definite rounded or oval
vacuoles with a permanent pellicular wall termed by Schiitt
" pusules "; these open by a duct or ducts into the longitudinal
groove. They enlarge and diminish, and are possibly excretory
like the " contractile vacuoles " of other Protista; though it has
been suggested that by their communication with the medium
they subserve nutrition. Nutrition is of course holozoic or

278

DINOTHERIUM— DIG CASSIUS

saprophytic in the colourless forms, holophytic in the coloured;
but these divergent methods are exhibited by different species
of the same genus, or even by individuals of one and the same
species under different conditions. Binary fission has been
widely observed, both in the active condition or after loss of
the flagella: it differs from that of true Flagellates in not
being longitudinal, but transverse or oblique (fig. 2, 2). Re-
peated fission (brood-formation) within a cyst has also been
observed, as in Pyrocystis and Ceratium; and possibly the chains
of Ceralium and other (fig. 2, 5 and 6) genera are due to the non-
separation of the brood-cells. Conjugation of adults has been
observed in several species, the most complete account being that
of Zederbauer on Ceratium hirundinella (marine): either mate
puts forth a tube which meets and opens into that of the
other (as in some species of Chlamydomonas and Desmids) ; the
two cell-bodies fuse in this tube, and encyst to form a rest-
ing zygospore. The Dinoflagellates are relatively large for
Mastigophora, many attaining 50 /i (riV) in length. The
majority are marine; but some genera (Ceratium, Peridinium)
include fresh-water species. Many are highly phosphorescent
and some by their abundance colour the water of the sea or pool
which they dwell in. Like so many coloured Protista, they
frequently possess a pigmented " eye-spot " in which may be
sunk a spheroidal refractive body (" lens ").

The affinities of the Dinoflagellata are certainly with those
Cryptomonadine Flagellates which possess two unequal flagella;
the zoospores or young of the Cystoflagellates are practically
colourless Dinoflagellates.

1. Gymnodiniaceae: body naked, or with a simple cellulose or
gelatinous envelope; both grooves present. Pyrocystis (Murray),
often encysted, spherical orcrescentic, becoming free within cyst wall,
and escaping whole or after brood-divisions as a form like Gymno-
dinium ; Gymnodinium (Stein) ; Hemidinium (Stein) ; Pouchetia
(Schiitt) (fig. 2, 7) with complex eye-spot; to this group we may
refer Polykrikos (Butschli) (fig. 2, 9), with its metameric transverse
grooves and flagella.

2. Prorocentraceae (Schiitt) (=the Adinida of Bergh); body sur-
rounded by a firm shell of two valves without a girdle band ; trans-
verse groove absent; transverse flagellum coiled round base of
longitudinal. Exuviaeella (Cienk.) (fig. 2, 3); Prorocentrum (Ehrb.)
(fig. 2, 4).

3. Peridiniaceae (Schutt) ; body with a shell of plates, a girdle
band along the transverse groove, in which the transverse flageljum
lies. Genera, Peridinium (Ehrb.) (fig. l), fresh-water and marine;
Ceratium (Schrank) (fig. 2, 5, 6), fresh-water and marine; Citharistes
(Stein); Ornithoceras (Claparede and Lachmann) (fig. 2, i).

LITERATURE. — R. S. Bergh, "DerOrganismusder Cilioflagellaten,"
Morphol. Jahrbuch, vii. (1881); F. von Stein, Organismus der Infu-
sionsthiere, Abth. 3, 2. Halfte; Die Naturgeschichte der arthrodelen
Flagellaten (1883); Butschli, "Mastigophora" (in Bronn's Thier-
reich, i. Abth. 2), 1881—1887; G. Pouchet, various observations on
Dinoflagellates, Journal de Vanatomie et de la physiologie (1885,
1887, 1891); F. Schutt, " Die Peridineen der Plankton Expedition "
(Ergebnisse d. PI. Exed. i. Th. vol. iv. 1895); and " Peridiniales "
in Engler and Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien, vol. i. Abt. 2 b. (1896);
Zederbauer, Berichte d. deutschen botanischen Gesellschaft, vol. xx.
(1900); Delage and Herouard, Traite de zoologie concrete, vol. i. La
Cellule et les protozoaires (1896). (M. HA.)

DINOTHERIUM, an extinct mammal, fossil remains of which
occur in the Miocene beds of France, Germany, Greece and
Northern India. These consist chiefly of teeth and the bones of
the head. An entire skull, obtained from the Lower Pliocene
beds of Eppelsheim, Hesse-Darmstadt, in 1836, measured 4.5 ft.
in length and 3 ft. in breadth, and indicates an animal exceeding
the elephant in size. The upper jaw is apparently destitute of
incisor and canine teeth, but possesses five molars on each side,
with a corresponding number in the jaw beneath. The most
remarkable feature, however, consists in the front part of the
lower jaw being bent downwards and bearing two tusk-like
incisors also directed downwards and backwards. Dinotherium
is a member of the group Proboscidea, of the line of descent of
the elephants.

DINWIDDIE, ROBERT (1693-1770), English colonial governor
of Virginia, was born near Glasgow, Scotland, in 1693. From the
position of customs clerk in Bermuda, which he held in 1727-1738,
he was promoted to be surveyor-general of the customs " of
the southern ports of the continent of America," as a reward

for having exposed the corruption in the West Indian customs
service. In r/43 he was commissioned to examine into the
customs service in the Barbadoes arid exposed similar corruption
there. In 1751-1758 he was lieutenant-governor of Virginia,
first as the deputy of Lord Albemarle and then, from July 1756 to
January 1758, as deputy for Lord Loudon. He was energetic in
the discharge of his duties, but aroused much animosity among
the colonists by his zeal in looking after the royal quit-rents, and
by exacting heavy fees for the issue of land-patents. It was his
chief concern to prevent the French from building in the Ohio
Valley a chain of forts connecting their settlements in the north
with those on the Gulf of Mexico; and in the autumn of 1753 he
sent George Washington to Fort Le Bceuf, a newly established
French post at what is now Waterford, Pennsylvania, with a
message demanding the withdrawal of the French from English
territory. As the French refused to comply, Dinwiddie secured
from the reluctant Virginia assembly a grant of £10,000 and in the
spring of 1754 he sent Washington-with an armed force toward
the forks of the Ohio river " to prevent the intentions of the
French in settling those lands." In the latter part of May
Washington encountered a French force at a spot called Great
Meadows, near the Youghiogheny river, in what is now south-
western Pennsylvania, and a skirmish followed which precipitated
the French and Indian War. Dinwiddie was especially active at
this time in urging the co-operation of the colonies against the
French in the Ohio Valley; but none of the other governors,
except William Shirley of Massachusetts, was then much con-
cerned about the western frontier, and he could accomplish very
little. His appeals to the home government, however, resulted in
the sending of General Edward Braddock to Virginia with two
regiments of regular troops; and at Braddock's call Dinwiddie
and the governors of Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania
and Maryland met at Alexandria, Virginia, in April 1755, and
planned the initial operations of the war. Dinwiddie's administra-
tion was marked by a constant wrangle with the assembly over
money matters; and its obstinate resistance to military appro-
priations caused him in 1754 and 1755 to urge the home govern-
ment to secure an act of parliament compelling the colonies
to raise money for their protection. In January 1758 he left
Virginia and lived in England until his death on the 2 7th of July
1770 at Clifton, Bristol.

The Official Records of Robert Dinwiddie, Lieutenant-Governor of
Virginia (1751-1758), published in two volumes, at Richmond,
Va., in 1883-1884, by the Virginia Historical Society, and edited
by R. A. Brock, are of great value for the political history of the
colonies in this period.

DIO CASSIUS (more correctly CASSIUS Dio), COCCEIANUS
(c. A.D. 150-235), Roman historian, was born at Nicaea in
Bithynia. His father was Cassius Apronianus, governor of
Dalmatia and Cilicia under Marcus Aurelius, and on his mother's
side he was the grandson of Dio Chrysostom, who had assumed
the surname of Cocceianus in honour of his patron the emperor
Cocceius Nerva. After his father's death, Dio Cassius left
Cilicia for Rome (180) and became a member of the senate.
During the reign of Commodus, Dio practised as an advocate at
the Roman bar, and held the offices of aedile and quaestor. He
was raised to the praetorship by Pertinax (193), but did not
assume office till the reign of Septimius Severus, with whom he
was for a long time on the most intimate footing. By Macrinus
he was entrusted with the administration of Pergamum and
Smyrna; and on his return to Rome he was raised to the
consulship about 220. After this he obtained the proconsulship
of Africa, and again on his return was sent as legate successively
to Dalmatia and Pannonia. He was raised a second time to
the consulship by Alexander Severus, in 229; but on the plea
of ill health soon afterwards retired to Nicaea, where he died.
Before writing his history of Rome (Tco/uaoca or 'Pw^aiKri
'Icrropta), Dio Cassius had dedicated to the emperor Severus
an account of various dreams and prodigies which had
presaged his elevation to the throne (perhaps the 'Ev65ta
attributed to Dio by Suidas), and had also written a biography
of his fellow-countryman Arrian. The history of Rome, which

DIOCESE— DIG CHRYSOSTOM

279

consisted of eighty books, — and, after the example of Livy, was
divided into decades, — began with the landing of Aeneas in Italy,
and was continued as far as the reign of Alexander Severus
(222-235). Of this great work we 'possess books 36-60, contain-
ing the history of events from 68 B.C.-A.D. 47; books 36 and
55-60 are imperfect. We also have part of 35 and 36-80 in the
epitome of John Xiphilinus, an nth-century Byzantine monk.
For the earlier period the loss of Dio's work is partly supplied
by the history of Zonaras, who followed him closely. Numerous
fragments are also contained in the excerpts of Constantine
Porphyrogenitus. Dio's work is a most important authority for
the history of the last years of the republic and the early empire.
His industry was great and the various important offices he held
afforded him ample opportunities for historical investigation.
His style, though marred by Latinisms, is clearer than that of
his model Thucydides, and his narrative shows the hand of the
practised soldier and politician; the language is correct and
free from affectation. But he displays a superstitious regard
for miracles and prophecies; he has nothing to say against the
arbitrary acts of the emperors, which he seems to take as a matter
of course; and his work, although far more than a mere compila-
tion, is not remarkable for impartiality, vigour of judgment or
critical historical faculty.

The best edition with notes is that of H. S. Reimar (1750-1752),
new ed. by F. G. Sturz (1824-1836); text by I. Melber (1890 foil.),
with account of previous editions, and U. P. Boissevain (1895— 1901) ;
translation by H. B. Foster (Troy, New York, 1905 foil.), with full
bibliography ; see also W. Christ, Geschichte der gnechischen Litteratur
(1898), p. 675; E. Schwartz in Pauly-Wisspwa's Realencydopadie,
iii. pt. 2 (1899) ; C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Studium der alien
Geschichte (1895).

DIOCESE (formed on Fr. diocese, in place of the Eng. form
diocess — current until the ipth century — from Lat. dioecesis,
med. Lat. variant diocesis, from Gr. 5uo'ua\ais, " house-
keeping," " administration," SiouctLV, " to keep house," " to
govern"), the sphere of a bishop's jurisdiction. In this, its
sole modern sense, the word diocese (dioecesis) has only been
regularly used since the gth century, though isola ted instances of
such use occur so early as the 3rd, what is now known as a diocese
having been till then usually called a parochia (parish). The
Greek word 5iouo7<r(.s, from meaning " administration," came
to be applied to the territorial circumscription in which ad-
ministration was exercised. It was thus first applied e.g. to the
three districts of Cibyra, Apamea and Synnada, which were added
to Cilicia in Cicero's time (between 56 and 50 B.C.). The word
is here equivalent to " assize-districts " (Tyrrell and Purser's
edition of Cicero Epist. ad fam. iii. 8. 4; xiii. 67; cf. Strabo
xiii. 628-629). But in the reorganization of .the empire, begun
by Diocletian and completed by Constantine, the word " diocese"
acquired a more important meaning, the empire being divided
into twelve dioceses, of which the largest — Oriens — embraced
sixteen provinces, and the smallest — Britain — four (see ROME:
Ancient History; and W. T. Arnold, Roman Provincial Adminis-
tration, pp. 187, 194-196, which gives a list of the dioceses and
their subdivisions). The organization of the Christian church in
the Roman empire following very closely the lines of the civil
administration (see CHURCH HISTORY), the word diocese, in its
ecclesiastical sense, was at first applied to the sphere of jurisdic-
tion, not of a bishop, but of a metropolitan.1 Thus Anastasius
Bibliothecarius (d. c. 886), in his life of Pope Dionysius, says that
he assigned churches to the presbyters, and established dioceses
(parochiae) and provinces (dioeceses). The word, however, sur-
vived in its general sense of " office " or " administration," and
it was even used during the middle ages for " parish " (see Du
Cange, Glossarium, s. " Dioecesis " 2).

The practice, under the Roman empire, of making the areas of
ecclesiastical administration very exactly coincide with those of
the civil administration, was continued in the organization of the
church beyond the borders of the empire, and many dioceses to
this day preserve the limits of long vanished political divisions.
The process is well illustrated in the case of English bishoprics.
But this practice was based on convenience, not principle; and
1 For exceptions see Hinschius ii. p. 39, note I.

the limits of the dioceses, once fixed, did not usually change with
the changing political boundaries. Thus Hincmar, archbishop
of Reims, complains that not only his metropolitanate (dioecesis)
but his bishopric (parochia) is divided between two realms under
two kings; and this inconvenient overlapping of jurisdictions
remained, in fact, very common in Europe until the readjust-
ments of national boundaries by the territorial settlements of the
i gth century. In principle, however, the subdivision of a diocese,
in the event of the work becoming too heavy for one bishop,
was very early admitted, e.g. by the first council at Lugo in Spain
(569), which erected Lugo into a metropolitanate, the consequent
division of diocese being confirmed by the king of the second
council, held in 572. Another reason for dividing a diocese, and
establishing a new see, has been recognized by the church as
duly existing " if the sovereign should think fit to endow some
principal village or town with the rank and privileges of a
city" (Bingham, lib. xvii. c. 5). But there are canons for the
punishment of such as might induce the sovereign so to erect
any town into a city, solely with the view of becoming bishop
thereof. Nor could any diocese be divided without the consent
of the primate.

In England an act of parliament is necessary for the creation of
new dioceses. In the reign of Henry VIII. six new dioceses were
thus created (under an act of 1539); but from that time onward
until the I9th century they remained practically unchanged.
The Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act 1836, which created two
new dioceses (Ripon and Manchester), remodelled the state of the
old dioceses by an entirely new adjustment of the revenues and
patronage of each see, and also extended or curtailed the parishes
and counties in the various jurisdictions.

By the ancient custom of the church the bishop takes his title,
not from his diocese, but from his see, i.e. the place where his
cathedral is established. Thus the old episcopal titles are all
derived from cities. This tradition has been broken, however, by
the modern practice of bishops in the United States and the
British colonies, e.g. archbishop of the West Indies, bishop of
Pennsylvania, Wyoming, &c. (see BISHOP).

See Hinschius, Kirchenrecht, ii. 38, &c. ; Joseph Bingham, Origines
ecclesiasticae, 9 yols. (1840); Du Cange, Glossarium, s. " Dioecesis ";
New English Dictionary (Oxford, 1897), s. " Diocese."

DID CHRYSOSTOM (c. A.D. 40-115), Greek sophist and
rhetorician, was born at Piusa (mod. Brusa), a town at the foot
of Mount Olympus in Bithynia. He was called Chrysostom
(" golden-mouthed ") from his eloquence, and also to distinguish
him from his grandson, the historian Dio Cassius; his surname
Cocceianus was derived from his patron, the emperor Cocceius
Nerva. Although he did much to promote the welfare of his
native place, he became so unpopular there that he migrated to
Rome, but, having incurred the suspicion of Domitian, he was
banished from Italy. With nothing in his pocket but Plato's
Phaedo and Demosthenes' De falsa legalione, he wandered about
in Thrace, Mysia, Scythia and the land of the Getae. He
returned to Rome on the accession of Nerva, with whom and
his successor Trajan he was on intimate terms. During this
period he paid a visit to Prusa, but, disgusted at his reception,
he went back to Rome. The place and date of his death are
unknown; it is certain, however, that he was alive in 112, when
the younger Pliny was governor of Bithynia.

Eighty orations, or rather essays on political, moral and
philosophical subjects, have come down to us under his name;
the Corinthiaca, however, is generally regarded as spurious, and
is probably the work of Favorinus of Arelate. Of the extant
orations the following are the most important: — Boryslhenitica
(xxxvi.), on the advantages of monarchy, addressed to the
inhabitants of Olbia.and containing interesting information on the
history of the Greek colonies on the shores of the Black Sea;
Olympica (xii.), in which Pheidias is represented as setting forth
the principles which he had followed in his statue of Zeus, one
passage being supposed by some to have suggested Lessing's
Laocoon; Rhodiaca (xxxi.), an attack on the Rhodians for alter-
ing the names on their statues, and thus converting them into
memorials of famous men of theday (an imitation of Demosthenes'

280

DIOCLETIAN— DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF

Leptines); De. regno (i.-iv.), addressed to Trajan, a eulogy of the
monarchical form of government, under which the emperor is the
representative of Zeus upon earth; De Aeschylo et Sophocle et
Euripide (lii.), a comparison of the treatment of the story of
Philoctetes by the three great Greek tragedians; and Philoctetes
(lix.), a summary of the prologue to the lost play by Euripides.
In his later life, Dio, who had originally attacked the philosophers,
himself became a convert to Stoicism. To this period belong the
essays on moral subjects, such as the denunciation of various
cities (Tarsus, Alexandria) for their immorality. Most pleasing
of all is the Euboica (vii.), a description of the simple life of the
herdsmen and huntsmen of Euboea as contrasted with that of the
inhabitants of the towns. Troica (xi.), an attempt to prove to
the inhabitants of Ilium that Homer was a liar and that Troy was
never taken, is a good example of a sophistical rhetorical exercise.
Amongst his lost works were attacks on philosophers and
Domitian, and Getica (wrongly attributed to Dio Cassius by
Suldas), an account of the manners and customs of the Getae, for
which he had collected material on the spot during his banish-
ment. The style of Dio, who took Plato and Xenophon especially
as his models, is pure and refined, and on the whole free from
rhetorical exaggeration. With Plutarch he played an impoitant
part in the revival of Greek literature at the end of the ist
century of the Christian era.

Editions: J. J. Reiske (Leipzig, 1784); A. Emperius (Bruns-
wick, 1844) ; L. Dindorf (Leipzig, 1857) ; H. von Arnim (Berlin, 1893-
1896). The ancient authorities for his life are Philostratus, Vit. Soph.
i. 7; Photius, Bibliotheca, cod. 209; Suidas, s.v. ; Synesius, Aiav.
On Dio generally see H. von Arnim, Leben und Werke des Dion von
Prusa (Berlin, 1898) ; C. Martha, Les Moralistes sous I' empire remain
(1865); W. Christ, Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur (1898),
§ 520; J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship (2nd ed., 1906) ;
W. Schmid in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopddie, v. pt. I (1905).
The Euboica has been abridged by J. P. Mahaffy in The Greek World
under Roman Sway (1890), and there is a translation of Select Essays
by Gilbert Wakefield (1800).

DIOCLETIAN (GAIUS AURELIUS VALERIUS DIOCLETIANUS)
(A.D. 245-313), Roman emperor 284-305, is said to have been
born at Dioclea, near Salona, in Dalmatia. His original name
was Diocles. Of humble origin, he served with high distinction
and held important military commands under the emperors
Probus and Aurelian, and accompanied Carus to the Persian War.
After the death of Numerianus he was chosen emperor by the
troops at Chalcedon, on the i7th of September 284, and slew with
his own hands Arrius Aper, the praefect of the praetorians. He
thus fulfilled the prediction of a druidess of Gaul, that he would
mount a throne as soon as he had slain a wild boar (aper) . Having
been installed at Nicomedia, he received general acknowledg-
ment after the murder of Carinus. In consequence of the rising of
the Bagaudae in Gaul, and the threatening attitude of the German
peoples on the Rhine, he appointed Maximian Augustus in 286;
and, in view of further dangers and disturbances in the empire,
proclafmedConstantiusChlorusand Galerius Caesars in 293. Each
of the four rulers was placed at a separate capital — Nicomedia,
Mediolanum (Milan), Augusta Trevirorum (Trier), Sirmium.
This amounted to an entirely new organization of the empire, on
a plan commensurate with the work of government which it now
had to carry on. At the age of fifty-nine, exhausted with labour,
Diocletian abdicated his sovereignty on the ist of May 305, and
retired to Salona, where he died eight years afterwards (others
give 316 as the year of his death). The end of his reign was
memorable for the persecution of the Christians. In defence of
this it may be urged that he hoped to strengthen the empire by
reviving the old religion, and that the church as an independent
state over whose inner life at least he possessed no influence,
appeared to be a standing menace to his authority. Under
Diocletian the senate became a political nonentity, the last traces
of republican institutions disappeared, and were replaced by
an absolute monarchy approaching to despotism. He wore the
royal diadem, assumed the title of lord, and introduced a com-
plicated system of ceremonial and etiquette, borrowed from the
East, in order to surround the monarchy and its representative
with mysterious sanctity. But at the same time he devoted
his energies to the improvement of the administration of the

empire; he reformed the standard of coinage, fixed the price
of provisions and other necessaries of daily life, remitted the
tax upon inheritances and manumissions, abolished various
monopolies, repressed corruption and encouraged trade. In
addition, he adorned the city with numerous buildings, such
as the thermae, of which extensive remains are still standing
(Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, 39; Eutropius ix. 13; Zonaras
xii. 31).

See A. Vogel, Der Kaiser Diocletian (Gotha, 1857), a short sketch,
with notes on the authorities; T. Preuss, Kaiser Diocletian und seine
Zeit (Leipzig, 1869); V. Casagrandi, Diocleziano (Faenza, 1876);
H. Schiller, Gesch. der romischen Kaiserzeit, ii. (1887) ; T. Bernhardt,
Geschichte Roms von Valerian bis zu Diocletians Tod (1867); A. J.
Mason, The Persecution of Diocletian (i 876) ; P. Allard, La Persecution
de Diocletien (1890); V. Schultzc in Herzog-Hauck's Realency-
klopddie fiir proteslantische Theologie, iv. (1898); Gibbon. Decline
and Fall, chaps. 13 and 16; A. W. Hunzinger, Die Diocletianische
Staatsreform (1899); O. Seeck, "Die Schatzungsordnung Dio-
cletians" in Zeitschrift fur Social- und Wirthschaftsgeschichte (1896),
a valuable paper with notes containing references to sources; and
O. Seeck, Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt, vol. i. cap. I.
On his military reforms see T. Mommsen in Hermes, xxiv-., and on his
tariff system, DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF.

DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF (De pretiis rerum ijenaUum), an im-
perial edict promulgated in A.D. 301, fixing a maximum price for
provisions and other articles of commerce, and a maximum rate of
wages. Incomplete copies of it have been discovered at various
times in various places, the first (in Greek and Latin) in 1709, at
Stratonicea in Caria, by W. Sherard, British consul at Smyrna,
containing the preamble and the beginning of the tables down to
No. 403. This partial copy was completed by W. Bankcs in 1817.
A second fragment (now in the museum at Aix in Provence) was
brought from Egypt in 1809; it supplements the preamble by
specifying the titles of the emperors and Caesars and the number
of times they had held them, whereby the date of publication can
be accurately determined. For other fragments and their localities
see Corpus Inscriptionum Lalinarum (iii., 1873, PP- 801 and 1055;
and supplement i., 1893, p. 1909); special mention may be made
of those of Elatea, Plataea and Megalopolis. Latin being the
official language all over the empire, there was no official Greek
translation (except for Greece proper), as is shown by the varia-
tions in those portions of the text of which more than one Greek
version is extant. Further, all the fragments come from the
provinces which were under the jurisdiction of Diocletian, from
which it is argued that the edict was only published in the
eastern portion of the empire; certainly the phrase universo orbi
in the preamble is against this, but the words may merely be an
exaggerated description of Diocletian's special provinces, and if it
had been published in the western portion as well, it is curious
that no traces haVe been found of it. The articles mentioned
in the edict, which is chiefly interesting as giving their relative
values at the time, include cereals, wine, oil, meat, vegetables,
fruits, skins, leather, furs, foot-gear, timber, carpets, articles of
dress, and the wages range from the ordinary labourer to the
professional advocate. The unit of money was the denarius, not
the silver, but a copper coin introduced by Diocletian, of which
the value has been fixed approximately at £th of a penny. The
punishment for exceeding the prices fixed was death or deporta-
tion. The edict was a well-intended but abortive attempt, in
great measure in the interests of the soldiers, to meet the distress
caused by several bad harvests and commercial speculation. The
actual effect was disastrous; the restrictions thus placed upon
commercial freedom brought about a disturbance of the food
supply in non-productive countries, many traders were ruined,
and the edict soon fell into abeyance.

See Lactantius, De morlibus persecutorum, vii., a contemporary
who, as a Christian, writes with natural bias against Diocletian;
T. Mommsen, Das Edict Diocletians (1851) ; W. M. Leake, An Edict
of Diocletian (1826) ; W. H. Waddington, L'Edit de Diocletien (1864),
and E. Lepaulle, L'Edit de maximum (1886), both containing intro-
ductions a'nd ample notes; J. C. Rolfe and F. B. Tarbell in Papers
of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, v. (1892)
(Plataea); W. Loring in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xi. (1890)
(Megalopolis) ; P. Paris in Bulletin de correspondance hellenique, ix.
(1885) (Elatea). There is an edition of the whole by Mommsen, with
notes by H. Bliimner (1893).

DIODATI— DIOGENES, THE CYNIC

281

DIODATI, GIOVANNI (1576-1649), Swiss Protestant divine,
was born at Geneva on the 6th of June 1576, of a noble family
originally belonging to Lucca, which had been expatriated on
account of its Protestantism. At the age of twenty-one he was
nominated professor of Hebrew at Geneva on the recommendation
of Theodor Beza. In 1606 he became professor of theology, in
1608 pastor, or parish minister, at Geneva, and in the following
year he succeeded Beza as professor of theology. As a preacher
he was eloquent, bold and fearless. He held a high place among
the reformers of Geneva, by whom he was sent on a mission to
France in 1614. He had previously visited Italy, and made the
acquaintance of Paolo Sarpi, whom he endeavoured unsuccess-
fully to engage in a reformation movement. In 1618-1619 ne
attended the synod of Dort. and took a prominent part in its
deliberations, being one of the six divines appointed to draw up
the account of its proceedings. He was a thorough Calvinist, and
entirely sympathized with the condemnation of the Arminians.
In 1645 he resigned his professorship, and died at Geneva on the
3rd of October 1649. Diodati is chiefly famous as the author of
the translation of the Bible into Italian (1603, edited with notes,
1607) . He also undertook a translation of the Bible into French,
which appeared with notes in 1644. Among his other works are
his Annotations in Biblia (1607), of which an English translation
(Pious and Learned Annotations upon the Holy Bible) was
published in London in 1648, and various polemical treatises,
such as De fictitio Pontificiorum Purgatorio (1619); De justa
secessions Reformatorum ab Ecclesia Romano, (1628); De
Antichristo, &c. He also published French translations of
Sarpi's History of the Council of Trent, and of Edwin Sandys's
Account of the State of Religion in the West.

DIODORUS CRONUS (4th century B.C.), Greek philosopher of
the Megarian school. Practically nothing is known of his life.
Diogenes Laertius (ii. in) tells a story that, while staying at the
court of Ptolemy Soter, Diodorus was asked to solve a dialectical
subtlety by Stilpo. Not being able to answer on the spur of the
moment, he was nicknamed 6 Kpocos (the God, equivalent to
" slowcoach ") by Ptolemy. The story goes that he died of
shame at his failure. Strabo, however, says (xiv. 658; xvii. 838)
that he took the name from Apollonius, his master. Like the rest
of the Megarian school he revelled in verbal quibbles, proving that
motion and existence are impossible. His was the famous
sophism known as the Kupieiiow. The impossible cannot
result from the possible; a past event cannot become other than
it is; but if an event, at a given moment, had been possible, from
this possible would result something impossible; therefore the
original event was impossible. This problem was taken up by
Chrysippus, who admitted that he could not solve it. Apart
from these verbal gymnastics, Diodorus did not differ from
the Megarian school. From his great dialectical skill he earned
the title 6 StaXomKos, or SiaAe/m/curaTcs, a title which was
borne by his five daughters, who inherited his ability.

See Cicero, De Fato, 6, 7, 9; Aristotle, Metaphysica, 6 3; Sext.
Empiric., adv. Math. x. 85; Ritter and Preller, Hist, philos. Cr. et
Rom. chap. v. §§ 234-236 (ed. 1869); and bibliography appended
to article MEGARIAN SCHOOL.

DIODORUS SICULUS, Greek historian, born at Agyrium in
Sicily, lived in the times of Julius Caesar and Augustus. From
his own statements we learn that he travelled in Egypt between
60-^57 B.C. and that he spent several years in Rome. The latest
event mentioned by him belongs to the year 21 B.C. He asserts
that he devoted thirty years to the composition of his history, and
that he undertook frequent and dangerous journeys in prosecu-
tion of his historical researches. These assertions, however, find
little credit with recent critics. The history, to which Diodorus
gave the name /3t/3Xio0i7/tt) toropucq (Bibliotheca historica,
" Historical Library "), consisted of forty books, and was divided
into three parts. The first treats of the mythic history of the non-
Hellenic, and afterwards of the Hellenic tribes, to the destruction
of Troy; the second section ends with Alexander's death; and
the third continues the history as far as the beginning of Caesar's
Gallic War. Of this extensive work there are still extant only the
first five books, treating of the mythic history of the Egyptians,

Assyrians, Ethiopians and Greeks; and also the nth to the 2oth
books inclusive, beginning with the second Persian War, and end-
ing with the history of the successors of Alexander, previous to
the partition of the Macedonian empire (302). The rest exists
only in fragments preserved in Photius and the excerpts of
Constantine Porphyrogenitus. The faults of Diodorus arise
partly from the nature of the undertaking, and the awkward form
of annals into which he has thrown the historical portion of his
narrative. He shows none of the critical faculties of the historian,
merely setting down a number of unconnected details. His
narrative contains frequent repetitions and contradictions, is
without colouring, and monotonous; and his simple diction,
which stands intermediate between pure Attic and the colloquial
Greek of his time, enables us to detect in the narrative the
undigested fragments of the materials which he employed. In
spite of its defects, however, the Bibliotheca is of considerable
value as to some extent supplying the loss of the works of older
authors, from which it is compiled. Unfortunately, Diodorus
does not always quote his authorities, but his general sources of
information were — in history and chronology, Castor, Ephorus
and Apollodorus; in geography, Agatharchides and Artemidorus.
In special sections he followed special authorities— e.g. in the
history of his native Sicily, Philistus and Timaeus.

Editio princeps, by H. Stephanus (1559); of other editions the
best are: P. Wesseling (1746), not yet superseded; L. Dindorf
(1828-1831); (text) L. Dindorf (1866-1868, revised by F. Vogel,
1888-1893 and C. T. Fischer, 1905-1906). The standard works on
the sources of Diodorus are C. G. Heyne, De fontibus et auctoribus
historiarum Diodori, printed in Dindorf's edition, and C. A.
Volquardsen, Die Quellen der griechischen und sicilischen Geschichten
bei Diodor (1868); A. von Mess, Rheinisches Museum (1906); see
also L. O. Brocker, Untersuchungen uber Diodor (1879), short, but
containing much information; O. Maass, Kleitarch und Diodor
(1894- ); G. J. Schneider, De Diodori fontibus, i.-iv. (1880);
C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Studium der alien Geschichte (1895) ;
GREECE: Ancient History, "Authorities."

DIODOTUS, Seleucid satrap of Bactria, who rebelled against
Antiochus II. (about 255) and became the founder of the Graeco-
Bactrian kingdom (Trogus, Prol. 41; Justin xli. 4, 5, where he is
wrongly called Theodotus; Strabo xi. 515). His power seems to
have extended over the neighbouring provinces. Arsaces, the
chieftain of the nomadic (Dahan) tribe of the Parni, fled before
him into Parthia and here became the founder of the Parthian
kingdom (Strabo I.e.). When Seleucus II. in 239 attempted to
subjugate the rebels in the east he seems to have united with him
against the Parthians (Justin xli. 4, 9). Soon afterwards he died
and was succeeded by his son Diodotus II., who concluded a peace
with the Parthians (Justin I.e.). Diodotus II. was killed by
another usurper, Euthydemus (Polyb. xi. 34, 2). Of Diodotus I.
we possess gold and silver coins, which imitate the coins of
Antiochus II.; on these he sometimes calls himself Soter, " the
saviour." As the power of the Seleucids was weak and con-
tinually attacked by Ptolemy II., the eastern provinces a*nd
their Greek cities were exposed to the invasion of the nomadic
barbarians and threatened with destruction (Polyb. xi. 34, 5);
thus the erection of an independent kingdom may have been a
necessity and indeed an advantage to the Greeks, and this epithet
well deserved. Diodotus Soter appears also on coins struck in his
memory by the later Graeco-Bactrian kings Agathocles and
Antimachus. Cf. A. v. Sallet, Die Nachfolger Alexanders d. Gr.
in Baktrien und Indien ; Percy Gardner, Calal. of the Coins of the
Greek and Scythian Kings of Bactria and India (Brit. Mus.) ; see
also BACTRIA. (£D. M.)

DIOGENES, " the Cynic," Greek philosopher, was born at
Sinope about 412 B.C., and died in 323 at Corinth, according to
Diogenes Laertius, on the day on which Alexander the Great died
at Babylon. His father, Icesias, a money-changer, was imprisoned
or exiled on the charge of adulterating the coinage. Diogenes was
included in the charge, and went to Athens with one attendant,
whom he dismissed, saying, " If Manes can live without Diogenes,
why not Diogenes without Manes ? " Attracted by the ascetic
teaching of Antisthenes, be became his pupil, despite the brutality
with which he was received, and rapidly excelled his master both
in reputation and in the austerity of his life. The stories which

282

DIOGENES APOLLONIATES— DIOGNETUS

are told of him are probably true; in any case, they serve
to illustrate the logical consistency of his character. He inured
himself to the vicissitudes of weather by living in a tub belonging
to the temple of Cybele. The single wooden bowl he possessed he
destroyed on seeing a peasant boy drink from the hollow of his
hands. On a voyage to Aegina he was captured by pirates and
sold as a slave in Crete to a Corinthian named Xeniades. Being
asked his trade, he replied that he knew no trade but that of
governing men, and that he wished to be sold to a man who
needed a master. As tutor to the two sons of Xeniades, he lived
in Corinth for the rest of his life, which he devoted entirely to
preaching the doctrines of virtuous self-control. At the Isthmian
games he lectured to large audiences who turned to him from
Antisthenes. It was, probably, at one of these festivals that he
craved from Alexander the single boon that he would not stand
between him and the sun, to which Alexander replied " If I were
not Alexander, I would be Diogenes." On his death, about which
there exist several accounts, the Corinthians erected to his
memory a pillar on which there rested a dog of Parian marble.
His ethical teaching will be found in the article CYNICS (q.v.).
It may suffice to say here that virtue, for him, consisted in
the avoidance of all physical pleasure; that pain and hunger
were positively helpful in the pursuit of goodness; that all the
artificial growths of society appeared to him incompatible with
' truth and goodness; that moralization implies a return to nature
and simplicity. He has been credited with going to extremes of
impropriety in pursuance of these ideas; probably, however, his
reputation has suffered from the undoubted immorality of some of
his successors. Both in ancient and in modern times, his person-
ality has appealed strongly to sculptors and to painters. Ancient
busts exist in the museums of the Vatican, the Louvre and the
Capitol. The interview between Diogenes and Alexander is repre-
sented in an ancient marble bas-relief found in the Villa Albani.
Rubens, Jordaens, Steen, Van d'er Werff, Jeaurat, Salvator Rosa
and Karel Dujardin have painted various episodes in his life.

The chief ancient authority for his life is Diogenes Laertius vi. 20;
see also Mayor's notes on Juvenal, Satires, xiv. 308-314; and article
CYNICS.

DIOGENES APOLLONIATES (c. 460 B.C.), Greek natural
philosopher, was a native of Apollonia in Crete. Although of
Dorian stock, he wrote in the Ionic dialect, like all the physiologi
(physical philosophers) . There seems no doubt that he lived some
time at Athens, where it is said that he became so unpopular
(probably owing to his supposed atheistical opinions) that his
life was in danger. The views of Diogenes are transferred in the
Clouds (264 ff.) of Aristophanes to Socrates. Like Anaximenes,
he believed air to be the one source of all being, and all other
substances to be derived from it by condensation and rarefaction.
His chief advance upon the doctrines of Anaximenes is that
he asserted air, the primal force, to be possessed of intelligence — -
" the air which stirred within him not only prompted, but in-
structed. The air as the origin of all things is necessarily an
eternal, imperishable substance, but as soul it is also necessarily
endowed with consciousness." In fact, he belonged to the old
Ionian school, whose doctrines he modified by the theories of
his contemporary Anaxagoras, although he avoided his dualism.
His most important work was Ilept <j>ixreias (De nalura), of
which considerable fragments are extant (chiefly in Simplicius) ;
it is possible that he wrote also Against the Sophists and On the
Nature of Man, to which the well-known fragment about the
veins would belong; possibly these discussions were subdivisions
of his great work.

Fragments in F. Mullach, Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum,
i. (1860); F. Panzerbieter, Diogents Apottoniates (1830), with
philosophical dissertation; J. Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy (1892) ;
H. Ritter and L. Preller, Historia philosophiae (4th ed., 1869),
§§ 59-68; E. Krause, Diogenes von Apollonia (1909). See IONIAN
SCHOOL.

DIOGENES LAERTIUS (or LAERTIUS DIOGENES), the
biographer of the Greek philosophers, is supposed by some to have
received his surname from the town of Laerte in Cilicia, and by
others from the Roman family of the Laertii. Of the circum-
stances of his life we know nothing. He must have lived after

Sextus Empiricus (c. A.D. 200), whom he mentions, and before
Stephanus of Byzantium (c. A.D. 50x3), who quotes him. It is
probable that he flourished during the reign of Alexander Severus
(A.D. 222-235) an(l his successors. His own opinions are equally
uncertain. By some he was regarded as a Christian; but it seems
more probable that he was an Epicurean. The work by which
he is known professes to give an account of the lives and sayings
of the Greek philosophers. Although it is at best an uncritical
and unphilosophical compilation, its value, as giving us an insight
into the private life of the Greek sages, justly led Montaigne
to exclaim that he wished that instead of one Laertius there had
been a dozen. He treats his subject in two divisions which he
describes as the Ionian and the Italian schools; the division is
quite unscientific. The biographies of the former begin with
Anaximander, and end with Clitomachus, Theophrastus and
Chrysippus; the latter begins with Pythagoras, and ends with
Epicurus. The Socratic school, with its various branches, .is
classed with the Ionic; while the Eleatics and sceptics are
treated under the Italic. The whole of the last book is devoted to
Epicurus, and contains three most interesting letters addressed
to Herodotus, Pythocles and Menoeceus. His chief authorities
were Diocles of Magnesia's Cursory Notice ('Emdpo^ri) of Philo-
sophers and Favorinus's Miscellaneous History and Memoirs.
From the statements of Burlaeus (Walter Burley, a 14th-century
monk) in his De iiila et rnoribus philosophorum the text of
Diogenes seems to have been much fuller than that which we
now possess. In addition to the Lives, Diogenes was the author
of a work in verse on famous men, in various metres.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Editio princeps (1533) ; H. Hiibner and C.
Jacobitz with commentary (1828-1833); C. G. Cobet (1850), text
only. See F. Nietzsche, " De Diogenis Laertii fontibus " in
Rheinisches Museum, xxiii., xxiv. (1868-1869) ; J. Freudenthal,
" Zu Quellenkunde Diog. Lae'rt.," in Hellenistische Studien, iii.
(1879); O. Maass, De biographis Graecis (1880); V. Egger, De
fontibus Diog. La'ert. (1881). There is an English translation by
C. D. Yonge in Bohn's Classical Library.

DIOGENIANUS, of Heraclea on the Pontus (or in Caria), Greek
grammarian, flourished during the reign of Hadrian. He was
the author of an alphabetical lexicon, chiefly of poetical words,
abridged from the great lexicon (Ilept y\taa<jwv') of Pamphilus
of Alexandria (ff. A.D. 50) and other similar works. It was also
known by the title TlepiepycnrivriTes (for the use of " industrious
poor students "). It formed the basis of the lexicon, or rather
glossary, of Hesychius of Alexandria, which is described in the
preface as a new edition of the work of Diogenianus. We still
possess a collection of proverbs under his name, probably an
abridgment of the collection made by himself from his lexicon
(ed. by E. Leutsch and F. W. Schneidewin in Paroemiographi
Graeci, i. 1839). Diogenianus was also the author of an Anthology
of epigrams, of treatises on rivers, lakes, fountains and pro-
montories; and of a list (with map) of all the towns in the world.

DIOGNETUS, EPISTLE TO, one of the early Christian apolo-
gies. Diognetus, of whom nothing is really known, has expressed
a desire to know what Christianity really means — " What is this
new race " of men who are neither pagans nor Jews? " What is
this new interest which has entered into men's lives now and not
before?" The anonymous answer begins with a refutation of
the folly of worshipping idols, fashioned by human hands and
needing to be guarded if of precious material. The repulsive
smell of animal sacrifices is enough to show their monstious
absurdity. Next Judaism is attacked. Jews abstain from
idolatry and worship one God, but they fall into the same error of
repulsive sacrifice, and have absurd superstitions about meats
and sabbaths, circumcision and new moons. So far the task is
easy; but the mystery of the Christian religion " think not to
learn from man." A passage of great eloquence follows, showing
that Christians have no obvious peculiarities that mark them off
as a separate race. In spite of blameless lives they are hated.
Their home is in heaven, while they live fm earth. " In a word,
what the soul is in a body, this the Christians are in the
world. . . . The soul is enclosed in the body, and yet itself
holdeth the body together: so Christians are kept in the world
as in a prison-house, and yet they themselves hold the world

DIOMEDES— DIONYSIA

283

together." This strange life is inspired in them by the almighty
and invisible God, who sent no angel or subordinate messenger to
teach them, but His own Son by whom He created the universe.
No man could have known God, had He not thus declared
Himself. " If thou too wouldst have this faith, learn first the
knowledge of the Father. For God loved men, for whose sake He
made the world. . . . Knowing Him, thou wilt love Him and imi-
tate His goodness; and marvel not if a man can imitate God: he
can, if God will. " By kindness to the needy, by giving them what
God has given to him, a man can become " a god of them that
receive, an imitator of God." " Then shalt thou on earth behold
God's life in heaven; then shalt thou begin to speak the mysteries
of God." A few lines after this the letter suddenly breaks off.

Even this rapid summary may show that the writer was a man
of no ordinary power, and there is no other early Christian
writing outside the New Testament which appeals so strongly
to modern readers. The letter has been often classed with the
writings of the Apostolic Fathers, and in some ways it seems
to mark the transition from the sub-apostolic age to that of the
Apologists. Bishop Lightfoot, who speaks of the letter as " one
of the noblest and most impressive of early Christian apologies,"
places it c. A.D. 150, and inclines to identify Diognetus with the
tutor of Marcus Aurelius. Harnack and others would place it
later, perhaps in the 3rd century. There are some striking
parallels in method and language to the Apology of Aristides
(q.v.), and also to the early " Preaching of Peter."

The one manuscript which contained this letter perished by fire
at Strassburg in 1870, but happily it had been accurately collated
by Reuss nine years before. It formed part of a collection of
works supposed to be by Justin Martyr, and to this mistaken
attribution its preservation is no doubt due. Both thought and
language mark the author off entirely from Justin. The end
of the letter is lost, but there followed in the codex the end of
a homily,1 which was attached without a break to the epistle:
this points to the loss in some earlier codex of pages containing
the end of the letter and the beginning of the homily.

The Epistle may be read in J. B. Lightfoot's Apostolic Fathers
(ed. min.) , where there is also a translation into English. (J. A. R.)

DIOMEDES, in Greek legend, son of Tydeus, one of the bravest
of the heroes of the Trojan War. In the Iliad he is the favourite
of Ather.a, by whose aid he not only overcomes all mortals who
venture to oppose him, but is even enabled to attack the gods. In
the post-Homeric story, he made his way with Odysseus by an
underground passage into the citadel of Troy and carried off the
Palladium, the presence of which within the walls secured Troy
against capture (Virgil, Aeneid, ii. 164). On his return to Argos,
finding that his wife had been unfaithful, he removed to Aetolia,
and thence to Daunia (Apulia), where he married the daughter of
King Daunus. He was buried or mysteriously disappeared on
one of the islands in the Adriatic called after him Diomedeae, his
sorrowing companions being changed into birds by the gods out
of compassion (Ovid, Melam. xiv. 457 ff.). He was the reputed
founder of Argyrippa (Arpi) and other Italian cities (Aeneid, xi.
243 ff.). He was worshipped as a hero not only in Greece, but on
the coast of the Adriatic, as at Thurii and Metapontum. At Argos,
his native place, during the festival of Athena, his shield was
carried through the streets as a relic, together with the Palladium,
and his statue was washed in the river Inachus.

DIOMEDES, Latin grammarian, flourished at the end of the
4th century A.D. He was the author of an extant A rs grammatica
in three books, dedicated to a certain Athanasius. The third book
is the most important, as containing extracts from Suetonius's
De poetis. Diomedes wrote about the same time as Charisius (q.v.)
and used the same sources independently. The works of both
grammarians are valuable, but whereas much cf Charisius has
been lost, the Ars of Diomedes has come down to us complete. In
book i. he treats of the eight parts of speech; in ii. of the elemen-
tary ideas of grammar and of style; in iii. of quantity and metres.

The best edition is in H. Kail's Grammatici Lalini, i. ; see also C. von
Paucker, Kleinere Studien, i. (1883), on the Latinity of Diomedes.

1 Chapters xi. and xii., which Lightfoot suggested might be the
work of Pantaenus.

DION, tyrant of Syracuse (408-353 B.C.), the son of Hipparinus,
and brother-in-law of Dionysius the Elder. In his youth he was
an admirer and pupil of Plato, whom Dionysius had invited to
Syracuse; and he used every effort to inculcate the maxims of
his master in the mind of the tyrant. The stern morality of
Dion was distasteful to the younger Dionysius, and the historian
Philistus, a faithful supporter of despotic power, succeeded in
procuring his banishment on account of alleged intrigues with the
Carthaginians. The exiled philosopher retired to Athens, where
he was at first permitted to enjoy his revenues in peace; but the
intercession of Plato (who had again visited Syracuse to procure
Dion's recall) only served to exasperate the tyrant, and at length
provoked him to confiscate the property of Dion, and give his wife
to another. This last outrage roused Dion. Assembling a small
force at Zacynthus, he sailed to Sicily (357) and was received with
demonstrations of joy. Dionysius, who was in Italy, returned
to Sicily, but was defeated and obliged to flee. Dion himself was
soon after supplanted by the intrigues of Heracleides, and again
banished. The incompetency of the new leader and the cruelties
of Apollocrates, the son of Dionysius, soon led to his recall. He
had, however, scarcely made himself master of Sicily when the
people began to express their discontent with his tyrannical
conduct, and he was assassinated by Callippus, an Athenian
who had accompanied him in his expedition.

See Lives by Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos (cf. Diod. Sic. xvi.
6-20) and in modern times by T. Lau (1860) ; see also SYRACUSE and
SICILY: History.

DIONE, in the earliest Greek mythology, the wife of Zeus. As
such she is associated with Zeus Nai'us (the god of fertilizing
moisture) at Dodona (Strabo vii. p. 329), by whose side she sits,
adorned with a bridal veil and garland and holding a sceptre. As
the oracle declined in importance, her place as the wife of Zeus
was taken by Hera. It is probable that in very early times the
cult of Dione existed in Athens, where she had an altar before the
Erechtheum. After her admission to the general religious system
of the Greeks, Dione was variously described. In the Iliad
(v. 370) she is the mother by Zeus of Aphrodite, who is herself in
later times called Dione (the epithet Dion'aeus was given to Julius
Caesar as claiming descent from Venus) . In Hesiod ( Theog. 353)
she is one of the daughters of Oceanus; in Pherecydes (ap. schol.
Iliad, xviii. 486), one of the nymphs of Dodona, the nurses of
Dionysus; in Euripides (frag. 177), the mother of Dionysus; in
Hyginus (fab. 9. 82), the daughter of Atlas, wife of Tantalus and
mother of Pelops and Niobe. Others make her a Titanid, the
daughter of Uranus and Gaea (Apollodorus i. i). Speaking
generally, Dione may be regarded as the female embodiment
of the attributes of Zeus, to whose name her own is related as
Juno ( = Jovino) to Jupiter.

DIONYSIA, festivals in honour of the god Dionysus generally,
but in particular the festivals celebrated in Attica and by the
branches of the Attic-Ionic race in the islands and in Asia Minor.
In Attica there were two festivals annually, (i) The lesser
Dionysia, or TO, /car' aypovs, was held in the country places for
four days (about the igth to the 22nd of December) at the first
tasting of the new wine. It was accompanied by songs, dance,
phallic processions and the impromptu performances of itinerant
players, who with others from the city thronged to take part in the
excitement of the rustic sports. A favourite amusement was the
Ascoliasmus, or dancing on one leg upon a leathern bag (d<r/c6s),
which had been smeared with oil. (2) The greater Dionysia, or
TO. tv ocrra, was held in the city of Athens for six days (about the
28th of March to the 2nd of April). This was a festival of joy at
the departure of winter and the promise of summer, Dionysus
being regarded as having delivered the people from the wants and
troubles of winter. The religious act of the festival was the
conveying of the ancient image of the god, which had been brought
from Eleutherae to Athens, from the ancient sanctuary of the
Lenaeum to a small temple near the Acropolis and back again,
with a chorus of boys and a procession carrying masks and singing
the dithyrambus. The festival culminated in the production of
tragedies, comedies and satyric dramas in the great theatre
of Dionysus. Other festivals in honour of Dionysus were the

284 DIONYSIUS, POPE— DIONYSIUS AREOPAGITICUS

Anthesteria (q.v.) ; the Lenaea (about the 28th to the 3 ist of Janu-
ary), or festival of vats, at which, after a great public banquet, the
citizens went through the city in procession to attend the dramatic
representations; the Oschophoria (October-November), a vintage
festival, so called from the blanches of vine with grapes carried
by twenty youths from the ephebi, two from each tribe, in a race
from the temple of Dionysus in Athens to the temple of Athena
Sciras in Phalerum.

See A. Mommsen, Feste der Stadt Athen (1898); L. Preller,
Griechische Mythologie; L. C. Purser in Smith's Dictionary of
Antiquities (yd ed., 1890); article DIONYSOS in VV. H. Roscher's
Lexikon der Mythologie; and the exhaustive account with biblio-
graphy by J. Girard in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des
antiquites.

DIONYSIUS, pope from 259 to 268. To Dionysius, who was
elected pope in 259 after the persecution of Valerian, fell the task
of reorganizing the Roman church, which had fallen into great
disorder. At the protest of some of the faithful at Alexandria,
he demanded from the bishop of Alexandria, also called Dionysius,
explanations touching his doctrine. He died on the 26th of
December 268.

DIONYSIUS (c. 432-367 B.C.), tyrant of Syracuse, began life as
a clerk in a public office, but by courage and diplomacy succeeded
in making himself supreme (see SYRACUSE). He carried on war
with Carthage with varying success; his attempts to drive the
Carthaginians entirely out of the island failed, and at his death
they were masters of at least a third of it. He also carried on an
expedition against Rhegium and its allied cities in Magna Graecia.
In one campaign, in which he was joined by the Lucanians. he
devastated the territories of Thurii, Croton and Locri. After a
protracted siege he took Rhegium (386), and sold the inhabitants
as slaves. He joined the Illyrians in an attempt to plunder the
temple of Delphi, pillaged the temple of Caere on the Etruscan
coast, and founded several military colonies on the Adriatic. In
the Peloponnesian War he espoused the side of the Spartans, and
assisted them with mercenaries. He also posed as an author and
patron of literature; his poems, severely criticized by Philoxenus,
were hissed at the Olympic games; but having gained a prize
for a tragedy on the Ransom of Hector at the Lenaea at Athens, he
was so elated that he engaged in a debauch which proved fatal.
According to others, he was poisoned by his physicians at the
instigation of his son. His life was written by Philistus, but the
work is not extant. Dionysius was regarded by the ancients as
a type of the worst kind of despot — cruel, suspicious and vin-
dictive. Like Peisistratus, he was fond of having distinguished
literary men about him, such as the historian Philistus, the poet
Philoxenus, and the philosopher Plato, but treated them in a most
arbitrary manner.

See Diod. Sic. xiii., xiv., xv. ; J. Bass, Dionysius I. von Syrakus
(Vienna, 1881), with full references to authorities in footnotes;
articles SICILY and SYRACUSE.

His son DIONYSIUS, known as " the Younger," succeeded
in 367 B.C. He was driven from the kingdom by Dion (356) and
fled to Locri; but during the commotions which followed
Dion's assassination, he managed to make himself master of
Syracuse. On the arrival of Timolcon he was compelled to
surrender and retire to Corinth (343), where he spent the rest
of his days in poverty (Diodorus Siculus xvi.; Plutarch,
Timoleon).

See SYRACUSE and TIMOLEON; and, on both the Dionysii, articles
by B. Niese in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclepadie, v. pt. I (1905).

DIONYSIUS AREOPAGITICUS (or " the Areopagite "), named
in Acts xvii. 34 as one of those Athenians who believed when they
had heard Paul preach on Mars Hill. Beyond this mention our
only knowledge of him is the statement of Dionysius, bishop of
Corinth (fl. A.D. 171), recorded by Eusebius (Church Hist. iii. 4;
iv. 23), that this same Dionysius the Areopagite was the first
" bishop " of Athens. Some hundreds of years after the
Areopagite's death, his name was attached by the Pseudo-
Areopagite to certain theological writings composed by the latter.
These were destined to exert enormous influence upon medieval
thought, and their fame led to the extension of the personal legend
of the real Dionysius. Hilduin, abbot of St Denys (814-840),
identified him with St Denys, martyr and patron-saint of France.

In Hilduin's Areopagilica, the Life and Passion of the most holy
Dionysius (Migne, Patrol. Lat. tome 106), the Areopagite is sent
to France by Clement of Rome, and suffers martyrdom upon the
hill where the monastery called St Denys was to rise in his honour.
There is no earlier trace of this identification, and Gregory of
Tours (d. 594) says (Hist. Francorum, i. 18) that St Denys came
to France in the reign of Decius (A.D. 250), which falls about
midway between the presumptive death of the real Areopagite
and the probable date of the writings to which he owed his
adventitious fame.

Traces of the influence of these writings appear in the works
of Eastern theologians in the early part of the 6th century. They
also were cited at the council held in Constantinople in 533, which
is the first certain dated reference to them. In the West, Gregory
the Great (d. 604) refers to them in his thirty-fourth sermon on
the gospels (Migne, Pat. Lat. tome 76, col. 1254). They did not,
however, become generally known in the Western church till after
the year 827, when the Byzantine emperor Michael the Stammerer
sent a copy to Louis the Pious. It was given over to the care of
the above-mentioned abbot Hilduin. In the next generation the
scholar and philosopher Joannes Scotus Erigena (q.v.) translated
the Dionysian writings into Latin. This appears to have been
the only Latin translation until the izth century when another
was made, followed by several others.

Thus, the author, date and place of composition of these
writings are unknown. External evidence precludes a date later
than the year 500, and the internal evidence from the writings
themselves precludes any date prior to 4th-century phases of
Neo-platonism. The extant writings of the Pseudo-Areopagite
are: (a) Ilepi TTJS ovpavlas tepapxias, Concerning the Celestial
Hierarchy, in fifteen chapters. (6) Ilepi TJJS eKKATjffiaorucTJs
itpapxias, Concerning the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy, in seven
chapters, (c) Ilepi 6duv ovofiaTuv, Concerning Divine Names,
in thirteen chapters, (d) Hepl (ivanKrjs 6eo\oyias, Concerning
Mystic Theology, in five chapters, (e) Ten letters addressed to
various worthies of the apostolic period.

Although these writings seem complete, they contain refer-
ences to others of the same author. But of the latter nothing
is known, and they may never have existed.

The writings of the Pseudo-Areopagite are of great interest,
first as a striking presentation of the heterogeneous elements that
might unite in the mind of a gifted man in the $th century, and
secondly, because of their enormous influence upon subsequent
Christian theology and art. Their ingredients — Christian, Greek,
Oriental and Jewish — are not crudely mingled, but are united
into an organic system. Perhaps theological philosophic fantasy
has never constructed anything more remarkable. The system of
Dionysius was a proper product of its time, — lofty, apparently
complete, comparable to the Enncads of Plotinus which formed
part of its materials. But its materials abounded everywhere,
and offered themselves temptingly to the hand strong enough
to build with them. There was what had entered into Neo-
platonism, both in its dialectic form as established by Plotinus,
and in its magic-mystic modes devised by lamblichus (d. c. 333).
There was Jewish angel lore and Eastern mood and fancy; and
there was Christianity so variously understood and heterogene-
ously constituted among Syro- Judaic Hellenic communities.
Such Christianity held materials for formula and creed; also
principles of liturgic and sacramental doctrine and priestly
function; also a mass of popular beliefs as to intermediate
superhuman beings who seemed nearer to men than any member
of the Trinity.

Out of this vast spiritual conglomerate, Pseudo-Dionysius
formed his system. It was not juristic, — not Roman, Pauline
or Augustinian. Rather he borrowed his constructive principles
from Hellenism in its last great creation, Neo-platonism. That
had been able to gather and arrange within itself the various
elements of latter-day paganism. The Neo-platonic categories
might be altered in name and import, and yet the scheme remain
a scheme; since the general principle of the transmission of life
from the ultimate Source downward through orders of mediating
beings unto men, might readily be adapted to the Christian God

DIONYSIUS EXIGUUS— DIONYSIUS HALICARNASSENSIS 285

and his ministering angels. Pseudo-Dionysius had lofty thoughts
of the sublime transcendence of the ultimate divine Source. That
source was not remote or inert; but a veritable Source from which
life streamed to all lower orders of existence, — in part directly,
and in part indirectly as power and guidance through the higher
orders to the lower. Life, creation, every good gift, is from God
directly; but his flaming ministers also intervene to guide and
aid the life of man; and the life which through love floods forth
from God has its counterflow wherebv it draws its own creations
to itself. God is at once absolutely transcendent and universally
immanent. To live is to be united with God; evil is the non-
existent, that is, severance from God. Whatever is, is part of
the forth-flowing divine life which ever purifies, enlightens and
perfects, and so draws all back to the Source.

The transcendent Source, as well as the universal immanence,
is the Triune God. Between that and men are ranged the
three triads of the Celestial Hierarchy: Seraphim, Cherubim
and Thrones; Dominations, Virtues, Powers; Principalities,
Archangels, Angels. Collectively their general office is to raise
mankind to God through purification, illumination and perfec-
tion; and to all may be applied the term angel. The highest
triad, which is nearest God, contemplates the divine effulgence,
and reflects it onward to the second; the third, and more
specifically angelic triad, immediately ministers to men. The
sources of these names are evident: seraphim and cherubim are
from the Old Testament; later Jewish writings gave names to
archangels and angels, who also fill important functions in the New
Testament. The other names are from Paul (Eph. i. 21 ; Col. i. 16).
Such is the system of Pseudo-Dionysius, as presented mainly in
The Celestial Hierarchy. That work is followed by The Ecclesi-
astical Hierarchy, its counterpart on earth. What the primal
triune Godhead is to the former, Jesus is to the latter. The
Ecclesiastical Hierarchy likewise is composed of Triads. The first
includes the symbolic sacra.ments: Baptism, Communion,
Consecration of the Holy Chrism. Baptism signifies purification;
Communion signifies enlightening; the Holy Chrism signifies
perfecting. The second triad is made up of the three orders of
Bishops, Presbyters and Deacons, or rather, as the Areopagite
names them: Hierarchs, Light-bearers, Servitors. The third
triad consists of monks, who are in a state of perfection, the
initiated laity, who are in a state of illumination, and the
catechumens, in a state of purification. All worship, in this
treatise, is a celebration of mysteries, and the pagan mysteries are
continually suggested by the terms employed.

The work Concerning the Divine Names is a noble discussion of
the qualities which may be predicated of God, according to the
warrant of the terms applied to him in Scripture. The work
Concerning Mystic Theology explains the function of symbols, and
shows that he who would know God truly must rise above them
and above the conceptions of God drawn from sensible things.

The works of Pseudo-Dionysius began to influence theological
thought in the West from the time of their translation into Latin
by Erigena. Their use may be followed through the writings of
scholastic philosophers, e.g. Peter Lombard, Albertus Magnus,
Thomas Aquinas and many others. In poetry we find their
influence in Dante, Spenser, Milton. The fifteenth chapter of The
Celestial Hierarchy constituted the canon of symbolical angelic
lore for the literature and art of the middle ages. Therein the
author explains in what respect theology ascribes to angels the
qualities of fire, why the thrones are said to be fiery (irvplvovs) ;
why the seraphim are burning (e^iTrpTjtrras) as their name
indicates. The fiery form signifies-, with Celestial Intelligences,
likeness to God. Dionysius explains the significance of the parts
of the human body when given to celestial beings: feet are
ascribed to angels to denote their unceasing movement on the
divine business, and their feet are winged to denote their celerity.
He likewise explains the symbolism of wands and axes, of brass
and precious stones, when joined to celestial beings; and whal
wheels and a chariot denote when furnished to them, — and much
more besides.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — There is an enormous literature on Pseudp
Dionysius. The reader may be first referred to the articles in

Smith's Dictionary of Christian Biography and Hauck's Realencyklo-
)adiefur protestantische Theologie (Leipzig, 1898). The bibliography
n the latter is very full. Some other references, especially upon the
ater influence of these works, are given in H. O. Taylor's Classical
Heritage of the Middle Ages (Macmillan, 1903). The works themselves

~.re in Migne's Patrologia Graeca, tomes 3 and 4, with a Latin version,
irigena's version is in Migne, Patrol. Lat. t. 122. Vita Dionysii by
iilduin is in Migne, Pat. Lat. 1 06. There is an English version by

Barker (London, 1894 and 1897). (H. O. T.)

DIONYSIUS EXIGUUS, one of the most learned men of the
6th century, and especially distinguished as a chronologist, was,
according to the statement of his friend Cassiodorus, a Scythian
>y birth, " Scytha natione." This may mean only that he was a
native of the region bordering on the Black Sea, and does not
necessarily imply that he was not of Greek origin. Such origin is
ndicated by his name and by his thorough familiarity with the
"Jreek language. His surname " Exiguus " is usually translated
' the Little," but he probably assumed it out of humility. He
was living at Rome in the first half of the 6th century, and is
usually spoken of as abbot of a Roman monastery. Cassiodorus,
lowever, calls him simply " monk," while Bede calls him " abbot."
But as itwas not unusual to apply the latter term to distinguished
monks who were not heads of their houses, it is uncertain whether
Dionysius was abbot in fact or only by courtesy. He was in high
repute as a learned theologian, was profoundly versed in the Holy
Scriptures and in canon law, and was also an accomplished
mathematician and astronomer. We owe to him a collection of
401 ecclesiastical canons, including the apostolical canons and the
decrees of the councils of Nicaea, Constantinople, Chalcedon and
Sardis, and also a collection of the decretals of the popes from
Siricius (385) to Anastasius II. (498). These collections, which
had great authority in the West (see CANON LAW), were published
by Justel in 1628. Dionysius did good service to his contempor-
aries by his translations of many Greek works into Latin; and
by these translations some works, the originals of which have
perished, have been handed down to us. His name, however, is
now perhaps chiefly remembered for his chronological labours.
It was Dionysius who introduced the method of reckoning
the Christian era which we now use (see CHRONOLOGY). His
friend Cassiodorus depicts in glowing terms the character of
Dionysius as a saintly ascetic, and praises his wisdom and
simplicity, his accomplishments and his lowly-mindedness, his
power of eloquent speech and his capacity of silence. He died at
Rome, some time before A.D. 550.

His works have been published in Migne, Patrologia Latina, tome
67 ; see especially A. Tardif , Hisloire des sources du droil canonique
(Paris, 1887), and D. Pitra, Analecta novissima, Spicilegii Snlesmensis
continualio, vol. i. p. 36 (Pads, 1885).

DIONYSIUS HALICARNASSENSIS ("of Halicarnassus "),
Greek historian and teacher of rhetoric, flourished during the reign
of Augustus. He went to Rome after the termination of the civil
wars, and spent twenty-two years in studying the Latin language
and literature and preparing materials for his history. During
this period he gave lessons in rhetoric, and enjoyed the society of
many distinguished men. The date of his death is unknown.
His great work, entitled TC^UCUK)? apxcuoKoyla (Roman
Antiquities), embraced the history of Rome from the mythical
period to the beginning of the first Punic War. It was divided
into twenty books, — of which the first nine remain entire, the
tenth and eleventh are nearly complete, and the remaining books
exist in fragments in the excerpts of Constantine Porphyrogenitus
and an epitome discovered by Angelo Mai in a Milan MS. The
first three books of Appian, and Plutarch's Life of Camillus also
embody much of Dionysius. His chief object was to reconcile
the Greeks to the rule of Rome, by dilating upon the good
qualities of their conquerors. According to him, history is
philosophy teaching by examples, and this idea he has carried
out from the point of view of the Greek rhetorician. But he has
carefully consulted the best authorities, and his work and that of
Livy are the only connected and detailed extant accounts of early
Roman history.

Dionysius was also the author of several rhetorical treatises, in
which he shows that he has thoroughly studied the best Attic
models: — The Art of Rhetoric (which is rather a collection of

286

DIONYSIUS PERIEGETES— DIONYSUS

essays on the theory of rhetoric), incomplete, and certainly not
all his work; The Arrangement of Words (Ilepi avvOfcreus
ovonarbiv), treating of the combination of words according
to the different styles of oratory; On Imitation (II«pi
jiijuijcreus), on the best models in the different kinds of literature
and the way in which they are to be imitated — a fragmentary
work; Commentaries on the Attic Orators (Hepl TUP dpxaicov
pT]T6ptiiv inronvr/naTUTiiol) , which, however, only deal with
Lysias, Isaeus, Isocrates and (by way of supplement) Dinarchus ;
On the admirable Style of Demosthenes (Ilepi rfjs Xexroc^s Arj/jo-
aOivovs deivorijTos) ; and On the Character of Thucydides (IIe/»t
TOV QovKvSLdov xapaKrrjpos), a detailed but on the whole an
unfair estimate. These two treatises are supplemented by letters
to Cn. Pompeius and Ammaeus (two).

Complete edition by J. I. Reiske (1774-1777) ; of the Archaeologia
by A. Kiessling and V. Prou (1886) and C. Jacoby (1885-1891);
Opuscula by Usener and Radermacher (1899); Eng. translation by
E. Spelman (1758). A full bibliography of the rhetorical works is
given in W. Rhys Roberts's edition of the Three Literary Letters
(1901) ; the same author published an edition of the De compositione
verborum (1910, with trans.) ; see also M. Egger, Denysd'Halicarnasse
(1902), a very useful treatise. On the sources of Dionysius see O.
Bocksch, " De fontibus Dion. Halicarnassensis " in Leipziger Studien,
xvii. (1895). Cf. also J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Class. Schol. i. (1906).

DIONYSIUS PERIEGETES, author of a Tiepifijijaa rrjs
olKovnivris, a description of the habitable world in Greek
hexameter verse, written in a terse and elegant style. Nothing
certain is known of the date or nationality of the writer, but there
is some reason for believing that he was an Alexandrian, who
wrote in the time of Hadrian (some put him as late as the end of
the 3rd century). The work enjoyed a high degree of popularity
in ancient times as a school-book; it was translated into Latin
by Rufus Festus Avienus, and by the grammarian Priscian. The
commentary of Eustathius is valuable.

The best editions are by G. Bernhardy (1828) and C. Miiller (1861)
in their Geographici Graeci minores; see also E. H. Bunbury,
Ancient Geography (ii. p. 480), who regards the author as flourishing
from the reign of Nero to that of Trajan, and U. Bernays, Studien
zu Dion. Perieg. (1905). There are two old English translations:
T. Twine (1572, black letter), J. Free (1789, blank verse).

DIONYSIUS TELMAHARENSIS (" of Tell-Mahre "), patriarch
or supreme head of the Syrian Jacobite Church during the years
818-848, was born at Tell-Mahre near Rakka (ar-Rakkah) on the
Ballkh. He was the author of an important historical work,
which has seemingly perished except for some passages quoted by
Barhebraeus and an extract found by Assemani in Cod. Vat. 144
and published by him in the Bibliotheca orientalis (ii. 72-77). He
spent his earlier years as a monk at the convent of I£en-neshre on
the upper Euphrates; and when this monastery was destroyed by
fire in 815, he migrated northwards to that of Kaisum in the
district of Samosata. At the death of the Jacobite patriarch
Cyriacus in 81 7, the church was agitated by a dispute about the
use of the phrase " heavenly bread " in connexion with the
Eucharist. An anti-patriarch had been appointed in the person
of Abraham of Kartamin, who insisted on the use of the phrase
in opposition to the recognized authorities of the church. The
council of bishops who met at Rakka in the summer of 818 to
choose a successor to Cyriacus had great difficulty in finding a
worthy occupant of the patriarchal chair, but finally agreed on
the election of Dionysius, hitherto known only as an honest monk
who devoted himself to historical studies. Sorely against his will
he was brought to Rakka, ordained deacon and priest on two
successive days, and raised to the supreme ecclesiastical dignity
en the ist of August. From this time he showed the utmost zeal
in fulfilling the duties of his office, and undertook many journeys
both within and without his province. The ecclesiastical schism
continued unhealed during the thirty years of his patriarchate.
The details of this contest, of his relations with the caliph
Ma'mun, and of his many travels — including a journey to Egypt,
on which he viewed with admiration the- great Egyptian
monuments, — are to be found in the Ecclesiastical Chronicle of
Barhebraeus.1 He died in 848, his last days having been especially

1 Ed. Abbeloos and Lamy, j. 343-386; cf. Wright, Syriac
Literature, 196-200, and Chabot's introduction to his translation of
the fourth part of the Chronicle of (pseudo) Dionysius.

embittered by Mahommedan oppression. We learn from Michael
the Syrian that his Annals consisted of two parts each divided
into eight chapters, and covered a period of 260 years, viz. from
the accession of the emperor Maurice (582-583) to the death of
Theophilus (842-843).

In addition to the lost Annals, Dionysius was from the time of
Assemani until 1896 credited with the authorship of another im-
portant historical work — a Chronicle, which in four parts narrates
the history of the world from the creation to the year A.D. 774-775
and is preserved entire in Cod. Vat. 162. The first part (edited by
Tullberg, Upsala, 1850) reaches to the epoch of Constantine the
Great, and is in the main an epitome of the Eusebian Chronicle.2
The second part reaches to Theodosius II. and follows closely the
Ecclesiastical History of Socrates; while the third, extending to
Justin II., reproduces the second part of the History of John
of Asia or Ephesus, and also contains the well-known chronicle
attributed to Joshua the Stylite. The fourth part 3 is not like the
others a compilation, but the original work of the author, and
reaches to the year 774-775 — apparently the date when he was
writing. On the publication of this fourth part by M. Chabot, it
was discovered and clearly proved by Noldeke ( Vienna Oriental
Journal, x. 160-170), and Nau (Bulletin critique, xvii. 321-327),
who independently reached the same conclusion, that Assemani's
opinion was a mistake, and that the chronicle in question was the
work not of Dionysius of Tell-Mahre but of an earlier writer, a
monk of the convent of Zuknln near Amid (Diarbekr) on the upper
Tigris. Though the author was a man of limited intelligence and
destitute of historical skill, yet the last part of his work at least
has considerable value as a contemporary account of events
during the middle period of the 8th century. (N. M )

DIONYSIUS THRAX (so called because his father was a
Thracian) , the author of the first Greek grammar, flourished about
100 B.C. He was a native of Alexandria, where he attended
the lectures of Aristarchus, and afterwards taught rhetoric in
Rhodes and Rome. His fk\vri ypa.mj,a.Tuai, which we possess
(though probably not in its original form) , begins with the defini-
tion of grammar and its functions. Dealing next with accent,
punctuation marks, sounds and syllables, it goes on to the different
parts of speech (eight in number) and their inflections. No rules
of syntax are given, and nothing is said about style. The
authorship of Dionysius was doubted by many of the early middle-
age commentators and grammarians, and in modern times its
origin has been attributed to the oecumenical college founded
by Constantine the Great, which continued in existence till 730.
But there seems no reason for doubt; the great grammarians
of imperial times (Apollonius Dyscolus and Herodian) were
acquainted with the work in its present form, although, as was
natural considering its popularity, additions and alterations may
have been made later. The rexyrj was first edited by J. A.
Fabricius from a Hamburg MS. and published in his Bibliolheca
Graeca, vi. (ed. Harles). An Armenian translation, belonging to
the 4th or 5th century, containing five additional chapters, was
published with the Greek text and a French version, by M.
Cirbied (i 830) . Dionysius also contributed much to the criticism
and elucidation of Homer, and was the author of various other
works — amongst them an account of Rhodes, and a collection of
MeXerat (literary studies), to which the considerable fragment in
the Stromala (v. 8) of Clement of Alexandria probably belongs.

Editions, with scholia, by I. Bekker in Anecdota Graeca, ii. and
G. Uhlig (1884), reviewed exhaustively by P. Egenolff in Bursian's
Jahresbericht, vol. xlvi. (1888); Scholia, ed. A. Hilgard (1901); see
also W. Horschelmann, De Dionysii Thracis interpretibus veteribus
(1874) ; J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Classical Scholarship, i. (1906).

DIONYSUS (probably = " son of Zeus," from Ai6s and
vvaos, a Thracian word for " son "), in Greek mythology,
originally a nature god of fruitfulness and vegetation, especially
of the vine; hence, distinctively, the god of wine. The names
Bacchus (Bdfcxos, in use among the Greeks from the sth

2 See the studies by Siegfried and Gelzer, Eusebii canonum
epitome ex Dionysii Telmaharensis chronico petita (Leipzig, 1884).
and von Gutschmid, Untersuchungen iiber die syrische Epitome der
Eusebischen Canones (Stuttgart, 1886).

8 Text and translation by J.-B. Chabot (Paris, 1895).

DIONYSUS

287

century), Sabazius, and Bassareus, are also Thracian names of
the god. The two first (like lacchus, Bromius and Euios) have
been connected with the loud " shout " (<ra/3df ea> = /3df ew =
eiidfeo') of his worshippers, Bassareus with (laaaapai, the
fox-skin garments of the Thracian Bacchanals. It has been
suggested (J. E. Harriscn Prolegomena to Greek Religion)
that Sabazius and Bromius= " beer-god," " god of a cereal
intoxicant " (cf. Illyrian sabaia, and modern Greek PPU/J.L,
" oats "), while W. Ridgeway (Classical Review, January 1896),
comparing Apollo Smintheus, interprets Bassareus as " he who
keeps away the foxes from the vineyards " (for various interpreta-
tions of these and other cult-titles, see O. Gruppe, Griechische
Mythologie, ii. pp. 1408, 1532, especially the notes).

In Homer, notwithstanding the frequent mention of the use of
wine, Dionysus is never mentioned as its inventor or introducer,
nor does he appear in Olympus; Hesiod is the first who calls
wine the gift of Dionysus. On the other hand, he is spoken of
in the Iliad (vi. 130 foil., a passage belonging to the latest period
of epic), as " raging," an epithet that indicates that in those
comparatively early times the orgiastic character of his worship
was recognized. In fact, Dionysus may be regarded under two
distinct aspects: that of a popular national Greek god of wine
and cheerfulness, and that of a foreign deity, worshipped with
ecstatic and mysterious rites introduced from Thrace. Accord-
ing to the usual tradition, he was born at Thebes — originally the
local centre of his worship in Greece — and was the son of Zeus,
the fertilizing rain god, and Semele, the daughter of Cadmus,
a personification of earth. Before the child was mature, Zeus
appeared to Semele at her request in his majesty as god of
lightning, by which she was killed, but the infant was saved
from the flames by Zeus (or Hermes). The epithet vepua6vi.os,
originally referring to an ivy-crowned, pillar-shaped fetish of the
god, afterwards gave rise to the legend of a miraculous growth of
ivy " round the pillars " of the royal palace, whereby the infant
Dionysus was preserved from the flames. Zeus took him up,
enclosed him within his own thigh till he came to maturity, and
then brought him to the light, so that he was twice born; it was
to celebrate this double birth that the dilhyrambus (also used as
an epithet of the god) was sung (see Elym. Mag. s.v.). It has
been suggested that this is an allusion to the couvade of certain
barbarous tribes, amongst whom it is customary, when a child is
born, for the husband to take to his bed and receive medical treat-
ment, as if he shared the pains of maternity (see COUVADE,
and references there). Dionysus was then conveyed by Hermes
to be brought up by the nymphs of Nysa, a purely imaginary
spot, afterwards localized in different parts of the world, which
claimed the honour of having been the birthplace of the god. As
soon as Dionysus was grown up, he started on a journey through
the world, to teach the cultivation of the vine and spread his
worship among men. While so engaged he met with opposition,
even in his own country, as in the case of Pentheus, king of
Thebes, who opposed the orgiastic rites introduced by Dionysus
among the women of Thebes, and, having been discovered watch-
ing one of these ceremonies, was mistaken for some animal of the
chase, and slam by his own mother (see A. G. Bather, Journ. Hell.
Studies, xiv. 1894). A similar instance is that of Lycurgus, a
Thracian king, from whose attack Dionysus saved himself by
leaping into the sea, where he was kindly received by Thetis.
Lycurgus was blinded by Zeus and soon died, or became frantic
and hewed down his own son, mistaking him for a vine. At
Orchomenus, the three daughters of Minyas refused to join the
other women in their nocturnal orgies, and for this were trans-
formed into birds (see AGRIONIA). These and similar stories point
to the vigorous resistance offered to the introduction of the
mystic rites of Dionysus, in places where an established religion
already existed. On the other hand, when the god was received
hospitably he repaid the kindness by the gift of the vine, as in the
case of Icarius of Attica (see ERIGONE).

The worship of Dionysus was actively conducted in Asia Minor,
particularly in Phrygia and Lydia. Here, as Sabazius, he was
associated with the-Phrygian goddess Cybele, and was followed in
his expeditions by a thiasos (retinue) of centaurs and satyrs, with

Pan and Silenus. In Lydia his triumphant return from India was
celebrated by an annual festival on Mount Tmolus; in Lydia
he assumed the long beard and long robe which were after-
wards given him in his character of the " Indian Bacchus," the
conqueror of the East, who, after the campaigns of Alexander,
was reported to have advanced as far as the Ganges. The other
incidents in which he appears in a purely triumphal character are
his transforming into dolphins the Tyrrhene pirates who attacked
him, as told in the Homeric hymn to Dionysus and represented on
the monument of Lysicrates at Athens, and his part in the war of
the gods against the giants. The former story has been connected
with the sailors' custom of hanging vine leaves, ivy and bunches
of grapes round the masts of vessels in honour of vintage festivals.
The adventure with the pirates occurred on his voyage to Naxos,
where he found Ariadne abandoned by Theseus. At Naxos
Ariadne (probably a Cretan goddess akin to Aphrodite) was
associated with Dionysus as his wife, by whom he was the father
of Oenopion (wine-drinker), Staphylus (grape), and Euanthes
(blooming}, and their marriage was annually celebrated by a
festival. Having compelled all the world to recognize his
divinity, he descended to the underworld to bring up his mother,
who was afterwards worshipped with him under the name of
Thycne ("the raging"), he himself being called after her
Thyoneus.

Another phase in the myth of Dionysus originated in observing
the decay of vegetation in winter, to suit which he was supposed
to be slain and to join the deities of the lower world. This phase
of his character was developed by the Orphic poets, he having
here the name of Zagreus (" torn in pieces "), and being no longer
the Theban god, but a son of Zeus and Persephone. The child
was brought up secretly, watched over by Curetes; but the
jealous Hera discovered where he was, and sent Titans to the spot,
who, finding him at play, tore him to pieces, and cooked and ate
his limbs, while Hera gave his heart to Zeus. The tearing in
pieces is referred by some to the torture experienced by the grape
(Naturschmerz) when crushed for making into wine (cf . Burns's
John Barleycorn) ; but it is better to refer it to the tearing of the
flesh of the victim at sacrifices at which the deity or the sacred
animal was slain, and sacramentally eaten raw (cf. the title
&/j.T]ffrfis given to Dionysus in certain places, probably point-
ing to human sacrifice.) To connect this with the myth of the
Theban birth of Dionysus, it is said that Zeus gave the child's
heart to Semele, or himself swallowed it and gave birth to the new
Dionysus (called lacchus from his worshippers' cry of rejoicing),
who was cradled and swung in a winnowing fan (Xki'os; see
J. E. Harrison, Journ. Hellenic Studies, xxiii.), the swinging being
supposed to act as a charm in awakening vegetation from its
winter sleep. The conception of Zagreus, or the winter Dionysus,
appears to have originated in Crete, but it was accepted also in
Delphi, where his grave was shown, and sacrifice was secretly
offered at it annually on the shortest day. The story is in many
respects similar to that of Osiris. According to others, Zagreus
was originally a god of the chase, who became a hunter of men
and a god of the underworld, more akin to Hades than to
Dionysus (see also TITANS).

Dionysus further possessed the prophetic gift, and his oracle
at Delphi was as important as that of Apollo. Like Hermes,
Dionysus was a god of the productiveness of nature, and hence
Priapus was one of his regular companions, while not only in the
mysteries but in the rural festivals his symbol, the phallus, was
carried about ostentatiously. His symbols from the animal
kingdom were the bull (perhaps a totemistic attribute and
identified with him), the panther, the lion, the tiger, the ass, the
goat, and sometimes also the dolphin and the snake. His personal
attributes are an ivy wreath, the thyrsus (a staff with pine cone at
the end), the laurel, the pine, a drinking cup, and sometimes the
horn of a bull on his forehead. Artistically he was represented
mostly either as a youth of soft, nearly feminine form, or as a
bearded and draped man, but frequently also as an infant, with
reference to his birth or to his bringing up in " Nysa." His
earliest images were of wood with the branches still attached in
parts, whence he was called Dionysus Dendrites, an allusion to his

288

DIOPHANTUS— DIOPSIDE

protection of trees generally (according to Pherecydes in C. W.
Miiller, Frag. Hist. Grace, iv. p. 637, the word vvcra signified
" tree "). It is suggested that the cult of Dionysus absorbed that
of an old tree-spirit. He was figured also, like Hermes, in the
form of a pillar or term surmounted by his head. For the
connexion of Dionysus with Greek tragedy see DRAMA.

See Farnell, Culls of the Greek Slates, v. (1910) ; also O. Rapp,
Beziehungen dcs Dicnysuskultus zu Thrakien (1882); O. Ribbeck,
Anfdnge und Entwickelung des Dionysuskultes in Attica (1869);
A. Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religion, ii. p. 241 ; L. Dyer, The Gods
in Greece (1891); J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of G.'eek
Religion (1903); J. G. Frazcr, The Golden Bough, ii (1900), pp. 160,
291, who regards the bull and goat form of Dionysus as expressions
of his proper character as a deity of vegetation; F. A. Voigt in
Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie; L. Preller, Gricchische Mythologie
(4th ed. by C. Robert) ; F. Lenormant (s.v. " Bacchus ") in Darem-
berg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites ; O. Kern in Pauly-
Wissowa's Realencyclopadie (with list of cult titles); W. Pater,
Greek Studies (1895); E. Rohde, Psyche, ii., who finds the origin of
the Hellenic belief in the immortality of the soul ii: the " enthusi-
astic " rites of the Thracian Dionysus, which lifted persons out of
themselves, and exalted them to a fancied equality with the gods;
O. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte. ii. (1907),
who considers Boeotia, not Thrace, to have been the original home
of Dionysus; P. Foucart, " Le Culte de Dionysos en Attique " in
Memoires de I'Inslitut national de France, xxxvii. (1906), who finds
the prototype of Dionysus in Egypt. The Great Dionysiak Myth
(1877-1878) by R. Brown contains a wealth of material, but is weak
in scholarship. For a striking survival of Dionysiac rites in Thrace
(Bizye), see Dawkins, in J.H.S. (1906), p. 191.

DIOPHANTUS, of Alexandria, Greek algebraist, probably
flourished about the middle of the 3rd century. Not that this
date rests on positive evidence. But it seems a fair inference from
a passage of Michael Psellus (Diophantus, ed. P. Tannery, ii.
p. 38) that he was not later than Anatolius, bishop of Laodicea
from A.D. 270, while he is net quoted by Nicomachus (fl. c.
A.D. 100), nor by Theon of Smyrna (c. A.D. 130), nor does Greek
arithmetic as represented by these authors and by lamblichus
(end of 3rd century) show any trace of his influence, facts which
can only be accounted for by his being later than those arith-
meticians at least who would have been capable of understanding
him fully. On the other hand he is quoted by Theon of Alexandria
(who observed an eclipse at Alexandria in A.D. 365); and his
work was the subject of a commentary by Theon's daughter
Hypatia (d . 4 1 5) . The A rithmetica, the greatest treatise on which
the fame of Diophantus rests, purports to be in thirteen Books,
but none of the Greek MSS. which have survived contain more
than six (though one has the same text in seven Books). They
contain, however, a fragment of a separate tract on Polygonal
Numbers. The missing books were apparently lost early, for
there is no reason to suppose that the Arabs who translated or
commented on Diophantus ever had access to more of the work
than we now have. The difference in form and content suggests
that the Polygonal Numbers was not part of the larger work. On
the other hand the Porisms, to which Diophantus makes three
references (" we have it in the Porisms that . . . "), were
probably not a separate book but were embodied in the
Arithmelica itself, whether placed all together or, as Tannery
thinks, spread over the work in appropriate places. The
" Porisms " quoted are interesting propositions in the theory of
numbers, one of which was clearly that the difference between two
cubes can be resolved into the sum of two cubes. Tannery thinks
that the solution of a complete quadratic promised by Diophantus
himself (I. def. n), and really assumed later, was one of the
Porisms.

Among the great variety of problems solved are problems leading
to determinate equations of the first degree in one, two, three or
four variables, to determinate quadratic equations, and to inde-
terminate equations of the first degree in one or more variables, which
are, however, transformed into determinate equations by arbitrarily
assuming a value for one of the required numbers, Diophantus being
always satisfied with a rational, even if fractional, result and not re-
quiring a solution in integers. But the bulk of the work consists of
problems leading to indeterminate equations of the second degree,
and these universally take the form that one or two (and never
more) linear or quadratic functions of one variable x are to be made
rational square numbers by finding a suitable value for X. A few
problems lead to indeterminate equations of the third and fourth
degrees, an easy indeterminate equation of the sixth degree being

also found. The general type of problem is to find two, three or four
numbers such that different expressions involving them in the first
and second, and sometimes the third, degree are squares, cubes,
partly squares and partly cubes, &c. E.g. To find three numbers such
that the product of any two added to the sum of those two gives a square
(III. 15, ed. Tannery); To find four numbers such that, if we take the
square of their sum =*= any one of them singly, all the resulting numbersare
squares (III. 22) ; To find two numbers such that their product ± their
sum gives a cube (IV. 29) ; To find three squares such that their continued
product added to any one of them gives a square (V. 21). Book VI.
contains problems of finding rational right-angled triangles such that
different functions of their parts (the sides and the area) are squares.
A word is necessary on Diophantus' notation. He has only one
symbol (written somewhat like a final sigma) for an unknown
quantity, which he calls dpitfjuos (defined as " an undefined number of
units ") ; the symbol may be a contraction of the initial letters ap, as
Ar, K*', AKA, &c., are for the powers of the unknown (SWOMIS, square ;
KU/SOS, cube; SwaMoSwaM's, fourth power, &c.). The only other
algebraical symbol is /f» for minus ; plus being expressed by merely
writing terms one after another. With one symbol for an unknown,
it will easily be understood what scope there isforadroitassumptions,
for the required numbers, of expressions in the one unknown which
are at once seen to satisfy some of the conditions, leaving only one or
two to be satisfied by the particular value of x to be determined.
Often assumptions are made which lead to equations in * which
cannot be solved " rationally," i.e. would give negative, surd or
imaginary values; Diophantus then traces how each element of the
equation has arisen, and formulates the auxiliary problem of de-
termining how the assumptions must be corrected so as to lead to an
equation (in place of the " impossible " one) which can be solved
rationally. Sometimes his x has to do duty twice, for different
unknowns, in one problem. In general his object is to reduce the
final equation to a simple one by making such an assumption for the
side of the square or cube to which the expression in * is to be equal
as will make the necessary number of coefficients vanish. The book
is valuable also for the propositions in the theory of numbers, other
than the " porisms," stated or assumed in it. Thus Diophantus knew
that no number of the form 8n+7 can be the sum of three squares. He
also says that, if 2» + i is to be the sum of two squares, " n must not
be odd " (i.e. no number of the form 4n+3, or 4n— I, can be the sum of
two squares), and goes on to add, practically, the condition stated by
Fermat, " and the double of it [n] increased by one, when divided
by the greatest square which measures it, must not be divisible by a
prime number of the form 471 — 1," except for the omission of the
words " when divided . . . measures it."

AUTHORITIES. — The first to publish anything on Diophantus in
Europe was Rafael Bombelli, who embodied in his Algebra (1572)
all the problems of Books L— IV. and some of Book V., interspersing
them with his own problems. Next Xylander (Wilhelm Holzmann)
published a Latin translation (Basel, 1575), an altogether meri-
torious work, especially having regard to the difficulties he had with
the text of his MS. The Greek text was first edited by C. G. Bachet
(Diophanti Alexandrini arilhmelicorum libri sex, et de numeris
multangulis liber unus, nunc primum graece et laline editi atque
absolutissimis commentaries illustrate . . . Lutetiae Parisiorum . . .
MDCXXI.). A reprint of 1670 is only valuable because it contains
P. de Fermat's notes; as far as the Greek text is concerned it is much
inferior to the other. There are two German translations, one by
Otto Schulz (1822) and the other by G. Wertheim (Leipzig, 1890),
and an English edition in modern notation (T. L. Heath, Diophantos
of Alexandria: A Study in the History of Greek Algebra (Cambridge,
1885). The Greek text has now been definitively edited (with Latin
translation, Scholia, &c.) by P. Tannery (Teubner, vol. i., 1893;
vol. ii., 1895). General accounts of Diophantus' work are to be
found in H. Hankel and M. Cantor's histories of mathematics, and
more elaborate analyses are those of Nesselmann (Die Algebra der
Gricchen, Berlin, 1842) and G. Loria (Le Scienze esatte nell' antica
Grecia, libra v., Modena, 1902, pp. 95-158). (T. L. H.)

DIOPSIDE, an important member of the pyroxene group of
rock-forming minerals. It is a calcium-magnesium metasilicate,
CaMg (Si03)2, and crystallizes in the monoclinic system. Usually
some iron is present replacing magnesium, and when this pre-
dominates there is a passage to hedenbergite, CaFo(SiO3)2, a
closely allied variety of monoclinic pyroxene. These are distin-
guished from augite by containing little or no aluminium.
Diopside is colourless, white, pale green to dark green or nearly
black in colour, the depth of the colour depending on the amount
of iron present. The specific gravity and optical constants also
vary with the chemical composition; the sp. gr. of diopside is
3-2, increasing to 3-6 in hedenbergite, and the angle of optical
extinction in the plane of symmetry varies between 38° and 47°
in the two extremes of the series. Crystals are usually prismatic
in habit with a rectangular cross-section as shown in the figure:
the angle between the prism faces m, parallel to which there are
perfect cleavages, is 92° .50'.

DIOPTASE— DIP

289

pyroxene-granites,
the characteristic

Several varieties, depending on differences in structure and
chemical composition, have been distinguished, viz. coccolite
(from KOK.XOS, a grain), a granular variety;
salite or sahlite, from Sala in Sweden;
malacolite; diallage; violane, a lamellar
variety of a dark violet-blue colour;
chrome-diopside, a bright green variety
containing a small amount of chromium;
and many others. Belonging to the same
series with diopside and hedenbergite
is a manganese pyroxene, known as
schefferite, which has the composition
(Ca, Mg) (Fe, Mn) (SiO3)2.

Diopside is the characteristic pyroxene
of metamorphic rocks, occurring especially
in crystalline limestones, and often in
association with garnet and epidote. It
is also an essential constituent of some
diorites and a few other igneous rocks, but
pyroxene of this class of rocks is augite.
Fine transparent crystals of a pale green colour occur, with
crystals of yellowish-red garnet (hessonite) and chlorite, in veins
traversing serpentine in the Ala valley near Turin in Piedmont:
a crystal of this variety (" alalite ") is represented in the
accompanying figure. These, as well as the long, transparent,
bottle-green crystals from the Zillerthal in the Tyrol, have
occasionally been cut as gem-stones. Good crystals have been
found also at Achmatovsk near Zlatoust in the Urals, Traversella
near Ivrea in Piedmont (" traversellite "), Nordmark in Sweden,
Monroe in New York, Burgess in Lanark county, Ontario, and
several other places: at Nordmark the large, rectangular black
crystals occur with magnetite in the iron mines. (L. J. S.)

DIOPTASE, a rare mineral species consisting of acid copper
orthosilicate, H2CuSiO4, crystallizing in the parallel-faced hemi-
hedral class of the rhombohedral system. The degree of sym-
metry is the same as in the mineral phenacite,
there being only an axis of triad symmetry
and a centre of symmetry. The crystals
have the form of a hexagonal prism m
terminated by a rhombohedron r, the alter-
nate edges between these being sometimes re-
placed by the faces of a rhombohedron s. The
faces are striated parallel to the edges between
r, s and m. There are perfect cleavages
parallel to the faces of a rhombohedron which
truncate the polar edges of r: from the cleav-
age cracks internal reflections are often to
be seen in the crystal, and it was on account
of this that the mineral was named dioptase, by
R. J. Hatiy in 1797, from Bio-n-Tevtiv, " to see into." The crystals
vary from transparent to translucent with a vitreous lustre, and
are bright emerald-green in colour; they thus have a certain
resemblance to emerald, hence the early name emerald-copper
(German, Kupfer-Smaragd). Hardness 5; sp. gr. 3-3. The
mineral is decomposed by hydrochloric acid with separation of
gelatinous silica. At a red heat it blackens and gives off water.
The fine crystals from Mount Altyn-Tube on the western slopes of
the Altai Mountains in the Kirghiz Steppes, Asiatic Russia, line
cavities in a compact limestone; they were first sent to Europe
in 1785 by Achir Mahmed, a Bucharian merchant, after whom
the mineral has been named archirite. More recently, in 1890,
good crystals of similar habit, but rather darker in colour,
have been found with quartz and malachite near Komba in the
French Congo. As drusy crystalline crusts it has been found at
Copiapo in Chile and in Arizona.

Dioptase has occasionally been used as a gem-stone, especially
in Russia and Persia; it has a fine colour, but a low degree of
hardness and the transparency is imperfect. (L. J. S.)

DIORITE (from the Gr. Siopi^iv to distinguish, from
Sid through, opos, a boundary), in petrology, the name given
by Hatty to a family of rocks of granitic texture, composed of
plagioclase felspar and hornblende. As they are richer in the dark

VIII. IO

coloured ferromagnesian minerals they are usually grey or dark
grey, and h'ave a higher specific gravity than granite. They also
rarely show visible quartz. But there are diorites of many kinds,
as the name applies rather to a family of rocks than tota single
species. Some contain biotite, others augite or hypersthene;
many have a small amount of quartz. Orthoclase is rarely
entirely absent, and when it is fairly common the rock becomes a
tonalite; in this way a transition is furnished between diorites
and granites. It is rare to find the pure types of " hornblende-
diorite," " augite-diorite," &c., but in most cases the rocks
contain two or more ferromagnesian silicates, and such combina-
tions as " hornblende-biotite-diorite " are commonest in nature.

The felspar of the diorites ranges in composition from oligoclase
to labradorite, and is often remarkably zonal, the external layers
being more alkaline than the internal. Small fluid enclosures
and black grains, probably iron oxides, often occur in it in great
numbers. Weathering produces epidote, calcite, sericite and
kaolin. The biotite is always brown or yellow; the hornblende
usually green, but sometimes brown or yellowish brown in those
diorites which have affinities to lamprophyres. The ailgite is
nearly always green but sometimes has a reddish tinge; bronzite
and hypersthene have their usual green and brown shades.
Apatite, iron oxides and zircon are almost invariably present;
sphene, garnet and orthite are occasionally observed; calcite,
chlorite, muscovite, kaolin, epidote and bastite are secondary.
The structure is not essentially different from that of granite.
The ferromagnesian minerals crystallize comparatively early
and have some idiomorphism; the felspar usually follows and
only in part shows good crystalline outlines. Orthoclase and
quartz, if present, are last to separate out, and fill the spaces
between the other minerals; often they interpenetrate to form
micropegmatite. In many diorites the plagioclase felspar has
crystallized before the hornblende, which consequently has less
perfect outlines and forms irregular plates which enclose sharply
formed individuals of felspar. This produces the ophitic structure
(very common also in the dolerites). More rarely biotite and
augite exhibit the same relations to the plagioclase. Orbicular
structure also occasionally appears in these rocks; in fact
the orbicular diorite of Corsica (also called " Napoleonite " or
" Corsite ") was for a long time the best-known example of this
structure. The rock seems composed of spheroids, about an inch
in diameter, surrounded by a smaller amount of dark-coloured
dioritic matrix. The spheroids have a radiate structure and often
show concentric dark and pale shells. These consist of hornblende
(dark green) and basic plagioclase felspar, labradorite and
bytownite (grey or nearly white). Occasionally diorites have
a parallel banded or foliated structure, but these must not be
confounded with the epidiorites, -which are metamorphic rocks
and also have a conspicuous foliation.

Diorites must also be distinguished from hornblendic gabbros,
which contain more basic felspars, rarely quartz and occasionally
olivine; but the boundary lines between diorites and gabbros are
admittedly somewhat vague, e.g. some authors would call rocks
gabbro which others would regard as augite-diorite. The horn-
blendites differ from the diorites in containing little felspar, and
consist principally of hornblende. Among varietal designations
given to rocks of the diorite family are " banatite " for an augite-
diorite with or without quartz (from the Schemnitz district),
" granodiorite " for a quartz-hornblende-diorite (essentially
the same as tonalite) from California, &c., " adamellite " for
the quartz-mica-diorite or tonalite of Monte Adamello (Alps),
" ornite " for a hornblende-diorite rich in felspar, from Sweden.

(J. S. F.)

DIP (Old Eng. dyppan, connected with the common Teutonic
root seen in " deep "), the angle which the magnetic needle makes
with the horizon. A freely suspended magnetic needle will not
maintain a horizontal position except at the magnetic equator.
Over the N. magnetic pole the north-seeking end of the needle
points directly downwards and dips at an intermediate angle at
intermediate distances between the magnetic poles and equator.
There are secular progressive variations of dip as well as of
declination and the maxima are independent of each other. In

5

290

DIPHENYL— DIPHTHERIA

1576 the dip at London was 71° 50', 'in 1720 (max.) 74° 42', in
1900 67° 9'. (For Dip Circle see INCLINOMETER.)

DIPHENYL (phenyl benzene), CeHs.CeHs, a hydrocarbon
found in that fraction of the coal-tar distillate boiling between
240-300° C., from which it may be obtained by warming with
sulphuric acid, separating the acid layer and strongly cooling
the undissolved ofl. It may be artificially prepared by passing
benzene vapour through a red-hot tube; by the action of sodium
on brombenzene dissolved in ether; by the action of stanncus
chloride on phenyldiazonium chloride; or by the addition of solid
phenyldiazonium sulphate to warm benzene (R. Mohlau, Berichle,
1893, 26, 1997) C6H5N2-HSO4+C6H6=H2SO4-r-N2+C6H5-C6Hr,.
L. Gattermann (Berichte, 1890, 23, 1226) has also prepared it
by the decomposition of a solution of phenyldiazonium sulphate
with alcohol and copper powder. It crystallizes in plates (from
alcohol) meltingat 70-71° C. and boiling at 2 S4°C. It is oxidized
by chromic acid in glacial acetic acid solution to benzoic acid,
dilute nitric acid and chromic acid mixture being without effect.
It is not reduced by hydriodic acid and phosphorus, but sodium
in the presence of amyl alcohol reduces it to tetrahydrodiphenyl

Many substitution derivatives are known: the monosubstitntion
derivatives being capable of existing in three isomeric forms. Of the
disubstitution derivatives the most important are those derived from
diparadiaminodiphenyl or benzidine (q.v.).

NH2

_ L.

Orthoaminodiphenyl, <^ _ ^>~<C _ ]>, is prepared by the action of
bromine and caustic soda on orthophenylbenzamide (R. Hirsch,
Berichte, 1892, 25, 1974); when its vapour is passed over heated
lime, carbazol (q.v.) is formed.

NH2 NH2
_l I

Diorthodiaminodiphenyl,<^ _ ^> — <^ _ ^>,isobtainedbythereduc-
tion of the corresponding nitro compound (obtained by the action of
ethyl nitrite at o° C. on metadinitrobenzidine hydrpchloride). Its
tetrazo compound on reduction gives a hydrazine which, on warming
with hydrochloric acid at 150° C., decomposes into ammonium
N = N

chloride and phenazone,<^~^> — <C~^> (Ci2H8N2). One of the
most important derivatives of diphenyl, from the theoretical point
of view, is diphenic acid or diorthodiphenyl carboxylic acid, which can
be obtained from_ diparadiaminodiphenyldiorthocarboxylic acid,
~ NH2,orfromphenanthrene(2.t).), the consti-

H2N <^~

HOOC

CO

See BENZIDINE for diparadiamino-

OOH

tution of which it determines.
diphenyl.

DIPHILUS, of Sinope, poet of the new Attic comedy and
contemporary of Menander (342-291 B.C.). Most of his plays were
written and acted at Athens, but he led a wandering life, and died
at Smyrna. He was on intimate terms with the famous courtesan
Gnathaena (Athenaeus xiii. pp. 579, 583). He is said to have
written 100 comedies, the titles of fifty of which are preserved.
He sometimes acted himself. To judge from the imitations
of Plautus. (Casino from the KXij/MUjuepot, Asinaria from the
'Ovaj6s, Rttdens from some other play), he was very skilful in
the construction of his plots. Terence also tells us that he
introduced into the Adelphi (ii. i) a scene from the ~2vva.iro6vr)-
(TKovres, which had been omitted by Plautus in his adaptation
(Commorientes) of the same play. The style of Diphilus was
simple .and natural, and his language on the whole good Attic;
he paid great attention to versification, and was supposed to have
invented a peculiar kind of metre. The ancients were undecided
whether to class him among the writers of the New or Middle
comedy. In his fondness for mythological subjects (Hercules,
Theseus) and his introduction on the stage (by a bold ana-
chronism) of the poets Archilochus and Hipponax as rivals of
Sappho, he approximates to the spirit of the latter.

Fragments in H. Koch, Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta, ii. ; see
J. Denis, La Comedie grecque (1886), ii. p. 414; R. W. Bond in
Classical Review (Feb. 1910, with trans, of Emporos fragm.).

DIPHTHERIA (from 5i<t>6fpa, a skin or membrane), the term
applied to an acute infectious disease, which is accompanied by

a membranous exudation on a mucous surface, generally on the
tonsils and back of the throat or pharynx.

In general the symptoms at the commencement of an attack
of diphtheria are comparatively slight, being those commonly
accompanying a cold, viz. chilliness and depression. Sometimes
more severe phenomena usher in the attack, such as vomiting
and diarrhoea. A slight feeling of uneasiness in the throat is ex-
perienced along with some stiffness of the back of the neck. When
looked at the throat appears reddened and somewhat swollen,
particularly in the neighbourhood of the tonsils, the soft palate
and upper part of pharynx, while along with this there is tender-
ness and swelling of the glands at the angles of the jaws. The
affection of the throat spreads rapidly, and soon the character-
istic exudation appears on the inflamed surface in the form of
greyish- white specks or patches, increasing in extent and thickness
untilayellowish-looking false membrane isformed. This deposit
is firmly adherent to the mucous membrane beneath or in-
corporated with it, and if removed leaves a raw, bleeding,
ulcerated surface, upon which it is reproduced in a short period.
The appearance of the exudation has been compared to wet
parchment or washed leather, and it is more or less dense in
texture. It may cover the whole of the back of the throat, the
cavity of the mouth, and the posterior nares, and spread down-
wards into the air-passages on the one hand and into the ali-
mentary canal on the other, while any wound on the surface of
the body is liable to become covered with it. This membrane is
apt to be detached spontaneously, and as it loosens it becomes
decomposed, giving a most offensive and characteristic odour to
the breath. There is pain and difficulty in swallowing, but unless
the disease has affected the larynx no affection of the breathing.
The voice acquires a snuffling character. When the disease
invades the posterior nares an acrid, fetid discharge, and some-
times also copious bleeding, takes place from the nostrils. Along
with these local phenomena there is evidence of constitutional
disturbance of the most severe character. There may be no
great amount of fever, but there is marked depression and loss of
strength. The pulse becomes small and frequent, the countenance
pale, the swelling of the glands of the neck increases, which, along
with the presence of albumen in the urine, testifies to a condition
of blood poisoning. Unless favourable symptoms emerge death
takes place within three or four days or sooner, either from the
rapid extension of the false membrane into the air-passage, giving
rise to asphyxia, or from a condition of general collapse, which is
sometimes remarkably sudden. In cases of recovery the change
for the better is marked by an arrest in the extension of the false
membrane, the detachment and expectoration of that already
formed, and the healing of the ulcerated mucous membrane
beneath. Along with this there is a general improvement in the
symptoms, the power of swallowing returns, and the strength
gradually increases, while the glandular enlargement of the
neck diminishes, and the albumen disappears from the urine.
Recovery, however, is generally slow, and it is many weeks
before full convalescence is established. Even, however, where
diphtheria ends thus favourably, the peculiar sequelae already
mentioned are apt to follow, generally within a period of two or
three weeks after all the local evidence of the disease has dis-
appeared. These secondary affections may occur after mild as
well as after severe attacks, and they are principally in the form of
paralysis affecting the soft palate and pharynx, causing difficulty
in swallowing with regurgitation of food through the nose, and
giving a peculiar nasal character to the voice. There are, how-
ever, other forms of paralysis occurring after diphtheria, especially
that affecting the muscles of the eye, which produces a loss of the
power of accommodation and consequent impairment of vision.
There may be, besides, paralysis of both legs, and occasionally
also of one side of the body (hemiplegia). These symptoms,
however, after continuing for a variable length of time, almost
always ultimately disappear.

Under the name of the Malum Egyptiacum, Aretaeus in the 2nd
century gives a minute description of a disease which in all its
essential characteristics corresponds to diphtheria. In the i6th,
1 7th and i8th centuries epidemics of diphtheria appear to have

DIPHTHERIA

291

frequently prevailed in many parts of Europe, particularly in
Holland, Spain, Italy, France, as well as in England, and were
described by physicians belonging to those countries under various
titles; but it is probable that other diseases of a similar nature
were included in their descriptions, and no accurate account of
this affection had been published till M. Bretonneau of Tours in
1821 laid his celebrated treatise on the subject before the French
Academy of Medicine. By him the term La Diphtlterite was first
given to the disease.

Great attention has been paid to diphtheria in recent years,
with some striking results. Its cause and nature have been
definitely ascertained, the conditions which influence its pre-
valence have been elucidated, and a specific " cure " has been
found. In the last respect it occupies a unique position at the
present time. In the case of several other zymotic diseases much
has been done by way of prevention, little or nothing for treat-
ment; in the case of diphtheria prevention has failed, but treat-
ment has been revolutionized by the introduction of antitoxin,
which constitutes the most important contribution to practical
medicine as yet made by bacteriology.

The exciting cause of diphtheria is a micro-organism, identified
by Klebs and Loffler in 1883 (see PARASITIC DISEASES). It
Causation ^as ^een sh°wn by experiment that the symptoms of
diphtheria, including the after-effects, are produced by
a toxin derived from the micro-organisms which lodge in the air-
passages and multiply in a susceptible subject. The natural
history of the organism outside the body is not well understood,
but there is some reason to believe that it lives in a dormant
condition in suitable soils. Recent research does not favour the
theory that it is derived from defective drains or " sewer gas,"
but these things, like damp and want of sunlight, probably
promote its spread, by lowering the health of persons exposed to
them, and particularly by causing an unhealthy condition of the
throat, rendering it susceptible to the contagion. Defective
drainage, or want of drainage, may also act, by polluting the
ground, and so providing a favourable soil for the germ, though
it is to be noted that " the steady increase in the diphtheria
mortality has coincided, in point of time, with steady improve-
ment in regard of such sanitary circumstances as water supply,
sewerage, and drainage " (Thome Thorne). Cats and cows are
susceptible to the diphtheritic bacillus, and fowls, turkeys
and other birds have been known to suffer from a disease like
diphtheria, but other domestic animals appear to be more or less
resistant or immune. In human beings the mere presence of the
germ is not sufficient to cause disease; there must also be
susceptibility, but it is not known in what that consists. Indi-
viduals exhibit all degrees of resistance up to complete immunity.
Children are far more susceptible than adults, but even children
may have the Klebs-Loffler bacillus in their throats without
showing any symptoms of illness. Altogether there are many
obscure points about this micro-organism, which is apt to assume
a puzzling variety of forms. Nevertheless its identification has
greatly facilitated the diagnosis of the disease, which was previ-
ously a very difficult matter, often determined in an arbitrary
fashion on no particular principles.

Diphtheria, as at present understood, may be defined as sore
throat in which the bacillus is found; if it cannot be found, the
illness is regarded as something else, unless the clinical symptoms
are quite unmistakable. One result of this is a large transference
of registered mortality from other throat affections, and particu-
larly from croup, to diphtheria. Croup, which never had a well-
defined application, and is not recognized by the College of
Physicians as a synonym for diphtheria, appears to be dying out
from the medical vocabulary in Great Britain. In France the
distinction has never been recognized.

Diphtheria is endemic in all European and American countries,
and is apparently increasing, but the incidence varies greatly.
It is far more prevalent .on the continent than in
England, and still more so in the United States and
Canada. The following table, compiled from figures
collected by Dr Newsholme, shows how London compares with
some foreign cities. The figures give the mean death-rate from

Mean Death-Rales from Diphtheria and Croup per Million living.

New York

1610

Munich .

990

Chicago

1400

Milan

Buenos Aires

1360

Florence .

830

Trieste

1300

Vienna .

770

Dresden .

1290

Stockholm

720

Berlin

IIOO

St Petersburg

650

Boston

1160

Moscow .

640

Marseilles .

1130

Paris

630

Christiania

1090

Hamburg

490

Budapest .

1880

London .

386

Preva-
lence.

diphtheria and croup for the term of years during which records
have been' kept. The period varies in different cases, and there-
fore the comparison is only a rough one.

There is comparatively little diphtheria in India and Japan,
but in Egypt, the Cape and Australasia it prevails very extensively
among the urban populations. The mortality varies greatly from
year to year in all countries and cities. In Berlin, for instance, it
has oscillated between a maximum of 2420 in 1883 and a minimum
of 340 in 1896; in New York between 2760 in 1877 and 680 in
1868; in Christiania between 3290 in 1887 and 170 in 1871. In
some American ci ties still higher maxima have been recorded. In
other words, diphtheria, though always endemic, exhibits at times
a great increase of activity, and becomes epidemic or even
pandemic. The following table for 1850-99 shows fairly well the
periodical rise and fall in England and Wales. Diphtheria and
croup are given both separately and together, showing the
increasing transference from one to the other of late years.
Diphtheria was first entered separately in the year 1859.

Deaths from Diphtheria and Croup per Million living in
England and Wales.

Years.

Diphtheria.

Croup.

Diphtheria
and Croup.

1859

517

286

803

i860

261

220

481

1861-70

185

246

431

1871-80

121

1 68

289

1881-90

163

144

3°7

1891-95

254

70

324

1896-97

269

43

312

1898

244

27

271

1899

293

32

325

The combined figures for diphtheria and croup in later years are : —
(1900) 316; (1901) 296; (1902) 255; (1903) 195; (1904) 184;
(1905) !74: (1906) 190; (1907) 175; (1908) 166.

Several facts are roughly indicated by the table. It begins
with an extremely severe epidemic, which has not been ap-
proached since. Then follows a fall extending over twenty years.
On the whole this diminution was progressive, though not in
reality so steady as the decennial grouping makes it appear, being
interrupted by smaller oscillations in single years and groups of
years. Still the main fact holds good. After 1880 an opposite
movement began, likewise interrupted by minor oscillations, but
on the whole progressive, and culminating in the year 1893 with a
death-rate of 389, the highest recorded since 1865. After 1896
a marked fall again took place. This is partly accounted for by
the use of antitoxin, which only began on a considerable scale in
1895, and did not become general until a year or two lateral
least. Its effects were only then fully felt. The registrar-
general's returns record mortality, not prevalence — that is to
say, the number of deaths, not of cases.

On the whole, we get clear evidence of an epidemic rise and fall,
which may serve to dispose of some erroneous conceptions. The
belief, held until recently, that diphtheria is steadily increasing in
Great Britain was obviously premature; it did rise over a series
of years, but has now ebbed again. Moreover, the general
prevalence during the last thirty years has been notably less
than in the previous twelve years. Yet it is during years since
1870 that compulsory education has been in existence and
main drainage chiefly carried out. It follows that neither school
attendance nor sewer gas exercises such an important influence
over the epidemicity of diphtheria as some other conditions.

292

DIPHTHERIA

What are those conditions ? Dr Newsholme has advanced the
theory, based on an elaborate examination of statistics in various
countries, that the activity of diphtheria is connected with the
rainfall, and he lays down the following general induction from
the facts: " Diphtheria only becomes epidemic in years in which
the rainfall is deficient, and the epidemics are on the largest scale
when three or more years of deficient rainfall follow each other."
He points out that the comparative rarity of diphtheria in tropical
climates, which are characterized by excessive rainfall, and its
greater prevalence in continental than in insular countries,
confirm his theory. His observations seem quite contrary to the
view laid down by various authorities, and hitherto accepted,
that wet weather favours diphtheria. The two, however, are not
irreconcilable. The key to the problem — and possibly to many
other epidemiological problems — may perhaps be found in the
movements of the subsoil water. It has been suggested by
different observers, and particularly by Mr M. A. Adams, who has
for some years made a study of the subsoil water at Maidstone,
that there is a definite connexion between it and diphtheria. In
England the underground water normally reaches its lowest level
at the end of the summer; then it gradually rises, fed by percola-
tion from the winter rains, reaching a maximum level about the
end of March, after which it gradually sinks. This maximum
level Mr Adams calls the annual spring cleaning of the soil, and
his observations go to show that when the normal movement is
arrested or disturbed, diphtheria becomes active. Now that is
what happens in periods of drought. The underground water
does not rise to its usual level, and there is no spring cleaning.
The hypothesis, then, is this: The diphtheria bacillus lives in the
soil, but is " drowned out " in wet periods by the subsoil water.
In droughty ones it lives and nourishes in the warm, dry soil;
then when rain comes, it is driven out with the ground air into the
houses. This process will continue for some time, so that epidemic
outbreaks may well seem to be associated with wet. But they
begin in drought, and are stopped by long-continued periods of
copious rainfall. This is quite in keeping with the observed fact
that diphtheria is a seasonal disease, always most prevalent in the
last quarter of the year. The summer develops the poison in the
soil, the autumnal rains bring it out. The fact that the same
cause does not produce the same effect in tropical countries may
perhaps be explained by the extreme violence of the alternations,
which are too great to suit this particular micro-organism, or
possibly the regularity of the rainfall prevents its development.

The foregoing hypothesis is supported by a good deal of
evidence, and notably by the concurrence of the great epidemic
or pandemic prevalence in Great Britain, culminating in 1859,
witha prolonged period of exceptionallydeficient rainfall. Again,
the highest death-rate registered since 1865 was in 1893, a year
of similarly exceptional drought. But it is no more than an
hypothesis, and the fate of former theories is a warning against
drawing conclusions from statistics and records extending over
too short a period of time. The warning is particularly necessary
in connexion with meteorological conditions, which are apt to
upset all calculations. As it happens, a period of deficient rain-
fall even greater than that of 1854-18-58 has recently been
experienced. It began in 1893 and culminated in the extra-
ordinary season of 1899. The dry years were 1893, 1895, 1896,
1898 and 1899, and the deficiency of rainfall was not made good
by any considerable excess in 1894 and 1897. It surpassed all
records at Greenwich; streams and wells ran dry all over the
country, and the flow of the Thames and Lea was reduced to
the lowest point ever recorded. There should be, according to
the theory, at least a very large increase in the prevalence of
diphtheria. To a certain extent it has held good. There was a
marked rise in 1893-1896 over the preceding period, though not
so large as might have been expected, but it was followed by a
decided fall in 1897-1898. The experience of 1898 contradicts,
that of 1899 supports, the theory. Further light is therefore
required; but perhaps the failure of the recent drought to produce
results at all comparable with the epidemic of the 'fifties may be
due to variations in the resistance of the disease, which differs
widely in different years. It may also be due in part to improved

sanitation, to the notification of infectious diseases, the use of
isolation hospitals, which have greatly developed in quite recent
years, and, lastly, to the beneficial effects of antitoxin. If these
be the real explanations, then scientific and administrative work
has not been thrown away after all in combating this very painful
and fatal enemy of the young.

The conditions governing the general prevalence of diphtheria,
and its epidemic rise and fall, which have just been discussed, do
not touch the question of actual dissemination. The
contagion is spread by means which are in constant
operation, whether the general amount of disease is
great or small. Water, so important in some epidemic diseases,
is believed not to be one of them, though a negative proof based
on absence of evidence cannot be accepted as conclusive. On
the other hand, milk is undoubtedly a means of dissemination.
Several outbreaks of an almost explosive character, besides minor
extensions of disease from one place to another, have been traced
to this cause. Milk may be contaminated in various ways — at
the dairy, for instance, or on the way to customers, — but several
cases, investigated by the officers of the Local Government Board
and others, have been thought to point to infection from cows
suffering from a diphtheritic affection of the udder. The part
played by aerial convection is undetermined, but there is no
reason to suppose that the infecting material is conveyed any
distance by wind or air currents. Instances which seem to point
to the contrary may be explained in other ways, and particularly
by the fact, now fully demonstrated, that persons suffering from
minor sore throats, not recognized as diphtheria, may carry the
disease about and introduce it into other localities. Human
intercourse is the most important means of dissemination, the
contagion passing from person to person either by actual contact,
as in kissing, or by the use of the same utensils and articles, or by
mere proximity. In the last case the germs must be supposed to
be air-borne for short distances, and to enter with the breath.
Rooms appear liable to become infected by the presence of
diphtheritic cases, and so spread the disease among other persons
using them. At a small outbreak which occurred at Darenth
Asylum in 1898 the infection clung obstinately to a particular
ward, in spite of the prompt removal of all cases, and fresh ones
continued to occur until it had been thoroughly disinfected, after
which there were no more. The part played by human inter-
course in fostering the spread of the disease suggests that it would
naturally be more prevalent in urban communities, where people
congregate together more, than in rural ones. This is at variance
with the conclusion laid down by some authorities, that in this
country diphtheria used to affect chiefly the sparsely populated
districts, and though tending to become more urban, is still
rather a rural disease. That view is based upon an analysis of the
distribution by counties in England and Wales from 1855 to 1880,
and it has been generally accepted and repeated until it has
become a sort of axiom. Of course the facts of distribution are
facts, but the general inference drawn from them, that diphtheria
peculiarly affects the country and is changing its habitat, may be
erroneous. Dr Newsholme, by taking a wider basis of experience,
has arrived at the opposite conclusion, and finds that diphtheria
does not, in fact, flourish more in sparsely-peopled districts.
" When a sufficiently long series of years is taken," he says, " it
appears clear that there is more diphtheria in urban than in rural
communities." The rate for London has always been in excess of
that for the whole of England and Wales. Its distribution at any
given time is determined by a number of circumstances, and by
their incidental co-operation, not by any property or predilection
for town or country inherent in the disease. There are the
epidemic conditions of soil and rainfall, previously discussed,
which vary widely in different localities at different times; there
is the steady influence of regular intercourse, and the accidental
element of special distribution by various means. These things
may combine to alter the incidence. In short, accident plays
too great a part to permit any general conclusion to be drawn
from distribution, except from a very wide basis of experience.
The variations are very great and sometimes very sudden. For
instance, the county of London for some years headed the list,

DIPHTHERIA

293

having a far higher death-rate than any other. In 1 898 it dropped
to the fifth place, and was surpassed by Rutland, a purely rural
county, which had the lowest mortality of all in the previous year
and very nearly the lowest for the previous ten years. Again,
South Wales, which had had a low mortality for some years,
suddenly came into prominence as a diphtheria district, and in
1898 had the highest death-rate in the country. Staffordshire
and Bedfordshire show a similar rise, the one an urban, the other
a rural, county. All the northern counties, both rural and urban,
— namely, Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, Westmorland,
Lancashire, Yorkshire, Cheshire and Lincolnshire, — had a very-
high rate in 1861-1870, and a low one in 1896-1898. It is
obviously unsafe to draw general conclusions from distribution
data on a small scale. Diphtheria appears to creep about very
slowly, as a rule, from place to place, and from one part of a large
town to another; it forsakes one district and appears in another;
occasionally it attacks a fresh locality with great energy, pre-
sumably because the local conditions are exceptionally favourable,
which may be due to the soil or, possibly, to the susceptibility of
the inhabitants, who are, so to speak, virgin ground. But through
it all personal infection is the chief means of spread.

The acceptance of this doctrine has directed great attention to
the practical question of school influence. There is no doubt
whatever that it plays a very considerable part, in spreading
diphtheria. The incidence of the disease is chiefly on children,
and nothing so often and regularly brings large numbers together
in close contact under the same roof as school attendance.
Nothing, in fact, furnishes such constant and extensive oppor-
tunities for personal infection. Many outbreaks have definitely
been traced to schools. In London the subject has been very
fully investigated by Sir Shirley Murphy, the medical officer of
health to the London County Council, and by Dr W. R. Smith,
formerly medical officer of health to the London School Board.
Sir Shirley Murphy has shown that a special incidence on children
of school age began to manifest itself after the adoption of
compulsory education, and that the summer holidays are marked
by a distinct diminution of cases, which is succeeded by an
increase on the return to school. Dr W. R. Smith's observations
are directed rather to minimizing the effect of school influence,
and to showing that it is less important than other factors;
which is doubtless true, as has been already remarked. It
appears that the heaviest incidence falls upon infants under school
age, and that liability diminishes progressively after school age
is reached. But this by no means disposes of the importance of
school influence, as the younger children at home may be infected
by older ones, who have picked up the contagion at school, but,
being less susceptible, are less severely affected and exhibit no
worse symptoms than a sore throat. From a practical point of
view the problem is a difficult one to deal with, as it is virtually
impossible to ensure the exclusion of all infection, on account
of the deceptively mild forms it may assume; but considering
how very often outbreaks of diphtheria necessitate the closing of
schools, it would probably be to the advantage of the authorities
to discourage, rather than to compel, the attendance of children
with sore throats. A fact of some interest revealed by statistics
is that in the earliest years of life the incidence of diphtheria is
greater upon male than upon female children, but from three
years onwards the position is reversed, and with every succeeding
year the relative female liability becomes greater. This is prob-
ably due to the habit of kissing maintained among females, but
more and more abandoned by boys from babyhood onwards.

All these considerations suggest the importance of segregating
the sick in isolation hospitals. Of late years this preventive
measure has been carried out with increasing efficiency, owing to
the better provision of such hospitals and the greater willingness
of the public to make use of them; and probably the improve-
ment so effected has had some share in keeping down the
prevalence of the disease to comparatively moderate proportions.
Unfortunately, the complete segregation of infected persons is
hardly possible, because of the mild symptoms, and even absence
of symptoms, exhibited by some individuals. A further difficulty
arises with reference to the discharge of patients. It has been

proved that the bacillus may persist almost indefinitely in the
air-passages in certain cases, and in a considerable proportion it
does persist for several weeks after convalescence. On returning
home such cases may, and often do, infect others.

Since the antitoxin treatment was introduced in 1894 it has
overshadowed all other methods. We owe this drug originally
to the Berlin school of bacteriologists, and particularly freatment.
to Dr Behring. The idea of making use of serum arose
about 1890, out of researches made in connexion with Mechnikov's
theory of phagocytosis, by which is meant the action of the
phagocytes or white corpuscles of the blood in destroying the
bacteria of disease. It was shown by the German bacteriologists
that the serum or liquid part of the blood plays an equally or more
important part in resisting disease, and the idea of combating
the toxins produced by pathogenic bacteria with resistant serum
injected into the blood presented itself to several workers. The
idea was followed up and worked out independently in France and
Germany, so successfully that by the year 1894 the serum treat-
ment had been tried on a considerable scale with most encourag-
ing results. Some of these were published in Germany in the
earlier part of that year, and at the International Hygienic
Congress, held in Budapest a little later, Dr Roux, of the Institut
Pasteur, whose experience was somewhat more extensive than
that of his German colleagues, read a paper giving the result of
several hundred cases treated in Paris. When all allowance for
errors had been made, they showed a remarkable and even
astonishing reduction of mortality, fully confirming the con-
clusions drawn from the German experiments. This consensus of
independent opinion proved a great stimulus to further trial, and
before long one dinique after another told the same tale. The
evidence was so favourable that Professor Virchow — the last man
to be carried away by a novelty — declared it " the imperative
duty of medical men to use the new remedy " (The Times, igih
October 1894). Since then an enormous mass of facts has
accumulated from all quarters of the globe, all testifying to
the value of antitoxin in the treatment of diphtheria. The
experience of the hospitals of the London Metropolitan Asylums
Board for five years before and after antitoxin may be given
as a particularly instructive illustration; but the subsequent
reduction in the rate of mortality (12 in 1900, 11-3 in 1901,
10-8 in 1902, 9-3 in 1903, and an average of 9 in 1904-1908) added
further confirmation.

Annual Case Mortality in Metropolitan Asylums Board's
Hospitals.

Before Antitoxin.

Mortality
Year. per cent.

1890 33-55

30-61
29-51
30-42

1891
1892

1893
1894

29-29

After Antitoxin.

Mortality
Year. per cent.

1895 . 22-85

1896 . 21-20

1897 . 17-79

1898 . 15-37

1899 - 15-95

The number of cases dealt with in these five antitoxin years
was 32,835, or an average of 6567 a year, and the broad result
is a reduction of mortality by more than one-half. It is a
fair inference that the treatment saves the lives of about 1000
children every year in London alone. This refers to all cases.
Those which occur in the hospitals as a sequel to scarlet fever, and
consequently come under treatment from the commencement,
show very much more striking results. The case mortality, which
was 46-8% in 1892 and 58-8% in 1893, has been reduced to
3-6% since the introduction of antitoxin. But the evidence is
not from statistics alone. The beneficial effect of the treatment
is equally attested by clinical observation. Dr Roux's original
account has been confirmed by a cloud of witnesses year after
year. " One may say," he wrote, " that the appearance of most
of the patients is totally different from what it used to be.
The pale and leaden faces are scarcely seen in the wards; the
expression of the children is brighter and more lively." Adult
patients have described the relief afforded by inoculation; it acts
like a charm, and lifts the deadly feeling of oppression off like
a cloud in the course of a few hours. Finally, the counteracting
effect of antitoxin in preventing the disintegrating action of the

294

DIPLODOCUS— DIPLOMACY

CO

1

diphtheritic toxin on
the nervous tissues has
been demonstrated
pathologically. There
are some who still affect
scepticism as to the
value of this drug.
They cannot be ac-
quainted with the evi-
dence, for if the efficacy
of antitoxin in the treat-
ment of diphtheria has
not been proved, then
neither can the efficacy
of any treatment for
anything be said to be
proved. Prophylactic
properties are also
claimed for the serum;
but protection is neces-
sarily more difficult to
demonstrate than cure,
and though there is
some evidence to sup-
port the claim, it has
not been fully made
out.

AUTHORITIE s. —
Adams, Public Health,
vol. vii. ; Thorne Thome,
Milroy Lectures (1891);
Newsholme, Epidemic
Diphtheria ; W. R. Smith,
Harben Lectures (1899);
M urphy ,Report toLondon
County Council (1894);
Sims Woodhead, Report
to Metropolitan Asylums
Board (1901).

DIPLODOCUS, a

gigantic extinct land
reptile discovered in
rocks of Upper JuYassic
age in western North
America, the best-
known example of a
Sauropodous Dinosaur.
The first scattered re-
mains of a skeleton were
found in 1877 by Prof.
S. W. Williston near
Canon City, Colorado;
and the tail and hind-
limb of this specimen
were described in the
following year by Prof.
O. C. Marsh. He
noticed that in the part
of the tail which dragged
on the ground, each
chevron bone below the
vertebral column con-
sisted of a pair of bars;
and as so peculiar an
arrangement for the
protection of the artery
and vein beneath the
tail had not previously
been observed in any
animal, he proposed
the name Diplodocus
(" double beam " or
" double bar ") for the
new reptile, adding the

specific name longus in allusion to the elongated shape of the
tail vertebrae. In 1884 Prof. Marsh described the head,
vertebrae and pelvis of the same skeleton, which is now
in the National Museum, Washington. In 1897 the next
important specimen, a tail associated with other fragments,
apparently of Diplodocus longus, was obtained by the American
Museum of Natural History, New York, from Como Bluffs,
Wyoming. In 1899-1000 large parts of two skeletons of another
species, in a remarkable state of preservation, were disinterred
by Messrs J. L. Wortman, O. A. Peterson and J. B. Hatcher in
Sheep Creek, Albany county, Wyo., and these are now exhibited
with minor discoveries in the Carnegie Museum, Pittsburg. There
are also other specimens in New York, Chicago and the Uni-
versity of Wyoming. In 1901 Mr J. B. Hatcher studied the new
species at Pittsburg, named it Diplodocus carnegii, and published
the first restored sketch of a complete skeleton. Shortly after-
wards plaster casts of the finest specimens were prepared under
the direction of Mr J. B. Hatcher and Dr W. J. Holland, and
these were skilfully combined to form the cast of a completely
reconstructed skeleton, which was presented to the British
Museum by Andrew Carnegie in 1905. This reconstruction is
based primarily on a well-preserved chain of vertebrae, extending
from the second cervical to the twelfth caudal, associated with
the ribs, pelvis and several limb-bones. The tail is completed
from two other specimens in the Carnegie Museum, having caudals
13 to 36 and 37 to 73 respectively in apparently unbroken series.
Prof. Marsh's specimen in Washington supplied the greater part
of the skull; and the fore-foot is copied from a specimen in New
York.

The cast of the reconstructed skeleton of Diplodocus carnegii
measures 84 ft. in length and 12 ft. 9 in. in maximum height at
the hind-limbs. It displays the elongated neck and tail and the
relatively small head so characteristic of the Sauropodous
Dinosaurs. The skull is inclined to the axis of the neck, denot-
ing a browsing animal; while the feeble blunt teeth and flat
expanded snout suggest feeding among succulent water-weeds.
The large narial opening at the highest point of the head probably
indicates an aquatic mode of life, and there seems to have
been a soft valve to close the nostrils when under water. The
diminutive brain-cavity, scarcely large enough to contain a
walnut, is noteworthy. There are 104 vertebrae, namely, 15 in
the neck, n in the back, 5 in the sacrum and 73 in the tail. The
presacral vertebrae are of remarkably light construction, the
plates and struts of bone being arranged to give the greatest
strength with the least weight. The end of the tail is a flexible
lash, which would probably be used as a weapon, like the tail of
some existing lizards. The feet, notwithstanding the weight they
had to support, are as unsymmetrical as those of a crocodile, with
claws only on the three inner toes. There is no external armour.

See O. C. Marsh, Amer. Journ. Sci. ser. 3, vol. xvi. (1878), p. 414,
pi. viii., and loc. cit. vol. xxvii. (1884), p. 161, pis. iii., iv. ;
H. F. Osborn, Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. vol. i. pt. v. (1899);
J. B. Hatcher, Mem. Carnegie Mus. vol. i. No. I (1901), and vol. ii.
No. i (1903); W. J. Holland, Mem. Carnegie Mus. vol. ii. No. 6
(1906). (A. S. Wo.)

. DIPLOMACY (Fr. diplomatic), the art of conducting inter-
national negotiations. The word, borrowed from the French, has
the same derivation as Diplomatic (q.ii.), and, according to the
New English Dictionary, was first used in England so late as 1796
by Burke. Yet there is no other word in the English language
that could supply its exact sense. The need for such a term
was indeed not felt; for what we know as diplomacy was long
regarded, partly as falling under the Jus gentium or international
law, partly as a kind of activity morally somewhat suspect and
incapable of being brought under any system. Moreover, though
in a certain sense it is as old as history, diplomacy as a uniform
system, based upon generally recognized rules and directed by
a diplomatic hierarchy having a fixed international status, is of
quite modern growth even in Europe. It was finally established
only at the congressesof Vienna (1815) and Aix-la-Chapelle (1818),
while its effective extension to the great monarchies of the East,
beyond the bounds of European civilization, was comparatively
an affair of yesterday. So late as 1876 it was possible for the

DIPLOMACY

295

writer on this subject in the gih edition of the Encyclopaedia
Brilannica to say that " it would be an historical absurdity to
suppose diplomatic relations connecting together China, Burma
and Japan, as they connect the great European powers."

Principles. — Though diplomacy has been usually treated under
the head of international law, it would perhaps be more consonant
with the facts to place international law under diplomacy. The
principles and rules governing the intercourse of states, denned
by a long succession of international lawyers, have no sanction
save the consensus of the powers, established and maintained
by diplomacy (see BALANCE OF POWER) ; m so far as they have
become, by international agreement, more than mere pious
opinions of theorists, they are working rules established for
mutual convenience, which it is the function of diplomacy to
safeguard or to use for its own ends. In any case they by no
means cover the whole field of diplomatic activity; and, were
they swept away, the art of diplomacy, developed through long
ages of experience, would survive.

This experience may perhaps be called the science, as distinct
from the art, of diplomacy. It covers not only the province of
international law, but the vast field of recorded experience which
we know as history, of which indeed international law is but a
part; for, as Bielfeld in his Institutions politiques (La Haye, 1760,
1. 1. ch. ii. § 13) points out, " public law is founded on facts. To
know it we must know history, which is the soul of this science
as of politics in general." The broad outlook on human affairs
implied in " historical sense " is more necessary to the diplomatist
under modern conditions than in the i8th century, when inter-
national policy was still wholly under the control of princes
and their immediate advisers. Diplomacy was then a game of
wits played in a narrow circle. Its objects too were narrower;
for states were practically regarded as the property of their
sovereigns, which it was the main function of their " agents " to
enlarge or to protect, while scarcely less important than the
preservation or rearrangement of territorial boundaries was that
of precedence and etiquette generally, over which an incredible
amount of time was wasted. The haute diplomatic thus resolved
itself into a process of exalted haggling, conducted with an
utter disregard of the ordinary standards of morality, but with
the most exquisite politeness and in accordance with ever
more and more elaborate rules. Much of the outcome of these
dead debates has become stereotyped in the conventions of the
diplomatic service; but the character of diplomacy itself has
undergone a great change. This change is threefold: firstly, as
the result of the greater sense of the community of interests
among nations, which was one of the outcomes of the French
Revolution; secondly, owing to the rise of democracy, with its
expression in parliamentary assemblies and in the press; thirdly,
through the alteration in the position of the diplomatic agent, due
to modern means of communication.

The first of these changes may be dated to the circular of Count
Kaunitz of the tyth of July 1791, in which, in face of the Revolu-
tion, he impressed upon the powers the duty of making common
cause for the purpose of preserving " public peace, the tran-
quillity of states, the inviolability of possessions, and the faith of
treaties." The duty of watching over the common interests of
Europe, or of the world, was thus for the first time officially
recognized as a function of diplomacy, since common action could
only be taken as the result of diplomatic negotiations. It would
be easy to exaggerate the effective results of this idea, even when
it had crystallized in the Grand Alliance of 1814 and been pro-
claimed to the world in the Holy Alliance of the 26th of September
181 sand the declaration of Aix-la-Chapelle. The cynical picture
given by La Bruyere of the diplomatist of the i8th century still
remained largely true : " His talk is only of peace, of alliances,
of the public tranquillity, and of the public interests; in reality
he is thinking only of his own, that is to say, of those of his master
or of his republic." 1 The proceedings of the congress of Vienna
proved how little the common good weighed unless reinforced
by particular interests; but the conception of " Europe " as a
political entity none the Jess survived. The congresses, notably
'La Bruyere, Caracteres, ii. 77 (ed. P. Jouast, Paris, 1881).

the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (q.v.) in 1818, were in a certain
sense European parliaments, and their ostensible object was the
furtherance of common interests. Had the imperial dreamer
Alexander I. of Russia had his way, they would have been
permanently established on the broad basis of the Holy Alliance,
and would have included, not the great powers only, but re-
presentatives of every state (see ALEXANDER I. and EUROPE:
History). Whatever the effective value of that " Concert of
Europe " which was the outcome of the period of the congresses,
it certainly produced a great effect on the spirit and the practice
of diplomacy. In the congresses and conferences diplomacy
assumes international functions both legislative and admini-
strative. The diplomat is responsible, not only to his own
government, but to " Europe." Thus Castlereagh was accused of
subordinating the interests of Great Britain to those of Europe;
and the same charge was brought, perhaps with greater justice,
against Metternich in respect of Austria. Canning's principle of
" Every nation for itself and God for us all!" prevailed, it is
true, over that of Alexander's " Confederation of Europe "; yet,
as one outcome of the congresses, every diplomatic agent, though
he represents the interests of his own state, has behind him the
whole body of the treaties which constitute the public law of
the world, of which he is in some sort the interpreter and the
guardian.

Parallel with this development runs the second process making
for change: the increasing responsibility of diplomacy to public
opinion. To discuss all the momentous issues involved in this is
impossible; but the subject is too important to be altogether
passed over, since it is one of the main problems of modern
international intercourse, and concerns every one who by his vote
may influence the policy of the state to which he belongs. The
question, broadly speaking, is: how far has the public discussion
of international affairs affected the legitimate functions of
diplomacy for better or for worse? To the diplomatist of the
old school the answer seems clear. For him diplomacy was too
delicate and too personal an art to survive the glare and confusion
of publicity. Metternich, the last representative of the old haute
diplomatie, lived to moralize over the ruin caused by the first
manifestations of the " new diplomacy," the outcome of the rise
of the power of public opinion. He had early, from his own point
of view, unfavourably contrasted the " limited " constitutional
monarchies of the west with the " free " autocracies of the east
of Europe, free because they were under no obligation to give a
public account of their actions. He himself was a master of the
old diplomatic art, of intrigue, of veiling his purpose under a cloud
of magniloquence, above all, of the art of personal fascination.
But public opinion was for him only a, dangerous force to be kept
under control; and, even had he realized the necessity for appeal-
ing to it, he had none of the qualities that would have made the
appeal successful. In direct antagonism to him was George
Canning, who may be called the great prototype of the " new
diplomacy," and to Metternich was a " malevolent meteor hurled
by divine providence upon Europe." Canning saw clearly the
immense force that would be added to his diplomatic action if
he had behind him the force of public opinion. In answer to
Metternich's complaint of the tone of speeches in parliament and
of the popular support given in England to revolutionary move-
ments, he wrote, " Our influence, if it is to be maintained abroad,
must be secure in its sources of strength at home: and the sources
of that strength are in the sympathy between the people and the
government; in the union of the public sentiment with the public
counsels; in the reciprocal confidence of the House of Commons
and the crown."2

It would be a mistake to jump to the conclusion that Canning
was wholly right and Metternich wholly wrong. The conditions
of the Habsburg monarchy were not those of Great Britain,3
and even if it had been possible to speak of a public opinion in the
Austrian empire at all, it certainly possessed no such organ as
the British parliament. But the argument may be carried yet

2 To Wellesley, in Stapleton's Canning, i. 374.

3 For the motives of Metternich's foreign policy see AUSTRIA-
HUNGARY: History (iii. 332-333).

296

DIPLOMACY

further. In the abstract the success of the policy of a minister
in a democratic state must ultimately rest upon the support of
public opinion; yet the necessity for this support has in the
conduct of foreign affairs its peculiar dangers. In the difficult
game of diplomacy a certain reticence is always necessary. Secret
sources of information would be dried up were they to be lightly
revealed; a plain exposition of policy would often give an undue
advantage to the other party to a negotiation. Thus, even in
Great Britain, the diplomatic correspondence laid before parlia-
ment is carefully edited, and all governments are jealous of
granting access to their modern archives. Yet a representative
assembly is apt to be resentful of such reservations. Its members
know little or nothing of the conditions under which foreign
affairs are conducted, and they are not unnaturally irritated
by explanations which seem to lack candour or completeness.
Canning himself had experience of this in the affair of the capture
of the Danish fleet at Copenhagen; and Castlereagh's diplomacy
was hampered by the bitter attacks of an opposition which
accused him, with little justice, of pursuing a policy which he
dared not reveal in its full scope to parliament. Moreover, the
appeal to public opinion may be used as a diplomatic weapon for
ends no less " selfish " than any aimed at by the old diplomacy.
Bismarck, whose statesmanship was at least as cynical as that of
Metternicb, was a master of the art of taking the world into his
confidence — when it suited him to do so; and the " reptile press,"
hired to give a seemingly independent support to his policy,
was one of his most potent weapons. So far the only necessary
consequence of the growth of the power of public opinion on the
art of diplomacy has been to extend the sphere of its application;
it is but one more factor to be dealt with; and experience has
proved that it is subject to the wiles of a skilful diplomatist no
less than were the princes and statesmen with whom the old
diplomacy was solely concerned.

The third factor making for change — the revolution in the
means of communication which has brought all the world into
closer touch — remains to be discussed. It is obvious that before
the invention of the telegraph, the diplomatic agent was in a far
more responsible position than he is now, when he can, in most
cases, receive immediate instructions from his government on
difficult questions as they arise. When communication was still
slow there was often no time to await instructions, or the instruc-
tions when they arrived were not seldom already out of date and
had to be set aside on the minister's own responsibility. It would,
however, be easy to exaggerate the importance of this change as
affecting the character and status of diplomatic agents. It is true
that the tendency has been for ministers of foreign affairs to hold
the threads of diplomacy in their own hands to a far greater
extent than was formerly the case; but they must still depend
for information and advice on the " man on the spot," and the
success of their policy largely depends upon his qualities of
discretion and judgment. The growth of democracy, moreover,
has given to the ambassador a new and peculiar importance; for
he represents not only the sovereign to the sovereign, but the
nation to the nation; and, as a succession of notable American
ambassadors to Great Britain has proved, he may by his personal
qualities do a large amount to remove the prejudices and
ignorances which stand as a barrier between the nations. It
marks an immense advance in the comity of international
intercourse when the representatives of friendly powers are
no longer regarded as " spies rather than ambassadors," to be
" quickly heard and dismissed," as Philippe de Commines would
have them, but as agreeable guests to be parted from with regret.

As to the qualifications for an ambassador, it is clearly im-
possible to lay down a general rule, for the same qualities are
obviously not required in Washington as in Vienna, nor in Paris
as in Pekin. Yet the effort to depict the ideal ambassador bulks
largely in the works of the earlier theorists, and the demands they
make are sufficiently alarming. Ottaviano Maggi, himself a
diplomatist of the brilliant age of the Renaissance, has left us in
his De legato (Hanoviae, 1596) his idea of what an ambassador
should be. He must not only be a good Christian but a learned
theologian; he must be a philosopher, well versed in Aristotle

and Plato, and able at a moment's notice to solve in correct
dialectical form the most abstruse problems; he must be well
read in the classics, and an expert in mathematics, architecture,
music, physics and civil and canon law. He must not only know
how to write and speak Latin with classical refinement, but he
must be a master of Greek, Spanish, French, German and Turkish.
He must Have a sound knowledge of history, geography and the
science of war; but at the same time is not to neglect the poets,
and never to be without his Homer. Add to this that he must
be well born, rich and of a handsome presence, and we have
a portrait of a diplomatist whose original can hardly have
existed even in that age of brilliant versatility. The Dutchman
Frederikus de Marselaer, in his KijpvKtiov sive legationum
insigne (Antwerp, 1618), is scarcely less exacting than the
Venetian. His ideal ambassador is a nobleman of fine presence
and in the prime of life, famous, rich, munificent, abstemious,
not violent, nor quarrelsome, nor morose, no flatterer, learned,
eloquent, witty without being talkative, a good linguist, widely
read, prudent and cautious, but brave and — as he adds somewhat
superfluously — many-sided.

With these theoretical perfections one or two instances of the
qualifications demanded by the exigencies of practical politics
may be cited by way of illuminating contrast. At the court of the
empress Elizabeth of Russia good looks were a surer means of
diplomatic success than all the talents and virtues, and the
princess of Zerbst (mother of the empress Catherine II.) wrote to
Frederick of Prussia advising him to replace his elderly am-
bassador by a handsome young man with a good complexion;
and the essential qualification for an ambassador to Switzerland,
Germany, Poland, Denmark and Russia used to be that he should
be able to drink the native diplomatists, seasoned from babyhood
to strong liquors, under the table.

History. — In its widest sense the history of diplomacy is that of
the intercourse between nations, in so far as this has not been a
mere brute struggle for the mastery;1 in a narrower sense, with
which the present article is alone concerned, it is that of the
methods and spirit of diplomatic intercourse and of the character
and status of diplomatic agents. Earlier writers on the office
and functions of ambassadors, such as Gentilis or Archbishop
Germonius, conscientiously trace their origin to God himself,
who created the angels to be his legates; and they fortify their
arguments by copious examples drawn from ancient history,
sacred and profane. But, whatever the influence upon it of
earlier practice, modern diplomacy really dates from the rise of
permanent missions, and the consequent development of the
diplomatic hierarchy as an international institution. Of this the
first beginnings are traceable to the isth century and to Italy.
There had, of course, during the middle ages been embassies and
negotiations; but the embassies had been no more than tem-
porary missions directed to a particular end and conducted by
ecclesiastics or nobles cf a dignity appropriate to each occasion;
there were neither permanent diplomatic agents nor a professional
diplomatic class. To the evolution of such a class the Italy of the
Renaissance, the nursing-ground of modern statecraft, gave the
first impetus. This was but natural; for Italy, with its numerous
independent states, between which there existed a lively inter-
course and a yet livelier rivalry, anticipated in miniature the
modern states' system of Europe. In feudal Europe there had
been little room for diplomacy; but in northern and central Italy
feudalism had never taken root, and in the struggles of the
peninsula diplomacy had early played a part as great as, or greater
than, war. Where all were struggling for the mastery, the
existence of each depended upon alliances and counter-alliances,
of which the object was the maintenance of the balance of power.
In this school there was trained a notable succession of men of
affairs. Thus, in the isth and i4th centuries Florence counted
among her envoys Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, and later on
could boast of agents such as Capponi, Vettori, Guicciardini and
Machiavelli. Papal Rome, too, as was to be expected, had
always been a fruitful nursing-mother of diplomatists; and some

1 e.g. A History of Diplomacy in the International Development oj
Europe, by D. J. Hill (London and New York, 1905).

DIPLOMACY

297

authorities have traced the beginnings of modern diplomacy to a
conscious imitation of her legatine system.1

It is, however, in Venice, that the origins of modern diplomacy
are to be sought.2 So early as the I3th century the republic, with
a view to safeguarding the public interests, began to lay down a
series of rules for the conduct of its ambassadors. Thus, in 1 236,
envoys to the court of Rome are forbidden to procure a benefice
for anyone without leave of the doge and little council ; in 1268
ambassadors are commanded to surrender on their return any
gifts they may have received, and by another decree they are
compelled to take an oath to conduct affairs to the honour and
advantage of the republic. About the same time it was decided
that diplomatic agents were to hand in, on their return, a written
account of their mission; in 1288 this was somewhat expanded by
a law decreeing that ambassadors were to deposit, within fifteen
days of their return, a written account of the replies made to them
during their mission, together with anything they might have seen
or heard to the honour or in the interests of the republic. These
provisions, which were several times renewed, notably in 1296,
1425 and 1533, are the origin of the famous reports of the
Venetian ambassadors to the senate, which are at once a monu-
ment to the political genius of Venetian statesmen and a mine
of invaluable historical material.3

These are but a few examples of a long series of regulations,
many others also dating to the I3th century, by which the
Venetian government sought to systematize its diplomatic
service. That permanent diplomatic agencies were not estab-
lished by it earlier than was the case is probably due to the
distrust of its agents by which most of this legislation of the
republic is inspired. In the i3th century two or three months
was considered over-long a period for an ambassador to reside at
a foreign court; in the isth century the period of residence was
extended to two years, and in the i6th century to three. This
latter rule continued till the end of the republic; the embassy
had become permanent, but the ambassador was changed every
three years.

The origin of the change from temporary to permanent missions
has been the subject of much debate and controversy. The theory
that it was due, in the first instance, to the evolution of the
Venetian consulates (bajulats) in the Levant into permanent
diplomatic posts, and that the idea was thence transferred to the
West, is disproved by the fact that Venice had established other
permanent embassies before the baylo (q.v.) at Constantinople was
transformed into a diplomatic agent of the first rank. Nor is
the first known instance of the appointment of a permanent
ambassador Venetian. The earliest record4 is contained in the
announcement by Francesco Sforza, duke of Milan, in 1455, of his
intention to maintain a permanent embassy at Genoa5; and in
1460 the duke of Savoy sent Eusebio Margaria, archdeacon of
Vercelli, as his permanent representative to the Curia.6 Though,
however, the early records of such appointments are rare, the
practice was probably common among the Italian states. Its
extension to countries outside Italy was a somewhat later develop-
ment. In 1494 Milan is already represented in France by a
permanent ambassador. In 1495 Zacharia Contarini, Venetian
ambassador to the emperor Maximilian, is described by Sanuto
(Diarii, i. 294) as stato ambasciatore; and from the time of

1 For this see Hinschius, Kirchenrecht, i. p. 498.

2 The Venetians, however, in their turn, doubtless learned their
diplomacy originally from the Byzantines, with whom their trade
expansion in the Levant early brought them into close contact. For
Byzantine diplomacy see ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER: Diplomacy.

* See Eugenio Alberi, Le Relazioni degli ambasciatori Veneti al
senato, 15 vols. (Florence, 1839-1863).

4 The apocrisiarii (awoKpiviapioi) or responsales should perhaps be
mentioned, though they certainly did not set the precedent for the
modern permanent missions. They were resident agents, practically
legates, of the popes at the court of Constantinople. They were
established by Pope Leo I., and continued until the Iconoclastic
controversy broke the intimate ties between East and West. See
Luxardo, Das vordekretalische Gesandtschaftsrecht der Papste (Inns-
bruck, 1878) ; also Hinschius, Kirchenrecht, i. 501.

6 N. Bianchi, Le Materie politiche relative all' estero degli archivi di
stato piemontese (Bologna, Modena, 1875), p. 29.

6 Ib. Note 2, teneamus et deputemus ibidem continue mansurum.

Charles V. onwards the succession of ambassadors of the republic
at the imperial court is fairly traceable. In 1496 " as the way to
the British Isles is very long and very dangerous," two merchants
resident in London, Pietro Contarini and Luca Valaressa, were
appointed by the republic subambasciatores; and in June of the
same year Andrea Trevisano arrived in London as permanent
ambassador at the court of Henry VII.7 Florence, too, from
1498 onwards, was represented at the courts of Charles V. and of
France by permanent ambassadors.

During the same period the practice had been growing up
among the other European powers. Spain led the way in 1487
by the appointment of Dr Roderigo Gondesalvi de Puebla as
ambassador in England. As he was still there in 1500, the
Spanish embassy in London may be regarded as the oldest still
surviving post of the new permanent diplomacy. Other states
followed suit, but only fitfully; it was not till late in the i6th
century that permanent embassies were regarded as the norm.
The precarious relations between the European powers during
the 1 6th century, indeed, naturally retarded the development of
the system. Thus it was not till after good relations had been
established with France by the treaty of London that, in 1519,
Sir Thomas Boleyn and Dr West were sent to Paris as resident
English ambassadors, and, after the renewed breach between the
two countries, no others were appointed till the reign of Elizabeth.
Nine years before, Sir Robert Wingfield, whose simplicity earned
him the nickname of " Summer-shall-be-green," had been sent as
ambassador to the court of Charles V., where he remained from
1510 to 1517; and in 1520 the mutual appointment of resident
ambassadors was made a condition of the treaty between Henry
VIII. and Charles V. In 1517 Thomas Spinelly, who had for
some years represented England at the court of the Netherlands,
was appointed " resident ambassador to the court of Spain,"
where he remained till his death on the 22nd of August 1522.
These are the most important early instances of the new system.
Alone of the great powers, the emperor remained permanently
unrepresented at foreign courts. In theory this was the result
of his unique dignity, which made him superior to all other
potentates; actually it was because, as emperor, he could not
speak for the practically independent princes nominally his
vassals. It served all practical purposes if he were represented
abroad by his agents as king of Spain or archduke of Austria.

All the evidence now available goes to prove that the establish-
ment of permanent diplomatic agencies was not an unconscious
and accidental development of previous conditions, but de-
liberately adopted as an obvious convenience. But, while all the
powers were agreed as to the convenience of maintaining such
agencies abroad, all were equally agreed in viewing the repre-
sentatives accredited to them by foreign states with extreme
suspicion. This attitude was abundantly justified by the
peculiar ethics of the new diplomacy. The old " orators " of the
Summer-shall-be-green type could not long hold their own
against the new men who had studied in the school of Italian
statecraft, for whom the end justified the means. Machiavelli
had gathered in The Prince and The Discourses on Livy the
principles which underlay the practice of his day in Italy;
Francis I., the first monarch to establish a completely organized
diplomatic machinery, did most to give these principles a
European extension. By the close of the 1 6th century diplomacy
had become frankly " Machiavellian," and the ordinary rules of
morality were held not to apply to the intercourse between
nations. This was admitted in theory as well as in practice.
Germonius, after a vigorous denunciation of lying in general,
argues that it is permissible for the safety or convenience
(commodo) of princes, since solus populi suprema lex, and quod
non permittit naturalis ratio, admiUit civilis; and he adduces
in support of this principle the answer given by Ulysses to
Neoptolemus, in the Ajax of Sophocles, and the examples of
Abraham, Jacob and David. Paschalius, while affirming that an
ambassador must study to speak the truth, adds that he is not

7 The first ambassador of Venice to visit England was Zuanne da
Lezze, who came in 1319 to demand compensation for the plundering
of Venetian ships by English pirates.

298

DIPLOMACY

such a " rustic boor " as to say that an " official lie " (officiosum
mendacium) is never to be employed, or to deny that an
ambassador should be, on occasion, splendide mendax.1 The
situation is summed up in the famous definition of Sir Henry
Wotton, which, though excused by himself as a jest, was held to
be an indiscreet revelation of the truth: " An ambassador is an
honest man sent to lie abroad for the good of his country."2
The most successful liar, in fact, was esteemed the most successful
diplomatist. " A prime article of the catechism of ambassadors,"
says Bayle in his Dictionnaire critique (1699), " whatever their
religion, is to invent falsehoods and to go about making society
believe them." So universally was this principle adopted that,
in the end, no diplomatist even expected to be believed; and
the best way to deceive was — as Bismarck cynically avowed —
to tell the truth.

But, in addition to being a liar ex officio, the ambassador was
also " an honourable spy." " The principal functions of an
envoy," says Francois de Callieres, himself an ex-ambassador of
Louis XIV., " are two; the first is to look after the affairs of his
own prince; the second is to discover the affairs of the other."
A clever minister, he maintains, will know how to keep himself
informed of all that goes on in the mind of the sovereign, in the
councils of ministers or in the country; and for this end " good
cheer and the warming effect of wine " are excellent allies.3
This being so, it is hardly to be wondered at that foreign
ambassadors were commonly regarded as perhaps necessary, but
certainly very unwelcome, guests. The views of Philippe de
Commines have already been quoted above, and they were shared
by a long series of theoretical writers as well as by men of affairs.
Gentilis is all but alone in his protest against the view that all
ambassadors were exploratores magis quam oratores, and to be
treated as such. So early as 1481 the government of Venice had
decreed the penalty of banishment and a heavy fine for any one
who should talk of affairs of state with a foreign envoy, and
though the more civilized princes did not follow the example of
the sultan, who by way of precaution locked the ambassador of
Ferdinand II., Jerome Laski, into " a dark and stinking place
without windows," they took the most minute precautions to
prevent the ambassadors of friendly powers from penetrating
into their secrets. Charles V. thought it safest to keep them as
far away as possible from his court. So did Francis I. ; and, when
affairs were critical, he made his frequent changes of residence
and his hunting expeditions the excuse for escaping from
their presence. Henry VII. forbade his subjects to hold
any intercourse with them, and, later on, set spies upon them
and examined their correspondence — a practice by no means
confined to England. If the system of permanent embassies
survived, it is clear that this was mainly due to the belief of the
sovereigns that they gained more by maintaining " honourable
spies " at foreign courts than they lost by the presence of those
of foreign courts at their own. It was purely a question of the
balance of advantage. Neither among statesmen nor among
theorists was there any premonition of the great part to be
played by the permanent diplomatic body in the development
and maintenance of the concert of Europe. To Paschalius the
permanent embassies were " a miserable outgrowth of a miserable
age."4 Grotius himself condemned them as not only harmful,

1Germonius, De le.gatis principum et populorum libri tres (Rome,
1627), chap. vi. p. 164; Paschalius, Legatus (Rouen, 1598), p. 302.
fitienne Dolet, who had been secretary to Cardinal Jean du Bellay,
and was burned for atheism in 1546, in his De officio legati (1541)
advises ambassadors to surround themselves with taciturn servants,
to employ vigilant spies, and to set afoot all manner of fictions,
especially when negotiating with the court of Rome or with the
Italian princes.

2 See Pearsall Smith, Sir Henry Wotton, pp. 49, 126 et seq.

3 Frangois de Callieres, De la maniere de negocier aiiec les souverains
(Brussels, 1716). See also A. Sorel, Recueil des instructions donnees
aux ambassadeurs et ministres de France (Paris, 1884), e.g. vol.
Autriche, pp. 77, 88, 102, 112.

4 " Nova res est, quod sciam, et infelicis hujus aetatis infelix
partus. . . . Hinc orin securitatem universorum, hinc stabiliri pacem
gentium. Quae utinam tarn vere dicerentur, quam speciose. Ego
quidem, ne quid dissimulem, ab istis seorsum sentio. Nimirum,
effoeta virtutis, foecunda fraudis haec saecula video peperisse

but useless, the proof of the latter being that they were unknown
to antiquity.6

Development of the Diplomatic Hierarchy. — The history of
the diplomatic body 6 is, like that of other bodies, that of the
progressive differentiation of functions. The middle ages knew
no classification of diplomatic agents; the person sent on mission
is described indifferently as legatus, orator, nuntius, ablegatus,
commissarius, procurator, mandatarius, agens or ambaxator
(ambassator, &c.). In Gundissalvus, De legato (1485), the oldest
printed work on the subject, the word ambasiator, first found in
a Venetian decree of 1268, is applied to any diplomat. Florence
was the first to make distinction; the orator was appointed by
the council of the republic; the mandatorio, with inferior powers,
by the Council of Ten. In 1500 Machiavelli, who held only the
latter rank, wrote from France urging the Signoria to send
ambasiadori. This was, however, rather a question of powers
than of dignity. But the causes which ultimately led to the
elaborate differentiation of diplomatic ranks were rather ques-
tions of dignity than of functions.7 The breakdown of feudalism,
with the consequent rise of a series of sovereign states or of states
claiming to be sovereign, of very various size and importance, led
to a certain confusion in the ceremonial relation between them,
which had been unknown to the comparatively clearly defined
system of the middle ages. The smaller states were eager to
assert the dignity of their actual or practical independence;
the greater powers were equally bent on "keeping them in their
place." If the emperor, as has been stated above, was too
exalted to send ambassadors, certain of the lesser states were soon
esteemed too humble to be represented at the courts of the great
powers save by agents of an inferior rank. By the second half
of the i6th century, then, there are two classes of diplomatists,
ambassadors and residents or agents, the latter being accounted
ambassadors of the second class.8 At first the difference of rank
was determined by the status of the sovereign by whom or to
whom the diplomatic agent was accredited; but early in the i6th
century it became fairly common for powers of the first rank to
send agents of the second class to represent them at courts of
an equal status. The reasons were various, and not unamusing.
First and foremost came the question of expense. The am-
bassador, as representing the person of his sovereign, was bound
by the sentiment of the age to display an exaggerated magnifi-
cence. His journeys were like royal progresses, his state entries
surrounded with every circumstance of pomp, and it was held to
be his duty to advertise the munificence of his prince by boundless
largesses. Had this munificence been as unlimited in fact as
in theory, all might have been well, but, in that age of vaulting
ambitions, depleted exchequers were the rule rather than the
exception in Europe; the records are full of pitiful appeals from
ambassadors for arrears of pay, and appointment to an embassy
often meant ruin, even to a man of substance. To give but one
example, Sir Richard Morison, Edward VI.'s ambassador in
Germany, had to borrow money to pay his debts before he could
leave Augsburg (Cal. State Pap. Edio. VI., No. 467), and later
on he writes from Hamburg (April 9, 1552) that he could buy
nothing, because everyone believed that he had packed up in

spissata haec imperia, sive summas potestates, unde, ut e vomitariis,
hae legationes undatim se fundunt." Paschalius, Legatus (1598),
p. 447. So too Felix de la Mothe Le Vayer (1547-1625), in his
Legatus (Paris, 1579), says " Legates tune primum aut npn multura
post institutes fuisse cum Pandora malorum omnium semina in hunc
mundum . . . demisit."

6 De jure belli et pacis (Amsterdam, 1621), ii. c. 18, § 3, n. 2.

6 The term corps diplomatique originated about the middle of the
l8th century. " The Chancellor Fiirst," says Ranke (xxx. 47, note),
" does not use it as yet in his report (1754) but he knows it," and it
would appear that it had just been invented at Vienna. " Corps
diplomatique, nom qu'une dame donna un jour a ce corps nombreux
de ministres etrangers a Vienne."

7 So too Pradier-Fodere, vol. i. p. 262.

8 Thus Charles V. would not allow the representatives of the duke
of Mantua, Ferrara, &c., to style themselves " ambassadors," on the
ground that this title could be borne only by the agents of kings and
of the republic of Venice, and not by those of states whose sovereignty
was impaired by any feudal relation to a superior power. (See
Krauske, p. 155.)

DIPLOMACY

299

readiness to flit secretly, for " How must they buy things, where
men know their stuff is ready trussed up, and they fleeting every
day? " (ib. No. 544). But the dignity of ambassador carried
another drawback besides expense; his function of " honourable
spy " was seriously hampered by the trammels of his position.
He was unable to move freely in society, but lived a ceremonial
existence in the midst of a crowd of retainers, through whom alone
it was proper for him to communicate with the world outside. It
followed that, though the office of ambassador was more dignified,
that of agent was more generally useful.

Yet a third cause, possibly the most immediately potent,
encouraged the growth of the lesser diplomatic ranks: the
question of precedence among powers theoretically equal.
Modern diplomacy has settled a difficulty which caused at one
time much heart-burning and even bloodshed by a simple appeal
to the alphabet. Great Britain feels no humiliation in signing
after France, if the reason be that her name begins with G; had
she not been Great, she would sign before. The vexed question of
the precedence of ambassadors, too, has been settled by the rule,
already referred to above, as to seniority of appointment. But
while the question remained unsettled it was obviously best to
evade it; and this was most easily done by sending an agent
of inferior rank to a court where the precedence claimed for an
ambassador would have been refused.

Thus set in motion, the process of differentiation continues
until the system is stereotyped in the igth century. It is un-
necessary to trace this evolution here in any detail. It is mainly
a question of names, and diplomatic titles are no exception to the
general rule by which all titles tend to become cheapened and
therefore, from time to time, need to be reinforced by fresh verbal
devices. The method was the familiar one of applying terms
that had once implied a particular quality in a fashion that
implied actually nothing. The ambassador extraordinary had
originally been one sent on an extraordinary mission; for the
time and purpose of this mission his authority superseded that
of the resident ambassador. But by the middle of the I7th
century the custom had grown up of calling all ambassadors
" extraordinary," in order to place them on an equality with the
others. The same process was extended to diplomatists of the
second rank; and envoys (envoy e for ablegatus) were always
" extraordinary," and as such claimed and received precedence
over mere " residents," who in their day had asserted the same
claim against the agents — all three terms having at one time
been synonymous. Similarly a " minister plenipotentiary " had
originally meant an agent armed with full powers (plein-pouwir) ;
but, by a like process, the combination came to mean as little as
" envoy extraordinary " — though a plenipotentiary tout simple is
still an agent, of no ceremonially defined dignity, despatched with
full powers to treat and conclude. Finally, the evolution of the
title of a diplomatist of the second rank is crowned by the high-
sounding combination, now almost exclusively used, of " envoy
extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary." The ultimate fate
of the simple title " resident " was the same as that of " agent."
Both had been freely sold by needy sovereigns to all and sundry
who were prepared to pay for what gave them a certain social
status. The " agent " fell thus into utter discredit, and those
"residents" who were still actual diplomatic agents became
" ministers resident " to distinguish them from the common herd.

The classification of diplomatic agents was for the first time
definitively included in the general body of international law by
the Reglement of the igth of March 1815 at Vienna1; and the
whole question was finally settled at the congress of Aix-la-
Chapelle (November 21, 1818) when, the proposal to establish
precedence by the status of the accrediting powers having wisely
been rejected, diplomatic agents were divided into four classes:
(i) Ambassadors, legates, nuncios; (2) Envoys extraordinary
and ministers plenipotentiary, and other ministers accredited
direct to the sovereign; (3) Ministers resident; (4) Charges
d'affaires. With a few exceptions (e.g. Turkey), this settlement
was accepted by all states, including the United States of
America.

1 See Pradier-Fodere, i. 265.

Rights and Privileges of Diplomatic Agents. — These are partly
founded upon immemorial custom, partly the result of negotia-
tions embodied in international law. The most important, as it
is the most ancient, is the right of personal inviolability extended
to the diplomatic agent and the members of his suite. This
inviolability is maintained after a rupture between the two
governments concerned, and even after the outbreak of war.
The habit of the Ottoman government of imprisoning in the
Seven Towers the ambassador of a power with which it quarrelled
was but an exception which proved the rule. The second im-
portant right is that of exterritoriality (<?.».), a convenient
fiction by which the house and equipages of the diplomatic agent
are regarded as the territory of the power by whom he is ac-
credited. This involves the further principle that the agent is in
no way subject to the receiving government. He is exempt from
taxation and from the payment at least of certain local rates. He
also enjoys immunity (i) from civil jurisdiction, e.g. he cannot be
sued, nor can his goods be seized, for debt; (2) from criminal
jurisdiction, e.g. he cannot be arrested and tried for a criminal
offence. For a crime of violence, however, or for plotting against
the state, he can be placed under the necessary restraint and
expelled the country.2 These immunities extend to all the
members of an envoy's suite. The difficulties that might be
supposed to arise from such exemptions have not in practice been
found very serious; for though, in the case of crimes committed
by servants of agents of the first or second class the procedure is
not clearly defined, each case would easily be made the subject
of arrangement. In certain cases, e.g. embassies in Turkey, the
exterritoriality of ambassadors implies a fairly extensive criminal
jurisdiction; in other cases the dismissal of the servant would
deprive him of his diplomatic immunity and bring him under
the law of the land. The right of granting asylum claimed by
diplomatic agents in virtue of that of exterritoriality, at one time
much abused, is now strictly limited. A political or criminal
offender may seek asylum in a foreign embassy; but if, after a
request.has been formally made for his surrender, the ambassador
refuses to deliver him up, the authorities may take the measures
necessary to effect his arrest, and even force an entrance into the
embassy for the purpose. The " right of chapel " (droit de
chapelle, or droit de ctdte), enjoyed by envoys in reference to their
exterritoriality, i.e. the right of free exercise of religious worship
within their house, formerly of great importance, has been
rendered superfluous by the spread of religious toleration. (See
L. Oppenheim, Internal. Law (London, 1905), i. p. 441, &c.;
A. W. Hafiter, Das europaische Vdlkerrecht (Berlin, 1888), p.

435, &c.)

The Personnel of the " Corps diplomatique." — The establishment
of diplomacy as a regular branch of the civil service is of modern
growth, and even now by no means universal. From old time
states naturally chose as their agents those who would best
serve their interests in the matter in hand. In the middle ages
diplomacy was practically a monopoly of the clergy, who as a
class alone possessed the necessary qualifications: and in later
times, when learning had spread to the laity as well, there were
still potent reasons why the clergy should continue to be employed
as diplomatic agents. Of these reasons the most practical was
that of expense; for the wealth of the church formed an in-
exhaustible reserve which was used without scruple for secular
purposes. Francis I. of France, who by the Concordat with Rome
had in his hands the patronage of all the sees and abbeys in
France, used this partly to reward his clerical ministers, partly as
a great secret service fund for bribing the ambassadors of other
powers, partly for the payment of those high-placed spies at
foreign courts maintained by the elaborately organized system

3 Gentilis, who had been consulted by the government in the case
of the Spanish ambassador, Don Bernardino de Mendoza, expelled
for intriguing against Queen Elizabeth, lays this down definitely.
An ambassador, he says, need not be received, and he may be ex-
pelled. In actual practice a diplomatic agent who has made himself
objectionable is withdrawn by his government on the representations
of that to which he is accredited, and it is customary, before an
ambassador is despatched, to find out whether he is a persona grata
to the power to which he is accredited.

300

DIPLOMATIC

known as the Secret du Roi.1 None the less, in the i6th century,
laymen as diplomats are already well in evidence. They are
usually lawyers, rarely soldiers, occasionally even simple
merchants. Not uncommonly they were foreigners, like the
Italian Thomas Spinelly mentioned above, drawn from that
cosmopolitan class of diplomats who were ready to serve any
master. Though nobles were often employed as ambassadors
by all the powers, Venice alone made nobility a condition of
diplomatic service. They were professional in the sense that, for
the most part, diplomacy was the main occupation of their lives;
there was, however, no graded diplomatic service in which, as at
present, it was possible to rise on a fixed system from the position
of simple attache to that of minister and ambassador. The
"attache to the embassy" existed2; but he was not, as is
now the case, a young diplomat learning his profession, but an
experienced man of affairs, often a foreigner employed by the
ambassador as adviser, secret service agent and general go-
between, and he was without diplomatic status.3 The i8th
century saw the rise of the diplomatic service in the modern sense.
The elaboration of court ceremonial, for which Versailles had set
the fashion, made it desirable that diplomatic agents should
be courtiers, and young men of rank about the court began to be
attached to missions for the express purpose of teaching them the
art of diplomacy. Thus arose that aristocratic diplomatic class,
distinguished by the exquisite refinement of its manners, which
survived from the i8th century into the igth. Modern democracy
has tended to break with this tradition, but it still widely prevails.
Even in Great Britain, where the rest of the public services have
been thrown open to all classes, a certain social position is still
demanded for candidates for the diplomatic service and the
foreign office, and in addition to passing a competitive examina-
tion, they must be nominated by someone of recognized station
prepared to vouch for their social qualifications. In America,
where no regular diplomatic service exists, all diplomatic agents
are nominated by the president.

The existence of an official diplomatic service, however, by no
means excludes the appointment of outsiders to diplomatic posts.
It is, in fact, one of the main grievances of the regular diplomatic
body that the great rewards of their profession, the embassies,
are so often assigned to politicians or others who have not passed
through the drudgery of the service. But though this practice
has, doubtless, sometimes been abused, it is impossible to
criticize the wisdom of its occasional application.

A word may be added as to the part played by women in
diplomacy. So far as their unofficial influence upon it is con-
cerned, it would be impossible to exaggerate its importance; it
would suffice to mention three names taken at random from
the annals of the igth century, Madame de Stael, Baroness
von Kriidener, and Princess Lieven. Gentz comments on the
" feminine intrigues " that darkened the counsels of the con-
gresses of Vienna and Aix-la-Chapelle, and from which the powers
so happily escaped in the bachelor seclusion of Troppau. Nor is
it to be supposed that statesmen will ever renounce a diplomatic
weapon so easy of disguise and so potent for use. A brilliant salon
presided over by a woman of charm may be a most valuable
centre of a political propaganda; and ladies are still widely
employed in the secret diplomacy of the powers. Their employ-
ment as regularly accredited diplomatic agents, however, though
not unknown, has been extremely rare. An interesting instance
is the appointment of Catherine of Aragon, when princessof Wales,
as representative of her father, Ferdinand the Catholic, at the
court of Henry VII. (G. A. Bergenroth, Calendar of State Papers
. . . England and Spain — in the Archives at Simancas, &c., i. pp.
xxxiii, crix).

LITERATURE. — Besides general works on international law (g.t>.)
which necessarily deal with the subject of diplomacy, a vast mass
of treatises on diplomatic agents exists. The earliest printed work
is the Tractatus de legato (Rome, 1485) of Gundissalvus (Gonsalvo de
Villadiego), professor of law at Salamanca, auditor for Spain at the

1 See Zeller. » A. O. Meyer, p. 22.

* See the amusing account of the methods of these agents in
Morysine to Cecil (January 23, 1551-1552), Col. Staff, Pap. Edw. VI.,
No. 530.

Roman court of the Rota, and bishop of Oviedo ; but the first really
systematic writer on the subject was Albericus Gentilis,J9e legationibus
hbriiii. (London, 1583, 1585, Hanover, 1596, 1607, 1612). For a full
bibliography of works on ambassadors see Baron Diedrich H. L.von
Ompteda, Litteratur des gesammten sowohl natiirlichen als positiven
Volkerrechts (Regensburg, 1785), p. 534, &c., which was completed and
continued by the Prussian minister Karl Albert von Kamptz, in
Neue Literaiur des Volkerrechts seit_ dem Jahre 1784. (Berlin, 1817),
p. 231. A list of writers, with critical and biographical remarks, is
also given in Ernest Nys's " Les Commencements de la diplomatic et
le droit d'ambassade jusqu'4 Grotius," in the Revue de droit inter-
national, vol. xvi. p. 167. Other useful modern works on the history
of diplomacy are: E. C. Grenville-Murray, Embassies and Foreign
Courts, a History of Diplomacy (2nd ed., 1856) ; I. Zeller, La Diplo-
matie franc,aise yers le milieu du XVI' siecle (Paris, 1881); A. O.
Meyer, Die englische Diplomatie in Deutschland zur Zeit Eduards VI.
und Mariens (Breslau, 1900) ; and, above all, Otto Krauske, Die
Entwickelung der standgien Diplomatie vom fiinfzehnten Jahrhundett
bis zu den Beschlussen von 1815 und 1818, in Gustav Schmoller's
Staats- und socialwissenschaftliche Forschungen,yo\.\. (Leipzig, 1885).
To these may be added, as admirably illustrating in detail the early
developments of modern diplomacy, Logan Pearsall Smith's Life and
Letters of Sir Henry Wotton (Oxford, 1907). Gf works on modern
diplomacy the most important are the Guide diplomatique of Baron
Charles de Martens, new edition revised by F. H. Geffcken, 2 yols.
(Leipzig, 1866), and P. Pradier-Fodere, Cours de droit diplomatique,
2 vols. (Paris, 1881). (W. A. P.)

DIPLOMATIC, the science of diplomas, founded on the critical
study of the " diplomatic " ' sources of history: diplomas,
charters, acts, treaties, contracts, judicial records, rolls, chartu-
laries, registers, &c. The employment of the word " diploma,"
as a general term to designate an historical document, is of com-
paratively recent date. The Roman diploma, so called because
it was formed of two sheets of metal which were shut together
(Gr. 8nr\ovv, to double) like the leaves of a book, was the pass-
port or licence to travel by the public post; also, the certificate
of discharge, conferring privileges of citizenship and marriage
on soldiers who had served their time; and, later, any imperial
grant of privileges. The word was adopted, rather pedantically,
by the humanists of the Renaissance and applied by them to
important deeds and to acts of sovereign authority, to privileges
granted by kings and by great personages; and by degrees the
term became extended and embraced generally the documents of
the middle ages.

History of the Study. — The term " diplomatic," the French
diplomatique, is a modern adaptation of the Latin phrase res
diplomatica employed in early works upon the subject, and more
especially in the first great text-book, the De re diplomatica,
issued in 1681 by the learned Benedictine, Dom Jean Mabillon,
of the abbey of St Germain-des-Pres. Mabillon's treatise was
called forth by an earlier work of Daniel van Papenbroeck, the
editor of the Ada Sanctorum of the Bollandists, who, with no
great knowledge or experience of archives, undertook to criticize
the historical value of ancient records and monastic documents,
and raised wholesale suspicions as to their authenticity in his
Propylaeum antiquarium circa veri ac falsi discrimen in vetustis
membranis, which he printed in 1675. This was a rash challenge
to the Benedictines, and especially to the congregation of St Maur,
or confraternity of the Benedictine abbeys of France, whose
combined efforts produced great literary works which still remain
as monuments of profound learning. Mabillon was at that time
engaged in collecting material for a great history of his order. He
worked silently for six years before producing the work above
referred to. His refutation of Papenbroeck's criticisms was
complete, and his rival himself accepted Mabillon's system of
the study of diplomatic as the true one. The De re diplomatica
established the science on a secure basis; and it has been the
foundation of all subsequent works on the subject, although the
immediate result of its publication was a flood of controversial
writings between the Jesuits and the Benedictines, which, how-
ever, did not affect its stability.

In Spain, the Benedictine Perez published, in 1688, a series
of dissertations following the line of Mabillon's work. In Eng-
land, Madox's Formulare Anglicanum, with a dissertation con-
cerning ancient charters and instruments, appeared in 1702, and
in 1705 Hickes followed with his Linguarum septentrionalium
thesaurus, both accepting the principles laid down by the learned

DIPLOMATIC

301

Benedictine. In Italy, Maffei appeared with his Istoria diplo-
matica in 1727, and Muratori, in 1740, introduced dissertations
on diplomatic into his great work, the Antiquilales Italicae. In
Germany, the first diplomatic work of importance was that by
Bessel, entitled Chronicon Gotu-icense and issued in 1732; and
this was followed closely by similar works of Baring, Eckhard
and Heumann.

France, however, had been the cradle of the science, and that
country continued to be the home of its development. Mabillon
had not taken cognizance of documents later than the I3th
century. Arising out of a discussion relative to the origin of the
abbey of St Victor en Caux and the authenticity of its archives,
a more comprehensive work than Mabillon's was compiled by
the two Benedictines, Dom Toustain and Dom Tassin, viz. the
Nouveau Traite de diplomatique, in six volumes, 1750-1765,
which embraced more than diplomatic proper and extended to
all branches of Latin palaeography. With great industry the
compilers gathered together a mass of details; but their arrange-
ment is faulty, and the text is broken up into such a multitude of
divisions and subdivisions that it is tediously minute. However,
its more extended scope has given the Nouveau Traite an ad-
vantage over Mabillon's work, and modern compilations have
drawn largely upon it.

As a result of the Revolution, the archives of the middle ages
lost in France their juridical and legal value; but this rather
tended to enhance their historical importance. The taste for
historical literature revived. The Academic des Inscriptions
fostered it. In 1821 the Ecole des Charles was founded; and,
after a few years of incipient inactivity, it received a further
impetus, in 1829, by the issue of a royal ordinance re-establishing
it. Thenceforth it has been an active centre for the teaching
and for the encouragement of the study ol diplomatic throughout
the country, and has produced results which other nations may
envy. Next to France, Germany and Austria are distinguished
as countries where activity has been displayed in the systematic
study of diplomatic archives, more or less with the support of the
state. In Italy, too, diplomatic science has not been neglected.
In England, after a long period of regrettable indifference to the
study of the national and municipal archives of the country, some
effort has been made in recent years to remove the reproach. The
publications of the Public Record Office and of the department of
MSS. in the British Museum are more numerous and are issued
more regularly than in former times; and an awakened interest
is manifested by the foundation in the universities of a few
lectureships in diplomatic and palaeography, and by the attention
which those subjects receive in such an institution as the London
School of Economics, and in the publications of private literary
societies. But such efforts can never show the systematic results
which are to be attained by a special institution of the character
of the French Ecole des Chartes.

Extent of the Science. — The field covered by the study of
diplomatic is so extensive and the different kinds of documents
which it takes into its purview are so numerous and various, that
it is impossible to do more than give a few general indications
of their nature. No nation can have advanced far on the path
of civilization before discovering the necessity for documentary
evidence both in public and in private life. The laws, the
constitutions, the decrees of government, on the one hand, and
private contracts between man and man, on the other, must be
embodied in formal documents, in order to ensure permanent
record. In the case of a nation advancing independently from a
primitive to a later stage of civilization we should have to trace
the origin of its documentary records and examine their develop-
ment from a rudimentary condition. But in an inquiry into the
history of the documents of the middle ages in Europe we do
not begin with primitive forms. Those ages inherited the docu-
mentary system which had been created and developed by the
Romans; and, imperfect and limited in number as are the
earliest surviving charters and diplomas of European medieval
history, they present themselves to us fully developed and cast in
the mould and employing the methods and formulae of the earlier
tradition. Based on this foundation the chanceries of the several

countries of Europe, as they came into existence and were
organized, reduced to method and rule on one general system the
various documents which the exigencies of public and of private
life from time to time called into existence, each individual
chancery at the same time following its own line of practice in
detail, and evolving and confirming particular formulas which
have become characteristic of it.

Classification of Documents. — If we classify these documents
under the two main heads of public and private deeds, we shall
have to place in the former category the legislative, adminis-
trative, judicial, diplomatic documents emanating from public
authority in public form: laws, constitutions, ordinances,
privileges, grants and concessions, proclamations, decrees,
judicial records, pleas, treaties; in a word, every kind of deed
necessary for the orderly government of a civilized state. In
early times many of these were comprised under the general
term of " letters," litterae, and to the large number of them
which were issued in open form and addressed to the community
the specific title of " letters patent," litterae patentes, was given.
In contradistinction those public documents which were issued
in closed form under seal were known as " close letters," litterae
ciausae.

Such public documents belong to the state archives of their
several countries, and are the monuments of administrative and
political and domestic history of a nation from one generation to
another. In no country has so perfect a series been preserved as
in our own. Into the Public Record Office in London have been
brought together all the collections of state archives which were
formerly stored in different official repositories of the kingdom.
Beginning with the great survey of Domesday, long series of
enrolments of state documents, in many instances extending
from the times of the Angevin kings to our own day in almost
unbroken sequence, besides thousands of separate deeds of all
descriptions, are therein preserved (see RECORD).

Under the category of private documents must be included, not
only the deeds of individuals, but also those of corporate bodies
representing private interests and standing in the position of
individual units in relation to the state, such as municipal bodies
and monastic foundations. The largest class of documents of
this character is composed of those numerous conveyances of real
property and other title deeds of many descriptions and dating
from early periods which are commonly described by the generic
name of" charters," and which are to be found in thousands, not
only in such public repositories as the Public Record Office and
the British Museum, but also in the archives of municipal and
other corporate bodies throughout the country and in the
muniment-rooms of old families. There are also the records
of the manorial courts preserved in countless court-rolls and
registers; also the scattered muniments of the dissolved
monasteries represented by the many collections of charters
and the valuable chartularies, or registers of charters, which
have fortunately survived and exist both in public and in
private keeping.

It will be noticed that in this enumeration of public and private
documents in England reference is made to rolls. The practice of
entering records on rolls has been in favour in England from a very
early date subsequent to the Norman Conquest; and while in
other countries the comprehensive term of " charters " (literally
" papers ": Gr. \ii.pnft) is employed as a general description of
documents of the middle ages, in England the fuller phrase
" charters and rolls " is required. The master of the rolls,
the Magisler Rotulorum, is the official keeper of the public
records.

From the great body of records, both public and private, many
fall easily and naturally into the class in which the text takes
a simpler narrative form; such as judicial records, laws, decrees,
proclamations, registers, &c., which tell their own story in
formulae and phraseology early developed and requiring little
change. These we may leave on one side. For fuller description
we select those deeds which, conferring grants and favours and
privileges, conform more nearly to the idea of the Roman diploma
and have received the special attention of the chanceries in the

302

DIPLOMATIC

of medie-
val

The Invo-
cation.

development and arrangement of their formulae and in their
methods of execution.

All such medieval deeds are composed of certain recognized
members or sections, some essential, others special and peculiar to
the most elaborate and solemn documents. A deed of
Structure tj^e raore elaborate character is made up of two principal
divisions: I. the TEXT, in which is set out the object of
the deed, the statement of the considerations and circum-
' stances which have led to it, and the declaration of the will
and intention of the person executing the deed, together with such
protecting clauses as the particular circumstances of the case may
require; 2. the PROTOCOL (originally, the first sheet of a papyrus
roll; Gr. irpwros, first, and roXXai', to glue), consisting of the
introductory and of the concluding formulae: superscription,
address, salutation, &c., at the beginning, and date, formulae of
execution, &c., at the end, of the deed. The latter portion of the
protocol is sometimes styled the eschatocol (Gr. foxaros, last,
and KO\\S.V, to glue). While the text followed certain formulae which
had become fixed by common usage, the protocol was always special
and varied with the practices of the several chanceries, changing in
a sovereign chancery with each successive reign.

The different sections of a full deed, taking them in order under
the heads of Initial Protocol, Text and Final Protocol or Eschatocol,
are as follows: — -The initial protocol consists of the Invocation, the
Superscription, the Address and the Salutation. I. The
INVOCATION, lending a character of sanctity to the pro-
ceedings, might be either verbal or symbolic. The verbal
invocation consisted usually of some pious ejaculation, such as In
nomine Dei, In nomine domini nostri Jesu Chnsti; from the 8th cen-
tury, In nomine Sanctoe el individuae Trinilaiis ; and later, In nomine
Patris et Filii et Spiritus Sancti. The symbolic form was usually
the chrismon, or monogram composed of the Greek initials XP of the
name of Christ. In the course of the loth and nth centuries this
symbol came to be so scrawled that it had probably lost all meaning
with the scribes. From the gth century the letter C (initial of
Christus) came gradually into use, and in German imperial diplomas
it superseded the chrismon. Stenographic signs of the system known
as Tironian notes were also sometimes added to this symbol down
to the end of the loth century, expressing such a phrase as Ante
omnia Chrisius, or Christus, or Amen. From the Merovingian period,
too, a cross was often used. The symbol gradually died out after the
I2th century for general use, surviving only in notarial instruments
and wills. 2.The SUPERSCRIPTION (super -scriptio,intilulalio)
expressed the name and titles of the grantor or person
issuing the deed. 3. The ADDRESS. As diplomas were
originally in epistolary form the address was then a
While in Merovingian deeds the old pattern was adhered
to, in the Carolingian period the address was sometimes
omitted. From the 8th century it was not considered neces-
sary, and a distinction arose in the case of royal acts, those
having the address being styled letters, and those omitting it,
charters. The general form of address ran in phrase as- Omnibus
Christi fidelibus presenteslitlerasinspecturis.
SALUTATION was expressed in such words as
Salutem; Salutem et dilectionem; Salutem et apostolicam
benedictionem, but it was not essential.

Then follows the text in five sections : the Preamble, the Notifica-
tion, the Exposition, the Disposition and the Final Clauses. 5. The
PREAMBLE (prologus, arenga) : an ornamental introduction
genera."y composed of pious or moral sentiments, a
prefatio ad captandam benevolentiam which facit ad
ornamentum, degenerating into tiresome platitudes. It became
stereotyped at an early age: in the loth and nth
centuries it was a most ornate performance; in tlie
I2th century it was cut short; in the Ijth century it
died out. 6. The NOTIFICATION (notificatio, promulgalio)
the publication of the purport of the deed introduced by
such a phrase as notum sit, &c. 7. The EXPOSITION
set out the motives influencing the issue of the deed. 8. The
DISPOSITION described the object of the deed and the will
and intention of the grantor. 9. The FINAL CLAUSES en-
sured the fulfilment of the terms of the deed; guarded
against infringement, by comminatory anathemas and im-
precations, not infrequently of a vehement description, or
by penalties; guaranteed the validity of the deed ; enumerated the
formalities of subscription and execution ; reserved rights, &c.

Next comes the final protocol or eschatocol comprising: the Date,
the Appreciation, the Authentication. It was particularly in this
portion of the deed that the varying practices of the several
chanceries led to minute and intricate distinctions at
different periods. 10. The DATE. By the Roman law
every act must be dated by the day and the year of execution.
Yet in the middle ages, from the 9th to the I2th century,
a large proportion of deeds bears no date. In the most
ancient charters the date clause was frequently separated from
the body of the deed and placed in an isolated position
at the foot of the_ sheet. From the I2th century it commonly
followed the text immediately. Certain classes of documents,
such as decrees of councils, notarial deeds, &c., began with

The
Super-
scription.

necessity.

The
Address.

The Salu-
tation.

The
Preamble.

The Noti-
fication.

was

The Ex-
position.
The Dis-
position.
The Final
Clauses.

The Date.

the date. The usual formula was data, datum, actum, foclum, scrip-
turn. In the Carolingian period a distinction grew up between
datum and actum, the former applying to the time, the latter
to the place, of date. In the papal chancery from an early period
down to the I2th century the use of a double date prevailed, the first
following the text and being inserted by the scribe when the deed
was written (scriptum), the second being added at the foot of the
deed on its execution (actum), by the chancellor or other high
functionary. From the Roman custom of dating by the consular
year arose the medieval practice of dating by the regnal year of
emperor, king or pope. Special dates were sometimes employed,
such as the year of some great historical event, battle, siege, pesti-
lence, &c. II. The APPRECIATION. The feliciter of the

The Au-
thentica-
tion.

Romans became the medieval feliciter in Domino, or
In Dei nomine feliciter, or the more simple Deo gratias cla"oa-
or the still more simple Amen, for the auspicious closing of a deed.
In Merovingian and Carolingian diplomas it follows the date; in
other cases it closes the text. In the greater papal bulls it appears
in the form of a triple Amen. Benevalete was also employed as the
appreciation in early deeds; but in Merovingian diplomas and in
papal bulls this valedictory salutation becomes a mark of authentica-
tion, as will be noticed below. 12. The AUTHENTICATION was a
solemn proceeding which was discharged by more than
one act. _ The most important was the subscription or
subscriptions of the person or persons from whom the deed
emanated. The laws of the late Roman empire required the
subscriptions and the impressions of the signet seals of the parties
and of the witnesses to the deed. The subscription (subscriptio) com-
prised the name, signature and description of the person signing.
The impression of the signet (not the signature) was the sign-urn,
sometimes signaculum, rarely sigillum. The practice of subscribing
with the autograph signature obtained in the early middle ages, as
appears from early documents such as those of Ravenna. But from
the 7th century it began to decline, and by the I2th century it had
practically ceased. In Roman deeds an illiterate person affixed his
mark, or signum manuale, which was attested. The cross being an
easy form for a mark, it was very commonly used and naturally
became connected with the Christian symbol. Hence, in course of
time, it came to be attached very generally to subscriptions, auto-
graph or otherwise. Great personages who were illiterate required
something more elaborate than a common mark. Hence arose the
use of the monogram, the caracter nominis, composed of the letters of
the name. The emperor Justin, who could not write, made use of
a monogram, as did also Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths. Those
Merovingian kings, likewise, who were illiterate, had their individual
monograms; and at length Charlemagne adopted the monogram as
his regular form of signature. From his reign down to that of Philip
the Fair the monogram was the recognized sign manual of the
sovereigns of France (see AUTOGRAPHS). It was employed by the
German emperors down to the reign of Maximilian I. The royal use
of the monogram was naturally imitated by great officers and
ecclesiastics. But another form of sign manual also arose out of
the subscription. The closing word (usually subscripsi), written or
abbreviated as sub., or M. or s., was often finished off with flourishes
and interfacings, sometimes accompanied with Tironian notes, the
whole taking the shape of a domed structure to which the French
have given the name of ruche or bee-hive. Thus in the early middle
ages we have deeds authenticated by the subscription, usually
autograph, giving the name and titles of the person executing, and
stating the part taken by him in the deed, and closing with the
subscripsi, often in shape of the ruche and constituting the signum
manuale. If not autograph, the subscription might be impersonal
in such foitn as signum (or signum manus) + N. In the Carolingian
period, while phrases were constantly used in the body of the deed
implying that it was executed by autograph subscription, it did
not necessarily follow that such subscription was actually written in
person. The ruche was also adopted by chancellors, notaries and
scribes as their official mark. While autograph subscriptions
continued to be employed, chiefly by ecclesiastics, down to the begin-
ning of the I2th century, the monogram was perpetuated from the
loth century by the notaries. Their marks, simple at first, became
so elaborate from the end of the I3th century that they found it
necessary to add their names in ordinary writing, or also to employ
a less complicated design. This was the commencement of the
modern practice of writing the signature which first came into vogue
in the I4th century.

To lend further weight and authority to the subscription, certain
symbols and forms were added at different periods. Imitating
the corroborative Legi of the Byzantine quaestor and the Legimus
of the Eastern emperors, the Prankish chancery in the West made use
of the same form, notably in the reign of Charles the Bald, in some of
whose diplomas the Legimus appears written in larger letters in red.
The valedictory Benevalete, employed in early deeds as a form of
appreciation (see above), appears in Merovingian and in _
early Carolingian royal diplomas, and also in papal bulls, el

as an authenticating addition to the subscription. In the '
diplomas it was written in cursive letters in two lines, Bene valetf,
just to the right of the incision cut in the sheet to hold fast the seal,
which sometimes even covered part of the word. In the mostancient
papal bulls it was written by the pope himself at the foot of the deed,

DIPLOMATIC

303

in two lines, generally in larger capital or uncial characters, placed
between two crosses. From the beginning of the nth century it
became the fashion to link the letters ; and, dating from the time of
Leo IX., A.D. 1048-1054, the Benevalete was inscribed in fprm of a
monogram. During Leo's pontificate it was also accompanied with
a flourish called the Komma, which was only an exaggeration of the
mark of punctuation (periodus) which from the 9th to the nth
century closed the subscription and generally resembled the modern
semicolon. Leo's successors abandoned the Komma, but the mono-
grammatic Benevalele continued, invariable in form, but from time
to time varying in size. In Leo IX.'s pontificate also was introduced
the Rota. This sign, when it had received its final shape in the
The Rota. IItn century, was in form of a wheel, composed of two
concentric circles, in the space between which was written
the motto or device of the pope (signum papae), usually a
short sentence from one of the Psalms or some other portion of
Scripture; preceded by a small cross, which the pontiff himself
sometimes inscribed. The central space within the wheel was
divided (by cross lines) into four quarters, the two upper ones being
occupied by the names of the apostles St Peter and St Paul, and the
two lower ones by the name of the pope. The Rota was placed on the
left of the subscription, the monogrammatic Benevalete on the right.
The two signs were likewise adopted by certain ecclesiastical
chanceries and by feudal lords, particularly in the 1 2th century.
From the same period also the Spanish and Portuguese monarchs
adopted the Rota, the signo rodado, which is so conspicuous in the
royal charters of the Peninsula.

Besides the subscription, an early auxiliary method of authentica-
tion was by the impression of the seal which, as noticed above, was
Seating. required by the Roman law. But the general use of
the signet gradually failed, and by the 7th century it
had ceased. Still it survived in the royal chanceries, and the
sovereigns both of the Merovingian and of the Carolingian lines had
their seals; and, in the 8th century, the mayors of the palace like-
wise. It is interesting to find instances of the use of antique intaglios
for the purpose by some of them. In England too there is proof that
the Mercian kings Offa and Coenwulf used seals, in imitation of the
Prankish monarchs. In the 7th century, and still more so in the
8th and gth centuries, the royal seals were of exaggerated size : the
precursors of the great seals of the later sovereigns of western Europe.
The waxen seals of the early diplomas were in all cases en placard:
that is, they were attached to the face of the document and not sus-
pended from it, being held in position by a cross-cut incision in the
material, through which the wax was pressed and then flattened at
the back. On the cessation of autograph signatures in subscriptions,
the general use of seals revived, beginning in 'the loth century and
becoming the ordinary method of authentication from the I2th to
the 1 5th century inclusive. Even when signatures had once again
become universal, the seal continued to hold its place; and thus
sealing is, to the present day, required for the legal execution of a
deed. The attachment en placard was discontinued, as a general
practice, in the middle of the nth century; and seals thenceforward
were, for the most part, suspended, leathern thongs being used at
first, and afterwards silken and hempen cords or parchment labels.
In documents of minor importance it was sometimes the custom to
impress the seal or seals on one or more strips of the parchment of the
deed itself, cut, but not entirely detached, from the lower margin,
and left to hang loose. Besides waxen impressions of seals, im-
pressions in metal, bearing a device on both faces, after the fashion
of a coin, and suspended, were employed from an early period. The
most widely known instances are the bullae attached to papal docu-
ments, generally of lead. The earliest surviving papal bulla is one
of Pope Zacharias, A.D. 746, but earlier examples are known from
drawings. The papal bulla was a disk of metal stamped on both sides.
From the time of Boniface V. to Leo IV., A.D. 617-855, the name of
the pontiff, in the genitive case, was impressed on the obverse, and
his title as pope on the reverse, e.g. Bonifati/ papae. After that
period, for some time, the name was inscribed in a circle round a
central ornament. Other variations followed; but at length in the
pontificate of Paschal II., A.D. 1099, the bulla took the form which it
afterwards retained: on the obverse, the heads of the apostles
St Peter and St Paul; on the reverse, the pope's name, title and
number in succession. In the period of time between his election
and consecration, the pope made use of the half-bull, that is, the
obverse only was impressed. It should be mentioned that, in order
to conform to modern conditions and for convenience of despatch
through the post, Leo XIII., in 1878, substituted for the leaden bulla
a red ink stamp bearing the heads of the two apostles with the
name of the pope inscribed as a legend.

The Carolingian monarchs also used metal bullae. None of
Charlemagne's have survived, but there are still extant leaden ex-
amples of Charles the Bald. The use of lead was not persisted in
either in the chancery of France or in that of Germany. Golden
bullae were employed on special occasions by both popes and temporal
monarchs ; for example, they were attached to the confirmations of
the elections of the emperors vn the I2th and I3th centuries; the
bull of Leo X. conferring the title of Defender of the Faith on
Henry VIII. in 1524, and the deed of alliance between Henry and
Francis I. in 1527, had golden bullae ; and other examples could be
cited. But lead has always been the common metal to be thus

employed. In the southern countries of Europe, where the warmth
of the climate renders wax an undesirable material, leaden bullae
have been in ordinary use, not only in Italy but also in the Peninsula,
in southern France, and in the Latin East (see SEALS).

The necessity of conforming to exact phraseology in diplomas and
of observing regularity in expressing formulas naturally led to the
compilation of formularies. From the early middle ages Formti-
the art of composition, not only of charters but also of iaries
general correspondence, was commonly taught in the
monasteries. The teacher was the dictator, his method of teaching
was described by the verb dictare, and his teaching was dictamen or
the ars dictaminis. For the use of these monastic schools, formularies
and manuals comprising formulas and models for the composition
of the various acts and documents soon became indispensable. At
a later stage such formularies developed into the models and treatises
for epistolary style which have had their imitations even in modern
times. The widespread use of the formularies had the advantage of
imposing a certain degree of uniformity on the phrasing of documents
of the western nations of Europe. Those compilations which are
of an earlier period than the I Ith century have been systematically
examined and are published ; those of more recent date still remain
to be thoroughly edited. The early formularies are of the simpler
kind, being collections of formulas without dissertation. The
Formulae Marculfi, compiled by the monk Marculf about the year
650, was the most important work of this nature of the Merovingian
period and became the official formulary of the time; and it con-
tinued in use in a revised edition in the early Carolingian chancery.
Of the same period there are extant formularies compiled at various
centres, such as Angers, Tours, Bourges, Sens, Reichenau, St Gall,
Salzburg, Passau, Regensburg, Cordova, &c. (see Giry, Manuel
de diplomatique, pp. 482-488). The Liber diurnus Romanorum
Pontificum was compiled in the 7th and 8th centuries, and was em-
ployed in the papal chancery to the end of the I ith century. Of the
more developed treatises and manuals of epistolary rhetoric which
succeeded, and which originated in Italy, the earliest example was
the Breviarium de dictamine of the monk Alberic of Monte Cassiro,
compiled about the year 1075. Another well-known work, the
Rationes dictandi, is also attributed to the same author. Of later date
was the Ars dictaminis of Bernard of Chartres of the 12th century.
(Among special works on formularies are: E. de Roziere, Recueil
general des formules usitees dans V empire des Francs (3 vols., Paris,
1861-1871); K. Zeumer, Formulae Merovingici et Karolini aevi
(Hanover; 1886); and L. Rockinger, Brief steller und Formelbiicher
des n bis. 14 Jahrhunderts (Munich, 1863-1864).

Organization. — The formalities observed by the different
chanceries of medieval Europe, which are to be learned from a
study of the documents issued by them, are so varied and often so
minute, that it is impossible to give a full account of them within
the limits of the present article. We can only state some of the
results of the investigations of students of diplomatic.

The chancery which stands first and foremost is the papal
chancery. On account of its antiquity and of its steady develop-
ment, it has served as a model for the other chanceries
of Europe. Organized in remote times, it adopted for cftam»iy.
the structure of its letters a number of formulas and
rules which developed and became more and more fixed and
precise from century to century. The Apostolic court being
organized from the first on the model of the Roman imperial
court, the early pontiffs would naturally have collected their
archives, as the emperors had done, into scrinia. Pope Julius I.,
A.D. 337-353, reorganized the papal archives under an official
schola nolariorum, at the head of which was a primicerius
notariorum. Pope Damasus, A.D. 366-384, built a record office
at the Lateran, archiirium sanctae Romanae ecdesiae, where the
archives were kept and registers of them compiled. The collec-
tion and orderly arrangement of the archives provided material
for the establishment of regular diplomatic usages, and the
science of formulae naturally followed.

For the study of papal documents four periods have been
defined, each successive period being distinguished from its
predecessor by some particular development of forms and
procedure. The first period is reckoned from the earliest times to
the accession of Leo IX., A.D. 1048. For almost the whole of the
first eight centuries no original papal documents have survived.
But copies are found in canonical works and registers, many
of them false, and others probably not transcribed in full or in
the original words; but still of use, as showing the growth of
formulas. The earliest original document is a fragment of a letter
of Adrian I., A.D. 788. From that date there is a series, but the
documents are rare to the beginning of the nth century, all down
to that period being written on papyrus. The latest existing

304

DIPLOMATIC

papyrus document in France is one of Sergius IV., A.D. ion; in
Germany, one of Benedict VIII., A.D. 1022. The earliest docu-
ment on vellum is one of John XVIII., A.D. 1005. The nomencla-
ture of papa! documents even at an early period is rather wide.
In their earliest form they are Letters, called in the documents
themselves, lilterae, epistola, pagina, scriptum, sometimes decretum.
A classification, generally accepted, divides them into: i. Letters
or Epistles: the ordinary acts of correspondence with persons
of all ranks and orders; including constitutions (a later term) or
decisions in matters of faith and discipline, and encyclicals giving
directions to bishops of the whole church or of individual
countries. 2. Decrees, being letters promulgated by the popes
of their own motion. 3. Decretals, decisions on points of
ecclesiastical administration or discipline. 4. Rescripts (called in
the originals preceptum, auctoritas, privilegium) , granting requests
to petitioners. But writers differ in their terms, and such sub-
divisions must be more or less arbitrary. The comprehensive term
" bull " (the name of the leaden papal seal, bulla, being transferred
to the document) did not come into use until the i3th century.

Copies of papal deeds were collected into registers or bullaria.
Lists showing the chronological sequence of documents are
catalogues of acts. When into such lists indications from
narrative sources are introduced they become regesta (res gestae) :
a term not to be confused with " register."

Clearness and conciseness have been recognized as attributes
of early papal letters; but even in those of the 4th century certain
rhythmical periods have been detected in their composition which
became more marked under Leo the Great, A.D. 440-461, and
which developed into the cursus or prose rhythm of the pontifical
chancery of the nth and i2th centuries.

In the most ancient deeds the pope styles himself Episcopus,
sometimes Episcopus Catholicae Ecclesiae, or Episcopus Romanae
Ecclesiae, rarely Papa. Gregory I., A.D. 590, was the first to
adopt the form Episcopus, servus servorum Dei, which became
general in the pth century, and thenceforth was invariable.

The second period of papal documents extends from Leo IX. to
the accession of Innocent III., A.D. 1048-1 198. At the beginning
of the period formulae tended to take more definite shape and to
become fixed. In the superscription of bulls a distinction arose :
those which conferred lasting privileges employing the words in
perpetuum to close this clause; those whose benefaction was of
a transitory character using the form of salutation, salutem et
apostolicam benedictionem. But it was under Urban II., A.D.
1088-1099, that the principal formulae became stereotyped.
Then the distinction between documents of lasting, and those of
transitory, value became more exactly defined; the former class
being known as greater bulls, bullae majores (also called primlegia) ,
the latter lesser bulls, bullae minores. The leading characteristics
of the greater bulls were these: The first line containing the
superscription and closing with the words in perpetuum (or, some-
times, ad perpetuam, or aeternam, rei memoriam) was written in
tall and slender ornamental letters, close packed; the final
clauses of the text develop with tendency to fixity; the pope's
subscription is accompanied with the rota on the left and the
benevalete monogram on the right; and certain elaborate forms
of dating are punctiliously observed. The introduction of
subscriptions of cardinals as witnesses had gradually become a
practice. Under Victor II., A.D. 1055-1057, the practice became
more confirmed, and after the time of Innocent II., A.D. 1130-
1145, the subscriptions of the three orders were arranged accord-
ing to rank, those of the cardinal bishops being placed in the
centre under the papal subscription, those of the priests under the
rota on the left, and those of the deacons under the benevalete on
the right. In the lesser bulls simpler forms were employed;
there was no introductory line of stilted letters; the salutation,
salutem et apostolicam benedictionem, closed the superscription;
the final clauses were shortened; there was neither papal sub-
scription, nor rota, nor benevalete; the date was simple.

From the time of Adrian I., A.D. 772-795, the system of double
dating was followed in the larger bulls. The first date was written
by the scribe of the document, scriptum per manum N. with the
month (rarely the day of the month) and year of the indiction.

The second, the actual date of the execution of the deed, was
entered (ostensibly) by some high official, data, or datum, per
manum N., and contained the day of the month (according to the
Roman calendar), the year of indiction, the year of pontificate
(in some early deeds, also the year of the empire and the post-
consulate year), and the year of the Incarnation, which, however,
was gradually introduced and only became more common in the
course of the 1 1 th century. For example, a common form of a full
date would run thus: Datum Laterani, per manum N., sanctae
Romanae ecdesiae diaconi cardinalis, xiiii. kl. Mali, indictione V.,
anno dominicae Incarnationis mxcni.,pontijicatus autem domini
papae Urbani secundi X°. The simpler form of the date of a
lesser bull might be: Datum Laterani, iii. non. Jan., pontificalus
nostri anno iiii.

By degrees the use of the lesser bulls almost entirely superseded
that of the greater bulls, which became exceptional in the i3th
century and almost ceased after the migration to Avignon in 1309.
In modern times the greater bulls occasionally reappear for very
solemn acts, as bullae consistoriales, executed in the consistory.

The third period of papal documents extends from Innocent III.
to Eugenius IV., A.D. 1198-1431. The pontificate of Innocent
III. was a most important epoch in the history of the development
of the papal chancery. Formulas became more exactly fixed,
definitions more precise, the observation of rules and precedents
more constant. The staff of the chancery was reorganized. The
existing series of registers of papal documents was then com-
menced. The growing use of lesser bulls for the business of the
papal court led to a further development in the i3th century.
They were now divided into two classes : Tituli and Mandamenta.
The former conferred favours, promulgated precepts, judgments,
decisions, &c. The latter comprised ordinances, commissions, &c.,
and were executive documents. There are certain features which
distinguish the two classes. In the tituli, the initial letter of the
pope's name is ornamented with openwork and the other letters
are stilted. In the mandamenta, the initial is filled in solid and
the other letters are of the same size as the rest of the text. In
the tituli, enlarged letters mark the beginnings of the text and of
certain clauses; but not in the mandamenta. In the former the
mark of abbreviation is a looped sign; in the latter it is a
horizontal stroke. In the former the old practice of leaving a gap
between the letters s and t, and c and t, whenever they occur
together in a word (e.g. is te, sane lus), and linking them by
a coupling stroke above the line is continued; in the latter it
disappears. The leaden bulla attached to a litulus (as a permanent
deed) is suspended by cords of red and yellow silks; while that of
a mandamentum (a temporary deed) hangs from a hempen cord.

In the fourth period, extending from 1431 to the present time,
the tituli and mandamenta have continued to be the ordinary
documents in use; but certain other kinds have also arisen.
Briefs (brevia), or apostolic letters, concerning the personal affairs
of the pope or the administration of the temporal dominion, or
conceding indulgences, came into general use in the I3th century
in the pontificate of Eugenius IV. They are written in the italic
hand on thin white vellum; and the name of the pope with his
style as papa is written at the head of the sheet, e.g. Eugenius
papa iiii. They are closed and sealed with Seal of the Fisher-
man, sub anulo Piscatoris. Briefs have almost superseded the
mandamenta. The documents known as Signatures of the court of
Rome or Latin letters, and used principally for the expedition of
indulgences, were first introduced in the 1 5th century They were
drawn in the form of a petition to the pope, which he granted by
the words fiat ut petatur written across the top. They were not
sealed; and only the pontifical year appears in the date. Lastly,
the documents to which the name of Motu proprio is given are also
without seal and are used in the administration of the papal court,
the formula placet et ita motu proprio mandamus being signed by
the pope.

The character of the handwriting employed by the papal
chancery is discussed in the article PALAEOGRAPHY. Here it will
be enough to state that the early style was derived from the
Lombardic hand, and that it continued in use down to the
beginning of the i2th century; but that, from the loth century,

DIPLOMATIC

305

owing to the general adoption of the Caroline minuscule writing,
it began to fail and gradually became so unfamiliar to the un-
initiated, that, whileit still continued in use for papal bulls, it was
found necessary to accompany them with copies written in the
more intelligible Caroline script. The intricate, fanciful character,
known as the Liiera sancti Petri, was invented in the time
of Clement VIII., A.D. 1592-1605, was fully developed under
Alexander VIII., 1689-1691, and was only abolished at the end of
the year 1878 by Leo XIII.

Of the chancery of the Merovingian line of kings as many as
ninety authentic diplomas are known, and, of these, thirty-seven

are originals, the earliest being of the year 625. The
vto£/afl most ancient examples were written on papyrus, vellum
chancery, superseding that material towards the end of the 7th

century. All these diplomas are technically letters,
having the superscription and address and, at the foot, close
to the seal, the valedictory benevalete. They commence with a
monogrammatic invocation, which, together with the superscrip-
tion and address written in fanciful elongated letters, occupies the
first line. The superscription always runs in the form, N.
rex Francorum. The most complete kinds of diplomas were
authenticated by the king's subscription, that of the referendarius
(the official charged with the custody of the royal seal), the
impression of the seal, and exceptionally by subscriptions of
prelates and great personages. The royal subscription was
usually autograph; but, if the sovereign were too young or too
illiterate to write, a monogram was traced by the scribe. The
referendary, if he countersigned the royal subscription, added the
word opfulit to his own signature; if he subscribed independently,
he wroce recognovit et subscripsit, the end of the last word being
usually lost in flourishes forming a ruche. The date gave the
place, day, month and year of the reign. The Merovingian royal
diplomas are of two classes: (i) Precepts, conferring gifts,
favours, immunities and confirmations, entitled in the documents
themselves as praeceptum, praeceplio, auctoritas; some drawn up
in full form, with preamble and ample final clauses; others less
precise and formal. (2) Judgments (indicia), which required no
preamble or final clauses as they were records of the sovereign's
judicial decisions; they were subscribed by the referendary and
were sealed with the royal seal. Other classes of documents were
the cartae de, mundeburde, taking persons under the royal pro-
tection, and indiculi or letters transmitting orders or notifying
decisions; but no examples have survived.

The diplomas of the early Carolingians differed, as was natural,
but little from those of their predecessors. As mayors of the

palace, Charles Martel and Pippin took the style of

wr inluster. On becoming king, Pippin retained it;
chancery. Pippinus, vir Muster, rex Francorum, and it continued

to be part of the royal title till Charlemagne became
emperor. The royal subscription was in form of a sign-manual
or mark; but Charlemagne elaborated this into a monogram of
the letters of his name built up on a cross. In 775 the royal title
of Charlemagne became Carolus, gratia Dei rex Francorum et
Langobardorum, ac patricius Romanorum, the last words being
assumed on his visit to Rome in 774. On becoming emperor in
800, he was styled Imperator, Romanum gubernans imperium, rex
Francorum et Langobardorum. It is to be noticed that thenceforth
his name was spelt with initial K (as it was on the monogram),
having previously been written with C in the deeds. Most of his
diplomas were authenticated by the subscription of the chancellor
and impression of the seal. A novelty in the form of dating was
also introduced, two words, datum (for time) and actum (for
place), being now employed. The character of the writing of the
diplomas, founded on the Roman cursive hand, which had
become very intricate under the Merovingians, improved under
their successors, yet the reform which was introduced into the
literary script hardly affected the cursive writing of diplomatic
until the latter part of Charlemagne's reign. The archaic style
was particularly maintained in judgments, which were issued
by the private chancery of the palace, a department more con-
servative in its methods than the imperial chancery. It was in
the reign of Louis Debonair, A.D. 814-840, that the Carolingian

diploma took its final shape. A variation now appears in the
monogram, that monarch's sign-manual being built up, not on a
cross as previously, but on the letter H., the initial of his name
Hludovicus, and serving as the pattern for successive monarchs of
the name of Louis.

In the Carolingian chancery the staff was exclusively ecclesi-
astical ; at its head was the chancellor, whose title is traced back
to the cancellarius, or petty officer under the Roman empire,
stationed at the bar or lattice (cancelli) of the basilica or other law
court and serving as usher. As keeper of the royal archives
his subscription was indispensable for royal acts. The diplomas
were drawn up by the notaries, an important body, upon whom
devolved the duty of maintaining the formulae and traditions of
the office. It has been observed that in the 9th century the
documents were drawn carefully, but that in the loth century
there was a great degeneration in this respect. Under the early
Capetian kings there was great confusion and want of uniformity
in their diplomas; and it was not until the reign of Louis VI.,
A.D. 1 108, that the formulae were again reduced to rules.

The acts of the imperial chancery of Germany followed the
patterns of the Carolingian diplomas, with little variation down
to the reign of Frederick Barbarossa, A.D. 1152-1190.
The sovereign's style was N. divina favente dementia
rex; after coronation at Rome he became imperator chancery.
augustus. At the end of the icth century, Otto III.
developed the latter title into Romanorum imperator augustus.
Under Henry III., and regularly from the time of Henry V., A.D.
1106-1125, the title before coronation has been Romanorum rex.
The royal monogram did not necessarily contain all the letters of
the name; but, on the other hand, from the year 976, it became
more complicated and combined the imperial title with the name.
For example, the monogram of Henry II. combines the words
Henricus Romanorum imperator augustus. The flourished ruches
also, as in the Prankish chanceries, were in vbgue. Eventually
they were used by certain of the chancellors as a sign-manual, and
took fanciful shapes, such as a building with a cupola, or even a
diptych. They disappear early in the I2th century, the period
when in other respects the chancery of the Holy Roman Empire
largely adopted a more simple style in its diplomas.. Lists of
witnesses, in support of the royal and official subscriptions, were
sometimes added in the course of the nth century, and they
appear regularly in documents a hundred years later.

For the study of diplomatic in England, material exists in two
distinct series of documents, those of the Anglo-Saxon period, and
those subsequent to the Norman Conquest. The Anglo-
Saxon kings appear to have borrowed, partially, the
style of their diplomas from the chanceries of their England.
Prankish neighbours, introducing at the same time
modifications which give those documents a particular character
marking their nationality. In some of the earlier examples we
find that the lines of the foreign style are followed more or less
closely; but very soon a simpler model was adopted which, while
it varied in formulas from reign to reign, lasted in general con-
struction down to the time of the Norman Conquest. The royal
charters were usually drawn up in Latin, sometimes in Anglo-
Saxon, and began with a preamble or exordium (in some instances
preceded by an invocation headed with the chrismon or with a
cross), in the early times of a simple character, but, later, drawn
out not infrequently to great length in involved and bombastic
periods. Then immediately followed the disposing or granting
clause, often accompanied with a few words explaining the motive,
such as, for the good of the soul of the grantor; and the text was
closed with final clauses of varying extent, protecting the deed
against infringement, &c. In early examples the dating clause
gave the day and month (often according to the Roman calendar)
and the year of the indiction; but the year of the Incarnation was
also immediately adopted; and, later, the regnal year also. The
position of this clause in the charter was subject to variation.
The subscriptions of the king and of the personages witnessing
the deed, each preceded by a cross, but all written by the hand
of the scribe, usually closed the charter. A peculiarity was the
introduction, in many instances, either in the body of the charter,

306

DIPOENUS— DIPPEL

or in a separate paragraph at the end, of the boundaries of the
land granted, written in the native tongue. The sovereigns of
the several kingdoms of the Heptarchy, as well as those of the
United Kingdom, usually styled themselves rex. But from the
time of ^Ethelstan, A.D. 825-840, they also assumed fantastic
titles in the text of their charters, such as: rexet primicerius, rex
et rector, gubernator el rector, monarchus, and particularly the Greek
basileus, and basileus industrius. At the same time the name of
Albion was also frequently used for Britain.

A large number of documents of the Anglo-Saxon period, dating
from the 7th century, has survived, both original and copies
entered in chartularies. Of distinct documents there are nearly
two hundred; but a large proportion of these must be set aside
as copies (both contemporary and later) or as spurious deeds.

Although there is evidence, as above stated, of the use of seals
by certain of the Mercian kings, the method of authentication of
diplomas by seal impression was practically unknown to the
Anglo-Saxon sovereigns, save only to Edward the Confessor, who,
copying the custom which obtained upon the continent, adopted
the use of a great seal.

With the Norman Conquest the old tradition of the Anglo-
Saxons disappeared. The Conqueror brought with him the
practice of the Roman chancery, which naturally followed the
Capetian model; and his diplomas of English origin differed only
from those of Normandy by the addition of his new style, rex
Anglorum, in the superscription. But even from the first there
was a tendency to simplicity in the new English chancery, not
improbably suggested by the brief formalities of Anglo-Saxon
charters, and, side by side with the more formal royal diplomas,
others of shorter form and less ceremony were issued, which by
the reign of Henry II. quite superseded the more solemn docu-
ments. These simpler charters began with the royal superscrip-
tion, the address, and the salutation, e.g. Willelmus, Dei gratia rex
Anglorum, N. episcopo et omnibus baronibus et fidelibus suis
Francis et Anglis salutem. Then followed the notification and the
grant, e.g. Sciatis me concessisse, &c., generally without final
clauses, or, if any, brief clauses of protection and warranty; and,
at the end, the list of witnesses and the date. The regnal year
was usually cited; but the year of the Incarnation was also
sometimes given. The great seal was appended. To some of the
Conqueror's charters his subscription and those of his queen and
sons are attached, written by the scribe, but accompanied with
crosses which may or may not be autograph. By the reign of
John the simpler form of royal charters had taken final shape,
and from this time the acts of the kings of England have been
classified under three heads: viz. (i) Charters, generally of the
pattern described above; (2) Letters patent, in which the address
is general, Universis presenles litteras inspecturis, &c.; the cor-
roborative clause describes the character of the document, In
cujus rei testimonium has literas nostras fieri fecimus patentes; the
king himself is his own witness, Tesie me ipso; and the great seal
is appended; (3) Close letters, administrative documents convey-
ing orders, the king witnessing, Teste me ipso.

The style of the English kings down to John was, with few
exceptions, Rex Anglorum; thenceforward, Rex Angliae. Henry
II. added the feudal titles, dux Normannorum et Aquitanorum et
comes Andegavorum, which Henry III. curtailed to dux Aquitaniae.
John added the title dominus Hibernme; Edward III., on claim-
ing the crown of France, styled himself rex Angliae et Franciae,
the same title being borne by successive kings down to the year
1801; and Henry VIII., in 1521, assumed the title of fidei
defensor. The formula Dei gratia does not consistently accompany
the royal title until the reign of Henry II., who adopted it in 1173
(see L. Delisle, Memoire sur la chronologic des chartes de Henri II.,
in the Bibl. de I' Ecole des Chartes, Ixvii. 361-401).

The forms adopted in the royal chanceries were naturally
imitated in the composition of private deeds which in all countries
form the mass of material for historical and diplomatic
research. The student of English diplomatic will soon
remark how readily the private charters, especially
conveyances of real property, fall into classes, and how
stereotyped the phraseology and formulae of each class become,

only modified from time to time by particular acts of legislation.
The brevity of the early conveyances is maintained through
successive generations, with only moderate growth as time
progresses through the I2th> I3th and I4th centuries. The
different kinds of deeds which the requirements of society have
from time to time called into existence must be learned by the
student from the text-books. But a particular form of document
which was especially in favour in England should be mentioned.
This was the chirograph (Gr. ydp, a hand, ypcKfrav, to write),
which is found even in the Anglo-Saxon period, and which got its
name from the word chirographum, cirographum or cyrographum
being written in large letters at the head of the deed. At first the
word was written, presumably, at the head of each of the two
authentic copies which the two parties to a transaction would
require. Then it became the habit to use the word thus written
as a tally, the two copies of the deed being written on one sheet,
head to head, with the word between them, which was then cut
through longitudinally in a straight, or more commonly waved or
indented (in modum dentium) line, each of the two copies thus
having half of the word at the head. Any other word, or a series
of letters, might thus be employed; and more than two copies
of a deed could thus be made to tally. The chirograph was the
precursor of the modern indenture, the commonest form of
English deeds, though no longer a tally. In other countries, the
notarial instrument has performed the functions which the
chirograph and indenture have discharged for us.

AUTHORITIES. — General treatises, handbooks, &c., areJ.Mabillon,
De re diplomatica (1709); Tassin and Toustain, Nouyeau Traite de
diplomatique (1750-1765) ; T. Madpx, Fprmulare Anglicanum (1702) ;
G. Hickes, Linguarum septentrionalium thesaurus (1703-1705);

F. S.Maffei, Istoria diplomatica (1727) ; G. Marini, I Papiri diplo-
matici (1805); G. Bessel, Chronicon Gotwicense (De diplomatibus
imperatorum ac regum Germaniae) (1732); A. Fumagalli, Dette
istituzioni diplomatiche (1802); M. F. Kopp, Palaeographia crilica
(1817-1829); K. T. G. Schonemann, Versuch eines vollstandigen
Systems der Diplomatik (1818); T. Sickel, Lehre von den Vrkunden
der ersten Karolinger (1867); J. Ficker, Beitrage zur Urkundenlehre
(1877—1878); A. Gloria, Compendia dette lezioni di paleografia e
diplomatica (1870); C. Paoli, Programma scolastico di paleografia
Lalina e di diplomatica (1888-1890); H. Bresslau, Handbuch der
Urkundenlehre fur Deutschland und Italien (1889); A. Giry, Manuel
de diplomatique (1894); F. Leist, Urkundenlehre (1893); E. M.
Thompson, Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography, cap. xix.
(1906); J. M. Kemble, Codex diplomaticus aevi Saxonici (1839—
1848); W. G. Birch, Cartularium Saxonicum (1885-1893); J. Mufioz
y Rivero.Afanwe/ de paleografia diplomatica Espanola (1890);
M. Russi, Paleografia e diplomatica de' documenti dette provincie
Napolitane (1883). Facsimiles are given in J. B. Silvestre, Paleo-
graphie universelle (English edition, 1850); and in the Facsimiles,
&c., published by the Palaeographical Society (1873-1894) and the
New Palaeographical Society (1903, &c.); and also in the following
works: — A. Champollion-Figeac, Chartes et manuscrits sur papyrus
(1840); J. A. Letronne, Diplomes et chartes de I'epoque mero-
vingienne (1845-1866); J. Tardif, Archives de I'Empire: Facsimile
de chartes et diplomes merovingiens et carlovingiens (1866);

G. H. Pettz, Schrifttafeln zum Gebrauch bei diplomatischen
Vorlesungen (1844-1869) ; H. von Sybel and T. Sickel, Kaiser-
urkunden in Abbildungen (1880-1891); J. von Pflugk-Harttung,
Specimina selecta chartarum Pontificum Romanorum (1885-1887);
Specimina palaeographica regestorum Romanorum pontificum (1888);
Recueil de joe-similes a V usage de V Ecole des Charles (not published)
(1880, &c.) ; J. Mufioz y Rivero, Chrestomathia palaeographica:
scripturae Hispanae veteris Specimina (1890); E. A. Bond, Fac-
similes of Ancient Charters in the British Museum (1873-1878).'
W. B. Sanders, Facsimiles of Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts (charters)
(1878-1884); G. F. Warner and H. J. Ellis, Facsimiles of Royal and
other Charters in the British Museum (1903). (E. M. T.)

DIPOENUS and SCYLLIS, early Greek sculptors, who worked
together, and are said to have been pupils of Daedalus. Pliny
assigns to them the date 580 B.C., and says that they worked at
Sicyon, which city from their time onwards became one of the
great schools of sculpture. They also made statues for Cleonae
and Argos. They worked in wood, ebony and ivory, and
apparently also in marble. It is curious that no inscription
bearing their names has come to light.

DIPPEL, JOHANN KONRAD (1673-1734), German theologian
and alchemist, son of a Lutheran pastor, was born at the castle of
Frankenstein, near Darmstadt, on the loth of August 1673. He
studied theology at Giessen. After a short visit to Wittenberg

DIPSOMANIA— DIPTERA

307

he went to Strassburg, where he lectured on alchemy and chiro-
mancy, and occasionally preached. He gained considerable
popularity, but was obliged after a time to quit the city, owing to
his irregular manner of living. He had up to this time espoused
the cause of the orthodox as against the pietists; but in his two
first works, published under the name " Christianus Democritus,"
Orlhodoxia Orthodoxorum (1697) and Papismus vapulans Pro-
testantium (1698), he assailed the fundamental positions of the
Lutheran theology. He held that religion consisted not in dogma
but exclusively in love and self-sacrifice. To avoid persecution
' he was compelled to wander from place to place in Germany,
Holland, Denmark and Sweden. He took the degree of doctor
of medicine at Leiden in 1711. He discovered Prussian blue,
and by the destructive distillation of bones prepared the evil-
smelling product known as Dippel's animal oil. He died near
Berleburg on the 25th of- April 1734.

An enlarged edition of Dippel's collected works was published at
Berleburg in 1743. See the biographies by J. C. G. Ackermann
(Leipzig, 1781), H. V. Hoffmann (Darmstadt, 1783), K. Henning
(1881) and W. Bender (Bonn, 1882) ; also a memoir by K. Bucher in'
the Historisches Taschenbuch for 1858.

DIPSOMANIA (from Gr. 3i\l/a, thirst, and fiavia, madness),
a term formerly applied to the attacks of delirium (<?.D.) caused
by alcoholic poisoning. It is now sometimes loosely used as
equivalent to the condition of incurable inebriates, but strictly
should be confined to the pathological and insatiable desire for
alcohol, sometimes occurring in paroxysms.

DIPTERA (Sis, double, Trrepa, wings), a term (first em-
ployed in its modern sense by Linnaeus, Fauna Suecica, ist
ed., 1 746, p. 306) used in zoological classification for one of the
Orders into which the Hexapoda, or Insecta, are divided. The
relation of the Diptera (two-winged flies, or flies proper) to the
other Orders is dealt with under Hexapoda (q.v.).

The chief characteristic of the Diptera is expressed in the name
of the Order, since, with the exception of certain aberrant and
apterous forms, flies possess but a single pair of membranous
wings, which are attached to the meso-thorax. Wing-covers and
hind-wings are alike absent, and the latter are represented by a
pair of little knobbed organs, the halteres or balancers, which
have a controlling and directing function in flight. The other
structural characters of the Order may be briefly summarized
as: — mouth-parts adapted for piercing and sucking, or for
suction alone, and consisting of a proboscis formed of the labium,
and enclosing modifications of the other usual parts of the mouth,
some of which, however, may be wanting; a thorax fused into
a single mass; and legs with five- join ted tarsi. The wings, which
are not capable of being folded, are usually transparent, but
occasionally pigmented and adorned with coloured spots,
blotches or bands; the wing-membrane, though sometimes
clothed with minute hairs, seldom bears scales; the wing-veins,
which are of great importance in the classification of Diptera,
are usually few in number and chiefly longitudinal, there being
a marked paucity of cross-veins. In a large number of Diptera
an incision in the posterior margin of the whig, near the base,
marks off a small lobe, the posterior lobe or alula, while connected
with this but situated on the thorax itself there is a pair of
membranous scales, or squamae, which when present serve to
conceal the halteres. The antennae of Diptera, which are also
extremely important in classification, are thread-like in the more
primitive families, such as the Tipulidae (daddy-long-legs), where
they consist of a considerable number of joints, all of which
except the first two, and sometimes also the last two, are similar
in shape; in the more specialized families, such as the Tabanidae
(horse-flies), Syrphidae (hover-flies) or Muscidae (house-flies,
blue-bottles and their allies), the number of antennal joints is
greatly reduced by coalescence, so that the antennae appear to
consist of only three joints. In these forms, however, the third
joint is really a complex, which in many families bears in addition
a jointed bristle (arista) or style, representing the terminal joints
of the primitive antenna. Although in the case of the majority
of Diptera the body is more or less clothed with hair, the hairy
covering is usually so short that to the unaided eye the insects
appear almost bare; some forms, however, such as the bee-flies

(Bombylius) and certain robber-flies (Asilidae) are conspicuously
hairy. ' Bristles are usually present on the legs, and in the case of
many families on the body also; those on the head and thorax
are of great importance in classification.

Between 40,000 and 50,000 species of Diptera are at present
known, but these are only a fraction of those actually in existence.
The species recognized as British number some 2700, but to this
total additions are constantly being made. As a rule flies are of
small or moderate size, and many, such as certain blood-sucking
midges of the genus Ceratopogon, are even minute; as extremes
of size may be mentioned a common British midge, Ceratopogon
varius, the female of which measures only ij millimetre, and the
gigantic Mydaidae of Central and South America as well as certain
Australian robber-flies, which have a body i-f in. long, with a
wing-expanse of 3^- in. In bodily form Diptera present two main
types, either, as in the case of the more primitive and generalized
families, they are gnat- or midge-like in shape, with slender
bodies and long, delicate legs, or else they exhibit a more or less
distinct resemblance to the common house-fly, having compact
and stoutly built bodies and legs of moderate length. Diptera
in general are not remarkable for brilliancy of coloration; as a
rule they are dull and inconspicuous in hue, the prevailing body-
tints being browns and greys; occasionally, however, more
especially in species (Syrphidae) that mimic Hymenoptera, the
body is conspicuously banded with yellow; a few are metallic,
such as the species of Formosia, found in the islands of the East
Indian Archipelago, which are among the most brilliant of all
insects. The sexes in Diptera are usually alike, though in a
number of families with short antennae the males are distinguished
by the fact that their eyes meet together (or nearly so) on the
forehead. Metamorphosis in Diptera is complete; the larvae are
utterly different from the perfect insects in appearance, and,
although varying greatly in outward form, are usually footless
grubs; those of the Muscidae are generally known as maggots.
The pupa either shows the appendages of the perfect insect,
though these are encased in a sheath and adherent to the body,
or else it is entirely concealed within the hardened and contracted
larval integument, which forms a barrel-shaped protecting
capsule or puparium.

Diptera are divided into some sixty families, the exact classi-
fication of which has not yet been finally settled. The majority
of authors, however, follow Brauer in dividing the order into
two sections, Orthorrhapha and Cyclorrhapha, according to the
manner in which the pupa-case splits to admit of the escape of the
perfect insect. The general characteristics of the pupae in these
two sections have already been described.

In the Orthorrhapha, in the pupae of which the appendages
of the perfect insect are usually visible, the pupa-case generally
splits in a straight line down the back near the cephalic end ; in
front of this longitudinal cleft there may be a small transverse
one, the two together forming a T-shaped fissure. In the
Cyclorrhapha on the other hand, in which the actual pupa is
concealed within the hardened larval skin, the imago escapes
through a circular orifice formed by pushing off or through the
head end of the puparium. The Diptera Orthorrhapha include
the more primitive and less specialized families such as the
Tipulidae (daddy-long-legs), Culicidae (gnats or mosquitoes),
Chironomidae (midges), Mycetophtiidae (fungus-midges), Tab-
anidae (horse-flies), Asilidae (robber-flies), &c. The Diptera
Cyclorrhapha on the other hand consist of the most highly
specialized families, such as the Syrphidae (hover-flies) , Oestridae
(bot and warble flies), and Muscidae (sensu laliore — the house-fly
and its allies, including tsetse-flies, flesh-flies, Tachininae, or flies
the larvae of which are internal parasites of caterpillars, &c.).
It is customary to divide the Orthorrhapha into the two divisions
Nematocera and Brachycera, in the former of which the antennae
are elongate and in a more or less primitive condition, as described
above, while in the latter these organs are short, and, as already
explained, apparently composed of only three joints.

Within the divisions named — Orthorrhapha Nematocera,
Orthorrhapha Brachycera and Cyclorrhapha — the constituent
families are usually grouped into a series of " superfamilies,"

3o8

DIPTERAL— DIPTYCH

distinguished by features of structure or habit. Certain extremely
aberrant Diptera, which, in consequence of the adoption of a
parasitic mode of life, have undergone great structural modifica-
tion, are further remarkable for their peculiar mode of reproduc-
tion, on account of which the families composing the group are
often termed Pupipara. In these forms the pregnant female,
instead of laying eggs, as Diptera usually do, or even producing
a number of minute living larvae, gives birth at one time but to
a single larva, which is retained within the oviduct of the mother
until adult, and assumes the pupal state immediately on extrusion.
The Pupipara are also termed Eproboscidea (although they
actually possess a well-developed and functional proboscis), and
by some dipterists the Eproboscidea are regarded as a suborder
and contrasted as such with the rest of the Diptera, which are
styled the suborder Proboscidea. By other writers Proboscidea
and Eproboscidea are treated as primary divisions of the
Cyclorrhapha. In reality, however, the families designated
Eproboscidea (Hippoboscidae, Braulidae, Nycteribiidae and
Streblidae) , are not entitled to be considered as constituting either
a suborder, or even a main division of the Cyclorrhapha; they
are simply Cyclorrhapha much modified owing to parasitism, and
in view of the closely similiar mode of reproduction in the tsetse-
flies the special designation Pupipara should be abandoned.
Before leaving the subject of classification it may be noted in
passing that in 1906 Professor Lameere, of Brussels, proposed a
scheme for the classification of Diptera which as regards both the
limits of the families and their grouping into higher categories
differs considerably from that in current use.

Little light on the relationship and evolution of the various
families of Diptera is afforded by fossil forms, since as a rule the
latter are readily referable to existing families. With the excep-
tion of a few species from the Solenhofen lithographic Oolite,
fossi! Diptera belong to the Tertiary Period, during which
the members of this order attained a high degree of development.
In amber, as proved by the deposits on the shores of the Baltic,
the proverbial " fly " is more numerous than any other crea-
tures, and with very few exceptions representatives of all the
existing families have been found. The famous Tertiary beds
at Florissant, Colorado, have yielded a considerable number
or remarkably well-preserved Tipulidae (in which family are
included the most primitive of existing Diptera), as also species
belonging to other families, such as Mycetophilidae and even
Oestridae.

Diptera as an order are probably more widely distributed over
the earth's surface than are the representatives of any similar
division of the animal kingdom. Flies seem capable of adapting
themselves to extremes of cold equally as well as to those of heat,
and species belonging to the order are almost invariably included
in the collections brought back by members of Arctic expeditions.
Others are met with in the most isolated localities; thus the
Rev. A. E. Eaton discovered on the desolate shores of Kerguelen's
Island apterous and semi-apterous Diptera (Tipulidae and
Ephydridae) of a degraded type adapted to the climatic peculi-
arities of the locality. Many bird parasites belonging to the
Hippoboscidae have naturally been carried about the world by
their hosts, while other species, such as the house-fly, blow-fly and
drone-fly, have in like manner been disseminated by human
agency. Most families and a large proportion of genera are
represented throughout the world, but in some cases (e.g. Glossina
— see TSETSE-FLY) the distribution of a genus is limited to a
continent. As a rule the general fades as well as dimensions are
remarkably uniform throughout a family, so that tropical species
often differ little in appearance from those inhabiting temperate
regions. Many instances of exaggerated and apparently un-
natural structure nevertheless occur, as in the case of the genera
Pangonia, Nemestrina, Achias, Diopsisund the family Celyphidae,
and, as might be expected, it is chiefly in tropical species that
these peculiarities are found. To a geographical distribution of
the widest extent, Diptera add a range of habits of the most
diversified nature; they are both animal and vegetable feeders,
an enormous number of species acting, especially in the larval
state, as scavengers in consuming putrescent or decomposing

matter of both kinds. The phytophagous species are attached to
various parts of plants, dead or alive; and the carnivorous in like
manner feed on dead or living flesh, or its products, many larvae
being parasitic on living animals of various classes (in Australia
the larva of a species of Muscidae is even a parasite of frogs),
especially the caterpillars of Lepidoptera, which are destroyed in
great numbers by Tachininae. The recent discovery of a blood-
sucking maggot, which is found in native huts throughout the
greater part of tropical and subtropical Africa, and attacks the
inmates when asleep, is of great interest.

It may confidently be asserted that, of insects which directly
or indirectly affect the welfare of man, Diptera form the vast
majority, and it is a moot point whether the good effected by
many species in the rapid clearing away of animal and vegetable
impurities, and in keeping other insect enemies in check, counter-
balances the evil and annoyance wrought by a large section of the
Order. The part played by certain blood-sucking Diptera in the
dissemination of disease is now well known (see MOSQUITO and
TSETSE-FLY), and under the term myiasis medical literature
includes a lengthy recital of instances of the presence of Dipterous
larvae in various parts of the living human body, and the
injuries caused thereby. That Diptera of the type of the common
house-fly are often in large measure responsible for the spread
of such diseases as cholera and enteric fever is undeniable, and
as regards blood-sucking forms, in addition to those to which
reference has already been made, it is sufficient to mention the
vast army of pests constituted by the midges, sand-flies, horse-
flies, &c., from the attacks of which domestic animals suffer
equally with man, in addition to being frequently infested with
the larvae of the bot and warble flies (Gastrophilus, Oestrus and
Hypoderma). Lastly, as regards the phytophagous forms, there
can be no doubt that the destruction of grass-lands by " leather-
jackets " (the larvae of crane-flies, or daddy-long-legs, — Tipula
oleracea and T. paludosa), of divers fruits byCeratitis capitata and
species of Dacus, and of wheat and other crops by the Hessian-fly
(Mayetiola destructor) and species of Oscinis, Chlorops, &c., is of
very serious consequence.

With many writers it is customary to treat the fleas as a sub-
order of Diptera, under the title Aphaniptera or Siphonaptera.
Since, however, although undoubtedly allied to the Diptera, they
must have diverged from the ancestral stem at an early period,
before the existing forms of Diptera became so extremely
specialized, it seems better to regard the fleas as constituting
an independent order (see FLEA). (E. E. A.)

DIPTERAL (Gr. for " double-winged "), the architectural term
applied to those temples which have a double range of columns in
the peristyle, as in the temple of Diana at Ephesus.

DIPTYCH (Gr. SiTrnxos, two-folding), (i) A tablet made
with a hinge to open and shut, used in the Roman empire for
letters (especially love-letters), and official tokens of the com-
mencement of a consul's, praetor's or aedile's term of office. The
latter variety of diptych was inscribed with the magistrate's name
and bore his portrait, and was issued to his friends and the public
generally. They were made of boxwood or maple. More costly
examples were in cedar, ivory (q.v.), silver or sometimes gold.
They were often sent as New Year gifts.

(2)In the primitive church when the worshippers brought their
own offerings of bread and wine, from which were taken the
Communion elements, the names of the contributors were
recorded on diptychs and read aloud. To these names were early
added those of deceased members of the community whom it was
desired to commemorate. This custom rapidly developed into
a kind of commemoration of saints and benefactors, living and
dead; especially, in each church, were the names of those who
had been its bishops recorded. The custom was maintained until
the lists became so long that it was impossible to read them
through, and the observance in this form had to be abandoned.
The insertion of a name on the diptych, thereby securing the
prayers of the church, was a privilege from which a person could
be excluded on account of suspicion of heresy or by the intrigues
of enemies. His name could, if written, be expunged under
similar circumstances. The names thus written were read from

DIR— DIRECTORS

309

the ambo, in which the diptych was kept. The reading of these
names during the canon of the mass gave rise to the term canoniza-
tion. By various councils it was ordained that the name of the
pope should always be inserted in the diptych list.

The addition of dales resulted from the custom of recording
baptisms and deaths; and thus the diptych developed into a
calendar and formed the germ of the elaborate system of
festologies, martyrologies and calendars which developed in
the church.

The diptych went by various names in the early church —
mystical tablets, anniversary books, ecclesiastical matriculation
registers or books of the living. According to the names in-
scribed, bishops, the dead or the living, a diptych might be a
diptycha episcoporum, diptycha mortuorum or diptycha viwrum.

In course of time the list of the names swelled to such propor-
tions that the space afforded by the diptych was insufficient. A
third fold was consequently provided, and the tablet became a
triptych (though the name diptych was retained as a general term
for the object). Further room was afforded by the insertion of
leaves of parchment or wood between the folds. The custom of
reading names from the diptychs died out about the 8th century.
The diptychs, however, were retained as altar ornaments. From
the original consular documents onwards, the outsides of the
folds had always been richly ornamented, and when they ceased
to be of immediate practical use they became merely decora-
tive. Instead of the list of names the inside was ornamented
like the outer, and in the middle ages the best painters of the
day would often paint them. When folded, the portraits
of the donor and his wife might be shown; when open there
would be three paintings, one on each fold, of a religious
character. (R. A. S. M.)

DIR, an independent state in the North- West Frontier Province
of India, lying to the north-east of Swat. Its importance chiefly
arises from the fact that it commands the greater part of the route
between Chitral and the Peshawar frontier. The quarrels and
intrigues between the khan of Dir and Umra Khan of Jandol were
among the chief events that led up to the Chitral Campaign of.
1895. During that expedition the khan made an agreement with
the British Government to keep the road to Chitral open in return
for a subsidy. Including the Bashkars, an aboriginal tribe allied
to the Torwals and Garhuis, who inhabit Panjkora Kohistan, the
population is estimated at about 100,000.

DIRCE, in Greek legend, daughter of Helios the sun-god, the
second wife of Lycus, king of Thebes. She sorely persecuted
Antiope, his first wife, who escaped to Mount Cithaeron, where
her twin sons Amphion and Zethus were being brought up by a
herdsman who was ignorant of their parentage. Having recog-
nized their mother, the sons avenged her by tying Dirce to the
horns of a wild bull, which dragged her about till she died. Her
body was cast into a spring near Thebes, which was ever after-
wards called by her name. Her punishment is the subject of the
famous group called " The Farnese Bull," by Apollonius and
Tauriscus of Tralles, in the Naples museum (see GREEK ART,
Plate I. fig. 51).

DIRECT MOTION, in astronomy, the apparent motion of. a body
of the solar system on the celestial sphere in the direction from
west to east; so called because this is the usual direction of
revolution and rotation of the heavenly bodies.

DIRECTORS, in company law, the agents by whom a trading
or public company acts, the company itself being a legal ab-
straction and unable to do anything. As joint-stock companies
have multiplied and their enterprise has extended, the position of
directors has become one of increasing influence and importance.
It is they who control the colossal funds now invested in trading
companies, and who direct their policy (for shareholders are
seldom more than dividend-drawers). Upon their uprightness,
vigilance and sound judgment depends the welfare of the greatel
part of the trade of the country concerned. It is not to be
wondered at that in view of this influence and independence of
action the law courts have held directors to a strict standard
of duty, and that the parliament of the United Kingdom has
singled out directors from other agents for special legislation in

the Directors Liability Act 1890, the Larceny Act 1861, the
Companies Act 1867 and the Winding-up Act 1890.

The first directors of a company are generally appointed by the
articles of association. Their consent to act must now, under the
Companies Act 1 908, be filed with the registrar of joint-stock com-
panies. Directors other than the first are elected at the annual
general meeting, a certain proportion of the acting directors —
usually one-third — retiring under the articles by rotation each
year, and their places being filled up by election. A share qualifi-
cation is nearly always required, on the well-recognized principle
that a substantial stake in the undertaking is the best guarantee
of fidelity to the company's interests. A director once appointed
:annot be removed during his term of office by the shareholders,
unless there is a special provision for that purpose in the articles
of association; but a company may dismiss a director if the
articles — as is usually the case — authorize dismissal. The
authority and powers of directors are prima facie those necessary
for carrying on the ordinary business of the company, but it is
usual to define the more important of such powers in the articles
of association. For instance, it is commonly prescribed how and
when the directors may make calls, to what amount they may
borrow, how they may invest the funds of the company, in what
circumstances they may forfeit shares, or veto transfers, in what
manner they shall conduct their proceedings, and what shall
constitute a quorum of the board. Whenever, indeed, specific
directions are desirable they may properly be given by the articles.
But superadded to and supplementing these specific powers there
is usually inserted in the articles a general power of management
in terms similar to those of clause 55 of the model regulations for
a company, known as Table A (clause 71 of the revised Table).
The powers, whether general or specific, thus confided to directors
are in the nature of a trust, and the directors must exercise them
with a single eye to the benefit of the company. For instance, in
allotting shares they must consult the interests of the company,
not favour their friends. So in forfeiting shares they must not use
the power collusively for the purpose of relieving the shareholder
from liability. To do so is an abuse of the power and a fraud on
the other shareholders.

It would give a very erroneous idea of the position and functions
of directors to speak of them — as is sometimes done — as trustees.
They are only trustees in the sense that every agent is. They are
" commercial men managing a trading concern for the benefit of
themselves and the other shareholders." They have to carry on
the company's business, to extend and consolidate it, and to do
this they must have a free hand and a large discretion to deal with
the exigencies of the commerical situation. This large discretion
the law allows them so long as they keep within the limits set
by the company's memorandum and articles. They are not to be
held liable for mere errors of judgment, still less for being de-
frauded. That would make their position intolerable. All that
the law requires of them is that they should be faithful to their
duties as agents — " diligent and honest," to use the words of Sir
George Jessel , formerly master of the rolls. Thus in the matter of
diligence it is a director's duty to attend as far as possible all
meetings of the board; at the same time non-attendance, unless
gross, will not amount to negligence such as to render a director
liable for irregularities committed by his co-directors in his
absence. A director again must not sign cheques without inform-
ing himself of the purpose for which they are given. A director,
on the same principle, must not delegate his duties to others unless
expressly authorized to do so, as where the company's articles
empower the directors to appoint a committee. Directors may,
it is true, employ skilled persons, such as engineers, valuers or
accountants, to assist them, but they must still exercise their
judgment as business men on the materials before them. Then in
the matter of honesty, a director must not accept a present in cash
or shares or in any other form whatever from the company's
vendor, because such a present is neither more nor less than a bribe
to betray the interests of the company, nor must he make any
profit in the matter of his agency without the knowledge and
consent of his principal, the company. He must not, in other
words, put himself in a position in which his duty to the company

310

DIRECTORY— DIRSCHAU

and his own interest conflict or even may conflict. This rule often
comes into play in the case of contracts between a company and a
director. There is nothing in itself invalid in such a contract, but
the onus is on the director if he would keep such a contract to
show that the company assented to his making a profit out of the
contract, and for that purpose he must show that he made full and
fair disclosure to the company of the nature and extent of his
interest under the contract. It is for this reason that when a
company's vendor is also a director he does not join the board
until his co-directors have exercised an independent judgment on
the propriety of the purchase.

A director must also bear in mind — what is a fundamental
principle of company management — that the funds of the
company are entrusted to the directors for the objects of the
company as defined by the company's memorandum of associa-
tion and authorized by the general law, and that they must not be
diverted from those objects or applied to purposes which are out-
side the objects of the company, ultra vires, as it is commonly
called, or outside the powers of management given by the share-
holders to the directors. This does not abridge the large discre-
tion allowed to directors in carrying on the business of the
company. The funds embarked in a trading company are
intended to be employed for the acquisition of gain, and risk,
greater or less according to circumstances, is necessarily incidental
to such employment; but it is quite another matter when
directors pay dividends out of capital, or return capital to the
shareholders, or spend money of the company in " rigging " the
market, or in buying the company's shares or paying commission
for underwriting the shares of the company except where such
commission is authorized under acts of 1900 and 1907, incorpor-
ated in the Companies Act 1908. Directors who in these or
any other ways misapply the funds of the company are guilty
of what is technically known as " misfeasance " or breach
of trust, and all who join in the misapplication are jointly and
severally liable to replace the sums so misapplied. The remedy of
the company for misfeasance, if the company is a going concern,
is by action against the delinquent directors; but where a
company is being wound up, the legislature has, under the
Winding-up Act 1890, provided a summary mode of proceeding,
by which the official receiver or liquidator, or any creditor or
contributory of the company, may take out what is known as a
misfeasance summons, to compel the delinquent director or officer
to repay the misapplied moneys or make compensation. The
departmental committee of the Board of Trade in its report (July
1906) recommended that the court should be given a discretionary
power, analogous to that it already possesses in the case of
trustees under the Judicial Trustees Act 1896, s. 3, to relieve a
director (or a promoter) in certain cases from liability. This
recommendation has been given effect to by s. 279 of the
Companies Act 1908, which provides that, " If in any proceeding
against a director of a company for negligence or breach of trust
it appears to a court that the director is or may be liable in respect
of the negligence or breach of trust, but has acted honestly and
reasonably and ought fairly to be excused for the negligence
or breach of trust, the court may relieve him either wholly or
partly from his liability on such terms as the court may think
proper."

Directors who circulate a prospectus containing statements
which they know to be false, with intent to induce any person
to become a shareholder, may be prosecuted under § 84 of the
Larceny Act 1861. They are also liable criminallyfor falsification
of the company's books, and for this or any other criminal offence
the court in winding up may, on the application of the liquidator,
direct a prosecution. As to the liability of directors for state-
ments or omissions in a prospectus see COMPANY.

In managing the affairs of the company directors must meet
together and act as a body, for the company is entitled to their
collective wisdom in council assembled. Board meetings are held
at such intervals as the directors think expedient. Notice of the
meeting must be given to all directors who are within reach, but
the notice need not specify the particular business to be trans-
acted. The articles usually fix, or give the directors power to fix,

what number shall constitute a quorum for a board meeting.
They also empower the directors to elect a chairman of the board.
The directors exercise their powers by a resolution of the board
which is recorded in the directors' minute-book.

The court will not as a rule interfere with the discretion of
directors honestly exercised in the management of the affairs of
the company. The directors have prima facie the confidence of
the shareholders, and it is not for the court to say that such con-
fidence is misplaced. If the directors are dissatisfied with the
management the remedy is in their own hands — they can call a
meeting and elect a new board.

A company's articles usually provide for the payment of a
certain sum to each director for his services during the year.
When this is the case it is an authority to the directors to pay
themselves the amount of such remuneration. The remuneration,
unless otherwise expressly provided, covers all expenses incidental
to the directors' duties. A director, for instance, cannot claim to
be paid in addition to his fixed remuneration his travelling
expenses for attending board meetings.

When a company winds up, the directors' powers of manage-
ment come to an end. Their agency is superseded in favour of
that of the liquidator. (E. MA.)

DIRECTORY, a term meaning literally that which guides or
directs, and so applied to a book or set of rules giving directions
for public worship. The directorium or ordo of the Roman Church
contains regulations as to the Mass and office to be used on each
day throughout the year, and the word is found in the Directory
for the Publick Worship of God drawn up in 1644 at the West-
minster Assembly. The term now usually signifies a book contain-
ing the names, addresses and occupations, &c. of the inhabitants
of a town or district, or of a similar list of the users of a telephone
supply, or of the members of a particular profession or trade.
The name Directoire or Directory was given to the body which
held the executive power in France from October 1795 until
November 1799 (see FRENCH REVOLUTION).

DIRGE, a song or hymn of mourning, particularly one sung at
funerals or at a service in commemoration of the dead. It is
derived from the first word of the antiphon " Dirige, Domine,
Deus meus, in conspectu tuo viam meant " (Guide, O Lord, my
God, my way in Thy sight), of the opening psalm in the office for
the dead in the Roman Church. The antiphon is adapted from
verse 8 of Psalm v.

DIRK, a dagger, particularly the heavy dagger carried by the
Highlanders of Scotland. The dirk as worn in full Highland
costume is an elaborately ornamented weapon, with cairngorms
or other stones set in the head of the handle, which has no guard.
Inserted in the sheath there may be two small knives. The dirk,
in the shape of a straight blade, with a small guard, some 18 in.
long, is worn by midshipmen in the British navy. The origin of
the word is doubtful. The earlier forms were dork and durk, and
the spelling dirk, adopted by Johnson, represents the pronuncia-
tion of the second form. The name seems to have been early
applied to the daggers of the Highlanders, but the Gaelic word is
biodag, and the Irish duirc, often stated to be the origin, is only an
adaptation of the English word. It may be a corruption of the
German Dolch, a dagger. The suggestion that it is an application
of the Christian name " Dirk," the short form of " Dieterich," is
not borne out, according to the New English Dictionary, by any
use of this name for a dagger, and is further disproved by the
earlier English spelling.

DIRSCHAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia,
province of West Prussia, on the left bank of the Vistula, 20 m. S.
from Danzig and at the junction of the important lines of railway
Berlin-Konigsberg and Danzig-Bromberg. Pop. (1905) 14,185.
It has a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church and several
schools. The river is here crossed by two fine iron bridges. The
older structure dating from the year 1857, originally used for the
railway, is now given up to road traffic, and the railway carried
by a new bridge completed in 1891. Dirschau has railway work-
shops and manufactories of sugar, agricultural implements and
cement. During the war with Poland, Gustavus Adolphus made
it his headquarters for many months after its capture in 1626.

DISABILITY— DISCIPLES OF CHRIST

DISABILITY, a term meaning, in general, want of ability, and
used in law to denote an incapacity in certain persons or classes of
persons for the full enjoyment of duties or privileges, which, but
for their disqualification, would be open to them; hence, legal
disqualification. Thus, married women, persons under age,
insane persons, convicted felons are under disability to do certain
legal acts. This disability may be absolute, wholly disabling the
person so long as it continues, or partial, ceasing on discontinua-
tion of the disabling state, as attainment of full age.

DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. descharge, modern
dicharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and carricare,
to load, cf. " charge "), a word meaning relief from a load or
burden, hence applied to the unloading of a ship, the firing of
a weapon, the passage of electricity from an electrified body,
the issue from a wound, &c. From the sense of relief from an
obligation, " discharge " is also applied to the release of a soldier
or sailor from military or naval service, or of the crew of a
merchant vessel, or to the dismissal from an office or situation.
In law, it is used of a document or other evidence that can be
accepted as proof of the release from an obligation, as of a receipt,
on payment of money due. Similarly it is applied to the release
in accordance with law of a person in custody on a criminal
charge, and to the legal release of a bankrupt from further
liability for debts provable in the bankruptcy except those
incurred by fraud or debts to the crown. It is also applied to the
reversal of an order of a court. In the case of divorce, where the
rule nisi is not made absolute, the rule is said to be discharged.

DISCHARGING ARCH, in architecture, an arch built over a
lintel or architrave to take off the superincumbent weight. The
earliest example is found in the Great Pyramid, over the lintels of
the entrance passage to the tomb: it consisted of two stones only,
resting one against the other. The same object was attained in
the Lion Gate and the tomb of Agamemnon, both in Mycenae, and
in other examples in Greece, where the stones laid in horizontal
courses, one projecting over the other, left a triangular hollow
space above the lintel of the door, which was subsequently filled
in by vertical sculptured stone panels. The Romans frequently
employed the discharging arch, and inside the portico of the
Pantheon the architraves have such arches over them. In
the Golden Gateway of the palace of Diocletian at Spalato the
discharging arches, semicircular in form, were adopted as archi-
tectural features and decorated with mouldings. The same is
found in the synagogues in Palestine of the 2nd century; and
later, in Byzantine architecture, these moulded archivolts above
an architrave constitute one of the characteristics of the style.
In the early Christian churches in Rome, where a colonnade
divided off the nave and aisles, discharging arches are turned in
the frieze just above the architraves.

DISCIPLE, properly a pupil, scholar (Lat. discipidus, from
discere, to learn, and root seen in pupillus), but chiefly used of
the personal followers of Jesus Christ, including the inner circle
of the Apostles (q.v.).

DISCIPLES OF CHRIST, or CHRISTIANS, an American Pro-
testant denomination, founded by Thomas Campbell, his son
Alexander Campbell (q.v.) and Barton Warren Stone (1772-1844).
Stone had been a Presbyterian minister prominent in the
Kentucky revival of 1801, but had been turned against sectarian-
ism and ecclesiastical authority because the synod had condemned
Richard McNemar, one of his colleagues in the revival, for
preaching (as Stone himself had done) counter to the Westminster
Confession, on faith and the work of the Holy Spirit in conversion.
He had organized the Springfield Presbytery, but in 1804 with his
five fellow ministers signed " The Last Will and Testament of the
Springfield Presbytery," giving up that name and calling them-
selves " Christians." Like Stone, Alexander Campbell had
adopted (in 1812) immersion, and, like him, his two great desires
were for Christian unity and the restoration of the ancient order
of things. But the Campbellite doctrines differed widely from the
hyper-Calvinism of the Baptists whom they had joined in 1813,
especially on the points on which Stone had quarrelled with
the Presbyterians; and after various local breaks in 1825-1830,
when there were large additions to the Restorationists from

the Baptist ranks, especially under the apostolic fervour and
simplicity of the preaching of Walter Scott (1796-1861;, in 1832
the Reformers were practically all ruled out of the Baptist com-
munion. The Campbells gradually lost sight of Christian unity,
owing to the unfortunate experience with the Baptists and to the
tone taken by those clergymen who had met them in debates;
and for the sake of Christian union it was peculiarly fortunate
that in January 1832 at Lexington, Kentucky, the followers of
the Campbells and those of Stone (who had stressed union more
than primitive Christianity) united. Campbell objected to the
name " Christians " as sectarianized by Stone, but " Disciples "
never drove out of use the name " Christians."

During the Civil War the denomination escaped an actual
scission by following the neutral views of Campbell, who opposed
slavery, war and abolition. In 1849 the American Christian
Missionary Society was formed; it was immediately attacked as a
" human innovation," unwarranted by the New Testament, by
literalists led in later ycarsby Benjamin Franklin (secretary of the
missionary society in 1857), who opposed all church music also.
Isaac Errett (1820-1888) was the most prominent leader of the
progressive party, which was considered corrupt and worldly
by the literalists, many of whom, in spite of his efforts, broke off
from the main body, especially in Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee,
Arkansas and Texas.

The main body appointed in 1890 a standing committee on
Christian union; their aim in this respect is not for absorption,
as was clearly shown by their answer in 1887 to overtures from
the Protestant Episcopal Church regarding Christian unity. The
credal position of the Disciples is simple: great stress is put upon
the phrase " the Christ, the Son of the living God," and upon the
recognition by Jesus of this confession as the foundation of His
church; as to baptism, agreement with Baptists is only as to the
mode, immersion; this is considered " the primitive confession
of Christ and a gracious token of salvation," and as being " for
the remission of sins "; the Disciples generally deny the authority
over Christians of the Old Covenant, and Alexander Campbell in
particular held this view so forcibly that he was accused by
Baptists of " throwing away the Old Testament." The Lord's
Supper is celebrated every Sunday, the bread being broken by
the communicants. The Disciples are not Unitarian in fact or
tendency, but they urge the use of simple New Testament
phraseology as to the Godhead. Their church government is
congregational.

The growth of the denomination has been greatest in the states
along the Ohio river, whence they have spread throughout the Union.
In 1908 there were 6673 ministers and 1,285, 123 communicants in the
United States. There are churches in Canada, in Great Britain and
in Australia. Bethany College, at Bethany, West Virginia, was
chartered in 1840, and Alexander Campbell, who had founded it as
Buffalo Seminary, was its president until his death in 1866; other
colleges founded by the sect are : Kentucky University, Lexington,
Ky. ; Hiram College, Hiram, Ohio (1850, until 1867 known as
Western Reserve Eclectic Institute) ; Butler College, Indianapolis,
Indiana (1855); Christian University, Canton, Missouri (1851;
coeducational) ; Eureka College, in Woodford county, Illinois (1855;
coeducational) ; Union Christian College, Merom, Ind. (1859) ;
Texas Christian University, Waco, Texas (1873, founded as Add
Ran College at Thorpe's Springs, removing to Waco in 1895) ; Drake
University, Des Moines, Iowa (1881); MilMgan College, Milligan,
Tennessee (1882); Defiance College, Defiance, O. (1885); Cotner
University, Lincoln, Nebraska (1889); Elon College, Eton, North
Carolina (1890); American University, Harrirnan, Tenn. (1893);
the Virginia Christian College, Lynchburg, Virginia (1903), and for
negroes, the Southern Christian Institute, Edwards, Mississippi
(1877), and the Christian Bible College, Newcastle, Henry County,
Ky. Theological seminaries are the Berkeley Bible Seminary,
Berkeley, California (1896) ; the Disciples' Divinity House, Chicago,
111. (1894); and the Eugene Divinity School, Eugene, Oregon
(1895). Bible chairs " were established in state universities and
elsewhere by the Disciples, — at the University of Michigan (1893),
at the University of Virginia (1899), at the University of Calcutta
(1900) and at the University of Kansas (1901). The denomination has
publishing houses in Cincinnati, St Louis, Louisville and Nashville.

See Errett Gates's History of the Disciples of Christ (New
York, 1905), in " The Story of the Churches series, and his Early
Relation and Separation of Baptists and Disciples (Chicago, 1904),
a University of Chicago doctoral thesis; and B. B. Tylers History
of the Disciples of Christ in vol. xii. of " The American Church
History Series " (New York, 1894).

312

DISCLAIMER— DISINFECTANTS

DISCLAIMER, a renunciation, denial or refusal; a disavowal
of claims. In law the term is used more particularly in the
following senses : — ( i ) In the law of landlord and tenant, the direct
repudiation of that relation by some act on the part of the tenant.
A disclaimer may be verbal or writfen, but in such case it must be
something more than a mere renunciation of the tenant's title, or
it may be an act which is wholly inconsistent with the existence of
such relation, as the setting up by the tenant of a distinct title
either in himself or some third party. (2) In the law of bank-
ruptcy, where any part of the property of a bankrupt consists of
land of any tenure burdened with onerous covenants, of stocks or
shares in companies, of unprofitable contracts, or of any property
that is unsaleable, or not readily saleable, by reason of its binding
the possessor to the performance of any onerous act, the trustee,
notwithstanding that he has endeavoured to sell or has taken
possession of the property, or exercised any act of ownership in
relation to it, may, subject to certain provisions, by writing signed
by him, at any time within twelve months after the first appoint-
ment of a trustee, " disclaim " the property (see BANKRUPTCY).
(3) In the law of trusts, disclaimer is the refusal or renunciation of
the office or duties of a trustee. It is an undisputed rule that no
one is compellable to undertake a trust, so that as soon as a person
knows he has been appointed a trustee under some instrument, he
should determine whether he will accept the office or not. Dis-
claimer of trust should be by deed, as admitting of no ambiguity,
but it maybe by conveyance to other accepting trustees, ororally,
or by written declaration, or even by conduct. (4) In the law of
patents, disclaimer is the renunciation, by amendment of specifica-
tions, of the portion of an inventor's claim to protection.

DISCOUNT, (i) A money-market term for the price paid in
order to obtain immediate realization of a bill not yet due. If a
bill for £100 due six months hence is discounted at the rate of
3 % per annum, its holder will obtain £98, xos. in cash for it.
(2) A Stock-Exchange term applied to a security, not fully paid,
which has fallen below its issue price, and so is said to stand at so
much discount. See PREMIUM.

DISCOVERY, in law, the revealing or disclosing of any matter.
The English common law courts were originally unable to compel
a litigant before a trial to disclose the facts and documents on
which he relied. In equity, however, a different rule prevailed,
there being an absolute right to discovery of all material facts on
which a case was founded. Now the practice is regulated by the
Rules of the Supreme Court, 1883, Order 31. Discovery is of two
kinds, namely, by interrogatories and by affidavit of documents,
provision being also made for the production and inspection of
documents. Where a party to a suit can make an affidavit
stating that in his belief certain specified documents are or have
been in the possession of some other party, the court may make an
order that such party state on affidavit whether he has or ever had
any of those documents in his possession, or if he has parted with
them or what has become of them. A further application may
then be made by notice to the party who has admitted possession
of the documents for production and inspection. Copies also may
be taken of the more important documents. There is also dis-
covery of facts obtained by means of interrogatories, i.e. written
questions addressed on behalf of one party, before trial, to the
other party, who is bound to answer them in writing upon oath.
In order to prevent needless expense the party seeking discovery
must first secure the cost of it by paying into court a sum of
money, generally not less than five pounds. See also EVIDENCE.

DISCUS (Gr. 6icr/ccK, disk), a circular plate of stone, later of
metal, which was used by the ancient Greeks for throwing to a
distance as a gymnastic exercise. Judging from specimens found
by excavators, the ancient discus was about 8 or 9 in. in diameter
and weighed from 4 to 5 Ib, although one of bronze, preserved
in the British Museum, weighs over 8 R>. Sometimes a kind of
quoit, spherical in form, was used, through a hole in which a thong
was passed to assist the athlete in throwing it. The sport of
throwing the discus was common in the time of Homer, who
mentions it repeatedly. It formed a part of the pentathlon, or
quintuple games, in the ancient Olympic Games. Statius, in
Thebais, 646-721, fully describes the use of the discus. In the

British Museum there is a restored copy of a statue by Myron
(see GREEK ART, Plate IV. fig. 68) of a discus-thrower (discobolus)
in the act of hurling the missile; but the investigations of N. E.
Norman Gardiner show that a wrong attitude has been adopted
by the restorer.

Throwing the discus was introduced as an event in modern
athletics at the revived Olympic Games, first held at Athens in
1896, and since that time it has become a recognized event in the
athletic championship meetings of several European nations, as
well as in the United States, where it has become very popular.
According to the American rules the discus must be of a smooth,
hard-wood body without finger-holes, weighted in the centre with
lead disks and capped with polished brass disks, with a steel ring
on the outside. Its weight must be 4^ Ib, its outside diameter
8 in. and its thickness at the centre 2 in. It must be thrown from
a 7-ft. circle, which may not be overstepped in throwing, and the
throw is measured from the spot where the discus first strikes the
ground to the point in the circumference of the circle on a line
between the centre and the point of striking.

DISINFECTANTS, substances employed to neutralize the action
of pathogenic organisms, and prevent the spread of contagious or
infectious disease. The efficiency of any disinfectant is due to
its power of destroying, or of rendering inert, specific poisons or
disease germs. Therefore antiseptic substances generally are to
this extent disinfectants. So also the deodorizers, which act
by oxidizing or otherwise changing the chemical constitution of
volatile substances disseminated in the air, or which prevent
noxious exhalations from organic substances, are in virtue of
these properties effective disinfectants in certain diseases. A
knowledge of the value of disinfectants, and the use of some of the
most valuable agents, can be traced to very remote times ; and
much of the Levitical law of cleansing, as well as the origin of
numerous heathen ceremonial practices, are clearly based on a
perception of the value of disinfection. The means of disinfection,
and the substances employed, are very numerous, as are the
classes and conditions of disease and contagion they are designed
to meet. Nature, in the oxidizing influence of freely circulating
atmospheric air, in the purifying effect of water, and in the
powerful deodorizing properties of common earth, has provided
the most potent ever-present and acting disinfecting media. Of
the artificial disinfectants employed or available three classes may
be recognized : — ist, volatile or vaporizabie substances, which
attack impurities in the air; 2nd, chemical agents, for acting on
the diseased body or on the infectious discharges therefrom; and
3rd, the physical agencies of heat and cold. In some of these
cases the destruction of the contagium is effected by the formation
of new chemical compounds, by oxidation, deoxidation or other
reaction, and in others the conditions favourable to life are
removed or life is destroyed by high temperature. Among the
first class, aerial or gaseous disinfectants, formic aldehyde has
of late years taken foremost place. The vapour is a powerful
disinfectant and deodorant, and for the surface disinfection of
rooms, fulfils all requirements when used in sufficient amount.
It acts more rapidly than equal quantities of sulphurous acid, and
it does not affect colours. It is non-poisonous, though irritating
to the eyes and throat. With the exception of iron and steel it
does not attack metals. It can be obtained in paraform tabloids,
and with a specially constructed spirit lamp disinfection can be
carried out by any one. Twenty tabloids must be employed for
every 1000 cubic ft. of space. Disinfection by sulphurous acid
fumes is of great antiquity, and is still in very general use; for
the purpose of destroying vermin it is more powerful than formic
aldehyde. Camphor and some volatile oils have also been
employed as air disinfectants, but their virtues lie chiefly in
masking, not destroying, noxious effluvia. In the 2nd class —
non-gaseous disinfecting compounds — all the numerous antiseptic
substances may be reckoned; but the substances principally em-
ployed in practice are oxidizing agents, as potassium manganates
and permanganates, " Condy's fluid," and solutions of the so-
called " chlorides of lime," soda and potash, with the chlorides of
aluminium and zinc, soluble sulphates and sulphites, solutions of
sulphurous acid, and the tar products — carbolic, cresylic and

DISMAL— DISPENSATION

salicylic acids. Of the physical agents heat and cold, the latter,
though a powerful natural disinfectant, is not practically available
by artificial means; heat is a power chiefly relied on for purifying
and disinfecting clothes, bedding and textile substances generally.
Different degrees of temperature are required for the destruction
of the virus of various diseases; but as clothing, &c., can be
exposed to a heat of about 250° Fahr. without injury, provision is
made for submitting articles to nearly that temperature. For the
thorough disinfection of a sick-room the employment of all three
classes of disinfectants, for purifying the air, for destroying the
virus at its point of origin, and for cleansing clothing, &c., may be
required.

DISMAL, an adjective meaning dreary, gloomy, and so a name
given to stretches of swampy land on the east coast of the United
States, as the Dismal Swamp in Virginia and North Carolina.
The derivation has been much discussed. In the early examples
of the use the word is a substantive, especially in the expres-
sion " in the dismal," i.e. in the dismal time or days. Later
it became adjectival, especially in combination with " days." It
has been connected with " decimal," med. Latin decimalis,
belonging to a tithe or tenth, and thus the " dismal days " are the
unpleasant days connected with the extortion and oppression
of exacting payment of tithes. According to the New English
Dictionary, quoting Professor W. W. Skeat, " dismal " is derived,
through an Anglo-Fr. dis mal, from the Lat. dies mali, evil or
unpropitious days. This Anglo-French expression, explained as
les mal jours, is found in a MS. of Rauf de Linham's Art de
Kalender, 1256. These days of evil omen were known as Dies
Aegyptiaci (Du Cange, Glossarium, s.ii.) or Egyptian days, either
as having been instituted by Egyptian astrologers or with refer-
ence to the " ten plagues "; so Chaucer, " I trowe hit was in
the dismal, That were the ten woundes of Egipte " (Book of
the Duchesse, 1206). There were two such days in each month.

See Skeat, Trans. Philol. Soc. (1888), p. 2, and note on the line in
the " Book of the Duchesse," The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer,
vol. i. (1894).

DISORDERLY HOUSE, in law, a house in which the conduct of
its inmates is such as to become a public nuisance, or a house
where persons congregate to the probable disturbance of the public
peace or other commission of crime. In England, by the Dis-
orderly Houses Act 1751, the term includes common bawdy
houses or brothels,1 common gaming houses, common betting
houses and disorderly places of entertainment. The keeping of
such is a misdemeanour punishable by fine or imprisonment, and
in the case of a brothel also punishable on summary conviction by
the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885; the letting out for gain
for indiscriminate prostitution of a room or rooms in a house will
make it as much a brothel in law as if the whole house were let out
for the purpose. Where, however, a woman occupies a house or
room which is frequented by men for the purpose of committing
fornication with her, she cannot be convicted of keeping a dis-
orderly house. See also PROSTITUTION.

DISPATCH, or DESPATCH, to send off immediately, or by
express; particularly in the case of the sending of official
messages, or of the immediate sending of troops to their destina-
tion, or the like. The word is thus used as a substantive of written
official reports of events, battles and the like, sent by ambassadors,
generals, &c., by means of a special messenger, or of express
correspondence generally. From the primary meaning of the
prompt sending of a message, &c., the word is used of the quick
disposal of business, or of the disposal of a person by violence;
hence the word means to execute or murder. The etymology of
the word has been obscured by the connexion with the Fr.
depecher, and depeche, which are in meaning the equivalents of

1 The etymology of this word has been confuted by the early
adoption into English usage of the O. Fr. bordel. The two words
are in origin quite distinct. Brothel is an O. Eng. word for a person,
not a place. It meant an abandoned vagabond, one who had gone to
ruin (abreothan). Bordel, on the contrary, is a place, literally a small
hut or shelter, especially for fornication, Med. Lat. bordellum,
diminutive of the Late Lat. borda, board. The words were early
confused, and brothel-house, bordel-house, bordel or brothel, are all
used for a disorderly house, while bordel was similarly misused, and,
like brothel in its proper meaning, was applied to a disorderly person.

the Eng. verb and substantive. The Fr. word is made up of the
prefix de-, Lat. dis-, and the root which appears in empecher, to
embarrass, and means literally to disentangle. The Lat. origin
of depecher and empecher is a Low Lat. pedicare, pedica, a fetter.
The Fr. word came into Eng. as depeach, which was in use from
the i sth century until " despatch " was introduced. This word is
certainly direct from the Ital. dispacciare, or Span, despachar,
which must be derived from the Lat. root appearing in pactus,
fixed, fastened, from pangere. The New English Dictionary finds
the earliest instance of " dispatch " in a letter to Henry VIII.
from Bishop Tunstall, commissioner to Spain in 1516-1517.

DISPENSATION, a term with two main applications, (i) to the
action of administering, arranging or dealing out, and (2) to the
action of allowing certain things, rules, &c., to be done away with,
relaxed. Of these two meanings the first is to be derived from the
classical Latin use of dispensare, literally, to weigh out, hence to
distribute, especially of the orderly arrangement of a household
by a steward; thus dispensatio was, in theology, the word chosen
to translate the Greek olKovo/j.la, economy, i.e. divine or
religious systems, as in the Jewish, Mosaic, Christian dispensa-
tions. Dispensation in law is, strictly speaking, the suspension
by competent authority of general rules of law in particular cases.
Its object is to modify the hardships often arising from the
rigorous application of general laws to particular cases, and its
essence is to preserve the law by suspending its operation, i.e.
making it non-existent, in such cases. It follows, then, that dis-
pensation, in its strict sense, is anticipative, i.e. it does not absolve
from the consequences of a legal obligation already contracted,
but avoids a breach of the law by suspending the obligation to
conform to it, e.g. a dispensation or licence to marry within the
prohibited degrees, or to hold benefices in plurality. The term is,
however, frequently used of the power claimed and exercised by
the supreme legislative authority of altering or abrogating in
particular cases conditions established under the existing law
and of releasing individuals from obligations incurred under it,
e.g. dispensations granted by the pope ex plenitudine potestatis
from the obligation of celibacy, from religious and other vows,
from malrimonium ratum, non consummatum, &c.

i. Ecclesiastical Law. — In the theory of the canon law the
dispensing power is the corollary of the legislative, the authority
\hat makes laws, and no other, having power to suspend them.
It follows that the law of nature (jus naturae) and a fortiori the
law of God (jus dimnum) are not subject to dispensation of any
earthly authority, and that it is only the disciplinary laws made
by the Church that the Church is empowered to suspend or to
abrogate. Thus, not even the pope could grant a dispensation for
a marriage between persons related in the direct line of ascent
or descent, e.g. father and daughter, or between brother and
sister, while dispensations are granted for marriages within
other prohibited degrees, e.g. uncle and niece.

The dispensing power, like the legislative authority, was
formerly invested in general councils and even in provincial
synods; but in the West, with the gradual centralization of
authority at Rome, it became ultimately vested in the pope as
the supreme lawgiver of the Church. Subject, however, to the
supreme jurisdiction of the pope, the power of dispensation con-
tinued to reside in the other organs of the Church in exact
proportion to their legislative capacities, i.e. in provincial synods
in respect of regional rules laid down by them, and in bishops in
respect of rules laid down by them for their dioceses. According
to Du Cange, the earliest record of the use of the word dispensatio
in this connexion is in the letter of Pope Gelasius I. of the i ith
of March 494, to the bishops of Lucania (in Jaffe, Reg. Pont. Rom.,
ed. 2, torn. i. no. 636): necessaria rerum Dispensatione con-
stringimur, ... sic canonum paternorum decreta librare, . . .
ut quae praesentium necessitas temporum restaurandis Ecclesiis
relaxanda deposcit, adhibita consideratione diligenti, quantum
fieri potest temperemus.2 Dispensations from the observance

! In this quotation the word dispensatio still has its meaning of
" economy " : " we are bound by the necessary economy of things."
Possibly its use by the pope in this connexion may have led to the
technical meaning of the word dispensatio in the medieval canon law.

3*4

DISPENSATION

of traditional rules were, however, during the early centuries
exceedingly rare, and there are more instances of the popes
repudiating than of their exercising the power to grant them.
Thus Celestine I. (d. 432) wrote: " The rules govern us, not we
the rules: we are subject to the canons, since we are the servants
of the precepts of the canons " (Epist. 3 ad Episcopos Illyrici) ;
and Pope Zozimus wrote even more strongly: " This see
possesses no authority to make any concession or change; for
with us abides antiquity firmly rooted (inconvulsis radicibus),
reverence for which the decrees of the Fathers enjoined." As time
went on, however, and the Church expanded, this rigidly con-
servative attitude proved impossible to maintain, and the
principle of " tempering " the law when forced to do so " by
the exigencies of affairs or of the times " (rerum iiel temporum
angustia), as laid down by Gelasius, was adopted into the canon
law itself. The principle was, of course, singularly open to abuse.
In theory it was laid down from the first that dispensations were
only to be granted in cases of urgent necessity and in the highest
interests of the Church; in practice, from the nth century
onwards, the power of dispensation was used by the popes as one
of the most potent instruments for extending their influence.
Dispensations to hold benefices in plurality formed, with pro-
visions and the papal claim to the right of direct appointment, a
powerful means for extending the patronage of the Holy See and
therefore its hold over the clergy, and from the i3th century
onwards this abuse assumed vast proportions (Hinschius iii. p.
250). Even more scandalous was the almost unrestrained traffic
in licences and dispensations at Rome, which grew up, at least
as early as the I4th century, owing to the fees charged for such
dispensations having come to be regarded by the Curia as a
regular source of revenue (Woker, Das kirchliche Finanzwesen der
Pdpste, Nordlingen, 1878, pp. 75, 160). Loud complaints of these
abuses were raised in the reforming councils of Constance and
Basel in the i5th century, but nothing was done effectually to
check them.

The actual practice'of the Roman Catholic Church is based upon
the decisions of the council of Trent, which left the medieval
theory intact while endeavouring to guard against its abuses.
The proposal put forward by the Gallican and Spanish bishops to
subordinate the papal power of dispensation to the consent of the
Church in general council was rejected, and even the canons of
the council of Trent itself, in so far as they affected reformation
of morals or ecclesiastical discipline, were decreed " saving the
authority of the Holy See " (Sess. xxv. cap. 21, de ref.). At the
same time it was laid down in respect of all dispensations, whether
papal or other, that they were to be granted only for just and
urgent causes, or in view of some decided benefit to the Church
(urgens justaque causa et major quandoque utilitas), and in all
cases gratis. The payment of money for a dispensation was ipso
facto to make the dispensation void (Sess. xxv. cap. 18, de re/.).

Though verbal dispensations are valid, papal dispensations are
given in writing. Before the constitution Sapienti of Pius X.
(1908) all dispensations inforo externo, especially in matrimonial
causes, were dealt with by the Dataria Apostolica, those in foro
interno by the Penitentiary, which latter also possessed in foro
externo the right to grant dispensations in matrimonial causes
to poor people. Since 1908 the Dataria only deals with dispensa-
tions in matters concerning benefices, dispensations in matri-
monial matters having been transferred to the new Congregation
on the discipline of the sacraments (see CURIA ROMANA).

The regular form of dispensation is the forma commissaria
(Trid. Sess. xxii. cap. 5, de ref.), i.e. a mandate to the bishop to
grant the dispensation, after due inquiry, in the pope's name. In
exceptional cases, e.g. sovereigns or bishops, the dispensation is
sent direct to the petitioner (forma gratiosa). Dispensations are
nominally gratuitous; but the officials are entitled to fees for
drawing them up, and there are customary " compositions "
(compositiones) which are destined for charitable objects in Rome.
These fees were and are regulated according to the capacity of
the petitioners to pay, the result being that the abuses which the
council of Trent had sought to abolish continued to flourish. In
the 1 7th century a specially privileged class of bankers (banquiers

expedilionnaires) existed at Rome whose sole business was
obtaining dispensations on commission, and one of these, named
Pelletier, published at Paris in 1677, under the royal imprimatur,
a regular tariff of the sums for which in any given case a dis-
pensation might be obtained. That the " urgent and just cause "
was, in the circumstances, a very minor consideration was to be
expected, and the enlightened pope Benedict XIV., himself a
canon lawyer of eminence, complained " Dispensationem non
raro concedi in Dataria, sine causa, nempe ob eleemosynam quae
praestatur " (Inst. 87, No. 26). It may be added that the worst
abuses of this system have long since disappeared. The bishops
have their own correspondents at Rome, and one of the duties of
the diplomatic representatives of foreign states at the Curia is
to see that their nationals receive their dispensations without
overcharge.

Bishops are by right (jure ordinario) competent to dispense in
all cases expressly reserved to them by the canon law, e.g. in the
matter of publication of banns of marriage. They possess besides
special powers delegated to them by the pope and renewed every
five years (facilitates quinquennales) , or by virtue of faculties
granted to them personally (facultates extraordinariae) , e.g. to
dispense from rules of abstinence, from simple vows, and with
some exceptions from the prohibition of marriage within pro-
hibited degrees.

Church of England. — By 2 5 Henry VIII. cap. 21. sec. 2 (1534), it
was enacted that neither the king, his successors, nor any of his
subjects should henceforth sue for licences, dispensations, &c.,
to the see of Rome, and that the power to issue such licences,
dispensations, &c., " for causes not being contrary or repugnant
to the Holy Scriptures and laws of God," should be vested in the
archbishop of Canterbury for the time being, who at his own
discretion was to issue such dispensations, &c., under his seal,
to the king and his subjects. The power of dispensation thus
vested in the archbishops partly fell obsolete, partly has been
curtailed by subsequent statutes, e.g. the Pluralities Act of 1838.
It is now confined to granting dispensations for holding two
benefices at .once, to issuing licences for non-residence, and in
matrimonial cases to the issuing of special licences. The dispens-
ing power of bishops in the Church of England survives only in
the right to grant marriage licences, i.e. dispensations from the
obligation to publish the banns. Though, however, these licences
and dispensations are given under the archiepiscopal and episcopal
seals, they are actually issued by the commissaries of faculties and
vicars-general (chancellors) , independently, in virtue of the powers
conferred on them by their patents. This has led, since the pass-
ing of the Divorce Acts and the Marriage with a Deceased Wife's
Sister Act, to a curiously anomalous position, licences for the
remarriage of divorced persons having been issued under the
bishop's seal, while the bishop himself publicly protested that
such marriages were contrary to " the law of God," but that he
himself had no power to prevent his chancellor licensing them.

See Hinschius, Kirchenrecht (Berlin, 1883), iii. 250, &c. ; article
" Dispensation" by Hinschius in Herzog-Hauck, Rsalencyklopddie
(Leipzig, 1898); article "Dispensation" in Wetzer and Welte's
Kirchenlexikon (2nd ed. Freiburg im Breisgau, 1882-1901);
F. Lichtenberger, Encyclopedic des sciences religieuses (Paris, 1878),
s.v. " Dispense " ; Phillimore, Reel. Law.

2. Constitutional Law. — The power of dispensation from the
operation of the ordinary law in particular cases is, of course,
everywhere inherent in the supreme legislative authority, how-
ever rarely it may be exercised. Divorce (in Ireland) by act of
parliament may be taken as an example which still actually
occurs. On the other hand, the dispensing power once vested in
the crown in England is now merely of historical interest, though
of great importance in the constitutional struggles of the past.
This power possessed by the crown of dispensing with the statute
law is said to have been copied from the dispensations or non
obstanle clauses granted by the popes in matters of canon law;'
the parallel between them is certainly very striking, and there can
be no doubt that the principles of the canon law influenced the
decisions of the courts in the matter. It was, for instance, very
generally laid down that the king could by dispensation make it
lawful to do what was malum prohibitum but not to do what was

DISPERSION

malum in se, a principle of the canon law, but one difficult to
reconcile with English legal principles, since no act is legally
malum unless forbidden by law. This was pointed out by Chief
Justice Vaughan in the celebrated judgment in the case of Thomas
v. Sorrell, when he rejected the distinction between mala in se and
mala prohibita as confusing, and attempted to define the dispens-
ing power of the crown by limiting it to cases of individual
breaches of penal statutes where no third party loses a right of
action, and where the breach is not continuous, at the same time
denying the power of the crown to dispense with any general
penallaw. This judgment, asSir William Anson points out, only
showed the extreme difficulty of limiting the power ascribed to the
crown, a standing grievance from the time that parliament had
risen to be a constituent part of the state. So long as the legal
principle by which the law was " the king's law " survived there
was in fact no theoretical basis for such limitation, and the matter
resolved itself into one of the great constitutional questions
between crown and parliament which issued in the Revolution of
1688. The supreme crisis came owing to the use made by James
II. of the dispensing power. His action in dispensing with the
Test Act, in order to enable Roman Catholics to hold office under
the crown, was supported by the courts in the test case of Godden
v. Hales, but it made the Revolution inevitable. By the Bill of
Rights the exercise of the dispensing power was forbidden, except
as might be permitted by statute. At the same time the legality
of its exercise in the past was admitted by the clause maintaining
the validity of dispensations granted in a certain form before
the 23rd of October 1689.

See Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, part i. " Parlia-
ment," jrd ed. pp. 311-319; F. W. Maitland, Const. Hist, of England
(Cambridge, 1908), pp. 302, &c. ; Stubbs, Const. Hist. ss. 290,
291. (W. A. P.)

DISPERSION (from Lat. dispergere, to scatter), the act or
process of separation and distribution. Apart from the technical
use of the term, especially in optics (see below), the expression
particularly applied to the settlements of Jews in foreign
countries outside Palestine. These were either voluntary, for
purposes of trade and commerce, or the results of conquest, such
as the captivities of Assyria and Babylonia. The word diaspora
(Gr. 5ia.o"iropa) is also used of these scattered communities, but
is usually confined to the dispersion among the Hellenic and
Roman peoples, or to the body of Christian Jews outside Palestine
(see JEWS).

DISPERSION, in OPTICS. When a beam of light which is not
homogeneous in character, i.e. which does not consist of simple
vibrations of a definite wave-length, undergoes refraction at the
surface of any transparent medium, the different colours corre-
sponding to the different wave-lengths become separated or
dispersed. Thus, if a ray of white light AO (fig. i ) enters obliquely

into the surface of a block of glass
at O, it gives rise to the divergent
system of rays ORV, varying con-
tinuously in colour from red to
violet, the red ray OR being least
refracted and the violet ray OV
most so. The order of the successive
colours in all colourless transparent
media is red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo and violet. Dispersion
is therefore due to the fact that
rays of different colours possess dif-
ferent refrangibilities.

Air

Glass

FIG. i.

The simplest way of showing dispersion is to refract a narrow
beam of sunlight through a prism of glass or prismatic vessel
containing water or other clear liquid. As the light is twice
refracted, the dispersion is increased, and the rays, after trans-
mission through the prism, form a divergent system, which may
be allowed to fall on a sheet of white paper, forming the well-
known solar spectrum. This method was employed by Sir Isaac
Newton, whose experiments constitute the earliest systematic
investigation of the phenomenon. Let O (fig. 2) represent a
small hole in the shutter of a darkened room, and OS a narrow

FIG. 2.

beam of sunlight which is allowed to fall on a white screen so
as to form an image of the sun at S. If now the prism P
be interposed as in the
figure, the whole beam
is not only refracted up-
ward, but also spread out
into the spectrum RV,
the horizontal breadth of
the band of colours being
the same as that of the
original image S. In an
experiment similar to
that here represented,
Newton made a small hole in the screen and another small hole in
a second screen placed behind the first. By slightly turning the
prism P, the position of the spectrum on the first screen could
be shifted sufficiently to cause light of any desired colour to pass
through. Some of this light also passed through the second hole,
and thus he obtained a narrow beam of practically homogeneous
light in a fixed direction (the line joining the apertures in the two
screens) . Operating on this beam with a second prism, he found
that the homogeneous light was not dispersed, and also that it
was more refracted the nearer the point from which it was taken
approached to the violet end of the spectrum R V. This confirmed
his previous conclusion that the rays increase in refrangibility
from red to violet.

Newton also made use of the method of crossed prisms, which
has been found of great use in studying dispersion. The prism P
(fig. 3) refracts upwards, while the prism Q, which has its refract-
ing edge perpendicular to
that of P, refracts towards
the right. The combined
effect of the two is to pro-
duce a spectrum sloping
up from left to right. The
spectrum will be straight
if the twoprismsaresimilar
in dispersive property, but
if one of them is con- FlG- 3-— Method of Crossed Prisms,
structed of a material which possesses any peculiarity in this
respect it will be revealed by the curvature of the spectrum.

The coloured borders seen in the images produced by simple
lenses are due to dispersion. The explanation of the colours of
the rainbow, which are also due to dispersion, was given by
Newton, although it was known previously to be due to refraction
in the drops of rain (see RAINBOW).

According to the wave-theory of light, refraction (q.v.) is due
to a change of velocity when light passes from one medium to
another. The phenomenon of dispersion shows that in dispersive
media the velocity is different for lights of different wave-lengths.
In free space, lightof all wave-lengths is propagated with the same
velocity, as is shown by the fact that stars, when occulted by the
moon or planets, preserve their white colour up to the last
moment of disappearance, which would not be the case if one
colour reached the eye later than another. The absence of colour
changes in variable stars or in the appearance of new stars is
further evidence of the same fact. All material media, however,
are more or less dispersive. In air and other gases, at ordinary
pressures, the dispersion is very small, because the refractivity
is small. The dispersive powers of gases are, however, generally
comparable with those of liquids and solids.

pispersive Power. — In order to find the amount of dispersion caused
by any given prism, the deviations produced by it on two rays of any
definite pure colours may be measured. The angle of difference
between these deviations is called the dispersion for those rays.
For this purpose the C and F lines in the spark-spectrum of hydrogen,
situated in the red and blue respectively, are usually employed. . If
6r and 8c are the angular deviations of these rays, then ST — &C is
called the mean dispersion of the prism. If the refracting angle of the
prism is small, then the ratio of the dispersion to the mean deviation
of the two rays is the dispersive power of the material of the prism.
Instead of the mean deviation, J (Sp+Sc), it is more usual to take
the deviation of some intermediate ray. The exact position of the
selected ray does not matter much, but the yellow D line of sodium

316

DISPERSION

is the most convenient. If we denote its deviation by SD, then we
may put

Dispersive power = (SF-SC) /So • • • (!)•
This quantity may readily be expressed in terms of the refractive
indices for the three colours, for if A is the angle of the prism (sup-
posed small)

where nc, I'D, MF are the respective indices of refraction. This gives
at once

Dispersive power = (/«F-MC)/(M>-I) • • • (2).

The second of these two expressions is generally given as the
definition of dispersive power. It is more useful than (i), as the
refractive indices may be measured with a prism of any convenient
angle.

By studying the dispersion of colours in water, turpentine and
crown glass Newton was led to suppose that dispersion is pro-
portional to refraction. He concluded that there could be no
refraction without dispersion, and hence that achromatism was
impossible of attainment (see ABERRATION). This conclusion was
proved to be erroneous when Chester M. Hall in 1733 constructed
achromatic lenses. Glasses can now be made differing considerably
both in refractivity and dispersive power.

Irrationality of Dispersion. — If we compare the spectrum produced
by refraction in a glass prism with that of a diffraction grating, we
find not only that the order of colours is reversed, but also that the
same colours do not occupy corresponding lengths on the two spectra,
the blue and violet being much more extended in the refraction
spectrum. The refraction spectra for different media also differ
amongst themselves. This shows that the connexion between the
refrangibility of light and its wave-length does not obey any simple
law, but depends on the nature of the refracting medium. This
property is referred to as the " irrationality of dispersion." In a
diffraction spectrum the diffraction is proportional to the wave-
length, and the spectrum is said to be normal." If the increase
of the angle of refraction were proportional to the diminution of
wave-length for a prism of any material, the resulting spectrum
would also be normal. This, however, is not the case with ordinary
refracting media, the refrangibility generally increasing more and
more rapidly as the wave-length diminishes.

The irrationality of dispersion is well illustrated by C.Christiansen's
experiments on the dispersive properties of white powders. If the
powder of a transparent substance is immersed in a liquid of the same
refractive index, the mixture becomes transparent and a measure-
ment of the refractive index of the liquid gives the refractivity of
the powder. Christiansen found, in an investigation of this kind,
that the refractivity of the liquid could only be got to match that
of the powder for mono-chromatic light, and that, if white light
were used, brilliant colour effects were obtained, which varied in a
remarkable manner when small changes occurred in the refractive
index of the liquid. These effects are due to the difference in dis-
persive power of the powder and the liquid. If the refractive index
is, for instance, the same for both in the case of green light, and a
source of white light is viewed through the mixture, the green com-
, ponent will be completely transmitted, while the other colours are
more or less scattered by multiple reflections and refractions at the
surfaces of the powdered substance. Very striking colour changes
are observed, according to R. W. Wood, when white light is trans-
mitted through a paste made of powdered quartz and a mixture of
carbon bisulphide with benzol haying the same refractive index as
the quartz for yellow light. In this case small temperature changes
alter the refractivity of the liquid without appreciably affecting the
quartz. R. W. Wood has studied the iridescent colours seen when a
precipitate of potassium silicofluoride is produced by adding silico-
fluoric acid to a solution of potassium chloride, and found that they
are due to the same cause, the refractive index of the minute crystals
precipitated being about the same as that of the solution, which
fatter can be varied by dilution.

Anomalous Dispersion. — In some media the usual order of the
colours is changed. This curious phenomenon was noticed by
W. H. Fox Talbot about 1840, but does not seem to have become
generally known. In 1860 F. P. Leroux discovered that iodine
vapour refracted the red rays more than the violet, the intermediate
colours not being transmitted; and in 1870 Christiansen found that
an alcoholic solution of fuchsine refracted the violet less than the red,
the order of the successive colours being violet, red, orange, yellow;
the green being absorbed and a dark interval occurring between
the violet and red. A. Kundt found that similar effects occur with
a large number of substances, in particular with all those which
possess the property of " surface colour," i.e., which strongly reflect
light of a definite colour, as do many of the aniline dyes. Such
bodies show strong absorption bands in those colours which they
reflect, while of the transmitted light that which is of a slightly
greater wave-length than the absorbed light has an abnormally
great refrangibility, and that of a slightly shorter wave-length an
abnormally small refrangibility. The name given to this pheno-
menon,— " anomalous dispersion " — is an unfortunate one, as it has
been found to obey a regular law.

In studying the dispersion of the aniline dyes, a prism with a very
small refracting angle is made of two glass plates slightly inclined

to each other and enclosing a very thin wedge of the dye, which
is either melted between the plates, or is in the form of a solution
retained in position by surface-tension. Only very thin layers are
sufficiently transparent to show the dispersion near or within an
absorption band, and a large refracting angle is not required, the
dispersion usually being very considerable. Another method,
which has been used by R. W. Wood and C. E. Magnusson, is to
introduce a thin film of the dye into one of the optical paths of a
Michelson interferometer, and to determine the consequent displace-
ment of the fringes. E. Mach and J. Arbes have used a method
depending on total reflection (Drude's Theory of Optics, p. 394).

A very remarkable example of anomalous dispersion, which was
first observed by A. Kundt, is that exhibited by the vapour of sodium.
It has not been found practicable to make a prism of this vapour
in the ordinary way by enclosing it in a glass vessel of the required
shape, as sodium vapour attacks glass, quickly rendering it opaque.
A. E. Becquerel, however, investigated the character of the dis-
persion by using prism-shaped flames strongly coloured with sodium.
But the best way of exhibiting the effect is by making use of a
remarkable property of sodium vapour discovered by R. W. Wood
and employed for this purpose in a very ingenious manner. He found
that when sodium is heated in a hard glass tube, the vapour which
is formed is extraordinarily cohesive, only slowly spreading out in
a cloud with well-defined borders, which can be rendered visible by
placing the tube in front of a sodium flame, against which the cloud
appears black. If a long glass tube with plane ends, and containing
some pellets of sodium is heated in the middle by a row of burners,
the cool ends remain practically vacuous and do not become obscured.
The sodium vapour in the middle is very dense on the heated side,
the density diminishing rapidly towards the upper part of the tube,
so that, although not prismatic in form, it refracts like a prism owing
to the variation in density. Thus if a horizontal slit is illuminated
by an arc lamp, and the light — rendered parallel by a collimating
lens — is transmitted through the sodium tube and focused on the
vertical slit of a spectroscope, the effect of the sodium vapour is to
produce its refraction spec-
trum vertically on the slit.
The image of this seen
through the glass prism of
the spectroscope will appear
as in fig. 4. The whole of the

FIG.

Violet

4-Anomalous Dispersion of

bourhood of the D lines is Sodlum VaP°ur-

practically undeviated, so that it illuminates only a very short piece

of the slit and is spread out into the ordinary spectrum. But the

light of slightly greater wave-length than the D lines, being refracted

strongly downward by the sodium vapour, illuminates the bottom of

the slit; while that of slightly shorter wave-length is refracted

upward and illuminates the top of the slit. Fig. 4 represents the in-

verted image seen fn the

telescope. The light corre-

sponding to the D lines

and the space between

them is absorbed, as evi-

denced by the dark inter- '

val. If the sodium is only

gently heated, so as to

produce a comparatively

rarefied vapour, and a grat-

ing spectroscope employed,

the spectrum obtained is like that shown in fig. 5, which was

the effect noticed by Becquerel with the sodium flame. Here the

light corresponding to the space between the D lines is transmitted,

being strongly refracted upward near Di, and downward near D2.

The theory of anomalous dispersion has been applied in a very
interesting way by W. H. Julius to explain the " flash spectrum "
seen during a solar eclipse at the moment at which totality occurs.
The conditions of this phenomenon have been imitated in the
laboratory by Wood, and the corresponding effect obtained.

Theories of Dispersion. — The first attempt at a mathematical
theory of dispersion was made by A. Cauchy and published in 1835.
This was based on the assumption that the medium in which the
light is propagated is discontinuous and molecular in character, the
molecules being subject to a mutual attraction. Thus, if one mole-
cule is disturbed from its mean position, it communicates the
disturbance to its neighbours, and so a wave is propagated.
The formula arrived at by Cauchy was

n being the refractive index, X the wave-length, and A, B, C, &c.,
constants depending on the material, which diminish so rapidly that
only the first three as here written need be taken into account. If
suitable values are chosen for these constants, the formula can be
made to represent the dispersion of ordinary transparent media
within the visible spectrum very well, but when extended to the
infra-red region it often departs considerably from the truth, and
it fails altogether in cases of anomalous dispersion. There are also
grave theoretical objections to Cauchy's formula.

D'ISRAELI

The modern theory of dispersion, the foundation of which was laid
by W. Sellmeier, is based upon the assumption that an interaction
takes place between ether and matter. Sellmeier adopted the
elastic-solid theory of the ether, and imagined the molecules to be
attached to the ether surrounding them, but free to vibrate about
their mean positions within a limited range. Thus the ether within
the dispersive medium is loaded with molecules which are forced to
perform oscillations of the same period as that of the transmitted
wave. It can be shown mathematically that the velocity of propa-
gation will be greatly increased if the frequency of the light-wave is
slightly greater, and greatly diminished if it is slightly less than the
natural frequency of the molecules ; also that these effects become
less and less marked as the difference in the two frequencies increases.
This is exactly in accordance with the observed facts in the case
of substances showing anomalous dispersion. Sellmeier's theory did
not take account of absorption, and cannot be applied to calculate
the dispersion within a broad absorption band. H. von Helmholtz,
working on a similar hypothesis, but with a frictional term intro-
duced into his equations, obtained formulae which are applicable to
cases of absorption. A modified form of Helmholtz's equation, due
to E. Ketteler and known as the Ketteler-Helmholtz formula, has
been much used in calculating dispersion, and expresses the facts
with remarkable accuracy. P. Drude has obtained a similar formula
based on the electromagnetic theory, thus placing the theory of
dispersion on a much more satisfactory basis. The fundamental
assumption is that the medium contains positively and negatively
charged ions or electrons which are acted on by the periodic electric
forces which occur in wave propagation on Maxwell's theory. The
equations finally arrived at are

-, |

DgX*

where X is the wave-length in free ether of light whose refractive
index is n, and Xm the wave-length of light of the same period as the
electron, K is a coefficient of absorption, and D and g are constants.
The sign of summation 2 is used in cases where there are several
absorption bands, and consequently several similar terms on the
right-hand side, each with a different value of Xra. This would occur
if there were several kinds of ions, each with its own natural period.
In a region where there is no absorption, we have /t = o and
therefore g = o, and we have only one equation, namely,

which is identical with Sellmeier's result. As X^ is a wave-length
corresponding to an absorption band, this formula can be used to
find values of Xm which satisfy the observed values of n within the
region of transparency, and so to determine where the absorption
bands are situated. In this way the existence of bands in the infra-
red part of the spectrum has been predicted in the case of quartz
and detected by experiments on the selective reflection of the material.

References. — For the theory of dispersion see P. Drude, Theory of
Optics (Eng. trans.) ; R. W. Wood, Physical Optics; and A. Schuster,
Theory of Optics. For descriptive accounts, see Wood's Physical
Optics, T. Preston's Theory of Light, E. Edser's Light. The last work
contains an elementary treatment of Sellmeier's theory. (J. R. C.)

D'ISRAELI (or DISRAELI), ISAAC (1766-1848), English man of
letters, father of the earl of Beaconsfield (q.v.) , was born at Enfield
in May 1 766. He belonged to a Jewish family which, having been
driven by the Inquisition from Spain, towards the end of the 1 5th
century, settled as merchants at Venice, and assumed the name
which has become famous; it was generally spelt D 'Israeli until
the middle of the igth century. In 1748 his father, Benjamin
D'IsraeJi, then only about eighteen years of age, removed to
England, where, before passing the prime of life, he amassed
a competent fortune, and retired from business. He belonged
to the London congregation of Spanish and Portuguese Jews,
of which his son also remained a nominal member until after
Benjamin D'Israeli died at the end of 1816.

The strongly marked characteristics which determined Isaac
D'Israeli's career were displayed to a singular degree even in
his boyhood. He spent his time over books and in long day-
dreams, and evinced the strongest distaste for business and all
the more bustling pursuits of life. These idiosyncrasies met with
no sympathy from either of his parents, whose ambitious plans
for his future career they threatened to disappoint. When he was
about fourteen, in the hope of changing the bent of his mind, his
father sent him to live with his agent at Amsterdam, where he
worked under a tutor for four or five years. Here he studied
Bayle and Voltaire, and became an ardent disciple of Rousseau.
Here also he wrote a long poem against commerce, which he
produced as an exposition of his opinions when, on his return to

England, his father announced his intention of placing him in a
commercial house at Bordeaux. Against such a destiny D'Israeli's
mind strongly revolted; and he carried his poem, with a letter
earnestly appealing for advice and assistance, to Samuel Johnson;
but when he called again a week after to receive an answer, the
packet was returned unopened — the great Doctor was on his
death-bed. He also addressed a letter to Dr Vicesimus Knox,
master of Tonbridge Grammar School, begging to be received in to
his family, that he might enjoy the benefit of his learning and
experience. How this application was answered we do not know.
The evident firmness of his resolve, however, was not without
effect. His parents gave up their purpose for a time. He was
sent to travel in France, and allowed to occupy himself as he
wished; and he had the happiness of spending some months in
Paris, in the society of literary men, and devoted to the literary
pursuits in which he delighted.

In the beginning of 1 788 he returned home, and in the next year
he attacked Peter Pindar (John Wolcot) in The Gentleman's
Magazine in a poem in the manner of Pope, " On the Abuse of
Satire." The authorship of the poem was much debated, and it
was attributed by some to William Hayley, upon whom it was
actually avenged, with characteristic savageness, by its victim.
It is greatly to Wolcot's credit that, on learning his mistake,
he sought the acquaintance of his young opponent, whose friend
he remained to the end of his life. Through the success of this
satire D'Israeli made the acquaintance of Henry James Pye, who
helped to persuade his father that it would be a mistake to force
him into a business career, and introduced him into literary circles.
D'Israeli dedicated his first book, A Defence of Poetry, to Pye in
1 790. Henceforth his life was passed in the way he best liked — in
quiet and almost uninterrupted study. In 1802 he married Maria
Basevi, by whom he had five children, of whom Benjamin (after-
wards Lord Beaconsfield and Prime Minister of England) was the
second. He was able to maintain his strenuous habits of study
till he reached the advanced age of seventy-two, when he was
forced, by paralysis of the optic nerve, to give up work almost
entirely. He lived ten years longer, and died at his seat at Braden-
ham House, Buckinghamshire, on the igth of January 1848.

Isaac D'Israeli is most celebrated as the author of the
Curiosities of Literature (1791, subsequent volumes in 1793, 1817,
1823 and 1834). It is a miscellany of literary and historical
anecdotes, of original critical remarks, and of interesting and
curious information of all kinds, animated by genuine literary
feeling, taste and enthusiasm. With the Curiosities of Literature
may be classed D'Israeli's Miscellanies, or Literary Recreations
(1796), the Calamities of Authors (1812-1813), and theQuarrels of
A uthors (1814). Towards the close of his life D 'Israeli projected a
continuous history of English literature, three volumes of which
appeared in 1841 under the title of the Amenities of Literature.
But of all his works the most delightful is his Essay on the Literary
Character (1795), which, like most of his writings, abounds in
illustrative anecdotes. In the famous " Pope controversy " he
supported Byron and Campbell against Bowles and Hazlitt by
a defence of Pope in the form of a criticism of Joseph Spence's
Anecdotes contributed to the Quarterly Review (July 1820). In
1797 D'Israeli published three novels; one of these, Mejnoun and
Leila, the Arabian Petrarch and Laura, was said to be the first
oriental romance in English. His last novel , Despotism, or the Fall
of the Jesuits, appeared in 1811, but none of his romances was
popular. He also published a slight sketch of Jewish history,
and especially of the growth of the Talmud, entitled the Genius
of Judaism (1833).

He was the author of two historical works — a brief defence of
the literary merit and personal and political character of James I.
(1816), and a learned Commentary on the Life and Reign of King
Charles I. (1828-1831). This was recognized by the University
of Oxford, which conferred upon the author the honorary degree
of D.C.L. As an historian D'Israeli is distinguished by two
characteristics. In the first place, he had small interest in politics,
and no sympathy with the passionate fervour, or adequate
appreciation of the importance, of political struggles. And,
secondly, with a laborious zeal then less common than now among

DISS— DISTILLATION

historians, he sought to bring to light fresh historical material by
patient search for letters, diaries and other manuscripts of value
which had escaped the notice of previous students. Indeed, the
honour has been claimed for him of being one of the founders of
the modern school of historical research.

Of the amiable personal character and the placid life of Isaac
D'Israeli a charming picture is to be found in the brief memoir
prefixed to the 1849 edition of Curiosities of Literature, by his son
Lord Beaconsfield.

DISS, a market town in the southern parliamentary division of
Norfolk, England; near the river Waveney (the boundary with
Suffolk), 95 m. N.E. by N. from London by the Great Eastern
railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3745. The town lies
pleasantly upon a hill rising above a mere, which drains to the
Waveney, having its banks laid out as public gardens. The church
of St Mary exhibits Decorated and Perpendicular stone and flint
work. There is a corn exchange and the agricultural trade is con-
siderable; brushes and matting are manufactured. The poet
and satirist, John Skelton (d. 1529), was rector here in the later
part of his life, and is doubtfully considered a native.

DISSECTION (from Lat. dissecare, to cut apart), the separation
into parts by cutting, particularly the cutting of an animal or plant
into parts for the purpose of examination or display of its structure.

DISSENTER (Lat. dis-sentire, to disagree), one who dissents
or disagrees in matters of opinion, belief, &c. The term " dis-
senter " is, however, practically restricted to the special sense
of a member of a religious body in England which has, for one
reason or another, separated from the Established Church.
Strictly, the term includes the English Roman Catholics, who in
the original draft of the Relief Act of 1791 were styled " Protest-
ing Catholic Dissenters." It is in practice, however, restricted
to the " Protestant Dissenters " referred to in sec. ii. of the
Toleration Act of 1688. The term is not applied to those bodies
who dissent from the Established Church of Scotland ; and in
speaking of members of religious bodies which have seceded
from established churches abroad it is usual to employ the term
" dissidents " (Lat. dissidere, to dissent). In this connotation
the terms •" dissenter " and " dissenting," which had acquired
a somewhat contemptuous flavour, have tended since the middle
of the igth century to be replaced by " nonconformist," a term
which did not originally imply secession, but only refusal to
conform in certain particulars (e.g. the wearing of the surplice)
with the authorized usages of the Established Church. Still
more recently the term " nonconformist " has in its turn, as the
political attack on the principle of a state establishment of
religion developed, tended to give place to the style of " Free
Churches " and " Free Churchman." All three terms are now
in use, "nonconformist" being the most usual, as it is the most
colourless. (See CONGREGATIONALISM, &c.)

DISSOCIATION, a separation or dispersal, the opposite of
association. In chemistry the term is given to chemical
reactions in which a substance decomposes into two or more
substances, and particularly to cases in which associated mole-
cules break down into simpler molecules. Thus the reactions
NH4Cl^NH3-|-HCl,andPCl5^PCl3+Cl2are instances of the
first type; N204^2NO2, of the second (see CHEMICAL ACTION).
Electrolytic or ionic dissociation is the separation of a substance
in solution into ions (see ELECTROLYSIS; SOLUTION).

DISSOLUTION (from Lat. dissolve™, to break up into parts),
the act of dissolving or reducing to constituent parts, especially
of the bringing to an end an association such as a partnership
. or building society, and particularly of the termination of an
assembly. A dissolution of parliament in England is thus the end
of its existence, brought about by the efflux of time in accordance
with the Septennial Act 1716, or by an exercise of the royal
prerogative. This is done either in person, or by commission, if
parliament is sitting; if prorogued, then by proclamation. The
word is used as a synonym for end or death.

DISTAFF, in the early forms of spinning, the " rock " or short
stick round one end of which the flax, cotton or wool is loosely
wound, and from which it is spun off by the spindle. The word is
derived from the Old English dislaef, the first part of which is

connected with dizen, in modern English seen in " bedizen," to
deck out or embellish, originally " to equip the distaff with flax,
&c.," cf. the German dialectal word Diesse, flax. The last part
of the word is " staff." '' Distaff " from early times has been
used to symbolize woman's work (cf. the use of " spinster " for
an unmarried woman) ; thus the " distaff " or " spindle " side of
a family refers to the female branch, as opposed to the " spear "
or male branch. The 7th of January, the day after Epiphany,
was formerly known as St Distaff's day, as women then began
work again after the Christmas holiday.

DISTILLATION (from the Lat. distillare, more correctly
destillare, to drop or trickle down), an operation consisting in the
conversion of a substance or mixture of substances into vapours
which are afterwards condensed to the liquid form ; it has for its
object the separation or purification of substances by taking
advantage of differences in volatility. The apparatus consists of
three parts: — the " retort " or " still," in which the substance is
heated; the " condenser," in which the vapours are condensed;
and the " receiver," in which the condensed vapours are collected.
Generally the components of a mixture will be vaporized in the
order of their boiling-points; consequently if the condensates or
" fractions " corresponding to definite ranges of temperature
be separately collected, it is obvious that a more or less partial
separation of the components will be effected. If the substance
operated upon be practically pure to start with, or the product
of distillation be nearly of constant composition, the operation is
termed "purification by distillation " or "rectification" ; the latter
term is particularly used in the spirit industry. If a complex
mixture be operated upon, and a separation effected by collect-
ing the distillates in several portions, the operation is termed
" fractional distillation." Since many substances decompose
eitherat,or below, their boiling-points underordinary atmospheric
pressure, it is necessary to lower the boiling-point by reducing
the pressure if it be desired to distil them. This variation is
termed " distillation under reduced pressure or in a vacuum."
The vaporization of a substance below its normal boiling-point
can also be effected by blowing in steam or some other vapour;
this operation is termed "distillation with steam." "Dry distilla-
tion" is the term used when solid substances which do not liquefy
on heating are operated upon; " sublimation " is the term used
when a solid distils without the intervention of a liquid phase.

Distillation appears to have been practised at very remote
times. The Alexandrians prepared oil of turpentine by distilling
pine-resin; Zosimus of Panopolis, a voluminous writer of the 5th
century A.D., speaks of the distillation of a " divine water " or
" panacea " (probably from the complex mixture of calcium
polysulphides, thiosulphate, &c., and free sulphur, which is
obtained by boiling sulphur with lime and water) and advises
" the efficient luting of the apparatus, for otherwise the valuable
properties would be lost." The Arabians greatly improved the
earlier apparatus, naming one form the alembic (q.v.); they
discovered many ethereal oils by distilling plants and plant juices,
alcohol by the distillation of wine, and also distilled water. The
alchemists gave great attention to the method, as is shown by
the many discoveries made. Nitric, hydrochloric and sulphuric
acids, all more or less impure, were better studied; and many
ethereal oils were discovered. Prior to about the i8th century
three forms of distillation were practised: (i) destillatio per
ascensum, in which the retort was heated from the bottom, and
the vapours escaped from the top; (2) destillalio per latus, in
which the vapours escaped from the side; (3) destillatio per
descensum, in which the retort was heated at the top, and the
vapours led off by a pipe passing through the bottom. According
to K. B. Hoffmann the earliest mention of destillatio per descensum
occurs in the writings of Aetius, a Greek physician who flourished
at about the end of the 5th century.

In modern times the laboratory practice of distillation was
greatly facilitated by the introduction of the condenser named
after Justus von Liebig; A. Kolbe and E. Frankland introduced
the " reflux condenser," i.e. a condenser so placed that the
condensed vapours return to the distilling flask, a device per-
mitting the continued boiling of a substance with little loss; W.

DISTILLATION

Dittraar and R. Anschiitz, independently of one another, intro-
duced " distillation under reduced pressure "; and " fractional
distillation " was greatly aided by the columns of Wurtz (1855),
E. Linnemann (1871), and of J. A. Le Bel and A. Henninger
(1874). In chemical technology enormous strides have been
made, as is apparent from the coal-gas, coal-tar, mineral oil,
spirits and mineral acids industries.

The subject is here treated under the following subdivisions:
(i) ordinary distillation, (2) distillation under reduced pressure,
(3) fractional* distillation, (4) distillation with steam, (5) theory
of distillation, (6) dry distillation, (7) distillation in chemical
technology and (8) commercial distillation of water.

i. Ordinary Distillation. — The apparatus generally used is shown
in fig. i. The substance is heated in a retort a, which consists of a
large bulb drawn out at the top to form a long neck; it may also

FIG. i.

be provided with a tubulure, or opening, which permits the charging
of the retort, and also the insertion of a thermometer b. The retort
may be replaced by a distilling flask, which is a round-bottomed
flask (generally with a lengthened neck) provided with an inclined
side tube. The neck of the retort, or side tube of the flask, is con-
nected to the condenser c by an ordinary or rubber cork, according
to the nature of the substance distilled; ordinary corks soaked in
paraffin wax are very effective when ordinary or rubber corks cannot
be used. Sometimes an " adapter " is used ; this is simply a tapering
tube, the side tube being corked into the wider end, and the condenser
on to the narrower end. The thermometer is placed so that the bulb
is near the neck of the retort or the side tube of the distilling flask.
It generally happens that much of the mercury column is outside the
flask and consequently at a lower temperature than the bulb, hence
a correction of the observed temperature is necessary. If N be the
length of the unheated mercury column in degrees, t the temperature
of this column (generally determined by a small thermometer placed
with its bulb at the middle of the column), and T the temperature
recorded by the thermometer, then the corrected temperature of the
vapour is T+O-OOOI43 (T-/) N (T. E. Thorpe, Journ. Chem. Soc.,
1880, p. 159).

The mode of heating varies with the substance to be distilled.
For highly volatile liquids, e.g. ether, ligroin, &c., immersion of the
flask in warm water suffices; for less volatile liquids a directly
heated water or sand bath is used; for other liquids the flask is
heated through wire gauze or asbestos board, or directly by a Bunsen.
The condensing apparatus must also be conditioned by the volatility.
With difficulty volatile substances, e.g. nitrobenzene, air cooling of
the retort neck or of a straight tube connected with the distilling
flask will suffice; or wet blotting-paper placed on the tube and
the receiver immersed in water may be used. For less volatile liquids
the Liebig condenser is most frequently used. In its original form,
this consists of a long tube surrounded by an outer tube so arranged
that cold water circulates in the annular space between the two.
The vapours pass through the inner tube, and the cold water enters
at the end farthest from the distilling flask. For more efficient
condensation — and also for shortening the apparatus — the central
tube may be flattened, bent into a succession
of V's, or twisted into a spiral form, the object in
each case being to increase the condensing surface.
Of other common types of condenser, we may
notice the " spiral " or " worm " type, which con-
sists of a glass, copper or tin worm enclosed in
a vessel in which water circulates; and the ball
condenser, which consists of two concentric
spheres, the vapour passing through the inner
sphere and water circulating in the space between
this and the outer (in another form the vapour
circulates in a shell, on the outside and inside of
which water circulates). A very effective type is
shown in fig. 2. The condensing water enters at
the top and is conducted to the bottom of the
inner tube, which it fills and then flows over the
FIG. 2. outside of the outer tube; it collects in the

bottom funnel and is then led off. The vapours
pass between the inner and outer tubes.

Practically any vessel may serve as a receiver — test tube, flask,
beaker, &c. If noxious vapours come over, it is necessary to have an
air-tight connexion between the condenser and receiver, and to pro-

vide the latter with an outlet tube leading to an absorption column
or other contrivance in which the vapours are taken up. If the
substances operated upon decompose when heated in air, as, for
example, the zinc alkyls which inflame, the air within the apparatus
is replaced by some inert gas, e.g. nitrogen, carbon dioxide, &c.,
which is led in at the distilling flask before the process is started, and
a slow current maintained during the operation.

2. Distillation under Reduced Pressure. — This method is adopted
for substances which decompose at their boiling-points under
ordinary pressure, and, generally, when it is desirable to work at a
lower temperature. The apparatus differs very slightly from that
employed in ordinary distillation. The " receiver must be con-
nected on the one side to the condenser, and on the other to the
exhaust pump. A safety vessel and a manometer are generally
interposed between the pump and receiver. For the purpose of
collecting the distillates in fractions, many forms of receivers have
been devised. Briihl's is one of the simplest. It consists of a
number of tubes mounted vertically on a horizontal circular disk
which rotates about a vertical axis in a cylindrical vessel. This
vessel has two tubulures: through one the end of the condenser
projects so as to be over one of the receiving tubes ; the other leads
to the pump. By rotating the disk the tubes may be successively
brought under the end of the condenser. Boiling under reduced
pressure has one very serious drawback, viz. the liquid boils ir-
regularly or " bumps.' W. Dittmar showed that this may be avoided
by leading a fine, steady stream of dry gas — air, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen, &c., according to the substance operated upon — through
the liquid by means of a fine capillary tube, the lower end of which
reaches to nearly the bottom of the flask. " Bumping " is common
in open boiling when the liquid is free from air bubbles and the
interior of the vessel is very smooth. It may be diminished by
introducing clippings of platinum foil, pieces of porcelain, glass
beads or garnets into the liquid. " Frothing " is another objection-
able feature with many liquids. When cold, froth can be immediately
dissipated by adding a few drops of ether. In boiling liquids its
formation may be prevented by adding paraffin wax; the wax melts
and forms a ring on the surface of the liquid, which boils tranquilly
in the centre.

3. Fractional Distillation. — By fractional distillation is meant the
separation of a mixture having components which boil at neighbour-
ing temperatures. The distilling flask has an elongated neck so that

Wurtz. Linnemann. Le Bel-Henninger. Glynsky. Young. Kreusler.

FIG. 3.

the less volatile vapours are condensed and return to the flask,
while the more volatile component passes over. The success of the
operation depends upon two factors : (i) that the heating be careful,
slow and steady, and (2) that the column attached to the flask be
efficient to sort out, as it were, the most volatile vapour. Three types
of columns are employed: (i) the elongation is simply a straight or
bulb tube; (2) the column, properly termed a " depnlegmator," is
so constructed that the vapours have to traverse a column of
previously condensed vapour; (3) the column is encircled by a jacket
through which a liquid circulates at the same temperature as the
boiling-point of the most volatile component. To the first type
belongs the simple straight tube, and the Wurtz tube (see fig. 3),
which is simply a series of bulbs blown on a tube. These forms are
not of much value. Several forms of the second type are in use. In
the Linnemann column the condensed vapours temporarily collect on
platinum gauzes (a) placed at the constrictions of a bulbed tube.
In the Le Bel-Henninger form a series of bulbs are connected con-
secutively by means of syphon tubes (b) and having platinum gauzes
(a) at the constrictions, so that when a certain amount of liquid
collects in any one bulb it syphons over into the next lower bulb.
The Glynsky form is simpler, having only one syphon tube; at the
constrictions it is usual to have a glass bead. The " rod-and-disk "
form of Sidney Young is a series of disks mounted on a central
spindle and surrounded by a slightly wider tube. The " pear-
shaped " form of the same author consists of a series of pear-shaped
bulbs, the narrow end of one adjoining the wider end of the next
jower one. In this class may also be placed the Hempel tube, which
is simply a straight tube filled with glass beads. Of the third type
is the Warren column consisting of a spiral kept at a constant
temperature by a liquid bath. Improved forms were devised by

320

DISTILLATION

F. D. Brown. Kreusler's form is easily made and manipulated. A
tube closed at the bottom is traversed by an open narrower tube, and
the arrangement is fitted in the neck of the distilling flask. Water
is led in by the inner tube, and leaves by a side tube fused on the
wider tube. Many comparisons of the effectiveness of dephlegmating
columns have been made (see Sidney Young, Fractional Distillation,
1903). The pear-shaped form is the most effective, second in order
is the Le Bel-Henninger, which, in turn, is better than the Glynsky.
The main objection to the Hempel is the retention of liquid in the
beads, and the consequent inapplicability to the distillation of small
quantities.

4. Distillation with Steam. — In this process a current of steam,
which is generated in a separate boiler and superheated, if necessary,
by circulation through a heated copper worm, is led into the dis-
tilling vessel, and the mixed vapours condensed as in the ordinary
processes. This method is particularly successful in the case of
substances which cannot be distilled at their ordinary boiling-points
(it will be seen in the following section that distilling with steam
implies a lowering of boiling-point), and which can be readily
separated from water. Instances of its application are found in the
separation of ortho-and para-nitrophenol, the o-compqund distilling
and the p- remaining behind ; in the separation of aniline from the
mixture obtained by reducing nitrobenzene ; of the naphthols from
the melts produced by fusing the naphthalene monosulphonic acids
with potash; and of quinoline from the reaction between aniline,
nitrobenzene, glycerin, and sulphuric acid (the product being first
steam distilled to remove any aniline, nitrobenzene, or glycerin,
then treated with alkali, and again steam distilled when quinoline
comes over). With substances prone to discolorization, as, for
example, certain amino compounds, the operation may be conducted
in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide, or the water may be saturated
with sulphuretted hydrogen. Liquids other than water may be used :
thus alcohol separates a-pipecoline and ether nitropropylene.

5. Theory of Distillation. — The general observation that under a
constant pressure a pure substance boils at a constant temperature
leads to the conclusion that the distillate which comes over while
the thermometer records only a small variation is of practically
constant composition. On this fact depends " rectification or
purification by distillation. " A liquid boils when its vapour pressure
equals the superincumbent pressure (see VAPORIZATION); con-
sequently any process which diminishes the external pressure must
also lower the boiling-point. In this we have the theory of " dis-
tillation under reduced pressure." The theory of fractional distilla-
tion, or the behaviour of liquid mixtures when heated to their
boiling-points, is more complex. For simplicity we confine ourselves
to mixtures of two components, in which experience shows that
three cases are to be recognized according as the components are
(i) completely immiscible, (2) partially miscible, (3) miscible in all
proportions.

When the components are completely immiscible, the vapour
pressure of the one is not influenced by the presence of the other.
The mixture consequently distils at the temperature at which the
sum of the partial pressures equals that of the atmosphere. Both
components come over in a constant proportion until one disap-
pears; it is then necessary to raise the temperature in order to distil
the residue. The composition of the distillate is determinate (by
Avogadro's law) if the molecular weights and vapour pressure of the
components at the temperature of distillation be known. If MI, M2,
and Pi, P2 be the molecular weights and vapour pressures >of the
components A and B, then the ratio of A to B in the distillate is
MiPi/M2P2. Although, as is generally the case, one liquid (say A)
is more volatile than the other (say B), i.e. Pi greater than P2, if the
molecular weight of A be much less than that of B, then it is obvious
that the ratio M1Pi/M2P2 need not be very great, and hence the
less volatile liquid B would come over in fair amount. These con-
ditions pertain in cases where distillation with steam is successfully
practised, the relatively high volatility of water being counter-
balanced by the relatively high molecular weight of the other
component ; for example, in the case of nitrobenzene and water the
ratio is I to 5. In general, when the substance to be distilled has a
vapour pressure of only 10 mm. at 100° C., distillation with steam
can be adopted, if the product can be subsequently separated from
the water.

When distilling a mixture of partially miscible components a
distillate of constant composition is obtained so long as two layers
are present, i.e. A dissolved in B and B dissolved in A, since both
of these solutions emit vapours of the same composition (this follows
since the same vapour must be in equilibrium with both solutions,
for if it were not so a cyclic system contradicting the second law
of thermodynamics would be realizable). The composition of the
vapour, however, would not be the same as that of either layer. As
the distillation proceeded one layer would diminish more rapidly than
the other until only the latter would remain ; this would then distil
as a completely miscible mixture.

The distillation of completely miscible mixtures is the most
common practically and the most complex theoretically. A co-
ordination of the results obtained on the distillation of mixtures of
this nature with the introduction of certain theoretical considerations
led to the formation of three groups distinguished by the relative
solubilities of the vapours in the liquid components.

(i.) If the vapour of A be readily soluble in the liquid B, and the
vapour of B readily soluble in the liquid A, there will exist a mixture
of A and B which will have a lower vapour pressure than any other
mixture. The vapour pressure composition curve will be convex
to the axis of compositions, the maximum vapour pressures corre-
sponding to pure A and pure B, and the minimum to some mixture
of A and B. On distilling such a mixture under constant pressure, a
mixture of the two components (of variable composition) will come
over until there remains in the distilling flask the mixture of minimum
vapour pressure. This will then distil at a constant temperature.
Thus nitric acid, boiling-point 68°, forms a mixture with water,
boiling point 100°, which boils at a constant temperature of 126°'
and contains 68% of acid. Hydrochloric acid forms a similar
mixture which boils at 1 10° and contains 20-2 % of acid. Another
mixture of this type is formic acid and water.

(ii.) If the vapours be sparingly soluble in the liquids there will
exist a mixture having a greater vapour pressure than that of any
other mixture. The vapour pressure-composition curve will now be
concave to the axis of composition, the minima corresponding to the
pure components. On distilling such a mixture, a mixture of constant
composition will distil first, leaving in the distilling flask one or
other of the components according to the composition of the
mixture. An example is propyl alcohol and water. At one time it
was thought that these mixtures of constant boiling-point (an ex-
tended list is given in Young's Fractional Distillation) were definite
compounds. The above theory, coupled with such facts as the
variation of the composition of the constant boiling-point fraction
with the pressure under which the mixture is distilled, the pro-
portionality of the density of all mixtures to their composition, &c.,
shows this to be erroneous.

(iii.) If the vapour of A be "readily soluble in liquid B, and the
vapour of B sparingly soluble in liquid A, and if the vapour pressure
of A be greater than that of B, then the vapour pressures of mixtures
of A and B will continually diminish as one passes from ioo%A
to 100% B. The vapour tension may approximate to a linear
function of the composition, and the curve will then be practically
a straight line. On distilling such a mixture pure A will come over
first, followed by mixtures in which the quantity of B continually
increases; consequently by a sufficient number of distillations
A and B can be completely separated.
Examples are water and methyl or ethyl
alcohol.

Van't Hoff (Theoretical and Physical
Chemistry, vol. i. p. 51) illustrates the
five cases on one diagram. In fig. 4 let
AB be the axis of composition, AP be the
vapour pressure of pure A, BQ the vapour
pressure of pure B. For immiscible liquids
the vapour pressure curve is the hori-
zontal line ab, described so that aP = QB
and 6Q = AP. For partially miscible
liquids the curve is PfliiiQ. The hori-
zontal line a\ b\ corresponds to the two
layers of liquid, and the inclined .lines F
and of A in B.

FIG. 4.

Qbt to solutions of B in A

The curves Pa^Q, having a minimum at at, Pa3Q,
having a maximum at 03, and Pa6Q, with neither a maximum nor
minimum, correspond to the types i., ii., iii. of completely miscible
mixtures.

6. Dry Distillation. — In this process the substance operated upon
is invariably a solid, the vapours being condensed and collected as
in the other methods. When the substance operated upon is of
uncertain composition, as, for example, coal, wood, coal-tar, &c., the
term destructive distillation is employed. A more general designa-
tion is " pyrogenic processes," which also includes such operations
as leading vapours through red-hot tubes and condensing the
products. We may also consider here cases of sublimation wherein
a solid vaporizes and the vapour condenses without the occurrence
of the liquid phase.

Dry distillation is extremely wasteful even when definite sub-
stances or mixtures, such as calcium acetate which yields acetone, are
dealt with, valueless by-products being obtained and the condensate
usually requiring much purification. Prior to 1830, little was known
of the process other than that organic compounds generally yielded
tarry and solid matters, but the discoveries of Liebig and Dumas (of
acetone from acetates), of Mitscherlich (of benzene from benzoates)
and of Persoz (of methane from acetates and lime) brought the opera-
tion into common laboratory practice. For efficiency the operation
must be conducted with small quantities; caking may be prevented
by mixing the substance with sand or powdered pumice, or, better,
with iron filings, which also renders the decomposition more regular
by increasing the conductivity of the mass. The most favourable
retort is a shallow iron pan heated in a sand bath, and provided with
a screwed-down lid bearing the delivery tube. Sidney Young has
suggested conducting the operation in a current of carbon dioxide
which sweeps out the vapours as they are evolved, and also heating
in a vapour bath, e.g. of sulphur.

One of the earliest red-hot tube syntheses of importance was
the formation of naphthalene from a mixture of alcohol and ether
vapours. Such condensations were especially studied by M. P. E.
Berthelot, and shown to be very fruitful in forming hydrocarbons.

DISTILLATION

321

Sometimes reagents are placed in the combustion tube, for example
lead oxide (litharge), which takes up bromine and sulphur. In its
simplest form the apparatus consists of a straight tube, made of
glass, porcelain or iron according to the temperature required and
the nature of the reacting substances, heated in an ordinary com-
bustion furnace, the mixture entering at one end and the vapours
being condensed at the other. Apparatus can also be constructed
in which the unchanged vapours are continually circulated through
the tube. Operating in a current of carbon dioxide facilitates the
process by preventing overheating.

7. Distillation in Chemical Technology. — In laboratory practice
use is made of a fairly constant type of apparatus, only trifling
modifications being generally necessary to adapt the apparatus for
any distillation or fractionation ; in technology, on the other hand,
itiany questions have to be considered which generally demand the
adoption of special constructions for the economic distillation of
different substances. The modes of distillation enumerated above
all occur in manufacturing practice. Distillation in a vacuum is
practised in two forms: — if the pump draws off steam as well as
air it is termed a " wet " air-pump; if it only draws off air, it is a
" dry " air-pump. In the glycerin industry the lyes obtained by
saponifying the fats are first evaporated with " wet vacuum " and
finally distilled with closed and live steam and a " dry vacuum."
Two forms of steam distillation may be distinguished: — in one the
still is simply heated by a steam coil wound inside or outside the
still — this is termed heating by dry steam; in the other steam is
injected into the mass within the still — this is the distillation with
live steam of laboratory practice. The details of the plant — the
material and fittings of the still, the manner of heating, the form
of the condensing plant, receivers, &c. — have to be determined for
each substance to be distilled in order to work with the maximum
economy.

For the distillation of liquids the retort is usually a cylindrical pot
placed vertically; cast iron is generally employed, in which case
the bottom is frequently incurved and thicker than the sides in order
to take up the additional wear and tear. Sometimes linings of
enamelled iron or other material are employed, which when worn
can be replaced at a far lower cost than that of a new still. Glass
stills heated by a sand bath are sometimes employed in the final
distillation of sulphuric acid; platinum, and an alloy of platinum
and iridium with a lining of gold rolled on (a discovery due to
Heraeus), are used for the same purpose. Cast iron stills are pro-
vided with a hemispherical head or dome, generally attached to the
body of the still by bolts, and of sufficient size to allow for any
frothing. It is invariably provided with an opening to carry off the
vapours produced. In its more complete form a still has in addition
the following fittings: — Theb dome is provided with openings to
admit (l) the axis ofthe stirring gear (in some stills the stirring gear
rotates on a horizontal axis which traverses the side and not the head
of the still), (2) the inlet and outlet tubes of a closed steam coil,
(3) a tube reaching to nearly the bottom of the still to carry live
steam, (4) a tube to carry a thermometer, (5) one or more manholes
for charging purposes, (6) sight-holes through which the operation
can be watched, and (7) a safety valve. The body of the still is
provided with one or more openings at different heights to serve for
the discharge of the residue in the still, and sometimes with a glass
gauge to record the quantity of matter in the still. For dry dis-
tillations the retorts are generally horizontal cylinders, the bottom
or lower surface being sometimes flattened. Iron and fireclay are
the materials commonly employed; wrought iron is used in the
manufacture of wood-spirit, fireclay for coal-gas (see GAS : Manu-
facture), phosphorus, zinc, &c. The vertical type, however, is
employed in the manufacture of acetone and of iodine.

Several modes of heating are adopted. In some cases, especially
in dry distillations, the furnace flames play directly on the retorts,
in others, such as in the case of nitric acid, the whole still comes under
the action of the furnace gases to prevent condensation on the upper
part of the still, while in others the furnace gases do not play directly
on the base or upper portion of the still but are conducted around it
by a system of flues (see COAL-TAR). Steam heating, dry or live,
is employed alone and also as an auxiliary to direct firing.

_The condensing plant varies with the volatility of the distillate.
Air cooling is adopted whenever possible. For example, in the less
modern methods for manufacturing nitric acid the vapours were
conducted directly into double-necked bottles (bombonnes) immersed
in water. A more efficient arrangement consists of a stack of
vertical pipes standing up from a main or collecting trough and
connected at the top in consecutive pairs by a cross tube. By
an arrangement of diaphragms in the lower trough the vapours
are circulated through the system. As an auxiliary to air cooling the
stack may be cooled by a slow stream of water trickling down the
outside of the pipes, or, in certain cases, cold water may be injected
into the condenser in the form of a spray, where it meets the ascend-
ing vapours. Horizontal air-cooling arrangements are also employed.
A common type of condenser consists of a copper worm placed in a
water bath; but more generally straight tubes of copper or cast iron
which cross and recross a rectangular tank are employed, since this
form is more readily repaired and cleansed. Wood-spirit, petroleum
and coal-tar distillates are condensed in plant of the latter type.
In cases where the condenser is likely to become plugged there is a
vrn. ii

pipe by means of which live steam can be injected into the condenser.
The supply of water to the condenser is regulated according to the
volatility of the condensate. When the vapours readily condense
to a solid form the condensing plant may take the form of large
chambers; such conditions prevail in the manufacture of arsenic,
sulphur and lampblack: in the latter case (which, however, is not
properly one of distillation) the chamber is hung with sheets on
which the pigment collects. Large chambers are also used in the
condensation of mercury.

Dephlegmation of the vapours arising from such mixtures as coal-
tar fractions, petroleum and the " wash " of the spirit industry, is
very important, and many types of apparatus are employed in order
to effect a separation of the vapours. The earliest form, invented by
C. B._ Mansfield to facilitate the fractionation of paraffin and coal-
tar distillates, consisted in having a pipe leading from the inclined
delivery tube of the still to the still again, so that any vapour which
condensed in the delivery tube was returned to the still. Of really
effective columns Coupler's was one of the earliest. The vapours
rising from the still traverse a tall vertical column, and are then
conveyed through a series of bulbs placed in a bath kept at the
boiling-point of the most volatile constituent. The more volatile
vapours pass over to the condensing plant, while the less volatile ones
condense in the bulbs and are returned to the column at varying
heights by means of connecting tubes. The French column is similar
in action. The Coffey still is one of the most effective and is
employed in the spirit, ammonja, coal-tar and other industries. It
consists of a vertical column divided into a number of sections by
horizontal plates, which are perforated so that the ascending vapours
have to traverse a layer of liquid. Above this '' separator is a
reflux condenser, termed the cooler," maintained at the correct
temperature so that only the more volatile component passes to
the receiver. The success of the operation chiefly depends upon the
proper management of the cooler.

8. Commercial Distillation of Water. — Distilled water, i.e. water
free from salts and to some extent of the dissolved gases which are
always present in natural waters, is of indispensable value in many
operations both of scientific and industrial chemistry. The ap-
paratus and process for distilling ordinary water are very simple.
The body of the still is made of copper, with a head and worm, or
condensing apparatus, either of copper or tin. The still is usually
fed continuously by the heated water from the condenser. The
first portion of the distillate brings over the gases dissolved in the
water, ammonia and other volatile impurities, and is consequently
rejected; scarcely two-fifths of the entire quantity of water can be
safely used as pure distilled water.

Apparatus for the economic production of a potable water from
sea-water is of vital importance in the equipment of ships. The
simple distillation of sea-water, and the production thereby of a
certain proportion of chemically fresh water, is a very simple
problem; but it is found that water which is merely evaporated
and recondensed has a very disagreeable flat taste, and it is only after
long exposure to pure atmospheric air, with continued agitation, or
repeated pouring from one vessel to another, that it becomes
sufficiently aerated to lose its unpleasant taste and smell and
become drinkable. The water, moreover, till it is saturated with
gases, readily absorbs noxious vapours to which it may be exposed.
For the successful preparation of potable water from sea-water, the
following conditions are essential: — 1st, aeration of the distilled
product so that it may be immediately available for drinking pur-
poses; 2nd, economy of coal to obtain the maximum of water with
the minimum expenditure of fuel; and 3rd, simplicity of working
parts, to secure the apparatus from breaking down, and enable
unskilled attendants to work it with safety. The problem is a com-
paratively old one, for we find that R. Fitzgerald patented a process
in 1683 having for its purpose the " sweetening of sea-water." A
history of early attempts is given in S. Hales s Philosophical Ex-
periments, published in 1739. Among the earlier of the modern forms
of apparatus which came into practical adoption are the inventions
of Dr Normandy and of Chaplin of Glasgow, the apparatus of
Rocher of Nantes, and that patented by Galle and Mazelineof Havre.
Normandy's apparatus, although economical and producing water
of good quality, is very complex in its structure, consisting of very
numerous working parts, with elaborate arrangements of pipes,
cocks and other fittings. It is consequently expensive and requires
careful attention for its working. It was extensively adopted in the
British navy, the Cunard line and many other important emigrant
and mercantile lines. Chaplin's apparatus, which was invented and
patented later, has also since 1 865 been sanctioned for use on emigrant,
troop and passenger vessels. The apparatus possesses the great
merit of simplicity and compactness, in consequence of which it is
comparatively cheap and not liable to derangement. It was adopted
by many important British and continental shipping companies,
among others by the Peninsular & Oriental, the Inman, the North
German Lloyd and the Hamburg American companies.

The modern distilling plant consists of two main parts termed
the evaporator and condenser; in addition there must be a boiler
(sometimes steam is run off the main boilers, but this practice has
several disadvantages), pumps for circulating cold water in the
condenser and for supplying salt water to the evaporator, and a
filter through which the aerated water passes. The evaporator

322

DISTRACTION— DISTRESS

consists of a cylindrical vessel having in its lower half a horizontal
copper coil connected to the steam supply. The cylindrical vessel
is filled to a certain level with salt water and the steam turned on.
The water vaporizes and is led from the dome of the evaporator
to the head of the condenser. The water level is maintained in the
evaporator until it contains a certain amount of salt. It is then run
off, and replaced by fresh sea-water. The condenser consists of a
vertical cylinder having manifolds at the head and foot and through
which a number of tubes pass. In some types, e.g. the Weir, the
condensing water circulates upwards through the tubes; in others,
e.g. the Quiggins, the water circulates around the tubes. Various
forms of the tubes have been adopted. In the Pape-Henneberg
condenser, which has been adopted in the German navy, they are
oval in section and tend to become circular under the pressure of
the steam; this alteration in shape makes the tubes self-scaling.
In the Quiggins condenser, which has been widely adopted, e.g. in
the " Lusitania," the steam traverses vertical copper coils tinned
inside and outside ; the coils are crescent-shaped, a form which gives
a greater condensing surface and makes the coils self-scaling. The
aeration of the water is effected by blowing air into the steam before
it is condensed; as an auxiliary, the storage tanks have a false
bottom perforated by fine holes so that if air be injected below it,
the water is efficiently aerated by the air which traverses it in fine
streams. After condensation the water is filtered through charcoal.
The filter is either a separate piece of plant, or, as in the Quiggins
form, it may be placed below the coils in the same outer vessel. In
this plant the aeration is conducted by blowing in air at the base of
the condenser. After filtration the water is pumped to the storage
tanks. Many types of distilling plant are in use in addition to those
mentioned above, for example the Rayner, Kirkaldy, Merlees,
Normand ; the United States navy has adopted a form designed by
the Bureau of Engineering.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The general practice of laboratory distillation is
discussed in all treatises on practical organic chemistry; reference
may be made to Lassar-Cohn, Manual of Organic Chemistry (1896),
and Arbeilsmethoden fur organisch-chemische Laboratorien (1901);
Hans Meyer, Analyse und Konstitutiomrmittlung organischer
Verbindungen (1909). The theory of distillation finds a place in all
treatises on physical chemistry. Of especial importance is Sidney
Young, Fractional Distillation (1903). The history of distillation is
to be studied in E. Gildemeister and F. Hoffmann, Die atherischen
Ole (Berlin, 1899; Eng. tr. by E. Kremers, Milwaukee Press, 1900).
The technology of distillation is best studied in relation to the
several industries in which it is employed; reference should be
made to the articles COAL-TAR, GAS, PETROLEUM, SPIRITS, NITRIC
ACID, &c. (C. E.*)

DISTRACTION (from Lat. distrahere, to pull asunder), a draw-
ing away or apart; a word now used generally of a state of mind,
to mean a diversion of attention, or a violent emotion amounting
almost to madness.

DISTRESS (from the O. Fr. deslrece, destresse, from the past
participle of the Lat. dislringere, to pull apart, used in Late Lat.
in the sense of to punish, hence to distrain), pressure, especially
of sorrow, pain or ill-fortune. As a legal term, the action of
distraining or distraint, the right which a landlord has of seizing
the personal chattels of his tenant for non-payment of rent.
Cattle damage feasant (doing damage or trespassing upon a neigh-
bour's land) may also be distrained, i.e. may be detained until
satisfaction be rendered for injury they have done. The cattle
or other animals thus distrained are a mere pledge in the hands
of the injured person, who has only power to retain them until
the owner appear to make satisfaction for the mischief they have
done. " Distress damage feasant " is also applicable to inanimate
things on the land if doing damage thereto or to its produce;
things in actual use, however, are exempt. Such distress must
be made during the actual trespass, and by whoever is aggrieved
by the damage. Distress for rent was also at one time regarded as
a mere pledge or security; but the remedy, having been found to
be speedy and efficacious, was rendered more perfect by enact-
ments allowing the thing taken to be sold. Blackstone notes that
the lawof distresses in this respect " has been greatly altered within
a few years last past." The legislature, in fact, converted an
ancient right of personal redress into a powerful remedy for the
exclusive benefit of a single class of creditors, viz. landlords.
Now that the relation of landlord and tenant in England has
come to be regarded as purely a matter of contract, the language
of the law-books seems to be singularly inappropriate. The
defaulting tenant is a " wrong-doer," the landlord is the " injured
party,"; any attempt to defeat the landlord's remedy by carry-
ing off distrainable goods is denounced as " fraudulent and
knavish." The operation of the law has, as we shall point out,

been mitigated in some important respects, but it still remains
an almost unique specimen of one-sided legislation.-

At common law distress was said to be incident to rent service,
and by particular reservation to rent charges; but by 4 Geo. II.
c. 28 it was extended to rent seek, rents of assize and chief rents
(see RENT). It is therefore a general remedy for rent certain in
arrear. All personal chattels are distrainable with the following
exceptions: — (i) things in which there can be no property, as
animals ferae naturae; (2) ledgers, daybooks, title-deeds, &c.;
(3) things delivered to a person following a public trade, as a horse
sent to be shod, &c.; (4) things already in the custody of the law;
(5) things which cannot be restored in as good a plight as when
distrained, that is, perishable articles; (6) fixtures; (7) beasts of
the plough and instruments of husbandry while there is other
sufficient distress to be found; (8) instruments of a man's trade or
profession in actual use at the time the distress is made. If not in
actual use they are only privileged in case there is other sufficient
distress upon the premises. These exceptions, it will be seen,
imply that the thing distrained is to be held as a pledge merely —
not to be sold. They also imply that in general any chattels
found on the land in question are to be available for the benefit of
the landlord, whether they belong to the tenant or not. This
principle worked with peculiar harshness in the case of lodgers,
whose goods might be seized and sold for the payment of the rent
due by their landlord to his superior landlord. By the Lodgers'
Goods Protection Act 1871, however, where a lodger's goods have
been seized by the superior landlord the lodger may serve him
with a notice stating that the intermediate landlord has no
interest in the property seized, but that it is the property or in the
lawful possession of the lodger, and setting forth the amount of
the rent due by the lodger to his immediate landlord. On pay-
ment or tender of such rent the landlord cannot proceed with the
distress against the goods in question. By the Law of Distress
Amendment Act 1908 this protection was extended to under
tenants liable to pay rent by equal quarterly instalments, as well
as to any person whatsoever who is not a tenant of the premises or
any part thereof nor has any beneficial interest therein. The act,
however, excludes certain goods, particularly goods belonging to
the husband or wife of the tenant whose rent is in arrear, goods
comprised in any bill of sale, hire purchase agreement or settle-
ment made by the tenant, goods in the possession or disposition
of a tenant by the consent and permission of the true owner under
such circumstances as to make the tenant reputed owner, goods
of the partner of an immediate tenant, and goods (not being goods
of a lodger) upon premises where any trade or business is carried
on in which both the immediate tenant and the under tenant
have an interest. The act does not apply where an under tenancy
has been created in breach of a covenant or agreement between
the landlord and his immediate tenant. The Law of Distress
Amendment Act 1888 also absolutely exempted from distress the
tools and implements of trade and wearing apparel and bedding
of a tenant and his family to the value of five pounds, and the
Law of Distress Amendment Act 1895 gave power to a court of
summary jurisdiction to direct that such goods, when distrained
upon, should be restored if not sold, or, if sold, to order their
value to be paid by the persons who levied the distress or directed
it to be levied. Originally the landlord could only seize things
actually on the premises, so that the remedy might be defeated by
the things being taken away. But by an act of 1710 , and by the
Distress for Rent Act 1737, he may follow things fraudulently or
clandestinely removed off the premises within thirty days after
their removal, unless-they have been in the meantime bona fide
sold for a valuable consideration. The sixth exception mentioned
above was held to extend to sheaves of corn; but by an act
of 1690 corn, when reaped, as well as hay, was made subject to
distress. That act was modified by the Landlord and Tenant Act
1851, under which growing crops seized by the sheriff and sold
under an execution are liable to distress for rent which becomes
due after the seizure and sale, if there is no other sufficient distress
on the premises.

Excessive or disproportionate distress exposes the distrainer
to an action, and any irregularity formerly made the proceedings

DISTRIBUTION— DITHYRAMBIC POETRY

323

void ab initio, so that the remedy was attended with considerable
risk. The Distress for Rent Act 1737, before alluded to, in the
interests of landlords, protected distresses for rent from the
consequences of irregularity. In all cases of distress for rent, if
the owner do not within five days (by the Law of Distress Amend-
ment Act 1888, fifteen days, if the tenant make a request in
writing to the person levying the distress and also give security
for any additional cost that may be occasioned by such extension
of time) replevy the same with sufficient security, the thing dis-
trained may be sold towards satisfaction of the rent and charges,
and the surplus, if any, must be returned to the owner. To
" replevy " is when the person distrained upon applies to the
proper authority (the registrar of the county court) to have
the thing returned to his own possession, on giving security to
try the right of taking it in an action of replevin.

Duties and penalties imposed by act of parliament (e.g. pay-
ment of rates and taxes) are sometimes enforced by distress.

DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out), a term used in
various connexions with the general meaning of spreading out.
In law, the word is used for the division of the personal estate
of an intestate among the next-of-kin (see INTESTACY). The
important scientific question as to the distribution of plants and
animals on the earth is treated under PLANTS: Distribution, and
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION. In economics the word is used
generally for the transference of commodities from person to
person or from place to place, or the dividing up of large quantities
of commodities into smaller quantities; and in a more technical
sense, for the division of the product of industry amongst the
various members or classes of the community. The theory of
economic distribution, i.e. the causes which determine rent, wages,
profits and interest, forms an important subject-matter in all
text-books. Among recent works, see E. Cannan's History of
Theories of Production and Distribution, 1776-1848 (1893), J. R.
Common's Distribution of Wealth (1893), and H. J. Davenport's
Value and Distribution (Chicago, 1908).

DISTRICT, a word denoting in its more general sense, a tract
or extent of a country, town, &c., marked off for administrative
or other purposes, or having some special and distinguishing
characteristics. The medieval Latin districtus (from distringere,
to distrain) is defined by Du Cange as Territorium feudi, seu
tractus, in quo Dominus vassallos et lenentes suos distringere potest;
and as justitiae exercendae in eo tractu facultas. It was also used
of the territory over which the feudal lord exercised his juris-
diction generally. It may be noted that distringere had a wider
significance than " to distrain " in the English legal sense (see
DISTRESS). It is defined by Du Cange as compellere ad aliquid
faciendum per mulctam, poenam, vel capto pignore. In English
usage, apart from its general application in such forms as postal
district, registration district and the like, " district " has specific
usages for ecclesiastical and local government purposes. It is thus
applied to a division of a parish under the Church Building Acts,
originally called a " perpetual curacy," and the church serving
such a division is properly a " district chapel." Under the Local
Government Act of 1894 counties are divided for the purposes of
the act into urban and rural districts. In British India the word
is used to represent the zillah, an administrative subdivision of
a province or presidency. In the United States of America the
word has many administrative, judicial and other applications.
In South Carolina it was used instead of " county " for the chief
division of the state other than in the coast region. In the
Virginias, Tennessee, Georgia, Kentucky and Maryland it answers
to " township " or precinct, elsewhere the principal subdivision of
a county. It is used for an electoral "division," each state be-
ing divided into Congressional and senatorial districts; and also
for a political subdivision ranking between an unorganized and an
organized Territory — e.g., the District of Columbia and Alaska.

DISTYLE (from Gr. Si-, two, and <TTV\OS, column), the
architectural term given to a portico which has two columns
between antae, known as distyle-in-antis (see TEMPLE).

DITHMARSCHEN, or DITMARSH (in the oldest form of the
name Thiatntaresgaho, Dietmar's Gau), a territory between the
Eider, the Elbe and the North Sea, forming the western part of

the old duchy of Holstein, and now included in the Prussian
province of Schleswig-Holstein. It contains about 550 sq. m.
with 90,000 inhabitants. The territory consists to the extent of
one half of good pasture land, which is preserved from inroads of
the sea by banks and dams, the other half being mostly waste.
It was originally colonized mainly from Friesland and Saxony.
The district was subjugated and Christianized by Charlemagne
in 804, and ranked as a separate Gau, included perhaps in the
countship of Stade, or Comitatus utriusque ripae. From the same
century, according to one opinion, or from the year 1182, when
the countship was incorporated with their see, according to
another, the archbishops of Bremen claimed supremacy over the
land; but the inhabitants, who had developed and consolidated
a systematic organism for self-government, made obstinate
resistance, and rather attached themselves to the bishop of
Schleswig. Ditmarsken, to use the Scandinavian form of the
name, continued part of the Danish dominions till the disastrous
battle of Bornhb'ved in 1227, when its former independence was
regained. The claims of the archbishop of Bremen were now so
far recognized that he exercised the royal rights of Heerbann and
Blutbann,1 enjoyed the consequent emoluments, and was repre-
sented first by a single advocatus, or Vogt, and afterwards by one
for each of the five Doffts, or marks, into which the land was
divided after the establishment of Meldorf . The community was
governed by a Landrath of forty-eight elective consuls, or twelve
from each of the four marks; and even in the I4th century the
power of the episcopal advocati was so slight that a chronicler
quoted by Conrad von Maurer says, De Ditmarschen leven sunder
Heren und Hovedt unde dohn ivadt se willen, " the Ditmarschen
live without lord and head, and do what they will." In 1319 and
in 1404 they succeeded in defeating the invasions of the Holstein
nobles; and though in 1474 the land was nominally incorporated
with the duchy by the emperor Frederick III., the attempt of the
Danish king Hans and the duke of Gottorp to enforce the decree
in 1500 resulted only in their complete rout in the marshes of the
Dussend-Diiwels-Warf. During the early part of the century
which began with such prestige for Ditmarsh, it was the scene of
violent internal conflict in regard to the religious questions of
the time; and, thus weakened, it was obliged in 1559 to submit
to partition among its three conquerors — King Frederick II. of
Denmark and Dukes John and Adolphus. A new division took
place on Duke John's death in 1581, by which Frederick obtained
South Ditmarsh, with its chief town of Meldorf, and Adolphus
obtained North Ditmarsh, with its chief town of Heide; and this
arrangement continued till 1773, when all the Gottorp possessions
were incorporated with the Danish crown.

See Dahlmann's edition of Neocorus, Chronik von Dithmarschen
(Kiel, 1827), and Geschichte Danemarks (1840-1844); Michelsen,
Urkundenbuch zur Geschichte des Landes Dithmarschen (1834),
Sammlung altdithmarscher Rechtsquellen (1842), and Dithmarschen im
Verhdltniss zum bremischen Erzstift; Kolster, Geschichte Dith-
marschens, nach F. R. Dahlmanns Vorlesungen (1873).

DITHYRAMBIC POETRY, the description of poetry in which
the character of the dithyramb is preserved. It remains quite
uncertain what the derivation or even the primitive meaning
of the Greek word diffvpanpos is, although many conjectures
have been attempted. It was, however, connected from earliest
times with the choral worship of Dionysus. A dithyramb is
defined by Grote as a round choric dance and song in honour
of the wine-god. The earliest dithyrambic poetry was probably
improvised by priests of Bacchus at solemn feasts, and expressed,
in disordered numbers, the excitement and frenzy felt by the
worshippers. This element of unrestrained and intoxicated
vehemence is prominent in all poetry of this class. The dithy-
ramb was traditionally first practised in Naxos; it spread to
other islands, to Boeotia and finally to Athens. Arion is said to
have introduced it at Corinth, and to have allied it to the worship
of Pan. It was thus " merged," as Professor G. G. Murray says,
" into the Satyr-choir of wild mountain-goats" out of which sprang
the earliest form of tragedy. But when tragic drama had so far
developed as to be quite independent, the dithyramb did not, on

* That is, the right of claiming military service, and the right of
bringing capital offenders to justice.

324

DITTERSBACH— DITTERSDORF

that account, disappear. It flourished in Athens until after the
age of Aristotle. So far as we can distinguish the form of the
ancient Greek dithyramb, it must have been a kind of irregular
wild poetry, not divided into strophes or constructed with any
evolution of the theme, but imitative of the enthusiasm created
by the use of wine, by what passed as the Dionysiac delirium. It
was accompanied on some occasions by flutes, on others by the
lyre, but we do not know enough to conjecture the reasons of the
choice of instrument. Pindar, in whose hands the ode took such
magnificent completeness, is said to have been trained in the
elements of dithyrambic poetry by a certain Lasus of Hermione.
Ion, having carried off the prize in a dithyrambic contest,
distributed to every Athenian citizen a cup of Chia.n wine. In the
opinion of antiquity, pure dithyrambic poetry reached its climax
in a lost poem, The Cyclops, by Philoxenus of Cythera, a poet of
the 4th century B.C. After this time, the composition of dithy-
rambs, although not abandoned, rapidly declined in merit. It
was essentially a Greek form, and was little cultivated, and always
without success, by the Latins. The dithyramb had a spectacular
character, combining verse with music. In modern literature,
although the adjective " dithyrambic " is often used to describe
an enthusiastic movement in lyric language, and particularly in
the ode, pure dithyrambs have been extremely rare. There are,
however, some very notable examples. The Baccho in Toscana
of Francesco Redi (1626—1698), which was translated from the
Italian, with admirable skill, by Leigh Hunt, is a piece of genuine
dithyrambic poetry. Alexander's Feast (1698), by Dryden, is
the best example in English. But perhaps more remarkable,
and more genuinely dithyrambic than either, are the astonish-
ing improvisations of Karl Mikael Bellman (1740-1795),
whose Bacchic songs were collected in 1791 and form one of
the most remarkable bodies of lyrical poetry in the literature
of Sweden. (E. G.)

DITTERSBACH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Silesia, 3 m. by rail S.E. from Waldenburg and 50 m. S.W. from
Breslau. It has coal-mines, bleach-fields and match factories.
Population (1905) 9371.

DITTERSDORF, KARL DITTERS VON (1730-1799), Austrian
composer and violinist, was born in Vienna on the 2nd of
November 1 739, his father's name being Ditters. Having shown
as a child marked talent for the violin, he was allowed to play in
the orchestras of St Stephen's and the Schottenkirche, where he
attracted the attention of a notable patron of music, Prince
Joseph Frederick of Hildburghausen (1702-1787), who is also
remembered as a soldier for his disastrous leading of the forces of
the Empire at Rossbach. The prince gave the boy, now eleven
years old, a place in his private orchestra — the first of the kind
established in Vienna, — and also saw to it that he received
an excellent general education. The Seven Years' War proved
disastrous to both music and morals; and young Ditters, who
had fallen into evil ways, fled from Hildburghausen, whither he
had gone with the prince, to avoid the payment of his gambling
debts. His patron generously forgave and recalled him, but
soon afterwards gave up his orchestra at Vienna. Ditters now
obtained a place in the Vienna opera; but he was not satisfied,
and in 1761 eagerly accepted an invitation to accompany Gluck,
whose acquaintance, as well as that of Haydn, he had made while
in the service of the prince, on a professional journey to Italy.
His success as a violinist on this occasion was equal to that
of Gluck as composer; and on his return to Vienna he was
recognized as the superior of Antonio Lolli, who as virtuoso
had hitherto held the palm. In 1764 he was again associated
with Gluck in the musical part of the ceremonies at Frankfort,
attending the coronation of the archduke Joseph as King of the
Romans. His next appointment was that of conductor of the
orchestra of the bishop of Grosswardein, a Hungarian magnate,
at Pressburg. He set up a private stage in the episcopal palace,
and wrote for it his first " opera buffa," Amore in musica. His
first oratorio, Isaccofigura del Redentore, was also written during
this time; but the scandal of performances of light opera by the
bishop's company, even on fast days and during Advent, out-
weighed this pious effort; the empress Maria Theresa sharply

called the worldly prelate to order ; and he, in a huff, dismissed
his orchestra (1769). After a short interlude, Ditters was again
in the service of an ecclesiastical patron, count von Schafgotsch,
prince bishop of Breslau, at his estate of Johannesberg in Silesia.
Here he displayed so much skill as a sportsman, that the bishop
procured for him the office of forester (Forstmeister) of the
principality of Neisse. He had already, by the same influence,
been made knight of the Golden Spur (1770). At Johannesberg
Ditters also produced a comic opera, II Viaggialore americano,
and an oratorio, Davide. The title rdle of the latter was taken
by a pretty Italian singer, Signora Nicolini, whom Ditters
married. In 1773 he was ennobled as Karl von Dittersdorf, and
at the same time was appointed administrator (Amtshauptmanri)
of Freyenwaldau, an office which he performed by deputy. In
the same year his oratorio Ester was produced in Vienna. During
the War of Bavarian Succession the prince bishop's orchestra
was dissolved, and Dittersdorf employed himself in his office at
Freyenwaldau ; but after the peace of Tetschen (1779) he again
became conductor of the reconstituted orchestra. From this
time forward his output was enormous. In 1780 ten months
sufficed for the production of his Giobbe (Job) and four operas,
three of which were successful ; and besides these he wrote a
large number of " characterized symphonies," founded on the
Metamorphoses of Ovid. He was now at the height of his fame,
and spent the fortune which it brought him in much luxury. But
after a time his patron fell on evil days, the famous orchestra had
to be reduced, and when the bishop died in 1795 his successor
dismissed the composer with a small money gift. Poor and
broken in health, he accepted the asylum offered to him by Ignaz
Freiherr von Stillfried, on his estate' near Neuhaus in Bohemia,
where he spent what strength was left him in a feverish effort
to make money by the composition of operas, symphonies and
pianoforte pieces. He died on the ist of October 1799, praying
" God's reward " for whoever should save his family from
starvation. On his death-bed he dictated j to his son his
Lebensbeschreibung (autobiography) .

Dittersdorf's chief talent was for comic opera and instrumental
music in the sonata forms. In both of these branches his work
still shows signs of life, and it is of great historical interest, since
he was not only an excellent musician and a friend of Haydn but
also a thoroughly popular writer, with a lively enough musical wit
and sense of effect to embody in an amusing and fairly artistic
form exactly what the best popular intelligence of the times saw
in the new artistic developments of Haydn. Thus, while in the
amiable monotony and diffuseness of Boccherini we may trace
Haydn as a force tending to disintegrate the polyphonic suite-
forms of instrumental music, in Dittersdorf on the other hand
we see the popular conception of the modern sonata and dramatic
style. Yet, with all his popularity, the reality of his progressive
outlook may be gauged from the fact that, though he was at
least as famous a violinist as Boccherini was a violoncellist, there
is in his string quartets no trace of that tendency to sacrifice the
ensemble to an exhibition of his own playing which in Boccherini's
chamber music puts the violoncello into the same position as the
first violin in the chamber music of Spohr. In Dittersdorf's
quartets (at least six of which are worthy of their survival at the
present day) the first violin leads indeed, but not more than is
inevitable in such unsophisticated music where the normal place
for melody is at the top. The appearance of greater vitality
in the texture of Boccherini's quintets is produced merely by
the fact that, his special instrument being the violoncello, his
displays of brilliance inevitably occur in the inner parts. Six
of Dittersdorf's symphonies on the Metamorphoses of Ovid were
republished in 1899, the centenary of his death. In them we have
an amusing and sometimes charming illustration of the way in
which at transitional periods music, as at the present day, is ready
to make crutches of literature. The end of the representation of
the conversion of the Lycian peasants into frogs is prophetically
and ridiculously Wagnerian in its ingenious expansion of rhythm
and eminently expert orchestration. Every external feature of
Dittersdorf's style seems admirably apt for success in German
comic opera on a small scale ; and an occasional experimental

DITTO— DIVAN

325

performance at the present day of his Doktor und Apotheker is
not less his due than the survival of his best quartets.

See his Lebensbeschreibung, published at Leipzig, 1801 (English
translation by A. D. Coleridge, 1896); an article in the Rwista
musicale, vi. 727; and the article " Dittersdorf " in Grove's
Dictionary of Music and Musicians.

DITTO (from the Lat. dictum, something said, Ital. detto,
aforesaid) , that which has been said before, the same thing. The
word is frequently abbreviated into " do." In accounts, " ditto "
is indicated by two dots or a dash under the word or figure that
would otherwise be repeated. A " suit of dittos," a trade or slang
phrase, is a suit in which coat, trousers and waistcoat are all of
the same material.

DITTON, HUMPHRY (1675-1715), English mathematician,
was born at Salisbury on the zpth of May 1675. He studied
theology, and was for some years a dissenting minister at
Tonbridge, but on the death of his father he devoted himself
to the congenial study of mathematics. Through the influence
of Sir Isaac Newton he was elected mathematical master in
Christ's hospital. He was author of the following memoirs and
treatises: — " Of the Tangents of Curves, &c.," Phil. Trans, vol.
xxiii.; "A Treatise on Spherical Catoptrics," published in the
Phil. Trans, vol. xxiv., from which it was copied and reprinted
in the Ada Eruditorum (1707), and also in the Memoirs of the
Academy of Sciences at Paris; General Laws of Nature and
Motion (i 705) , a work which is commended by Wolfius as illustrat-
ing and rendering easy the writings of Galileo and Huygens, and
the Principia of Newton; An Institution of Fluxions, containing
the First Principles, Operations, and Applications of that admirable
Method, as invented by Sir Isaac Newton (1706). In 1709 he
published the Synopsis Algebraica of John Alexander, with many
additions and corrections. In his Treatise on Perspective (1712)
he explained the mathematical principles of that art; and
anticipated the method afterwards elaborated by Brook Taylor.
In 1714 Ditton published his Discourse on the Resurrection of
Jesus Christ; and The New Law of Fluids, or a Discourse concern-
ing the Ascent of Liquids in exact Geometrical Figures, between two
nearly contiguous Surfaces. To this was annexed a tract (" Matter
not a Cogitative Substance ") to demonstrate the impossibility of
thinking or perception being the result of any combination of the
parts pf matter and motion. There was also added an advertise-
ment from him and William Whiston concerning a method for
discovering the longitude, which it seems they had published
about half a year before. Although the method had been ap-
proved by Sir Isaac Newton before being presented to the Board
of Longitude, and successfully practised in finding the longitude
between Paris and Vienna, the board determined against it.
This disappointment, aggravated as it was by certain lines
written by Dean Swift, affected Ditton's health to such a degree
that he died in the following year, on the isth of October 1715.

DIU, an island and town of India, belonging to Portugal, and
situated at the southern extremity of the peninsula of Kathiawar.
Area of district, 20 sq. m. Pop. (1900) 14,614. The anchorage
is fairly protected from the sea, but the depth of water is only 3 to
4 fathoms. The channel between the island on Diu and the main-
land is navigable only by fishing boats and small craft. The town
is well fortified on the old system, being surrounded by a wall
with towers at regular intervals. Many of the inhabitants are
the well-known Banyan merchants of the east coast of Africa and
Arabia. Native spirits are distilled from the palm, salt is made
and fish caught. The trade of the town, however, is decayed.
There are remains of several fine ancient buildings. The cathedral
or Se Matriz, dating from 1601, was formerly a Jesuit college.
The mint, the arsenal and several convents (now ruined or
converted to other uses) are also noteworthy. The Portuguese,
under treaty with Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, built a fort here in
I53S, but soon quarrelled with the natives and were besieged in
1538 and 1545. The second siege is one of the most famous
in Indo-Portuguese history, and is the subject of an epic by
Jeronymo Corte Real (?.».).

See R. S. Whiteway, Rise of the Portuguese Powerin India (1898).

DIURETICS (from Gr. 5iA, through, and ovpeiv, pass urine),

the name given to remedies which, under certain conditions,
stimulate an increased flow of urine. Their mode of action
is various. Some are absorbed into the blood, carried to the
secretory organs (the kidneys), and stimulate them directly,
causing an increased flow of blood; others act as stimulants
through the nervous system. A second class act in congested
conditions of the kidneys by diminishing the congestion. Another
class, such as the saline diuretics, are effectual by virtue of their
osmotic action. A fourth class are diuretic by increasing the blood
pressure within the vessels in general, and the Malpighian tufts
in particular, — some, as digitalis, by increasing the strength of
the heart's contractions, and others, as water, by increasing the
amount of fluid circulating in the vessels. Some remedies, as
mercury, although not diuretic themselves, when prescribed along
with those which have this action, increase their effect. The
same remedy may act in more than one way, e.g. alcohol, besides
stimulating the secretory organs directly, is a stimulant to the
circulation, and thus increases the pressure within the vessels.
Diuretics are prescribed when the quantity of urine is much
diminished, or when, although the quantity may be normal, it is
wished to relieve some other organ or set of organs of part of their
ordinary work, or to aid in carrying off some morbid product
circulating in the blood, or to hasten the removal of inflammatory
serous exudations, or of dropsical collections of fluid. Caffeine,
which is far the best true diuretic, acts in nearly every way
mentioned above. Together with digitalis it is the most efficient
remedy for cardiac dropsy. A famous diuretic pill, known as
Guy's pill, consists of a grain each of mercurial pill, digitalis
leaves and squill, made up with extract of henbane. Digitalis,
producing its diuretic effect by its combined action on heart,
vessels and kidneys, is much used in the oedema of mitral disease,
but must be avoided in chronic Bright's disease, as it increases
the tension of the pulse, already often dangerously high.
Turpentine and cantharides are not now recommended as
diuretics, as they are too irritating to the kidneys.

DIURNAL MOTION, the relative motion of the earth and the
heavens, which results from the rotation of our globe on its axis in
a direction from west toward east. The actual motion consists in
this rotation. But the term is commonly applied to the resultant
apparent revolution of the heavens from east to west, the axis of
which passes through the celestial poles, and is coincident in
direction with the axis of the earth.

DIVAN (Arabic diwan), a Persian word, derived probably from
Aramaic, meaning a " counting-house, office, bureau, tribunal ";
thence, on one side, the " account-books and registers " of such
an office, and, on another, the " room where the office or tribunal
sits"; thence, again, from "account-book, register," a "book
containing the poems of an author," arranged in a definite order
(alphabetical according to the rhyme- words), perhaps because of
the saying, " Poetry is the register (divan) of the Arabs," and
from " bureau, tribunal," " a long seat, formed of a mattress laid
against the side of the room, upon the floor or upon a raised
structure or frame, with cushions to lean against " (Lane, Lexicon,
930 f.). All these meanings existed and exist, especially " bureau,
tribunal," "book of poems" and "seat"1; but the order of
derivation may have been slightly different. The word first
appears under the caliphate of Omar (A.D. 634-644). Great
wealth, gained from the Moslem conquests, was pouring into
Medina, and a system of business management and administration
became necessary. This was copied from the Persians and given
the Persian name, " divan." Later, as the state became more
complicated, the term was extended over all the government
bureaus. The divan of the Sublime Porte was for long the
council of the empire, presided over by the grand vizier.

See Von Kremer, Culturgeschichte des Orients, i. 64, 198.

(D. B. MA.)

1 The divan in this sense has been known in Europe certainly since
about the middle of the l8th century. It was fashionable, roughly
speaking, from 1820 to 1850, wherever the romantic movement in
literature penetrated. All the boudoirs of that generation were
garnished with divans; they even spread to coffee-houses, which
were _ sometimes known as divans or "Turkish divans"; and
a " cigar divan " remains a familiar expression.

326

DIVER— DIVERS AND DIVING APPARATUS

DIVER, a name that when applied to a bird is commonly used
in a sense even more vague than that of loom, several of the sea
ducks or Fuligulinae and mergansers being frequently so called,
to say nothing of certain of the auks or Alcidae and grebes; but
in English ornithological works the term diver is generally
restricted to the Family known as Colymbidae, a very well-marked
group of aquatic birds, possessing great, though not exceptional,
powers of submergence, and consisting of a single genus Colymbus
which is composed of three, or at most four, species, all confined
to the northern hemisphere. This Family belongs to the
Cecomorphae of T. H. Huxley, and is usually supposed to occupy
a place between the Alcidae and Podicipedidae; but to which of
these groups it is most closely related is undecided. Professor
Brandt in 1837 (Beitr. Naturgesch. Vogel, pp. 124-132) pointed out
the osteological differences of the grebes and the divers, urging
the affinity of the latter to the auks; while, thirty years later,
Professor Alph. Milne-Edwards (Ois.foss. France, i. pp. 279-283)
inclined to the opposite view, chiefly relying on the similarity of a
peculiar formation of the tibia in the grebes and divers,1 which
indeed is very remarkable, and, in the latter group, attracted the
attention of Willughby more than 230 years ago. On the other
hand Professor Brandt, and Rudolph Wagner shortly after
(Naumann's Vogel Deulschlands, ix. p. 683, xii. p. 395), had
already shown that the structure of the knee-joint in the grebes
and divers differs in that the former have a distinct and singularly
formed patella (which is undeveloped in the latter) in addition to
the prolonged, pyramidally formed, procnemial process — which
last may, from its exaggeration, be regarded as a character almost
peculiar to these two groups.2 The evidence furnished by oology
and the newly-hatched young seems to favour Brandt's views.
The abortion of the reclrices in the gerbes, while these feathers
are fairly developed in the divers, is another point that helps to
separate the two Families.

The commonest species of Colymbus is C. septentrionalis, known
as the red-throated diver from an elongated patch of dark bay
which distinguishes the throat of the adult in summer dress.
Immature birds want the bay patch, and have the back so much
more spotted that they are commonly known as " speckled
divers." Next in size is the black-throated diver, C. arcticus,
having a light grey head and a gular patch of purplish-black,
above which is a semicollar of white striped vertically with black.
Still bigger is the great northern diver, C. glacialis or torquatus,
with a glossy black head and neck, two semicollars of white and
black vertical stripes, and nearly the whole of the black back and
upper surface of the wings beautifully marked with white spots,
varying in size and arranged in belts.3 Closely resembling this
bird, so as to be most easily distinguished from it by its yellow bill,
is C. adamsi. The divers live chiefly on fish, and are of eminently
marine habit, though invariably resorting for the purpose of
breeding to freshwater lakes, where they lay two dark brown
eggs on the very brink; but they are not unfrequently found far
from the sea, being either driven inland by stress of weather, or
exhausted in their migrations. Like most birds of their build,
they chiefly trust to swimming, whether submerged or on the
surface, as a means of progress, but once on the wing their flight
is strong and they can mount to a great height. In winter their
range is too extensive and varied to be here defined, though it is
believed never to pass, and in few directions to approach, the
northern tropic; but the geographical distribution of the several
forms in summer requires mention. While C. septentrionalis
inhabits the north temperate zone of both hemispheres, C.
arcticus breeds in suitable places from the Hebrides to Scan-

1 The remains of Colymboides minutus, from the Miocene of Langy,
described by this naturalist in the work just cited, seem to show it to
have been a generalized form. Unfortunately its tibia is unknown.

1 A. H. Garrod, in his tentative and chiefly myological arrange-
ment of Birds (Proc. Zoo/. Society, 1874, p. 117), placed the Colym-
bidae and Podicipedidae in one order (Anseriformes) and the Alcidae
in another (Charadriiformes) ; but the artificial nature of this
assignment may be realized by the fact of his considering the other
Families of the former order to be Anatidae and Spheniscidce.

8 The osteology and myology of this species are described by
Dr Coues (Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. History, i. pp. 131-172, pi. 5).

dinavia, and across the Russian empire, it would seem, to Japan,
reappearing in the north-west of North America,4 though its
eastern limit on that continent cannot be definitely laid down;
but it is not found in Greenland, Iceland, Shetland or Orkney,
C. glacialis, on the contrary, breeds throughout the north-
eastern part of Canada, in Greenland and in Iceland. It has been
said to do so in Scotland as well as in Norway, but the assertion
seems to lack positive proof, and it may be doubted whether, with
the exception of Iceland, it is indigenous to the Old World,6 since
the form observed in North-eastern Asia is evidently that which
has been called C. adamsi, and is also found in North-western
America; but it may be remarked that one example of this form
has been taken in England (Proc. Zool. Society, 1859, p. 206) and
at least one in Norway (Nyt Mag. for Natunidenskaberne, 1877,
P- 134). (A. N.)

DIVERS and DIVING APPARATUS. To " dive " (Old Eng.
dufan, dyfan; cf. " dip ") is to plunge under water, and in the
ordinary procedure of swimmers is distinguished from simple
plunging in that it involves remaining under the water for an
interval of more or less duration before coming to the surface.
In the article SWIMMING the sport of diving in this sense is
considered. Here we are only concerned with diving as the
function of a " diver," whose business it is to go under water
(in modern times, assisted by specially devised apparatus) in
order to work.

Unassisted or Natural Diving. — The earliest reference to the
practice of the art of diving for a purpose of utility occurs in the
Iliad, 16, 745-750, where Patroclus compares the fall of Hector's
charioteer to the action of a diver diving for oysters. Thus it
would seem that the art was known about 1000 years before
the Christian era. Thucydides is the first to mention the employ-
ment of divers for mechanical work under water. He relates that
divers were employed during the siege of Syracuse to saw down
the barriers which had been constructed below the surface of the
water with the object of obstructing and damaging any Grecian
war vessels which might attempt to enter the harbour. At the
siege of Tyre, divers were ordered by Alexander the Great to
impede or destroy the submarine defences of the besieged as they
were erected. The purpose of these obstructions was analogous
to that of the submarine mine of to-day.

The employment of divers for the salvage of sunken property is
first mentioned by Livy, who records that in the reign of Perseus
considerable treasure was recovered from the sea. By a law of
the Rhodians, their divers were allowed a proportion of the value
recovered, varying with the risk incurred, or the depth from which
the treasure was salved. For instance, if the diver raised it from
a depth of eight cubits (12 ft.) he received one-third for himself;
if from sixteen cubits (24 ft.) one half; but upon goods lost near
the shore, and recovered from a depth of two cubits (36 in.), his
share was only one tenth.

These are examples of unassisted diving as practised by the
Ancients. Their primitive method, however, is still in vogue in
some parts of the world — notably in the Ceylon pearl fisheries and
in the Mediterranean sponge fisheries, and it may, therefore, be
as well to mention the system adopted by the natural, or naked,
diver of to-day.

The volume and power of respiration of the lungs vary in
different individuals, some persons being able to hold their breath
longer than others, so that it naturally follows that one man may
be able to stay longer under water than another. The longest
time that a natural diver has been known to remain beneath the
surface is about two minutes. Some pearl and sponge divers rub

4 Lawrence's C. pacificus seems hardly to deserve specific
recognition.

6 In this connexion should be mentioned the remarkable occurrence
in Europe of two birds of this species which had been previously
wounded by a weapon presumably of transatlantic origin. One had
" an arrow headed with copper sticking through its neck," and
was shot on the Irish coast, as recorded by J. Vaughan Thompson
(Nat. Hist. Ireland, iii. p. 201); the other, says Herr H. C. Miiller
(Vid. Mead. nat. Foremng, 1862, p. 35), was found dead in Kal-
baksfjord in the Faeroes with an iron-tipped bone dart fast under
its wing.

DIVERS AND DIVING APPARATUS

327

their bodies with oil, and put wool, saturated with oil, in their
ears. Others hold in their mouth a piece of sponge soaked in oil,
which they renew every time they descend. It is doubtful,
however, whether these expedients are beneficial. The men who
dive in this primitive fashion take with them a flat stone with a
hole in the centre; to this is attached a rope, which is secured to
the diving boat and serves to guide them to particular spots below.
When the diver reaches the sea bottom he tears off as much sponge
within reach as possible, or picks up pearl shells, as the case may
be, and then pulls the rope to indicate to the man in the boat that
he wishes to be hauled up. But so exhausting is the work, and so
severe the strain on the system, that, after a number of dives in
deep water, the men often become insensible, and blood some-
time bursts from nose, ears and mouth.

Early Diving Appliances. — The earliest mention of any
appliance for assisting divers is by Aristotle, who says that divers
are sometimes provided with instruments for respiration through
which they can draw air from above the water and which thus
enable them to remain a long time under the sea (De Part. Anim.
2, 1 6), and also that divers breathe by letting down a metallic
vessel which does not get filled with water but retains the air
within it (Problem. 32, 5). It is also recorded that Alexander the
Great made a descent into the sea in a machine called a colimpha,
which had the power of keeping a man dry, and at the same time
of admitting light. Pliny also speaks of divers engaged in the
strategy of ancient warfare, who drew air through a tube, one end
of which they carried in their mouths, whilst the other end was
made to float on the surface of the water. Roger Bacon in
1240, too, is supposed to have invented a contrivance for enabling
men to work under water; and in Vegetius's De Re Militari
(editions of 1511 and 1532, the latter in the British Museum) is
an engraving representing a diver wearing a tight-fitting helmet
to which is attached a long leathern pipe leading to the surface,
where its open end is kept afloat by means of a bladder. This
method of obtaining air during subaqueous operations was
probably suggested by the action of the elephant when swim-
ming; the animal instinctively elevates its trunk so that the
end is above the surface of the water, and thus is enabled to
take in fresh air at every inspiration.

A certain Repton invented " water armour " in the year 1617,
but when tried it was found to be useless. G. A. Borelli in the
year 1679 invented an apparatus which enabled persons to go to a
certain depth under water, and he is credited with being the first
to introduce means of forcing air down to the diver. For this
purpose he used a large pair of bellows. John Lethbridge, a
Devonshire man, in the year 1 715 contrived" a watertight leather
case for enclosing the person." This leather case held about half
a hogshead of air, and was so adapted as to give free play to
arms and legs, so that the wearer could walk on the sea bottom,
examine a sunken vessel and salve her cargo, returning to the
surface when his supply of air was getting exhausted. It is said
that Lethbridge made a considerable fortune by his invention.
The next contrivance worthy of mention, and most nearly
resembling the modern diving-dress, was an apparatus invented
by Kleingert, of Breslau, in 1798. This consisted of an egg-ended
metallic cylinder enveloping the head and the body to the hips.
The diver was encased first of all in a leather jacket having tight-
fitting arms, and in leather drawers with tight-fitting legs. To
these the cylinder was fastened in such a way as to render the
whole equipment airtight. The air supply was drawn through a
pipe which was connected with the mouth of the diver by an ivory
mouthpiece, the surface end being held above water after the
manner mentioned in Vegetius, viz. by means of a floating bladder
attached to it. The foul air escaped through another pipe held in
a similar manner above the surface of the water, inhalation being
performed by the mouth and exhalation by the nose, the act of
inhalation causing the chest to expand and so to expel the vitiated
air through the escape pipe. The diver was weighted when going
under water, and when he wished to ascend he released one of
his weights, and attached it to a rope which he held, and it
was afterwards hauled up.

Modern Apparatus. — This, or equally cumbersome apparatus,

was the -only diving gear in use up till 1819, in which year
Augustus Siebe (the founder of the firm of Siebe, Gorman & Co.),
invented his " open " dress, worked in conjunction with an air
force pump. This dress consisted of a metal helmet and shoulder-
plate attached to a watertight jacket, under which, fitting more
closely to the body, were worn trousers, or rather a combination
suit reaching to the armpits. The helmet was fitted with an air
inlet valve, to which one end of a flexible tube was attached, the
other end being connected at the surface with a pump which
supplied the diver with a constant stream of fresh air. The air,
which kept the water well down, forced its way between the jacket
and the under-garment, and escaped to the surface on exactly the
same principle as that of the diving bell; hence the term " open "
as applied to this dress.

Although most excellent work was accomplished with this dress
— work which could not be attempted before its introduction — it
was still far from perfect. It was absolutely necessary for the
diver to maintain an upright, or but very slightly stooping,
position whilst under water; if he stumbled and fell, the water
filled his dress, and, unless quickly brought to the surface, he was
in danger of being drowned. To overcome this and other defects,
Siebe carried out a large number of experiments extending over
several years, which culminated, in the year 1830, in the intro-
duction of his " close " dress in combination with a helmet fitted
with air inlet and regulating outlet valves.

Though, of course, vast improvements have been introduced
since Siebe's death, in 1872, the fact remains that his principle is
in universal use to this day. The submarine work which it has
been instrumental in accomplishing is incalculable. But some
idea of the importance of the invention may be gathered from the
fact that diving apparatus on Siebe's principle is universally used
to-day in harbour, dock, pier and breakwater construction, in
the pearl and sponge fisheries, in recovering sunken ships, cargo
and treasure, and that every ship in the British navy and in most
foreign navies carries one set or more of diving apparatus.

A modern set of diving apparatus consists essentially of six
parts: — (i) an air pump, (2) a helmet with breastplate, (3) a
diving dress, (4)
a pair of heavily
weighted boots,
(5) a pair of back
and chest
weights, (6) a
flexible non-col-
lapsible air tube.

Air Pumps. —
The type of air
jump varies with
che depth of water
to which the diver
has to descend; it
will be readily un-
derstood that the
greater the depth
the greater the
quantity of air
required by the
diver. The pat-
tern most gener-
ally in favour
amongst divers of
all classes is a
three - cylinder
single-acting

pump, which is FiG. I. — Pump out of chest,

suitable for almost Two-cylinder, Double-action Air Pump for Two
every description Divers,

of work which the A> Air.distributing ar. D> Cylinders.
rahVd JTnon to rangement, for one E, Pressure gauges.

diver or two divers. F, Nozzles to which
perlorm either in g Watef . fc d; , . ;

wrtPer.°rAnoheWrC'Sr- a"d di" are attached." '

most useful type charge valves.

is a two-cylinder double-acting pump (figs. I and 2), which is
designed to supply two divers working simultaneously in moderate
depths of water, or one diver only in deep water. An air-distributing
arrangement is fitted, whereby, when it is desired to send two men

DIVERS AND DIVING APPARATUS

down together, each cylinder supplies air independently of the other;
and when it is required to send one diver into deep water, the two
cylinders are connected and the full volume of air from both is
delivered to the one man. The same duty is also performed by a
four-cylinder single-acting pump. Smaller pumps, having one
double-acting or two single-acting cylinders, are also used for
shallow water work.

In most cases these air pumps are worked by manual power;
this method of working is rendered necessary by the fact that the
machines are usually placed in small boats from which the divers
work and on which other motive power is not available. In cases,
however, where steam or electric power is available the pumps are
sometimes worked by their means — more particularly on harbour
and dock works. In such instances the air is not delivered direct
from the pump to the diver, but is delivered into an intermediate
steel receiver to which the diver's air pipe is connected, the object

FIG. 2. — Pump in chest, ready for work.

being to ensure a reserve supply of air in case of a breakdown of the
pump. Some of these combinations of pumps and motors are so
arranged that, in the event of an accident to the motor, the pump
can be thrown out of gear with it, and be immediately worked by
hand power. Each pump is fitted with a gauge (or gauges), indi-
cating not only the pressure of air which the pump is supplying,
but also the depth of water at which the diver is working. The
cylinders are water-jacketed to ensure the air delivered to the diver
being cool, the water being drawn in and circulated round the
cylinders by means of a small metal pump worked from an eccentric
on the mam crank-shaft. Filters are sometimes attached to the
suction and delivery sides of the pumps to ensure the inlet of air
being free from dirt, and the discharge of air free from dirt and oil.

Helmet. — The helmet and breastplate (fig. 3) are made from highly
planished tinned copper, with gun-metal valves and other fittings.
The helmet is provided with a non-return air inlet valve to which the
diver's air pipe is connected; the air when it lifts the inlet valve
passes through three conduits — one having its outlet over the front
glass, the others their outlets over the side glasses. In this way
the diver gets the air fresh as it enters the helmet, and at the same
time it prevents condensation of his breath on the glasses and keeps
them clear. There is a regulating air outlet valve by which the
diver adjusts his supply of airaccording to his requirements in different
depths of water; the valve is usually made to be adjusted by hand,
but sometimes it is so constructed as to be operated by the diver
knocking his head against it, the spindle being extended through to
the inside of the helmet and fitted at its inner extremity with a
button or disk. By unscrewing the valve, the diver allows air to
escape, and thus the dress is deflated; by screwing it up the air
is retained and the dress inflated. Thus the diver can control his
specific gravity and rise or sink at will. In case by any chance the
diver should inflate the dress inadvertently, and wish to ge't rid of the
superfluous air quickly, he can do so by opening an emergency cock,
which is fitted on the helmet. Plate glasses in gun-metal frames are
also fitted to the helmet, two, one on each side, being permanently
fixed, while one in front is made either to screw in and out, or to work
on a hinged joint like a ship's scuttle; the side glasses are usually
protected by metal cross-bars, as is also sometimes the front glass.
Some divers prefer unprotected glasses at the side of the helmet,
instead of protected oval ones.

The breastplate is fitted on its outer edge with metal screws and
bands. The disposition of the screws corresponds with that of the
holes in the india-rubber collar of the diving dress described below.
There are other methods of making a watertight joint between the
diver's breastplate and the diving dress, but, as these are only
mechanical differences, it will suffice to describe the Siebe-Gorman
apparatus, as exclusively adopted by the British government.

Whatever the shape or design of the helmet or dress, Siebe's principle
is the one in universal use to-day.

The metal tabs are for carrying the diver's lead weights, which are
fitted with suitable clips; the hooks — one on each side of the helmet
— are for keeping the ropes attached to the back weight in position.
The helmet and breastplate are fitted at their lower and upper parts
respectively with gun-metal segmental neck rings, which make it
possible to connect these two main parts together by one-eighth of
a turn, a catch at the back of the helmet preventing any chance of
unscrewing. The small eyes at the top of the helmet are for securing
the diver's air pipe and life line in position and preventing them from
swaying.

Front view of Helmet.

A, Helmet.

B, Breastplate.

F, Emergency cock.

G, Glasses in frames.

H, Metal screws and bands.

I, Metal tabs.

J, Hooks for keeping weight

ropes in position.
L, Eyes to which air pipe and

life line are secured.

Side sectional view of Helmet.
K, Segmental neck rings.
D, Air conduits.
M, Telephone receiver.
N, Transmitter.
O, Contact piece to ring bell.

n G n

J_

Back view of Helmet.

C,
E,
G,
L,

P,
FIG. 3.

Plan of Helmet.
Air inlet valve.
Regulating outlet valve.
Glasses in frames.
Eyes to which air pipe and

life line are secured.
Connexion for telephone

cable.

The Diving Dress is a combination suit which envelops the whole
body from feet to neck. It is made of two layers of tanned twill with
pure rubber between, and is fitted at the neck with a vulcanized
india-rubber collar, or band, with holes punched in it corresponding
to the screws in the breastplate. This collar, when clamped tightly
between the bands and the breastplate by means of the nuts, ensures
a watertight joint. The sleeves of the dress are fitted with vulcanized
india-rubber cuffs, which, fitting tightly round the diver's wrists,
prevent the ingress of water at these parts also.

Boots. — These are generally made with leather uppers, beechwcod
inner soles and leaden outer soles, the latter being secured to the others
by copper rivets. Heavy leather straps with brass buckles secure
the boot to the foot. Each boot weighs about 1 6 Ib. Sometimes the
main part of the boot-golosh, toe and heel, are in one brass casting,
with leather upper part, heavy straps and brass buckles.

Lead Weights. — These weigh 40 Ib each, and the diver wears one
on his back, another on his chest. These weights and the heavy
boots ensure the diver's equilibrium when under water.

Belt and Knife and Small Tools. — Every diver wears a heavy
waist-belt in which he carries a strong knife in metal case, and some-
times other small tools.

Air Pipe. — The diver's air pipe is of a flexible, non-collapsible
description, being made of alternate layers of strong canvas and
vulcanized india-rubber, with steel or hard drawn metal wire em-
bedded. At the ends are fitted gun-metal couplings, for connecting
the pipe with the diver's pump and helmet.

DIVERS AND DIVING APPARATUS

329

Signal Line. — The diver's signal line (sometimes called life line)
consists of a length of reverse laid Manila rope. In cases where the
telephone apparatus is not used, the diver gives his signals by means
of a series of pulls on the signal line in accordance with a prearranged
code.

Telephonic Apparatus. — Without doubt one of the most useful
adjuncts to the modern diving apparatus is the loud-sounding
telephone (fig. 4), introduced by Siebe, Gorman & Co., which enables
the diver to communicate viva voce with his attendant, and vice
versa. In the British navy the type of submarine telephonic
apparatus used is the Graham-Davis system. This is made on two
plans, (i) a single set of instruments, for communication between
one diver and his attendant direct, (2) an intercommunication set
which is used where two divers are employed. With this type the
attendant can speak to No. I or No. 2 diver separately, or with both
at the same time, and yice versa ; and No. I can be put in communi-
cation with No. 2 whilst they are under water, the attendant at
the surface being able to hear what the men are saying. The
advantages of such a system are obvious. It is more particularly
useful where two divers are working one either side of a ship, or
where the divers may be engaged upon the same piece of work, but
out of sight of one another, or out of touch. It would prove its utility
in a marked degree in cases where a diver got into difficulties; a
second diver sent down to his assistance could receive and give verbal
directions and thus greatly expedite the work of rescue.

The telephone instruments in the helmet consist of one or more
loud-sounding receivers placed either in the crown of the helmet,
or one on each side in close proximity to the diver's ears. A trans-
mitter of a special watertight pattern is placed between the front
glass and one of the side glasses, and a contact piece, which, when
the diver presses his chin against it, rings a bell at the surface, is
fitted immediately below the front glass. A buzzer is sometimes
fixed in the helmet to call the diver's attention when the attendant
wishes to speak, but as a rule the voice is transmitted so loudly that
this device is unnecessary. A connexion, through which the insulated
wires connecting the instruments pass, terminates in contact pieces,

and the telephone
cable, embedded in
the diver's signal
line, is connected
with it. The other
end of the signal line
is connected to a
battery box at the
surface. This box
contains, besides
the cells, a receiver
and transmitter for
the attendant, an
electric bell, a ter-
minal box, and a
special switch, by
means of which vari-
ous communications
Q between diver, or
divers, and attend-
ant are made. If,
as is sometimes the
case, the diver hap-
pens to be somewhat
deaf, he can, whilst
he is taking a mes-
sage, stop the vibra-
tion of the outlet

FIG. 4. — Diver's Telephone Communication

with the Surface.

Q, Battery, with switch and bell in case.
R. Attendant's receiver and transmitter.

valve and the noise made by the escaping air, by merely pressing
his finger on a spindle which passes through the disk of the valve,
and thus momentarily ensure absolute silence.

Speaking Tube. — The rubber speaking tube which was the fore-
runner of the telephonic apparatus is now practically obsolete, though
it is still used in isolated cases.

Submarine Electric Lamps. — Various forms of submarine lamps
are used, from a powerful arc light to a self-contained hand lamp,
the former giving about 2000 or 3000 candle-power, and requiring
a steam-driven dynamo to supply the necessary current, the latter
(fig- 5) giving a light of about ip candle-power and haying its own
batteries, so that the diver carries both the light and its source in
his hand. These submarine lamps are all constructed on the same
principle, having the incandescent lamps, or carbons as the case
may be, enclosed in a strong glass globe, the mechanism and con-
nexions being fitted in a metal case above the globe, which is flanged
and secured watertightly to the case.

Self-contained Diving Dress. — The object of the self-contained
diving dress is to make the diver independent of air supply from the
surface. The dress, helmet, boots and weights are of the ordinary
pattern already described, but instead of obtaining his air supply
by means of pumps and pipes, the diver is equipped with a knapsack
consisting of a steel cylinder containing oxygen compressed to a
pressure of 120 atmospheres ( = about 1800 ft)) to the square inch,
and chambers containing caustic soda or caustic potash. The
helmet is connected to the chambers by tubes, and the oxygen

cylinder is similarly connected to the chambers. The breath exhaled
by the diver passes through a valve into the caustic soda, which
absorbs the carbonic acid, and it is then again inhaled through
another valve. This process of regeneration goes on automatically,
the requisite amount of oxygen being restored to the breathed air
in its passage through the chambers. This type of apparatus has
been used for shallow water work, but the great majority of divers
prefer the apparatus using pumps as the source of the air supply.

An emergency dress, using this self-contained system for breathing,
has been designed by Messrs Fleuss and Davis, of the firm of Siebe,
Gorman & Co., primarily as a life-saving apparatus, for enabling men
to escape from disabled submarine boats.

The helmet diver is indispensable in connexion with harbour and
dock construction, bridge-building, pearl and sponge fishing, wreck

FIG. 5.— Submarine Electric Lamp, with and without
Reflector.

A, Metal case containing C, Stand, which also pro-

electrical fittings. tects the globe.

B, Glass globe and incan- D, Ring for suspending lamp.

descent lamp. E, Reflector.

raising and the recovery of sunken cargo and treasure. Every ship
in the British navy carries one set or more of diving apparatus, for
use in case of emergency, for clearing fouled propellers, cleaning
valves or ship's hull below the water line, repairing hulls if necessary,
and recovering lost anchors, chains, torpedoes, &c.

Greatest Depths attained. — The greatest depth at which useful
work has been performed by a diver is 182 ft. From this depth
a Spanish diver, Angel Erostarbe, recovered £9000 in silver bars
from the wreck of the steamer " Skyro," sunk off Cape Finisterre;
Alexander Lambert succeeded in salving £70,000 from the
Spanish mail steamer " Alphonso XII," sunk in 162 ft. of water
off Las Palmas, Grand Canary; W. Ridyard recovered £50,000 in
silver dollars from the " Hamilton Mitchell," sunk off Leuconna
Reef, China, in 150 ft. There are individual cases where much
larger sums have been recovered, but those mentioned are
particularly notable by reason of the great depth involved and
stand out as the greatest depths at which good work has
been done. The sponge fishers of the Mediterranean work
at a maximum depth of about 150 ft., and the pearl divers of
Australia at 120 ft. But submarine operations on the great
majority of the harbour and dock works of the world are
conducted at a depth of from 30 to 60 ft.

The weighted tools employed by divers differ very little from
those used by the workmen on terra firma. Pneumatic tools,
worked by compressed air conveyed from the surface through
flexible tubes, are great aids, particularly in rock removal work.
With the rock drill the diver bores a number of holes to a given
depth, inserts in these the charges of dynamite or other explosive
used, attaches one end of a wire to a detonator which is inserted in
the charge, and then comes to the surface. The boat from which
he works is then moved away from the scene of operations, paying
out the wire attached to the detonators, and when at a safe
distance the free end of the wire is connected to a magneto
exploding machine, which is then set in motion.

A complete set of diving apparatus costs from £75 to £200,
varying with the depth of water for which it is required.

The pay of a diver depends upon the nature of the work upon
which he is engaged, and also upon the depth of the water. On
harbour and dock work the average wage is 25. to zs. 6d. per hour ;
on wreck work from 33. to 55. an hour, according to depth; on
treasure and cargo recovery so much per day, with a percentage
on the value recovered, generally about 5 %. The pearl fishers of
Australia get so much per ton of shell, and the sponge fishers are
also paid by results.

330

DIVERS AND DIVING APPARATUS

A problem which has been exercising the minds of those
engaged in submarine work is the greatest depth at which it is
possible to work, for, as is well known, many a fine vessel with
valuable cargo and treasure is lying out of reach of the diver owing
to the pressure which he would have to sustain were he to attempt
to reach her. Mr Leonard Hill, and Drs Greenwood and J. J. R.
Macleod conducted experiments in conjunction with Messrs
Siebe, Gorman & Co., with a view to solving this problem, and
their efforts have been attended with some considerable success.
Dr J. S. Haldane has also carried out practical experiments for
the British Admiralty, and under his supervision two naval
officers have succeeded in reaching the unprecedented depth of
210 ft., at which depth the pressure is about 90 ft) to the square
inch.

Dh-ing Bells. — Every one is familiar with the experiment of
placing an inverted tumbler in a bowl of water, and seeing the
water excluded from the tumbler by the air inside it. Perhaps it
was to some such experiment as this that the conception of the
diving bell was due. As is well known, the pressure of water
increases with the depth, and for all practical purposes this
pressure can be taken at 4$ ft) to every 10 ft. The following
table shows the pressure at different depths below the surface
of the water: —

Dept

20 f

40
80

120

160
200

h.
t. . . .81

Pres

Ibto

sure.
the sq.

in.

I7J
34
52:
69;
8?

If a diving bell be sunk to a depth of, say, 33 ft., the air inside
it will be compressed to about half its original volume, and the bell
itself will be about half filled with water. But if a supply of air be
maintained at a pressure equal to the depth of water at which the
bell is submerged, not only will the water be kept down to the
cutting edge, but the bell will be ventilated and it will be possible
for its occupants to work for hours at a stretch.

Tradition gives Roger Bacon, in 1250, the credit for being
the originator of the diving bell, but actual records are lost in
antiquity. Of the records preserved to us, probably one of the
most trustworthy is an account given in Kaspar Schott's work,
Technica curiosa, published in the year 1664, which quoted from
one John Taisnier, who was in the service of Charles V. This
account describes an experiment which took place at Toledo,
Spain, in the year 1538, before the emperor and some thousands
of spectators, when two Greeks descended into the water in a
large " kettle," suspended by ropes, with its mouth downwards.
The "kettle" was equipoised by lead fixed round its mouth.
The men came up dry, and a lighted candle, which they had
taken down with them, was still burning.

Francis Bacon, in the Novum Organum, lib. ii., makes the
following reference to a machine, or reservoir, of air to which
labourers upon wrecks might resort whenever they required to
take breath: —

" A hollow vessel, made of metal, was let down equally to the
surface of the water, and thus carried with it to the bottom of the
sea the whole of the air which it contained. It stood upon three
feet — like a tripod — which were in length something less than the
height of a man, so that the diver, when he was no longer able to
contain his breath, could put his head into the vessel, and having
filled his lungs again, return to his work."

But it was to Dr Edmund Halley, secretary of the Royal
Society, that undoubtedly the honour is due of having invented
the first really practical diving bell. This is described in the
Philosophical Transactions, 1717, in a paper on " The Art of
Living Under Water by means of furnishing air at the bottom of
the sea in any ordinary depth." Halley 's bell was constructed of
wood, and was covered with lead, which gave it the necessary
sinking weight, and was so distributed as to ensure that it kept
a perpendicular position when in the water. It was in the form
of a truncated cone, 3 ft. in diameter at the top, 5 ft. at the
bottom and 8 ft. high. In the roof a lens was introduced for
admitting light, and also a tap to let out the vitiated air. Fresh
air was supplied to the bell by means of two lead-lined barrels,

each having a bung-hole in the top and bottom. To the hole in
the top was fixed a leathern tube, weighted in such a manner that
it always fell below the level of the bottom of the barrel so that no
air could escape. When, however, the tube was turned up by the
attendant in the bell, the pressure of the water rising through the
hole in the bottom of the barrel, forced the air through the tube at
the top and into the diving bell. These barrels were raised and
lowered alternately, with such success that Halley says that he,
with four others, remained at the bottom of the sea, at a depth
of 9 to 10 fathoms, for an hour and a half at a time without
inconvenience of any sort.

This type of bell was used by John Smeaton in repairing the
foundations of Hexham Bridge in 1778, but instead of weighted

FIG. 6. — Ordinary Diving Bell.

barrels, he introduced a force pump for supplying the necessary
air. To Smeaton too we are indebted for the first diving bell
plant in the form with which we are familiar to-day, that cele-
brated engineer having designed a square bell of iron, for use on
the Ramsgate harbour works, in 1 788. This bell, which measured
4! ft. in length, 3 ft. in width and 4! ft. in height, and weighed
2 1 tons, was made sufficiently heavy to sink by its own weight.
It afforded room enough for two men to work, and was supplied
with air by a force pump worked from a boat at the surface.

Though the diving bell has been largely superseded by the
modern diving apparatus, it is still used on certain classes of
work the magnitude of which justifies the expense entailed, for
it is not only a question of the cost of the bell, but of the
powerful steam-driven crane which is needed to lower and raise
it, and also of the gantry on which the crane travels. Sometimes
a barge or other vessel is used for working the bell.

At the present day, two types of diving bell are employed —
the ordinary bell, and the air-lock bell, which, however, is not so
largely used.

On the new national harbour works at Dover, four large diving
bells of the ordinary type (fig. 6) were employed. These bells, in
each of which from four to six men descended at a time, consisted
of steel chambers, open at the bottom, measuring 17 ft. long by
ioj ft. wide by 7 ft. high, and each weighed 35 tons. The ballast,
which at once gives the necessary sinking weight to the bell and
maintains its equilibrium, consisted of slabs of cast iron bolted to
the walls of the bell, inside. Each bell was fitted with loud-sounding
telephonic apparatus, by means of which the occupants could com-
municate either with the men attending the crane or the men looking
after the air compressors at the surface. Electric lamps, supplied
with current by a dynamo in the compressor room, gave the neces-
sary light inside the bell. Seats and foot rails were provided for the
men, and there were racks and hooks for the various tools. Sus-
pended from the roof was an iron skip into which the men threw the

DIVES-SUR-MER— DIVIDEND

excavated material, which was emptied out when the bell was brought
to the surface. Air was supplied to the bells by means of steam-
driven compressors worked in a house erected on the gantry. The
air was delivered into a steel air receiver, and thence it passed through
a flexible tube connected to a gun-metal inlet valve in the roof of the
diving bell ; the pressure of air was regulated according to the depth
at which the bell happened to be working. The maximum depth
on the Dover works was between 60 and 70 ft.,=about 25-30 Ib to
the square inch. A bell was lowered by means of powerful steam-
driven cranes, travelling on a gantry, to within a few feet of the water,
and the men entered it from a boat. The bell then continued its
descent to the bottom, where the men, with pick and shovel, levelled
the sea bed ready to receive the large concrete blocks, weighing from

Fig. 7. — Air-lock Diving Bell.

A, Working chamber. E, Tackles suspended from roof

B, Air-lock. for raising and lowering

C, Pulleys and wire ropes for objects.

lowering and raising bell. F, Air supply pipe.

D, Iron ladder.

30 to 42 tons apiece. Having completed one section, the bell was
moved along to another. The concrete blocks were then lowered and
placed in position by helmet diyers. The bell divers, clad in thick
woollen suits and watertight thigh boots, worked in shifts of about
three hours each, and were paid at the rate of from is. to I5d.
per hour.

The cost of an ordinary diving bell, including air compressor,
telephonic apparatus and electric light, is from £600 to £1500,
according to size.

The Air-lock Diving Bell (fig. 7) comprises an iron or steel working
chamber similar to the ordinary diving bell, but with the addition of
a shaft attached to its roof. At the upper end of the shaft is an air-
tight door, and about 8 ft. below this is another similar door. When
the bell divers wish to enter the bell, they pass through the first
door and close it after them, and then open a cock or valve and
gradually let into the space between the two doors compressed air
from the working chamber in order to equalize the pressure ; they
then open the second door and pass down into the working chamber,

closing the door after them. When returning to the surface they
reverse the operation. It can readily be imagined that, owing to its
unwieldy character, the employment of the air-lock bell is resorted
to onjy in those cases where the nature of the sea bed necessitates its
remaining on a given spot for some considerable time, as for instance
in the excavation of hard rock to a given depth.

An air-lock bell supplied to the British Admiralty, for use in
connexion with the laying of moorings at Gibraltar, has a working
chamber measuring 15 ft. long by lof ft. wide, by 7J ft. high, and a
shaft 37$ ft. high by 3 ft. in diameter. It is built of steel plates, with
cast-iron ballast, and its total weight is about 46 tons. The bell is
electrically lighted, and is fitted with telephonic apparatus com-
municating with the air-compressor room and lifting-winch room.
It is worked through a well in the centre of a specially constructed
steel barge 85 ft. long by 40 ft. beam, having a draught of 7 ft. 6 in.
The wire ropes, for lowering and raising the bell, work over pulleys
which are carried on a superstructure erected over the well. Two
sets of air compressors are fitted on the barge — one set for supplying
air to the bell, the other set for working a pneumatic rock drift inside
the bell. The greatest depth at which this particular bell will work
is 40 ft. The cost of the whole plant, including barge, was about
£14,000.

The diving dress has, however, to a great extent supplanted the
diving bell. This is due not only to the heavier cost of the latter, but
more particularly to the greater mobility of the helmet diver. Bell
divers are naturally limited to the area which their bell for the time
being covers, whereas helmet divers can be distributed over different
parts of a contract and work entirely independently of one another.
The use of the diving bell is, therefore, practically limited to the work
of levelling the sea bed, and the removal of rock.

See also the article CAISSON DISEASE as regards the physiological
effects of compressed air. (R. H. D.*)

DIVES-SUR-MER, a small port and seaside resort of north-
western France on the coast of the department of Calvados, on
theDives, ism. N.E.of Caenbyroad. Pop. (1906) 3286. Dives
is celebrated as the harbour whence William the Conqueror sailed
to England in 1066. In the porch of its church (i4th and isth
centuries) a tablet records the names of some of his companions.
The town has a picturesque inn, adapted from a building dating
partly from the i6th century, and market buildings dating from
the i4th to the i6th centuries. The coast in the vicinity of Dives
is fringed with small watering-places, those of Cabourg (to the
west) and of Beuzeval and Houlgate (to the east) being practically
united with it. There are large metallurgical works with electric
motive power close to the town.

DIVIDE, a word used technically as a noun in America and the
British colonies for any high ridge between two valleys, forming
a water-parting; a dividing range. For special senses of the
verb " to divide " (Lat. di-videre, the latter part of the word
coming from a root seen in Lat. vidua, Eng. " widow "), meaning
generally to split up in two or more parts, see DIVISION. In a
parliamentary sense, to divide (involving a separation into two
sides, Aye and No) is to take the sense of the House by voting
on the subject before it.

DIVIDEND (Lat. dividendum, a thing to be divided), the net
profit periodically divisible among the proprietors of a joint-
stock company in proportion to their respective holdings of its
capital. Dividend is not interest, although the word dividend is
frequently applied to payments of interest; and a failure to pay
dividends to shareholders does not, like a failure to pay interest
on borrowed money, lay a company open to being declared
bankrupt. In bankruptcy a dividend is the proportionate share
of the proceeds of the debtor's estate received by a creditor. In
England, the Companies Act 1862 provided that no dividend
should be payable except out of the profits arising from the busi-
ness of the company, but, in the case of companies incorporated by
special act of parliament for the construction of railways and
other public works which cannot be completed for a considerable
time, it is sometimes provided that interest may during construc-
tion be paid to the subscribers for shares out of capital. Dividends
(excluding occasional distributions in the form of shares) are
ordinarily payable in cash. Most companies divide their capital
into at least two classes, called " preference " shares and
" ordinary " shares, of which the former are entitled out of the
profits of the company to a preferential dividend at a fixed
rate, and the latter to whatever remains after payment of the
preferential dividend and any fixed charges. Before, however, a
dividend is paid, a part of the profits is often carried to a " reserve

332

DIVIDIVI— DIVINATION

fund." The dividend on preference shares is either " cumulative "
or contingent on the profits of each separate year or half year.
When cumulative, if the profits of any one year are insufficient
to pay it in full, the deficiency has to be made good out of subse-
quent profits. A cumulative preferential dividend is sometimes
said to be " guaranteed," and preferential dividends payable by
all English companies registered under the Companies Acts 1862
to 1 908 are cumulative unless stipulated to be otherwise. Certain
public companies are forbidden by parliament to pay dividends in
excess of a prescribed maximum rate, but this restriction has
been happily modified in some instances, notably in the case of
gas companies, by the institution of a sliding scale, under which a
gas company may so regulate the price of gas to be charged to
consumers that any reduction of an authorized standard price
entitles the company to make a proportionate increase of the
authorized dividend, and any increase above the standard price
involves a proportionate decrease of dividend. Dividends are
usually declared yearly or half-yearly; and before any dividend
can be paid it is., as a rule, necessary for the directors to submit
to the shareholders, at a general meeting called for the purpose,
the accounts of the company, with a report by the directors on its
position and their recommendation as to the rate of the proposed
dividend. The articles of association of a company usually
provide that the shareholders may accept the director's recom-
mendation as to dividend or may declare a lower one, but may
not declare a higher one than the directors recommend. Directors
frequently have power to pay on account of the dividend for the
year, without consulting the shareholders, an "interim dividend,"
which on ordinary shares is generally at a much lower rate than
the final or regular dividend. An exceptionally high dividend
is often distributed in the shape of a dividend at the usual rate
supplemented by an additional dividend or " bonus." Payment
of dividends is made by means of cheques sent by post, called
" dividend warrants." All dividends are subject to income-tax,
and by most companies dividends are paid " less income-tax,"
in which case the tax is deducted from the amount of dividend
payable to each proprietor. When paid without such deduction
a dividend is said to be " free of income-tax." In the latter case,
however, the company has to make provision for payment of the
tax before declaring the dividend, and the amount of its divisible
profits and the rate of dividend which it is able to declare are
consequently to that extent reduced. In respect of consols and
certain other securities, holders of amounts of less than £1000 may
instruct the Bank of England or Bank of Ireland to receive and
invest their dividends. With few exceptions, the prices of
securities dealt in on the London Stock Exchange include any
accruing dividend not paid up to the date of purchase. At a
certain day, after the dividend is declared, the stock or share is
dealt in on the Stock Exchange, as ex dividend (or "x. d."), which
means that the current dividend is paid not to the buyer but
to the previous holder, and the price of the stock is lower to that
extent. The expression " cum dividend " is used to signify that
the price of the security dealt in includes a dividend which, in
the absence of any stipulation, might be supposed to belong to
the seller of the security. On the New York Stock Exchange the
invariable practice is to sell stock with the " dividend on " until
the company's books are closed, after which it is usually sold
" ex dividend." (S. D. H.)

DIVIDIVI, the native and commercial name for the astringent
pods of Caesalpinia coriaria, a leguminous shrub of the suborder
Caesalpinieae, which grows in low marshy tracts in the West
Indies and the north of South America. The plant is between
20 and 30 ft. in height, and bears white flowers. The pods are
flattened, and curl up in drying; they are about f in. broad, from
2 to 3 in. long and of a rich brown colour. Dividivi was first
brought to Europe from Caracas in 1 768. It contains about 30 %
of ellagitannic acid, whence its value in leather manufacture.

DIVINATION, the process of obtaining knowledge of secret or
future things by means of oracles, omens or astrology. The root
of the word, deus (god) or divus, indicates the supposed source of
the soothsayer's information, just as the equivalent Greek term,
ffi, indicates the spiritual source of the utterances of the seer,

pavns. In classical times the view was, in fact, general, as may
be seen by Cicero's De divinatione, that not only oracles but also
omens were signs sent by the gods; even the astrologer held that
he gained his information, in the last resort, from the same source.
On the side of the Stoics it was argued that if divination was a real
art, there must be gods who gave it to mankind; against this
it was argued that signs of future events may be given without
any god.

Divination is practised in all grades of culture; its votaries
range from the Australian black to the American medium. There
is no general agreement as to the source of the information;
commonly it is held that it comes from the gods directly or
indirectly. In the Bornean cult of the hawk it seems that the
divine bird itself was regarded as having a foreknowledge of
the future. Later it is regarded as no more than a messenger.
Among the Australian blacks, divination is largely employed to
discover the cause of death, where it is assumed to be due to
magic; in some cases the spirit of the dead man is held to give
the information, in others the living magician is the source of the
knowledge. We find moreover as emi-scientific conception of the
basis of divination; the whole of nature is linked together; just
as the variations in the height of a column of mercury serve to
foretell the weather, so the flight of birds or behaviour of cattle
may help to prognosticate its changes; for the uncultured it is
merely a step to the assumption that animals know things which
are hidden from man. Haruspication, or the inspection of
entrails, was justified on similar grounds, and in the case of omens
from birds or animals, no less than in astrology, it was held that
the facts from which inferences were drawn were themselves in
part the causes of the events which they foretold, thus fortifying
the belief in the possibility of divination.

From a psychological point of view divinatory methods may be
classified under two main heads: (A) autoscopic, which depend
simply on some change in the consciousness of the soothsayer;
(B) heteroscopic, in which he looks outside himself for guidance
and perhaps infers rather than divines in the proper sense.

(A) Autoscopic methods depend on (i.) sensory or (ii.) motor
automatisms, or (iii.) mental impressions, for their results,
(i.) Crystal-gazing (q.i>.) is a world-wide method of divining, which
is analogous to dreams, save that the vision is voluntarily initiated,
though little, if at all, under the control of the scryer. Corre-
sponding to crystal-gazing we have shell-hearing and similar
methods, which are, however, less common; in these the informa-
tion is gained by hearing a voice, (ii.) The divining rod (q.v.) is
the best-known example of this class; divination depending on
automatic movements of this sort is found at all stages of culture;
in Australia it is used to detect the magician who has caused the
death of a native; in medieval and modern times water-divining
or dowsing has been largely and successfully used. Similar in
principle is coscinomancy, or divining by a sieve held suspended,
which gives indications by turning; and the equally common
divination by a suspended ring, both of which are found from
Europe in the west to China and Japan in the east. The ordeal by
the Bible and key is equally popular; the book is suspended by a
key tied in with its wards between the leaves and supported on
two persons' fingers, and the whole turns round when the name of
the guilty person is mentioned. Confined to higher cultures on
the other hand, for obvious reasons, is divination by automatic
writing, which is practised in China more especially. The sand
divination so widely spread in Africa seems to be of a different
nature. Trance speaking, on the other hand, may be found in any
stage of culture and there is no doubt that in many cases the
procedure of the magician or shaman induces a state of auto-
hypnotism; at a higher stage these utterances are termed oracles
and are believed io be the result of inspiration (q.v.). (iii.) An-
other method of divination is by the aid of mental impressions;
observation seems to show that by some process of this sort, akin
to clairvoyance (q.v.), fortunes are told successfully by means of
palmistry or by laying the cards; for the same " lie " of the cards
may be diversely interpreted to meet different cases. In other
cases the impression is involuntary or less consciously sought,
as in dreams (?.».), which, however, are sometimes induced, for

DIVINING-ROD

333

purposes of divination, by the process known as incubation or
temple sleep. Dreams are sometimes regarded as visits to or
from gods or the souls of the dead, sometimes as signs to be
interpreted symbolically by means of dream-books, which are
found not only in Europe but in less cultured countries like Siam.
(B) In heteroscopic divination the process is rather one of
inference from external facts. The methods are very various,
(i.) The casting of lots, sortilege, was common in classical
antiquity; the Homeric heroes prayed to the gods when they cast
lots in Agamemnon's leather cap, and Mopsus divined with sacred
lots when the Argonauts embarked. Similarly dice are thrown
for purposes of sortilege; the astragali or knucklebones, used
in children's games at the present day, were implements of
divination in the first instance. In Polynesia the coco-nut is
spun like a teetotum to discover a thief. Somewhat different are
the omens drawn from books; in ancient times the poets were
often consulted, more especially Virgil, whence the name sortes
virgUianae, just as the Bible is used for drawing texts in our own
day, especially in Germany, (ii.) In haruspication, or the inspec-
tion of entrails, in scapulomancy or divination by the speal-bone
or shoulder-blade, in divination by footprints in ashes, found
in Australia, Peru and Scotland, the voluntary element is
prominent, for the diviner must take active steps to secure the
conditions necessary to divination, (iii.) In the case of augury
and omens, on the other hand, that is not necessary. The
behaviour and cries of birds, and angang or meeting with ominous
animals, &c., may be voluntarily observed, and opportunities for
observation made; but this is not necessary for success, (iv.) In
astrology we have a method which still finds believers among
people of good education. The stars are held, not only to prog-
nosticate the future but also to influence it; the child born when
Mars is in the ascendant will be war-like; Venus has to do with
love; the sign of the Lion presides over places where wild beasts
are found, (v.) In other cases the tie that binds the subject of
divination with the omen-giving object is sympathy. The name
of the life-index is given to a tree, animal or other object believed
to be so closely united by sympathetic ties to a human being that
the fate of the latter is reflected in the condition of the former.
The Polynesians set up sticks to see if the warriors they stood
for were to fall in battle; on Hallowe'en in our own country the
behaviour of nuts and other objects thrown into the fire is held to
prognosticate the lot of the person to whom they have been
assigned. Where, as in the last two cases, the sympathetic
bond is less strong, we find symbolical interpretation playing
an important part.

Sympathy and symbolism, association of ideas and analogy,
together with a certain amount of observation, are the explana-
tion of the great mass of heteroscopic divinatory formulae. But
where autoscopic phenomena play the chief part the question of
the origin of divination is less simple. The investigations of the
Society for Psychical Research show that premonitions, though
rare in our own day, are not absolutely unknown. Pseudo-
premonitions, due to hallucinatory memory, are not unknown;
there is also some ground for holding that crystal-gazers are able
to perceive incidents which are happening at a distance from
them. Divination of this sort, therefore, may be due to observa-
tion and experiment of a rude sort, rather than to the unchecked
play of fancy which resulted in heteroscopic divination.
See also the articles AUGURS, ORACLE, ASTROLOGY, OMEN, &c.
AUTHORITIES. — Bouche Leclercq, Histpire de la divination dans
Vantiquite; Tylor, Primitive Culture, passim; Maury, " La Magie et
1'astrologie," Journ. Anlh. Inst. i. 163, v. 4.36; Folklore, iii. 193;
Ellis, Tshi-speaking Peoples, p. 202; Dictionnaire encyclopedique
des sciences medicales, xxx. 24-96; Journ. of Philology, xiii. 273,
xiv. 113; Deubner, De incubatione; Lenormant, La Divination, et
la science de presages chez les Chaldeens; Skeat, Malay Magic;
J. Johnson, Yoruba Heathenism (1899). (N. W. T.)

DIVINING - ROD. As indicated in the article MAGIC,
Rhabdomancy, or the art of using a divining-rod for discovering
something hidden, is apparently of immemorial antiquity, and
the Roman mrgula diiiina, as used in taking auguries by means of
casting bits of stick, is described by Cicero and Tacitus (see also
DIVINATION) ; but the special form of mrgula furcata, or forked

twig of hazel or willow (see also HAZEL), described by G. Agricola
(De re metallica, 1546), and in Sebastian Munster's Cosmography
in the early part of the i6th century, used specially for discovering
metallic lodes or water beneath the earth, must be distinguished
from the genera] superstition. The " dowsing " or divining-rod,
in this sense, has a modern interest, dating from its use by
prospectors for minerals in the German (Harz Mountains) mining
districts; the French chemist M. E. Chevreul1 assigns its first
mention to Basil Valentine, the alchemist of the late 1 5th century.
On account of its supposed magical powers, it may be taken
perhaps as an historical analogue to such fairy wands as the
caauceus of Mercury, the golden arrow of Herodotus's " Abaris
the Hyperborean," or the medieval witch's broomstick. But
the existence of the modern water-finder or dowser makes the
divining-rod a matter of more than mythological or superstitious
interest. The Schlagruthe (striking-rod), or forked twig of the
German miners, was brought to England by those engaged in the
Cornish mines by the merchant venturers of Queen Elizabeth's
day. Professor W. F. Barrett, F.R.S., the chief modern in-
vestigator of this subject, regards its employment, dating as it
does from the revival of learning, as based on the medieval
doctrine of " sympathy," the drooping of trees and character of
the vegetation being considered to give indications of mineral
lodes beneath the earth's surface, by means of a sort of attrac-
tion; and such critical works as Robert Boyle's (1663), or the
Mineralogia Cornubiensis of Pryce (1778), admitted its value in
discovering metals. But as mining declined in Cornwall, the use
of the dowser for searching for lodes almost disappeared, and was
transferred to water-finding. The divining-rod has, however,
also been used for searching for any buried objects. In the south
of France, in the i7th century, it was employed in tracking
criminals and heretics. Its abuse led to a decree of the Inquisition
in 1701, forbidding its employment for purposes of justice.

In modern times the professional dowser is a " water-finder,"
and there has been a good deal of investigation into the possibility
of a scientific explanation of his claims to be able to locate under-
ground water, where it is not known to exist, by the use of a
forked hazel-twig which, twisting in his hands, leads him by its
directing-power to the place where a boring should be made.
Whether justified or not, a widespread faith exists, based no doubt
on frequent success, in the dowser's power; and Professor
Barrett (The Times, January 21, 1905) states that "making
a liberal allowance for failures of which I have not heard, I have
no hesitation in saying that where fissure water exists and the
discovery of underground water sufficient for a domestic supply
is a matter of the utmost difficulty, the chances of success with a
good dowser far exceed mere lucky hits, or the success obtained
by the most skilful observer, even with full knowledge of the local
geology." Is this due to any special faculty in the dowser, or
has the twig itself anything to do with it ? Held in balanced
equilibrium, the forked twig, in the dowser's hands, moves with a
sudden and often violent motion, and the appearance of actual
life in the twig itself, though regarded as mere stage-play by
some, is popularly associated with the cause of the water-
finder's success. The theory that there is any direct connexion
(" sympathy " or electrical influence) between the divining-rod
and the water or metal, is however repudiated by modern science.
Professor Barrett, who with Professor Janet and others is satisfied
that the rod twists without any intention or voluntary deception
on the part of the dowser, ascribes the phenomenon to " motor-
automatism " on the part of the dowser (see AUTOMATISM), a
reflex action excited by some stimulus upon his mind, which may
ae either a subconscious suggestion or an actual impression
[obscure in its nature) from an external object or an external
nind; both sorts of stimulus are possible, so that the dowser
limself may make false inferences (and fail) by supposing that
:he stimulus is an external object (like water). The divining-rod
aeing thus " an indicator of any sub-conscious suggestion or
mpression," its indications, no doubt, may be fallacious; but
Professor Barrett, basing his conclusions upon observed successes
and their greater proportion to failures than anything that
1 La Baguette divinatoire (Paris, 1845).

334

DIVISION— DIVORCE

chance could produce, advances the hypothesis that some persons
(like the professional dowsers) possess " a genuine super-normal
perceptive faculty," and that the mind of a good dowser, possess-
ing the idiosyncrasy of motor-automatism, becomes a blank or
tabula rasa, so that " the faintest impression made by the object
searched for creates an involuntary or automatic motion of the
indicator, whatever it may be." Like the " homing instinct " of
certain birds and animals, the dowser's power lies beneath the
level of any conscious perception; and the function of the forked
twig is to act as an index of some material or other mental
disturbance within him, which otherwise he could not interpret.

It should be added that dowsers do not always use any rod.
Some again use a willow rod, or withy, others a hazel-twig (the
traditional material), others a beech or holly twig, or one from
any other tree; others even a piece of wire or watch-spring. The
best dowsers are said to have been generally more or less illiterate
men, usually engaged in some humble vocation.

Sir W. H. Preece (The Times, January 16, 1005), repudiating
as an electrician the theory that any electric force is involved,
has recorded his opinion that water-finding by a dowser is due to
" mechanical vibration, set up by the friction of moving water,
acting upon the sensitive ventral diaphragm of certain exception-
ally delicately framed persons." Another theory is that water-
finders are " exceptionally sensitive to hygroraetric influences."
In any case, modern science approaches the problem as one
concerning which the facts have to be accepted, and explained
by some natural, though obscure, cause.

See for further details Professor Barrett's longer discussion in parts
32 (1897) and 38 (1900) of the Proceedings of the Society for Psychical
Research.

DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate) ,
a general term for the action of breaking up a whole into parts.
Thus, in political economy, the phrase " division of labour "
implies the assignment to particular workmen of the various
portions of a whole piece of work; jn mathematics division is
the process of finding how many times one number or quantity,
the " divisor," is contained in another, the " dividend " (see
ARITHMETIC and ALGEBRA); in the musical terminology of the
1 7th and i8th centuries, the term was used for rapid passages
consisting of a few slow notes amplified into a florid passage,
i.e. into a larger number of quick ones. The word is used also in
concrete senses for the parts into which a thing is divided, e.g. a
division of an army, an administrative or electoral division;
similarly, a "division" is taken in a legislative body when votes
are recorded for and against a proposed measure.

In logic, division is a technical term for the process by which
a genus is broken up into its species. Thus the genus " animal "
may be divided, according to the habitat of the various kinds,
into animals which live on land, those which live in water, those
which live in the air. Each of these may be subdivided according
to whether their constituent members do or do not possess certain
other qualities. The basis of each of these divisions is called the
fundamenlum divisionis. It is clear that there can be no division
in respect of those qualities which make the genus what it is.
The various species are all alike in the possession of the generic
attributes, but differ in other respects; they are " variations on
the same theme " (Joseph, Introduction to Logic, 1906); each one
has the generic, and also certain peculiar, qualities (differentiae),
which latter distinguish them from other species of the same
genus. The process of division is thus the obverse of classification
(?.».); it proceeds from genus to species, whereas classification
begins with the particulars and rises through species to genus. In
the exact sciences, and indeed in all argument both practical
and theoretical, accurate division is of great importance. It is
governed by the following rules, (i) Division must be exhaustive;
all the members of the genus must find a place in one or other of
the species; a captain who selects for his team skilful batsmen
and bowlers only is guilty of an incomplete division of the whole
function of a cricket team by omitting to provide himself with
good fielders. Rectilinear figures cannot be divided into triangles
and quadrilaterals because there are rectilinear figures which
have more than four sides. On the other hand, triangles can be

divided into equilateral, isosceles and scalene, since no other kind
of triangle can exist, (a) Division must be exclusive, that is, each
species must be complete in itself and not contain members of
another species. No member of a genus must be included in more
than one of the species. (3) In every division there must be but one
principle (fundamentum divisionis). The members of a genus
may differ from one another in many respects, e.g. books may
be divided according to external form into quarto, octavo, &c.,
or according to binding into calf, cloth, paper-backed and so on.
They cannot, however, be divided logically into quarto, paper-
backed, novels and remainders. When more than one principle is
used in a division it is called " cross division." (4) Division must-
proceed gradually (" Divisio non facit saltum "), i.e. the genus
must be resolved into the next highest (" proximate ") species.
To go straight from a summum genus to very small species is of no
scientific value.

It is to be observed that logical division is concerned exclusively
with universals or concepts; division is of genus and species, not
of particulars. Two other kinds of division are recognized: —
metaphysical division, the separation in thought of the various
qualities possessed by an individual thing (a piece of lead has
weight, colour, &c.), and physical division or partition, the
breaking up of an object into its parts (a watch is thought of
as being composed of case, dial, works, &c.). Logical division is
closely allied with logical definition (<?.».).

DIVORCE (Lat. divortium, derived from dis.-, apart, and
vertere, to turn), the dissolution, in whole or in part, of the tie
of marriage. It includes both the complete abrogation of the
marriage relation known as a divorce a vinculo matrimonii, which
carries with it a power on the part of both parties to the marriage
to remarry other persons or each other, and also that incomplete
severance not involving powers to remarry, which was formerly
known as divorce a mensa et thoro, and.has in England been termed
" judicial separation." Less strictly, divorce is commonly under-
stood to include judicial declarations of nullityof marriage, which,
while practically terminating the marriage relation, proceed in
law on the basis of the marriage never having been legally
established.

The conditions under which, in different communities, divorce
has at different times been permitted, vary with the aspects in
which the relation of marriage (q.v.) has been regarded. When
marriage has been deemed to be the acquisition by the husband
of property in the wife, or when it has been regarded as a mere
agreement between persons capable both to form and to dissolve
that contract, we find that marriage has been dissoluble at the
will of the husband, or by agreement of the husband and wife.
Yet even in these cases the interest of the whole community in
the purity of marriage relations, in the pecuniary bearings of this
particular contract, and the condition of children, has led to the
imposition of restrictions on, and the attachment of conditions to,
the termination of the obligations consequent on a marriage
legally contracted. But the main restrictions on liberty of divorce
have arisen from the conception of marriage entertained by
religions, and especially by one religion. Christianity has had no
greater practical effect on the life of mankind than in its belief
that marriage is no mere civil contract, but a vow in the sight
of God binding the parties by obligations of conscience above
and beyond those of civil law. Translating this conception into
practice, Christianity not only profoundly modified the legal
conditions of divorce as formulated in the Roman civil law, but
in its own canon law defined its own rule of divorce, going so far
as in the Western (at least in its unreformed condition), though
not the Eastern, branch of Christendom to forbid all complete
divorces, that is to say, all dissolutions of marriage carrying with
them the right to remarry.

HISTORY

The Roman Law of Divorce before Justinian. — The history of
divorce, therefore, practically begins with the law of Rome. It
took its earliest colour from that conception of the patria potestas,
or the power of the head of the family over its members, which
enters so deeply into the jurisprudence of ancient Rome. The

HISTORY]

DIVORCE

335

wife was transferred at marriage to the authority of her husband,
in manus, and consequently became so far subject to him that
he could, at his will, renounce his rule over her, and terminate his
companionship, subject at least to an adjustment of the pecuniary
rights which were disturbed by such action. So clearly was the
power of the husband derived from that of the father, that for a
long period a father, in the exercise of his potestas, could take his
daughter from her husband against the wishes of both. It may
be presumed that this power, anomalous as it appears, was not
unexercised, as we find that a constitution of Antoninus Pius
prohibited a father from disturbing a harmonious union, and
Marcus Aurelius afterwards limited this prohibition by allowing
the interference of a father for strong and just cause — magna et
justa causa inteneniente. Except in so far as it was restrained
by special legislation, the authority of a husband in the matter
of divorce was absolute. As early indeed, however, as the time of
Romulus, it is said that the state asserted its interest in the
permanence of marriage by forbidding the repudiation of wives
unless they were guilty of adultery or of drinking wine, on pain of
forfeiture of the whole of an offender's property, one-half of which
went to the wife, the other to Ceres. But the law of the XII.
Tables, in turn, allowed freedom of divorce. It would appear,
however, that the sense of the community was so far shocked by
the inhumanity of treating a wife as mere property, or the risk of
regarding marriage as a mere terminable contract, that, without
crystallizing into positive enactment, it operated to prevent the
exercise of so harsh and dangerous a power. It is said that for
500 years no husband took advantage of his power, and it
was then only by an order of a censor, however obtained, that
Spurius Carvilius Ruga repudiated his wife for barrenness. We
may, however, be permitted to doubt the genuineness of this
censorial order, or at least to conjecture the influence under which
the censor was induced to intervene, when we find that in another
instance, that of L. Antonius, a censor punished an unjust divorce
by expulsion from the senate, and that the exercise of their power
by husbands increased to a great and alarming extent. Probably
few of the admirers of the greatest of Roman orators have not
regretted his summary and wholly informal repudiation of
Terentia. At last the lex Julia de adulteriis, while recognizing a
power of divorce both in the husband and in the wife, imposed on
it, in the public interest, serious restrictions and consequences.
It required a written bill of divorce (libettus repudii) to be given
in the presence of seven witnesses, who must be Roman citizens
of age, and the divorce must be publicly registered. The act was,
however, purely an act of the party performing it, and no idea of
judicial interference or contract seems to have been entertained.
It was not necessary for either husband or wife giving the bill to
acquaint the other with it before its execution, though it was
considered proper to deliver the bill, when made, to the other
party. In this way a wife could divorce a lunatic husband, or the
paterfamilias of a lunatic wife could divorce her from her husband.
But the lex Julia was also the first of a series of enactments by
which pecuniary consequences were imposed on divorce both by
husbands and wives, whether the intention was to restrain divorce
by penalties of this nature, or to readjust pecuniary relations
settled on the basis of marriage and disturbed by its rupture. It
was provided that if the wife was guilty of adultery, her husband
in divorcing her could retain one-sixth of her dos, but if she had
committed a less serious off ence, one-eighth. If the husband was
guilty of adultery, he had to make immediate restitution of her
dowry, or if it consisted of land, the annual proceeds for three
years; if he was guilty of a less serious offence, he had six months
within which to restore the dos. If both parties were in fault, no
penalty fell on either. The lex Julia was followed by a series of
acts of legislation extending and modifying its provisions. The
legislation of Constantine, A.D. 331, specified certain causes for
which alone a divorce could take place without the imposition of
pecuniary penalties. There were three causes for which a wife
could divorce her husband with impunity: (i) murder, (2)
preparation of poisons, (3) violation of tombs; but if she divorced
him for any other cause, such as drunkenness, or gambling or
immoral society, she forfeited her dowry and incurred the further

penalty of deportation. There were also three causes for which a
husband could divorce his wife without incurring any penalty:

(1) adultery, (2) preparation of poisons, (3) acting as a procuress.
If he divorced her for any other cause, he forfeited all interest in
her dowry; and if he married again, the first wife could take the
dowry of the second.

In A.D. 421 the emperors Honorius and Theodosius enacted
a law of divorce which introduced limitations on the power of
remarriage as an additional penalty in certain cases. As regards a
wife: (i) if she divorced her husband for grave reasons or crime,
she retained her dowry and could remarry after five years;

(2) if she divorced him for criminal conduct or moderate faults,
she forfeited her dowry, became incapable of remarriage, and liable
to deportation, nor could the emperor's prerogative of pardon be
exerted in her favour. As regards a husband: if he divorced his
wife (i) for serious crime, he retained the dowry and could re-
marry immediately; (2) for criminal conduct, he did not retain
the dowry, but could remarry; (3) for mere dislike, he for-
feited the property brought into the marriage and could not
remarry.

In A.D. 449 the law of divorce was rendered simpler and
certainly more facile by Theodosius and Valentinian. It was
provided that a wife could divorce her husband without incurring
any penalty if he was convicted of any one of twelve offences:
(i) treason, (2) adultery, (3) homicide, (4) poisoning, (5) forgery,
(6) violating tombs, (7) stealing from a church, (8) robbery,
(9) cattle-stealing, (10) attempting his wife's life, (u) beating his
wife, (12) introducing immoral women to his house. If the wife
divorced her husband for any other cause, she forfeited her dowry,
and could not marry again for five years. A husband could
divorce his wife without incurring a penalty for any of these
reasons except the last, and also for the following reasons:
(i) going to dine with men other than her relations without
the knowledge or against the wish of her husband; (2) going
from home at night against his wish without reasonable
cause; (3) frequenting the circus, theatre or amphitheatre
after being forbidden by her husband. If a husband divorced
his wife for any other reason, he forfeited all interest in his
wife's dowry, and also any property he brought into the
marriage.

The above sketch of the legislation prior to the time of
Justinian, while it indicates a desire to place the husband and wife
on something like terms of equality as regards divorce, indicates
also, by its forbidding remarriage and by its pecuniary provisions
in certain cases, a sense in the community of the importance in
the public interest of restraining the violation of the contract of
marriage. But to the Roman marriage was primarily a contract,
and therefore side by side with this legislation there always
existed a power of divorce by mutual consent. We must now
turn to those principles of the Christian religion which, in
combination with the legislation above described, produced
the law formulated by Justinian.

The Christian View of Divorce. — The Christian law of divorce
as enunciated by its Founder was expressed in a few words,
but these, unfortunately, by no means of agreed interpretation.
To appreciate them it is necessary to consider the enactment of
the Mosaic law, which also was expressed in few words, but of a
meaning involved in much doubt. The phrase in Deut. xxiv. 1-4,
which is translated in the Authorized Version " some unclean-
ness," but in the Revised Version, " some unseemly thing," and
which is the only cause stated to justify the giving of a " bill of
divorcement," was limited by the school of Shanmai to moral
delinquency, but was extended by the rival school of Hillel to
causes of trifling importance or even to motives of caprice. The
wider interpretation would seem to be supported by the words
of Christ (Matt. v. 31), who, in indicating His own doctrine in
contradistinction to the law of Moses, said, " Whosoever shall put
away his wife, saving for the cause of fornication (iropvtlas) ,
cause th her to commit adultery; and whosoever shall marry her
that is divorced committeth adultery." The meaning of these
words of Christ Himself has been involved in controversy, which
perhaps was nowhere carried on with greater acuteness or under

33^

DIVORCE

[HISTORY'

more critical conditions than within the walls of the British
parliament during the passage of the Divorce Act of 1857. That
they justify divorce of a complete kind for moral delinquency
of some nature is supported by the opinion probably of every
competent scholar. But scholars of eminence have sought
to restrict the meaning of the Xoyos iropvdas to antenuptial
incontinence concealed from the husband, and to exclude
adultery. The effect of this view commends itself to the adherents
of the Church of Rome, because it places the right to separation
between husband and wife, not on a cause supervening after
a marriage, which that Church seeks to regard as absolutely
indissoluble, but on invalidity in the contract of marriage itself,
and which may therefore render the marriage liable to be declared
void without impugning its indissoluble character when rightly
contracted. T.he narrower view of the meaning of iropvdas has
been maintained by, among others, Dr Dollinger (First Ages of the
Church, ii. 226); but those who will consider the arguments of
Professor Conington in reply to Dr Dollinger (Contemp. Review,
May 1869) will probably assign the palm to the English scholar.
A more general view points in the same direction. It is quite true
that under the Mosaic law antenuptial incontinence was, as was
also adultery, punishable with death. But when we consider
the effect of adultery not only as a moral fault, but as violating
the solemn contract of marriage and vitiating its objects, it is
inconceivable that Christ, in employing a term of general import,
intended to limit it to one kind, and that the less serious, of
incontinence.

Effect of Christianity on the Law of Rome. — The modification
in the civil law of Rome effected by Justinian under the joint
influence of the previous law of Rome and that of Christianity
was remarkable. Gibbon has summed up the change effected in
the law of Rome with characteristic accuracy: " The Christian
princes were the first who specified the just causes of a private
divorce; their institutions from Constantine to Justinian appear
to fluctuate between the customs of the empire and the wishes of
the Church; and the author of the Novels too frequently reforms
the jurisprudence of the Code and Pandects." Divorce by mutual
consent, hitherto, as we have seen, absolutely free, was prohibited
(Nov. 117) except in three cases: (i) when the husband was
impotent; (2) when either husband or wife desired to enter a
monastery; and (3) when either of them was in captivity for a
certain length of time. It is obvious that the two first of these
exceptions might well commend themselves to the mind of the
Church, the former as being rather a matter of nullity of marriage
than of divorce, the latter as admitting the paramount claims of
the Church on its adherents, and not inconsistent with the spirit
of the words of St Paul himself, who clearly contemplated a
separation between husband and wife as allowable in case either
of them did not hold the Christian faith (i Cor. vii. 12). At a later
period Justinian placed a further restriction or even prohibition
on divorce by consent by enacting that spouses dissolving a
marriage by mutual consent should forfeit all their property, and
be confined for life in a monastery, which was to receive one-third
of the forfeited property, the remaining two-thirds going to the
children of the marriage. The cause stated for this remarkable
alteration of the law, and the abandonment of the conception of
marriage as a civil contract ut non Dei judicium contemnatur
(Nov. 134), indicates the influence of the Christian idea of
marriage. That influence, however, did not long continue in its
full force. The prohibitions of Justinian on divorce by consent
were repealed by Justin (Nov. 140) , his successor. " He yielded,"
says Gibbon, " to the prayers of his unhappy subjects, and
restored the liberty of divorce by mutual consent; the civilians
were unanimous, the theologians were divided, and the ambiguous
word which contains the precept of Christ is flexible to any inter-
pretation that the wisdom of a legislature can demand." It was
difficult, the enactment stated, " to reconcile those who once
came to hate each other, and who, if compelled to live together,
frequently attempted each other's lives."

Justinian further re-enacted, with some modifications, the
power of divorce by a husband or wife against the will of the other.
Divorce by a wife was allowed in five cases (Nov. 117): (i) the

husband being party or privy to conspiracy against the state;
(2) attempting his wife's life, or failing to disclose to her plots
against it; (3) attempting to induce his wife to commit adultery;

(4) accusing his wife falsely of adultery; (5) taking a woman to
live in the house with his wife, or, after warning, frequenting
a house in the same town with any woman other than his wife.
If a wife divorced her husband for one of these reasons, she
recovered her dowry and any property brought into the marriage
by her husband for life with reversion to her children, or if there
were no children, absolutely. But if she divorced him for any
other reason, the provisions of the enactment of Theodosius and
Valentinian were to apply. A husband was allowed to divorce his
wife for any one of seven reasons: (i) failure to disclose to her
husband plots against the state; (2) adultery; (3) attempting or
failing to disclose plots against her husband's life; (4) frequenting
dinners or balls with other men against her husband's wishes;

(5) remaining from home against the wishes of her husband
except with her parents; (6) going to the circus, theatre or
amphitheatre without the knowledge or contrary to the pro-
hibition of her husband; (7) procuring abortion. If the husband
divorced his wife for any one of these reasons he retained the
dowry absolutely, or if there were children, with reversion
to them. If he divorced her for any other reason, the enact-
ments of Theodosius and Valentinian applied. In any case of
a divorce, if the father or mother of either spouse had advanced
the dowry and it would be forfeited by an unreasonable divorce,
the consent of the father or mother was necessary to render
the divorce valid.

Effect of Divorce on Children in the Law of Rome. — The custody
of the children of divorced parents was dealt with by the Roman
law in a liberal manner. A constitution of Diocletian and
Maximian left it to the judge to determine in his discretion to
which of the parents the children should go. Justinian enacted
that divorce should not impair the rights of children either as to
inheritance or maintenance. If a wife divorced her husband for
good cause, and she remained unmarried, the children were to be
in her custody, but to be maintained by the father; but if the
mother was in fault, the father obtained the custody. If he was
unable, from want of means, to support them, but she was able
to do so, she was obliged to take them and support them. It is
interesting to compare these provisions as to childern with the
practice at present under English law, which in this respect
reflects so closely the spirit of the law of Rome.

The Canon Law of Divorce. — The canon law of Rome was based
on two main principles: (i) That there could be no divorce a
vincttlo matrimonii, but only a mensa et thoro. The rule was stated
in the most absolute terms: " Quamdiu mint vir licet adulter sit,
licet sodomita, licet flagitiis omnibus coopertus, et ab uxore propter
haec scelera derelictus, maritus ejus reputatur, cui alterum vivum
accipere non licet " (Caus. 32, Quaest. 7, c. 7). (2) That no
divorce could be had at the will of the parties, but only by the
sentence of a competent, that is to say, an ecclesiastical, court.
In this negation of a right to divorce a vintido matrimonii lies
the broad difference between the doctrines of the Eastern and
Western Churches of Christendom. The Greek Church, under-
standing the words of Christ in thebroadersenseabovementioned,
has always allowed complete divorce with a right to remarry for
the cause of adultery. And it is said that the form at least of
an anathema of the council of Trent was modified out of respect
to difference on the part of the Greek Church (see Pothier 5. 6. 21).
The papal canon law allowed a divorce a mensa et thoro for six
causes: (i) adultery or unnatural offences; (2) impotency;
(3) cruelty; (4) infidelity; (5) entering into religion; (6) con-
sanguinity. The Church, however, always assumed to itself
the right to grant licences for an absolute divorce; and further,
by claiming the power to declare marriages null and void,
though professedly this could be done only in cases where
the original contract could be said to be void, it was, and
is to this day, undoubtedly extended in practice to cases in
which it is impossible to suppose the original contract really
void, but in which a complete divorce is on other grounds
desirable.

ENGLAND]

DIVORCE

337

DIVORCE IN ENGLAND

In England the law of divorce, originally based on the canon
law of Rome, underwent some, though little, permanent change
at the Reformation, but was profoundly modified by the exercise
of the power of the state through legislation. From the canon
law was derived the principle that divorce could legally take
place only by sentence of the court, and never at the will of the
parties. Complete divorce has never been governed by any other
principle than this; and in so far as an incomplete divorce has
become practicable at the will of the parties, it has been by the
intervention of civil tribunals and contrary to the law of the
ecclesiastical courts. Those courts adopted as ground for divorce
a mensa et thoro the main grounds allowed by Roman canon law,
adultery and cruelty (Ayliffe, 22; Co. Lit. 102; i Salk. 162;
Godolphin Abridg. 495). The causes of heresy and of entering
into religion, if ever they were recognized in England, ceased to
exist at the Reformation.

The principles upon which the English ecclesiastical courts
proceeded in divorce a mensa et thoro are those which are still in
force, and which (with some modification by statutory enactment)
have been administered by judicial tribunals down to the present
day. The courts by which the ecclesiastical law, and therefore
the law of divorce, was administered were, until 1857, the courts
of the various dioceses, including that of the archbishop of
Canterbury, known as the Court of Arches, and that of the arch-
bishop of York, known as the Consistory Court of York; but by
statute a suitor was prevented from taking proceedings in any
court except that determined by the residence of the person
against whom proceedings were taken (23 Hen. VIII. c. 9) . From
these courts an appeal lay to delegates appointed in each case by
the crown, until the establishment of the judicial committee of
the privy council in 1836, when the appeal was given to the crown
as advised by that body.

The proof of adultery (to which Isidore in his Book of Ety-
mologies gives the fanciful derivation of " ad alterius thorum ")
was not by the canon law as received in England restricted by the
operation of arbitrary rules. It was never, for example, required,
as by the law of Mahomet, that the act should have been actually
seen by competent witnesses, nor even that the case should be
based on any particular kind of proof. It was recognized that the
nature of the offence almost inevitably precluded direct evidence.
One rule, however, appears to have commended itself to the
framers of the canon law as too general in its application not to
be regarded as a principle. The mere confession of the parties
was not regarded as a safe ground of conviction; and this rule
was formulated by a decretal epistle of Pope Celestine III., and,
following it, by the icsth of the Canons of 1604. This rule has
now been abrogated; and no doubt it is wiser not to fetter the
discretion of the tribunal charged with the responsibility of decid-
ing particular cases, but experience of divorce proceedings tends
to confirm the belief that this rule of the canon law was founded
on an accurate appreciation of human nature.

Although, therefore, with the above exception, no strict rules
of the evidence necessary to establish adultery have ever been
established in the English courts, experience has indicated, and
in former days judges of the ecclesiastical courts often expressed,
the lines upon which such proof may be expected to proceed. It
is necessary and sufficient, in general, to prove two things — first
the guilty affection towards each other of the persons accused,
and, secondly, an opportunity or opportunities of which, if so
minded, their passion may have been gratified. It is obvious that
any strong proof on either of these points renders strict proof on
the other less needful; but when proof on both is afforded, the
common sense of a tribunal, acting with a knowledge of human
nature, may be trusted to draw the inevitable conclusion.

The definition of cruelty accepted by the ecclesiastical courts
as that of the canon law is the same as that which prevails at
the present time; and the view of the law taken by the House of
Lords in Russell v. Russell (1897 App. Cas. 395) was expressly
based on the view of cruelty taken by the authorities of the
ecclesiastical law. The best definition by older English writers

is probably to be found in Clarke's Praxis (p. 144) : " Si maritus
fuerit erga uxorem crudelis et ferax ac mortem comminatus et
machinatus fuerit, vel earn inhumaniter verbis et verberibus
tractaverit, et aliquando venenum loco potus paraverit vel
aliquod simile commiserit, propter quod sine periculo vitae
cum marito cohabitare aut obsequia conjugalia impendere
non audeat . . . consimili etiam causa competit viro contra
mulierem." Lord Stowell, probably the greatest master of the
civil and canon law who ever sat in an English court of justice,
has in one of his most famous judgments (Evans v. Evans, 1790,
i Hagg. Consist. 35) echoed the above language hi words often
quoted, which have constituted the standard exposition of the
law to the present day. " In the older cases," he said, " of this
sort which I have had the opportunity of looking into, I have
observed that the danger of life, limb or health is usually insisted
as the ground upon which the court has proceeded to a separation.
This doctrine has been repeatedly applied by the court in the
cases which have been cited. The court has never been driven
off this ground. It has always been jealous of the inconvenience
of departing from it, and I have heard no one case cited in which
the court has granted a divorce without proof given of a reason-
able apprehension of bodily hurt. I say an apprehension, because
assuredly the court is not to wait till the hurt is actually done;
but the apprehension must be reasonable: it must not be an
apprehension arising from an exquisite and diseased sensibility of
mind. Petty vexations applied to such a constitution of mind
may certainly in time wear out the animal machine, but still
they are not cases of legal relief; people must relieve themselves
as well as they can by prudent resistance, by calling in the
succours of religion and the consolation of friends; but the aid of
courts is not to be resorted to in such cases with any effect." The
risk of personal danger in cohabitation constituted, therefore,
the foundation of legal cruelty. But this does not exclude such
conduct as a course of persistent ill-treatment, though not
amounting to personal violence, especially if such ill-treatment
has in fact caused injury to health. But the person complaining
must not be the author of his or her own wrong. If, accordingly,
one of the spouses by his or her conduct is really the cause of the
conduct complained of, recourse to the court would be had in vain,
the true remedy lying in a reformation of the real cause of the
disagreement.

In addition to a denial of the charge or charges, the canon law
allowed three grounds of answer: (i) Compensatio criminis, a set-
off of equal guilt or recrimination. This principle is no doubt
derived from the Roman law and it had the effect of refusing to
one guilty spouse the remedy of divorce against the other although
equally guilty. It was always accepted in England, although
not in other countries, such as France and Scotland, which also
followed the canon or civil law. In strictness, recrimination
applied to a similar offence having been committed by the party
charging that offence. But a decision (1888) of the English
courts shows that a wife who had committed adultery could not
bring a suit against her husband for cruelty (Otway v. Otway 13 P.
D. 141). (2) Condonation. If the complaining spouse has, in fact,
forgiven the offence complained of, that constitutes a conditional
bar to any proceedings. The main and usual evidence of such
forgiveness is constituted by a renewal of marital intercourse,
and it is difficult — perhaps impossible — to imagine any case in
which such intercourse would not be held to establish condonation.
But condonation may be proved by other acts, or by words,
having regard to the circumstances of each case. Condonation
is, however, always presumed to be conditional on future good
behaviour, and misconduct even of a different kind revives the
former offence. (3) Connivance constitutes a complete answer to
any charge. Nor need the husband be the active agent of the
misconduct of the wife. Indifference or neglect Lmputable to a
corrupt intention are sufficient. It will be seen presently that
modern statute law has gone further in this direction. It is to be
added that the connivance need not be of the very act complained
of, but may be of an act of a similar kind. A learned judge,
recalling the classical anecdote of Maecenas and Galba, said, " A
husband is not permitted to say non omnibus dormio." The

DIVORCE

[ENGLAND

ecclesiastical courts also considered themselves bound to refuse
relief if there was shown to be collusion between the parties. In
its primary and most general sense collusion was understood to be
an agreement between the parties for the purpose of deceiving the
court by false or fictitious evidence; for example, an agreement
to commit, or appear to commit, an act of adultery. Collusion,
however, is not limited to the imposing of other than genuine
evidence on the court. It extends to an agreement to withhold
any material evidence; and indeed is carried further, and held to
extend to any agreement which may have the effect of concealing
the real and complete truth from the court (see Churchward v.
Churchward, 1894, p. 161). This doctrine was of considerable
importance even in the days when only divorces a mensa et thoro
were granted, because at that time the parties were not permitted
to separate by consent. At the present day it has become, with
regard to divorce a vinculo matrimonii, a rule of greater and of
more far-reaching importance.

The canon law as accepted in England, while allowing divorces
of the nature and for the causes above mentioned, actively inter-
fered to prevent separation between husband and wife in any
other manner. A suit known as a suit for restitution of conjugal
rights could be brought to compel cohabitation; and on evidence
of the desertion of either spouse, the court ordered a return to
the matrimonial home, though it carried no further its authority
as to the matrimonial relations within the home. To this suit an
agreement between the parties constituted no answer. But an
answer was afforded by any conduct which would have supported
a decree of divorce a mensa el thoro. It is a question whether,
indeed, the ecclesiastical courts would not have gone further, and
refused a decree of restitution of conjugal rights on grounds which
might appear adequate to justify such refusal, though not
sufficient on which to ground a decree of divorce. The view of the
court of appeal and the House of Lords has given some colour to
this opinion, and certainly the court of appeal has held, although
perhaps somewhat hastily, that the effect of a modern statute has
been to allow the court to refuse restitution of conjugal rights for
causes falling short of what would constitute ground for divorce
(Russell v. Russell, 1895, p. 315).

The ecclesiastical courts provided for the pecuniary rights of
the wife by granting to her alimony during the progress of the suit,
and a proper allowance after its termination in cases in which she
was successful. Such payments were dependent on the pecuniary
means, or faculties, as they were termed, of the husband, and were
subject to subsequent increase or diminution in proper cases.
But the ecclesiastical courts did not deal with the custody of
the children of the marriage, it being probably considered that
that matter could be determined by the common law rights of
the father, or by the intervention of the court of chancery.

The canon law fixed no period of limitation, either in respect of
a suit for divorce or for restitution of conjugal rights; but, as
regards at least suits for divorce, any substantial delay might lead
to the imputation of acquiescence or even condonation. To that
extent, at least, the maxim vigilantibus non dormientibus jura
subveniunt applied.

It is remarkable that desertion by either party to a marriage,
except as giving rise to a suit for restitution, was not treated as an
offence by canon law in England. It formed no ground for a suit
for divorce, and constituted no answer to such a suit by way of
recrimination. It might indeed deprive a husband of his remedy
if it amounted to connivance, or perhaps even if it amounted only
to culpable neglect.

The canon law, as administered in England, has kept clear the
logical distinction which exists between dissolving a marriage and
declaring it null and void. The result has been that, in England
at least, the two proceedings have never been allowed to pass into
one another, and a complete divorce has not been granted on
pretence of a cause really one for declaring the marriage void ab
initio. But for certain causes the courts were prepared to declare
a marriage null and void on the suit of either party. There is,
indeed, a distinction to be drawn between a marriage void or only
voidable, though in both cases it became the subject of a similar
declaration. It was void in the cases of incapacity of the parties

to contract it, arising from want of proper age, or consanguinity,
or from a previous marriage, or from absence of consent, a state
of things which would arise if the marriage were compelled by
force or induced by fraud as to the nature of the contract entered
into or the personality of the parties. It is to be remarked that,
in England at least, the idea of fraud as connected with the
solemnization of marriage has been kept within these narrow
limits. Fraud of a different kind, such as deception as to the
property or position of the husband or wife, or antecedent
impurity of the wife, even if resulting in a concealed pregnancy,
has not in England (though the last-mentioned cause has in other
countries) been held a ground for the vitiation of a marriage
contract. A marriage was voidable, and could be declared void,
on the ground of physical incapacity of either spouse, the absence
of intercourse between the parties after a sufficient period of
opportunity being almost, if not quite, conclusive on this subject.

With regard to one cause of nullity the legislation interfered
from consideration, it is said, of a case of special hardship.
Before the Marriage Act of 1835 marriages within the prohibited
degrees of consanguinity and affinity were only voidable by a
decree of the court, and remained valid unless challenged during
the lifetime of both the parties. But this act, while providing
that no previous marriage between persons within the pro-
hibited degrees should be annulled by a decree of the ecclesiastical
court pronounced in a suit depending at the time of the passing
of the act, went on to render all such marriages thereafter con-
tracted in England " absolutely null and void to all intents and
purposes whatever."

Another suit was allowed by the ecclesiastical courts which
should be mentioned, although its bearing on divorce is indirect.
This was the suit for jactitation of marriage, which in the case
of any person falsely asserting his or her marriage to another,
allowed such person to be put to perpetual silence by an order
of the court. This suit, which has been of rare occurrence
(though there was an instance, Thompson v. Rourke, in 1892),
does not appear to have been used for the purpose of determining
the validity of a marriage. The legislature, has, however, in the
Legitimacy Declaration Act of 1858, provided a ready means by
which the validity of marriages and the legitimacy of children
can be determined, and the procedure provided has repeatedly
been utilised.

It should be added, as a matter closely akin to the proceedings
in the ecclesiastical courts, that the common law took cognizance
of one phase of matrimonial relations by allowing an action by
the husband against a paramour, known as an action for criminal
conversation. In such an action a husband could recover
damages estimated according to the loss he was supposed to have
sustained by the seduction and loss of his wife, the punishment
of the seducer not being altogether excluded from consideration.
Although this action was not unfrequently (and indeed, for the
purposes of a divorce, necessarily) brought, it was one which
naturally was regarded with disfavour.

Effect of the Reformation. — Great as was the indirect effect of
the Reformation upon the law of divorce in England, the direct
effect was small. It might, indeed, have been supposed that the
disappearance of the sacramental idea of marriage entertained by
the Roman Church would have ushered in the greater freedom
of divorce which had been associated with marriage regarded
as a civil contract. And to some extent this was the case. It
was for some time supposed that the sentences of divorce
pronounced by the ecclesiastical courts acquired the effect
of allowing remarriage, and such divorces were in some cases
granted. In Lord Northampton's case in the reign of Edward VI.
the delegates pronounced in favour of a second marriage after a
divorce a mensa et thoro. It was, however, finally decided in
Foljambe's case, in the 44th year of Elizabeth, that a marriage
validly contracted could not be dissolved for any cause. But
the growing sense of the right to a complete divorce for adequate
cause, when no longer any religious law to the contrary could
be validly asserted, in time compelled the discovery of a remedy.
The commission appointed by Henry VIII. and Edward VI. to
reform the ecclesiastical law drew up the elaborate report known

ENGLAND]

DIVORCE

339

as the Reformatio Legum, and in this they recommended that
divorces a mensa et Ihoro should be abolished, and in their place
complete divorce allowed for the causes of adultery, desertion
and cruelty. These proposals, however, never became law. In
1669 a private act of parliament was granted in the case of Lord
de Roos, and this was followed by another in the case of the duke
of Norfolk in 1692. Such acts were, however, rare until the
accession of the House of Hanover, only five acts passing before
that period. Afterwards their number considerably increased.
Between 1715 and 1775 there were sixty such acts, in the next
twenty-five years there were seventy-four, and between 1800 and
1850 there were ninety. In 1829 alone there were seven, and in
1830 nine.

The jurisdiction thus assumed by parliament to grant absolute
divorces was exercised with great care. The case was fully
investigated before a committee of the House of Lords, and not
only was the substance of justice so secured, but the House of
Lords further required that application to parliament should be
preceded by a successful suit in the ecclesiastical courts resulting
in a decree of divorce a mensa et thoro, and in the case of a husband
being the applicant, a successful action at common law and the
recovery of damages against the paramour. In this way, and
also, if needful, on its own initiative, the House of Lords provided
that there should be no connivance or collusion. Care was also
taken that a proper allowance was secured to the wife in cases
in which she was not the offending party. This procedure is still
pursued in the case of Irish divorces.

It is obvious, however, that the necessity for costly proceedings
before the Houses of Parliament imposed great hardship on the
mass of the population, and there can be little doubt that this
hardship was deeply felt. Repeated proposals were made to
parliament with a view to reform of the law, and more than one
commission reported on the subject. It is said that the final
impetus was given by an address to a prisoner by Mr Justice
Maule. The prisoner's wife had deserted him with her paramour,
and he married again during her lifetime. He was indicted for
bigamy, and convicted, and Mr Justice Maule sentenced him in
the following words: — " Prisoner at the bar: You have been
convicted of the offence of bigamy, that is to say, of marrying
a woman while you had a wife still alive, though it is true she
has deserted you and is living in adultery with another man.
You have, therefore, committed a crime against the laws of your
country, and you have also acted under a very serious misappre-
hension of the course which you ought to have pursued. You
should have gone to the ecclesiastical court and there obtained
against your wife a decree a mensa et Ihoro. You should then
have brought an action in the courts of common law and re-
covered, as no doubt you would have recovered, damages against
your wife's paramour. Armed with these decrees, you should
have approached the legislature and obtained an act of parliament
which would have rendered you free and legally competent to
marry the person whom you have taken on yourself to marry
with no such sanction. It is quite true that these proceedings
would have cost you many hundreds of pounds, whereas you
probably have not as many pence. But the law knows no dis-
tinction between rich and poor. The sentence of the court upon
you, therefore, is that you be imprisoned for one day, which
period has already been exceeded, as you have been in custody
since the commencement of the assizes. " The grave irony of the
learned judge was felt to represent truly a state of things well-
nigh intolerable, and a reform in the law of divorce was felt to be
inevitable. The hour and the man came in 1857, the man in the
person of Sir Richard Bethell (afterwards Lord Westbury), then
attorney-general.

The Act of 1857. — Probably few measures have been conceived
with such consummate skill and knowledge, and few conducted
through parliament with such dexterity and determination.
The leading opponent of the measure was Mr Gladstone, backed
by the zeal of the High Church party and inspired by his own
matchless subtlety and resource. But the contest proved to be
unequal, and after debates in which every line, almost every word,
of the measure was hotly contested, especially in the House of

Commons, the measure emerged substantially as it had been
introduced. Not the least part of the merit and success of the
act of 1857 is due to the skill which, while effecting a great social
change, did so with the smallest possible amount of innovation,
The act (which came into operation on the ist of January 1858)
embodied two main principles: i. The constitution of a lay
court for the administration of all matters connected with
divorce. 2. The transfer to that court, with as little change as
possible, of the powers exercised in matrimonial matters by
(a) the House of Lords, (b) the ecclesiastical courts, (c) the courts
of common law.

The Constitution of the Court. — The new court, termed " The
Court for Divorce and Matrimonial Causes," was constituted by
the lord chancellor, the chiefs and the senior puisne judges of the
three courts of common law, and the judge of the court of probate
(which was also established in 1857), but the functions of the
court were practically entrusted to the judge of the court of
probate, termed the " Judge Ordinary," who thus in matters
of probate and divorce became the representative of the former
ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The judge ordinary was empowered
either to sit alone or with one or more of the other judges to
constitute a full court. The parties to a suit obtained the right
of trial by jury of all disputed questions of fact; and the rules
of evidence of the common law courts were made to apply.
An appeal to the full court was given in all matters, which the
judge ordinary was enabled to hear sitting alone.

1. To this court were transferred all the powers of the ecclesi-
astical courts with regard to suits for divorce a mensa et thoro, to
which the name was given of suits for " judicial separation,"
nullity, restitution of conjugal rights, and jactitation of marriage,
and in all such proceedings it was expressly enacted (sec. 22) that
the court should act on principles and rules as nearly as possible
conformable to the principles and rules of the ecclesiastical
courts. Judicial separation could be obtained by either husband
or wife for adultery, or cruelty, or desertion continued for two
or more years.

2. There were also transferred to the court powers equivalent
to those exercised by the legislature in granting absolute divorce.
The husband could obtain a divorce for adultery, the wife could
obtain a divorce for adultery coupled with cruelty or desertion
for two or more years, and also for incestuous or bigamous
adultery, or rape, or unnatural offences. The same conditions
as had been required by the legislature were insisted on. A
petition for dissolution (sec. 30) was to be dismissed in case of
connivance, condonation or collusion; and further, the court
had power, though it was not compelled, to dismiss such petition
if the petitioner had been guilty of adultery, or if there had been
unreasonable delay in presenting or prosecuting the petition, or
if the petitioner had been guilty of cruelty or desertion without
reasonable excuse, or of wilful neglect or misconduct conducing
to the adultery. The exercise of these discretionary powers of
the court, just and valuable as they undoubtedly are, has been
attended with some difficulty. But the view of the legislature
has on the whole been understood to be that the adultery of a
petitioner should not constitute a bar to his or her proceeding,
if it has been caused by the misconduct of the respondent, and
that cruelty should not constitute such a bar unless it has caused
or contributed to the misconduct of the respondent. But the
court, while regarding its powers as those of a judicial and not
an arbitrary discretion, has declined to fetter itself by any fixed
rule of interpretation or practice.

It is to be observed that this act assigned a new force to
desertion. The ecclesiastical law regarded it only as suggestive
of connivance or culpable neglect. But the act of 1857 made it

(1) a ground of judicial separation if continued for two years,

(2) a ground in part of dissolution of marriage if continued for
the same period, (3) a bar, in the discretion of the court, to a
petition for dissolution, though it was not made in a similar way
any bar to a suit for judicial separation. It is also to be observed
that the act was confined to causes of divorce recognized by the
ecclesiastical law as administered in England. It did not either
extend the causes of a suit for nullity by adding such grounds as

340

DIVORCE

[ENGLAND

antenuptial incontinence, even if accompanied with pregnancy,
nor did it borrow from the civil law of Rome either lunacy or
crime as grounds for divorce.

Much comment has been made on the different grounds on
which divorce is allowed to a husband and to a wife, — it being
necessary to prove infidelity in both cases, but a wife being
compelled to show either an aggravation of that offence or an
addition to it. Opinions probably will always differ whether the
two sexes should be placed on an equality in this respect, abstract
justice being invoked, and the idea of marriage as a mere contract
pointing in one direction, and social considerations in the other.
But the reason of the legislature for making the distinction is
clear. It is that the wife is entitled to an absolute divorce only
if her reconciliation with her husband is neither to be expected
nor desired. This was no doubt the view taken by the House of
Lords. In 1801 a Mrs Addison claim'ed an absolute divorce on
the ground of her husband's incest with her sister. The matter
was long debated, but Lord Thurlow, who appeared in the House
of Lords for the last time in order to support the bill, turned the
scale by arguing that it was improper that the wife should under
such circumstances return to her husband (see Campbell, Lives
of the Chancellors, vii. 145). " Why do you," he said, " grant to
the husband a divorce for the adultery of the wife? Because he
ought not to forgive her, and separation is inevitable. Where
the wife cannot forgive, and separation is inevitable by reason
of the crime of the husband, the wife is entitled to the like
remedy."

The act (sec. 32) provided, in case of dissolution, for mainten-
ance of the wife by the husband on principles similar to those
recognized by the ecclesiastical courts, and (sec. 45) for the settle-
ment of the property of a guilty wife on her husband or children;
but this enactment was imperfect, as provision was made only
for a settlement and not for payment of an allowance, and none
was made for altering settlements made in view or in consequence
of a marriage. The act (sec. 35) provides also in all divorce
proceedings, and also in those of nullity, for provision for the
custody, maintenance and education of children by the court:
provisions of great value, which were unfortunately for some
time limited by an erroneous view of the court that the age of the
children to which such provisions applied should be considered
limited to sixteen. The act of 1857 also transferred to the new
court the powers exercised by the common law courts in the
action for criminal conversation. It was made obligatory to join
an alleged adulterer in the suit, and damages (sec. 33) might be
claimed against him, and he might be ordered to pay the cost
of the proceedings (sec. 34), the extent depending upon the
circumstances of each case.1

The act of 1857 in one respect went beyond a transfer of the
powers exercised by the ecclesiastical courts or the legislature.
It provided (sec. 21) that a wife deserted by her husband might
apply to a magistrate in petty sessions and obtain an order
which had the effect of protecting her earnings and property,
and during the currency of such order of protection a wife was
to be in the same position as if she had obtained an order for
judicial separation. The effect of this section appears to have
been small; but the Summary Jurisdiction (Married Women) Act
1895 has afforded a cheap and speedy remedy to all classes.

The framers of the act of 1857 were careful to avoid offending
the scruples of clergymen who disapproved of the complete
dissolution of marriage by a lay court. It was provided (sees.

1 In Constantinidi v. Constantinidi and Lance (1903), in which both
parties were guilty of misconduct, it was held by Sir Francis Jeune
(Lord St Helier) that where a wife has by her misconduct broken
up the home (the husband's misconduct not having conduced to the
wife's adultery) the court would exercise its discretion in favour of
the husband petitioner, and, further, the wife being a rich woman,
it was justifiable to give her husband a portion of her income, in
order to preserve to him the position he would have occupied as her
husband, the broad principle being that a guilty respondent should
not be allowed to profit by divorce. But further litigation concern-
ing this case occurred as to the variation of the marriage settlements
in favour of the husband, and the decision of the court of appeal in
July 1905 considerably modified the decision of Sir Francis Jeune.
—Ed. E. B.

57 and 58) that no clergyman should be compelled to solemnize
the marriage of any person whose former marriage had been
dissolved on the ground of his or her adultery, but should permit
any other clergyman to solemnize the marriage in any church or
chapel in which the parties were entitled to be married. It is
to be feared that this concession, ample as it appears, has not
allayed conscientious objections, which are perhaps from their
nature insuperable. The act made no provision as to the name
to be borne by a wife after a divorce; and this omission led to
litigation in the case of a peer's wife, in Cowley v. Cowley, in which
Lady Cowley was allowed to retain her status.

Modifications of the Act of 1857. — Subsequent legislation has
made good many of the defects of the act of 1857. In 1859
power was given to the court, after a decree of dissolution or of
nullity of marriage, to inquire into the existence of ante- and
post-nuptial settlements, and to make orders with respect to the
property settled either for the benefit of children of the marriage
or their parents; and a subsequent act (41 & 42 Viet. c. 19, s. 3)
removed a doubt which was entertained whether these powers
could be exercised if there were no children of the marriage. In
1860 a very important change was made, having for its object a
practical mode of preventing divorces in cases of connivance and
collusion or of misconduct of the petitioner. It was provided
that a claim of dissolution (a provision afterwards extended to
decrees of nullity) should in the first instance be a decree nisi,
which should not be made absolute until the expiration of a period
then fixed at not less than three, but by subsequent legislation
enlarged to not less than six, months. During the interval which
elapsed between the decree nisi and such decree being made
absolute, power was given to any person to intervene in the suit
and show cause why the decree should not be made absolute,
by reason of the same having been obtained by collusion, or by
reason of material facts not brought before the court; and it
was also provided that, at any time before the decree was made
absolute, the queen's proctor, if led to suspect that the parties
were acting in collusion for the purpose of obtaining a divorce
contrary to the justice of the case, might under the direction of
the attorney-general intervene and allege such case of collusion.
This enactment (extended in the year 1873 to suits for nullity)
was ill drawn and unskilfully conceived. The power given to
any person whomsoever to intervene is no doubt too wide, and
practically has had little or no useful effect as employed by friends
or enemies of parties to a suit. The limitation in terms of the
express power of the queen's proctor to intervene in cases of
collusion was undoubtedly too narrow. But the queen's proctor,
or the official by whom that officer was afterwards represented,
has in practice availed himself of the general authority given to
any person to show cause why a decree nisi should not be made
absolute, and has thus been enabled to render such important
service to the administration of justice that it is difficult to
imagine the due execution of the law of divorce by a court with-
out such assistance. By the Matrimonial Causes Act 1866
power was given to the court to order an allowance to be paid by
a guilty husband to a wife on a dissolution of marriage. This
act also can hardly be considered to have been drawn with
sufficient care, inasmuch as while it provides that if the husband's
means diminish, the allowance may be diminished or suspended,
it makes no corresponding provision for increase of the allowance
if the husband's means increase; nor, apparently, does it permit
of an allowance in addition to, but only in substitution for, a
settlement. The act makes no provision for allowance to a guilty
wife, and it certainly is a serious defect that the power to grant
an allowance does not extend to cases of nullity. In 1868 an
appeal to the House of Lords was given in cases of decree for
dissolution or nullity of marriage.

The great changes effected by the Judicature Acts included the
court for divorce and matrimonial causes. Under their operation
a division of the high court of justice was constituted, under the
designation of the probate division and admiralty division, to
which was assigned that class of legal administration governed
mainly by the principles and practice of the canon and civil law.
The division consists of a president, and a justice of the high

ENGLAND]

DIVORCE

court, with registrars representing each branch of the juris-
diction. Appeals lie to the court of appeal, and thence to the
House of Lords.

In 1884 the legislature interfered to prevent imprisonment
being the result of disobedience to an order for restitution of
conjugal rights. That mode of enforcing the order of the court
was abolished, and the matter was left to a proper adjustment
of the pecuniary relations of the husband and wife; and a
respondent disobeying such an order was held to be guilty
of desertion without reasonable cause, such desertion having
further given to it a similar effect to that assigned to desertion
for two years or upwards. The effect of this provision has been
that the suit for restitution of conjugal rights is most frequently
brought for the purpose of shortening the time within which a
wife can obtain a decree for dissolution of marriage.

Proceedings in the divorce court have shown the improvement
in the law of evidence which has been effected with regard to other
legal proceedings. The act of 1857 made an inroad on the
former law, which prohibited evidence being given by parties
interested in the proceedings, by allowing a petitioner (sec. 43)
to be called and examined by order of the court, absolving such
petitioner, however, from the necessity of answering any question
tending to show that he or she had been guilty of adultery. In
the next year power was given to the court to dismiss any person,
with whom a party to the suit was alleged to have committed
adultery, from the suit if there should not appear to be sufficient
evidence against him or her, the object being to allow such
person to give evidence; and in 1859 it was provided that, on
a petition by a wife for a divorce on the grounds of cruelty or
desertion with adultery, the husband and wife could be competent
and compellable witnesses as to the cruelty or desertion. A few
years later, however, in 1869, the subject was finally dealt with
by repealing all previous rules which limited the powers to give
evidence on questions of adultery with the safeguard that no
witness in any proceeding can be asked or bound to answer any
question tending to show that he or she has been guilty of
adultery, unless in the same proceeding such witness shall have
given evidence in disproof of his or her alleged adultery. It
has been held that the principles of these enactments apply to
interrogatories as well as to evidence given in court.

It is a most remarkable omission in the act of 1857, especially
when we remember the high legal authority from whom it pro-
ceeded, that the act nowhere defines the class of persons with
regard to whom the jurisdiction of the court should be exercised.
This omission has given rise to a misapprehension of the law
which, though now set at rest, prevailed for a considerable period,
and has undoubtedly led to the granting of divorce in several
cases in which it could not legally be given. It was supposed
that the court could grant a dissolution of marriage to all persons
who had anything more than a casual and fleeting residence
within the jurisdiction of the court; and this view, although its
correctness was doubted by Lord Penzance, the judge of the
divorce court, was upheld by a majority of the judges of the court
of appeal in the case of Niboyet v. Niboyet (4 P. D. i). It was
supposed that such residence gave what was termed a matri-
monial domicile. But this view was undoubtedly erroneous as
regards dissolution of marriage, although probably correct as
regards judicial separation, and the true view is no doubt that
indicated with great learning and ability by Lord Watson in a
judgment given by him in the privy council in the case of Le
Mesurier v. Le Mesurier (1895, App. Cas. 517), that the only
true test of jurisdiction for a decree of divorce altering the
status of the parties to a marriage is to be found in the domicile
of the spouses — that is to say, of the husband, as the domicile
of a wife follows that of her husband — at the time of the divorce.
Domicile means a person's permanent home, the place at which
he resides with no intention of making his home elsewhere, and,
if he leaves it, with the intention of returning to it.

It is now also clearly recognized as the law of England that the
English courts will not recognize a divorce purporting to be made
by a foreign tribunal with regard to persons domiciled in England.
For a considerable time doubt appears to have clouded the law

on this subject. In a famous case known as Lolley's case, decided
in 1812, the judges of England (the point arose in connexion with
a criminal charge) unanimously held " that no sentence or act
of any foreign country or any state could dissolve an English
marriage a vinculo matrimonii for grounds on which it was not
liable to be dissolved a vinculo matrimonii in England." This
case has been frequently understood as deciding that a marriage
celebrated in England cannot be dissolved elsewhere, and on
this point the courts of Scotland differ from the view supposed
to be taken by the English judges. But the matter has been fully
explained in one of the most masterly of Lord Hannen's judg-
ments (Harvey v. Fairnie, 5. P. D. 154), afterwards upheld by
the House of Lords in 1882 (8 App. Cas. 43) ; and it is now clear
that while the parties are domiciled in this country no decree
of any foreign court dissolving their marriage will be recognized
here, unless it proceed on the grounds on which a divorce may
be obtained in this country, and even the exception just
mentioned appears to rest rather on reasoning and principle than
on the authority of any decided case. This principle received
the highest sanction in the prosecution of Earl Russell for bigamy
before the House of Lords (1901), in which it was held that,
where a divorce had been refused him in England, an American
divorce would not relieve a man from the guilt of marrying again.

Summary Proceedings for Separation. — The legislature has
sought to extend the relief afforded by the courts in matrimonial
causes by a procedure fairly to be considered within the reach of
all classes. In 1895 an act was passed which re-enacted in an
improved form the provisions of an act of 1878 of similar effect.
By the act of 1895 power was given to a married woman whose
husband (i) has been guilty of an aggravated assault upon her
within the Offences against the Person Act 1861, or (2) convicted
on indictment of an assault on her and sentenced to pay a fine
of more than £5 or to imprisonment for more than two months,
or (3) shall have deserted her, or (4) been guilty of persistent
cruelty to her or wilful neglect to maintain her or her infant
children, and by such cruelty or neglect shall have caused her
to leave and live apart from him, to apply to a court of summary
jurisdiction and to obtain an order containing all or any of the
following provisions: — (i) that the applicant be not forced to
cohabit with her husband, (2) that the applicant have the custody
of any children under sixteen years of age, (3) that the husband
pay to her an allowance not exceeding £2 a week. The act pro-
vides that no married woman guilty of adultery should be granted
relief, but with the very important proviso, altering as it does the
rule of the common law, that the husband has not conduced
or connived at, or by wilful neglect or misconduct conduced to,
such adultery. The provisions of this act 1 have been largely
put in force, and no doubt to the great advantage of the poorer
classes of the community. It will be observed that the act is
unilateral, and affords no relief to a husband against a wife;
and the complaint is often heard that no misconduct of the wife,
except adultery, relieves the husband from the necessity of
maintaining her and allowing her to share his home, unless he
can obtain access to the high court.2

Separation Deeds. — Although nothing in the development of
the law of divorce has tended to give to married persons the right
absolutely to dissolve their marriage by consent, and, on the
contrary, any such agreement would be held to be strong evidence
of collusion, the view of the Church expressed in the ecclesiastical
law has been entirely departed from as regards agreements for
separation. Such agreements were embodied in deeds, and
usually contained mutual covenants not to sue in the ecclesi-
astical courts for restitution of conjugal rights. The ecclesiastical

1 It is to be noted that by a decision of the court of appeal in
Harriman v. Harriman in 1909, where a wife has been deserted by
her husband and has obtained a separation order within two years from
the time when the desertion commenced, she loses her right to plead
desertion under the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857, and is therefore
not entitled to a divorce after two years' desertion, upon proof of
adultery. See also Dodd v. Dodd, 1906, 22 T. L. R. 484.

2 In 1909 a Royal Commission was appointed to inquire into the
law of divorce, with special reference to the position of the poorer
classes.

342

DIVORCE

[OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

courts, however, wholly disregarded such agreements, and
considered them as affording no answer to a suit for restitution
of conjugal rights. For a considerable period the court of
chancery refused to enforce the covenant in such deeds by re-
straining the parties from proceeding to the ecclesiastical courts.
But at last a memorable judgment of Lord Westbury (1861)
asserted the right (Hunt v. Hunt, 4 De G. F. & J. 221 ; see also
Marshall v. Marshall, 5 P. D. 19) of the court of chancery to
maintain the claim of good faith in this as in other cases, and
restrained a petitioner from suing in the ecclesiastical court con-
trary to his covenant. Thereafter these deeds became common,
and no doubt often afford a solution of matrimonial difficulties
of very great value. When the courts of the country became
united under the Judicature Acts, it became practicable to set
up in the divorce division a separation deed in answer to a
suit for restitution of conjugal rights without the necessity of
recourse to any other tribunal.

Statistics. — The statistics of divorce in England have for some
years been regularly published in the volumes of judicial statistics
published annually by the Home Office.

The number of petitions for divorce (including in the term both
divorce a mensa et thoro and divorce a vinculo) for the years from
1858 to 1905 inclusive are as follows: —

1858 326 1874 469 1890 644

1859 291 1875 451 1891 632

1860 272 1876 536 1892 629

1861 236 1877 551 1893 645

1862 248 1878 632 1894 652

1863 298 1879 555 1895 683

1864 297 1880 615 1896 772

1865 284 1 88 1 589 1897 781

1866 279 1882 481 1898 750

1867 294 1883 561 1899 727

1868 303 1884 647 1900 698

1869 351 1885 541 1901 848

1870 351 1886 708 1902 987

1871 384 1887 662 1903 914

1872 374 1888 680 1904 822

1873 416 1889 654 1905 844

It is probably mpossible to account for the variations which the
above table discloses. It was no doubt natural that the year im-
mediately succeeding the passing of the act which originated facilities
for divorces a vinculo should exhibit a larger number of divorces than
its successors for a considerable period. But there does not appear
to be any adequate cause for the comparative increase which seems
to have prevailed in the decade between 1878 and 1888, unless it be
found in the increase of marriages which culminated in 1873 and
1883, falling after each of those years. The number of marriages
again rose high in 1891 and 1892, and this may account for the
increased number of divorces in 1896 and the following years. But
it may certainly be said with confidence that as compared with the
growth of population the number of divorces in England has shown
no alarming increase.

The total number of petitions in matrimonial causes presented by
husbands exceed those presented by wives, but in no marked degree.
This excess would seem to be due to the fact that the larger number
of petitions for dissolution presented by husbands, owing no doubt
to the difference in the law affecting the two sexes, is not entirely
counterbalanced by the much larger number of petitions for judicial
separation presented by wives. The following figures for various
years may be taken as typical : —

1895

1896

1897

1898

1899

1905

Petitions for Dissolution —

Presented by husbands .

353

393

414

4OI

383

429

Presented by wives .

220

280

269

243

262

323

Petitions for Judicial Separa-

tion —

Presented by husbands .

4

3

2

4

4

5

Presented by wives .

106

96

96

1 02

78

87

Totals —

Presented by husbands .

357

396

416

4<>5

387

434

Presented by wives .

326

376

365

345

34°

410

Speaking generally, it may be said that about 70 % of the petitions
presented are successful and result in decrees. This percentage has
a tendency, however, to rise.

Attempts have been made to ascertain the classes which supply
the petitioners for divorce, but this cannot be done with such
certainty as to warrant any but the most general conclusions. It
may, however, safely be said that while all classes, professions and
occupations are represented, it is certainly not those highest in the

scale that are the largest contributors. The principles of the act ol
1857 have beyond question been justified by the relief required by
and afforded to the general community.

OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

We may now turn to the law of divorce as administered in the
other countries of the modern world. On the main question
whether marriage is to be considered indissoluble they will be
found to range themselves on one side or the other according to
the influence upon them of the Church of Rome and its canon
law.

In Scotland it has long been the law that marriage can be dis-
solved at the instance of either party by judicial sentence on the
grounds of adultery or of desertion, termed non-adherence, and
the spouses could in such case remarry, except with the paramour,
— at all events if the paramour was named in the decree (and the
name is sometimes omitted for that reason). A divorce a mensa
et thoro could also be granted for cruelty. By the Court of Session
Act 1830, the jurisdiction in divorce was transferred from a body
of commissaries to the court of session.

By the law of Holland complete divorce could be granted
by judicial sentence on the grounds of adultery or of wilful and
malicious desertion, to which were added unnatural offences and
imprisonment for life, and such divorce gave the power of re-
marriage, except with the person with whom adultery was proved
to have been committed, but there would seem to be a doubt
whether this power extended to the guilty party (Voet, De
divortiis, lit. 24, tit. 2). Divorce a mensa et thoro could be granted
on the grounds allowed by the canon law.

The Code of Prussia of 1794 contained elaborate provisions
which gave great facility of divorce. A complete divorce could
be obtained by judicial sentence for the following causes: —
(i) Adultery or unnatural offences; and adultery by a husband
formed no bar to his obtaining a divorce against his wife for
adultery; and even an illicit intimacy, from which a presumption
of adultery might arise, was held sufficient for a divorce. (2) Wil-
ful desertion. (3) Obstinate refusal of the rights of marriage,
which was considered as equivalent to desertion. (4) Incapacity
to perform the duties of marriage, even if arising subsequent to
the marriage; and the same effect was assigned to other incur-
able bodily defects that excited disgust and horror. (5) Lunacy,
if after a year there was no reasonable hope of recovery. (6)
An attempt on the life of one spouse by the other, or gross and
unlawful attack on the honour or personal liberty. (7) Incom-
patibility of temper and quarrelsome disposition, if rising to the
height of endangering life or health. (8) Opprobrious crime for
which either spouse has suffered imprisonment, or a knowingly
false accusation of such crime by one spouse of the other. (9) If
either spouse by unlawful transactions endangers the life, honour,
office or trade of the other, or commences an ignominious em-
ployment. ( 10) Change of religion. In addition to these causes,
marriages, when there were no children, could be dissolved by
mutual consent if there be no reason to suspect levity, precipita-
tion or compulsion; and a judge had also power to dissolve a
marriage in cases in which a strongly rooted dislike appeared to
him to exist. In all cases of divorce, but sometimes subject to
the necessity of obtaining a licence, remarriage was permissible
(see Burge, Commentaries on Colonial and Foreign Law, vol. i.
649).

Before 1876 only a divorce a vinculo could be obtained in
some of the German states, especially if the petitioner were a
Roman Catholic. The only relief afforded was a " perpetual
separation." By the Personal Status Act 1875 perpetual separa-
tion orders were abolished and divorce decrees allowed in cases
where the petitioners would, under the former law, have been
entitled to a perpetual separation order. However, two Drafting
Commissions under the act declined to alter the new rule, but
under pressure from the Roman Catholic party the Reichstag
passed a law introducing a modified separation order, termed
" dissolution of the conjugal community " (Aufhebung der
ehelichen Gemeinschaft). This order can be converted into a
dissolution of the marriage at the option of either party. Under
the Civil Code of 1900 a petitioner can obtain a divorce or judicial

OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES]

DIVORCE

343

separation on " absolute " or " relative " grounds. In the
former case if the facts are established the petitioner is entitled
to the relief prayed for; in the latter case, it is left to judicial
discretion. The absolute grounds are adultery, bigamy, sodomy,
an attempt against the petitioner's life or wilful desertion. The
relative grounds are (a) such grave breach of marital duty or
dishonourable or immoral conduct as would disturb the marital
relation to such an extent that the marriage could not reasonably
be expected to continue; (b) insanity, continued for more than
three years during the marriage, and of so severe a nature that
intellectual community between the parties has ceased and is not
likely to be re-established. A divorced wife, if not exclusively
the guilty party, may retain her husband's name; but if ex-
clusively guilty, her former husband may compel her to resume
her maiden name.

By the law of Denmark, according to the Code of King Christian
the Fifth, complete divorce could be obtained for incest; for
leprosy, whether contracted before or after marriage; for trans-
portation for crime or flight from justice, after three years,
though not for crime itself; and for exile not arising from crime,
after seven years.

In Sweden complete divorce is granted by judicial sentence for
adultery, and in Russia for that cause and also for incompati-
bility of temper (Ayliffe, Par. 49). On the other hand, in Spain
marriage is indissoluble, and the ecclesiastical courts have
retained their exclusive cognizance of matrimonial causes. In
Italy certain articles of the Civil Code deal with separation,
voluntary and judicial, but divorce is not allowed in any form.

In France the law of divorce has had a chequered history.
Before the Revolution the Roman canon law prevailed, marriage
was considered indissoluble, and only divorce a mensa et thoro,
known as la separation d' habitation, was permitted; though it
would appear that in the earliest age of the monarchy divorce a
vinculo malrimonii was allowed. La separation d1 habitation was
granted at the instance of a wife for cruelty by her husband or
false accusation of a capital crime, or for habitual treatment with
contempt before the inmates of the house; but a wife could not
obtain a separation for adultery by her husband, although he
had his remedy in case of adultery by his wife. In every case
the sentence of a judicial tribunal, which took precautions against
collusion, was necessary. But the Revolution may be said to
have swept away marriage among the institutions which it over-
whelmed, and by the law of the 2oth of September 1792 so great
facility was given for divorce a vinculo matrimonii as practically
to terminate the obligations of marriage. A reaction came with
the Code Napoleon, yet even under that system of law divorce
remained comparatively easy. Mutual consent, expressed in
the manner and continued for a period specified by the law, was
cause for a divorce (the principle of the Roman law being adopted
on this point), but such consent could not take place unless the
husband was twenty-five years of age and the wife twenty-one,
unless they had been married for two years, nor after twenty
years of marriage, nor after the wife had completed her forty-fifth
year; and further, the approval of the parents of both parties
was required. In case of divorce by consent, the law required
that a proper agreement should be made for the maintenance
of the wife and the custody of the children. A husband could
obtain a divorce a vinculo matrimonii for adultery, but the wife
had no such power unless the husband had brought his mistress
to the home. Both husband and wife could claim divorce on the
ground of outrage, or grievous bodily injury, or condemnation
for an infamous crime. If the divorce was for adultery, the
erring party could not marry the partner of his or her guilt. A
divorce a mensa et thoro could be obtained on the same grounds as
a divorce a vinculo, but not by mutual consent; and if the divorce
a mensa et thoro continued in force for three years, the defendant
party could claim a divorce a vinculo. On the restoration of
royalty in 1816 divorce a vinculo was abolished, and pending suits
for divorce a vinculo were converted into suits for separation only.

Divorce in France, after the repeal of the provisions respecting
it in the Code Napoleon in 1816, was re-enacted by a law of the
27th of July 1884, the provisions of which were simplified by

laws of 1886 and 1907. But a wide departure was made by these
laws from the terms of the Code Napoleon. Divorce by consent
disappeared, and the following became the causes for which
divorce Was allowed: (i) Adultery by either party to the
marriage at the suit of the other, without, in the case of adultery
by the husband, the aggravation of introduction of the concubine
into the home required by the Cede; (2) violence (exces) or
cruelty (sevices); (3) injures graves; and (4) peine afflictive et
infamante. Exces is defined by Lode as " a generic expression
comprising all acts tending to compromise the safety of the
person, without distinction as to their object or motive, pre-
meditation as well as furious anger, attempts upon life as well as
serious woundings." Sevices are acts of ill-treatment less grave
in character, which, while not endangering life, render existence
in common intolerable (Kelly's French Law of Marriage, p. 122).
Injures graves, as to which the courts have considered themselves
entitled to exercise a wide discretion, have been defined as acts,
writings or words which reflect upon the honour or the reputation
of the party against whom they are directed. The courts have
held that retraction at the trial does not relieve the party from
the consequences of an injure grave, and that publicity is an aggra-
vating but not a necessary element. A letter from one spouse to
the other may constitute an injure and the courts have further
held themselves at liberty to consider letters written after
divorce proceedings have been commenced. Injures graves have
also been considered to include material injuries, and among
these have been classed habitual and groundless refusal of
matrimonial rights, communication of disease and refusal to
consent to a religious ceremony of marriage. Habitual but not
occasional drunkenness has also been held to fall within the
definition of an injure grave. Peine afflictive et infamante signifies
a legal punishment involving corporal confinement and moral
degradation.1

In addition to its recognition of full divorce, the French law
recognizes separation of two kinds, one separation de biens and the
other separation de corps. The effect of separation de biens is
merely to put an end to the community of goods between the
spouses. It necessarily follows, but may be decreed independently
of separation de corps. The grounds of separation de corps are the
same as those for a divorce; and if a separation de corps has
existed for three years, it may be turned into a divorce upon the
application of either party to the court.

Until 1893 a wife siparfe de corps obtained only the capacity
attaching to a concomitant separation de biens; that is to say,
she recovered the enjoyment and management of her separate
property, but could not deal with real property, nor take legal
proceedings, without the sanction of her husband or of the court.
But by a law of the 6th of February 1893 a wife stparte de corps
obtains "the full exercise of her civil capacity, so that she shall
not need to resort to the authority of her husband or of the court."
In case of reconciliation, the wife returns to the limited capacity
of a wife separee de biens, and after the prescribed notification of
such change of status it becomes binding on third persons.

The provisions of French law with regard to the custody of
the children of a dissolved marriage, and with regard to property,
do not differ materially from those prescribed by the English acts.
The custody of children is given to the party who has obtained
the divorce, unless the court, on the application of the family, or
the ministere public, consider it better, in the interests of the
children, that custody should be given to the other party or a
third person; but in every case the right of both father and
mother to supervise the maintenance and education of the
children, and their liability to contribute to their support, are
continued.

1 It is interesting to observe how, according to the latest decisions
of the House of Lords, cruelty, according to English law, includes
some but not others of the forms of injury for which, under the term
of injures graves, the French law affords a remedy. It may well
be doubted whether the view taken by the minority of the peers in
Russell v. Russell, which would have included in the definition of
cruelty all, or nearly all, of that which the French law deems either
sevices or injures graves, would not have better satisfied both the
principles of English jurisprudence and the feelings of modern life.

344

DIVORCE

[UNITED STATES

The law in France as to property on a divorce has been
accurately stated as follows : —

" Divorce in France effects a dissolution of the matrimonial regime
of property as well as of the marriage itself. The decree appoints a
notary, who is charged with the settlement of the pecuniary interests
of the parties. By a stereotyped form of procedure the appointment
is made invariably for the purpose of liquidating la communaute
ayant existe entre les epoux, irrespective of whether the regime really
was that of community or another. In the case of aliens, therefore,
married under the rule of separate property, it is necessary carefully
to set this out in the notarial deed of liquidation, in order to defeat
the presumption which might be raised by the wording of the decree
that a community really did exist. The party against whom the
divorce has been pronounced loses the benefit of all settlements made
upon him or her by the other party, either by the marriage contract
or since the marriage. On the other hand, the party in whose favour
the divorce has been pronounced preserves the benefit of all settle-
ments made in his or her favour by the unsuccessful party. If no
such settlements were made, or if those made appear inadequate to
ensure the subsistence of the successful party, the court may grant
him or her permanent alimony out of the property of the other party,
not to exceed one-third of the income, and revocable in case it ceases
to be necessary " (Kelly, p. 130).

On a divorce both parties are at liberty to remarry. The
husband could remarry at once; but the wife (art. 296 of the
Code) was only allowed to remarry after an interval of ten months.
By the act of 1907, this article was abolished, and the wife
allowed to remarry as soon as the judgment or decree granting
the divorce has been entered, providing 300 days have elapsed
since the first judgment was pronounced. A divorced husband
may remarry his divorced wife, but if he does so, he cannot be
again divorced, except on the ground of a sentence to a peine
afflictive et infamante passed on one of them since their remarriage.
There is, however, this limitation on the power of remarriage of
divorced persons, that the party to the marriage against whom
the decree has been pronounced is not allowed to marry the
person with whom his or her guilt has been established. Such
person, however, has no such rights as are recognized in him or
her according to English law, and cannot take any part in the
proceedings. But his or her name is referred to in the proceed-
ings only by an initial; and French law goes even further in the
avoidance of publicity, inasmuch as the publication of divorce
proceedings in the press is forbidden, under heavy penalties.

By a law of the 6th of February 1893 French jurisprudence,
more complete at least, and perhaps wiser, than English, dealt
with a matter previously in controversy, and decided that after a
divorce the wife shall resume her maiden name, and may not
continue to use the name of her divorced husband; nor may the
husband, for business or other purposes, continue to use the name
of his wife.

By the law of 1886 the special procedure in divorce previously
in force under the Code and under the law of 1884 was abolished,
and it was provided that matrimonial causes should be tried
according to the ordinary rules of procedure. The action there-
fore, when brought, follows the methods of procedure common to
other civil proceedings. But there still remain certain neces-
sary preliminaries to an action of divorce. A petition must be
presented by a petitioner in person to the president of the court
sitting in chambers, with the object of a reconciliation being
effected. This is known as the premiere comparation. If the
petitioner still determines to proceed, there follows the seconds
comparation, on which occasion both parties appear before the
president. If the president fails to effect a reconciliation, he
makes an order permitting the petitioner to proceed, and deals
with the matters necessary to be dealt with pendente lite, such
matters being (i) separate residence, (2) alimony, (3) possession of
personal effects, (4) custody of children. As regards residence,
the wife is compelled to adhere during the proceedings to the
residence assigned to her, but no similar restriction is placed
on the husband. [Alimony pendente lite is in the discretion of
the court, having regard to the means of the parties, and
includes a proper provision for costs. As regards the custody of
children, the Code and the law of 1884 gave it to the husband,
unless the court otherwise orders, but the law of 1886 leaves
the matter wholly in the discretion of the court.

There are certain technical rules of evidence on the trial of

a divorce action. It is a general principle of the French law of
evidence that documentary evidence is the best evidence, and oral
testimony only secondary. In divorce cases adultery flagrante
delicto can be proved by the official certificate of the commissary
of police. Letters between the husband and wife are admissible
in evidence. As to letters between the parties and third persons,
the law, which has been doubtful, now appears to be that the wife
may produce only such letters from third parties to her husband
as have come into her possession accidentally, and without any
ruse or artifice on her part; but the husband may put in evidence
any letters written to or by his wife which he has obtained by any,
short of criminal, means. If the documents put in evidence are
not sufficient to satisfy the court, there follows an investigation
by means of witnesses, termed an enquete. A schedule of allega-
tions is drawn up, and a judge, termed a juge-commissaire, is
specially appointed to conduct the inquiry. Relatives and ser-
vants, though not competent witnesses in ordinary civil actions,
are so in divorce proceedings. Cross petitions may be entered;
the substantiation of a cross petition, however, does not have the
effect, in some cases given to it by English law, of barring a
divorce, but a divorce may be, and often is, granted in favour
of and against both parties pour torts reciproques. When a case
comes on for trial, it is in the power of the court to order an
adjournment for a period not exceeding six months, which is termed
a temps d'epreme, in order to afford an opportunity for reconcilia-
tion. It is said, however, that this power is seldom exercised.
An appeal may be brought against a decree of divorce within two
months; and a decree made on appeal is subject to revision by
the court of cassation within two months. Both references to
the court of appeal and the court of cassation operate as a stay of
execution. A decree must, by the law of 1886, be transcribed on
the register of marriages within two months from its date, and
failing this transcription, the decree is void. The transcription
must be made at the place of celebration of the marriage, or, if the
parties are married abroad, at the place where the parties were
last domiciled in France. If the parties, after having married
abroad, return to France, it has been provided, by a circular of
the Procureur de la Republique in 1887, that the transcription may
be made at the place of their actual domicile at the time of action
brought, a rule which has been held to apply to the divorce of
aliens in France. The effect of transcription does not relate back
to the date of the decree.

Opinions may differ as to the relative merits of the English and
French law relating to divorce. But it cannot be denied that the
French law presents a singularly complete and well-considered
system, and one which, obviously with the English system in view, has
endeavoured to graft on it provisions supplementing its omissions,
and modifying certain of its terms in accordance with the light
afforded by experience and the changed feelings of the modern world.
The effect of the laws of 1884 and 1886 in France has been great. The
act of 1907 dealing with divorce, coupled with that of the 2 1st of July
of the same year dealing with marriage, may also be said to mark an
epoch in the laws relating to women. During the five years from
1884 to 1888 the courts granted divorces in 21,064 cases, rejecting
applications for divorce in 1524. In addition, there were 12,242
applications for judicial separation, of which 10,739 were granted.
A distinguished French writer, the author of a work of singular
completeness and accuracy on the judicial system of Great Britain
has compared these figures with the corresponding result of the
English act of 1857. His conclusion is expressed in these words:
" On voit qu'en cinq annees nos tribunaux ont prononce trois fois
plus de divorces que la haute cour d'Angleterre n'en a prononce en
trente ans. Je n'insiste pas sur les conclusions morales a tirer de ce
rapprochement " (Comte de Franqueville, Le Systeme judiciaire_ de
la Grande-Bretagne, ii. p. 171). It is, however, practically impossible
to compare the number of divorces in France and in England with
exact justice, because, as will have been seen above, the causes of
divorce in France materially exceed those recognized by English
law; and the absence in France of any official performing the
functions assigned to the king's proctor in England cannot but have
great influence on the number of applications for divorce, as well as
on their results. (Sx H.)

UNITED STATES

According to American practice, divorce is the termination
by proper legal authority, sometimes legislatively but usually
judicially, of a marriage which up to the time of the decree
was legal and binding. It is to be distinguished from a decree of

UNITED STATES]

DIVORCE

345

nullity of marriage, which is simply a legal determination that
no legal marriage has ever existed between the two parties. It is
also to be distinguished from a decree of separation, which permits
or commands the parties to live apart, but does not completely
and for all purposes sever the marriage tie. The matrimonial law
of England, as at the time of the declaration of independence,
forms part of the common law of the United States. But as no
ecclesiastical courts have ever existed there, the law must be
considered to have been inoperative. There is no Federal
jurisdiction in divorce, and it is a question for the law of each
separate state; and though it is competent to Congress to
authorize divorces in the Territories, still it appears that this
subject like others is usually left to the territorial legislature. In
the different states, and in England, divorces were at first granted
by the legislatures, whether directly or by granting special
authority to the tribunals to deal with particular cases. This
practice fell into general disrepute, and by the constitution of
some states such divorces are expressly prohibited.

Upon the subject of divorce in the United States, and, to some
extent, in foreign countries, a careful investigation was made by
the American Bureau of Labour, and its report covered the years
1867 to 1886; a further report for the period 1887 to 1906 has
also been published by the Federal Census Bureau. The number
of divorces was in 1886 over 25,000, and in 1906 was over 72,000,
about double the number reported for that year from all the
rest of the Christian world. As divorce presupposes a legal
marriage, the amount of divorce, or the divorce-rate, is best stated
as the ratio between the number of divorces decreed during a year
and the number of subsisting marriages or married couples. The
usual basis is 100,000 married couples. In 1898-1002 the divorce-
rate was 200 divorces (400 people) to 100,000 married couples.
This is equivalent to more than one divorce annually to each 1400
people. The several states differ in divorce-rate, from South
Carolina, with no provision for legal divorce, to Montana and
Washington, where the rate is two and a half times the average for
the country. In general the rate is about the same in the North
as in the South, but greater in the Central states than in the East,
and in the Western than in the Central states; but to this rule
the New England states, Louisiana, New Mexico and Arizona
are exceptions. The New England states have a higher rate than
their geographical position would lead one to expect, and the
other three, owing doubtless, in part at least, to the influence of
the Roman Catholic Church, have a lower rate than the states
about them. The several state groups had in 1900 the following
divorce-rates per 100,000: South Atlantic, 196; North Atlantic,
200; South Central, 558; North Central, 510; Western, 712.
The divorce-rate in the United States increased rapidly and
steadily in forty years from 27 in 1867 to 86 in 1906. But distinct
tendencies are traceable in different regions. In the North Atlantic
group the rate rose by 58 %, in the North Central by 1 58 %, in the
Western by 2 23 %, in the South Atlantic by 43 7 %, and in the South
Central by 685 %. The great increase in the South was mainly
due to the spread of divorce among the emancipated negroes.
Each state determines for itself the causes for which divorce may
be granted, and no general statement is therefore possible.

The ground pleaded for a divorce is seldom an index to the
motives which caused the suit to be brought. This is determined
by the character of the law rather than by the state of mind of the
parties; and so far as the individuals are concerned, the ground
alleged is thus a cloak rather than a clue or revelation. Still
those causes which have been enacted into law by the various
state legislatures do indicate the pleas which have been endorsed
by the social judgment of the respective communities. In the
United States exclusive of Alaska and the recent insular accessions
there are forty-nine different jurisdictions in the matter of divorce.
Six out of every seven allow divorce for desertion, adultery or
cruelty; and of the 945,625 divorces reported with their causes
during the twenty years 1887-1906 nearly 78% were granted for
some one of these three causes, viz. 39% for desertion, 22% for
adultery, and 16% for cruelty. Probably nearly 9% more were
for some combination of these causes. Three other grounds for
divorce are admitted as legal in many or most American states, viz.

imprisonment in 39, habitual drunkenness in 38, and neglect to
provide in 22. About 98 % of American divorces are granted on
some one or more of these six grounds. In general the legislation
on the subject of the causes allowed for divorce is most restrictive
in the states on the Atlantic coast, from New York to South Caro-
lina inclusive, and is least so in the Western states. The slight
expense of obtaining a divorce in many of the states, and the lack
of publicity which is given to the suit, are also important reasons
for the great number of decrees issued. The importance of the
former consideration is reflected in the fact that the divorce-rate
for the United States as a whole shows clearly, in its fluctuations,
the influences of good and bad times. When times are good
and the income of the working and industrial classes likely to be
assured, the divorce-rate rises. In periods of industrial depression
it falls, fluctuating thus in the same way and probably for the
same reason that the marriage-rate in industrial communities
fluctuates. In two-thirds of the divorce suits the wife is the
plaintiff, and the proportion slightly increased in the forty years.
In the Northern states the percentage issued to wives (1887-1906)
was 71, while in the Southern states it was only 56. But where
both parties desire a decree, and each has a legal ground to urge,
a jury will usually listen more favourably to a woman's suit.

Divorce is probably especially frequent among the native
population of the United States, and among these probably more
common in the city than in the country. This statement cannot
be established absolutely, since statistics afford no means of
distinguishing the native from the foreign-born applicants. It is,
however, the most obvious reason for explaining the fact that,
while in Europe the city divorce-rate is from three to five times
as great as that of the surrounding country, the difference in the
United States between the two regions is very much less. In
other words, the great number of foreigners in American cities
probably tends to obscure by a low divorce-rate the high rate of
the native population. Divorce is certainly more common in the
New England states than in any others on the Atlantic coast
north of Florida, and it is not unlikely that wherever the New
England families have gene divorce is more frequent than else-
where. For example, it is much more common in the northern
counties of Ohio settled largely from New England than in the
southern counties settled largely from the Middle Atlantic states.

There are two statements frequently made regarding divorce in
the United States which do not find warrant in the statistics on
the subject. The first is, that the real motive for divorce with
one or both parties is the desire for marriage to a third person.
The second is, that a very large proportion of divorces are granted
to persons who move from one jurisdiction to another in order
to avail themselves of lax divorce laws. On the first point the
American statistics are practically silent, since, in issuing a
marriage licence to parties one or both of whom have been
previously divorced, no record is generally made of the fact. In
Connecticut, however, for a number of years this information was
required; and, if the statements were trustworthy, the number
of persons remarrying each year was about one-third the total
number of persons divorcing, which is probably a rate not widely
different from that of widows and widowers of the same age.
Foreign figures for Switzerland, Holland and Berlin indicate that
in those regions the proportion of the divorced who remarry
speedily is about the same as that of widows and widowers.
What statistical evidence there is on the subject therefore tends
to discredit this popular opinion. The evidence on the second
point is more conclusive, and has gone far towards decreasing
the demand for a constitutional amendment allowing a federal
marriage and divorce law. About four-fifths of all the divorces
granted in the United States were issued to parties who were
married in the state in which the decree of divorce was later
made; and when from the remaining one-fifth are deducted those
in which the parties migrated for other reasons than a desire to
obtain an easy divorce, the remainder would constitute a very
small, almost a negligible, fraction of the total number.

It is difficult, perhaps impossible, to say how far the frequency of
divorce in the United States has been or is a social injury; how far
it has weakened or undermined the ideal of marriage as a lifelong

DIWANIEH— DIX

union between man and woman. In this respect the question
is very like that of illegitimacy; and as the most careful students
of the latter subject agree that almost no trustworthy inference
regarding the moral condition of a community can be derived
from the proportion of illegitimate children born, so one may say
regarding the prevalence of divorce that from this fact almost no
inferences are warranted regarding the moral or social condition
of the population. It is by no means impossible, for example,
that the spread of divorce among the negro population in the
South marks a step in advance from the condition of largely
unregulated and illegal unions characteristic of the race im-
mediately after the war. The prevalence of divorce in the United
States among the native population, in urban communities,
among the New England element, in the middle classes of society,
and among those of the Protestant faith, indicates how closely
this social phenomenon is interlaced with much that is character-
istic and valuable in American civilization. In this respect, too,
the United States perhaps represent the outcome of a tendency
which has been at work in Europe at least since the Reformation.
Certainly the divorce-rate is increasing in nearly every civilized
country. Decrees of nullity of marriage and decrees of separation
not absolutely terminating the marriage relation are relatively
far less prevalent than they were in the medieval and early
modern period, and many persons who under former conditions
would have obtained relief from unsatisfactory unions through
one or the other of these avenues now resort to divorce. The
increasing proportion of the community who have an income
sufficient to pay the requisite legal fees is also a factor of great
importance. The belief in the family as an institution ordained
of God, decreed to continue " till death us do part," and in its
relations typifying and perpetuating many holy religious ideas,
probably became weakened in the United States during the igth
century, along with a weakening of other religious conceptions;
and it is yet to be determined whether a substitute for these ideas
can be developed under the guidance of the motive of social
utility or individual desire. In this respect the United States is,
as Mr Gladstone once wrote, a tribus praerogativa, but one who
knows anything of the family and home life of America will not
readily despond of the outcome.

The great source of American statistical information is the
governmental report of over 1000 pages, A Report on Marriage and
Divorce in the United States 1867 to 1886, including an Appendix
relating to Marriage and Divorce in Certain Countries of Europe, by
Carroll D. Wright, Commissioner of Labour; together with the
further report for 1887 to 1906. The statistics contained in the
former volume have been analysed and interpreted in W. F. Willcox's
The Divorce Problem: A Study in Statistics (Columbia University,
New York, 1891, 1897). Further interpretations are contained in
an article in the Political Science Quarterly for March 1893, entitled
" A Study in Vital Statistics." The best legal treatise is probably
Bishop on Marriage, Divorce, and Judicial Separation. See also
I. P. Lichtenberger, Divorce: A Study in Social Causation (New
York, 1909). (W. F. W.)

DIWANIEH, a small town in Turkish Asia, about 40 m. below
Hillah, on both banks of the Euphrates (31° 58' 47" N., 44° 58'
18" E.), which is here spanned by a floating bridge. Formerly
a military post for the control of the Affech territory, and a
telegraph station, it was in 1893 made the capital of the sanjak,
instead of Hillah, on account of its more strategical position.
This transfer of the seat of government represented a step in the
development of Turkish control over the central regions of Irak.

DIX, DOROTHEA LYNDE (1802-1887), American philan-
thropist, was born at Hampden, Maine, on the 4th of April 1802.
Her parents were poor and shiftless, and at an early age she was
taken into the home in Boston of her grandmother, Dorothea
Lynde, wife of Dr Elijah Dix. Here she was reared in a dis-
tinctly Puritanical atmosphere. About 1821 she opened a school
in Boston, which was patronized by the well-to-do families;
and soon afterwards she also began teaching poor and neglected
children at home. But her health broke down, and from 1824
to 1830 she was chiefly occupied with the writing of books of
devotion and stories for children. Her Conversations on Common
Things (1824) had reached its sixtieth edition by 1869. In 1831
she established in Boston a model school for girls, and conducted

this successfully until 1836, when her health again failed. In
1841 she became interested in the condition of gaols and alms-
houses, and spent two years in visiting every such institution
in Massachusetts, investigating especially the treatment of the
pauper insane. Her memorial to the state legislature dealing
with the abuses she discovered resulted in more adequate
provision being made for the care and treatment of the insane,
and she then extended her work into many other states. By 1847
she had travelled from Nova Scotia to the Gulf of Mexico, and
had visited 18 state penitentiaries, 300 county gaols and houses
of correction, and over 500 almshouses. Her labours resulted
in the establishment of insane asylums in twenty states and in
Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, and in the founding of many
additional gaols and almshouses conducted on a reformed plan.
In 1853 she secured more adequate equipment for the life-saving
service on Sable Island, then rightly called " the graveyard of
ships." In 1854 she secured the passage by Congress of a bill
granting to the states 12,250,000 acres of public lands, to be
utilized for the benefit of the insane, deaf, dumb and blind;
but the measure was vetoed by President Pierce. After this dis-
appointment she went to England for rest, but at once became
interested in the condition of the insane in Scotland, and her
report to the home secretary opened the way for sweeping
reforms. She extended her work into the Channel Islands, and
then to France, Italy, Austria, Greece, Turkey, Russia, Sweden,
Norway, Denmark, Holland, Belgium and a part of Germany.
Her influence over Arinori Mori, the Japanese charge d'affaires at
Washington, led eventually to the establishment of two asylums
for the insane in Japan. At the outbreak of the Civil War she
offered her services to the Federal government and was appointed
superintendent of women nurses. In this capacity she served
throughout the war, without a day's furlough; and her labours
on behalf of defectives were continued after the war. After a
lingering illness of six years she died at Trenton, New Jersey, on
the I7th of July 1887.
See Francis Tiffany, Life of Dorothea Lynde Dix (Boston, 1892).

DIX, JOHN ADAMS (1798-1879), American soldier and
political leader, was born at Boscawen, New Hampshire, on the
24th of July 1798. He studied at Phillips Exeter Academy in
1810-1811 and at the College of Montreal in 1811-1812, and as
a boy took part in the War of 1812, becoming a second lieutenant
in March 1814. In July 1828, having attained the rank of cap-
tain, he resigned from the army, and for two years practised law
at Cooperstown, New York. In 1830-1833 he was adjutant-
general of New York. He soon became prominent as one of the
leaders of the Democratic party in the state, and for many years
was a member of the so-called " Albany Regency," a group of
Democrats who between about 1820 and 1850 exercised a
virtual control over their party in New York, dictating nomina-
tions and appointments and distributing patronage. From 1833
to 1839 he was secretary of state and superintendent of schools
in New York, and in this capacity made valuable reports con-
cerning the public schools of the state, and a report (1836) which
led to the publication of the Natural History of the State of New
York (1842-1866). In 1842 he was a member of the New York
assembly. In 1841-1843 he was editor of The Northern Light, a
literary and scientific journal published in Albany. From 1845
to 1849 he was a United States senator from New York; and
as chairman of the committee on commerce was author of the
warehouse bill passed by Congress in 1846 to relieve merchants
from immediate payment of duties on imported goods. In 1848
he was nominated for governor of New York by the Free Soil
party, but was defeated by Hamilton Fish. His acceptance of
the nomination, however, earned him the enmity of the southern
Democrats, who prevented his appointment by Pierce as secretary
of state and as minister to France in 1853. In this year Dix was
for a few weeks assistant U.S. treasurer in New York city. In
May 1860 he became postmaster of New York city, and from
January until March 1861 he was secretary of the treasury of the
United States, in which capacity he issued (January 29, 1861) to
a revenue officer at New Orleans a famous order containing the
words, " if any one attempts to haul down the American flag,

DIXON, G.— DIXON

347

shoot him on the spot." He rendered important services in
hurrying forward troops in 1861, was appointed major-general
of volunteers in June 1861, and during the Civil War commanded
successively the department of Maryland (July i86i-May 1862),
Fortress Monroe (May 1862- July 1863), and the department of
the East (July 1863- July 1865). He was minister to France
from 1866 to 1869, and in 1872 was elected by the Republicans
governor of New York, but was defeated two years later. He had
great energy and administrative ability, was for a time president
of the Chicago & Rock Island and of the Mississippi & Missouri
railways, first president of the Union Pacific in 1863-1868, and
for a short time in 1872 president of the Erie. He died in New
York city on the 2ist of April 1879. Among his publications are
A Winter in Madeira and a Summer in Spain and Florence (1850),
and Speeches and Occasional A ddr esses ( 1 864) . He wrote excellent
English versions of the Dies irae and the Stabat mater.

His son, MORGAN Dix (1827-1908), graduated at Columbia in
1848 and at the General Theological Seminary in 1852, and was
ordained deacon (1852) and priest (1853) in the Protestant
Episcopalian church. In 1855-1859 he was assistant minister,
and in 1859-1862 assistant rector, of Trinity Church, New York
city, of which he was rector from 1862 until his death. He
published sermons and lectures; A History of the Parish of
Trinity Church, New York City (4 vols., 1898-1905); and a
biography of his father, Memoirs of John Adams Dix (2 vols.,
New York, 1883).

DIXON, GEORGE (1755 ?-i8oo), English navigator. He
served under Captain Cook in his]third expedition, during which
he had an opportunity of learning the commercial capabilities
of the north-west coast of North America. After his return from
Cook's expedition he became a captain in the royal navy. In the
autumn of 1785 he sailed in the " Queen Charlotte," in the service
of the King George's Sound Company of London, to explore the
shores of the present British Columbia, with the special object of
developing the fur trade. His chief discoveries were those of
Queen Charlotte's Islands and Sound (the latter only partial),
Port Mulgrave, Norfolk Bay, and Dixon's Entrance and Archi-
pelago. After visiting China, where he disposed of his cargo,
he returned to England (1788), and published (1799) A Voyage
round the World, but more particularly to the North-West Coast of
America, the bulk of which consists of descriptive letters by
William Beresford, his supercargo. His own contribution to the
work included valuable charts and appendices. He is usually,
though not with absolute certainty, identified with the George
Dixon who was author of The Navigator's Assistant (1791) and
teacher of navigation at Gosport.

DIXON, HENRY HALL (1822-1870), English sporting writer
over the nom de plume " The Druid," was born at Warwick
Bridge, Cumberland, on the i6th of May 1822, and was educated
at Rugby and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated
in 1846. He took up the profession of the law, but, though called
to the bar in 1853, soon returned to sporting journalism, in which
he had already made a name for himself, and began to write
regularly for the Sporting Magazine, in the pages of which
appeared three of his novels, Post and Paddock (1856), Silk and
Scarlet (1859), and Scott and Sebright (1862). He also published
a legal compendium entitled The Law of the Farm (1858), which
ran through several editions. His other more important works
were Field and Fern (1865), giving an account of the herds and
flocks of Scotland, and Saddle and Sirloin (1870), treating in the
same manner those of England. He died at Kensington on the
i6th of March 1870.

See Hon. Francis Lawley, Life and Times of" The Druid " (London,
1895)-

DIXON, RICHARD WATSON (1833-1900), English poet and
divine, son of Dr James Dixon, a Wesleyan minister, was born
on the 5th of May 1833. He was educated at King Edward's
school, Birmingham, and on proceeding to Pembroke College,
Oxford, became one of the famous " Birmingham group " there
who shared with William Morris and Burne- Jones in the Pre-
Raphaelite movement. He took only a second class in modera-
tions in 1854, and a third in Lilerae Humaniores in 1856; but in

1858 he won the Arnold prize for an historical essay, and in 1863
the English Sacred Poem prize. He was ordained in 1858, was
second master of Carlisle high school, 1863—1868, and successively
vicar of Hayton, Cumberland, and Warkworth, Northumberland.
He became minor canon and honorary librarian of Carlisle in
1868, and honorary canon in 1874, he was proctor in convocation
(1890-1894), and received the honorary degree of D.D. from
Oxford in 1899. He died at Warkworth on the 23rd of January
1900. Canon Dixon's first two volumes of verse, Christ's
Company and Historical Odes, were published in 1861 and 1863
respectively; but it was not until 1883 that he attracted
conspicuous notice with Mono, an historical poem in tersa
rima, which was enthusiastically praised by Mr Swinburne. This
success he followed up by three privately printed volumes, Odes
and Eclogues (1884), Lyrical Poems (1886), and The Story «/
Eudocia (1888). Dixon's poems were during the last fifteen
years of his life recognized as scholarly and refined exercises,
touched with both dignity and a certain severe beauty, but he
never attained any general popularity as a poet, the appeal of
his poetry being directly to the scholar. A great student of
history, his studies in that direction colour much of his poetry.
The romantic atmosphere is remarkably preserved in Mono, a
successful metrical exercise in the difficult terza rima. His typical
poems have charm and melody, without introducing any new
note or variety of rhythm. He is contemplative, sober and
finished in literary workmanship, a typical example of the Oxford
school. Pleasant as his poetry is, however, he will probably be
longest remembered by the work to which he gave the best years
of his life, his History of the Church of England from the Abolition
of the Roman Jurisdiction (1878-1902). At the time of his death
he had completed six volumes, two of which were published
posthumously. This fine work, covering the period from 1529 to
1570, is built upon elaborate research, and presents a trustworthy
and unprejudiced survey of its subject.

Dixon's Selected Poems were published in 1909 with a memoir of
the author by Robert Bridges.

DIXON, WILLIAM HEPWORTH (1821-1879), English author
and traveller, was born at Great Ancoats, Manchester, on the
3oth of June 1821, a member of an old Lancashire family.
Beginning life as a clerk at Manchester, he decided, in 1846, to
take up literature as a career. After gaining some journalistic
experience at Cheltenham he settled in London, on the recom-
mendation of Douglas Jerrold, and contributed to the Athenaeum
and Daily News. His series of papers — " The Literature of the
Lower Orders " — in the last-named journal, and a further series,
" London Prisons," were widely noticed. In 1849 appeared his
John Howard and the Prison World of Europe, which proved a
great popular success. These were followed by a Life of William
Penn (1851), in which he replied to Macaulay's attack on Penn;
Life of Blake (1852); and Personal History of Lord Bacon (1861),
supplemented by The Story of Lord Bacon's Life (1862). From
1853 to 1869 he was editor of the Athenaeum. In 1863 he visited
the East, and on his return helped to found the Palestine
Exploration Fund, and published (1865) The Holy Land. In
1866 he travelled through the United States, publishing, in 1867,
New America, and, the following year, Spiritual Wives, two supple-
mentary volumes. In the autumn of 1867 he journeyed through
the Baltic Provinces, publishing an account of his trip in Free
Russia (1870). In 1871 he was in Switzerland, and in 1872 in
Spain, where he wrote the greater part of his History of Two
Queens. In 1874 he revisited the United States, giving the
impressions of his tour in The White Conquest (1875). His other
works, besides some fiction, were British Cyprus (1879) and
Royal Windsor. He died on the 26th of December 1879. His
daughter, Ella N. Hepworth Dixon, became known as a journalist
and novelist.

DIXON, a city and the county seat of Lee county, Illinois,
U.S.A., on the Rock river, in the N.W. part of the state. Pop.
(1890) 5161; (1900) 7917 (879 foreign-born); (1910) 7216. It
is served by the Chicago & North-Western and the Illinois
Central railways, and is connected with Sterling by an electric
line; freight is shipped over the Hennepin Canal. The city

DIZFUL— DMITRIEV

has two parks of 159 and 6 acres respectively, and there is a
Chautauqua Park, where an annual Chautauqua Assembly is
held. Dixon is the seat of the Northern Illinois normal school
(incorporated in 1884), and of the Rock River military academy.
The river furnishes water power for the street railways, electric
lighting and a number of manufacturing establishments.
Among the manufactures are condensed milk, boxes, wire screens
and wire cloth, lawn mowers, gas engines, cement, agricultural
implements, shoes and wagons. The place was laid out in
1835 by John Dixon (1784-1876), the first white settler of Lee
county. A bronze tablet in the Howells Building, at the inter-
section of First and Peoria Streets, marks the site of his cabin,
and in the city cemetery a granite shaft has been erected to his
memory. Dixon was chartered as a city in 1859.

DIZFUL, or Diz-PuL (" fort-bridge "), a town of Persia, in the
province of Arabistan, 36 m. N.W. of Shushter, in 32° 25' N.,
48° 28' E. Pop. about 25,000. It has post and telegraph offices.
It is situated on the left bank of the Dizful river, a tributary
of the Karun, crossed by a fine bridge of twenty-two arches, 430
yds. in length, constructed on ancient foundations. Dizful is
the chief place of a small district of the same name and the
residence of the governor of Arabistan during the winter months.
The district has twelve villages and a population of about 35,000
(5000 Arabs of the Ali i Kethir tribe), and pays a yearly tribute
of about £6000. The city was formerly known as Andamish, and
in its vicinity are many remains of ancient canals and buildings
which afford conclusive proof of former importance. 16 m. S.W.
are the ruins of Susa, and east of them and half-way between
Dizful and Shushter stood the old city of Junday Shapur.

DJAKOVO (sometimes written Djakovar, Hungarian Diakovar) ,
a city of Croatia-Slavonia, Hungary; in the county of Virovitica,
100 m. E. by S. of Agram. Pop. (1900) 6824. Djakovo is a
Roman Catholic episcopal see, whose occupant bears the title
" Bishop of Bosnia, Slavonia and Sirmium." During the life of
Bishop Strossmayer (1815-1905) it was one of the chief centres of
religious and political activity among the Croats. The cathedral,
a vast basilica built of brick and white stone, with a central dome
and two lofty spires above the north entrance, was founded in
1866 and consecrated in 1882. Its style is Romanesque, chosen
by Strossmayer as symbolical of the position of his country
midway between east and west. The interior is magnificently
decorated with mosaics, mural paintings and statuary, chiefly
the work of local artists. Other noteworthy buildings are the
nunnery, ecclesiastical seminary and episcopal palace. Djakovo
has a thriving trade in agricultural produce. Many Roman
remains have been discovered in the neighbourhood, but the
earliest mention of the city is in 1244, when Bela IV. of Hungary
confirmed the title-deeds of its owners, the bishops of Bosnia.

For a full description of the cathedral, in Serbo-Croatian and
French, see the finely illustrated folio Stolna Crkva u Djakovu, pub-
lished by the South Slavonic Academy (Agram, 1900).

DLUGOSZ, JAN [JOHANNES LONGINUS] (1415-1480), Polish
statesman and historian, was the son of Jan Dlugosz, burgrave
of Bozeznica. Born in 1415, he graduated at the university of
Cracow and in 1431 entered the service of Bishop Zbygniew
Olesnicki (1389-1455), the statesman and diplomatist. He
speedily won the favour of his master, who induced him to take
orders and made him his secretary. His preferment was rapid.
In 1436 we find him one of the canons of Cracow and the ad-
ministrator of Olesnicki's vast estates. In 1 440, on returning from
Hungary, whither his master had escorted King Wladislaus II.,
Dlugosz saved the life of Olesnicki from robbers. The prelate
now employed Dlugosz on the most delicate and important
political missions. Dlugosz brought Olesnicki the red hat from
Rome in 1449, and shortly afterwards was despatched to Hungary
to mediate between Hunyadi and the Bohemian condottiere
Giszkra, a difficult mission which he most successfully ac-
complished. Both these embassies were undertaken contrary to
the wishes of King Casimir IV., who was altogether opposed to
Olesnicki's ecclesiastical policy. B ut though he thus sacrificed his
own prospects to the cardinal's good pleasure, Dlugosz was far too
sagacious to approve of the provocative attitude of Olesnicki, and

frequently and fearlessly remonstrated with him on his conduct.
In his account, however, of the quarrel between Casimir and
Olesnicki concerning the question of priority between the cardinal
and the primate of Poland he warmly embraced the cause of the
former, and even pronounced Casimir worthy of dethronement.
Such outbursts against Casimir IV. are not infrequent in
Dlugosz's Hisloria Polonica, and his strong personal bias must
certainly be taken into consideration in any critical estimate of
that famous work. Yet as a high-minded patriot Dlugosz had
no sympathy whatever with Olesnicki's opposition to Casimir's
Prussian policy, and steadily supported the king during the whole
course of the war with the Teutonic knights. When Olesnicki
died in 1455 he left Dlugosz his principal executor. The office of
administering the cardinal's estate was a very ungrateful one, for
the family resented the liberal benefactions of their kinsman to
the Church and the univesity, and accused Dlugosz of exercising
undue influence, from which charge he triumphantly vindicated
himself. It was in the year of his patron's death that he began to
write his Historia Polonica. This great book, the first and still
one of the best historical works on Poland in the modern sense of
the word, was only undertaken after mature consideration and
an exhaustive study of all the original sources then available,
some of which are now lost. The principal archives of Poland
and Hungary were ransacked for the purpose, and in his account of
his own times Dlugosz's intimate acquaintance with the leading
scholars and statesmen of his day stood him in good stead. The
style is modelled on that of Livy, of whom Dlugosz was a warm
admirer. As a proof of the thoroughness and conscientiousness of
Dlugosz it may be mentioned that he learned the Cyrillic alphabet
and took up the study of Ruthenian, " in order that this our
history may be as plain and perfect as possible." The first of the
numerous imprints of the Historia Polonica appeared in 1614, the
first complete edition in 1711.

Dlugosz's literary labours did not interfere with his political
activity. In 1467 the generous and discerning Casimir IV.
entrusted Dlugosz with the education of his sons, the eldest of
whom, Wladislaus, at the urgent request of the king, he ac-
companied to Prague when in 1471 the young prince was elected
king of Bohemia. Dlugosz refused the archbishopric of Prague
because of his strong dislike of the land of the Hussites; but seven
years later he accepted the archbishopric of Lemberg. His last
years were devoted to his history, which he completed in 1479.
He died on the igth of May 1480, at Piatek.

See Aleksander Semkowicz, Critical Considerations of the Polish
Works of Dlugosz (Pol.; Cracow, 1874); Michael Bqbrzynski and
Stanislaw Smolka, Life of Dlugosz and his Position in Literature (Pol. ;
Cracow, 1893). (R. N. B.)

DMITRIEV, IVAN IVANOVICH (1760-1837), Russian states-
man and poet, was born at his father's estate in the government of
Simbirsk. In consequence of the revolt of Pugachev the family
had to flee to St Petersburg, and there Ivan was entered at the
school of the Semenov Guards, and afterwards obtained a post
in the military service. On the accession of Paul to the imperial
throne he quitted the army with the title of colonel; and
his appointment as procurator for the senate was soon after
renounced for the position of privy councillor. During the four
years from 1810 to 1814 he served as minister of justice under the
emperor Alexander; but at the close of this period he retired into
private life, and though he lived more than twenty years, he never
again took office, but occupied himself with his literary labours
and the collection of books and works of art. In the matter of
language he sided with Karamsin, and did good service by his
own pen against the Old Slavonic party. His poems include songs,
odes, satires, tales, epistles, &c., as well as the fables— partly
original and partly translated from Fontaine, Florian and Arnault
— on which his fame chiefly rests. Several of his lyrics have
become thoroughly popular from the readiness with which they
can be sung; and a short dramatico-epic poem on Yermak, the
Cossack conqueror of Siberia, is well known.

His writings occupy three volumes in the first five editions; in the
6th (St Petersburg, "1823) there are only two. His memoirs, to
which he devoted the last years of his life, were published at Moscow
in 1866.

DNIEPER— DOBBS FERRY

349

DNIEPER, one of the most important rivers of Europe (the
Borysthenes of the Greeks, Danapris of the Romans, Uz i or Uzu of
the Turks, Eksi of the Tatars, Elice of Visconti's map (1381),
Lerene of Contarini (1437), Luosen of Baptista of Genoa (1514),
and Lussem in the same century). It belongs entirely to Russia,
and rises in the government of Smolensk, in a swampy district
(alt. 930 ft.) at the foot of the Valdai Hills, not far from the
sources of the Volga and the Dvina, in 55° 52' N. and 33° 41' E.
Its length is about 1410 m. and it drains an area of 202, 140 sq. m.
In the first part of its course, which may be said to end at
Dorogobuzh, it flows through an undulating country of Carbon-
iferous formation; in the second it passes west to Orsha, south
through the fertile plain of Chernigov and Kiev, and then south-
east across the rocky steppe of the Ukraine to Ekaterinoslav.
About 45 m. S. of this town it has to force its way across the same
granitic offshoot of the Carpathian mountains which interrupts
the course of the Dniester and the Bug, and for a distance of about
25m. rapid succeeds rapid. The fall of the river in that distance
is 155 ft. The Dnieper, having got clear of the rocks, continues
south-west through the grassy plains of Kherson and Taurida,
and enters the Black Sea, or rather a liman or bay of the Black
Sea, by a considerable estuary in 46° 30' N. and 32° 20"' E. On
this ramifying liman, into which the Bug also pours its waters,
stand Nikolaiev and the fortified town of Ochakov. Navigation
extends as far up as Dorogobuzh, where the depth is about 12 ft.,
and rafts are floated down from the higher reaches. The banks
are generally high, more particularly the left bank. About the
town of Smolensk the breadth is 455 ft., at the confluence of the
Pripet 1400, and in some parts of the Ekaterinoslav district more
than 1 1 m. In the course above the rapids the channel varies
very greatly in nature and depth, and it is not infrequently
interrupted by shallows. The rapids, or porogs, form a serious
obstacle to navigation; it is only for a few weeks when the river
is in flood that they are passable, and even then the venture is not
without risk and can only be undertaken with the assistance of
special pilots. It is from these falls that the Cossacks of the
Ukraine came to be known as Zaporogian Cossacks. As early
as 1732 an attempt was made to improve the channel. A canal,
which ultimately proved too small for use, was constructed at
Nenasitets in 1780 at private expense; blastings were carried out
in 1798 and 1799 at various parts; in 1805 a canal was formed at
Kaindatski, and the channel straightened at Sursk; by 1807 a
new canal was completed at Nenasitets; in 1833 a passage was
cleared through the Staro-kaindatski porog; and in the period
1843 to 1853 numerous ameliorations were effected. The result
has been not only to diminish greatly the dangers of the natural
channel, but also to furnish a series of artificial canals by which
vessels can make their way when the river is low. Of the
tributaries of the Dnieper the following are navigable, — the
Berezina and the Pripet from the right, and the Sozh and the
Desna from the left. By means of the Dnieper-Bug (King's)
canal, and the Berezina and Oginski canals, this river has a sort
of water connexion with the Baltic Sea. In the estuary the
fisheries give employment to large numbers of people* At Kiev
the river is free from ice on an average of 234 days in the year, at
Ekaterinoslav 270 and at Kherson 277. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)

DNIESTER (Tyras and Danaster or Danastris of classical
authors, Nislrul of the Rumanians, and Turin of the Turks), a
river of south-eastern Europe belonging to the basin of the Black
Sea. It rises on the northern slope of the Carpathian mountains
in Austrian Galicia, and belongs for the first 350 m. of its course
to Austrian, for the remaining 515 m. to Russian, territory. It
drains an area of 29,670 sq. m., of which 16,500 sq. m. belong to
Russia. It is excessively meandering, and the current in most
parts even during low water is decidedly rapid as compared with
Russian rivers generally, the mean rate being calculated at i-frm.
per hour. The average width of the channel is from 500 to 750 ft.,
but in some places it attains as much as 1400 ft.; the depth is
various and changeable. The principal interruption in the
navigable portion of the river, besides a sprinkling of rocks in the
bed and the somewhat extensive shallows, is occasioned by a
granitic spur from the Carpathians, which gives rise to the Yampol

Rapids. For ordinary river craft the passage of these rapids is
rendered possible, but not free from danger, by a natural channel
on the left side, and by a larger and deeper artificial channel on
the right; for steamboats they form an insuperable barrier. The
river falls into the sea by several arms, passing through a shallow
liman or lagoon, a few miles S.W. of Odessa. There are two
periodical floods, — the earlier and larger caused by the breaking
up of the ice, and occurring in the latter part of February or in
March; and the later due to the melting of the snows in the
Carpathians, and taking place about June. The spring flood
raises the level of the water 20 ft., and towards the mouth of
the river submerges the gardens and vineyards of the adjacent
country. In some years the general state of the water is so low
that navigation is possible only for three or four weeks, while
in other years it is so high that navigation continues without
interruption; but in recent years considerable improvements
have been effected at government expense. In consequence
the traffic has increased, the Dniester tapping regions of great
productiveness, especially in cereals and timber, namely, Galicia,
Podolia and Bessarabia. Steamboat traffic was introduced in the
lower reaches in 1840. The fisheries of the lower course and of
the estuary are of considerable importance; and these, together
with those of the lakes which are formed by the inundations,
furnish a valuable addition to the diet of the people in the shape
of carp, pike, tench, salmon, sturgeon and eels. Its tributaries
are numerous, but not of individual importance, except perhaps
the Sereth in Galicia. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)

DOAB, DUAB or DOOAB, a name, like the Greek Mesopotamia,
applied in India, according to its derivation (do, two, and ab,
river), to the stretch of country lying bet ween any two rivers, as
the Bari Doab between the Sutlej and the Ravi, the Rechna Doab
between the Ravi and the Chenab, the Jech Doab between the
Chenab and Jhelum, and the Sind Sagar Doab between the
Jhelum and the Indus, but frequently employed, without any
distinctive adjunct, as the proper name for the region between
the Ganges and its great tributary the Jumna. In like manner
the designation of Doab canal is given to the artificial channel
which breaks off from the Jumna near Fyzabad, and flows almost
parallel with the river till it reunites with it at Delhi.

DOANE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1799-1859), American
churchman, Protestant Episcopal bishop of New Jersey, was born
in Trenton, New Jersey, on the 27th of May 1799. He graduated
at Union College, Schenectady, New York, in 1818, studied
theology and, in 1821, was ordained deacon and in 1823 priest by
Bishop Hobart, whom he assisted in Trinity church, New York.
With George Upfold (1796-1872), bishop of Indiana from 1849
to 1872, Doane founded St Luke's in New York City. In 1824-
1828 he was professor of belles-lettres in Washington (now
Trinity) College, Hartford, Connecticut, and at this time he was
one of the editors of the Episcopal Watchman. He was assistant
in 1828-1830 and rector in 1830-1832 of Christ church, Boston,
and was bishop of New Jersey from October 1832 to his death at
Burlington, New Jersey, on the 27th of April 1859. The diocese
of New Jersey was an unpromising field, but he took up his work
there with characteristic vigour, especially in the foundation of
St Mary's Hall (1837, for girls) and Burlington College (1846) as
demonstrations of his theory of education under church control.
His business management of these schools got him heavily into
debt, and in the autumn of 1852 a charge of lax administration
came before a court of bishops, who dismissed it. The schools
showed him an able and wise disciplinarian, and his patriotic
orations and sermons prove him a speaker of great power.
He belonged to the High Church party and was a brilliant
controversialist. He published Songs by the Way (1824), a
volume of poems; and his hymns beginning " Softly now the
light of day " and " Thou art the Way " are well known.

See Life and Writings of George Washington Doane (4 vols., New
York, 1860-1861), edited by his son, William Croswell Doane
(b. 1832), first bishop of Albany.

DOBBS FERRY, a village of Westchester county, New York,
on the E. bank of the Hudson river 2 m. N. of Yonkers. Pop.
(1890) 2083; (1900) 2888; (1910 U. S. census) 3455. Dobbs

350

DOBELL— DOBEREINER

Ferry is served by the Hudson River division of the New York
Central railway. There are many fine country places, two private
schools — the Mackenzie school for boys and the Misses Masters'
school for girls — and the children's village (with about thirty
cottages) of the New York juvenile asylum. The name of the
village was derived from a Swede, Jeremiah Dobbs, whose family
probably moved hither from Delaware, and who at the begin-
ning of the last quarter of the i8th century had a skiff ferry,
which was kept up by his family for a century afterwards.
Because Dobbs Ferry had been a part of Philipse Manor all lands
in it were declared forfeit at the time of the War of American
Independence (see YONKERS), and new titles were derived from
the commissioners of forfeitures. The position of the village
opposite the northernmost end of the Palisades gave it importance
during the war. The region was repeatedly raided by camp
followers of each army; earthworks and a fort, commanding
the Hudson ferry and the ferry to Paramus, New Jersey, were
built; the British army made Dobbs Ferry a rendezvous, after
the battle of White Plains, in November 1776, and the conti-
nental division under General Benjamin Lincoln was here at the
end of January 1777. The American army under Washington
encamped near Dobbs Ferry on the 4th of July 1781, and started
thence for Yorktown in the following month. In the Van Brugh
Livingston house on the 6th of May 1783, Washington and
Governor George Clinton met General Sir Guy Carleton, after-
wards Lord Dorchester, to negotiate for the evacuation by the
British troops of the posts they still held in the United States.
In 1873 the village was incorporated as Greenburgh, from the
township of the same name which in 1788 had been set apart
from the manor of Phillipsburgh; but the name Dobbs Ferry
was soon resumed.

DOBELL, SYDKEY THOMPSON (1824-1874), English poet
and critic, was born on the sth of April 1824 at Cranbrook, Kent.
His father was a wine merchant, his mother a daughter of Samuel
Thompson (1766-1837), a London political reformer. The
family moved to Cheltenham when Dobell was twelve years old.
He was educated privately, and never attended either school or
university. He refers to this in some lines on Cheltenham College
in imitation of Chaucer, written in his eighteenth year. After
a five years' engagement he married, in 1844, Emily Fordham, a
lady of good family. An acquaintance with Mr (subsequently Sir
James) Stansfeld and with the Birmingham preacher-politician,
George Dawson (1821-1876), which afterwards led to the
foundation of the Society of the Friends of Italy, fed the young
enthusiast's ardour for the liberalism of the day. Meanwhile,
Dobell wrote a number of minor poems, instinct with a passionate
desire for political reform. The Roman appeared in 1850, under
the nom de plume of " Sydney Yendys." Next year he travelled
through Switzerland with his wife; and after his return he
formed friendships with Robert Browning, Philip Bailey, George
MacDonald, Emanuel Deutsch, Lord Houghton, Ruskin, Holman
Hunt, Mazzini, Tennyson and Carlyle. His second long poem,
Balder, appeared in 1854. The three following years were spent
in Scotland. Perhaps his closest friend at this time was Alexander
Smith, in company with whom he published, in 1855, a number
of sonnets on the Crimean War, which were followed by a
volume on England in Time „/ War. Although by no means
a rich man he was always ready to help needy men of letters,
and it was through his exertions that David Gray's poems
were published. In 1869 a horse, which he was riding, fell and
rolled over with him. His health, which had for several years
necessitated his wintering abroad, was seriously affected by this
accident, and he was from this time more or less of an invalid,
until his death on the 22nd of August 1874.

As a poet Dobell belongs to the " spasmodic school," as it was
named by Professor Aytoun, who parodied its style in Firmilian.
The epithet, however, was first applied by Carlyle to Byron.
The school includes George Gilfillan, Philip James Bailey, John
Stanyan Bigg (1826-1865), Dobell, Alexander Smith, and,
according to some critics, Gerald Massey. It was characterized
by an under-current of discontent with the mystery of existence,
by vain effort, unrewarded struggle, sceptical unrest, and an

uneasy straining after the unattainable. It thus faithfully
reflected a certain phase of ipth century thought. The pro-
ductions of the school are marked by an excess of metaphor
and a general extravagance of language. On the other hand,
they exhibit freshness and originality often lacking in more
conventional writings. Dobell's poem, The Roman, dedicated
to the interests of political liberty in Italy, is marked by
pathos, energy and passionate love of freedom, but it is over-
laid with monologue, which is carried to a dreary excess in
Balder, relieved though the latter is by fine descriptive passages,
and by some touching songs. Dobell's suggestive, but too
ornate prose writings were collected and edited with an intro-
ductory note by Prof essor J. Nichol ( Thoughts on Art, Philosophy
and Religion) in 1876. In his religious views Dobell was a
Christian of the Broad Church type; and socially he was one of
the most amiable and true-hearted of men. His early interest
in the cause of oppressed nationalities, shown in his friendship
with Kossuth, Emanuel Deutsch and others, never lessened,
although his views of home politics underwent some change from
the radical opinions of his youth. In Gloucestershire Dobell
was well known as an advocate of social reform, and he was a
pioneer in the application of the co-operative system to private
enterprise.

The standard edition of his poems (1875) by Professor Nichol
includes a memoir.

DOBELN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on
the (Freiberg) Mulde, two arms of which embrace the town as
an island, 35m. S.E. from Leipzig by rail, and at the junction of
lines to Dresden, Chemnitz, Riesa and Oschatz. Pop. (1905)
including the garrison, 18,907. It has two Evangelical churches,
of which the Nikolai-kirche, dating in its present form from 1485,
is a handsome edifice; a medieval town hall, a former Benedictine
nunnery and a monument to Luther. There are an agricultural
and a commercial school. The industries include wool-spinning,
iron-founding, carriage, agricultural implement, and metal-
printing and stamping works.

DOBERAN, or DOBBERAN, a town of Germany, in the grand-
duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, about 2 m. from the shores of
the Baltic and 7 W. of Rostock by rail. Pop. 5000. Besides the
ruins of a Cistercian abbey founded by Pribislaus, prince of
Mecklenburg, in 1173, and secularized in 1552, it possesses an
Evangelical Gothic church of the i4th century, one of the finest in
north Germany, a grand-ducal palace, a theatre, an exchange and
a concert hall. Owing to its delightful situation amid beech
forests and to its chalybeate waters, Doberan has become a
favourite summer resort. Numerous villa residences have been
erected and promenades and groves laid out. In 1793 Duke
Frederick Francis caused the first seaside watering-place in
Germany to be established on the neighbouring coast, 4 m.
distant, at the spot where the Heiligen-Damm, a great bank of
rocks about 1000 ft. broad and 15 ft. high, stretches out into the
sea and forms an excellent bathing ground. Though no longer
so popular as in the early part of the igth century, it is still
frequented, and is connected with Doberan by a tramway.

DflBEREINER, JOHANN WOLFGANG (1780-1849), German
chemist, was born near Hof in Bavaria on the isth of December
1780. After studying pharmacy at Miinchberg, he started a
chemical manufactory in 1803, and in 1810 was appointed
professor of chemistry, pharmacy and technology at Jena,
where he died on the 24th of March 1849. The Royal Society's
Catalogue enumerates 171 papers by him on various chemical
topics, but his name is best known for his experiments on
platinum in a minute state of division and on the oxidation
products of alcohol. In 1822 he showed that when a mass
of platinum black, supplied with alcohol by a wick is enclosed
in a jar to which the air has limited access, acetic acid and water
are produced; this experiment formed the basis of the Schiit-
zenbach Quick Vinegar Process. A year later he noticed that
spongy platinum in presenceof oxygen canbringabout the ignition
of hydrogen, and utilized this fact to construct his " hydrogen
lamp," the prototype of numerous devices for the self -ignition of
coal-gas burners. He studied the formation of aldehyde from

DOBREE— DOBRUDJA

alcohol by various methods, also obtaining its crystalline com-
pound with ammonia, and he was the discoverer of furfurol.
An early observation of the diffusion of gases was recorded by
him in 1823 when he noticed the escape of hydrogen from a
cracked jar, attributing it to the capillary action of fissures.
His works included treatises on pneumatic chemistry (1821-1825)
and the chemistry of fermentation (1822).

A correspondence which he carried on with Goethe and Charles
August, grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar, was collected and published
at Weimar by Schade in 1856.

DOBREE, PETER PAUL (1782-1825), English classical scholar
and critic, was born in Guernsey. He was educated at Reading
school under Richard Valpy and at Trinity College, Cambridge,
where he was elected fellow. He was appointed regius professor
of Greek in 1823, and died in Cambridge on the 24th of September
1825. He was an intimate friend of Person, whom he took as his
model in textual criticism, although he showed less caution in
conjectural emendation. After Person's death (1808) Dobree
was commissioned with Monk and Blomfield to edit his literary
remains, which had been bequeathed to Trinity College. Illness
and a subsequent journey to Spain delayed the work until 1820,
when Dobree brought out the Plutus of Aristophanes (with his
own and Person's notes) and all Person's Aristophanica. Two
years later he published the Lexicon of Photius from Person's
transcript of the Gale MS. in Trinity College library, to which he
appended a Lexicon rhetoricum from the margin of a Cambridge
MS. of Harpocration. James Scholefield, his successor in the
Greek professorship, brought out selections from his notes
(Adversaria, 1831-1833) on Greek and Latin authors (especially
the orators), and a reprint of the Lexicon rhetoricum, together
with notes on inscriptions (1834-1835). The latest edition of the
Adversaria is by William Wagner (in Bohn's Collegiate Series,
1883).

An appreciative estimate of Dobree as a scholar will be found in
J. Bake's Scholica hypomnemata, ii. (1839) and in the Philological
Museum, i. (1832) by J. C. Hare.

DOBRENTEI, 6ABOR [GABRIEL] (1786-1851), Hungarian
philologist and antiquary, was born at Nagyszollos in 1786.
He completed his studies at the universities of Wittenberg and
Leipzig, and was afterwards engaged as a tutor in Transylvania.
At this period he originated and edited the Erdelyi Muzeum,
which, notwithstanding its important influence on the develop-
ment of the Magyar language and literature, soon failed for want
of support. In 1820 Dobrentei settled at Pest, and there he spent
the rest of his life. He held various official posts, but continued
zealously to pursue the studies for which he had early shown a
strong preference. His great work is the Ancient Monuments of
the Magyar Language (Regi Magyar Nyehemlekek), the editing
of which was entrusted to him by the Hungarian Academy. The
first volume was published in 1838 and the fifth was in course
of preparation at the time of his death. Dobrentei was one of
the twenty-two scholars appointed in 1825 to plan and organize,
under the presidency of Count Teleki, the Hungarian Academy.
In addition to his great work he wrote many valuable papers
on historical and philological subjects, and many biographical
notices of eminent Hungarians. These appeared in the Hungarian
translation of Brockhaus's Conversations-Lexikon. He translated
into Hungarian Macbeth and other plays of Shakespeare, Sterne's
letters from Yorick to Eliza (1828), several of Schiller's tragedies,
and Moliere's A tare, and wrote several original poems. Dobrentei
does not appear to have taken any part in the revolutionary
movement of 1848. He died at his country house, near Pest,
on the 28th of March 1851.

DOBRITCH, or HAJIOLUPAZARJIK, the principal town in the
Bulgarian Dobrudja. Pop. (1901) 13,436. The town is noted
for its panair or great fair, chiefly for horses and cattle, held
annually in the summer, which formerly attracted a large
concourse from all parts of eastern Europe, but has declined in
importance.

DOBRIZHOFFER, MARTIN (1717-1791), Austrian Roman
Catholic missionary, was born at Gratz, in Styria. He joined the
Society of Jesus in 1736, and in 1749 proceeded to Paraguay,

where for eighteen years he worked devotedly first among the
Guaranis, and then among the Abipones. Returning to Europe
on the expulsion of the Jesuits from South America, he settled at
Vienna, obtained the friendship of Maria Theresa, survived the
extinction of his order, composed the history of his mission, and
died on the tythof July 1791. The lively if rather garrulous book
on which his title to remembrance rests, appeared at Vienna in
1784, in the author's own Latin, and in a German translation by
Professor Krail of the university of Pest. Of its contents some idea
may be obtained from its extended title : — Historic, de A biponibus,
Equestri Bellicosaque Paraguariae Natione, locupletala Copiosis
Barbararum Gentium, Urbium, Fluminum, Ferarum, Amphibi-
orum, Insectorum, Serpenlium praecipuorum, Piscium, Avium,
Arborum, Plantarumaliarumqueejusdem Provincial Proprietatum
Obsenationibus. In 1822 there appeared in London an anony-
mous translation sometimes ascribed to Southey, but really the
work of Sara Coleridge, who had undertaken the task to defray
the college expenses of one of her brothers. A delicate compli-
ment was paid to the translator by Southey in the third canto of
his Tale of Paraguay, the story of which was derived from the
pages of Dobrizhoffer's narrative. —

" And if he could in Merlin's glass have seen
By whom his tomes to speak our tongue were taught,
The old man would have felt as pleased, I ween,
As when he won the ear of that great Empress Queen."

DOBROWSKY, JOSEPH (1753-1829), Hungarian philologist,
was born of Bohemian parentage at Gjermet, near Raab, in
Hungary. He received his first education in the German school
at Bischofteinitz, made his first acquaintance with Bohemian
at the Deutschbrod gymnasium, studied for some time under
the Jesuits at Klattau, and then proceeded to the university of
Prague. In 1772 he was admitted among the Jesuits at Briinn;
but on the dissolution of the order in 1773 he returned to Prague
to study theology. After holding for some time the office of tutor
in the family of Count Nostitz, he obtained an appointment first
as vice-rector, and then as rector, in the general seminary at
Hradisch; but in 1790 he lost his post through the abolition
of the seminaries throughout Austria, and returned as a guest
to the house of the count. In 1792 he was commissioned by
the Bohemian Academy of Sciences to visit Stockholm, Abo,
Petersburg and Moscow in search of the manuscripts which had
been scattered by the Thirty Years' War; and on his return
he accompanied Count Nostitz to Switzerland and Italy. His
reason began to give way in 1795, and in 1801 he had to be
confined in a lunatic asylum; but by 1803 he had completely
recovered. The rest of his life was mainly spent either in Prague
or-at the country seats of his friends Counts Nostitz and Czernin;
but his death took place at Briinn, whither he had gone in 1828
to make investigations in the library. While his fame rests
chiefly on his labours in Slavonic philology his botanical studies
are not without value in the history of the science.

The following is a list of his more important works, Fragmentum
Pragense evangelii S. Marci, vulgo autographi (1778); a periodical
for Bohemian and Moravian Literature (1780-1787); Scriptures
rerum Bohemicarum (2 vols., 1783); Geschichte der bohm. Sprache
und altern Literatur (1792) ; Die Bildsamkeit der slaw. Sprache (1799) ;
a Deutsch-bohm. Worterbuch compiled in collaboration with Leschka-
Puchmayer and Hanka (1802-1821) ; Entwurf eines Pflanzensystems
nach Zahlen und Verhdltnissen (1802); Glagolitica (1807); Lehr-
gebdude der bohm. Sprache (1809) ; Institutions linguae slavicae dia-
lecti veteris (1822); Entwurf zu einem allgemeinen Etymologikon der
slaw. Sprachen (1813); Slowanka zur Kenntniss der slaw. Literatur
(1814); and a critical edition of Jordanes, De rebus Geticis, for
Pertz's Monumenta Germaniae historica. See Palacky, J. Dobrowskys
Leben undgelehrtes Wirken (1833).

DOBRUDJA (Bulgarian Dobritch, Rumanian Dobrogea), also
written DOBEUDSCHA, and DOBRUJA, a region of south-eastern
Europe, bounded on the north and west by the Danube, on the
eastby the Black Sea, and on the south by Bulgaria. Pop. (1900)
267,808; area, 6000 sq. m. The strategic importance of this
territory was recognized by the Romans, who defended it on
the south by " Trajan's Wall," a double rampart, drawn from
Constantza, on the Black Sea, to the Danube. In later times it
was utilized by Russians and Turks, as in the wars of 1828, 1854

352

DOBSINA— DOBSON, H. A.

and 1878, when it was finally wrested from Turkey. By the treaty
of Berlin, in 1878, the Russians rewarded their Rumanian allies
with this land of mountains, fens and barren steppes, peopled by
Turks, Bulgarians, Tatars, Jews and other aliens; while, to add
to the indignation of Rumania, they annexed instead the fertile
country of Bessarabia, largely inhabited by Rumans. After 1 880,
however, the steady decrease of aliens, and the development of
the Black Sea ports, rendered the Dobrudja a source of prosperity
to Rumania.

DOBSINA (Ger. Dobschau) , a, town of Hungary, 165 m. N.E. of
Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 5109. It is situated in the county
of Gb'mor, at the foot of the Radzim (3200 ft. high) in the central
Carpathians, and lies to the south of the beautiful Straczena
valley, watered by the river Gollnitz, and enclosed on all sides
by mountains. In the vicinity are mines of iron, cobalt, copper
and mercury, some of them being very ancient. But the most
remarkable feature is a large cavern some 3$ m. N.W., in which
is an icefield nearly 2 acres in extent, containing formations
which are at once most curious and strikingly beautiful. This
cavern, which lies in the above-mentioned Straczena valley,
was discovered in 1870. The place was founded in the first half
of the I4th century by German miners.

DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN (1840- ), English poet and man
of letters, was born at Plymouth on the i8th of January 1840,
being the eldest son of George Clarisse Dobson, a civil engineer,
and on his grandmother's side of French descent. When he was
about eight years old the family moved to Holyhead, and his
first school was at Beaumaris, in the Isle of Anglesea. He was
afterwards educated at Coventry, and the Gymnase, Strassburg,
whence he returned at the age of sixteen with the intention
of becoming a civil engineer. He had a taste for art, and in
his earlier years at the office continued to study it at South
Kensington, at his leisure, but without definite ambition. In
December 1856 he entered the Board of Trade, gradually rising to
a principalship in the harbour department, from which he with-
drew in the autumn of 1901. He married in 1868 Frances Mary,
daughter of Nathaniel Beardmore of Broxbourne, Herts, and
settled at Baling. His official career was industrious though
uneventful, but as poet and biographer he stands among the most
distinguished of his time. The student of Mr Austin Dobson's
work will be struck at once by the fact that it contains nothing
immature: there are no juvenilia to criticize or excuse. It was
about 1864 that Mr Dobson first turned his attention to composi-
tion in prose and verse, and some of his earliest known pieces
remain among his best. It was not until 1868 that the appearance
of St Paul's, a magazine edited by Anthony Trollope, afforded
Mr Dobson an opportunity and an audience; and during the next
six years he contributed to its pages some of his favourite poems,
including " Tu Quoque," " A Gentleman of the Old School," " A
Dialogue from Plato," and " Une Marquise." Many of his poems
in their original form were illustrated — some, indeed, actually
written to support illustrations. By the autumn of 1873 Mr
Dobson had produced sufficient verse for a volume, and put forth
his Vignettes in Rhyme, which quickly passed through three
editions. During the period of their appearance in the magazine
the poems had received unusual attention, George Eliot, among
others, extending generous encouragement to the anonymous
author. The little book at once introduced him to a larger public.
The period was an interesting one for a first appearance, since-
the air was full of metrical experiment. Swinburne's bold and
dithyrambic excursions into classical metre had given the clue
for an enlargement of the borders of English prosody; and, since
it was hopeless to follow him in his own line without necessary loss
of vigour, the poets of the day were looking about for fresh forms
and variations. It was early in 1876 that a small body of English
poets lit upon the French forms of Theodore de Banville, Marot
and Villon, and determined to introduce them into English verse.
Mr Austin Dobson, who had already made successful use of the
triolet, was at the head of this movement, and in May 1876 he
published in The Prodigals the first original ballade written in
English. This he followed by English versions of the rondel,
rondeau and villanelle. An article in the Cornhill Magazine by

Mr Edmund Gosse, " A Plea for Certain Exotic Forms of Verse,"
appearing in Julyi877, simultaneously with Mr Dobson's second
volume, Proverbs in Porcelain, drew the general eye to the
possibilities and achievements of the movement. The experiment
was extremely fortunate in its introduction. Mr Dobson is above
all things natural, spontaneous and unaffected in poetic method;
and in his hands a sheaf of metrical forms, essentially artificial
and laborious, was made to assume the colour and bright
profusion of a natural product. An air of pensive charm, of
delicate sensibility, pervades the whole of these fresh revivals;
and it is perhaps this personal touch of humanity which has
given something like stability to one side of a movement other-
wise transitory in influence. The fashion has laded, but the
flowers of Mr Dobson's French garden remain bright and
scented.

In 1883 Mr Dobson published Old-World Idylls, a volume which
contains some of his most characteristic work. By this time his
taste was gradually settling upon the period with which it has
since become almost exclusively associated; and the spirit of
the i8th century is revived in " The Ballad of Beau Brocade "
and in " The Story of Rosina," as nowhere else in modern English
poetry. In " Beau Brocade," indeed, the pictorial quality of his
work, the dainty economy of eloquent touches, is at its very
best: every couplet has its picture, and every picture is true and
vivacious. The touch has often been likened to that of Randolph
Caldecott, with which it has much in common; but Mr Dobson's
humour is not so " rollicking," his portraiture not so broad, as
that of the illustrator of " John Gilpin." The appeal is rather
to the intellect, and the touches of subdued pathos in the
" Gentleman " and " Gentlewoman of the Old School " are
addressed directly to the heart. We are in the i8th century, but
see it through the glasses of to-day; and the soft intercepting
sense of change which hangs like a haze between ourselves and
the subject is altogether due to the poet's sympathy and sensi-
bility. At the Sign of the Lyre (1885) wasthenextof Mr Dobson's
separate volumes of verse, although he has added to the body of
his work in a volume of Collected Poems (1897) . At the Sign of the
Lyre contains examples of all his various moods. The admirably
fresh and breezy " Ladies of St James's " has precisely the
qualities we have traced in his other 18th-century poems; there
are baMades and rondeaus, with all the earlier charm; and in
" A Revolutionary Relic," as in " The Child Musician " of the
Old-World Idylls, the poet reaches a depth of true pathos which
he does not often attempt, but in which, when he seeks it, he
never fails. At the pole opposite to these are the light occasional
verses, not untouched by the influence of Praed, but also quite
individual, buoyant and happy. But the chief novelty in At the
Sign of the Lyre was the series of " Fables of Literature and Art,"
founded in manner upon Gay, and exquisitely finished in
scholarship, taste and criticism. It is in these perhaps, more than
in any other of his poems, that we see how with much felicity Mr
Dobson interpenetrates the literature of fancy with the literature
of judgment. After 1885 Mr Dobson was engaged principally
upon critical and biographical prose, by which he has added very
greatly to the general knowledge of his favourite i8th century.
His biographies of Fielding (1883), Bewick (1884), Steele (1886),
Goldsmith (1888), Walpole (1890) and Hogarth (1879-1898) are
studies marked alike by assiduous research, sympathetic pre-
sentation and sound criticism. It is particularly noticeable that
Mr Dobson in his prose has always added something, and often a
great deal, to our positive knowledge of the subject in question,
his work as a critic never being solely aesthetic. In Four French-
women (1890), in the three series of Eighteenth-Century Vignettes
(1892-1894-1896), and in The Paladin of Philanthropy (1899),
which contain unquestionably his most delicate prose work,
the accurate detail of each study is relieved by a charm of
expression which could only be attained by a poet. In 1901
he collected his hitherto unpublished poems in a volume en-
titled Carmina Voliva. Possessing an exquisite talent of defined
range, Mr Austin Dobson may be said in his own words to
have " held his pen in trust for Art " with a service sincere and
distinguished.

DOBSON, W.— DOCK

353

DOBSON, WILLIAM (1610-1646), English portrait and
historical painter, was born in London. His father was master of
the alienation office, but by improvidence had fallen into reduced
circumstances. The son was accordingly bound an apprentice
to a stationer and picture dealer in Holborn Bridge; and while
in his employment he began to copy the pictures of Titian and
Van Dyck. He also took portraits from life under the advice
and instruction of Francis Cleyn, a German artist of considerable
repute. Van Dyck, happening to pass a shop in Snow Hill where
one of Dobson's pictures was exposed, sought out the artist, and
presented him to Charles I., who took Dobson under his protec-
tion, and not only sat to him several times for his own portrait,
but caused the prince of Wales, Prince Rupert and many others
to do the same. The king had a high opinion of his artistic ability,
styled him the English Tintoretto, and appointed him Serjeant-
painter on the death of Van Dyck. After the fall of Charles,
Dobson was reduced to great poverty, and fell into dissolute
habits. He died at the early age of thirty-six. Excellent
examples of Dobson's portraits are to be seen at Blenheim,
Chatsworth and several other country seats throughout England.
The head in the " Decollation of St John the Baptist " at Wilton
is said to be a portrait of Prince Rupert.

DOCETAE, a name applied to those thinkers in the early
Christian Church who held that Christ, during his life, had not
a real or natural, but only an apparent (dontiv, to appear) or
phantom body. Other explanations of the SiKTjats or appear-
ance have, however, been suggested, and, in the absence of any
statement by those who first used the word of the grounds on
which they did so, it is impossible to determine between them
with certainty. The name Docetae is first used by Theodoret
(Ep. 82) as a general description, and by Clement of Alexandria
as the designation of a distinct sect,1 of which he says that Julius
Cassianus was the founder. Docetism, however, undoubtedly
existed before the time of Cassianus. The origin of the heresy is
to be sought in the Greek, Alexandrine and Oriental philosophiz-
ing about the imperfection or rather the essential impurity of
matter. Traces of a Jewish Docetism are to be found in Philo ;
and in the Christian form it is generally supposed to be combated
in the writings of John,2 and more formally in the epistles of
Ignatius.3 It differed much in its complexion according to the
points of view adopted by the different authors. Among the
Gnostics and Manichaeans it existed in its most developed type,
and in a milder form it is to be found even in the writings of the
orthodox teachers. The more thoroughgoing Docetae assumed
the position that Christ was born without any participation of
matter; and that all the acts and sufferings of his human life,
including the crucifixion, were only apparent. They denied
accordingly, the resurrection and the ascent into heaven. To this
class belonged Dositheus, Saturninus, Cerdo, Marcion and their
followers, the Ophites, Manichaeans and others. Marcion, for
example, regarded the body of Christ merely as an " umbra," a
" phantasma." His denial (due to his abhorrence of the world)
that Jesus was born or subjected to human development, is in
striking contrast to the value which he sets on Christ's death on
the cross. The other, or milder school of Docetae, attributed to
Christ an ethereal and heavenly instead of a truly human body.
Amongst these were Valentinus, Bardesanes, Basilides, Tatian
and their followers. They varied considerably in their estimation
of the share which this body had in the real actions and sufferings
of Christ. Clement and Origen, at the head of the Alexandrian
school, took a somewhat subtle view of the Incarnation, and
Docetism pervades their controversies with the Monarchians.
Hilary especially illustrates the prevalence of naive Docetic views
as regards the details of the Incarnation. Docetic tendencies

I Not a distinct sect, but a continuous type of Christology. Hippo-
lytus, however (Fhilosophumena, viii. 8-1 1), speaks of a definite party
who called themselves Docetae.

I 1 Ep. iv. 2, ii. 22, v. 6, 20; 2 Ep. 7, cf. Jerome (Dial. adv.
Lucifer. § 23 " Apostolis adhuc in saeculo superstitibus, adhuc apud
Judaeam Christ! sanguine recenti, phantasma Domini corpus
asserebatur ").

'Ad Trail. 9 f., Ad Smyrn. 2, 4, Ad Ephes. 7. Cf. Polycarp,
Ad Phil. 7.

vni. 12

have also been developed in later periods of ecclesiastical history,
as for example by the Priscillianists and the Bogomils, and also
since the Reformation by Jacob Boehme, Menno Simons and a
small fraction of the Anabaptists. Docetism springs from the
same roots as Gnosticism, and the Gnostics generally held
Docetic views (see GNOSTICISM).

DOCHMIAC (from Gr. dox^, a hand's breadth), a form of
verse, consisting of rfoc/wm or pentasyllable feet(usually O._0-).

DOCK, a word applied to (i) a plant (see below), (2) an
artificial basin for ships (see below), (3) the fleshy solid part of
an animal's tail, and (4) the railed-in enclosure in which a
prisoner is placed in court at his trial. Dock (i) in O.E. is
docce, represented by Ger. Dockea-blatter, O.Fr. docque, Gael.
dogha; Skeat compares Gr. SauKos, a kind of parsnip. Dock (2)
appears in Dutch (dok) and English in the i6th century; thence
it was adopted into other languages. It has been connected with
Med.Lat. doga,ca,p, Gr. Soxy, receptacle, from 5ex«^<", to receive.
Dock (3), especially used of a horse or dog, appears in English
in the I4th century; a parallel is found in Icel. docke, stumpy
tail, and Ger. Docke, bundle, skein, is also connected with it.
This word has given the verb " to dock," to cut short, curtail,
especially used of the shortening of an animal's tail by severing
one or more of the vertebrae. The English Kennel Club (Rules,
1905, revised 1907) disqualifies from prize-winning dogs whose
tails have been docked; several breeds are, however, excepted,
e.g. varieties of terriers and spaniels, poodles, &c., and such
foreign dogs as may from time to time be determined by the
club. The prisoners' dock (4) is apparently to be referred to
Flem. dok, pen or hutch. It was probably first used in thieves'
slang; according to the New English Dictionary it was known
after 1610 in " bail-dock," a room at the corner of the Old
Bailey left open at the top, " in which during the trials are put
some of the malefactors " (Scots. Mag., 1753).

DOCK, in botany, the name applied to the plants constituting
the section Lapathum of the genus Rumex, natural order Polygon-
aceae. They are biennial or perennial herbs with a stout root-
stock, and glabrous linear-lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate leaves
with a rounded, obtuse or hollowed base and a more or less wavy
or crisped margin. The flowers are arranged in more or less
crowded whorls, the whole forming a denser or looser panicle;
they are generally perfect, with six sepals, six stamens and a
three-sided ovary bearing three styles with much-divided stigmas.
The fruit is a triangular nut enveloped in the three enlarged
leathery inner sepals, one or all of which bear a tubercle. In the
common or broad-leaved dock, Rumex obtusifolius, the flower-
stem is erect, branching, and 18 in. to 3 ft. high, with large radical
leaves, heart-shaped at the base, and more or less blunt; the
other leaves are more pointed, and have shorter stalks. The
whorls are many-flowered, close to the stem and mostly leafless.
The root is many-headed, black externally and yellow within.
The flowers appear from June to August. In autumn the whole
plant may become of a bright red colour. It is a troublesome
weed, common by roadsides and in fields, pastures and waste
places throughout Europe. The great water dock, R. hydro-
lapatltum, believed to be the herba britannica of Pliny (Nat. Hist.
xxv. 6), is a tall-growing species; its root is used as an anti-
scorbutic. Other British species are R. crispus; R. conglomerates,
the root of which has been employed in dyeing; R. sanguineus
(bloody dock, or bloodwort); R. paluslris; R. pulcher (fiddle
dock), with fiddle-shaped leaves; R. maritimus; R. aquaticus;
R. pratensis. The naturalized species, R. alpinus, or " monk's
rhubarb," was early cultivated in Great Britain, and was ac-
counted an excellent remedy for ague, but, like many ether such
drugs, is now discarded.

DOCK, in marine and river engineering. Vessels require to
lie afloat alongside quays provided with suitable appliances in
sheltered sites in order to discharge and take in cargoes con-
veniently and expeditiously; and a basin constructed for this
purpose, surrounded by quay walls, is known as a dock. The
term is specially applied to basins adjoining tidal rivers, or close
to the sea-coast, in which the water is maintained at a fairly
uniform level by gates, which are closed when the tide begins to

354

DOCK

fall, as exemplified by the Liverpool and Havre docks (figs, i
and 2). Sometimes, however, at ports situated on tidal rivers
near their tidal limit, as at Glasgow (fig. 3), Hamburg and

Low-lying land adjoining a tidal river or estuary frequently
provides suitable sites for docks; for the position, being more
or less inland, is sheltered ; the low level reduces the excavation

SCALE 2 0,OOO. FIG. I. — Liverpool Docks, North End.

Rouen, and at some ports near the sea-coast, such as Southampton
(fig. 4) and New York, the tidal range is sufficiently moderate
for dock gates to be dispensed with, and for open basins and river

quays to serve for the accommodation of vessels. For ports

SCALE 50000.

FIG. 2. — Havre Docks and Outer Harbour.

established on the sea-coast of tideless seas, such as the Medi-
terranean, on account of the rivers being barred by deltas at
their outlets, like the Rhone and the Tiber, ana thus rendered
inaccessible, open basins, provided with quays and protected by

required for forming the docks, and enables the .excavated
materials to be utilized in raising the ground at the sfteg ^
sides for quays; and the river furnishes a sheltered Docks.
approach channel. Notable instances of these are the

docks of the ports of London, Liver-
pool, South Wales, Southampton,
Hull, Belfast, St Nazaire, Rotter-
dam, Antwerp and Hamburg. Some-
times docks are partially formed on
foreshores reclaimed from estuaries,
as at Hull, Grimsby, Cardiff, Liver-
pool, Leith and Havre; whilst at
Bristol, a curved portion of the river
Avon was appropriated for a dock,
and a straight cut made for the river.
By carrying docks across sharp bends
of tidal rivers, upper and lower en-
trances can be provided, thereby con-
veniently separating the inland and
sea-going traffic; and of this the
London, Surrey Commercial, West
India, and Victoria and Albert docks
are examples on the Thames and
Chatham dockyard on the Medway.
Occasionally, when a small tidal river
has a shallow entrance, or an estuary exhibits signs of silting up,

SCALE 20,000.

FIG. 3. — Glasgow Docks.

breakwaters, furnish the necessary commercial requirements for
sea-going vessels, as for example at Marseilles (fig. 5), Genoa,
Naples and Trieste. These open basins, however, are precisely
the same as closed docks, except for the absence of dock gates;
and the accommodation for shipping at the quays round basins
in river ports is so frequently supplemented by river quays,
that closed docks, open basins and river quays are all naturally
included in the general consideration of dock works.

SCALE 20,000.

FIG. 4. — Southampton Docks and River Quays.

docks alongside, formed on foreshores adjoining the sea-coast,
are provided with a sheltered entrance direct from the sea,

DOCK

355

as exemplified by the Sunderland docks adjacent to the
mouth of the river Wear, and the Havre docks at the outlet
of the Seine estuary (fig. 2). Some old ports, originally estab-
lished on sandy coasts where a creek, maintained by the influx
and efflux of the tide from low-lying spaces near the shore,
afforded some shelter and an outlet to the sea across the beach,
have had their access improved by parallel jetties and dredging;
and docks have been readily formed in the low-lying land only

of suction dredgers in sand (see DREDGE), together with the
increasing draught of vessels, has resulted in a considerable
increase being made in the available depth of rivers and channels
leading to docks, and has necessitated the making of due
allowance for the possibility of a reasonable improvement in
determining the depth to be given to a new dock. On the other
hand, there is a limit to the deepening of an approach channel,
depending upon its length, the local conditions as regards

SCALE

FIG. 5. — Port of Marseilles. Basins and Extensions.

separated by sand dunes from the sea, as ,at Calais, Dunkirk
(fig. 6) and Ostend (see HARBOUR). In sheltered places on
the sea-coast, docks have sometimes been constructed on low-
lying land bordering the shore, with direct access to the sea,
as at Barrow and Hartlepool; whilst at Mediterranean ports
open basins have been formed in the sea, by establishing quays
along the foreshore, from which wide, solid jetties, lined with
quay walls, are carried into the sea at intervals at right angles to
the shore, .being sheltered by an outlying break-
water parallel to the coast, and reached at each
end through the openings left between the projecting
jetties and the breakwater, as at Marseilles (fig. 5)
and Trieste, and at the extensions at Genoa (see
HARBOUR) and Naples. Where, however, the basins
are formed within the partial protection of a bay,
as in the old ports of Genoa and Naples, the re-,
quisite additional shelter has been provided by
converging breakwaters across the opening of the
bay; and an entrance to the port is left between
the breakwaters. The two deep arms of the sea at
New York, known as the Hudson and East rivers,
are so protected by Staten Island and Long Island
that it has been only necessary to form open basins
by projecting wide jetties or quays into them from
the west and east shores of Manhattan Island, and
from the New Jersey and Brooklyn shores, at in-
tervals, to provide adequate accommodation for Atlantic liners
and the sea-going trade of New York.

The accessibility of a port depends upon the depth of its
approach channel, which also determines the depth of the docks
A or basins to which it leads; for it is useless to give a

channels, depth to a dock much in excess of the depth down to
which there is a prospect of carrying the channel by
which it is reached. The great augmentation, however, in the
power and capacity for work of modern dredgers, and especially

silting, and the resources and prospects of trade of the port, for
every addition to the depth generally involves a corresponding
increase in the cost of maintenance.

At tidal ports the available depth for vessels should be
reckoned from high water of the lowest neap tides, as the standard
which is certain to be reached at high tide; and the period
during which docks can be entered at each tide depends upon the
nature of the approach channel, the extent of the tidal range and

u
10

o

50,000.

FIG. 6. — Dunkirk Docks and Jetty Channel.

the manner in which the entrance to the docks is effected. Thus
where the tidal range is very large, as in the Severn estuary, the
approach channels to some of the South Wales ports are nearly
dry at low water of spring tides, and it would be impossible to
make these ports accessible near low tide; whereas at high
water, even of neap tides, vessels of large draught can enter their
docks. At Liverpool, with a rise of 31 ft. at equinoctial spring
tides, owing to the deep channel between Liverpool and
Birkenhead and into the outer estuary of the Mersey in Liverpool

356

DOCK

Bay, maintained by the powerful tidal scour resulting from the
filling and emptying of the large inner estuary, access to the
river by the largest vessels has been rendered possible, at any
state of the tide, by dredging a channel through the Mersey bar;
but the docks cannot be entered till the water has risen above
half -tide level, and the gates are closed directly after high water.

A large floating
landing-stage,
however, about
half a mile in
length, in front of
the. centre of the
docks, connected
with the shore by
several hinged
bridges and rising
and falling with
the tide, enables
Atlantic liners to
come alongsideand

tXN^^^^v \ 1 take on board or

^^-O^AW'-N^, W disembark their
Y"~~-~3^y^-' ^^V/ passengers at any
V / .. ....... >/ time.

Comparatively
small tidal rivers
offer the best
opportunity of a
considerable im-
provement in the
approach channel
to a port; for they
can be converted into artificially deep channels by dredging,
and their necessary maintenance is somewhat aided by the
increased influx and efflux of tidal water due to the lowering
of the low-water line by the outflow of the ebb tide being facili-
tated by the deepening. Thus systematic, continuous dredging

THAMES.

SCALE 20POO.

FlG. 7. — Tilbury Docks

SCALE 20,000

CHANNEL.

FIG. 8. — Barry Docks.

in the Tyne and the Clyde has raised the Tyne ports and
Glasgow into first-class ports. In large tidal rivers and estuaries,
docks should be placed alongside a concave bank which the deep
navigable channel hugs, as effected at Hull and Antwerp, or
close to a permanently deep channel in an estuary, such as chosen
for Garston and the entrance to the Manchester ship canal at
Eastham in the inner Mersey estuary, and for Grimsby and the
authorized Illingham dock in the Humber estuary; for a channel

carried across an estuary to deep water requires constant dredging
to maintain its depth. Occasionally, extensive draining works
and dredging have to be executed to form an adequately deep
channel through a shifting estuary and shallow river to a port,
as for instance on the Weser to Bremerhaven and Bremen, on
the Seine to Honfleur and Rouen, on the Tees to Middlesborough
and Stockton, on the Kibble to Preston, on the Maas to Rotterdam
and on the Nervion to Bilbao (see RIVER ENGINEERING) . South-
ampton possesses the very rare combination of advantages of a
well-sheltered and fairly deep estuary, a rise of only 12 ft. at
spring tides, and a position at the head of Southampton Water
at the confluence of two rivers (fig. 4), so that, with a moderate
amount of dredging and the construction of quays along the lower
ends of the river with a depth of 35 ft. in front of them at low
water, it is possible for vessels of the largest draught to come
alongside or leave the quays at any state of the tide. This
circumstance has enabled Southampton to attract some of the
Atlantic steamers formerly running to Liverpool.

Ports on tideless seas have to be placed where deep water
approaches the shore, and where there is an absence of littoral
drift. The basins of such ports are always accessible for vessels
of the draught they provide for; but they require most efficient
protection, and, unlike tidal ports, they are not able to ex-
ceptional occasions to admit a vessel of larger draught than the
basins have been formed to accommodate. Occasionally, an old
port whose approach channel has become inadequate for modern
vessels, or from which the sea has receded, has been provided
with deep access from the sea by a ship canal, as exemplified by
Amsterdam and Bruges; whilst Manchester has become a sea-
port by similar works (see MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL). In such
cases, however, perfectly sheltered open basins are formed inland
at the head of the ship canal, in the most convenient available
site; and the size of vessels that can use the port depends wholly
on the dimensions and facility of access of the ship canal.

Docks require to be so designed that they may provide the
maximum length of quays in proportion to the water area consistent
with easy access for vessels to the quays; but often the space
available does not admit of the adoption of
the best forms, and the design has £„;_„ ol
to be made as suitable as practi-
cable under the existing conditions.
On this account, and owing to the small size
of vessels in former times, the docks of old
ports present a great variety in size and
arrangement, being for the most part narrow
and small, forming a sort of string of docks
communicating with one another, and pro-
vided with locks or entrances at suitable
points for their common use, as noticeable
in the older London and Liverpool docks.
Though narrow timber jetties were introduced
in some of the wider London docks for in-
creasing the length of quays by placing
vessels alongside them, no definite arrange-
ment of docks was adopted in carrying out
the large Victoria and Albert docks between
1850 and 1880; whilst the Victoria dock was
made wide with solid quays, provided with
warehouses, projecting from the northern
quay wall, thereby affording a large accom-
modation for vessels lying end on to the
north quay, the Albert dock subsequently
constructed was given about half the width
of the earlier dock, but made much longer, so
that vessels lie alongside the north and south
quays in a long line. This change of form,
however, was probably dictated by the
advantage of stretching across the remainder
of the wide bend, in order to obtain a second
entrance in a lower reach of the river. The
Tilbury docks, the latest and lowest docks

on the Thames, were constructed on the most approved modern
system, consisting of a series of branch docks separated by wide,
well-equipped solid quays, and opening straight into a main dock
or basin communicating with the entrance lock, in which vesa
can turn on entering or leaving the docks (fig. 7). The mos
recently constructed Liverpool docks, also, at the northern e
have been given this form; and the older docks adjoining them
to the south have been transformed by reconstruction into a
similar series of branch docks opening into a dock alongside the
river wall, leading to a half-tide basin or river entrances (ng. I}.

DOCK

357

Tldalaad

halt-tide

basins.

The Manchester and Salford docks were laid out on a precisely
similar system, which was also adopted for the most recent docks
at Dunkirk (fig. 6) and Prince's dock at Glasgow (fig. 3), and
at some of the principal Rhine ports; whilst the Alexandra dock at
Hull resembles it in principle. The basins in tideless seas have
naturally been long formed in accordance with this system (fig. 5).
The Barry docks furnish an example of the special arrangements
for a coal-shipping port, with numerous coal-tips served by sidings
(fig. 8).

Tidal basins, as they are termed, are generally interposed in the
docks of London between the entrance locks and the docks, with the
object of facilitating the passage of vessels out of and into
the docks before and after high water, by lowering the
water in the basin as soon as the tide has risen sufficiently,
and opening the lock gates directly a level has been
formed with the tide in the river. Then the vessels which have
collected in the basin, when level with the dock, are readily passed
successively into the river. The incoming vessels are next brought
into the basin, and the gates are closed ; and the water in the basin
having been raised to the level in the dock, the gates shutting off
the basin from the dock when the water was lowered are opened, and
the vessels are admitted to the dock. In this manner, by means of
an inner pair of gates, the basin can be used as a large lock without
unduly altering the water-level in the dock, and saves the delay of
locking most of the vessels out and in, the lock being only used for
the smaller vessels leaving early or coming in late on the tide. Similar
tidal basins have also been provided at Cardiff .Penarth, Barry (fig. 8) ,
Sunderland, Antwerp and o_ther docks.

The large half-tide docks introduced at the most modern Liverpool
docks (fig. i) serve a similar purpose as tidal basins; but being much
larger, and approached by entrances instead of locks, the exit and
entrance of vessels are effected by lowering their water-level on a
rising tide, and opening the gates, which are then closed at high water
to prevent the lowering of the water-level in the dock, and to avoid
closing the gates against a strong issuing current.

The tidal basins outside the locks at Tilbury and Barry are
quite open to the tide, and have been carried down to 24 ft. and 16 ft.
respectively below low water of spring tides, in order to afford vessels
a deep sheltered approach to the lock in each case, available at or
near low water (figs. 7 and 8). Such basins, however, open to a
considerable tidal range where the water is densely charged with
silt, are exposed to a large deposit in the fairly still water, and their
depth has to be constantly maintained by sluicing or dredging.

Where the range of tide is moderate, or on large inland rivers,
docks or basins are usefully supplemented by river quays, which
though subject to changes in the water-level, and exposed
to currents in the river, are very convenient for access,
quays. an(j are sometimes very advantageously employed in
regulating a river and keeping up its banks when deepened by
dredging. Generally 10 to 12 ft. is the limit of the tidal range con-
venient for the adoption of open basins and river quays; but the
banks of the Tyne have been utilized for quays, jetties and coal-
staiths, with a somewhat larger maximum tidal range; and a long
line of quays stretching along the right bank of the Scheldt in front
of Antwerp, constructed so as to regulate this reach of the river,
accommodates a large sea-going traffic, with a rise at spring tides
of 15 ft.

When a dock has to be formed on land, the excavation is effected

by men with barrows and powerful steam navvies, loading into

wagons drawn in trains by locomotives to the place of

^v*' deposit, usually to raise the land at the sides for forming
locks"' <1uays- Directly the underground water-level is reached,
the water has to be removed from the excavations by
pumps raising the inflowing water from sumps, lined with timber,
sunk down below the lowest foundations at suitable positions, so
that the lower portions of the dock walls and sills of the lock or
entrance maybe built out of water. A cofferdam has to be constructed
extending out from the bank of the river or approach channel
in front of the site of the proposed entrance or lock, so that the
excavations for the entrance to the dock may be pushed forwards,
and the lock or entrance built under its protection. Sometimes the
lowest portion of the excavation for the dock can be accomplished
economically by dredging, after the dock walls and lock have been
completed and the water admitted.

Where a dock is partially or wholly constructed on reclaimed land,
the reclamation bank for enclosing the site and excluding the tide
has to be undertaken first by tipping an embankment from each
end with wagons, protected and consolidated along its outer toe
by rubble stone or chalk. When the ends of the embankments are
approaching one another, it is essential to connect them by a long
low bank of selected materials brought up gradually in successive
layers, and retaining the water in the enclosure to the level of this
bank, so that the influx and efflux of the tide, filling and emptying
the reclaimed area, may take place over a long length, and in smaller
volume as the low bank is raised. In this way a reduction is effected
of the tidal current in and out, which in the case of a large enclosure

d a considerable tidal range, would create such a scour in the
narrowing gap between two high embankments as to wash away
their ends and prevent the closing of the gap. Occasionally the final
closure is effected by lowering timber panels in grooves between

a series of piles driven down at intervals across the gap. On the
closing of the reclamation bank the water is pumped out; and
the excavation is carried on in the ordinary manner. It is very
important that such an embankment should be carried well above
the level of the highest tide which might be raised by a high wind ;
and in exposed sites, the outer slope of the bank should be protected
by pitching from the action of waves, for any overtopping or erosion
of the bank might result in a large breach through it, and the flooding
of the works inside.

Docks are generally surrounded by walls retaining the quays,
alongside which vessels lie for discharging and taking in cargoes.
In order to ascertain the nature of the strata upon which
these walls have to be founded, borings are taken at the Foun°a"
outset to the requisite depth at intervals near the line *JO/I* or
of the walls, but inside the dock area if the piercing of aot* waus-
quicksand is anticipated, as in excavating for the foundations, these
holes might give rise to the outflow, under pressure, of underlying
quicksand into the foundations. As docks are generally formed near
rivers or estuaries, these strata are commonly alluvial; but being
situated at some depth below the surface, they are usually fairly
hard. When they consist of gravel, clay or firm sand, the walls
can be founded on the natural bottom excavated a few feet below
the bottom of the dock, their weight being somewhat distributed by
making them rest on a broad bed of concrete filling up the excava-
tion at the bottom. When, however, fine sand or silt charged with
water, or quicksand is met with at the required depth, the necessary
pumping and excavation for the foundations might occasion the
influx of sand or silt with the water into the excavations, leading
to settlement and slips; or the soft stratum might be too thick to
remove. The wall may then be founded on bearing piles driven down
to a solid stratum, and having their tops joined together by walings
and planking, or by a layer of concrete, upon which the wall is built.
Or the soft stratum can be enclosed with a double row of sheet piling
along the front and back of the line of wall, by which it sometimes
becomes sufficiently confined and consolidated to sustain the weight
of the wall on a broad foundation of concrete ; or it can be excavated
without any danger of sand or silt running in from outside; whilst
the sheet piling at the back relieves the wall to some extent from
the pressure of the earth behind it, and in front retains the wall from
sliding forwards. Firmer foundations have been obtained by sinking
brick, concrete or masonry wells through soft ground to a solid
stratum, upon which the dock wall is built. Clusters of small concrete
cylinders, in sets of three in front, and a line of double cylinders at
the back, were used for the foundations of the walls of Prince's dock
at Glasgow. Wells of rubble masonry were sunk in the silty fore-
shore of the Seine estuary for the walls of the Bellot docks at Havre ;
and they served as piers, connected by arches, for the foundations of a
continuous dock wall above, being carried down to a considerable
depth through alluvium at the St Nazaire, Bordeaux and Rochefort
docks. These well foundations, derived from the old Indian system,
are built up upon a curb, sometimes furnished with a cutting edge
underneath, and gradually sunk by excavating inside; and eventu-
ally the central hollow is filled up solid with concrete or masonry.

The walls round a dock serve as retaining walls to keep up the
quays; and though they have the support of the water in front of
them when the docks are in use, they have to sustain the full pressure
of the filling at the back on the completion of the dock before the
water is admitted. They have, accordingly, to be increased in
thickness downwards to support the pressure increasing
with the depth. This pressure, with perfectly dry material,
would be represented by the weight of half the prism of walls.
filling between the natural slope of the material behind and the back
of the wall ; but the pressure is often increased by the accumulation
of water at the back, which, with fine silty
backing, is liable to exert a sort of fluid
pressure against the wall proportionate to
the density of the mixture of silt and water.
The increase of thickness towards the base
used formerly to be effected by a batter on
the face, as well as by steps put at the back ;
but the vertical form now given to the sides
of large vessels necessitates a corresponding
fairly vertical face for the wall, to prevent
the upper part of the vessel being kept
unduly away from the quay. Examples of
the most modern types of dock walls are
given in figs. 9 to 12.

The height of a dock wall depends upon
the depth of water always available for
vessels, at tideless sea-ports and at ports
removed from tidal influences, such as Man-
chester, Bruges and the ports on the Rhine ;

SCALE 400.

FIG. 9. — Havre Bellot
Dock Wall.

this depth should not be less than 28 to 30 ft. for large sea-going
vessels, together with a margin of 5 to 8 ft. above the normal water-
level for the quays, and the foundations below. At tidal ports,
however, an addition has to be made equal to the difference in
height between the high- water levels of spring and neap tides; so
that at ports with a large tidal range, such as the South Wales
ports on the Severn estuary and Liverpool, specially high dock
walls are necessary. Under normal conditions, a dock wall should

358

DOCK

be given a width at a height half-way between dock-bottom and
quay-level, equal to one-third of its height above dock-bottom, and
a width of half this height at dock-bottom.

Dock walls are constructed of masonry,
brickwork or concrete, or of concrete with a
facing of masonry or brickwork. Masonry is
adopted where large stone quarries are readily
accessible, in the form of rubble masonry with
dressed stone on the face, as for instance at
the Hull and Barry docks, and forms a very
durable wall; but strong overhead staging
carrying powerful gantries is necessary for
laying large blocks. Brickwork has been often
used where bricks are the ordinary building
material of the district or can be made on the
works, and requires only ordinary scaffolding;
and harder or pressed bricks are employed for
the facework. Concrete is very commonly
resorted to now where sand and stones are
readily procured; and where clean, sharp
sand and gravel are found in thick layers in
the excavations for a dock, as in the alluvial
strata bordering the Thames, dock walls can
^e constructed cheaply and economically with
concrete deposited within timber framing,
dispensing with regular scaffolding and skilled

FIG. 10. _ Liverpool
Dock Wall.

labour. Such walls require to be given a facing of stronger con-
crete, or of blue bricks, as at Tilbury, to guard against abrasion
by vessels, chains and ropes; and dock walls are commonly pro-
vided at the top with granite or other hard stone coping where the
wear is greatest. The foundations for dock walls are excavated in
a trench below dock- bottom, only lined
. ...-^_ - with timbering where the faces of the
T'"mt - v'llJr* trench cannot stand for a short time

• •IVr*^" without support, and with sheet piling

' ' through very unstable silt or sand ; and

the trench is conveniently filled up solid
withconcrete.carriedoutinshortlengths
in untrustworthy ground. To reduce
the amount of filling behind the wall.the
excavation at the back above dock-
bottom, preparatory for the trench, is
given as steep a slope as practicable,

__^_ supported sometimes towards the base

'-' >~ , ,'. • '|T^ by timbering and struts ; but occasion-
f y^- aa-° •*-* ?^ ally the walj is built within a timbered
-== r«-r. • ' '. • • 'i'f-r- trench carried down to the required
depth, before the excavation for the
dock in front of it has been executed, as
effected at Tilbury. The filling at the
back is thus reduced to a minimum, and
the lower portion of the excavation can
be accomplished by dredging, if expedi-
ent, after the admission of the water, the
dock wall in this way being exposed to the least possible pressure behind.
The walls of open basins are often constructed out of water
precisely like dock walls, as in the case of the basins forming the
Manchester, Bruges and Glasgow docks; and basin walls open
to the tide, as at Glasgow and in the tidal basin outside Tilbury
docks (fig. 7), differ only from dock
walls in being exposed to variations
in the pressure at the back resulting
from the lowering of the water-level
in front, which is, indeed, shared to
some extent by the walls round closed
docks where the difference in the high-
water levels of springs and neaps
is considerable. The walls, however,
round basins in tideless seas, such as
Jiilf^?! Marseilles, occasionally those inside
^harbours, and especially quay walls
..along rivers and round open basins
^alongside rivers, have to be constructed
^" 'under water.

At Marseilles, the simple expedient
was long ago adopted of constructing
the quay walls lining the basins formed
in the sea, by depositing tiers of large
concrete blocks on a rubble foundation,
one on top of the other, till they

SCALE

FIG. ii. — Tilbury Basin
Wall.

' LIAS SHALE.

SCALE 400.

FIG. 12. — Barry Dock
Wall.

reached sea-level, and then building a solid masonry quay wall
_ . . out of water on the top up to quay-level, faced with ashlar
art ^' !3)> the wall being backed by rubble for some distance
behind up to the water-level. The same system was em-
ployed for the quay walls at Trieste, and at Genoa and
other Italian ports. A quay wall inside Marmagao har-
bour, on the west coast of India, was erected on a founda-
tion layer of rubble by the sloping-block system, to
provide against unequal settlement on the soft bottom (see BREAK-
WATER). The quay walls alongside the river Liffey, and round the

quay walls
founded
under
water.

adjacent basins below Dublin, were erected under water by building

rubble-concrete blocks of 360 tons on staging carried out into the

water, from which they

were lifted one by one by a

powerful floating derrick,

which conveyed the block

to the site, and deposited

it on a levelled bottom at

low tide in a depth of 28

ft., raising the wall a little

above low water. After a

row of these blocks had

been laid, and connected

together by filling the

grooves formed at the sides

and the interstices between

the blocks with concrete,

a continuous masonry wall

faced with ashlar was built

on the top out of water. A

quay wall was built up to

a little above low water on

SCALE
FIG. 13. — Marseilles Quay Wall.

a similar principle at Cork, with three smaller blocks as a founda-
tion, in lengths of 8 ft. Cylindrical well foundations have been
extensively used for the foundations of the quay walls along the
Clyde, formerly made of brick, but subsequently of concrete, sunk
through a considerable variety of alluvial strata, but mostly sand
and gravel fully
charged with water.
Compressed air in
bottomless caissons
has been increas-
ingly employed in
recent years for
carrying down the
subaqueous founda-
tions of river quay
walls, through allu-
vial deposits, to a
solid stratum.
About 1880, a long
line of river quays -
was commenced in '~
front of Antwerp,
extending in the
central portion a
considerable dis-
tance out into the
Scheldt, with the
object of regulating

the width of the

river simultaneously 5CAUE 4OO«

of deS%ryVsSf°onr F^ ^-Antwerp Quay Wall, founded by
sea-going vessels; compressed air.

and the quay wall was erected, out of water, on the flat tops of a
series of wrought-iron caissons, 82 ft. long and 2f)\ ft. wide, con-
structed on shore, floated out one by one to their site in the river
between two barges, and gradually lowered as the wall was built up
inside a plate-iron enclosure round the roof of the caisson, which
was eventually sunk by
aid of compressed air
through the bed of the
river to a compact
stratum (fig. 14). The
weight of the wall
counteracted the ten-
dency of the caisson
and the enclosure
above it to float; and
the caisson, furnished
with seven circular
wrought - iron shafts,
provided with air-locks
at the top for the ad-
mission of men and
materials and for the
removal of the excava-
tions, was gradually

SCALE aoo.

FIG. 15. — Caracciolo Jetty Quay
Genoa.

Wall,

was

carried down by ex-
cavating inside the
working chamber at
the bottom, d\ ft. high, till a good foundation was reached. The
working chamber was then filled with concrete through some of the
shafts, the plate-iron sides of the upper enclosure were removed to
be used for another length of wall, the shafts were drawn out and
the hollows left by them filled with concrete, the apertures between
adjacent lengths were closed at each face with wooden panels and
filled with concrete, and a continuous quay wall was completed
above. The most recent quay walls constructed in the old harbour

DOCK

359

at Genoa were founded under water on a rubble mound in a similar
manner by the aid of compressed air (fig. 15). Quay walls also on
the Clyde have been founded on caissons, consisting of a bottom-
less steel structure, surmounted by a brick superstructure having
hollows filled with concrete, in lengths of 80 ft. and 27 ft., and
widths of 1 8 ft. and 21 ft. respectively, carried down by means of
compressed air from 54 to 70 ft. below quay-level, on the top
of which a continuous wall of concrete, faced with brickwork,

d having a
granite coping,
was built up from
near low -water
level (fig. 1 6). In
many cases where
soft strata extend
to considerable
depths, river
quays and basin
walls have been
constructed by
building a light
quay wall upon a
series of bearing
and raking piles
driven into, and

SCALE

FIG. 16. — Glasgow River Quay Wall.

the walls along the Seine, and round the basins at Rouen, were built
upon bearing piles carried down through the alluvial bed of the river
to the chalk. The lower portion of the quay wall was constructed
of concrete faced with brickwork within water-tight timber caissons,
resting upon the piles at a depth of 9! ft. below low water; and upon
this a rubble wall faced with bricks was erected from low water to
quay-level, backed by rubble stone laid on a timber flooring sup-
ported by piles, together with chalk, to form a quay right back to
the top of the slope of the bank of the deepened river (fig. 17). The

quay walls of the open
basins bord e r i n g the
Hudson river at New
York have had, in cer-
tain parts, to be founded
on bearing piles com-
bined with raking piles,
driven into a thick bed
of soft silt where no firm
stratum could be reached,
and where, therefore, the
weight could only be
borne by the adherence
of the long piles in the
silt. Before driving the
piles, however, the silt
round the upper part of
the piles and under the
quay wall was consoli-
dated by depositing small
stones in a trench dredged
to a depth of 30 ft. below
low water; the piles
were driven through these stones, and were further kept in place
by a long toe of rubble stone in front and a backing of rubble stone
behind carried nearly up to quay-level, behind which a light filling
of ashes and earth was raised to quay-level. The slight quay wall
resting upon the front rows of bearing piles was carried up under
water by 7O-ton concrete blocks deposited by means of a floating
derrick; and the upper part of the wall was built of concrete faced
with ashlar masonry (fig. 18). The basin and quay walls at Bremen,
Bremerhaven and Hamburg were built on a series of bearing and
raking piles driven down to a firm stratum, the wall being begun
a few feet below low water. At Southampton, ferro-concrete piles
were employed in constructing the deep quays; and a wharfing of
timber pilewqrk has been frequently used for river quays.

Where the increase of trade is moderate and the conditions of the
traffic permit, and also at coal-shipping ports, economy in construc-
tion is obtained by giving sloping sides to a portion of a dock in place
of dock walls, the slope being pitched where necessary with stone;
and the length of the slope projecting into a dock is sometimes
reduced by substituting sheet piling for the slope at the toe up to
a certain height. By this arrangement jetties can be carried out
across the slope_as required, enabling vessels to lie against their
ends; and coal-tips are very conveniently extended out across the
slope at suitable intervals (fig. 8).

As dock walls, especially before the admission of water into the
dock, constitute high retaining walls, not infrequently founded upon
soft or slippery strata, and backed up with the excavated materials
Failures f 'rom a"uvial beds, into which water is liable to percolate,
dock wall* tney are natura"y exposed under unfavourable conditions
to the danger of failure. A dock wall erected on un-
satisfactory foundations is liable, where the bottom is soft, to

FIG. 17. — Rouen Quay Wall.

settle down at its toe, owing to the pressure at the back, and to
fall forwards into the dock, as occurred at Belfast; or where the
silty bottom slips forward under the weight of the backing, the
wall may follow the slip at the bottom and settle down at the back,
falling to some extent backwards, as exemplified by the failure of
the Empress basin wall at Southampton. The most common form,
however, of failure is the sliding forwards of a dock wall, with little
or no subsidence, on a silty or slippery stratum under the pressure
imposed by the backing. Thus the Kidderpur dock walls furnish an
instance of sliding forwards on muddy silt, and part of the South
West India dock walls on two underlying, detached, slippery seams
of London clay.

To avoid these failures with untrustworthy foundations, great care
has to be exercised in selecting the best hard material available,
unaffected by water, for the backing, which should be brought up
in thin, horizontal layers carefully consolidated; and where there
is a possibility of water accumulating at the back, pipes should be
introduced at intervals near the bottom right through the wall in
building it, and rubble stone deposited close to the back of the wall,
so as to carry off any water from behind, these pipes being stopped up
just before the water is let into the dock. These precautions, more-
over, are assisted by reducing the amount of backing to a minimum
in the construction of the wall, best effected by building the wall
inside a timbered trench. The liability to slide forwards can be
obviated by carrying down the foundations of the wall sufficiently
below dock-bottom to provide an efficient buttress of earth in front
of the wall, and also by making the base of the wall slope down

SCALE <T5b.

FIG. 18. — New York Quay Wall, Hudson river.

towards the back, thereby forcing the wall in sliding forwards to
mount the slope, or to push forward a larger mass of earth ; whilst
a row of sheet piling in front of the foundations offers a very effectual
impediment to a forward movement, and, in combination with
bearing piles, prevents settlement at the toe in soft ground. In
very treacherous foundations it may be advisable to defer the
completion of the backing till after the admission of the water ; but
the additional stability given to a retaining wall or reservoir dam by
an ample batter in front, is precluded in dock walls by the modern
requirements of vessels.

Silt accumulates in docks where the lowering of the water-level
by locking, the drawing down of half-tide basins, and the raising of
the water at spring tides, involve the admission of con- .. .
siderable volumes of tidal water heavily charged with silt,
which is deposited in still water and has to be periodically deo/A
removed by dredging. To avoid this, the water is some-
times replenished from some clear inland source, an arrangement
adopted at some of the South Wales ports opening into the muddy
Severn estuary, and at the Alexandra dock, Hull, to exclude the
silty waters of the Humber. At the Kidderpur docks on the Hugli,
the water from the river for replenishing the docks is conducted by a
circuitous canal, in which it deposits its burden of silt before it is
pumped into the docks.

In order to deal expeditiously with the cargoes and goods
brought into and despatched from docks, numerous sidings
communicating with the railways of the district are
arranged along the quays, which are also provided
with steam, hydraulic or electric travelling cranes at
intervals alongside the docks, basins or river, for discharging
or loading vessels, and with sheds and warehouses for the storage
of merchandise, &c., the arrangements depending largely upon
the special trade of the port. Though different sources of power
are sometimes made use of at different parts of the same port,
as for example at Hamburg, where the numerous cranes are
worked by. steam, hydraulic power or most recently by elec-
tricity, and a few by gas engines, it is generally most convenient
to work the various installations by one form of power from a
central station. Water-pressure has been very commonly used

360

DOCK

as the motive power at docks, being generated by a steam-
engine and stored up by one or more accumulators, from which
the water is transmitted under pressure through strong cast-iron
pipes to the hydraulic engines which actuate the cranes, lifts,
coal-tips, capstans, swing-bridges and gate machinery through-
out the docks (see POWER TRANSMISSION: Hydraulic). The
intermittent working of the machinery in docks results in a
considerable variation in the power needed at different times;
but economical working is secured by arranging that when the
accumulators are full, steam is automatically shut off from the
pumping engines, but is supplied again as soon as water is drawn
off. Electricity affords another means for the economical trans-
mission of power to a distance suited for intermittent working;
as far back as 1902 it was being adopted at Hamburg as the
source of power for the machinery of the extensive additional
basins then recently opened for traffic.

At ports where the principal trade is the export of coal from
neighbouring collieries, special provision has to be made for its
Coaltl s rapid shipment. Coal-tips, accordingly, are erected
at the sides of the dock in these ports, with sidings on
the quays at the back for receiving the trains of coal trucks, from
which two lines of way diverge to each coal-tip, one serving for
the conveyance of the full wagons one by one to the tip, after
passing over a weigh-bridge, and the other for the return of the
empty wagons to the siding where the empty train is made up
for returning to the colliery (fig. 8). Each full wagon is either
run at a low level upon a cradle at the tip, then raised on the
cradle within a wrought-iron lattice tower to a suitable height,
and lastly, tipped up at the back for discharging the coal; or it
is brought along a high-level road on to a cradle raised to this
level on the tower, and tipped up at this or some slightly modified
level. The coal is discharged down an adjustable iron shoot,
gradually narrowed so as to check the fall; and on first dis-
charging into the hold of a vessel, an anti-breakage box is sus-
pended below the mouth of the shoot. When full, this is lowered
to the bottom of the hold and emptied, thereby gradually forming
a cone of coal upon which the coal can be discharged directly
from the shoot without danger of breakage. Other contrivances
are also adopted with the same object.

In designing dock works, it is expedient to make provision, as
far as possible, for future extensions as the trade of the port increases.
Generally this can be effected alongside tidal rivers and estuaries
by utilizing sites lower down the river, as carried out on
B™ejti the Thames for the port of London, or reclaiming unoccu-
>lls' pied foreshores of an estuary, as adopted for extensions
of the ports of Liverpool, Hull and Havre. At ports on the sea-coast
of tideless seas, it is only necessary to extend the outlying break-
water parallel to the shore line, and form additional basins under its
shelter, as at Marseilles (fig. 5) and Genoa (see HARBOUR). Quays
also along rivers furnish very valuable opportunities of readily
extending the accommodation of ports. Ports, however, established
inland like Manchester, though extremely serviceable in converting
an inland city into a seaport, are at the disadvantage of having to
acquire very valuable land for any extensions that may be required ;
but, nevertheless, some compensation is afforded by the complete
shelter in which the extensions can be carried out, when compared
with Liverpool, where the additions to the docks can only be effected
by troublesome reclamation works along the foreshore to the north,
in increasingly exposed situations.

Dock Entrances and Locks. — The size of vessels which a port
can admit depends upon the depth and width of the entrance
to the docks; for, though the access of vessels is also governed
by the depth of the approach channel, this channel is often
capable of being further deepened to some extent by dredging;
whereas the entrance, formed of solid masonry or concrete,
cannot be adapted, except by troublesome and costly works
sometimes amounting to reconstruction, to the increasing
dimensions of vessels. Accordingly, in designing new dock
works with entrances and locks, it is essential to look forward
to the possible future requirements of vessels. The necessity for
such forethought is illustrated by the rapid increase which has
taken place in the size of the largest ocean liners. Thus the
" City of Rome," launched in 1881, is 560 ft. long, and 52 } ft. beam,
and has a maximum recorded draught of 27^ ft. ; the " Campania "
and " Lucania," in 1893, measure 600 ft. by 65 ft. ; the " Oceanic,"

in 1899, 685^ ft. by 68} ft., with a maximum draught of 31 J ft;
the " Baltic," in 1903, 709 ft. by 75 ft., with a maximum draught
of 3iJ ft.; and the " Lusitania " and " Mauretania," launched in
1906, 787 J ft. by 88 ft.

The width and depth of access to docks are of more importance
than the length of locks; for docks which are reached through
entrances with a single pair of gates have to admit Dlmea.
vessels towards high water when the water-level in the sioas of
dock is the same as in the approach channel, or through entrance*
a half-tide basin drawn down to the level of the water andlock*-
outside, and are therefore accessible to vessels of any length,
provided the width of the entrance and depth over the sill are
adequate; whilst at docks which are entered through locks,
vessels which are longer than the available length of the lock can
get in at high water when both pairs of gates of the lock are open.
Open basins are generally given an ample width of entrance, and
river quays also are always accessible to the longest and broadest
vessels; but in a tidal river the available depth has to be reckoned
from the lowest low water of spring tides, instead of from the
lowest high water of neap tides, if the vessels in the open basins
and alongside the river quays have to be always afloat.

Many years ago the Canada lock at Liverpool, the outer North
lock at Birkenhead, the Ramsden lock and entrance at Barrow-
in-Furness, and the Eure entrance at Havre, were given a width
of 100 ft. Probably this was done with the view of admitting
paddle steamers, since subsequent entrances at Liverpool were
given widths of 80 and 65 ft.; whereas none of the locks in
the port of London has been made wider than 80 ft., which has
been the standard maximum width since the completion of the
Victoria dock in 1866. The widest locks at Cardiff are 80 ft., and
tHe entrance to the Barry docks is the same; but the lock of the
Alexandra dock, Hull, opened in 1885, was made 85 ft. wide.
At Liverpool, where the access to the docks is mainly through
entrances, on account of the small width between the river and
the high ground rising at the back, and where ample provision
has to be made for the largest Atlantic liners, though the entrances
to the Langton dock, completed in 1881, leading to the latest
docks at the northern end were made 65 ft. wide, with their sills
3 ft. below low water of spring tides and 2oJ ft. below high water
of the lowest neap tides, the two new entrances to the deepened
Brunswick dock near the southern end, giving access to the
adjacent reconstructed docks, completed in 1906, were made 80
and loo ft. wide, with sills 28 ft. below high water of the lowest
neap tides. Moreover, the three new entrances to the new Sandon
half- tide dock, completed in 1906, communicating( with the
reconstructed line of docks to the south of the Canada'basin, and
with the latest northern extensions of the Liverpool docks, were
made 40 ft. wide with a depth over the sill of 24^ ft., and 80 and
100 ft. wide on each end of the central entrance, with sills 29 ft.
below high water of the lowest neap tides, each entrance being
provided with two pairs of gates, in case of any accident occur-
ring to one pair, according to the regular custom at Liverpool.
Powers were also obtained in 1906 for the construction of a half-
tide dock and two branch docks to the north of the Hornby dock,
which are to be reached from the river by two entrances designed
to be 130 ft. wide, with sills 38^ ft. below high water of the lowest
neap tides, so as to meet fully the assumed future increase in the
beam and draught of the largest vessels; whilst the authorized
extension of the river wall northwards will enable additional
docks to be constructed in communication with these entrances
when required.

Though, with the exception of Southampton and Dover, other
British ports do not aim, like Liverpool, at accommodating the
largest Atlantic liners at all times, the depths of the sills at the
principal ports have been increased in the most recent extensions.
Thus at the port of London the sills of the first lock of the Albert
dock were 265 ft. below high water of neap tides, and of the
second lock adjoining, 325 ft. deep; whilst the sills of the lock
of the Tilbury docks are 405 ft. below high water of neap tides.
Moreover, in spite of the great range of tide at the South Wales
ports on the Severn estuary, the available depth at high water
of neap tides of 23 ft. at the Roath lock, Cardiff, was increased

DOCK

361

in the lock of the new dock to 31^ ft.; the depth at the entrance
to the Barry docks, opened in 1889, was 29! ft., but at the lock
opened in 1896 was made 41 £ ft.; whilst a depth of 34 ft. has
been proposed for the new lock of the Alexandra dock extension
at Newport, nearly 10 ft. deeper than the existing lock sills there.
Similar improvements in depth have also been made or designed
at other ports to provide for the increasing draught of vessels.

The length of locks has also been increased, from 550 ft. at the
Albert dock, to 700 ft. at Tilbury in the port of London, from
300 ft. to 550 ft. at Hull, and from 350 ft. to 660 ft. at Cardiff.
The lock at the Barry docks is 647 ft. long, though only 65 ft.
wide. A lock constructed in connexion with the improvement
works at Havre, carried out in 1896-1907, was given an available
length of 805 ft. and a width of 98! ft., with a depth over the sills
of 34$ ft. at high water of neap tides.

Entrances with a single pair of gates, closing against a raised sill
at the bottom and meeting in the centre, have to be made long

1

i

-THHHKKHHHlfHKKKHHHl

1

SCALE 400.

FIG. 19. — Barry Docks, Entrance.

enough to provide a recess in each side wall at the back to receive
the gates when they are opened, and to form a buttress in front on
each side to bear the thrust of the gates when closed
a" *CCS aSamst a head of water inside. A masonry floor is laid
on the bottom in continuation of the sill, serving as an
apron against erosion by water leaking between or under the gates,
and by the current through the sluiceways in the gates, when
opened for scouring the entrance channel or to assist in lowering the
water in a half-tide dock for opening the gates (fig. 19). A sluice-
way in each side wall, closed by a vertical sluice-gate, generally
provided in duplicate in case of accidents and worked by a machine
actuated by hydraulic pressure, enables the half-tide basin to be
brought down to the level of the approach channel outside with a
rising tide, so that vessels may be brought into or passed out of the
basin towards high water. The advantages of these entrances are,
that they occupy comparatively little room where the space is limited,
and are much less costly than locks; whilst in conjunction with a
half-tide basin they serve the same purpose as a lock with a rising
tide. Vessels also pass more readily through the short entrances
than through locks; and as entrances are only used towards high
water, their sills need not be placed so low as the outer sills of locks
to accommodate vessels of large draught. On the other hand, they
are accessible for a more limited period at each tide than locks;
and they do not allow of the exclusion of silt-bearing tidal water,
and therefore necessitate a greater amount of dredging in the docks,
and especially in half-tide basins, for maintenance. Entrances,
however, at large ports are frequently supplemented by the addition
of a lock at some convenient site, rendering the ports accessible for
the smaller class of vessels for some time before and after high water,
as for instance at Liverpool, Barry, Havre and St Nazaire. A
small basin with an entrance at each end — an arrangement often
adopted — is in reality, for all practical purposes, a lock with a very

large lock-chamber. An entrance or passage with gates has also to
be provided at the inner end of a large half-tide basin like the basins
adopted at Liverpool, to shut off the half-tide basin from the docks
to which it gives access, and maintain their water-level when the
water is drawn down in the basin to admit vessels before high tide.

Reverse gates pointing outwards are sometimes added in passage;
to docks and at entrances, to render the water-level in one set of
docks independent of adjacent docks, to exclude silty tidal water and
very high tides, and also to protect the gates of outer entrances in
exposed situations from swell, which might force them open slightly
and lead to a damaging shock on their closing again.

Locks differ from entrances in having a pair of gates with ar-
rangements similar to an entrance at each end, separated from one
another by a lock-chamber, which should be large enough
to receive the longest and broadest vessel coming regularly ~L
to the port. These dock locks are similar in principle to
locks on canals and canalized rivers, but are on a much larger scale.
The lock-chamber has its water raised or lowered in proportion to
the difference in level between the water-level in the dock and the
water in the entrance channel, by passing water, when the gates are
closed at both ends, from the dock into the lock-chamber or from
the lock-chamber into the entrance channel, through large sluiceways
in the side walls, controlled, as at entrances, by vertical sluice-gates.
In this way the vessel is raised or lowered in the chamber, till, when
a level has been reached, the intervening pair of gates is opened
and the vessel is passed into the dock or out to the channel. Gener-
ally the upper and lower sills of a lock are at the same level, a foot
or two higher than dock-bottom; and the depth at which they are
laid is governed by the same considerations as the sill of an entrance.
Vessels longer than the available length between the two pairs of
gates can be admitted close to high water, when the water in the
dock and outside is at the same level, and both pairs of gates can be
opened. When the range of tide at a port is large, and the depth in
the approach channel is sufficient to allow vessels to come up or go out
some time before and after high water, and also where the water in
the dock is kept up to a high level from an inland source to exclude
very silty tidal water, it is expedient to reduce the cost of construc-
tion by limiting the depth of the excavations for the dock, and
consequently also the height of the dock walls, to what is necessary
to provide a sufficient depth of water below high water of the lowest
neap tides, or below the water-level to which the water in the dock is
always maintained, for the vessels of largest draught frequenting the
port, or those which may be reasonably expected in the near future.
The upper sill of the lock is then determined by the level of dock-
bottom ; but the lower sill is taken down approximately to the depth
of the bottom of the approach channel, or to the depth to which it
can be carried by dredging, so as to enable the lock to admit or let
out at any time all vessels which can navigate the approach channel.
Thus, for instance, the outer and intermediate sills of the lock at the
Barry docks are 9 ft. lower then the upper sill.

The foundations for the sill and side walls at each end of a lock,
and also for the side walls and invert commonly enclosing the lock-
chamber at the sides and bottom, are generally constructed simul-
taneously with the dock works, under shelter of a cofferdam across
the entrance channel, and in the excavations kept dry by means of
pumps. The foundations under the sills and adjacent side walls are
carried down to a lower level than the rest, and if possible to a water-
tight stratum, to prevent infiltration of water under them owing to
the water-pressure on the upper side of the gates; or sometimes one
or two rows of sheet piling have been driven across the lock under the
sills to an impermeable stratum, to stop any flow. The foundations
for the sills consist usually of concrete deposited in a trench extended
out under the adjoining side walls. The sill, projecting generally
about 2 ft. above the adjacent gate floor over which the gates turn,
is built of granite ; and the same material is also used for the hollow
quoins in which the heelpost, or pivot, of the dock gates turns, and
which, together with the sills, are exposed to considerable wear.
The side walls of the lock-chamber are very similar in construction
to the dock walls; but they are strengthened against the loss of
water-pressure in front of them when the water is lowered in the
chamber by an inverted arch of masonry, brickwork or concrete,
termed an " invert," laid across the bottom of the chamber along
its whole length, against which the toe of each side wall abuts and
effectually prevents any forward movement. The side walls also,
alongside the gates at each end, abut against a thick level gate floor
and apron, and, moreover, are considerably widened to provide space
for the sluiceways and gate machinery.

The new Florida lock (fig. 20), forming the main entrance through
the new approach harbour and tidal harbour to the Eure dock and
other docks of the port of Havre, is the largest lock hitherto con-
structed. It has an available length of chamber between the gates
of 805 ft., a width of 98! ft., and depths over the sills of 15! Ft. at
the lowest low water of spring tides, 23^ ft. at low water of neap tides,
35 ft. at high water of neap tides, and 40^ ft. at high water of spring
tides. Owing to the alluvial stratum at the site of the lock close to
the Seine estuary, of which it doubtless at one time formed part, the
foundations for the sill and side walls or heads at each end of the
lock were executed by aid of compressed air. The foundations for
these heads were carried down to an impermeable stratum by means
of two bottomless caissons, filled eventually with concrete, 213$ ft.

362

DOCK

long across the lock and 105 ft. wide in the line of the lock at the upper
eno, and 2o6J ft. long and I i6J ft. wide at the lower end, to a depth
of 18 ft. below the sill at the upper end, and 41 ft. at the lower end,
owing to the dip down seawards and southward of the water-tight
stratum. These caissons were provided for their sinkage with
temporary dams of masonry closing the opening of the lock at the
extremities of each caisson, enabling the gates to be subsequently
erected under their shelter. The junctions between the foundations

the side walls, 6yJ ft. apart, and provide for the filling and emptying
of the chamber.

The gates closing the entrances and locks at docks are made of
wood or of iron. In iron gates, the heelpost, or a vertical closing strip
attached to the outer side of the gate close to the heelpost,
the meeting-post at the end of each gate closing against
each other when the gates are shut, and the sill piece fitting
against the sill are generally made of wood. Wooden gates consist of

D t

Longitudinal Section, Lower End.

Cross Section on AB.

Longitudinal Section, Upper End.

IL TT JL T JL ——

===.-±^--±'i r±= ==±*!=^J-*=-!a=l=^-=-±?S=

— -. -kJ-

3oo FZ

FIG. 20. — Florida Lock, Havre Docks, Sections and Plan.

of the heads and the adjacent foundations were effected by small
movable caissons carried down in recesses provided in the buried
caissons. The connexions with the adjacent quay walls were ac-
complished by two supplementary side caissons at the end of each
head ; and the north side wall of the lock was founded by means of
seven bottomless caissons sunk by aid of compressed air, on account
of the proximity of the tidal harbour on that side. The south side
wall was founded for a length of about 200 ft. at its western end in
an excavated trench kept dry by pumping; but the greater portion

a series of horizontal framed beams, made thicker and put closer to-
gether towards the bottom to resist the water-pressure increasing with
the depth, fastened to the heelpost and meeting-post at the two ends
and to intermediate uprights, and supporting water-tight planking on
the inner face (fig. 21). Iron gates have generally an outer as well as an
inner skin of iron plates braced vertically and horizontally by plate-
iron ribs, the horizontal ribs being placed nearer together and the
plates made thicker towards the bottom (figs. 22 and 23). Green-
heart is the wood used fjr gates exposed to salt water, as it resists
the attack of the teredo in temperate climates.
As cellular iron gates are made water-tight, and
have to be ballasted with enough water to
prevent their flotation, or are provided with
air chambers below and are left open to the
rising tide on the outer side above, the gates
are light in the water and are easily moved;
whereas greenheart gates with their fastenings
are considerably heavier than water, so that
a considerable weight has to be moved when
the water is somewhat low in the dock and the
gates therefore only partially immersed. On
the other hand, wooden gates are less liable
than iron gates to be seriously damaged if run
into by a vessel.

Dock gates are sometimes made straight,
closing against a straight sill (figs. 20 and 23) ;
and occasionally they are made segmental with
the inner faces forming a continuous circular
arc and closing against a sill corresponding to
the outer curves of the gates (fig. 22), or by
means of a projecting sill piece against a
straight sill (fig. 21). More frequently the
gates, curved on both faces, meet at an angle

SCALE

F7.10 5 O

I I I I I I I I I I I

50F.T

FIG. 21. — Wooden
Dock Gate.

FIG. 22. — Iron Segmental
Dock Gate.

was founded in a dredged trench in which bearing piles were driven
under water, on which the masonry was built in successive layers,
about 3J ft. thick, in a movable caisson 93! ft. long and 37 j ft. wide;
whilst a bottomless caisson, left in the work, was^ employed for
founding about 100 ft. of wall at the eastern end. The bed of con-
crete also, 10 ft. thick, forming the floor of the chamber, was_ carried
out for 82 ft. at the western end in the open air, and the remainder in
the same movable caisson as used for the south wall. Two sluiceways
on each side running the whole length of the lock, differing^ 6J ft.
in level, communicate with the lock-chamber through openings in

forming a Gothic arch in plan, and close by
aid of a projecting piece against a straight sill,
which in the Barry entrance gates is modified
by making the outer faces nearly straight
(fig. 19), giving an unusual width to the centre
of the gates. The pressures produced by a
head of water against these gates when closed
depends not only on the form of the gates, but
also upon the projection given to the angle of
the sill in proportion to the width of the lock,
which is known as the rise, and is generally
placed at a distance along the centre line of
the lock, from a line joining the centres of the
heel-posts, of about one-fourth the width. With straight gates, the
stresses consist, first of a transverse stress due to the water-pressure
against the gate, which increases with the head of water and
length of the gate; and secondly, of a compressive stress along
the gate, resulting from the pressure of the other gate against its
meeting-post, which is equal to half the water-pressure on the gate
multiplied by the tangent of half the angle between the closed gates,
varying inversely with the rise. Though an increase in the rise
reduces this stress, it increases the length of the gate and the trans-
verse stress, and also the length of the lock. By curving the gates

FIG. 23.— Straight
Iron Dock Gate.

DOCK

363

suitably, the transverse stress is reduced and the longitudinal com-
pressive stress is augmented, till at last, when the gates form a
horizontal segmental arch, the stresses become wholly compressive
and uniform in each horizontal section, increasing with the depth;

LW.o.51;

SCALE 200.

FlG. 24. — Sliding

Caisson.

FlG. 25. — Ship Caisson.

B B

and the total stress is equal to the pressure on a unit of surface
multiplied by the radius of curvature. Though the water-pressure
is most uniformly and economically borne by cylindrical gates, they
are longer, and encroach more upon the lines of quay with their
curved recesses than straighter gates; and, consequently, Gothic-
arched gates are
often preferred.
Straight gates afford
the greatest simpli-
city in construction.
Gates in wide
entrances or locks
are generally sup-
ported towards their
outer end by a roller
running along a cast-
iron roller-path on
the gate floor (figs.
19, 21 and 22), as
well as by the heel-
post, fitted over a
steel pivot at the

j Zeebrugge lock, at the entrance to the Bruges ship canal, are drawn
across the lock or into their chamber by electricity in two minutes.
A caisson is specially useful in cases where there may be a head of
water on either side, as then it takes the place of two pairs of gates
pointing in opposite directions, or for closing an entrance against
a current. A caisson, however, requires a much larger amount of
material than a pair of dock gates, and a considerable width on one
side for its chamber, so that under ordinary conditions gates are
generally used at docks.

A ship caisson, so called from its presenting some resemblance in
section to the hull of a vessel, occupies too much time in being towed,
floated into position, and sunk into grooves at the bottom and sides
of an entrance for closing it, and then refloated and towed away for
opening the entrance again, to be used at entrances and locks to
docks (fig. 25). Being, however, simple in construction, taking up
little space, and requiring no chamber or machinery for moving it,
this form of caisson is generally used for closing the entrance to a
graving dock, where it remains for several days in place during
the execution of repairs to a vessel in the dock. A ship caisson only
requires the admission of sufficient water to sink it when in position
across the entrance to a graving dock; and this water has to be
pumped put before it can be floated, and removed to some vacant
position in the neighbouring dock till it is again required. Like a
sliding or rolling caisson, it prov'.des a bridge for crossing over the
entrance of the graving dock when in position.

Graving Docks. — Provision has to be made at ports for the
repairs of vessels frequenting them. The simplest arrangement is
a timber gridiron, on which a vessel settles with a falling tide, and
can then be inspected and slightly cleaned and repaired till the
tide floats it again. Inclined slipways are sometimes provided,
up which a vessel resting in a cradle on wheels can be drawn out
of the water; and they are also used for shipbuilding, the vessel
when ready for launching being allowed to slide down them into
the water. Graving or dry docks, however, opening out of a dock,
are the usual means provided for enabling the cleaning and
repairs of vessels to be carried out.

A graving dock consists of an enclosure, surrounded by side walls
stepped on the face, and paved at the bottom with a thick floor

SCALE 2.000.

FIG. 26. — Plan of Southampton Graving Dock.

bottom, and tied back against the hollow quoins at the top by
anchor straps and bolts, on which the gate turns. In some cases, by
placing the water ballast in iron gates close to the heelpost, a roller
has been dispensed with, even, for instance, at the wide entrance
at Havre (fig. 23). The gates are opened and closed, either by an
opening and a closing chain for each gate, fastened on either side
and worked from opposite side walls by hydraulic power, or
by a single hydraulic piston or bar hinged to the inner side
of each gate (figs. 19 and 20). The latter system has the
advantages of being simpler and occupying less space in the
side walls, of avoiding the slight loss of available depth
over the sill due to the two closing chains crossing on the
sill when the gates are open, and especially of keeping the
gates closed against a swell in exposed sites. '

A sliding or rolling caisson is occasionally placed across '

each end of a lock in place of a pair of dock gates, being
Caissons drawn back into a recess at the side for opening
tor docks. tne '°ck. As a caisson chamber has to be covered
over to provide a continuous quay or roadway
on the top, a lowering platform is supplied to enable the
caisson to pass under the small girders spanning the top of
the chamber, or the caisson is sunk down sufficiently (fig.
24). The caisson is furnished with an air chamber to give
it flotation, which is adjusted by ballast according to the depth of
water. The advantages of a caisson, as compared with a pair of
gates, are that the gate recesses, gate floor, hollow quoins and
arrangements for working in the side walls are dispensed with, so
that the lock can be made shorter, and the work at each head is
rendered less complicated. The caisson itself also serves as a very
strong movable bridge, and therefore is often preferred at dockyards
to dock gates. By improvements in the hauling machinery, a caisson
can open or close a lock as quickly as dock gates; the caissons at

sloping slightly down from the centre to drains along the sides, long
enough to receive the longest vessel likely to come to the port. Its
entrance, at the end adjoining the dock, is just wide enough to admit
the vessel of greatest beam, and deep enough over the sill to receive
the vessel of greatest draught, when light, at the lowest water-level
of the dock (figs. 26 and 27). Graving docks are constructed of

ft

I25..0

i n

S0

*•%_ ^

l«^-f

SCALE eoo.
FIG. 27. — Cross Section of Southampton Graving Dock.

masonry, brickwork or concrete, or formerly in America of timber;
they should be founded on a solid impervious stratum, or, where
that is impracticable, they should be built upon bearing piles and
enclosed within sheet piling, to prevent settlement and the infiltra-
tion of water under pressure below the dock. Keel blocks are laid
along the centre line of the dock, for the keel of the vessel to rest on
when the water is pumped out; and the vessel is further supported
on each side by timber shores supported on the steps or " altars " of
the side walls, which are lined with granite or other hard stone, or

DOCKET— DOCKYARDS

blue bricks, or, when constructed of concrete, with a facing of stronger
concrete, to enable these altars to withstand the wear and shocks
to which they are subjected. Steps and slides are provided at con-
venient places at the sides to give access for men and materials to
the bottom of the dock; and culverts and drains lead the water
to pumps for removing the water from the dock when the entrance
has been closed, and to keep it dry whilst a vessel is under repair.
Culverts in the side walls of the entrance enable water to be admitted
for filling the dock to let the vessel out. Graving docks are generally
closed by ship caissons; but where they open direct on to a tidal
river, and there is some exposure, gates are adopted, or sometimes
sliding caissons.

The dimensions of graving docks vary considerably with the
nature of the trade and the date of construction; and sometimes
an intermediate entrance is provided to accommodate two smaller
.vessels. The sizes of some of the largest graving docks are as follows :
Liverpool, Canada dock, 9255 ft. long, Q<J. ft. width of entrance, and
29 ft. depth at the ordinary water-level in the dock; Southampton,
851* ft. by 90 ft., and 29 £ ft. depth at high-water neaps (figs. 26 and
27); Tilbury, 875 ft. by 70 ft. by 31$ ft.; and Glasgow, 880 ft. by
So ft. by 26| ft.

Floating Dry Docks. — Where there is no site available for a graving
dock, or the ground is very treacherous, floating dry docks, built
originally of wood, but more recently of iron or steel, have occasion-
ally been resorted to. The first Bermuda dock towed across the
Atlantic in 1869, and the new dock launched in 1902, 545 ft. by 100 ft.,
are notable examples. Water is admitted into the pontoon at the
bottom to sink the dock sufficiently to admit a vessel at its open end ;
and then the water is pumped out of compartments in the pontoon
till the vessel is raised out of water. It is only necessary to find a
sheltered site, with a sufficient depth of water, for conducting the
operations. (L. F. V.-H.)

DOCKET (perhaps from " dock," to curtail or cut short, with
the diminutive suffix et, but the origin of the word is obscure; it
has come into use since the i sth century) , in law, a brief summary
or digest of a case, or a memorandum of legal decisions; also
the alphabetical list of cases down for trial, or of suits pending.
Such cases are said to be " on the docket." In commercial use, a
docket is a warrant from the custom-house, stating that the duty
on goods entered has been paid, or the label fastened to goods,
showing their destination, value, contents, &c., and, generally,
any indorsement on the back of a document, briefly setting out
its contents.

DOCK WARRANT, in law, a document by which the owner of a
marine or river dock certifies that the holder is entitled to goods
imported and warehoused in the docks. In the Factors Act 1889
it is included in the phrase " document of title " and is denned
as any document or writing, being evidence of the title of any
person therein named ... to the property in any goods or
merchandise lying in any warehouse or wharf and signed or
certified by the person having the custody of the goods. It
passes by indorsement and delivery and transfers the absolute
right to the goods described in it. A dock warrant is liable to a
stamp duty of threepence, which may be denoted by an adhesive
stamp, to be cancelled by the person by whom the instrument is
executed or issued.

DOCKYARDS. In the fullest meaning of the word, a " dock-
yard " (or " navy yard " in America) is a government establish-
ment where warships of every kind are built and repaired, and
supplied with the men and stores required to maintain them in
a state of efficiency for war. Thus a dockyard in this extended
sense would include slips for building ships, workshops for
manufacturing their machinery, dry docks for repairing them,
stores of arms, ammunition, coal, provisions, &c., with basins in
which they may lie while being supplied with such things, and an
establishment for providing the personnel necessary for manning
them. But in practice few, if any, existing dockyards are of so
complete a nature; many of them, for instance, do not undertake
the building of ships at all, while others are little more than
harbours where a ship may replenish her stores of coal, water and
provisions and carry out minor repairs. Private firms are relied
•upon for the construction of many ships down to an advanced
stage, the government dockyards completing and equipping them
for commission.

Great Britain. — Previous to the reign of Henry VIII., the
kings of England had neither naval arsenals nor dockyards, nor
any regular establishment of civil or naval officers to provide
ships of war, or to man them. There are, however, strong evi-

dences of the existence of dockyards, or of something answering
thereto, at very early dates, at Rye, Shoreham and Winchelsea.
In November 1243 the sheriff of Sussex was ordered to enlarge
the house at Rye in which the king's galleys were kept, so that it
might contain seven galleys. In 1238 the keepers of some of the
king's galleys were directed to cause those vessels to be breamed,
and a house to be built at Winchelsea for their safe custody. In
1254 the bailiffs of Winchelsea and Rye were ordered to repair
the buildings in which the king's galleys were kept at Rye. At
Portsmouth and at Southampton there seem to have been
at all times depots for both ships and stores, though there was
no regular dockyard at Portsmouth till the middle of the i6th
century. It would appear, from a curious poem in Hakluyt's
Collection called " The Policie of Keeping the Sea," that Little-
hampton, unfit as it now is, was the port at which Henry VIII.
built

" his great Dromions
Which passed other great shippes of the commons."

The " dromion," " dromon," or " dromedary " was a large war-
ship, the prototype of which was furnished by the Saracens.
Roger de Hoveden, Richard of Devizes and Peter de Longtoft
celebrate the struggle which Richard I., in the " Trench the Mer,"
on his way to Palestine, had with a huge dromon, — " a marvellous
ship 1 a ship than which, except Noah's ship, none greater was
ever read of." This vessel had three masts, was very high out
of the water, and is said to have had 1500 men on board. It
required the united force of the king's galleys, and an obstinate
fight, to capture the dromon.

The foundation of a regular British navy, by the establishment
of dockyards, and the formation of a board, consisting of certain
commissioners for the management of its affairs, was first laid
by Henry VIII., and the first dockyard erected during his reign
was that of Woolwich. Those of Portsmouth, Deptford, Chatham
and Sheerness followed in succession. Plymouth was founded by
William III. Pembroke was established in 1814, a small yard
having previously existed at Milford.

The most important additions yet made at any one period to
the dockyard and harbour works required to meet the necessities
of the British fleet were those sanctioned by the Naval Works
Acts of 1895 and subsequent years, the total estimated cost, as
stated in the act of 1899, being over 23^ millions sterling. The
works proposed under these acts were classified under three heads,
viz. (a) the enclosure and defence of harbours against torpedo
attacks; (b) adapting naval ports to the present needs of the
fleet; (c) naval barracks and hospitals. Under the first heading
were included the defensive harbours at Portland, Dover and
Gibraltar. Under heading (b) were included the deepening of
harbours and approaches, the dockyard extensions at Gibraltar,
Keyham (Devonport), Simons Bay, and Hong-Kong, with
sundry other items. Under heading (c) were included the naval
barracks at Chatham, Portsmouth and Keyham; the naval
hospitals at Chatham, Haslar and Haulbowline; the colleges
at Keyham and Dartmouth; and other items.

Great Britain possesses dockyards at Portsmouth, Devonport,
Chatham, Malta and Gibraltar, each in charge of an admiral-
superintendent, and at Sheerness and Pembroke in charge of a
captain-superintendent, together with establishments at Ascen-
sion. Bermuda, Simons Town (Cape of Good Hope), Queenstown
(Haulbowline); Hong-Kong, Portland, Sydney and Weihaiwei.
The Indian Government has dockyards at Bombay and Calcutta.
The medical establishments include Ascension, Bermuda, Cape
of Good Hope, Chatham, Dartmouth, Deal, Gibraltar, Haslar,
Haulbowline, Hong-Kong, Malta, Osborne, Plymouth, Portland,
Portsmouth, Sheerness, Sydney, Yarmouth, Yokohama and
Weihaiwei.

The arrangements for the administrative control of the dock-
yards have varied with those adopted for the regulation of the
navy as a whole. (See ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION; and NAVY:
History.) At the present time, whether at home or abroad, they
lie within the province of the controller of the navy (the third lord
of the board of admiralty) ; and the director of dockyards, whose
office, replacing that of surveyor of dockyards was created in

DOCKYARDS

365

December 1885, is responsible to the controller for the building of
ships, boats, &c., in dockyards, and for the maintenance and
repair of ships and boats, and of all steam machinery in ships,
boats, dockyards and factories. The director of naval construc-
tion, who is also deputy-controller, is responsible, not only for
the design of ships, but for their construction, in the sense that he
approves great numbers of working drawings of structural parts
prepared at the dockyards. But the director of dockyards is
the admiralty official under whose instructions the work goes
on, involving the employment and supervision of an army of
artisans and labourers. Instructions, therefore, emanate from
the admiralty, but the details lie with the dockyard officials, and
in practice there is a considerable decentralization of duties.

The chief function of a dockyard is the building and maintain-
ing of ships in efficiency. The constructive work is carried out
under the care of the chief constructor of the yard, in accordance
with plans sent down from the admiralty. The calculations for
displacement, involving the draught of water forward and aft,
have already been made, and, in order to ensure accuracy in the
carrying out of the design, an admirable system has been devised
for weighing everything that is built into the new ships or that
goes on board; and it is astonishing how very closely the actual
displacement approximates to that which was intended, par-
ticularly when the tendency of weights to increase, in perfecting
a ship for commission, is considered.

The ship having been built to her launching weight, the duty of
putting her into the water devolves upon the chief constructor of
the yard, and failures in this matter are so extremely rare that
it may almost be said they do not occur. As soon as the ship
is water-borne the responsibility falls upon the king's harbour
master, who has charge of her afloat and of moving her into the
fitting basins. When the ship has been brought alongside the
wharf, the responsibility of the chief constructor of the yard
is resumed, and the ship is carried forward to completion by
the affixing of armour plating (if that has not been done before
launching), the mounting of guns, the instalment of engines,
boilers, and electrical and hydraulic gear, and the fitting of cabins
for officers, mess places for men, and storerooms, and a vast
volume of other work unnecessary to be specified. In regard to
the complicated details of guns and torpedoes, the captains of the
gunnery and torpedo schools have a function of supervision. The
captain of the fleet reserve also closely watches the work, because,
when the heads of all departments have reported the ship to be
ready, she has to be inspected by the commander-in-chief at
the port, and then passed into the fleet reserve as ready for sea,
and there the captain of the fleet reserve is responsible for her
efficiency. Other important officers of a dockyard are the chief
engineer; the superintendent civil engineer, who has charge of
the work involved in keeping all buildings, docks, basins, caissons,
roads, &c., in repair; the naval store officer, who has charge of
most of the stores in the dockyard; and the cashier of the yard,
whose name sufficiently expresses his duties.

The system of conducting business at the dockyards is analogous
to that which prevails at the admiralty. There is personal com-
munication between the officers responsible for the work, and
facilities are afforded for coming to rapid decisions upon matters
that are in hand, and the operations are conducted with an ease
which contributes much to efficiency. In 1844 the custom was
introduced of all the principal officers of the dockyard meeting
at the superintendent's office at 9.30 A.M. every day, to hear the
orders from the admiralty and discuss the work of the day. But
this system of " readings " was abolished at the beginning of
1906, the naval establishments inquiry committee considering
that the assembling of the officials was unnecessary since the
communications after reception are copied and sent to the
departments concerned.

The police force necessary in a dockyard is in some cases
supplied from the London metropolitan police, and is under
the orders of the superintendent of the yard for duties connected
with it, and under the commissioner of police for the discipline
and disposition of the force. The charges are, of course, paid by
the admiralty, and the system answers well.

United States. — The shore stations under control of the
Navy Department (see also ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION), and
collectively known as naval stations, are under different names
according to their nature. Of those called Navy Yards, and
intended for the general purpose of sources of supply and for
repairs of ships, there are within the United States eight in
number. Two of them are on the Pacific coast, situated on Puget
Sound, at Bremerton, Washington; and at Mare Island, near
San Francisco. The other six are on the Atlantic coast, and
are situated at Portsmouth, N.H.; Boston, Mass.; Brooklyn,
N.Y.; Philadelphia, Pa.; Washington, D.C.; and Norfolk. Va.
There are also naval stations at Port Royal and Charleston, S.C. ;
Key West and Pensacola, Fla.; New Orleans, La.; Guan-
tanamo, Cuba; Culebra and San Juan, Porto Rico; Honolulu,
H.I.; Cavite, P.I.; Tutuila, Samoa; and Island of Guam, in
the Ladrones Islands. The floating dock Dewey, having a lifting
capacity of 18,500 gross tons with a free-board of 2 ft., was
stationed in the Philippine Islands in 1906.

Besides these, there are important naval stations established
for special purposes, which in some cases are also available for
ports of supply and for repairs. These are: the U.S. Naval
Academy, Annapolis, Md., for the instruction of naval cadets;
the training stations at Newport, R.I., and Yerba Buena Island,
Cal., for the instruction of apprentices; the proving ground at
Indian Head, Md., on the Potomac river, where all government-
built ordnance is tested; the War College at Newport, R.I., for
the instruction of officers; the torpedo station at Newport, for
the instruction of officers and men in torpedoes, electricity and
submarine diving; the naval observatory at Washington; and
the marine post at Sitka, Alaska. Coaling dep6ts have been
established at Honolulu, Pago Pago, Samoan Islands, and at
Manila, P.I. Naval hospitals are located at the Portsmouth,
Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Washington, Norfolk and Mare
Island yards; at Las Animas, Colo.; at Newport, R.I.; Cafiacao,
P.I.; Sitka, Alaska; and Yokohama, Japan.

The commandant of a navy yard and station, who is usually
a rear-admiral, is its commander-in-chief. His official assistants
are called heads of departments. The captain of the yard, who
is next in succession to command, has general charge of the water
front and the ships moored there, and of the police of the navy
yard; it is his duty to keep the commandant informed as to the
nature and efficiency of all work in progress. The equipment
officer has charge of anchors, chains, rigging, sails and the electric
generating plant. The other heads of departments are the
ordnance officer, the naval constructor, the engineering officer,
the general storekeeper, the paymaster of the yard, the surgeon
and the civil engineer. The clerks and draughtsmen employed
by these officers are appointed under civil service rules, and
their employment is continuous so long as funds are available.
The foremen are selected by competitive examination, and their
number is fixed. In the employment of mechanics and labourers,
veterans are given preference, after which follow persons previ-
ously employed who have displayed especial efficiency and good
conduct. The rates of wages are determined semi-annually by
a board of officers, who ascertain the wages paid by private
establishments in the vicinity of the navy yard. Eight hours
constitute the legal work day. When emergencies necessitate
longer hours the workmen are paid at the ordinary rate plus
50%.

The nature and extent of work to be performed upon naval
vessels is determined by the secretary of the navy; the com-
mandant then issues the necessary orders. The material required
is obtained by a system of requisitions, which provide for the
purchase from the lowest bidder after open competition. Heads
of departments initiate the purchase of materials which are
peculiar to their own work; ordinary commercial articles,
however, are usually carried in a special stock called the " Naval
Supply Fund," which may be drawn upon by any head of depart-
ment. All materials are inspected, both as to quantity and
quality, by a board of inspectors consisting of three officers.

France. — The French coast is divided into five naval arrondisse-
ments, which have their headquarters at the five naval ports of

366

DOCTOR

which Cherbourg, Brest and Toulon are the most important, Lorient
and Rochef ort being of lesser degree. All are building and fitting-out
yards. Corsica, which has naval stations at Ajaccio, Porto Vecchio,
Bonifacio and other places, is a dependency of the arsenal at Toulon.
On the African coast there are docking facilities in Algeria. Bizerta,
the Tunisian port, has been made a naval base by the deepening
and fortifying of the canal which is the approach to the inner
lake. There are arsenals also at Saigon and Hai-phong, and an
establishment at Diego Suarez.

The subsidiary establishments in France are the gun foundry at
Ruelle ; the steel and iron works at Guerigny, where anchors, chains
and armour-plate are made; and the works at Indret, on an island
in the lower Loire, where machinery is constructed. There are
many private shipbuilding establishments in the country, the most
important being the Forges et Chantiers de la Mediterranee at La
Seyne, on the lesser roadstead at Toulon where many French and
foreign warships of the largest classes have been built. The same
company has a building yard at Havre. Other establishments are
the Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire, at Saint Nazaire ; the Normand
Yard, at Havre ; and the Chantiers de la Gironde, near Bordeaux.

Each of the arrondissements above mentioned is divided into
sous-arrondissements, having their centres in the great commercial
ports, but this arrangement is purely for the embodiment of the men
of the Inscription Maritime, and has nothing to do with the dock-
yards as naval arsenals. In each arrondissement the vice-admiral,
who is naval prefect, is the immediate representative of the minister
of marine, and has full direction and command of the arsenal, which
is his headquarters. He is thus commander-in-chief , as also governor-
designate for time of war, but his authority does not extend to ships
belonging to organized squadrons or divisions. The naval prefect is
assisted by a rear-admiral as chief of the staff (except at Lorient and
Rochefort, where the office is filled by a captain) , and a certain number
of officers, the special functions of the chief of the staff having
relation principally to the efficiency and personnel of the fleet, while
the " major-general," who is usually a rear-admiral, is concerned
chiefly with the materiel. There are also directors of stores, of naval
construction, of the medical service and of the submarine defences
(which are concerned with torpedoes, mines and torpedo-boats),
as well as of naval ordnance and works. The prefect directs the
operations of the arsenal, and is responsible for its efficiency and for
that of the ships which are there in reserve. In regard to the consti-
tution and maintenance of the naval forces, the administration of the
arsenals is divided into three principal departments, the first con-
cerned with naval construction, the second with ordnance, including
gun-mountings and small-arms, and the third with the so-called
submarine defences, dealing with all torpedo materiel.

Germany. — With the expansion of the German navy considerable
additions have been made to the two principal dockyards. These
are Wilhelmshaven, the naval headquarters on the North Sea, and
Kiel, the headquarters on the Baltic, Danzig being an establishment
of lesser importance, and Kiao-chau an undeveloped base in the
Shantung peninsula, China. The chief official at each home dock-
yard is the superintendent (Oberwerftdirektor), who is a rear-admiral
or senior captain directly responsible to the naval secretary of state.
Under the superintendent's orders are the chief of the Ausrustung
department, or captain of the fleet reserve, the directors of ordnance,
torpedoes, navigation, naval construction, engineering and harbour
works, with some other officers. The chiefs of the constructive and
engineering departments are responsible for the building of ships and
machinery, and for the maintenance of the hulls and machinery of
existing vessels; while the works department has charge of all work
on the quays, docks, &c., in the dockyard and port. A great advance
has been made in increasing the efficiency and capabilities of the
imperial dockyards by introducing a system of continuous work in
the building of new ships and effecting alterations in others, and
German material is exclusively used. The Schichau Works at
Elbing and Danzig, the Vulkan Yard at Bredow, near Stettin, the
Weser Company at Bremen, and the establishment of Blohm and
Voss at Hamburg, are important establishments which have built
many vessels for the German navy, as well as for foreign states.

Italy. — The principal Italian state dockyards are Spezia, Naples
and Venice, the first named being by far the most important. It
covers an area, including the water spaces, of 629 acres, and there
are five dry docks, three being 433 ft. long and 105 ft. wide, and two
361 ft. long and 98 ft. 6 in. wide. The dockyard is very completely
equipped with machinery of the best British, German and Italian
makes, and it has built several of the finest Italian ships. The
number of hands employed in the yard averages 4000. There are
two building slips, and for smaller vessels there are two in the
neighbouring establishment of San Bartolommeo (which is the head-
quarters for submarine mining), and one at San Vito, where is a
Government gun factory. Castellammare di Stabia is subsidiary
to Naples. A large dry dock has been built at Taranto. There is
a small naval establishment at Maddalena Island on the Strait of
Bonifacio. The Italian Government has no gun or torpedo factories,
nearly all the ordnance coming from the Armstrong factory at
Pozzuoli near Naples, and the torpedoes from the Schwarzkopf
factory at Venice, while armour-plates are produced at the im-
portant works at Terni. Machinery is supplied by the firms of
Ansaldo, Odero, Orlando, Guppy & Hawthorn and Pattison. The

three establishments first named have important shipbuilding yards,
and have constructed vessels for the Italian and foreign navies.
The Orlando Yard at Leghorn is Government property, but is
leased by the firm, and possesses five building slips.

Austria-Hungary. — The naval arsenal is on the well-protected
harbour of Pola, in Istria, which is the headquarters of the national
navy, and includes establishments of all kinds for the maintenance
of the fleet. There are large building and docking facilities, and a
number of warships have been built there. There is a construction
yard also at Trieste. A new coaling and torpedo station is at Teodo,
large magazines and stores are at Vallelunga, and the mining establish-
ment is at Ficella. The shipbuilding branch of the navy is under the
direction of a chief constructor (Oberster-Ingenieur), assisted by seven
constructors, of whom two are of the first class. The engineering and
ordnance branches are similarly organized.

Spain.— The Spanish dockyards are of considerable antiquity, but
of diminishing importance. There is an establishment at Ferrol,
another at Cartagena, and a third at Cadiz. They are well equipped
in all necessary respects, but are not provided with continuous work.
A recent airangement is the specialization of the yards, Ferrol being
designed for larger, and Carthagena for smaller, building work. The
ordnance establishment is at Carraca.

Russia. — In Russia the naval ports are of two classes. The most
important are Kronstadt, St Petersburg and Nikolayev. Of lesser
importance are Reval, Syeaborg, Sevastopol, Batum, Baku and
Vladivostok. The administration of the larger ports, except St
Petersburg, which is under special regulations, is in the hands of
vice-admirals, who are commanders-in-chief, while the smaller ports
are under the direction of rear-admirals. All are directly under the
minister of marine, except that the Black Sea ports and Astrabad,
on the Caspian, are subordinate to the commander-in-chief at
Nikolayev. Sevastopol has grown in importance, and become
mainly a naval harbour, the commercial harbour being removed to
Theodosia. The Russian government has also proposed to remodel
the harbour works at St Petersburg and Kronstadt. The Emperor
Alexander III. Port at Libau, on the Baltic, is in a region less liable
to be icebound in the winter. There are no strictly private yards for
the building of large vessels in Russia, except that of the Black Sea
Company at Nikolayev. Messrs Creighton build torpedo-boats at
Abo in Finland, and the admiralty has steel works at Ijora, where
some torpedo-boats have been built. Other ordnance and steel
works are at Obukhov and Putilov.

Japan. — The principal Japanese dockyard, which was established
by the Shogunate in 1866, is Yokosuka. French naval constructors
and engineers were employed, and several wooden ships were built.
The Japanese took the administration into their own hands in 1875,
and built a number of vessels of small displacement in the yard.
The limit of size was about 5000 tons, but the establishment has been
enlarged so that vessels of the first class may be built there. There
is a first -class modern dry dock which will take the largest battleship.
Shipbuilding would be undertaken to a larger extent but for the fact
that nearly all material has to come from abroad. Down to 1905
all the important vessels of the Japanese navy were built in Great
Britain, France, Germany and the United States, but at the end of
that year a first-class cruiser of 13,500 tons (the " Tsukuba ") was
launched from the important yard at Kure. There are other yards
at Sassebo and Maisuru.

DOCTOR (Lat. for " teacher "), the title conferred by the
highest university degree. Originally there were only two
degrees, those of bachelor and master, and the title doctor was
given to certain masters as a merely honorary appellation.
The process by which it became established as a degree superior
to that of master cannot be clearly traced. At Bologna it seems
to have been conferred in the .faculty of law as early as the
1 2th century. Paris conferred the degree in the faculty of
divinity, according to Antony Wood, some time after 1150. In
England it was introduced in the I3th century; and both in
England and on the continent it was long confined to the faculties
of law and divinity. Though the word is so commonly used as
synonymous with " physician," it was not until the I4th century
that the doctor's degree began to be conferred in medicine. The
tendency since has been to extend it to all faculties; thus in
Germany, in the faculty of arts, it has replaced the old title of
magister. The doctorate of music was first conferred at Oxford
and Cambridge.

Doctors of the Church are certain saints whose doctrinal writ-
ings have obtained, by the universal consent of the Church
or by papal decree, a special authority. In the case of the great
schoolmen a characteristic qualification was added to the title
doctor, e.g. " angelicus " (Aquinas), " mellifluus " (Bernard).
The doctors of the Church are: for the East, SS. Athanasius,
Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil the Great, John Chrysostom; for
the West, SS. Hilary, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, Gregory the

DOCTORS' COMMONS— DODD

367

Great, Anselm, Bernard, Bonaventura and Thomas Aquinas.
To these St Alphonso dei Liguori was added by Pope Pius IX.

DOCTORS' COMMONS, the name formerly applied to a
society of ecclesiastical lawyers in London, forming a distinct
profession for the practice of the civil and canon laws. Some
members of the profession purchased in 1567 a site near St Paul's,
on which at their own expense they erected houses (destroyed in
the great fire, but rebuilt in 1672) for the residence of the judges
and advocates, and proper buildings for holding the ecclesiastical
and admiralty courts. In 1768 a royal charter was obtained
by virtue of which the then members of the society and their
successors were incorporated under the name and title of " The
College of Doctors of Law exercent in the Ecclesiastical and
Admiralty Courts." The college consisted of a president (the
dean of Arches for the time being) and of those doctors of law
who, having regularly taken that degree in either of the uni-
versities of Oxford or Cambridge, and having been admitted
advocates in pursuance of the rescript of the archbishop of
Canterbury, were elected fellows in the manner prescribed by
the charter. There were also attached to the college thirty-four
proctors, whose duties were analogous to those of solicitors.
The judges of the archiepiscopal courts were always selected
from this college. By the Court of Probate Act 1857 the
college was empowered to sell its real and personal estate and
to surrender its charter, and it was enacted that on such
surrender the college should be dissolved and the property
thereof belong to the then existing members as tenants in
common for their own use and benefit. The college was ac-
cordingly dissolved, and the various ecclesiastical courts which
sat at Doctors' Commons (the Court of Arches, the Prerogative
Court, the Faculty Court and the Court of Delegates) are now
open to the whole bar.

DOCTRINAIRES, the name given to the leaders of the moderate
and constitutional Royalists in France after the second restora-
tion of Louis XVIII. in 1815. The name, as has often been the
case with party designations, was at first given in derision, and
by an enemy. In 1816 the Nainjaune rffugie, a French paper
published at Brussels by Bonapartist and Liberal exiles, began
to speak of M. Royer-Collard as the " doctrinaire " and also as
le pere Royer-Collard de la doctrine chretienne. The peres^e la
doctrine chretienne, popularly known as the " doctrinaires," were
a French religious order founded in 1592 by Cesar de Bus. The
choice of a nickname for M. Royer-Collard does credit to the
journalistic insight of the contributors to the Nainjaune refugie,
for he was emphatically a man who made it his business to preach
a doctrine and an orthodoxy. The popularity of the name and
its rapid extension to M. Royer-Collard's colleagues is the suffi-
cient proof that it was well chosen and had more than a personal
application. These colleagues came, it is true, from various
quarters. The due de Richelieu and M. de Serre had been Royalist
emigres during the revolutionary and imperial epoch. MM.
Royer-Collard himself, Laine, and Maine de Biran had sat in the
revolutionary Assemblies. MM. Pasquier, Beugnot, de Barante,
Cuvier, Mourner, Guizot and Decazes had been imperial officials.
But they were closely united by political principle, and also by a
certain similarity of method. Some of them, notably Guizot and
Maine de Biran,were theorists and commentators on the principles
of government. M. de Barante was an eminent man of letters.
All were noted for the doctrinal coherence of their principles and
the dialectical rigidity of their arguments. The object of the
party as defined by M. (afterwards the due) Decazes was to
" nationalize the monarchy and to royalize France." The means
by which they hoped to attain this end were a loyal application
of the charter granted by Louis XVIII., and the steady co-opera-
tion of the king with the moderate Royalists to defeat the
extreme party known as the Ultras, who aimed at the complete
undoing of the political and social work of the Revolution. The
Doctrinaires were ready to allow the king a large discretion in
the choice of his ministers and the direction of national policy.
They refused to allow that ministers should be removed in
obedience to a hostile vote in the chamber. Their ideal in fact
was a combination of a king who frankly accepted the results

of the Revolution, and who governed in a liberal spirit, with the
advice of a chamber elected by a very limited constituency, in
which men of property and education formed, if not the whole,
at least the very great majority of the voters. Their views were
set forth by Guizot in 1816 in his treatise Du gouvernement
representatif et de Vetat actuel de la France. The chief organs of
the party in the press were the Independent, renamed the Con-
stitutionnel in 1817, and the Journal des debats. The supporters
of the Doctrinaires in the country were chiefly ex-officials of the
empire, — who believed in the necessity for monarchical govern-
ment but had a lively memory of Napoleon's tyranny and a
no less lively hatred of the ancien regime, — merchants, manu-
facturers and members of the liberal professions, particularly the
lawyers. The history of the Doctrinaires as a separate political
party began in 1816 and ended in 1830. In 1816 they obtained
the co-operation of Louis XVIII., who had been frightened by
the violence of the Ultras in the Chambre introuvable of 1815.
In 1830 they were destroyed by Charles X. when he took the
Ultra prince de Polignac as his minister and entered on the con-
flict with Liberalism in France which ended in his overthrow.
During the revolution of 1830 the Doctrinaires became absorbed
in the Orleanists, from whom they had never been separated on
any ground of principle (see FRANCE: History).

The word " doctrinaire " has become naturalized in English
terminology, as applied, in a slightly contemptuous sense, to a
theorist, as distinguished from a practical man of affairs.

See Duvergier de Hauranne, Histoire du gouvernement parle-
mentaireen France (Paris, 1857-1871), vol. iii.

DOCUMENT, strictly, in law, that which can serve as evidence
or proof, and is written or printed, or has an inscription or any
significance that can be " read "; thus a picture, authenticated
photograph, seal or the like would furnish " documentary
evidence." More generally the word is used for written or printed
papers that provide information or evidence on a subject. The
Latin documentum, from which the word is derived, meant, in
classical times, a lesson, example or proof (docere, to teach), and
only in medieval Latin came to be applied to an instrumentum, or
record in writing. The classical Latin use is found in English;
thus Jeremy Taylor (Works, ed. 1835, i- 8l5) speaks of punish-
ment being a " single and sudden document if instantly in-
flicted " (see DIPLOMATIC; and EVIDENCE).

DODD, WILLIAM (1720-1777), English divine, was born at
Bourne in Lincolnshire in May 1729. He was admitted a sizar
of Clare Hall, Cambridge, in 1745, and took the degree of B.A.
in 1750, being fifteenth wrangler. On leaving the university he
married a young woman of a more than questionable reputation,
whose extravagant habits helped to ruin him. In 1751 he
was ordained deacon, and in 1753 priest, and he soon became a
popular and celebrated preacher. His first preferment was the
lectureship of West-Ham and Bow. In 1754 he was also chosen
lecturer of St Olave's, Hart Street; and in 1757 he took the
degree of M.A. at Cambridge, subsequently becoming LL.D.
He was a strenuous supporter of the Magdalen hospital, founded
in 1758, and soon afterwards became preacher at the chapel of
that charity. In 1763 he obtained a prebend at Brecon, and in
the same year he was appointed one of the king's chaplains, —
soon after which the education of Philip Stanhope, afterwards
earl of Chesterfield, was committed to his care. In 1768 he had
a fashionable congregation and was held in high esteem, but
indiscreet ambition led to his ruin. On the living of St George's,
Hanover Square, becoming vacant in 1774, Mrs Dodd wrote
an anonymous letter to the wife of the lord chancellor, offering
three thousand guineas if, by her assistance, Dodd were promoted
to the benefice. This letter having been traced, a complaint was
immediately made to the king, and Dodd was dismissed from his
office as chaplain. After residing for some time at Geneva and
Paris, he returned to England in 1776. He still continued to
exercise his clerical functions, but his extravagant habits soon
involved him in difficulties. To meet his creditors he forged
a bond on his former pupil Lord Chesterfield for £4200, and
actually received the money. He was detected, committed to
prison, tried at the Old Bailey, found guilty, and sentenced to

368

DODDER— DODDRIDGE

death; and, in spite of numerous applications for mercy, he was
executed at Tyburn on the 27th of June 1777. Samuel Johnson
was very zealous in pleading for a pardon, and a petition from
the city of London received 23,000 signatures. Dr Dodd was a
voluminous writer and possessed considerable abilities, with but
little judgment and much vanity. He wrote one or two comedies,
and his Beauties of Shakespeare, published in 1752, was long a
well-known work; while his Thoughts in Prison, a poem in blank
verse, written between his conviction and execution, naturally
attracted much attention. He published a large number of
sermons and other theological works, including a Commentary
on the Bible (1765-1 77°) • A list of his fifty-five writings and an
account of the writer is included in the Thoughts in Prison.
See also P. Fitzgerald, A Famous Forgery (1865).
DODDER (Frisian dodd, a bunch; Dutch dot, ravelled thread),
the popular name of the annual, leafless, twining, parasitic plants

forming the genus
Cuscuta, formerly
regarded as repre-
senting a distinct
natural order
Cuscutaceae, but
now generally
ranked as a tribe
of the natural
order Convolvu-
laceae. The genus
contains nearly
100 species and is
widely distributed
in the temperate
and warmer parts
of the earth. The
slender thread-like
stem is white,
yellow, or red in
colour, bears no
leaves, and at-
taches itself by
suckers to the stem
or leaves of some
other plant round
which it twines
and from which it
derives its nourish-
ment. It bears
clusters of small
fl o w e r s with a
four- or five-
toothed calyx, a
cup-shaped corolla
with four or five
stamens inserted
on its tube, and
sometimes a ring
of scales below the
stamens; the two-
celled ovary becomes when ripe a capsule splitting by a ring
just above the base. The seeds are angular and contain a
thread-like spirally coiled embryo which bears no cotyledons.
On coming in contact with the living stem of some other plant
the seedling dodder throws out a sucker, by which it attaches
itself and begins to absorb the sap of its foster-parent; it then
soon ceases to have any connexion with the ground. As it
grows, it throws out fresh suckers, establishing itself firmly on
the host-plant (fig. 2). After making a few turns round one stem
the dodder finds its way to another, and thus it continues twining
and branching till it resembles " fine, closely-tangled, wet cat-
gut." The injury done to flax, clover, hop and bean crops by
species of dodder is often very great. C. europaea, the greater
dodder (fig. i) is found parasitic on nettles, thistles, vetches and
the hop; C. Epilinum, on flax; C. Epithymum, on furze, ling

FIG. i. — Cuscuta europaea, Dodder,
i. Flower removed from 2, Calyx.

3. Ovary cut across.

4. Fruit enveloped by a persistent corolla.

5. Seed.

6. Embryo. 1-6 enlarged.

and thyme. C. Trifolii, the Clover Dodder, is perhaps a sub-
species of the last mentioned.

DODDRIDGE, PHILIP (1702-1751), English Nonconformist
divine, was born in London on the 26th of June 1702. His
father, Daniel Doddridge, was a London merchant, and his
mother the orphan daughter of the Rev. John Bauman, a
Lutheran clergyman who had fled from Prague to escape religious
persecution, and had held for some time the mastership of the
grammar school at Kingston-upon-Thames. Before he could
read, his mother taught him the history of the Old and New
Testament by the assistance of some blue Dutch chimney-tiles.
He afterwards went to a private school in London, and in 1712
to the grammar school

at Kingston-upon- ^d&Hii^ ft

Thames. About 1715
he was removed to a
private school at St
Albans, where he was
much influenced by the
Presbyterian minister,
Samuel Clarke. He de-
clined offers which would
have led him into the
Anglican ministry or the
bar, and in 1719 entered
the very liberal academy
for dissenters at Kib-
worth in Leicestershire,
taught at that time by
the Rev. John Jennings,
whom Doddridge suc-
ceeded in the ministry

at that place in 1723, FlG_ 2._Cuscuta siomerata.

declining overtures from through union between parasite and host.
Coventry, Pershore and c, stem of host.

London (Haberdashers' d, stem of Cuscuta.

Halll Tn -non at a "• haustona.

1729, at a (After Dodel-Port.)

general meeting of Non-
conformist ministers, he was chosen to conduct the academy
established in that year at Market Harborough. In the same
year he received an invitation from the independent congrega-
tion at Northampton, which he accepted. Here he continued
his multifarious labours; but the church seems to have de-
creased, and his many engagements and bulky correspondence
interfered seriously with his pulpit work, and with the discipline
of his academy, where he had some 200 students to whom he
lectured on philosophy and theology in the mathematical or
Spinozistic style. In 1751 his health, which had never been
good, broke down, and he sailed for Lisbon on the 3Oth of
September of that year; but the change was unavailing, and
he died there on the 26th of October. His popularity as a
preacher is said to have been chiefly due to his " high suscepti-
bility, joined with physical advantages and perfect sincerity."
His sermons were mostly practical in character, and his great
aim was to cultivate in his hearers a spiritual and devotional
frame of mind. He laboured for the attainment of a united
Nonconformist body, which should retain the cultured element
without alienating the uneducated. His principal works are,
The Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul (1745), which best
illustrates his religious genius, and has been widely translated;
The Family Expositor (6 vols., 1739-1756), Life of Colonel
Gardiner (1747); and a Course of Lectures on Pneumatology,
Ethics and Divinity (1763). He also published several courses
of sermons on particular topics, and is the author of many well-
known and justly admired hymns, e.g. " O God of Bethel, by
whose hand." In 1736 both the universities at Aberdeen gave
him the degree of D.D.

See Memoirs, by Rev. Job Orton (1766); Letters to and from
Dr Doddridge, by Rev. Thomas Stedman (1790) ; and Correspondence
and Diary, in 5 vols., by his grandson, John Doddridge Humphreys
(1829). The best lite is Stanford's Philip Doddridge (1880). Dodd-
ridge's academy is now represented by New College, Hampstead, in
the library of which there is a large collection of his manuscripts.

DODDS— DODGSON

369

DODDS, ALFRED AM^DEE (1842- ), French general, was
born at St Louis, Senegal, on the 6th of February 1842; his
father's family was of Anglo-French origin. He was educated at
Carcassonne and at St Cyr, and in 1864 joined the marine infantry
as a sub-lieutenant. He was promoted captain for his services
during the disturbances in Reunion in 1868-69, in the course
of which he was wounded. He served as a company commander
in the Franco-German War, was taken prisoner at Sedan but
escaped, and took part in the campaigns of the Loire and of the
East. In 1872 he was sent to West Africa, and/except when on
active service in Cochin China (1878) and Tong-King (1883), he
remained on duty in Senegal for the next twenty years, taking
a prominent part in the operations which brought the countries
of the Upper Senegal and Upper Niger under French rule. He
led the expeditions against the Boal and Kayor (1889), the
Serreres (1890) and the Futa (1891), and from 1888 to 1891 was
colonel commanding the troops in Senegal. At the close of 1891
he returned to France to command the eighth marine infantry
at Toulon. In April 1892 Dodds was selected to command the
expeditionary force in Dahomey; he occupied Abomey, the
hostile capital, in November, and in a second campaign (1894)
he completed the subjugation of the country. He was then
appointed inspector-geheral of the marine infantry, and after a
tour of the French colonies was given the command of the XX.
(Colonial) Army Corps, subsequently becoming inspector-general
of colonial troops and a member of the Conseil superieur de
guerre.

DODECAHEDRON (Gr. 5d>Se/ca, twelve, and tdpa, a face
or base) , in geometry, a solid enclosed by twelve plane faces. The
" ordinary dodecahedron " is one of the Platonic solids (see
POLYHEDRON) . The Greeks discovered that if a line be divided in
extreme and mean proportion, then the whole line and the greater
segment are the lengths of the edge of a cube and dodecahedron
inscriptible in the same sphere. The '' small stellated dode-
cahedron," the " great dodecahedron " and the " great stellated
dodecahedron " are Kepler-Poinsot solids; and the " truncated "
and " snub dodecahedra " are Archimedean solids (see POLY-
HEDRON). In crystallography, the regular or ordinary dode-
cahedron is an impossible form since the faces cut the axes in
irrational ratios; the " pentagonal dodecahedron " of crystal-
lographers has irregular pentagons for faces, while the geometrical
solid, on the other hand, has regular ones. The " rhombic
dodecahedron," one of the geometrical semiregular solids, is
an important crystal form. Many other dodecahedra exist as
crystal forms, for which see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.

DODECASTYLE (Gr. 5oo5eca, twelve, and orDXos, column),
the architectural term given to a temple where the portico has
twelve columns in front, as in the portico added to the temple
of Demeter at Eleusis, designed by Philo, the architect of the
arsenal at the Peiraeus.

DODERLEIN, JOHANN CHRISTOPH WILHELM LUDWIG
(1791-1863), German philologist, was born at Jena on the igth
of December 1791. His father, Johann Christoph Doderlein,
professor of theology at Jena, was celebrated for his varied
learning, for his eloquence as a preacher, and for the import-
ant influence he exerted in guiding the transition movement
from strict orthodoxy to a freer theology. Ludwig Doderlein,
after receiving his preliminary education at Windsheim and
Schulpforta (Pforta), studied at Munich, Heidelberg, Erlangen
and B erlin. He devoted his chief attention to philology under the
instruction of such men as F. Thiersch, G. F. Creuzer, J. H. Voss,
F. A. Wolf, August Bockh and P. K. Buttmann. In 1815, soon
after completing his studies at Berlin, he accepted the appoint-
ment of ordinary professor of philology in the academy of Bern.
In 1819 he was transferred to Erlangen, where he became second
professor of philology in the university and rector of the
gymnasium. In 1827 he became first professor of philology and
rhetoric and director of the philological seminary. He died on
the gth of November 1 863. Doderlein's most elaborate workasa
philologist was marred by over-subtlety, and lacked method
and clearness. He is best known by his Lateinische Synonymen
und Etymologien (1826-1838), and his Homerisches Glossarium

(1850-1858). To the same class belong his Lateinische Wort-
bildung (1838), Handbuch der lateinischen Synonymik (1839),
and the Handbuch der lateinischen Etymologic (1841), besides
various works of a more elementary kind intended for the use
of schools and gymnasia. Most of the works named have been
translated into English. To critical philology Doderlein con-
tributed valuable editions of Tacitus (Opera, 1847; Germania,
with a German translation) and Horace (Epistolae, with a German
translation, 1856-1858; Satirae, 1860). His Reden und Aufsiilze
(Erlangen, 1843-1847) and Offentliche Reden (1860) consist
chiefly of academic addresses dealing with various subjects in
paedagogy and philology.

DODGE, THEODORE AYRAULT (1842-1909), American
soldier and military writer, was born at Pittsfield, Massachusetts,
on the 28th of May 1842. He received a military education in
Germany and subsequently studied at Heidelberg and London
University, returning to the United States in 1861. At the out-
break of the Civil War he at once enlisted in the federal army, and
he soon rose to commissioned rank. He served in the Army of
the Potomac until Gettysburg, where he lost a leg. Incapacitated
for further active service, he continued to be employed in admini-
strative posts to the end of the war, and for several years there-
after he served at army headquarters, becoming captain in 1866
and brevet lieutenant-colonel in 1867. He retired in 1870. His
works include The Campaign of Chancellor sville (1881), A Bird's
Eye View of our Civil War (1882, later edition 1897), a complete,
accurate and remarkably concise account of the whole war,
Patroclusand Penelope, aChatinthe Saddle (1883), Great Captains
(1886), a series of lectures, Riders of Many Lands (1893), and
a series of large illustrated volumes entitled A History of the A rt of
War, being livesof " Great Captains, " including Alexander ( 2 vols. ,
1888), Hannibal (2 vols., 1889), Caesar (2 vols., 1892), Gustavus
Adolphus (2 vols., 1896) and Napoleon (4 vols., 1904-1907). He
died in France, at Versailles, on the 26th of October 1909.

DODGSON, CHARLES LUTWIDGE ["LEWIS CARROLL"]
(1832-1898), English mathematician and author, son of the Rev.
Charles Dodgson, vicar of Daresbury, Cheshire, was born in that
village on the 27th of January 1832. The literary life of " Lewis
Carroll " became familiar to a wide circle of readers, but the
private life of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson was retired and practic-
ally uneventful. After four years' schooling at Rugby, Dodgson
matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford, in May 1850; and from
1852 till 1870 held a studentship there. He took a first class in
the final mathematical school in 1854, and the following year was
appointed mathematical lecturer at Christ Church, a post he
continued to fill till 1881. In 1861 he was ordained deacon, but
he never took priest's orders, possibly because of a stammer which
prevented reading aloud. His earliest publications, beginning
with A Syllabus of Plane Algebraical Geometry (1860) and The
Formulae of Plane Trigonometry (1861), were exclusively mathe-
matical; but late in the year 1865 he published, under the
pseudonym of " Lewis Carroll," Alice's Adventures in Wonderland,
a work that was the outcome of his keen sympathy with the
imagination of children and their sense of fun. Its success was
immediate, and the name of " Lewis Carroll " has ever since been
a household word. A dramatic version of the " Alice " books by
Mr Savile Clarke was produced at Christmas, 1886, and has since
enjoyed many revivals. Mr Dodgson was always very fond of
children, and it was an open secret thiit the original of " Alice "
was a daughter of Dean Liddell. Alice was followed (in the
" Lewis Carroll " series) by Phantasmagoria, in 1869; Through
the Looking-Glass, in 1871; The Hunting of the Snark (1876);
Rhyme and Reason (1883); A Tangled Tale (1885); and
Sylvie and Bruno (in two parts, 1889 and 1893). He wrote skits
on Oxford subjects from time to time. The Dynamics of a
Particle was written on the occasion of the contest between
Gladstone and Mr Gathome Hardy (afterwards earl of
Cranbrook) ; and The New Belfry in ridicule of the erection put
up at Christ Church for the bells that were removed from the
Cathedral tower. While " Lewis Carroll " was delighting
children of all ages, C. L. Dodgson periodically published mathe-
matical works — An Elementary Treatise on Determinants (1867);

370

DODO

Euclid, Book V., proved Algebraically (1874); Euclid and his
Modern Rivals (1879), the work on which his reputation as a
mathematician largely rests; and Curiosa Malhematica (1888).
Throughout this dual existence Mr Dodgson pertinaciously
refused to acquiesce in being publicly identified with " Lewis
Carroll." Though the fact of his authorship of the " Alice "
books was well known, he invariably stated, when occasion called
for such a pronouncement, that " Mr Dodgson neither claimed nor
acknowledged any connexion with the books not published under
his name." He died at Guildford, on the I4th of January 1898.
His memory is appropriately kept green by a cot in the Children's
Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London, which was endowed
perpetually by a public subscription.

See S. D. Collingwood, Life and Letters of Lewis Carroll (1898).

DODO (from the Portuguese D6udo, a simpleton), a large bird
formerly inhabiting the island of Mauritius, but now extinct —
the Didus ineptus of Linnaeus. When, in 1507, the Portuguese
discovered the island which we now knowas Mauritius they named
it Ilha do Cerne, from a notion that it must be the island of that
name mentioned by Pliny; but most authors have insisted that
it was known to the seamen of that nation as Ilha do Cisne —
perhaps but a corruption of Cerne, and brought about by their
finding it stocked with large fowls, which, though not aquatic,
they likened to swans, the most familiar to them of bulky birds.
In 1598 the Dutch, under Van Neck, took possession of the island
and renamed it Mauritius. A narrative of this voyage was
published in 1601, if not earlier, and has been often reprinted.
Here we have birds spoken of as big as swans or bigger, with large
heads, no wings, and a tail consisting of a few curly feathers. The
Dutch called them Walgvogels (the word is variously spelled), i.e.
nauseous birds, either because no cooking made them palatable,
or because this island-paradise afforded an abundance of fare so
much superior. De Bry gives two admirably quaint prints of
the doings of the Hollanders, and in one of them the Walgvogel
appears, being the earliest published representation of its un-
wieldy form, with a footnote stating that the voyagers brought
an example alive to Holland. Among the company there was a
draughtsman, and from a sketch of his, Clusius, a few years after,
gave a figure of the bird, which he vaguely called " Gallinaceus
Callus peregrinus," but described rather fully. Meanwhile two
other Dutch fleets had visited Mauritius. One of them had rather
an accomplished artist on board, and his drawings fortunately still
exist (see article BIRD). Of the other a journal kept by one of
the skippers was subsequently published. This in the main
corroborates what has been before said of the birds, but adds the
curious fact that they were now called by some Dodaarsen and by
others Dronten.1

Henceforth Dutch narrators, though several times mentioning
the bird, fail to supply any important fact in its history. Their
navigators, however, were not idle, and found work for their
naturalists and painters. Clusius says that in 1605 he saw at
Pauw's House in Leyden a dodo's foot,2 which he minutely
describes. In a copy of Clusius's work in the high school of
Utrecht is pasted an original drawing by Van de Venne super-
scribed " Vera effigies huius avis Walghvogel (quae & a nautis
Dadaers propter foedam posterioris partis crassitiem nuncupatur),
qualis viua Amsterodamum perlata est ex insula Mauritii. Anno
M.DC.XXVI." Now a good many paintings of the dodo drawn
from life by Roelandt Savery (1576-1639) exist; and the paint-
ings by him at Berlin and Vienna — dated 1626 and 1628 — as

1 The etymology of these names has been much discussed. That of
the latter, which has generally been adopted by German and French
authorities, seems to defy investigation, but the former has been
shown by Prof. Schlegel (Versl. en Mededeel. K. Akad. Wetensch.
ii. pp. 255 et seq.) to be the homely name of the dabchick or little
grebe (Podiceps minor), of which the Dutchmen were reminded by
the round stern and tail diminished to a tuft that characterized
the dodo. The same learned authority suggests that dodo is a
corruption of Dodaars, but, as will presently be seen, we herein think
him mistaken.

1 What has become of the specimen (which may have been a relic
of the bird brought home by Van Neck's squadron) is not known.
Broderip and Dr Gray have suggested its identity with that now in
the British Museum, but on what grounds is not apparent.

well as the picture by Goiemare, belonging to the duke of
Northumberland, dated 1627, may be with greater plausibility
than ever considered portraits of a captive bird. It is even
probable that this was not the first example painted in Europe.
In the private library of the emperor Francis I. of Austria was a
series of pictures of various animals, supposed to be by the Dutch
artist Hoefnagel, who was born about 1545. One of these
represents a dodo, and, if there be no mistake in Von Frauenfeld's
ascription, it must almost certainly have been painted before
1626, while there is reason to think that the original may have
been kept in the vivarium of the emperor Rudolf II., and that the
portion of a dodo's head, which was found in the museum at
Prague about 1850, belonged to this example. The other pictures
by Roelandt Savery, like those in the possession of the Zoological
Society of London and others, are undated, but were probably all
painted about the same time — 1626-1628. The large picture in
the British Museum, once belonging to Sir Hans Sloane, by an
unknown artist, but supposed to be by Roelandt Savery, is also
undated; while the still larger one at Oxford (considered to be by
the younger Savery) bears a much later date, 1651. Undated also
is a picture in Holland said to be by Pieter Holsteyn.

In 1628 we have the evidence of the first English observer of
the bird — one Emanuel Altham, who mentions it in two letters
written on the same day from Mauritius to his brother at home
(Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, pp. 447-449). In one he says: " You
shall receue ... a strange fowle: which I had at the Hand
Mauritius called by ye portingalls a Do Do: which for the rare-
ness thereof I hope wilbe welcome to you." The passage in the
other letter is to the same effect, with the addition of the words
" if it Hue." In the same fleet with Altham sailed Sir Thomas
Herbert, whose Travels ran through several editions. It is plain
that he could not have reached Mauritius till 1629, though 1627
has been usually assigned as the date of his visit. The fullest
account he gives of the bird is in his edition of 1638: " The Dodo
comes first to a description: here, and in Dygarrois* (and no
where else, that ever I could see or heare of) is generated the Dodo
(a Portuguize name it is, and has reference to her simpleness,) a
Bird which for shape and rareness might be call'd a Phoenix
(wer't in Arabia:) " &c. Herbert was weak as an etymologist,
but his positive statement, corroborated as it is by Altham,
cannot be set aside, and hence we do not hesitate to assign a
Portuguese derivation for the word.4 Herbert also gave a figure
of the bird.

Proceeding chronologically we next come upon a curious bit
of evidence. This is contained in a MS. diary kept between 1626
and 1640, by Thomas Crossfield of Queen's College, Oxford, where,
under the year 1634, mention is casually made of one Mr Gosling
" who bestowed the Dodar (a blacke Indian bird) vpon ye
Anatomy school." Nothing more is known of it. About 1638,
Sir Hamon Lestrange tells us, as he walked London streets he saw
the picture of a strange fowl hung out on a cloth canvas, and
going in to see it found a great bird kept in a chamber "somewhat
bigger than the largest Turky cock, and so legged and footed, but
shorter and thicker." The keeper called it a dodo and showed
the visitors how his captive would swallow " large peble stones
... as bigge as nutmegs."

In 1651 Morisot published an account of a voyage made by
Francois Cauche, who professed to have passed fifteen days in
Mauritius, or " 1'isle de Saincte Apollonie," as he called it, in
1638. According to De Flacourt the narrative is not very
trustworthy, and indeed certain statements are obviously
inaccurate. Cauche says he saw there birds bigger than swans,
which he describes so as to leave no doubt of his meaning dodos;
but perhaps the most important facts (if they be facts) that he

* i-e. Rodriguez ; an error.

4 Hence we venture to dispute Prof. Schlegel's supposed origin of
" Dodo." The Portuguese must have been the prior nomenclators,
and if, as is most likely, some of their nation, or men acquainted
with their language, were employed to pilot the Hollanders, we see
at once how the first Dutch name Walghvogel would give way. The
meaning of Doudo not being plain to the Dutch, they would, as is
the habit of sailors, convert it into something they did understand.
Then Dodaers would easily suggest itself.

DODO

371

relates are that they had a cry like a gosling (" il a un cry comme
1'oison "), and that they laid a single white egg (" gros comme un
pain d'un sol ") on a mass of grass in the forests. He calls them
" oiseaux de Nazaret," perhaps, as a marginal note informs us,
from an island of that name which was then supposed to lie more
to the northward, but is now known to have no existence.

In the catalogue of Tradescant's Collection of Rarities, preserved
at South Lambeth, published in 1656, we have entered among the

FIG. i. — Skeleton of a Dodo, Didus ineptus. Museum of Zoology,
Cambridge, and cast of a Head in Oxford.

" Whole Birds," a " Dodar from the island Mauritius; it is not
able to flie being so big." This specimen may well have been the
skin of the bird seen by Lestrange some eighteen years before, but
anyhow we are able to trace the specimen through Willughby,
Edward Llwyd and Thomas Hyde, till it passed in or before 1684
to the Ashmolean collection at Oxford. In 1755 it was ordered
to be destroyed, but, in accordance with the original orders of
Ashmole, its head and right foot were preserved, and still orna-
ment the museum of that university. In the second edition of a
Catalogue of many Natural Rarities, &c., " to be seen at the place
formerly called the Music House, near the West End of St Paul's
Church," collected by one Hubert alias Forbes, and published in
1665, mention is made of a " legge of a Dodo, a great heavy bird
that cannot fly; it is a Bird of the Mauricius Island." This is
supposed to have subsequently passed into the possession of the
Royal Society. At all events such a specimen is included in
Crew's list of their treasures which was published in 1681. This
was afterwards transferred to the British Museum. It is a left
foot, without the integuments, but it differs sufficiently in size
from the Oxford specimen to forbid its having been part of the
same individual. In 1666 Olearius brought out the Gottorffische
Kunst Kammer, wherein he describes the head of a Walghvb'gel,
which some sixty years later was removed to the museum at
Copenhagen, and is now preserved there, having been the means
of first leading zoologists, under the guidance of Prof. J. Th.
Reinhardt, to recognize the true affinities of the bird.

We have passed over all but the principal narratives of voyagers
or other notices of the bird. A compendious bibliography, up to
the year 1848, will be found in Strickland's classical work,1 and
the list was continued by Von Frauenfeld 2 for twenty years later.

' The Dodo and its Kindred, by H. E. Strickland and A. G. Melville
(London, 1848, 4to).

2 Neu aufeefundene Abbildung des Dronte, by Georg Ritter von
Frauenfeld (Wien, 1868, fol.).

The last evidence we have of the dodo's existence is furnished by a
journal kept by Benj. Harry, and now in the British Museum
(MSS. Addit. 3668. 1 1. D). This shows its survival till 1681, but
the writer's sole remark upon it is that its " fflesh is very hard."
The successive occupation of the island by different masters
seems to have destroyed every tradition relating to the bird, and
doubts began to arise whether such a creature had ever existed.
Dr Henry Duncan, Scottish minister and journalist, in 1828,
showed how ill-founded these doubts were, and some ten years
later William John Broderip with much diligence collected all the
available evidence into an admirable essay, which in its turn was
succeeded by Strickland's monograph just mentioned. But in
the meanwhile little was done towards obtaining any material
advance in our knowledge, Prof. Reinhardt's determination of its
affinity to the pigeons (Columbae) excepted ; and it was hardly
until George Clark's discovery in 1865 of a large number of dodos'
remains in the mud of a pool (the Mare aux Scnges) that zoologists
generally were prepared to accept that affinity without question.
The examination of bone after bone by Sir R. Owen (Trans.
Zool. Soc. vi. p. 49) confirmed the judgment of the Danish
naturalist.

In 1889 Th. Sauzier, acting for the government of Mauritius,
sent a great number of bones from the same swamp to Sir Edward
Newton.3 From these the first correctly restored and properly
mounted skeleton was prepared and sent to Paris, to be forwarded
to the museum of Mauritius. Good specimens are in the British
Museum, at Paris and at Cambridge, England.

The huge blackish bill of the dodo terminated in a large, horny
hook; the cheeks were partly bare, the stout, short legs yellow.
The plumage was dark
ash - coloured, with
whitish breast and
tail, yellowish white
wings (incapable of
flight). The short tail
formed a curly tuft.

The dodo is said to
have inhabited forests
and to have laid one
large white egg on a
mass of grass. Besides
man, hogs and other
imported animals
seem to have exter-
minated it. But the
dodo is not the only
member of its family
that has vanished.
The little island which
has successively borne
the name of Mas-
caregnas, England's
Forest, Bourbon and
Reunion, and lies to
the southward of
Mauritius, had also an
allied bird, now dead
and gone. Of this not
a relic has been
handled by any natur-
alist Thp latp«t HP FlG- 2- — The Solitaire of Rodriguez

. ' . l " (Pezophaps solitarius). From Leguat's

scnption of it, by Du figure.

Bois in 1674, is very

meagre, while Bontekoe (1646) gave a figure, apparently intended

to represent it. It was originally called the " solitaire," but this

name was also applied to Pezophaps solitarius of Rodriguez by

the Huguenot exile Leguat, who described and figured it about

1691.

The solitaire, Did us solitarius of Gmelin, referred by Strickland
to. a district genus Pezophaps, is supposed to have lingered in the

»E. Newton and H. Gadow, Trans. Zool. Soc. xiii. (1893) pp.
281-302, pis.

372

DODONA

island of Rodriguez until about 1761. Leguat1 has given a
delightful description of its quaint habits. The male stood about
2 ft. g in. high; its colour was brownish grey, that of its mate
more inclined to brown, with a whitish breast. The wings were
rudimentary, the tail very small, almost hidden, and the thigh
feathers were thick and curled " like shells." A round mass of
bone, " as big as a musket ball," was developed on the wings of
the males, and they used it as a weapon of offence while they
whirled themselves about twenty or thirty times in four or five
minutes, making a noise with their pinions like a rattle. The
mien was fierce and the walk stately, the birds living singly or
in pairs. The nest was a heap of palm leaves a foot high, and
contained a single large egg which was incubated by both parents.
The food consisted of seeds and leaves, and the birds aided
digestion by swallowing large stones; these were used by the

FIG. 3. — Skeleton of a male Solitaire, Pezophaps solitarius,
Museum of Zoology, Cambridge.

Dutch sailors to sharpen their knives with. One of these stones,
nearly an inch and a half in length, of extremely hard volcanic
rock, is in the Cambridge museum. The fighting knobs mentioned
above, are very interesting, large exostoses on one of the wrist-
bones of either wing; they were undoubtedly covered with a
thick, callous skin. Thousands of bones of this curious flightless
pigeon were collected through Sir E. Newton's2 exertions, and
by H. H. Sclater on behalf of the Royal Society of London. The
results are several almost complete skeletons of both sexes,
composed however out of the enormous mass of the dissociated
bones. (A.N.; H.F.G.)

DODONA, in Epirus, the seat of the most ancient and venerable
of all Hellenic sanctuaries. Its ruins are at Dramisos, near
Tsacharovista. In later times the Greeks of the south looked on
the inhabitants of Epirus as barbarians; nevertheless for Dodona
they always preserved a certain reverence, and the temple there
was the object of frequent missions from them. This temple was
dedicated to Zeus, and connected with the temple was an oracle

1 Voyage et aventures de Fran(ois Leguat, &c. (2 vols., London,
1708). An English translation, edited with many additional illus-
trations by Captain Oliver, has been published by the Hakluyt
Society (2 vols., 1891).

1 E. Newton and J. W. Clark, Phil. Trans, clix. (1869), pp. 327-362 ;
clxviii. (1879), pp. 448-451.

which enjoyed more reputation in Greece than any other save
that at Delphi, and which would seem to date from earlier times
than the worship of Zeus; for the normal method of gathering
the responses of the oracle was by listening to the rustling of
an old oak tree, which was supposed to be the seat of the deity.
We seem here to have a remnant of the very ancient and widely
diffused tree-worship. Sometimes, however, auguries were taken
n other manners, being drawn from the moaning of doves in the
aranches, the murmur of a fountain which rose close by, or the
resounding of the wind in the brazen caldrons which formed

circle all round the temple. Croesus proposed to the oracle
lis well-known question; Lysander sought to obtain from it a
sanction for his ambitious views; the Athenians frequently
appealed to its authority during the Peloponnesian War. But
;he most frequent votaries were the neighbouring tribes of the
Acarnanians and Aetolians, together with the Boeotians, who
claimed a special connexion with the district.

Dodona is not unfrequently mentioned by ancient writers. It is
spoken of in the Iliad as the stormy abode of Selli who sleep on the
jround and wash not their feet, and in the Odyssey an imaginary
visit of Odysseus to the oracle is referred to. A Hesiodic fragment
rives a complete description of the Dodonaea or Hellopia, which
is called a district full of corn-fields, of herds and flocks and
of shepherds, where is built on an extremity (iir' kaxo.rl'fi)
Dodona, where Zeus dwells in the stem of an oak (^yos). The
priestesses were called doves (ireXeieu) and Herodotus tells a
story which he learned at Egyptian Thebes, that the oracle of
Dodona was founded by an Egyptian priestess who was carried
away by the Phoenicians, but says that the local legend sub-
stitutes for this priestess a black dove, a substitution in which
be tries to find a rational meaning. From inscriptions and later
writers we learn that in historical times there was worshipped,
together with Zeus, a consort named Dione (see further ZEUS;
ORACLE; DIONE).

The ruins, consisting of a theatre, the walls of a town, and some
other buildings, had been conjectured to be those of Dodona by
Wordsworth in 1832, but the conjecture was changed into
ascertained fact by the excavations of Constantin Carapanos. In
1875 he made some preliminary investigations; soon after, an
extensive discovery of antiquities was made by peasants, digging
without authority; and after this M. Carapanos made a system-
atic excavation of the whole site to a considerable depth. The
topographical and architectural results are disappointing, and
show either that the site always retained its primitive simplicity,
or else that whatever buildings once existed have been very
completely destroyed.

To the south of the hill, on which are the walls of the town, and
to the east of the theatre, is a plateau about 200 yds. long and 50
yds. wide. Towards the eastern end of this terrace are the scanty
remains of a building which can hardly be anything but the
temple of Zeus; it appears to have consisted of pronaos, naos
or cella, and opisthodomus, and some of the lower drums of the
internal columns of the cella were still resting on their founda-
tions. No trace of any external colonnade was found. The
temple was about 130 ft. by 80 ft. It had been converted into a
Christian church, and hardly anything of its architecture seems to
have survived. In it and around it were found the most interest-
ing products of excavation — statuettes and decorative bronzes,
many of them bearing dedications to Zeus Nams and Dione, and
inscriptions, including many small tablets of lead which contained
the questions put to the oracle. Farther to the west, on the same
terrace, were two rectangular buildings, which M. Carapanos
conjectures to have been connected with the oracle, but which
show no distinguishing features.

Below the terrace was a precinct, surrounded by walls and
flanked with porticoes and other buildings; it is over 100 yds. in
length and breadth, and of irregular shape. One of the buildings
on the south-western side contained a pedestal or altar, and is
identified by M. Carapanos as a temple of Aphrodite, on the
insufficient evidence of a single dedicated object; it does not
seem to have any of the characteristics of a temple. In front of
the porticoes are rows of pedestals, which once bore statues and

DODS— DODSWORTH

373

other dedications. At the southern corner of the precinct is a
kind of gate or propylaeum, flanked with two towers, between
which are placed two coarse limestone drums. If these are in situ
and belong to the original gateway, it must have been of a very
rough character; it does not seem probable that they carried,
as M. Carapanos suggests, the statuette and bronze bowl by
which divinations were carried on.

The chief interest of the excavation centres in the smaller
antiquities discovered, which have now been transferred from
M. Carapanos's collection to the National Museum in Athens.
Among the dedications, the most interesting historically are a
set of weapons dedicated by King Pyrrhus from the spoils of
the Romans, including characteristic specimens of the pilum.
The leaden tablets of the oracle contain no certain example of a
response, though there are many questions, varying from matters
of public policy or private enterprise to inquiries after stolen
goods.

The temple of Dodona was destroyed by the Aetolians in 219
B.C., but the oracle survived to the times of Pausanias and even of
the emperor Julian.

See C. Wordsworth, Greece (1839), p. 247; Constantin Carapanos,
Dodone et ses mines (Paris, 1878). For the oracle inscriptions, see
E. S. Roberts in Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. i. p. 228. (E. G-R.)

DODS, MARCUS (1834-1909), Scottish divine and biblical
scholar, was born at Belford, Northumberland, the youngest son
of Rev. Marcus Dods, minister of the Scottish church of that town.
He was trained at Edinburgh Academy and Edinburgh Univer-
sity, graduating in 1854. Having studied theology for five years
he was licensed in 1858, and in 1864 became minister of Renfield
Free Church, Glasgow, where he worked for twenty-five years. In
1889 he was appointed professor of New Testament Exegesis in
the New College, Edinburgh, of which he became principal on the
death of Dr Rainy in 1907. He died in Edinburgh on the 26th of
April 1 9(59. Throughout his life, both ministerial and professorial,
he devoted much time to the publication of theological books.
Several of his writings, especially a sermon on Inspiration
delivered in 1878, incurred the charge of unorthodoxy, and
shortly before his election to the Edinburgh professorship he
was summoned before the General Assembly, but the charge was
dropped by a large majority, and in 1891 he received the honorary
degree of D.D. from Edinburgh University. He edited Lange's
Life of Christ in English (Edinburgh, 1864, 6 vols.), Augustine's
works (1872-1876), and, with Dr Alexander Whyte, Clark's
" Handbooks for Bible Classes " series. In the Expositor's
Bible series he edited Genesis and i Corinthians, and he was also a
contributor to the 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica
and Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible. Among other important
works are: The Epistle to the Seven Churches (1865) ; Israel's Iron
Age (1874); Mohammed, Buddha and Christ (1877); Handbook
on Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi (1879); The Gospel according
to St John (1897), in the Expositor's Greek Testament; The
Bible, its Origin and Nature (1904), the Bross Lectures, in which
he gave an able sketch of the use of Old Testament criticism, and
finally set forth his Theory of Inspiration. Apart from his great
services to Biblical scholarship he takes high rank among those
who have sought to bring the results of technical criticism within
the reach of the ordinary reader.

DODSLEY, ROBERT (1703-1764), English bookseller and
miscellaneous writer, was born in 1703 near Mansfield,
Nottinghamshire, where his father was master of the free school.
He is said to have been apprenticed to a stocking-weaver in
Mansfield, from whom he ran away, taking service as a footman.
In 1729 Dodsley published his first work, Servitude; a Poem . . .
written by a Footman, with a preface and postscript ascribed to
Daniel Defoe; and a collection of short poems, A Muse in Livery,
or the Footman's Miscellany, was published by subscription in
1732, Dodsley 's patrons comprising many persons of high rank.
This was followed by a satirical farce called The Toyshop (Covent
Garden, 1735), in which the toyman indulges in moral observa-
tions on his wares, a hint which was probably taken from Thomas
Randolph's Conceited Pedlar. The profits accruing from the sale
of his works enabled Dodsley to establish himself with the help of

his friends — Pope lent him £100 — as a bookseller at the " Tully's
Head " in Pall Mall in 1735. His enterprise soon made him one
of the foremost publishers of the day. One of his first publica-
tions was Dr Johnson's London, for which he gave ten guineas in
1738. He published many of Johnson's works, and he suggested
and helped to finance the English Dictionary. Pope also made
over to Dodsley his interest in his letters. In 1738 the publica-
tion of Paul Whitehead's Manners, voted scandalous by the Lords,
led to a short imprisonment. Dodsley published for Edward
Young and Mark Akenside, and in 1751 brought out Thomas
Gray's Elegy. He also founded several literary periodicals: The
Museum (1746-1767, 3 vols.); The Preceptor containing a general
course of education (1748, 2 vols.), with an introduction by Dr
Johnson; The World (1753-1756, 4 vols.); and The Annual
Register, founded in 1758 with Edmund Burke as editor. To
these various works, Horace Walpole, Akenside, Soame Jenyns,
Lord Lyttelton, Lord Chesterfield, Burke and others were
contributors. Dodsley is, however, best known as the editor of
two collections: Select Collection of Old Plays (12 vols., 1744;
2nd edition with notes by Isaac Reed, 12 vols., 1780; 4th edition,
by W. C. Hazlitt, 1874-1876, 15 vols.); and A collection of Poems
by Several Hands (1748, 3 vols.), which passed through many
editions. In 1737 his King and the Miller of Mansfield, a
" dramatic tale " of King Henry II., was produced at Drury
Lane, and received with much applause; the sequel, Sir John
Cockle at Court, a farce, appeared in 1 738. In 1745 he published a
collection of his dramatic works, and some poems which had been
issued separately, in one volume under the modest title of Trifles.
This was followed by The Triumph of Peace, a Masque occasioned
by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapette (1749); a fragment, entitled
Agriculture, of a long tedious poem in blank verse on Public
Virtue (1753); The Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green (acted at
Drury Lane 1739, printed 1741); and an ode, Melpomene (1757).
His tragedy of Cleone (1758) had a long run at Covent Garden,
2000 copies being sold on the day of publication, and it passed
through four editions within the year. Lord Chesterfield is,
however, almost certainly the author of the series of mock
chronicles of which The Chronicle of the Kings of England by
" Nathan ben Saddi " (1740) is the first, although they were
included in the Trifles and " ben Saddi " was received as Dodsley's
pseudonym. The Economy of Human Life ( 1 7 50) , a collection of
moral precepts frequently reprinted, is also by Lord Chesterfield.
In 1759 Dodsley retired, leaving the conduct of the business to his
brother James (1724-1797), with whom he had been many years
in partnership. He published two more works, The Select Fables
of Aesop translated by R. D. (1764) and the Works of William
Shenstone (3 vols., 1764-1769). He died at Durham while on
a visit to his friend the Rev. Joseph Spence, on the 23rd of
September 1764.

See also Shadows of the Old Booksellers, by Charles Knight (1865),
pp. 189-216; " At Tully's Head " in Eighteenth Century Vignettes,
2nd series, by Austin Dobson (1894); E. Solly in The Bibliographer,
y. (1884) pp. 57-61. Dodsley's poems are reprinted with a memoir
in A. Chalmers's Works of English Poets, vol. xv. (1810).

DODSWORTH, ROGER (1585-1654), English antiquary, was
born near Oswaldkirk, Yorkshire. He devoted himself early to
antiquarian research, in which he was greatly assisted by the
fact that his father, Matthew Dodsworth, was registrar of York
cathedral, and could give him access to the records preserved
there. He married the widow of Laurence Rawsthorne of Hutton
Grange, where he subsequently resided till his death in August
1654. At various times in his life he was enabled to study the
records in the library of Sir Robert Cotton, in Skipton Castle,
and in the Tower of London. He collected a vast store of
materials for a history of Yorkshire, a Monasticon Anglicanum,
and an English baronage. The second of these was published
with considerable additions by Sir William Dugdale (2 vols.,
1655 and 1661). The MSS. were left to Thomas, third Lord
Fairfax, who by his will bequeathed them (160 volumes in all) to
the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Portions have been printed
by the Yorkshire Archaeological Society (Dodsworth's Yorkshire
Notes, 1884) and the Chetham Society (copies of Lancashire post-
mortem inquisitions, 1875-1876).

374

DODWELL— DOG

DODWELL, EDWARD (1767-1832), English traveller and
writer on archaeology. He belonged to the same family as
Henry Dodwell the theologian, and was educated at Trinity
College, Cambridge. He travelled from 1801 to 1806 in Greece,
and spent the rest of his life for the most part in Italy, at Naples
and Rome. He died at Rome on the 1 3th of May 1832, from the
effects of an illness contracted in 1830 during a visit of explora-
tion to the Sabine Mountains. His widow, a daughter of Count
Giraud, thirty years his junior, subsequently became famous as
the " beautiful " countess of Spaur, and played a considerable
r61e in the political life of the papal city. He published A
Classical and Topographical Tour through Greece (1819), of which
a German translation appeared in 1821; Views in Greece, thirty
coloured plates (1821); and Views and Descriptions of Cyclopian
or Pelasgic Remains in Italy and Greece (London and Paris, with
French text, 1834).

DODWELL, HENRY (1641-1711), scholar, theologian and
controversial writer, was born at Dublin in October, 1641. His
father, having lost his property in Connaught during the rebellion,
settled at York in 1648. Here Henry received his preliminary
education at the free school. In 1654 he was sent by his uncle
to Trinity College, Dublin, of which he subsequently became
scholar and fellow. Having conscientious objections to taking
orders he relinquished his fellowship in 1666, but in 1688 he was
elected Camden professor of history at Oxford. In 1691 he was
deprived of his professorship for refusing to take the oath of
allegiance to William and Mary. Retiring to Shottesbrooke in
Berkshire, and living on the produce of a small estate in Ireland,
he devoted himself to the study of chronology and ecclesiastical
polity. Gibbon speaks of his learning as " immense," and says
that his " skill in employing facts is equal to his learning,"
although he severely criticizes his method and style. DodwelFs
works on ecclesiastical polity are more numerous and of much
less value than those on chronology, his judgment being far
inferior to his power of research. In his earlier writings he was
regarded as one of the greatest champions of the non-jurors; but
the doctrine which he afterwards promulgated, that the soul is
naturally mortal, and that immortality could be enjoyed only
by those who had received baptism from the hands of one set
of regularly ordained clergy, and was therefore a privilege from
which dissenters were hopelessly excluded, did not strengthen
his reputation. Dodwell died at Shottesbrooke on the 7th of
June 1711. His chief works on classical chronology are: A
Discourse concerning Sanchoniathon's Phoenician History (1681);
Annales Thucydidei et Xenophontei (1702); Chronologia Graeco-
Romana pro hypothesibus Dion. Halicarnassei (1692); Annales
Velleiani, Quinlilianei, Statiani (1698); and a larger treatise
entitled De veleribus Graecorum Romanorumque Cyclis (1701).

His eldest son Henry (d. 1784) is known as the author of
a pamphlet entitled Christianity not founded on Argument,
to which a reply was published by his brother William (1709-
1785), who was besides engaged in a controversy with Dr
Conyers Middleton on the subject of miracles.

See The Works of H. D. . . . abridg'd with an account of his life,
by F. Brokesby (2nd ed., 1723) and Thomas Hearne's Diaries. .

DOG, the English generic term for the quadruped of the
domesticated variety of Canis (Fr. Men) . The etymology of the
word is unknown; " hound " represents the common Teutonic
term (Ger. Hund), and it is suggested that the " English dog " —
for this was a regular phrase in continental European countries
— represented a special breed. Most canine experts believe that
the dog is descended from the wolf, although zoologists are less
certain (see CARNIVORA); the osteology of one does not differ
materially from that of the other: the dog and the wolf breed
with each other, and the progeny thus obtained will again breed
with the dog. There is one circumstance, however, which seems
to mark a difference between the two animals: the eye of the
dog of every country and species has a circular pupil, but the
position or form of the pupil is oblique in the wolf. W. Youatt
says there is also a marked difference in the temper and habits
of the two. The dog is generally easily managed, and although
H. C. Brooke of Welling, Kent, succeeded in making a wolf

fairly tractable, the experience of others has been the reverse of
encouraging. G. Cuvier gives an interesting account of a young
wolf which, having been trained to follow his master, showed
affection and submission scarcely inferior to the domesticated
dog. During the absence from home of his owner the wolf was
sent to a menagerie, but pined for his master and would scarcely
take any food for a considerable time. At length, however, he
became attached to his keepers and appeared to have forgotten
his former associate. At the end of eighteen months his master
returned, and, the moment his voice was heard, the wolf recog-
nized him and lavished on him the most affectionate caresses.
A still longer separation followed, but the wolf again remembered
his old associate and showed great affection upon his return.
Such an association proves that there is very little difference
between the dog and the wolf in recognition of man as an object
of affection and veneration. H. C. Brooke succeeded in training
his wolf so well that it was no uncommon sight to see the latter
following his master like a dog. The wolf did not like strangers,
however, and was very shy in their presence.

In the Old and New Testaments the dog is spoken of almost with
abhorrence; it ranked amongst the unclean beasts: traffic in it
was considered as an abomination, and it was forbidden to be
offered in the sanctuary in the discharge of any vow. Part of
the Jewish ritual was the preservation of the Israelites from the
idolatry which at that time prevailed among every other people.
Dogs were held in considerable veneration by the Egyptians,
from whose tyranny the Israelites had just escaped; figures of
them appeared on the friezes of most of the temples, and they
were regarded as emblems of the divine being. Herodotus,
speaking of the sanctity in which some animals were held by
the Egyptians, says that the people of every family in which a
dog died shaved themselves — their expression of mourning —
adding that this was a custom of his own time.

The cause of this attachment to and veneration for the dog is.
however, explained in a far more probable and pleasing way than
by many of the fables of ancient mythology. The prosperity of
Lower Egypt, and almost the very subsistence of its inhabitants,
depended upon the annual overflowing of the Nile; and they
looked for it with the utmost anxiety. Its approach was an-
nounced by the appearance of a certain star, Sirius, and as soon
as that star was seen above the horizon the people hastened to
remove their flocks to the higher ground and abandoned the
lower pastures to the fertilizing influence of the stream. They
hailed it as their guard and protector; and, associating with its
apparent watchfulness the well-known fidelity of the dog, they
called it the " dog-star " and worshipped it. It was in far later
periods and in other countries that the appearance of the dog-
star was regarded as the signal of insufferable heat or prevalent
disease. In Ethiopia, not only was great veneration paid to the
dog, but the inhabitants used to elect a dog as their king. It
was kept in great state, and surrounded by a numerous train of
officers and guards: when it fawned upon them it was supposed
to be pleased with their proceedings; when it growled, it dis-
approved of the manner in which their government was con-
ducted. Such indications of will were implicitly obeyed, or were
translated by the worshippers as their own caprice or interest
indicated.

Even 1000 years after this period, the dog was highly esteemed
in Egypt for its sagacity and other excellent qualities; for
when Pythagoras, after his return from Egypt, founded a new
sect in Greece, and at Croton in southern Italy, he taught, with
the Egyptian philosophers, that at the death of the body the soul
entered into that of various animals. After the death of any of
his favourite disciples he would hold a dog to the mouth of the
man in order to receive the departing spirit, saying that there
was no animal which could perpetuate his virtues better than
that quadruped. It was in order to preserve the Israelites from
errors and follies of this kind, and to prevent the possibility of
such idolatry being established, that the dog was afterwards
regarded with utter abhorrence amongst the Jews, and this
feeling prevailed during the continuance of the Israelites in
Palestine.

DOG

PLATE I.

GREAT DANE.

DALMATIAN.

MASTIFF.

COLLIE.

CHOW.

SAINT BERNARD

OLD ENGLISH SHEEP DOG

NEWFOUNDLAND.

'^flfc

fl

POODLE.

VIII. 374.

BULL DOG. FRENCH BULL DOG.

(From Photos by Bowden Bros.)
TYPICAL NON-SPORTING DOGS.

From "Country Life in America*

BOSTON TERRIER.

PLATE II.

DOG

ENGLISH SETTER.

IRISH SETTER.

FLAT-COATED RETRIEVER.

IRISH TERRIER.

POINTER.

LABRADOR RETRIEVER.

IRISH WOLF-HOUND.

DACHSHUND. ROUGH-COATED FOX TERRIER.

(From Photos by Bowden Bros.)
TYPICAL SPORTING DOGS.

FIELD SPANIEL.

DOG

375

The Hindus also regard the dog as unclean, and submit to
various purifications if they accidentally come in contact with it,
believing that every dog is animated by a wicked and malignant
spirit condemned to do penance in that form for crimes committed
in a previous state of existence. In every Mahommedan and
Hindu country the most scurrilous epithet bestowed on a Euro-
pean or a Christian is " a dog," and that accounts for the fact
that in the whole of the Jewish history there is not a single
allusion to hunting with dogs. Mention is made of nets and
snares, but the dog does not seem to have been used in the
pursuit of game.

In the early periods of the history of other countries this seems
to have been the case even where the dog was esteemed and
valued, and had become the companion, the friend and the
defender of man and his home; and in the and century of the
Christian era Arrian wrote that " there is as much difference
between a fair trial of speed in a good run, and ensnaring a poor
animal without an effort, as between the secret piratical assaults
of robbers at sea and the victorious naval engagements of the
Athenians at Artemisium and at Salamis." The first hint of the
employment of the dog in the pursuit of other animals is given by
Oppian in his Cynegelica, who attributes it to Pollux about 200
years after the promulgation of the Levitical law. The precise
species of dog that was cultivated in Greece at that early period
cannot be affirmed, although a beautiful piece of sculpture in the
possession of Lord Feversham at Buncombe Hall, representing
the favourite dog of Alcibiades, differs but little from the New-
foundland dog of the present day. In the British Museum is
another piece of early sculpture from the ruins of the villa of
Antoninus, near Rome. The greyhound puppies which it repre-
sents are identical with a brace of saplings of the present day.
In the early periods of their history the Greeks depended too
much on their nets to capture game, and it was not until later
times that they pursued their prey with dogs, and then not with
greyhounds, which run by sight, but with beagles, the dwarf hound
which is still very popular. Later, mention is made of large
and ferocious dogs which were employed to guard sheep and
cattle, or to watch at the door of the house, or even to act as a
companion, and G. Cuvier expresses the opinion that the dog
exhibits the most complete and the most useful conquest that
man has made. Each individual is entirely devoted to his master,
adopts his manners, distinguishes and defends his property, and
remains attached to him even unto death; and all this springs
not from mere necessity nor from constraint, but simply from
gratitude and true friendship.

The swiftness, the strength and the highly developed power
of scent in the dog, have made it a powerful ally of man against
the other animals; and perhaps these qualities in the dog were
necessary to the establishment of society. Instances of dogs
having saved the lives of their owners by that strange intuition
of approaching danger which they appear to possess, or by their
protection, are innumerable: their attachment to man has
inspired the poet and formed the subject of many notable books,
while in Daniel's Rural Sports is related a story of a dog dying
in the fulness of joy caused by the return of his master after a
two years' absence from home.

It is not improbable that all dogs sprang from one common
source, but climate, food and cross-breeding caused variations
of form which suggested particular uses, and these being either
designedly or accidentally perpetuated, the various breeds of
dogs arose, and became numerous in proportion to the progress
of civilization. Among the ruder or savage tribes they possess
but one form; but the ingenuity of man has devised many
inventions to increase his comforts; he has varied and multiplied
the characters and kinds of domestic animals for the same
purpose, and hence the various breeds of horses, cattle and dogs.
The parent stock it is now impossible to trace; but the wild dog,
wherever found on the continent of Asia, or northern Europe, has
nearly the same character, and bears no inconsiderable resem-
blance to the British dog of the ordinary type; while many of
those from the southern hemisphere can scarcely be distinguished
from the cross-bred poaching dog, the lurcher.

Dogs were first classified into three groups: — (i) Those having
the head more or less elongated, and the parietal bones of the
skull widest at the base and gradually approaching towards
each other as they ascend, the condyles of the lower jaw being
on the same line with the upper molar teeth. The greyhound and
all its varieties belong to this class. (2) The head moderately
elongated and the parietals diverging from each other for a
certain space as they rise upon the side of the head, enlarging the
cerebral cavity and the frontal sinus. To this class belong most
of the useful dogs, such as the spaniel, the setter, the pointer
and the sheepdog. (3) The muzzle more or less shortened, the
frontal sinus enlarged, and the cranium elevated and diminished
in capacity. To this class belong some of the terriers and most
of the toy dogs.

Later, however, "Stonehenge" Q. H. Walsh), in British Rural
Sports, classified dogs as follows: — (a) Dogs that find game for
man, leaving him to kill it himself — the pointer, setters, spaniels
and water spaniels, (b) Dogs which kill game when found for
them — the English greyhound, (c) Dogs which find and also
kill their game — the bloodhound, the foxhound, the harrier,
the beagle, the otterhound, the fox terrier and the truffle dog.
(d) Dogs which retrieve game that has been wounded by man —
the retriever, the deerhound. (e) Useful companions of man —
the mastiff, the Newfoundland, the St Bernard dog, the bulldog,
the bull terrier, terriers, sheepdogs, Pomeranian or Spitz, and
Dalmatian dogs. (/) Ladies' toy dogs — King Charles spaniel, the
Blenheim spaniel, the Italian greyhound, the pug dog, the
Maltese dog, toy teniers, toy poodles, the lion dog, Chinese and
Japanese spaniels. In 1894 Modern Dogs (Rawdon B. Lee) was
issued, the simple classification of sporting and non-sporting
dog — terriers and toy dogs, being adopted; but although there
had been an understanding since 1874, when the first volume of
the Kennel Club Stud Book (Frank C. S. Pearce) was issued, as
to the identity of the two great divisions of dogs, an incident at
Altrincham Show in September 1900 — an exhibitor entering a
Russian wolfhound hi both the sporting and non-sporting com-
petitions— made it necessary for authoritative information to be
given as to how the breeds should be separated. Following
petitions to the Kennel Club from exhibitors at the club's own
show at the Crystal Palace, and also at the show of the Scottish
Kennel Club in Edinburgh during the autumn of 1900, the
divisions were decided upon as follows: —

Sporting. — Bloodhound, otterhound, foxhound, harrier, beagle,
basset hound (smooth and rough), dachshund, greyhound,
deerhound, Borzoi, Irish wolfhound, whippet, pointer, setter
(English, Irish and black and tan), retriever (flat-coated, curly-
coated and Labrador), spaniel (Irish water, water other than Irish,
Clumber, Sussex, field, English springer, other than Clumber,
Sussex and field: Welsh springer, red and white and Cocker);
fox terriers (smooth- and wire-coated) ; Irish terrier, Scotch
terrier, Welsh terrier, Dandie Dinmont terrier, Skye terrier
(prick-eared and drop-eared), Airedale terrier and Bedlington
terrier.

Non-Sporting. — Bulldog, bulldog (miniature), mastiff, Great
Dane, Newfoundland (black, white and black, or other than
black), St Bernard (rough and smooth), Old English sheepdog,
collie (rough and smooth), Dalmatian, poodle, bull terrier, white
English terrier, black and tan terrier, toy spaniel (King Charles
or black and tan, Blenheim, ruby or red and tricolour), Japanese,
Pekingese, Yorkshire terrier, Maltese, Italian greyhound, chow-
chow, black and tan terrier (miniature), Pomeranian, pug (fawn
and black), Schipperke, Griffon Bruxellois, foreign dogs
(bouledogues francais, elk-hounds, Eskimos, Lhasa terriers,
Samoyedes and any other varieties not mentioned under this
heading).

On the 4th of May 1898 a sub-committee of the Kennel Club
decided that the following breeds should be classified as "toy
dogs ": — Black and tan terriers (under 7 Ib), bull terriers (under
8 Ib), griffons, Italian greyhounds, Japanese, Maltese, Pekingese,
poodles (under 15 in.), pugs, toy spaniels, Yorkshire terriers and
Pomeranians.

All these varieties were represented at the annual show of the

DOG

Kennel Club in the autumn of 1903, and at the representative
exhibition of America held under the management of the West-
minster Kennel Club in the following spring the classification was
substantially the same, additional breeds, however, being Boston
terriers — practically unknown in England, — Chesapeake Bay
dogs, Chihuahuas, Papillons and Roseneath terriers. The latter
were only recently introduced into the United States, though well
known in Great Britain as the West Highland or Poltalloch
terrier; an application which was made (1900) by some of their
admirers for separate classification was refused by the Kennel
Club, but afterwards it was granted, the breed being classified as
the West Highland white terrier.

The establishment of shows at Newcastle-on-Tyne in June
1859 secured for dogs attention which had been denied them up
to that time, although sportsmen had appreciated their value for
centuries and there had been public coursing meetings since
the reign of Charles I. Lord Orford, however, established the first
club at Marham Smeeth near Swaffham, where coursing is still
carried on, in 1776. The members were in number confined to
that of the letters in the alphabet; and when any vacancy
happened it was filled up by ballot. On the decease of the founder
of the club, the members agreed to purchase a silver cup to be run
for annually, and it was intended to pass from one to the other,
like the whip at Newmarket, but before starting for it, in the year
1792, it was decided that the winner of the cup should keep it
and that one should be annually purchased to be run for in
November. At the formation of the club each member assumed a
colour, and also a letter, which he used as the initial of his dog's
name. The Newcastle dog show of 1859 was promoted by Mr
Pape — a local sporting gunmaker — and Mr Shorthose, and
although only pointers and setters were entered for in two classes
immense interest was taken in the show. But neither the
promoters nor the sportsmen who supported it could have had
the faintest idea as to how popular dog shows would become.
The judges at that historic gathering were: Messrs J. Jobling
(Morpeth), T. Robson (Newcastle-on-Tyne) and J. H. Walsh
(London) for pointers, and E. Foulger (Alnwick), R. Brailsford
(Knowsley) and J. H. Walsh for the setters. Sixty dogs were
shown, and it was said that such a collection had not been seen
together before; while so even was the quality that the judges
had great difficulty in making their awards. The prizes were
sporting guns made by Mr Pape and presented by him to the
promoters of the show. So great a success was scored that other
shows were held in the same year at Birmingham and Edinburgh;
while the Cleveland Agricultural Society also established a show
of foxhounds at Redcar, the latter being the forerunner of that
very fine show of hounds which is now held at Peterborough
every summer and is looked upon as the out-of-season society
gathering of hunting men and women.

Mr Brailsford was the secretary of the show at Birmingham,
and he had classes for pointers, English and Irish setters, retrievers
and Clumber spaniels. Another big success was scored, and the
National Dog Show Society was established for the purpose of
holding a show of sporting dogs in Birmingham every winter.
Three years later proposals were made in The Field to promote
public trials of pointers and setters over game, but it was not
until the i8th of April 1865 that a further step was taken in the
recognition of the value of the dog by the promotion of working
trials. They were held at Southill, near Bedford, on the estate of
S. Whitbread, M.P., and they attracted great interest. The order
of procedure at the early field trials was similar to what it is
to-day, only the awards were given in accordance with a scale of
points as follows: nose, 40; pace and range, 30; temperament,
10; staunchness before, 10; behind, 10. Style of working was
also taken into consideration. In 1865 a show was held in Paris,
and after the National Dog Club — not the Birmingham society
— had failed, as the result of a disastrous show at the Crystal
Palace, a further exhibition was arranged to be held in June 1870
under the management of G. Nutt and a very strong committee,
among whom were many of the most noted owners of sporting
dogs of that time. The details of the show were arranged by
S. E. Shirley and J. H. Murchison, but the exhibition, although a

most interesting one, was a failure, and the guarantors had to face
a heavy loss. A second venture proved to be a little more
encouraging, although again there was a loss; but in April 1873, the
Kennel Club, which is now the governing body of the canine world,
was founded by S. E. Shirley, who, after acting as its chairman for
many years, was elected the president, and occupied that position
until his death in March 1904. His successor was the duke of
Connaught and Strathearn; the vice-presidents including the
duke of Portland, Lord Algernon Gordon Lennox, J. H. Salter
and H. Richards. The progress of the club has been remarkable,
and that its formation did much to improve the conditions of
the various breeds of dogs, to encourage their use in the field by
the promotion of working trials, and to check abuses which were
common with regard to the registration of pedigrees, &c., cannot
be denied. The abolition of the cropping of the ears of Great
Danes, bull terriers, black and tan terriers, white English terriers,
Irish terriers and toy terriers, in 1889 gained the approval of all
humane lovers of dogs, and although attempts have been made to
induce the club to modify the rule which prohibits the exhibition
of cropped dogs, the practice has not been revived; it is declared,
however, that the toy terriers and white English terriers have lost
such smartness by the retention of the ears that they are becoming
extinct. The club has control over all the shows held in the
United Kingdom, no fewer than 519 being held in 1905, the actual
number of dogs which were entered at the leading fixtures being:
Kennel Club show 1789, Cruft's 1768, Ladies' Kennel Association
1306, Manchester 1190, Edinburgh 896 and Birmingham 892.
In 1906, however, no fewer than 1956 dogs were entered at the
show of the Westminster Kennel Club, held in Madison Square
Garden, New York; a fact proving that the show is as popular
in America as it is in the United Kingdom, the home of the move-
ment. The enormous sum of £i 500 has been paid for a collie, and
1000 guineas for a bulldog, both show dogs pure and simple;
while £500 is no uncommon price for a fox terrier. Excepting for
greyhounds, however, high prices are rarely offered for sporting
dogs, 300 guineas for the pointer " Coronation " and 200 guineas
for the retriever " High Legh Blarney " being the best reported
prices for gun dogs during the last few years.

The foreign and colonial clubs which are affiliated to the Kennel
Club are: the Guernsey Dog Club, the Italian Kennel Club, the
Jersey Dog Club, La Societe Centrale (Paris), Moscow Gun Club
of the Emperor Alexander II., New South Wales Kennel Club,
Nimrod Club (Amsterdam), Northern Indian Kennel Association,
Royal St Hubert's Society (Brussels) and the South African
Kennel Club (Cape Town). Its ramifications therefore extend
to all parts of the world; while its rules are the basis of those
adopted by the American Kennel Club, the governing body of
the " fancy " in the United States. A joint conference between
representatives of the two bodies, held in London in 1900, did
much towards securing the uniformity of ideas which is so essential
between associations having interests in common.

Most of the leading breeds have clubs or societies, which have
been founded by admirers with a view to furthering the interests
of their favourites; and such combinations as the Bulldog Club
(incorporated), the London Bulldog Society, the British Bulldog
Club, the Fox Terrier Club, the Association of Bloodhound
Breeders — under whose management the first man-hunting trials
were held,— the Bloodhound Hunt Club, the Collie Club, the
Dachshund Club, the Dandie Dinmont Terrier Club, the English
Setter Club, the Gamekeepers' Association of the United
Kingdom, the International Gun Dog League, the Irish Terrier
Club, the Irish Wolfhound Club, the St Bernard Club, the National
Terrier Club, the Pomeranian Club, the Spaniel Club, the Scottish
Terrier Club and the Toy Bulldog Club have done good work in
keeping the claims of the breeds they represent before the dog-
owning public and encouraging the breeding of dogs to type.
Each club has a standard of points; some hold their own shows;
while others issue club gazettes. All this has been brought about
by the establishment of a show for sporting dogs at Newcastle-
on-Tyne in the summer of 1859.

America can claim a list of over twenty specialist clubs, and
in both countries women exhibitors have their independent

DOG

377

associations, Queen Alexandra having become one of the chief
supporters of the Ladies' Kennel Association (England). There
is a ladies' branch of the Kennel Club, and the corresponding
clubs in America are the Ladies' Kennel Association of America
and the Ladies' Kennel Association of Massachusetts.

The Gazette is the official organ of the Kennel Club. The Field,
however, retains its position as the leading canine journal, the
influence of J. H. Walsh (" Stonehenge "), who did so much
towards establishing the first dog shows and field trials, having
never forsaken it: the work he began was carried on by its kennel
editor, Rawdon B. Lee (d. 1908), whose volumes on Modern Dogs
(sporting, non-sporting and terriers) are the standard works on
dogs. Our Dogs, The Kennel Magazine, and The Illustrated Kennel
News are the remaining canine journals in England. Several
weekly papers published on the continent of Europe devote a
considerable portion of their space to dogs, and canine journals
have been started in America, South Africa and even India:
while apart from Lee's volumes and other carefully compiled
works treating on the dog in general, the various breeds have been
written about, and the books or monographs have large sales. At
the end of 1905 E. W. Jaquet wrote The Kennel Club: a History
and Record of its Work, and an edition de luxe of Dogs is edited by
Mr Harding Cox; Mr Sidney Turner, the chairman of the Kennel
Club committee, edited The Kennel Encyclopaedia, the first
number of which was issued in 1907. Dog lovers are now
numbered by their tens of thousands, and in addition to shows
of their favourites, owners are also liberally catered for in the
shape of working trials, for during the season competitions for
bloodhounds, pointers, setters, retrievers, spaniels and sheepdogs
are held.

Breeds of Dog.

Nothing is known with certainty as to the origin of the vast
majority of breeds of dogs, and it is an unfortunate fact that the
progressive changes which have been made within comparatively
recent times by fanciers have not been accurately recorded by the
preservation, in museums or collections, of the actual specimens
considered typical at different dates. No scientific classification
of the breeds of dogs is at present possible, but whilst the division
already given into " sporting " and " non-sporting " is of some
practical value, for descriptive purposes it is convenient to make
a division into the six groups: — wolf dogs, greyhounds, spaniels,
hounds, mastiffs and terriers. It is to be remembered, however,
that all these types interbreed freely, and that many intermediate,
and forms of wholly doubtful position, occur.

Wolfhounds. — Throughout the northern regions of both
hemispheres there are several breeds of semi-domesticated dogs
which are wolf-like, with erect ears and long woolly hair. The
Eskimo dog has been regarded as nothing more than a reclaimed
wolf, and the Eskimo are stated to maintain the size and strength
of their dogs by crossing them with wolves. The domestic dogs
of some North American Indian tribes closely resemble the
coyote; the black wolf dog of Florida resembles the black wolf of
the same region; the sheepdogs of Europe and Asia resemble the
wolves of those countries, whilst the pariah dog of India is closely
similar to the Indian wolf. The Eskimo dog has small, upright
ears, a straight bushy tail, moderately sharp muzzle and rough
coat. Like a wolf , it howls but does not bark. It occurs through-
out the greater part of the Arctic regions, the varieties in the
old and new world differing slightly in colour. They are fed on
fish, game and meat. They are good hunters and wonderfully
cunning and enduring. Their services to their owners and to
Arctic explorers are well known, but Eskimo dogs are so rapacious
that it is impossible to train them to refrain from attacking sheep,
goats or any small domesticated animals. The Hare Indian dog
of the Great Bear Lake and the Mackenzie river is more slender,
gentle and affectionate than the Eskimo dog, but is impatient of
restraint, and preserves many of the characters of its wild ally,
the coyote, and is practically unable to bark.

The Pomeranian dog is a close ally of the Eskimo breed and
was formerly used as a wolfdog, but has been much modified.
The larger variety of the race has a sharp muzzle, upright

pointed ears, and a bushy tail generally carried over the back.
It varies in colour from black through grey to reddish brown and
white. The smaller variety, sometimes known as the Spitz, was
formerly in some repute as a fancy dog, a white variety with a
black tip to the nose and a pure black variety being specially
prized. Pomeranians have been given most attention in Germany
and Belgium, while the so-called Spitz has been popular in
England and America.

The sheepdogs and collies are still further removed from the
wolf type, and have the tip of the ear pendent. The tail is thick
and bushy, the feet and legs particularly strong, and there is
usually a double dew-claw on each hind limb. The many varieties
found in different countries have the same general characters.
The bark is completely dog-like, and the primitive hunting
instincts have been cultivated into a marvellous aptitude for
herding sheep and cattle. The training takes place during the
first year, and the work is learned with extreme facility. The
Scotch collie is lighter and more elegant, and has a sharper
muzzle. Since it became popular as a pet dog, its appearance
has been greatly improved, and whilst it has lost its old sullen
concentration, it has retained unusual intelligence and has
become playful and affectionate. The wolfdogs all hunt chiefly
by scent.

Greyhounds. — These are characterized by slight build, small
ears falling at the tips, elongated limbs and tails and long
narrow muzzles. They hunt entirely by sight, the sense of smell
being defective. The English greyhound is the most conspicuous
and best-known member of the group, and has been supposed to
be the parent of most of the others. The animal is thoroughly
adapted for extreme speed, the long, rat-like tail being used in
balancing the body in quick turns. The favourite colour is a
uniform sandy, or pale grey tone, but characters directly related
to capacity for speed have received most attention. The Italian
greyhound is a miniature greyhound, still capable of considerable
speed but so delicate that it is almost unable to pull down even
a rabbit, and is kept simply as a pet. The eyes are large and soft,
and a golden fawn is the colour most prized. The Scotch deer-
hound is a larger and heavier variety of the English greyhound,
with rough and shaggy hair. It has been used both for deer
stalking and for coursing, and several varieties exist. The Irish
wolfhound is now extinct, but appears to have been a powerful
race heavier than the deerhound but similar to it hi general
characters. Greyhounds have been bred from time immemorial
in Eastern Europe and Western Asia, while unmistakable
representatives are figured on the monuments of ancient Egypt.
The existing Oriental varieties are in most cases characterized by
silky hair. The hairless dogs of Central Africa are greyhounds
employed chiefly in hunting antelopes, and there are somewhat
similar varieties in China, Central and South America.

The whippet is a local English dog, used chiefly in rabbit
coursing and racing, and is almost certainly a cross between
greyhounds and terriers.

The lurcher is a dog with the general shape of a greyhound,
but with a heavier body, larger ears and rougher coat. Lurchers
are cross-bred dogs, greyhounds and sheepdogs, or deerhounds
and collies, being the parents.

Spaniels are heavily built dogs with short and very wide
skulls rising suddenly at the eyes. The brain is relatively large
and the intelligence high. The muzzle is short, the ears large and
pendent, the limbs relatively short and heavy, and the coat thick
and frequently long. It is supposed, from their name, that they
are of Spanish origin. They may be divided into field spaniels,
water spaniels and the smaller breeds kept as pets. Field
spaniels are excellent shooting dogs, and are readily trained
to give notice of the proximity of game. The Clumber, Sussex,
Norfolk and Cocker breeds are the best established. The
Clumber is long, low and heavy. It is silent when hunting, and
has long ears shaped like vine leaves. The ground colour of the
coat is white with yellow spots. The Sussex is a lighter, more
noisy animal, with a wavy, golden coat. The Cockers are smaller
spaniels, brown, or brown-and-white in the Welsh variety, black
in the more common modern English form. The head is short,

DOG

and the coat silky and wavy. Of the water spaniels the Irish
breeds are best known. They are relatively large dogs, with
broad splay feet, and silky oily coats.

The poodle is probably derived from spaniels, but is of slighter,
more graceful build, and is pre-eminent even among spaniels for
intelligence. The best known pet spaniels are the King Charles
and the Blenheim, small dogs with fine coats, probably descended
from Cockers.

Setters owe their name to their having been trained originally
to crouch when marking game, so as to admit of the net with
which the quarry was taken being drawn over their heads.
Since the general adoption of shooting in place of netting or
bagging game, setters have been trained to act as pointers.
They are pre-eminently dogs for sporting purposes, and special
strains or breeds adapted to the peculiarities of different kinds
of sporting have been produced. Great Britain is probably the
country where setters were first produced, and as early as the
iyth century spaniels were used in England as setting dogs. It
is probable that pointer blood was introduced in the course of
shaping the various breeds of setter. The English setter should
have a silky coat with the hair waved but not curly; the legs and
toes should be hairy, and the tail should have a bushy fringe of
hairs hanging down from the dorsal border. The colour varies
much, ranging according to the strains, from black-and-white
through orange-and-white and liver-and-white to pure white,
whilst black, white, liver, and red or yellow self-coloured setters
are common. The Irish setter is red without trace of black, but
occasionally flecked with white. The Gordon setter, the chief
Scottish variety, is a heavier animal with coarser hair, black-and-
tan in colour. The Russian setter has a woolly and matted coat.

The retriever is a large dog used for retrieving game on land,
as a water spaniel is used for the same purpose in water. The
breed is almost certainly derived from water-spaniels, with a
strong admixture of Newfoundland blood. The colour is black
or tan, and the hair of the face, body and tail is close and curly,
although wavy-coated strains exist.

The Newfoundland is simply an enormous spaniel, and shows
-its origin by the facility with which it takes to water and the
readiness with which it mates with spaniels and setters. It has
developed a definite instinct to save human beings from drown-
ing, this probably being an evolution of the retrieving instinct
ef the original spaniels. The true Newfoundland is a very
large dog and may reach 31 in. in height at the shoulder. The
coat is shaggy and oily, and is preferred with as little white as
possible, but the general black coloration may have rusty
shades. The eyes and ears are relatively small, and the forehead
white and dome-shaped, giving the face the well-known appear-
ance of benignity and intelligence. Although these dogs were
originally brought to Great Britain from Newfoundland and
are still bred in the latter country, greater size, perfection and
intelligence have been attained in England, where Newfound-
lands for many years have been the most popular large dogs.
They are easily taught to retrieve on land or water, and their
strength, intelligence and fidelity make them specially suitable
as watchdogs or guardians. The Landseer Newfoundland is
a black and white variety brought into notice by Sir Edwin
Landseer, but the exact ancestry of which is unknown. The
Labrador Newfoundland is a smaller black variety with a less
massive head. It occurs both in Newfoundland and England,
and has been used largely in producing crosses, being almost
certainly one parent of the retriever.

The St Bernard is a large breed taking its name from the
monastery of Mount St Bernard in the Alps, and remarkable
for high intelligence and use in rescuing travellers from the snow.
The origin of the breed is unknown, but undoubtedly it is closely
related to spaniels. The St Bernard attains as great a size as
that of any other breed, a fine specimen being between 60 and
70 in. from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail. The
colour varies, but shades of tawny-red and white are more
frequent than in Newfoundlands. In the rough-haired breed
the coat is long and wavy, but there exists a smooth breed with
a nearly smooth coat.

Hounds. — These are large dogs, hunting by smell, with massive
structure, large drooping ears, and usually smooth coats, without
fringes of hair on the ears, limbs or tail. The bloodhound is
probably the stock from which all the English races of hounds
have been derived. The chief character is the magnificent head,
narrow and dome-like between the huge pendulous ears, and
with transverse puckers on the forehead and between the eyes.
The prevailing colour is tan with large black spots. Blood-
hounds, or, as they are sometimes termed, sleuthhounds, have
been employed since the time of the Romans in pursuing and
hunting down human beings, and a small variety, known as the
Cuban bloodhound, probably of Spanish origin, was used to
track fugitive negroes in slaveholding times. Bloodhounds
quest slowly and carefully, and when they lose the scent cast
backwards until they recover the original trail and make a
fresh attempt to follow it.

Staghounds are close derivatives of the bloodhound, and
formerly occurred in England in two strains, known respectively
as the northern and southern hounds. Both breeds were large
and heavy, with pendulous ears and thick throats with dewlaps.
These strains seem to be now extinct, having been replaced by
foxhounds, a large variety of which is employed in stag-hunting.

The modern English foxhound has been bred from the old
northern and southern hounds, and is more lightly built, having
been bred for speed and endurance. The favourite and most
common colour is black-white-and-tan. The ears are usually
artificially clipped so as to present a rounded lower margin.
Their dash and vigour in the chase is much greater than that
of the bloodhound, foxhounds casting forwards when they have
lost the trail.

Harriers are a smaller breed of foxhounds, distinguished by
their pointed ears, as it is not the custom to trim these. They
are used in the pursuit of hares, and, although they are capable
of very fast runs, have less endurance than foxhounds, and
follow the trail with more care and deliberation.

Otterhounds are thick, woolly harriers with oily underfur.
They are savage and quarrelsome, but are naturally excellent
water-dogs.

Beagles are small foxhounds with long bodies and short limbs.
They have a full bell-like cry and great cunning and perseverance
in the tracking of hares and rabbits. They are relatively slow,
and are followed on foot.

Turnspits were a small, hound-like race of dogs with long bodies,
pendulous ears, out-turned feet and generally black-and-tan
coloration. They were employed as animated roasting jacks,
turning round and round the wire cage in which they were
confined, but with the employment of mechanical jacks their
use ceased and the race appears to be extinct.

Basset hounds are long and crooked-legged dogs, with pendu-
lous ears. They appear to have been produced in Normandy
and the Vendee, where they were employed for sporting purposes,
and originally were no very definite breed. In comparatively
recent times they have been adopted by English fanciers, and a
definite strain with special points has been produced.

The dachshund, or badger hound, is of German origin, and like
the basset hound was originally an elongated distorted hound
with crooked legs, employed in baiting and hunting badgers, but
now greatly improved and made more definite by the arts of the
breeder. The colour is generally black-and-tan or brownish, the
body is extremely long and cylindrical; the ears are large and
pendulous, the legs broad, thick and twisted, with everted paws.
The coat is short, thick and silky, and the tail is long and tapering.

The pointers, of which there are breeds slightly differing in
most European countries, are descendants of the foxhound which
have been taught to follow game by general body scent, not by
tracking, nose to the ground, the traces left by the feet of the
quarry, and, on approaching within sight of the game, to stand
rigid, " pointing " in its direction. The general shape is like that
of the foxhound, but the build is lighter and better knit, ajid the
coat is soft, whilst white and spotted colorations are preferred.
Pointers are employed to mark game for guns, and are especially
useful in low cover such as that afforded by turnip fields.

DOG

PLATE III.

BORZOI.

GREYHOUND.

DEERHOUND.

BLOODHOUND.

FOX HOUND.

HARRIER.

OTTER HOUND.

AUSTRALIAN TERRIER.

VIII. 378-

SKYE TERRIER. SCOTCH TERRIER.

(From Photos by Bowden Bros.)
TYPICAL SPORTING DOGS.

BEDLINGTON TERRIER.

PLATE IV.

DOG

Photo, Bowden Bros.

POMERANIAN.

Plwto, Thus. Fall.

ITALIAN GREYHOUND.

Photo, Birwden Bros.

TOY BULL TERRIER.

Photo, Bowden Bros.

TOY SPANIEL.

I

Photo, Walter.

BLENHEIM.

Photo, Thos. Fall.

PAPILLON.

Photo, Bowden Bros.

SCHIPPERKE.

Photo, Bowden Bros.

MALTESE.

Photo, Thos. Fall.

TOY BLACK AND TAN.

Photo, Bowden Bros.

YORKSHIRE TERRIER.

Photo, Bowden Bros.

PUG.

Photo, Bowden Bros.

GRIFFON.

Photo, Bowden Bros.

JAPANESE.

Photo, Bowden Bros.

PEKINGESE.

TYPICAL TOY DOGS.

DOGE

379

The Dalmatian or coach dog (sometimes called the plum-
pudding dog) is a lightly built pointer, distinguished by its
spotted coloration, consisting of evenly disposed circular black
spots on a white ground. The original breed is said to have been
used as a pointer in the country from which it takes its name,
but has been much modified by the fancier's art, and almost
certainly the original strain has been crossed with bull-terriers.

Mastiffs are powerful, heavily built dogs, with short muzzles,
frequently protruding lower jaws, skulls raised above the eyes,
ears erect or pendulous, pendulous upper lips, short coats and
thin tails. The English mastiff is a huge and powerful dog with
pendent ears but short and silky coat. Fawn and brindle are the
colours preferred. The Tibetan mastiff is equally powerful, but
has still larger pendent ears, a shaggy coat and a long brush-like
tail. Mastiffs are employed for fighting or as watchdogs, and for
the most part are of uncertain temper and not high intelligence.

The bulldog is a small, compact but extremely heavily built
animal of great strength, vigour and tenacity. The lower jaw
should be strongly protruding, the ears should be small and erect,
the forehead deeply wrinkled with an indentation between the
eyes, known as the " stop." The coat should be thick, short and
very silky, the favourite colours being white and white marked
with brindle. Bulldogs were formerly employed in bull-baiting,
and the tenacity of their grip is proverbial. Their ferocious
appearance, and not infrequently the habits of their owners,
have given this breed a reputation for ferocity and low intelli-
gence. As puppies, however, bulldogs are highly intelligent and
unusually docile and affectionate, and if well trained retain
throughout life an unusual sweetness of disposition, the universal
friendliness of which makes them of little use as guardians.

The German boarhound is one of the largest races of dogs,
originally used in Germany and Denmark for hunting boars
or deer, but now employed chiefly as watchdogs. The build is
rather slighter than that of the English mastiff, and the ears are
small and carried erect.

The Great Dane is somewhat similar in general character, but
is still more gracefully built, with slender limbs and more pointed
muzzle. The ears, naturally pendent at the tips, are always
cropped. It is probable that the strain contains greyhound
blood.

The bull-terrier, as its name implies, is a cross between the
bulldog and the smooth terrier. It is a clever, agile and powerful
dog, extremely pugnacious in disposition.

The pugdog is a dwarf race, probably of mastiff origin, and
kept solely as a pet. The Chinese pug is slender legged, with
long hair and a bushy tail.

Terriers are small dogs of agile and light build, short muzzles,
and very highly arched skulls. The brains are large, and the
intelligence and educability extraordinarily high. The number
of breeds is very large, the two extreme types being the smooth
fox-terrier with compact shape, relatively long legs, and the long-
bodied, short-legged Skye terrier, with long hair and pendent ears.

All the well-known breeds of dogs are highly artificial and
their maintenance requires the constant care of the breeder in
mating, and in rejecting aberrant progeny. The frequency with
which even the most highly cultivated strains produce degenerate
offspring is notorious, and is probably the reason for the profound
belief in telegenic action asserted by most breeders. When
amongst the litter of a properly mated, highly bred fox-terrier,
pups are found with long bodies and thick short legs and feet,
breeders are disposed to excuse the result by the supposition
that the bitch has been contaminated by some earlier mating.
There is ample evidence, however, that such departures from
type are equally frequent when there was no possibility of
earlier mismating (see TELEGONY).

Glossary of Points of the Dog.

Apple Head. A rounded head, instead of flat on top.
Blaze. A white mark up the face.
Brisket. The part of body in front of the chest.
Brush. The tail, usually applied to sheepdogs.
Butterfly Nose. A spotted nose.

Button Ear. Where the tip falls over and covers the orifice.
Cat Foot. A short round foot, knuckles high and well developed.

Cheeky. When the cheek bumps are strongly defined.

Chest. Underneath a dog from brisket to belly.

Chops. The pendulous lip of the bulldog.

Cobby. Well ribbed up, short and compact in proportion.

Couplings. Space between tops of shoulder blades and tops of hip

joints.

Cow Hocks. Hocks that turn in.

Dew Claw. Extra claw, found occasionally on all breeds.
Dewlap. Pendulous skin under the throat.
Dish Faced. When nose is higher than muzzle at the stop.
Dudley Nose. A yellow or flesh-coloured nose.
Elbow. The joint at the top of the forearm.
Feather. The hair at the back of the legs and under the tail.
Flag. A term for the tail, applied to a setter.
Flews. The pendulous lips of the bloodhound and other breeds.
Forearm. Part of foreleg extending from elbow to pastern.
Frill. A mass of hair on the chest, especially on collies.
Hare Foot. A long narrow foot, carried forward.
Haw. Red inside eyelid, shown in bloodhounds and St Bernards.
Height. Measured at the shoulder, bending head gently down.
Hocks. The hock joints.
Hucklebones. Tops of the hip joints.
.Knee. The joint attaching fore-pastern and forearm.
Leather. The skin of the ear.

Occiput. The projecting bone or bump at the back of the head.
Overshot. The upper teeth projecting beyond the under.
Pastern. Lowest section of leg, below the knee or hock.
Pig Jaw. Exaggeration of overshot.
Pily. A term applied to soft coat.

Rose Ear. Where the tip of ear turns back, showing interior.
Septum. The division between the nostrils.

Smudge Nose. A nose which is not wholly black, but not spotted.
Stifles. The top joints of the hind legs.

Stop. The indentation below the eyes, most prominent in bulldogs.
Tulip Ear. An erect or pricked ear.

Undershot. The lower teeth projecting in front of the upper ones.

(W. B.; P. CM.)

DOGE (a modified form of the Ital. duca, Lat. dux, a leader, or
duke), the title of the chief magistrate in the extinct republics
of Venice and Genoa.

In Venice the office of doge was first instituted about 700.
John the Deacon, referring to this incident in his Chronicon
Venetum, written about 1000, says " all the Venetian cities
(omnes Venetiae) determined that it would be more honourable
henceforth to be under dukes than under tribunes." The result
was that the several tribunes were replaced by a single official
who was called a doge and who became the head of the whole state.
The first doge was Paolo Lucio Anafesto, and some authorities
think that the early doges were subject to the authority of the
emperors of Constantinople, but in any case this subordination
was of short duration. The doge held office for life and was
regarded as the ecclesiastical, the civil and the military chief; his
duties and prerogatives were not defined with precision and the
limits of his ability and ambition were practically the limits of his
power. About 800 his independence was slightly diminished
by the appointment of two assistants for judicial work, but these
officers soon fell into the background and the doge acquired a
greater and more irresponsible authority. Concurrently with
this process the position was entrusted to members of one or other
of the powerful Venetian families, while several doges associated a
son with themselves in the ducal office. Matters reached a climax
after the fall of the Orseole family in 1026. In 1033, during the
dogeship of Dominico Flabianico, this tendency towards a
hereditary despotism was checked by a law which decreed that
no doge had the right to associate any member of his family with
himself in his office, or to name his successor. It was probably
at this time also that two councillors were appointed to advise the
doge, who must, moreover, invite the aid of prominent citizens
when discussing important matters of state. In 1172 a still more
important change was introduced. The ducal councillors were
increased in number from two to six; universal suffrage, which
theoretically still existed, was replaced by a system which
entrusted the election of the doge to a committee of eleven, who
were chosen by a great council of 480 members, the great council
being nominated annually by twelve persons. When a new doge
was chosen he was presented to the people with the formula "this
is your doge, if it please you." Nominally the citizens confirmed
the election, thus maintaining as a constitutional fiction the right
of the whole people to choose their chief magistrate. Five years

38o

DOG-FISH—DOGGER BANK

later this committee of eleven gave way to a committee of forty
who were chosen by four persons selected by the great council.
After the abdication of Doge Pietro Ziani in 1229 two com-
missions were appointed which obtained a permanent place in the
constitution and which gave emphatic testimony to the fact
that the doge was merely the highest servant of the community.
The first of these commissions consisted of five Correttori della
promissione ducale, whose duty was to consider if any change
ought to be made in the terms of the oath of investiture
(promissione) administered to each incoming doge, this oath,
which was prepared by three officials, being a potent factor in
limiting the powers of the doge. The second commission con-
sisted of three inquisitori sopra il doge defunto, their business being
to examine and pass judgment upon the acts of a deceased
doge, whose estate was liable to be mulcted in accordance with
their decision. In consequence of a tie at the election of 1 2 29 the
number of electors was increased from forty to forty-one. The
official income of the doge was never large, and from early times
many holders of the office were engaged in trading ventures.
One of the principal duties of the doge was to celebrate the
symbolic marriage of Venice with the sea. This was done by
casting a precious ring from the state ship, the " Bucentaur," into
the Adriatic. In its earlier form this ceremony was instituted to
commemorate the conquest of Dalmatia by Doge Pietro Orseole

II. in looo, and was celebrated on Ascension day. It took its
later and more magnificent form after the visit of Pope Alexander

III. and the emperor Frederick I. to Venice in 1177.

New regulations for the elections of the doge were introduced
in 1268, and, with some modifications, these remained in force
until the end of the republic. Their object was to minimize as far
as possible the influence of the individual families, and this was
effected by a very complex machinery. Thirty members of the
great council, chosen by lot, were reduced, again by lot, to nine;
the nine chose forty and the forty were reduced by lot to twelve,
who chose twenty-five. The twenty-five were reduced by lot to
nine and the nine elected forty-five. Then the forty-five were
reduced by lot to eleven, and the eleven chose the forty-one, who
actually elected the doge. As the oligarchical element in the con-
stitution developed, the more important functions of the ducal
office were assigned to other officials, or to administrative boards,
and he who had once been the pilot of the ship became little more
than an animated figurehead, properly draped and garnished.
On state occasions he was surrounded by an increasing amount
of ceremonial, and in international relations he had the status of a
sovereign prince of the first rank. But he was under the strictest
surveillance. He must wait for the presence of other officials
before opening despatches from foreign powers; he was for-
bidden to leave the city and was not allowed to possess any
property in a foreign land. To quote H. F. Brown, " his pomp
was splendid, his power limited; he appears as a symbol rather
than as a factor in the constitution, the outward and visible sign
of the impersonal oligarchy." The office, however, was main-
tained until the closing days of the republic, and from time to
time it was held by men who were able to make it something more
than a sonorous title. The last doge was Lodovico Manin, who
abdicated in May 1797, when Venice passed under the power of
Napoleon.

In Genoa the institution of the doge dates from 1339. At
first he was elected without restriction and by popular suffrage,
holding office for life; but after the reform effected by Andrea
Doria in 1528 the term of his office was reduced to two years. At
the same time plebeians were declared ineligible, and the appoint-
ment of the doge was entrusted to the members of the great and
the little councils, who employed for this purpose a machinery
almost as complex as that of the later Venetians. The Napoleonic
Wars put an end to the office of doge at Genoa.

See Cecchetti, // Doge di Venezia (1864); Musatti, Storia della
promissione ducale (Padua, 1888); and H. F. Brown, Venice: a
Historical Sketch (1893).

DOG-FISH, a name applied to several species of the smaller
sharks, and given in common with such names as hound and
beagle, owing to the habit these fishes have of pursuing or hunt-

ing their prey in packs. The small-spotted dog-fish or rough
hound (Scyllium canicula) and the large-spotted or nurse hound
(Scyllium catulus) are also known as ground-sharks. They
keep near the sea bottom, feeding chiefly on the smaller fishes
and Crustacea, and causing great annoyance to the fishermen by
the readiness with which they take bait. They differ from the
majority of sharks, and resemble the rays in being oviparous.
The eggs are enclosed in semi-transparent horny cases, known on
the British coasts as " mermaids' purses," and these have tendril-
like prolongations from each of the four corners, by means of
which they are moored to sea-weed or some other fixed object near
the shore, until the young dog-fish is ready to make its exit. The
larger of these species attains a length of 4 to 5 ft., the smaller
rarely more than 30 in. The picked dog-fish (Acanthias vulgaris,
formerly known as Squalus acanthias) is pre-eminently the dog-
fish. It is the most abundant of the British sharks, and occurs in
the temperate seas of both northern, and southern hemispheres.
It attains a length of 4 ft., but the usual length is 2 to 3 ft., the
female, as in most sharks, being larger than the male. The body is
round and tapering, the snout projects, and the mouth is placed
ventrally some distance from the end of the snout. There are
two dorsal fins, each of which is armed on its anterior edge with a
sharp and slightly curved spine, hence its name " picked." This
species is viviparous, the female producing five to nine young at a
birth; the young when born are 9 to 10 in. long and quite similar
to the parents in all respects except size. It is gregarious, and
is abundant at all seasons everywhere on the British coasts. In
1858 an enormous shoal of dog-fish, many square miles in extent,
appeared in the north of Scotland, when, says J. Couch, " they
were to be found floating in myriads on the surface of every
harbour." They are the special enemies of the fisherman,
injuring his nets, removing the hooks from his lines, and spoiling
his fish for the market by biting pieces out of them as they hang
on his lines. They are however eaten, both fresh and salted, by
fishermen, especially on the west coast of England, and they are
sold regularly in the French markets.

DOGGER BANK, an extensive shoal in the North Sea, about 60
m. E. of the coast of Northumberland, England. Over its most
elevated parts there is a depth of only about six fathoms, but the
depth is generally from ten to twenty fathoms. It is well known
as a fishing ground. The origin of the name is obscure ; but the
middle Dutch dogger signifies a trawling vessel, and was formerly
applied generally to the two-masted type of vessel employed in
the North Sea fisheries, and also to their crews (doggermen) and
the fish taken (dogger-fish). Off the south end of the bank an
engagement took place between English and Dutch fleets in 1781.
On the night of the 2ist of October 1904 during the Russo-
Japanese War, some British trawlers of the Hull fishing fleet were
fired upon by vessels of the Russian Baltic fleet under Admiral
Rozhdestvensky on its voyage to the Far East, one trawler being
sunk, other boats injured, two men killed and six wounded. This
incident created an acute crisis in the relations between Russia
and England for several days, the Russian version being that they
had seen Japanese torpedo-boats, but on the 28th Mr Balfour,
the English prime minister, announced that the tsar had expressed
regret and that an international commission would investigate
the facts with a view to the punishment of any responsible
parties. The terms were settled on 25th November, the com-
mission being composed of five officers (British, Russian, American
and French, and one selected by them) , to meet in Paris. On the
22nd of December the four original members, Vice-admiral Sir
Lewis Beaumont, Vice-admiral Kaznakov (afterwards replaced by
Vice-admiral Dubassov), Rear-admiral Davis and Vice-admiral
Fournier, met and chose Admiral Baron von Spaun (Austria-
Hungary) as the fifth. Their report was issued on the 25th of
February 1905. While recognizing that the information received
as to a possible attack led the admiral to mistake the trawlers for
theenemy, the majorityof thecommissioners held Rozhdestvensky
responsible for the firing and its results, and " being of opinion
that there were no torpedo-boats either among the trawlers nor
anywhere near " concluded that " the opening of fire was not
justifiable," though they absolved him and his squadron from

DOGGETT— DOGMA

discredit either to their " military qualities " or their " humanity."
The affair ended in compensation being paid by the Russian
government.

DOGGETT (or DOGGET), THOMAS (d. 1721), English actor, was
born in Dublin, and made his first appearance in London in 1691
as Nincompoop in D'Urfey's Love for Money. In this part, and as
Solon in the same author's Marriage-hater matched, he gained the
favour of the public. He followed Betterton to Lincoln's Inn
Fields, creating the part of Ben, especially written for him, in
Congreve's Love for Love, with which the theatre opened (1695);
and next year played Young Hobb in his own The Country Wake.
He was associated with Gibber and others in the management
of the Haymarket and Drury Lane, and he continued to play
comedy parts at the former until his retirement in 1713. Doggett
is highly spoken of by his contemporaries, both as an actor and
as a man, and is frequently referred to in The Taller and Spectator.
It was he who in 1715 founded the prize of " Doggett's Coat and
Badge " in honour of the house of Hanover, " in commemoration
of his Majesty King George's happy Accession to the Brittish
Throne." The prize was a red coat with a large silver badge on
the arm, bearing the white horse of Hanover, and the race had
to be rowed annually on the ist of August on the Thames, by six
young watermen who were not to have exceeded the time of their
apprenticeship by twelve months. Although the first contest
took place in 1715, the names of the winners have only been
preserved since 1791. The race is still rowed each year, but
under modified conditions.

See Thomas Doggett, Deceased (London, 1908).

DOGMA (Gr. doyfta, from SOKUV, to seem; literally " that
which seems, sc. good or true or useful " to any one), a term which
has passed through many senses both general and technical, and
is now chiefly used in theology. In Greek constitutional history
the decision of — " that which seemed good to " — an assembly was
called a 56-yna (i.e. decree), and throughout its history the word
has generally implied a decision, or body of decisions or opinions,
officially adopted and regarded by those who make it as possess-
ing authority. As a technical term in theology, it has various
shades of meaning according to the degree of authority which is
postulated and the nature of the evidence on which it is based.
Thus it has been used broadly of all theological doctrines, and
also in a narrower sense of fundamental beliefs only, confession
of which is insisted upon as a term of church communion. By
sceptics the word " dogma " is generally used contemptuously,
for an opinion grounded not upon evidence but upon assertion;
and this attitude is so far justified from the purely empirical
standpoint that theological dogmas deal with subjects which,
by their very nature, are not susceptible of demonstration by the
methods of physical science. Again, popularly, an unproved
ex cathedra statement of any kind is called " dogmatic," with
perhaps an insinuation that it is being obstinately adhered to
without, or beyond, or in defiance of, obtainable evidence. But
again to " dogmatize " may mean simply to assert, instead of
hesitating or suspending judgment.

Three pre-Christian or extra-ecclesiastical usages are recorded
by a half-heretical churchman, Marcellus of Ancyra (in Eusebius
of Caesarea, Contra Marcellum, i. 4); — words which Adolf
Harnack has placed on the title-page of his larger History of
Dogma. First there is a medical usage — empirical versus dogmatic
medicine. On this old-world technical controversy we need not
dwell. Secondly, there is a philosophical usage (e.g. Cicero,
Seneca and others). First principles — speculative or practical-
are Soynara, Lat. decreta, scita or placita. The strongest state-
ment regarding the inviolability of such dogmas is in Cicero's
Academics, ii. chap. 9. But we have to remember that this is
dialogue; that the speaker, Hortensius, represents a more
dogmatic type of opinion than Cicero's own; that it is the
maxims of " wisdom," not of any special school, which are
described as unchangeable.1 Marcellus's third type of dogma is

1 Sextus Empiricus (c. A.D. 240) denounces all forms of dogmatism,
even perhaps the scepticism of definite denial. Blaise Pascal and
Immanuel Kant, among others, have Sextus's grouping in mind
when they oppose themselves to "dogmatism" and "scepticism"

legal or political, the decree (says Marcellus) of the legislative
assembly; but it might also be of the emperor (Luke ii. i; Acts
xvii. 7), or of a church gathering (Acts xvi. 4), or of Old Testa-
ment law; so especially in Philo the Jew, and in Flavius Josephus
(even perhaps at Contra Apionem, i. 8).

While the New Testament knows only the political usage of
, the Greek Fathers follow one which is more in keeping
with philosophical tradition. With few and early
exceptions, such as we may note in the Epistle of
Barnabas, chap, i., they confine the word to doctrine.
Either dogma (sing.) or dogmas (plural) may be spoken of.
Actually, as J. B. Lightfoot points out, the best Greek com-
mentators among the Fathers are so dominated by this new usage,
that they misinterpret Col. ii. 14 (20) and Eph. ii. 15 of Christian
doctrines. Along with this goes the fundamental Catholic view of
" dogmatic faith " — the expression is as old as Cyril of Jerusalem
(died 386), if not older — according to which it consists in obedient
assent to the voice of authority. All doctrines are " dogmas " to
the Greek Fathers, not simply the central teachings of their
system, as with the philosophers. Very noteworthy is Cyril of
Jerusalem's fourth Catechetical Discourse on the " Ten Dogmas "
(we might render " Ten Great Doctrines "). The figure ten may
be taken from the commandments,2 as in Gregory Nazianzen's
later, and more incidental, decalogue of belief. In any case,
Cyril marks out the way for the subsequent division of the creeds
into twelve or fourteen " articles " or heads of belief (see below).
In saying that all doctrines rank as " dogmas " during the Greek
period, we ought to add a qualification. They do so, in so far
as they are held to be of authority. Clement of Alexandria or
Origen would not call his speculations dogmas. Yet these
audacious spirits start from a basis of authority, and insist upon
bpOoTOn'ia doyfiaruv (Stromata, vii. 763). The " dogma " or
" dogmas " of heretics are frequently mentioned by orthodox
writers. There can be no question of confining even orthodox
" dogma " to conciliar decisions in an age when definition is so
incomplete; still, we do meet with references to the Nicene
" dogma " (e.g. letter in Theodoret, H.E. ii. 15). But dogma
is not yet technical for what is Christian or churchly. The
word which emerges in Greek for that purpose is " orthodox,"
" orthodoxy," as in John of Damascus (d. 760), or as in the
official title still claimed by the Holy Orthodox Church of the
East.

Latin Fathers borrow the word " dogma," though sparingly,
and employ it in all the Greek usages. Something novel is added
by Jerome's phrase (in the De viris illustribus, cc.
xxxi., cix.) ecclesiastica dogmata, — found again in the
title of the treatise now generally ascribed to Gennadius,
and occurring once more in another writer of southern Gaul.3
The phrase is a serviceable one, contrasting church teachings
with heretical " dogmas." But the main Latin use of dogma in
patristic times is found in Vincent of Lerins (d. c. 450) in his brief
but influential Commonitorium; again from southern Gaul.
Thereafter the usage gradually drops. In Thomas
Aquinas 4 it does not once occur. On the other hand •*fed/eva/
Thomas has his own technical name — doctrine (sing.)
or rather sacra doctrina; and this expression holds its ground,
though the usage of Abelard, Theologia, was destined to an even
more important place (see THEOLOGY). Another medieval usage
of importance is the division of the creed into twelve articles
corresponding to the number of the apostles, who, according to a
legend already found in Rufinus (d. 410) On the Apostles' Creed,
composed that formula by contributing each a single sentence.

alike. A new shade of condemnation for dogmas as things merely
assumed comes to be noticeable here, especially in Kant.

2 But there is a variant reading — eleven — supported by a different
arrangement.

3 Quoted by C. H. Turner in Journal of Theol. Studies (Oct. 1906,
and cf. Oct. 1905). G. Elmenhorst's statement, that Musanus and
Didymus in an earlier age wrote treatises with the name De ecclesi-
asticis dogmatibus, seems a plain blunder, if we compare Jerome's
Latin with Eusebius's Greek.

* " So viel uns bekannt "— J. B. Heinrich, " Dogma," in Wetzer
and Welte's (Catholic) Kirchenlexikon.

382

DOGMA

The division is found applied also to the " Nicene-Constantino-
politan " creed, both in East and West. Sometimes fourteen
articles are detected (in either creed), 7+7; the sacred number
twice over.1

The Reformation set up a new idea of faith, or recurred to one
of the oldest of all. Faith was not belief in authoritative teach-
ings; it was trust in the promises of God and in Jesus
format/on. Christ as their fulfilment. But the Protestant view
was apt to seem intangible, and the influence of the
learned tradition was strong — for a time, indeed, doctrine was
more cultivated among Protestants than in the Church of Rome.
The result was a structure which is well named the Protestant
scholasticism. The new view of faith is bracketed with the old,
and practically neutralized by it; as was already the case in
Melanchthon's theological definitions in the 1552-1553 edition of
Loci Communes, also printed in other works by him. This brings
back again the Catholic view of " dogmatic faith."

The word " article " for a time holds the field. Pope Leo X.
in 1520 condemns among other propositions of Martin Luther's
the twenty-seventh — " Cerium est in manu Papae, out
ecclesiae, prorsus non esse statuere articulos fidei (imo nee
leges morum seu bonorum operum)." The Augsburg Confession
(1530) is divided into numerous "articles," while Luther's
Lesser Catechism gathers Christianity under three " articles " —
Creation, Redemption, Sanctification. Where moderns would
speak of the " doctrine " of this or that, Lutherans especially,
but also churchmen of other communions, wrote upon this or
that " article." Nikolaus Hunnius (Sider/ce^is, &c., 1626), A.
Quenstedt (c. 1685) and others — in a controversial interest, to
blacken the Calvinists still more— distinguished which articles
were " fundamental." Modern Lutheranism (G. Thomasius,
Dogmengeschichte, 1874-1876, influenced by T. F. D. Kliefoth
1839) speaks rather of "central dogmas";2 and the Roman
Catholic J. B. Heinrich3 is willing to speak of "fundamental
dogmas," those which must be known for salvation; those for
which " implicit " faith does not suffice. When Addis and
Arnold's Catholic Dictionary denounces the conception of central
dogmas, what they desire to exclude as uncatholic is the belief
that dogmas lying upon the circumference may be questioned or
perhaps denied.4 This suggests the great ambiguity both in
Roman Catholic and Protestant writers of the I7th century as to
the relation between " articles " and " dogmas." Many writers
in each communion felt that an "article" is a higher thing.
Others, in each communion, made the identification absolute.
Perhaps the Roman theologians of that age were more concerned
than the Protestants to draw a line round necessary truths. This
attempt was made by Dr Henry Holden (Div. Fidei Analysis,
1652) in connexion with the word " articles.5"

Another term to be considered is decretum, the old Latin
equivalent for 66-y/m- Another of Luther's assertions branded
Decreta ^7 t^6 P°Pe in I52° — the twenty-ninth — claimed
liberty judicandi conciliorum decreta. On the other
hand, the Augsburg Confession protests its loyalty to the decretum
of Nice. What Protestantism saw in the distant past, Trent
naturally recognized in the present. Every one of its own find-
ings is a decretum — except five, among the sacramental chapters,
each of which is headed doctrina. Holden again quotes the
(indefinite) decretum of the Council of Basel regarding the
Immaculate Conception.

The word " dogma " was however to revive, and, with more
or less success, to differentiate itself from " doctrine." Early
writers of the modern period, Protestant or Roman Catholic, use

1 See G. Hoffmann, Fides implicita, vol. i. (1903), pp. 82, &c. ; and
cf. the 17th-century creed of Bishop Mogilas adopted by the whole
Greek Church.

_2A. Schweizer's Protestant Central Dogmas (1854-1856) was an
historical study of Reformed, i.e. Calvinist-Zwinglian theology.
" Dogma,' &c., in Wetzer and Welte's Kirchenlexikon.

4 The distinction^ of pure and mixed articles — those of revelation
and those taught in common by revelation and natural theology
-^reappears in modern Roman Catholic theology as a distinction
between pure and mixed dogmas.

* Luther's Schmalkalden Articles and the Thirty-Nine Articles of
the Church of England should also be mentioned.

in revived
use.

it frequently of heretics; thus the Augsburg Confession protests
that the Protestants have carefully avoided nova dogmata.
A Roman Catholic writer, Jan Driedo of Louvain,
revives the reference to Ecclesiaslica dogmata — De D°zmat*
ecclesiasticis scripturis el dogmatibus (1533) — using
the word, though not exclusively yet emphatically, of
teachings extra canonem scripturae sacrae. Philip Melanchthon's
preface to his Loci communes (ed. 1535) protests that he has
not expressed himself de ullo dogmate — on any point of doctrine —
without careful consideration of what has been said before him.
Richard Hooker (d. 1600) in bk. viii. of Eccl. Polity (pub. 1648
or perhaps 1651) quotes Thomas Stapleton, the Roman Catholic
(De principiis doctrinalibus fidei, 1579), on the royal right or
duty to enforce " dogmas," and adds a gloss of his own — " very
articles of the faith," — a surprising and probably isolated usage.
Many identified Dogmas and Articles by levelling down or
broadening out; but Hooker levels up. The statement of the
Council of Trent (1545-1562) may be quoted here. The Council
will rely chiefly upon Scripture * in reformandls dogmatibus et
instaurandis in ecclesia moribus; the Roman reply to the two
sets of articuli of Augsburg, and the Roman counterpart to
the (later) Protestant assertion that the Bible7 is the "only rule
of faith and practice." At Trent, therefore, once more, dogma
means doctrine. It still means " doctrine " when the collected
decreta of Trent bear on their title-page (1564) reference to an
Index dogmatum et reformations; but here " dogma " is already
verging towards the narrower and more precise sense — truth de-
fined by church authority. In other words, it is already edging
away from its identification with (all or any) doctrines. On the
Protestant side the identity is still clear in the Lutheran Formula
of Concord (1577). This creed formulates its relation to Scripture
over and over, as the one regula by which all dogmata are to be
tried. That characteristic Protestant assertion had been still
earlier pushed to the front in " Reformed " creeds, e.g. the First
Helvetic Confession (1536), and more notably in the Second
(1566).

Protestant creeds had clearly affirmed that nothing possessed
authority which was not in Scripture: in a short time, Protestant
theologians — following an impulse common to all
Christian communions — define more sharply the
identity of what is authoritative with the letter of
Scripture, and call these entire contents dogmas. Here
then, under Protestant scholasticism (Lutheran and
Reformed), we have the first perfectly definite conception of
dogma, and the most definite ever reached. Dogma is the whole
text of the Bible, doctrinal, historical, scientific, or what not.
Thus dogma is revealed and is infallibly true. Dogma is doctrine,
viz. that body of doctrines and related facts which God Himself
has propounded for dogmatic faith. Every true dogma, says
Johann Gerhard 8 — the most representative figure of Lutheran
scholasticism — occurs in plain terms somewhere in Scripture.

Over against these sweeping assumptions and deductions, the
Roman Catholic Church had to build up its own statement of the
basis of belief. Its early controversialists — like Driedo
or Cardinal Bellarmine — meet assertions such as
Gerhard's with a flat denial. The great dogmas are not,
literally and verbally, in the Bible. Along with the
Bible we must accept unwritten traditions; the Council of Trent
makes this perfectly clear. But not any and every tradition;
only such as the church stamps with her approval. And that
raises the question whether the church has not a further part to
play? A. M. Fairbairn holds that D. Petavius's great work De
theologicis dogmatibus (especially the ist vol., 1644) made the
word " dogma " current for doctrines which were authoritative as
formulated by the church. We must keep in mind, however, that
the question is not simply one as to the meaning of a word. The
equation holds, more firmly than ever; dogma = the contents of

6 That seems to be what is meant.

7 Early Protestantism lived too much in the thought of j ustification
to mark out the boundaries of creed with this scholastic precision.

8 Loci communes (1610-1622), on Interpretation of Sacred
Scripture, ix. 149.

Definition
In Pro-
testaat
scholas-
ticism.

replies.

DOGMA

383

faith. It has to be established on the Roman Catholic side
that faith (or dogma; the two are inseparable) deals with divine
truths historically revealed long ago but now administered with
authority, according to God's will, by the church. The English-
man Henry Holden (see above), the Frenchman Veronius
(Francois Veron, S.J., 1575-1649) in his Regie generate de la foy
catholique (1652), the German Philipp Neri Chrismann,1 in his
Regulafidei catholicae et collectio dogmalum credendorum (1792),*
all work at this task. Dogmas or articles of faith (taken as
synonymous) depend upon revelation in Scripture or tradition,
as confirmed by the church whether acting in general councils or
through the pope (in some undefined way; Holden) — in general
councils or by universal consent (Chrismann; of bishops ? the
definite Gallican theory?). Veronius is willing to waive the
difficult point of church infallibility as the Council of Trent did
not define it. Holden insists strongly upon infallibility. Church
traditions are infallible; and church dogmas reach us (from the
original revelation) through an infallible medium, the Catholic
Church, which the Protestants sadly lack. In Chrismann the
word " dogma " has superseded the word " article "; Holden uses
both, though " article " has the preponderance. All three writers
seek to draw a sharp line round what is " of faith." Hence in
Chrismann (who is in other respects the most definite of the
three) we have a view of dogma almost as clear-cut as that of
the Protestant schoolmen. Dogmas are revealed; dogmas are
infallible; the church is infallible on dogmas (for this statement
he cites Muratori) and on nothing else.

This whole period of theology, Protestant and Roman Catholic,
is statical. Men are defining and protecting the positions they
have inherited; they do not think of progress. And yet the
Roman Catholic Church had upon its hands one great unsettled
question — the thesis of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin.
This became the standing type of an assertion which, while
favoured by the church and on the very verge of dogma, was yet
not a dogma3 — till the definition came through Pius IX. in
1854. Here then the frontier of dogma had unquestionably
moved forward. Its conception must become dynamic; there
was need of some theory of development like J. H. Newman's
(1845). It does not happen, however, that the papal definition of
1854 employs the word " dogma "; that honour was withheld
from the word until the Vatican decrees of 1870 affirmed the
personal infallibility of the pope as divinitus revclalum dogma.
With this, one line of tendency in Roman Catholic doctrine
reached its climax; the pope and the council use " dogma " in a
distinctive sense for what is definitely formulated by authority.
But there is another line of tendency. The same council defines
not indeed dogma but faith — inseparable from dogma — as4

(1) revealed, (a) in Scripture or (6) in unwritten tradition, and

(2) taught by the church, (a) in formulated decrees, or (6) in
her ordinary magisterium. This is a correction of Chrismann.
Not only does the correction involve the substitution of papal
authority for a universal consent of " pastors " and " the
faithful "; it also deliberately ranks the unformulated teachings
of the church on points of doctrine as no less de fide than those
formulated. This amounts to a serious warning against trying to
draw a definite line round dogma. The modern Roman Catholic
temper must be eager to believe and eager to submit. New
dogmas have been precipitated more than once during the igth
century; there may still be others held in solution in the church's
teaching. If so, these are likely one day to crystallize into full
dogmas; and, even while not yet " declared," they have the
same claim upon faith.

Thus there seems to be a measure of uncertainty as to what the
Church of Rome now calls " dogma " — only in part relieved by

1 Three writers mentioned in Wetzer's and Welte's Kirchenlexikon.

'Also quoted as having appeared 1745, but that is an error; he
quotes F. A. Blau, On the Rule of Faith (Mainz, 1780). See further
the sketch of Chrismann in Allgemeine deutsche Biographic, supple-
ment.

* G. Perrone, e.g. De immaculate B. V. Mariae conceptu; an
dogmatico decreto definiri possil? (1847).

4 These divisions and subdivisions are not numbered in the
Decrees, as for clearness they have been numbered above.

the distinction between " dogmas strictly " and mere " dogmatic
truths." Again, the assertion that the church is infallible upon
some questions, not belonging to the area of revelation (properly
so-called in Roman Catholic theology), destroys the identification
of " dogmas " with " infallible certainties " which we noted both
in the Protestant schoolmen and in Chrismann. The identifica-
tion of dogma with revelation remains, with another distinction
in support of it, between " material dogmas " (all scriptural or
traditional truth) and " formal " or ecclesiastically formulated
dogmas.6 On the other hand, there is absolute certainty on a
point long disputed. Questions about church authority are
henceforth questions about the pope's authority. What he calls
heresy, under the sanction of excommunication or that more
formal excommunication known as anathema, is heresy. What
he finds it necessary to condemn even in milder terms as bad
doctrine is infallibily condemned; that is certain, Roman
Catholic theologians tell us, though not yet de fide.

Finally we have to glance at a new list of definitions which
perhaps in some cases seek more or less to formulate modern
Protestant ideas, but which in general represent rather the world
of disinterested historical scholarship. That world of the learned
offers us non-dogmatic definitions, drawn up from the outside;
definitions which do not share the root assumptions either of
Catholicism or of post-Reformation Protestant orthodoxy. It
might have been best to surrender the term " dogma " to the
dogmatists; but few scholars have consented to do so.

1. We may brush aside the view6 for which J. C. Doderlein,
J. A. A. Tittmann, and more recently C. F. A. Kahnis are
quoted. According to this definition, " dogma " means the
opinion of some individual theologian of distinction. That might
be a conceivable development of usage. It has been said that
persons who dislike authority often show great devotion to
" authorities "; and the word dogma might make a similar
transition. But, in its case, such a usage would constitute a
violent break with the past.

2. Though there is no formal definition in the passage, it is
worth recording that, towards the end of his Chief End of Revela-
tion (1881), A. B. Bruce sharply contrasts " dogmas of theology "
with "doctrines of faith."7 While he manifests no wholesale
dislike to doctrine, such as is seen in the Broad Church school,
Bruce inverts the Catholic estimate. Dogma stands lowest, not
highest. It seems hardly better than a cap-ut mortuum, out of
relation to the original faith or the original facts that are held
to have given it birth. There is more than a touch of Matthew
Arnold in this; though, while Arnold held nothing in religious
experience beyond morality to be objectively genuine, Bruce
believed in God's " gracious " purpose. 8

3. Much more like Chrismann's view is the " generally
accepted position " among Protestant scholars, as its leading
representative to-day, F. Loofs, has called it;9 the doctrine
enforced within any one church community is dogma. This
definition is significant. It means that historians recognize
the peculiar importance of those beliefs which are constitutive of
church agreement; and it finds some support from the philo-
sophical and political associations of ancient " dogma." Also
Roman Catholic writers could accept the definition in so far as

6 Three zones apparently (i) the church's formal decrees, (2) the
church's general teaching, (3) points of revelation which the church
may not yet have overtaken. Per contra, much that was only
" implicit ' in the deposit of faith has become " explicit " in dogma.
(The reader must note that " implicit " is used here in a different
sense from that referred to earlier in this article. Here, church dogma
has explicated what was implicit in revelation. There, the un-
learned accept by implication, i.e. by a general acceptance of church
belief and teaching, dogmas they perhaps have never heard of.
Both usages are current in Roman Catholic theology.)

6 Or the view of D. Schenkel, that dogma is what is enforced by
civil and criminal law.

7 Cf. also preface to 2nd ed. pp. ix., x.

8 Cf. pp. 279, 280; the undogmatic words of religious emotion are
" thrown out," not at " a cloud mistaken for a mountain," but at a
" majestic " and " veritable mountain range."

9 See art. " Dogmengeschichte " in Herzog-Hauck's Realencykl.
fiir prot. Theol. Cf. also Prof. Loofs's Leitfaden zum Studium der
Dogmengeschichte.

DOGMATIC THEOLOGY

their own church's authoritative teachings are concerned. But
can a historian separate the opinions which rose to authority
in the church from the other opinions which succumbed? Or
the accepted modifications of a theory from those which were
rejected? Again, can we substitute church authority for that
which is always the background of " dogma " as interpreted from
inside — divine authority?1 Or, again, can we say definitely
which doctrines are " enforced " in Protestant communions and
so are " dogmas "? It has even been asserted by A. Schweizer
(Chrislliche Glaubenslehre nach prot. Grundsatzen, 1863-1872)
that Protestantism ought not to speak of dogmas at all, except
as things of its imperfect past. * And historically it seems plain
that — since the age of Protestant scholasticism — there has been
nothing in Protestant church life to which the name " dogma "
can be assigned, without dropping a good deal of its original
connotation. Dogma is no longer3 held to be of immediate
divine authority. Hence Catholic, and scientific or historical,
definitions of dogma are on different planes. They never properly
meet.4

4. A. Harnack varies in his usage. He is not prepared
to exclude the great medieval pronouncements, or the modern
Roman Catholic definitions, from the list of dogmas; but on the
whole he prefers to keep in view " one historical species " — Loofs
suggests that he ought perhaps rather to say one individual type
— that greatest group of Christian dogmas which " was created by
the Greek spirit upon the soil of the gospel " (Hist, of Dogma, Eng.
tr., vol. i. pp. 17, 21, 22). Thus Harnack agrees with Catholic
theologians in holding that, in the fullest sense, there is no dogma
except the Catholic. He differs, of course, in holding dogma to be
obsolete now. While Protestants, he thinks, have undermined it
by a deeper conception of faith,6 Roman Catholics have come to
attach more value to obedience and " implicit belief " than
to knowledge; and even the Eastern Church lives to-day by
the cultus more than by the vision of supernatural truth. Again,
Harnack gravely differs from Catholic dogmatists in assigning
a historical origin to what in their view is essentially divine —
supernatural in origin, supernatural even in its declaration by the
church. If they do not deny that Greek philosophy has entered
into Christian doctrine, they consider it a colourless medium used
in fixing the contents of revelation. In all this, Harnack speaks
from a point of view of his own. He is no friend of Catholicism
or of dogma. Perhaps his detachment makes for clearness of
thought; Loofs's friendliness towards dogma, but in a much
humbler sense than the Catholic, involves the risk of confusion.

Both Loofs and Harnack contrast with " dogma " the work
of individual thinkers, calling the latter " theology." Hence
they and other authorities wish to see " History of Dogma "
supplemented by " Histories of Theology." Our usual English
phrase " History of Doctrine " ignores that distinction.

5. A place must be made for the definition proposed by a
philosopher, J. M. E. McTaggart. In Some Dogmas of Religion
(1906), he uses " dogma " of affirmations, whether supported
by reasoning or merely asserted, if they claim " metaphysical "
value, metaphysics being defined as " the systematic study of the
ultimate nature of reality." Briefly, a dogma is what claims
ultimate, not relative, truth. This agrees with one feature in
ordinary literary usage — the contrast between " dogmatizing "
and suspending judgment, or taking refuge in conjecture. But it

1 It should be noted that Loofs does not speak merely as a historian.
He places himself in a sense within the dogmatic circle by his declara-
tion that guidance is to be expected from developments — in a " free
Protestant evangelical spirit "-^-out of the old confessions of the
Protestant churches. This belief may be called what Loofs has
called Harnack's definition of dogma — individuell berechtigt, and
perhaps nur individuell. Others, who hold no less strongly to
theological progress by evolution, not revolution, will hesitate to
grant that the line of advance passes through the symbolical books.

* Cf. DOGMATIC THEOLOGY, and the footnote above.

* Unless in certain confined circles.

4 When Loofs declares (art. "Dogmengeschichte " in Herzog-
Hauck's Realencykl., 1898) that dogma is historically equivalent to
regula fidei, he is in flat contradiction to the " dogma " of his own
church as stated in the Formula of Concord. See above.

6 Here perhaps Harnack speaks from inside his own type of
religious faith ; but not from inside dogma.

ignores another quality marked out in common speech — that in
respect of which " dogmatism " is opposed to proof. Also it omits
the political or social reference so much insisted on by Loofs and
others. There are materials for misunderstanding here.

6. A very different view is implied in the symbolo-fideisme of
Athanase Sabatier and some other French Protestants: religious
dogma consists of symbols in contrast to a scientific gnosis of
reality. This is a radical version of the early Protestant idea of
faith, and yields a theory of what in English we call " doctrine."
More precisely, it is a theory of what doctrine ought to be, or a
deeper analysis of its nature; it is not a statement of what
doctrine has been held to be in the past. And therefore the
definition does not proceed from historical scholarship. Nor yet
does it throw light upon " dogma," if dogma is to be distinguished
— somehow — from doctrine.

LITERATURE. — Matthew Arnold's Literature, and Dogma (1873)13
important for literary usage: cf. A. B. Bruce, op.cit. Classical and
early Christian usages, E. Hatch, Hibbert Led. (1888), pp. 119. 120;
J. B. Lightfoot on Colossians ii. 14 (20); W. Schmidt, Dogmatik,
vol. i. (1895) — many quotations in extenso; C. Stange, Das Dogma
und seine Beurleilung in der neueren Dogmengeschichte (1898) — a
pamphlet protesting against what Loofs terms the " generally
accepted view." Articles in the (Roman Catholic) Kirchenlexikon of
WetzerandWelte.znded; (by Hergenrother and Kaulen), 1882-1901,
Arts. " Dogmatik " (J. KSstlin), " Dogmengeschichte " (F. Loofs)
in Herzog-Hauck's Encykl. f. prot. Theol. (vol. iv., 1898). Art.
" Glaubensartikel " in previous ed. (Herzog-Plitt, vol. v., 1879) by
C. F. Kline; and L. F. Schoeberlein. For works on the history of
dogma see THEOLOGY. See also DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. (R. MA.)

DOGMATIC THEOLOGY, the name usually given in modern
times to the systematic study of Christian doctrine or of dogma
in the widest sense possible (see DOGMA). Among the many
terms used in the early days of Protestant theology to denote the
great systems, three deserve special notice — Thetic Theology,
Positive Theology, Dogmatic Theology. " Thetic theology " is
connected with academic life. It recalls the literal and original
meaning of graduation " theses," also Martin Luther's memorable
theses and the replies made to him. " Thetic theology," a name
now obsolete, naturally included the whole of doctrine, i.e. what-
ever would be argued for or against; and " dogmatic theology "
came into use absolutely as a synonymous expression. " Positive
theology " is also a term employed by Petau (De theologicis
dogmatibus, 1644-1650), and more or less current even to-day in
Roman Catholic scholarship (e.g. Joseph Turmel, Histoire de la
theologie positive, 1906). " Dogmatic theology " proved to have
most vitality in it. After some partial precedents of early date
(e.g. F. Turrianus — one of the papal theologians at the Council of
Trent, — Dogmaticus (liber?) de Justification, 1557), the title was
used in 1659 by the Lutheran Lukas Friedrich Reinhard (1623-
1688), professor of theology at Altdorf (Synopsis theologiae
dogmaticae, eds. 1659, 1660, 1661), and his influence is already
seen on the Reformed theologian Andreas van Essen (Essenius,
1618-1677), who, in 1659, published his Systematis theologiae pars
prior, the tomus secundus in 1661, but Systematis dogmalici
tomus tertius et ultimus in 1665. The same author published
a shorter Compendium theologiae dogmaticum in 1669. A. M.
Fairbairn holds that it was the fame of Petau which gave currency
to the new coinage " dogmatic theology "; and though the same
or kindred phrases had been used repeatedly by writers of less
influence since Reinhard and Essenius, F. Buddeus (Instiluliones
theol. dogmat., 1723; Compendium, 1728) is held to have given
the expression its supremacy. Noel Alexandre, the Gallican
divine, possibly introduced it in the Roman Catholic Church
(1693; Theologia dogmatica et moralis). Both Roman Catholic
and Protestant authorities agree that the expression was con-
nected with the new habit of distinguishing dogmatics from
Christian ethics or moral theology, though A. Schweizer denies
this of Reinhard. In another direction dogmas and dogmatic
theology were also contrasted with truths of reason and natural
theology.6 F. E. D. Schleiermacher, in his Kurze Darstellung
des theologischen Stadiums, and again in his great System, Der
chrislliche Glaube . . . dargestellt, ingeniously proposed to treat
dogmatic as an historical statement, or report, of beliefs held in
6 For " mixed articles " see DOGMA.

DOGRA— DOLABELLA

3»5

the writer's communion at the time of writing. He also insisted,
however, upon personal conviction in writers on dogmatic. The
expression Glaubenslehre — doctrine of faith — which he did much
to bring into a wider currency, and which Schweizer, the most
loyal of all his disciples, holds to be alone fitted for Protestant use,
emphasizes the latter requirement. But " dogmatic " has also
continued in use among Protestant theologians of the Left no
less than among the orthodox. When we consider the different
attitude towards dogma of Roman Catholicism, we feel con-
strained to question whether the expression " dogmatic theology "
can be equally suitable for both communions. Roman theologians
may properly define dogmatic as the scientific study of dogmas;
Protestant scholars have come to use " dogma " hi ways which
make that impossible. Indeed, many of them bid us regard
" dogmatic " as falling under the history of theology and not of
dogma (see DOGMA). Still, usage is decisive. It will be im-
possible to uproot the phrase " dogmatic theology " among
Protestants. When A. Harnack1 praises Schbiermacher's
description of dogmatic as " historical," he rather strains the
meaning of the remark, and creates fresh confusion. Harnack's
point is that " dogmatic theology " ought to be used in a sense
corresponding to what he regards as the true meaning of
" dogma " — Christian belief in its main traditional outlines.
This claim is an innovation, and finds no precedent in
Schleiermacher. The latter regarded dogmatic as stating in
scientific connexion "the doctrine prevailing in a (single)
Christian church at a given time " — as " not merely historical
(geschichtlich) ," but containing an " apologetic element " — as
" not confined to the symbolical books, but " including all — even
local expressions of the common faith which produce no breach of
harmony — and as having for its " very business and task " to
"purify and perfect" doctrine (Der christliche Glattbe, § 19).
The one merit which " dogmatic " may claim as a term in
Protestant theology is that it contrasts positive statements
of belief with mere reports (e.g. Biblical theology; history of
doctrine) of what has been taught in the past. (See DOGMA;
and THEOLOGY.)

DOGRA, a race of Hill Rajputs in India, inhabiting Kashmir
and the adjacent valleys of the Himalayas. They form the ruling
race in Kashmir. " Dogra " is the name given to the country
round Jammu, and is said to be derived from a word meaning
the " two lakes," as the original home of the Dogra people was
situated between the lakes of Siroensar and Mansar. There are
numerous castes in the Dogra country, and the Hindu, Mahom-
medan and Sikh religions are represented. All, whether Hindus
or Mahommedans, whether high-born Rajputs of the Maharaja's
caste or low-born menials, are known as Dogras. At the time of
the first Sikh War the Dogras had a great reputation as soldiers,
which they have worthily maintained in the ranks of the Indian
native army. They are classed as fighting men with the Sikh
and Punjabi Mahommedan. They distinguished themselves in
the Hunza Nagar Expedition and the affair at Chilas in 1891, and
in the Tirah campaign of 1897-98.

DOGS, ISLE OF, a district of London, England, on the north
bank of the Thames, which surrounds it on three sides. It falls
within the metropolitan borough of Poplar. It is occupied by
docks, riverside works and poor houses. The origin of the name
is not known. The suggestion that it is corrupted from the Isle of
Docks falls to the ground on the question of chronology; another,
that there were royal kennels here, is improbable, though they
were situated at Deptford in the i7th century. (See POPLAR.)

DOG-TOOTH (the French dent-de-scie) , in architecture, an
ornament found in the mouldings of medieval work of the
commencement of the I2th century, which is thought to have
been introduced by the Crusaders from the East. The earliest
example is found in the hall at Rabbath-Ammon in Moab (c. A.D.
614) built by the Sassanians, where it decorates the arch mould-
ing of the blind arcades and the string courses. In the apse
of the church at Murano, near Venice, it is similarly employed.
In the i zth and I3th centuries it was further elaborated with
carving, losing therefore its primitive form, but constituting a

1 Hist, of Dogma; Eng. trans, i. p. 21, footnote,
vni. 13

most beautiful decorative feature. In Elgin cathedral the dog-
tooth ornament in the archivolt becomes a four-lobed leaf, and
in Stone church, Kent, a much more enriched type of flower.
The term has been supposed to originate in a resemblance to the
dog-tooth violet, but the original idea of a projecting tooth is a
sufficient explanation.

DOGWOOD (i.e. wood of the dog-tree; referred by the New
English Dictionary to " dog," apparently as indicating inferiority;
but by others connected with " dag," " dagger," and by Prior
with A.S. dole, a brooch-pin), the name applied to plants of the
genus Cornus, of the natural order Cornaceae. The common
dogwood, prick-wood, skewer-wood, cornel or dogberry, C.
sanguined, is a shrub reaching a height of 8 or 9 ft., common in
hedges, thickets and plantations in Great Britain. Its branches
are dark red; the leaves egg-shaped, pointed, about 2 in. long
by 15 broad, and turning red in autumn; the flowers are dull
white, in terminal clusters. The berries are small, of a black-
purple, bitter and one-seeded, and contain a considerable per-
centage of oil, which in some places is employed for lamps, and in
the manufacture of soap. The wood is white and very hard, and
like that of other species of the genus is used for making ladder-
spokes, wheel-work, skewers, forks and other implements, and
gunpowder charcoal. The red berries of the dwarf species, C.
suecica, of the Scottish Highlands, are eaten, and are reputed to
be tonic in properties. C. mas, the Cornelian cherry, a native of
Europe and Northern Asia, bears a pulpy and edible fruit, which
when unripe contains much tannin. It is a good garden plant, as
is also the North American speciesC.florida, one of the commonest
trees of the deciduous forests of the middle and southern states.
Professor C. S. Sargent (Silva of North America) describes it as
" one of the most beautiful of the small trees of the American
forests, which it enlivens in early spring with the whiteness of its
floral leaves and in autumn with the splendour of its foliage and
the brilliancy of its fruit. No tree is more desirable in the garden
or park in regions where the summer's sun is sufficiently hot to
ensure the production of its flowers through the perfect develop-
ment of the branchlets." The Jamaica dogwood, the root-bark
of which is poisonous, is the species Piscidia Erythrina, of the
natural order Leguminosae.

DOL, a town of north-western France, in the department of
Ille-et-Vilaine, 36 m. N. of Rennes on the Western railway. Pop.
(1906) 3543. Dol is situated to the south-west of the rich agri-
cultural district known as the marsh of Dol, where market-
gardening is especially flourishing. The streets are still rendered
picturesque by houses of the i4th and isth centuries, which form
deep arcades by the projection of their upper storeys: and, high
above all, rises the grey granite of the cathedral, mainly of the
I3th century, which in the middle ages ranked as the metropolitan
church of all Brittany, and still keeps fresh the name of Bishop
St Samson, who, having fled, as the legend tells, from the Saxon
invaders of England, selected this spot as the site of his monastery.
To the architect it is interesting for the English character of its
design, and to the antiquarian, for its stained-glass windows of
the I3th century, and for the finely sculptured tomb of Bishop
Thomas James (d. 1504). About i^ m. from the town is the
pierre de Champ Dolent, a menhir some 30 ft. in height; not
far off stands the great granite rock of Mont Dol, over 200 ft. in
height, surmounted by the statue and chapel of Notre-Dame
de 1'Esperance. Dol has trade in grain, vegetables and fruit,
tobacco is cultivated in the neighbourhood and there are salt-
marshes. Tanning and leather-currying are carried on in the
town. The town was unsuccessfully besieged by William the
Conqueror, taken by Henry II. in 1164 and by Guy de Thouars
in 1204. In 1793 it witnessed the defeat of the republican forces
by the Vendeans who had taken refuge within its walls. The
bishopric established in the 6th century was suppressed in 1790.

DOLABELLA, PUBLIUS CORNELIUS, Roman general and
son-in-law of Cicero, was born about 70 B.C. He was by far the
most important of the Dolabellae, a family of the patrician gens
Cornelia. In the civil wars he at first took the side of Pompey,
but afterwards went over to Caesar, and was present at the battle
of Pharsalus. To escape the urgent demands of his creditors, he

386

DOLBEN— DOLE

introduced (as one of the tribunes) a bill proposing that all debts
should be cancelled. This was strongly resisted by his colleagues,
and led to serious disturbances in the city. Caesar, on his return
from Alexandria, seeing the expediency of removing Dolabella
from Rome, took him as one of his generals in the expedition
to Africa and Spain. On Caesar's death Dolabella seized the
insignia of the consulship (which had already been conditionally
promised him), and, by making friends with Brutus and the
other assassins, was confirmed in his office. When, however,
M. Antonius offered him the command of the expedition against
the Parthians and the province of Syria he changed sides at once.
His journey to the province was marked by plundering, extortion
and the murder of C. Trebonius, proconsul of Asia, who refused to
allow him to enter Smyrna. He was thereupon declared a public
enemy and superseded by C. Cassius(the murderer of Caesar), who
attacked him in Laodicea. On the capture of the place, Dolabella
ordered one of his soldiers to kill him (43). Throughout his life
he was a profligate and a spendthrift.

See Cicero's Letters (ed. Tyrrell and Purser) ; G. Boissier, Cicero
and his Friends (Eng. trans., 1897); Orelli, Onomasticon Tullianum;
Dio Cassius xli. 40, xlii. 29, xliii. 51, xliv. 22, xlvi. 40, xlvii. 30;
Appian, Bell. civ. Hi. 7, iv. 60.

DOLBEN, JOHN (1625-1686), English divine, was the son of
William Dolben (d. 1631), prebendary of Lincoln and bishop-
designate of Gloucester. He was educated at Westminster under
Richard Busby and at Christ Church, Oxford. He fought on the
royalist side at Marston Moor, 1644. Subsequently he took
orders and maintained in private the proscribed Anglican service.
At the Restoration he became canon of Christ Church (1660) and
prebendary of St Paul's, London (1661). As dean of Westminster
(1662-1683) he opposed an attempt to bring the abbey under
diocesan rule. In 1666 he was made bishop of Rochester, and in
1683 archbishop of York; he distinguished himself by reforming
the discipline of the cathedrals in these dioceses. His son John
Dolben (1662-1710) was a barrister and politician; he was M.P.
for Liskeard from 1707 to 1710 and manager of Sacheverell's
impeachment in 1709.

DOLCE, LUDOVICO, or LUIGI (1508-1568 or 1569), Italian
writer, was a native of Venice, and belonged to a family of
honourable tradition but decadent fortune. He received a good
education, and early undertook the task of maintaining himself
by his pen. Translations from Greek and Latin epics, satires,
histories, plays and treatises on language and art followed each
other in rapid succession, till the whole number amounted to
upwards of seventy works. But he is now mainly memorable
as the author of Marianna, a tragedy from the life of Herod,
which was recast in French by Tristan and by Voltaire, and still
keeps a place on the stage. Four licentious comedies, // Ragazzo
(1541), 77 Capitano (1545), // Mariio (1560), // Kuffiano (1560),
and seven of Seneca's tragedies complete the list of his dramatic
efforts. In one epic — to translate the title-page — " he has
marvellously reduced into otiava rima and united into one
narrative the stories of the Iliad and the Aeneid "; in another
he devotes thirty-nine cantos to a certain Primaleone, son of
Palmerius; in a third he celebrates the first exploits of Count
Orlando; and in a fourth he sings of the Paladin Sacripante. A
life of the emperor Charles V. and a similar account of Ferdinand
I., published respectively in 1560 and 1566, are his chief historical
productions; and among his minor treatises it is enough to
mention the Osservazioni sulla lingua wlgare (1550); the Dialogo
della p'Mura (1557) ; and the Dialogo nel quale si ragiona del modo
di accrescar la memoria (1552).

DOLCI, CARLO, or CARLINO (1616-1686), Italian painter, was
born in Florence in May 1616. He was the grandson of a painter
on the mother's side, and became a disciple of Jacopo Vignali;
and when only eleven years of age he attempted a whole figure of
St John, and a head of the infant Christ, which received extra-
ordinary approbation. He afterwards painted a portrait of his
mother, and displayed a new and delicate style which brought
him into notice, and procured him extensive employment at
Florence (from which city he hardly ever moved) and in other
parts of Italy. Dolci used his pencil chiefly in sacred subjects,

and bestowed much labour on his pictures. In his manner of
working he was remarkably slow. It is said that his brain was
affected by seeing Luca Giordano, in 1682, despatch more business
in four or five hours than he could have executed in as many
months, and that he hence fell into a state of hypochondria, which
compelled him to relinquish his art, and soon brought him to the
grave. His works are not very numerous. He generally painted
in a small size, although there are a few pictures by him as large
as life. He died in Florence in January 1686, leaving a daughter
(Agnese), who arrived at some degree of excellence in copying the
works of her father.

Carlo Dolci holds somewhat the same rank in the Florentine
that Sassoferrato does in the Roman school. Without the
possession of much genius, invention or elevation of type, both
these artists produced highly wrought pictures, extremely
attractive to some tastes. The works of Dolci are easily
distinguishable by the delicacy of the composition, and by an
agreeable tint of colour, improved by judicious management
of the chiaroscuro, which gives his figures a striking relief; he
affected the use of ultramarine, much loaded in tint. " His
pencil," says Pilkington, " was tender, his touch inexpressibly
neat, and his colouring transparent; though he has often been
censured for the excessive labour bestowed on his pictures, and
also for giving his carnations more of the appearance of ivory
than the look of flesh." All his best productions are of a devout
description; they frequently represent the patient suffering of
Christ or the sorrows of the Mater Dolorosa. Dolci was, in fact,
from early youth, exceedingly pious; it is said that during
passion week every year he painted a half-figure of the Saviour.
His sacred heads are marked with pathetic or at least strongly
sentimental emotion. There is a want of character in his pictures,
and his grouping lacks harmonious unison, but the general tone
accords with the idea of the passion portrayed. Among the best
works of this master are the " St Sebastian "; the " Four
Evangelists," at Florence; " Christ Breaking the Bread," in the
marquess of Exeter's collection at Burleigh; the " St Cecilia " in
Dresden; an " Adoration of the Magi "; and in especial " St
Andrew praying before his Crucifixion," in the Pitti gallery, his
most important composition, painted in 1646; also several
smaller pictures, which are highly valued, and occupy honourable
places in the richest galleries. (W. M. R.)

DOLDRUMS (a slang term, dol = dull; cf. tantrum), the
region of calms near the equator where the trade- winds die away,
a region of constant precipitation in which the weather is close,
hot, vaporous and extremely dispiriting. In the old days of
sailing vessels, a becalmed ship sometimes lay helpless for weeks.
A letter from this region saying " we are in the doldrums " (" in
the dumps ") seems to have been regarded as written from " The
Doldrums," which thus became the name of this undesirable
locality.

DOLE, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement
in the department of Jura, 29 m. S.E. of Dijon on the Paris-Lyon
railway. Pop. (1906) 11,166. It occupies the slope of a hill over-
looking the forest of Chaux, on the right bank of the Doubs, and
of the canal from the Rhone to the Rhine which accompanies that
river. The streets, which in general are steep and narrow,
contain many old houses recalling, in their architecture, the
Spanish occupation of the town. The principal buildings are the
church of Notre Dame, a Gothic structure of the i6th century;
the college, once a Jesuit establishment, which contains the
library and a museum of paintings and has a chapel of the
Renaissance period; the H6tel-Dieu and h6tel de ville, both 17th-
century buildings; and the law court occupying an old convent of
the Cordeliers. In the courtyard of the h6tel de ville there stands
an old tower dating from the isth century. The birth of Louis
Pasteur (1822) in the town is commemorated by a monument,
and there is also a monument to Jules GreVy. D61e is the seat of
a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce
and a communal college. Metal-founding and the manufacture
of fire-pumps, kitchen-ranges and other iron goods, chemical
products, machinery, leather, liqueurs and pastry, are among the
industries. There is a good trade in agricultural produce and

DOLE— DOLET

387

live stock, and in wood, iron, coal and the stone of the vicinity.
Wine is largely grown in the district.

D61e, the ancient Dola, was in Roman times the meeting place
of several roads, and considerable remains have been found there;
in the later middle ages and till 1648 it was the capital of Tranche
Comt6 and seat of a parlement and a university; but in the
year 1479 the town was taken by the forces of Louis XI., and
so completely sacked that only the house of Jean Vurry, as
it is still called, and two other buildings were left standing. It
subsequently came into the hands of Maximilian of Austria, and
in 1530 was fortified by Charles V. In 1668 and 1674 it was
captured by the French and lost its parlement and its university,
both of which were transferred by Louis XIV. to Besancon.

DOLE (from Old Eng. dal, cf. mod. " deal "), a portion, a
distribution of gifts, especially of food and money given in charity.
The derivation from 0. Fr. doel, Late Lat. dolium, " grief,"
suggested by the custom of funeral doles, is wrong. In early
Christian days, St Chrysostom says: " doles were used at funerals
to procure the rest of the soul of the deceased, that he might find
his judge propitious." The distribution of alms to the local poor
at funerals was a universal custom in the middle ages. The
amount of doles was usually stated in the will. Thus in 1399
Eleanor, duchess of Gloucester, ordered that fifteen poor men
should carry torches at her funeral, " each having a gown and
hood lined with white, breeches of blue cloth, shoes and a shirt,
and twenty pounds amongst them." Later doles usually took
the form of bequests of land or money, the interest or rent of
which was to be annually employed in charity. Often the
distribution took place at the grave of the donor. Thus one
William Robinson of Hull at his death in 1 708 left money to buy
annually a dozen loaves, costing a shilling each, to be given to
twelve poor widows at his grave every Christmas. Lenten doles
were also formerly common. A will of 1537 bade a barrel of
white herrings and a case of red herrings be given yearly to the
poor of Clavering, Essex, to help them tide over the fast. One or
two London doles are still distributed, e.g. that of St Peter's,
Walworth, where a Christmas dinner is each year served to 300
parish poor in the crypt. No one under sixty is eligible, and the
dinner is unique in that it is cooked in the church. A pilgrim's
dole of bread and ale can be claimed by all wayfarers at the
Hospital of St Cross, Winchester. This is said to have been
founded by William of Wykeham. Emerson, when visiting
Winchester, claimed and received the dole. What were known as
Scrambling Doles, so called because the meat and bread distributed
were thrown among the poor to be scrambled for, were not
uncommon in England. Such a dole existed at St Briavel's,
Gloucestershire, baskets of bread and cheese cut into small
squares being thrown by the churchwardens from the gallery into
the body of the church on Whit Sunday. At Wath near Ripon
a testator in 1810 ordered that forty penny loaves should be
thrown from the church leads at midnight on every Christmas eve.
The best known dole in the United States is the " Leake Dole of
Bread." John Leake, a millionaire dying in 1792, left £1000
to Trinity Church, New York, the income to be laid out in
wheaten loaves and distributed every Sabbath morning after
service. The dole still survives, though the day has been altered
to Saturday, each week sixty-seven loaves being given away.

DOLERITE (from Gr. SoXepos, deceptive), in petrology,
the name given by Haiiy to those basaltic rocks which are
comparatively coarse grained and nearly, if not quite, holo-
crystalline. As may be inferred from their highly crystalline
state they are very often intrusive, and occur as dikes and sills,
but many of them form lava flows. Their essential minerals are
those of basalt, viz. olivine, augite and plagioclase felspar, while
hornblende, ilmenite, apatite and biotite are their commonest
accessory ingredients. The chemical and microscopic features of
these minerals agree generally with those presented in the basalts,
and only their exceptional pecuh'arities need be mentioned here.
Many dolerites are porphyritic and carry phenocrysts of olivine,
augite and plagioclase felspar (or of one or more of these) . Others,
probably the majority, are non-porphyritic,and these are generally
coarser grained than the ground-mass of the former group, though

lacking their large conspicuous phenocrysts. The commonest
type of structure in dolerite is the ophitic, which results from
the felspar of the rock having crystallized before the augite; the
latter mineral forms shapeless masses in which the idiomorphic
felspars lie. The augite enclosing the felspars is well crystallized,
though its continuity is interrupted more or less completely by
the numerous crystals of felspar which it envelops, and in
polarized light the former often behaves as a single individual
over a considerable area, while the latter mineral consists of
independent crystals. This structure may be so coarse as to be
easily detected by the unaided eye, or so fine that it cannot be
seen except in microscopic sections. Some of the porphyritic
dolerites have ophitic ground-masses; in others this structure
is imperfect (subophitic) ; while in many the augite, like the
felspar, occurs as small and distinct individuals, which react
differently on polarized light, and have the outlines of more or
less perfectly shaped crystals. Ophitic structure is commonest
in olivine-dolerites, though the olivine takes no part in it.

The quartz-dolerites are an important group, hardly less
common than the olivine-dolerites. They contain a small amount
of quartz, and often micropegmatite, as the last element to
consolidate, filling up little angular interspaces between the
felspars and pyroxenes, which had previously crystallized. They
rarely contain olivine, but pleochroic hypersthene is by no means
rare in them (hypersthene-dolerites). Some contain larger in-
dividuals of pale green, rather pleochroic augite (the so-called
sahlite), and a little brown mica, and brownish-green hornblende
may also be present.

Allied to these are olivine-free dolerites with more or less of
interstitial glassy base (tholeites, &c.). In the rocks of this group
ophitic structure is typically absent, and the presence of an
interstitial finely crystalline or amorphous material gives rise to
the structure which is known as " intersertal." Transitions to
the porphyritic dolerites and basalts arise by increase in the
proportion of this ground-mass. The edges of dolerite sills and
dikes often contain much dark brown glass, and pass into
tachylytes, in which this material preponderates.

Another interesting group of doleritic rocks contains analcite.
They may be ophitic, though often they are not, and they usually
contain olivine, while their augite has distinctly purple shades,
and a feeble dichroism.

Their characteristic feature is the presence of a small amount of
analcite, which never shows crystalline outlines but fills up the
interspaces between the other minerals. Some writers held that
this mineral has resulted from the decomposition of nepheline;
others regard it as a primary mineral. Usually it can be clearly
shown to be secondary to some extent, but there is reason to
suppose that it is really a pneumatolytic deposit. These rocks
are known as teschenites, and have a wide distribution in
England, Scotland, on the continent and in America. Often they
are comparatively rich in brown hornblende. This last-named
mineral is not usually abundant in dolerites, but in a special
group, the proterobases, it to a large extent replaces the
customary augite. A few dolerites contain much brown mica
(mica-dolerites). Nepheline may appear in these rocks, as in the
basalts. Typical nepheline-dolerites are scarce, and consist of
idiomorphic augite, surrounded by nepheline. Examples are
known from the Tertiary volcanic districts of the Rhine.

Dolerites have a very wide distribution, as they are found
wherever basalts occur in any number. It is superfluous to cite
localities for them as they are among the commonest of igneous
rocks. They are much employed for road-mending apd for kerb-
stones, though their dark colour and the tendency they have to
weather with a dingy brown crust make them unsuitable for the
better classes of architectural work. (J. S. F.)

DOLET, ETIENNE (1509-1546), French scholar and printer,
was born at Orleans on the 3rd of August 1509. A doubtful
tradition makes him the illegitimate son of Francis I.; but it is
evident that he was at least connected with some family of rank
and wealth. From Orleans he was taken to Paris about 1521;
and after studying under Nicolas B6rauld, the teacher of Coligny,
he proceeded in 1526 to Padua. The death of his friend and

388

DOLGELLEY— DOLICHOCEPHALIC

master, Simon de Villanova, led him, in 1530, to accept the post
of secretary to Jean de Langeac, bishop of Limoges and French
ambassador to the republic of Venice; he contrived, however,
to attend the lectures of the Venetian scholar Battista Egnazio,
and found time to write Latin love poems to some Venetian
Elena. Returning to France soon afterwards he proceeded to
Toulouse to study law; but there he soon became involved in
the violent disputes between the different " nations " of the uni-
versity, was thrown into prison, and finally banished by a decree
of the parlement. In 1535 he entered the lists against Erasmus
in the famous Ciceronian controversy, by publishing through
Sebastien Gryphe (Gryphius) at Lyons a Dialogus de imitatione
Ciceroniana; and the following year saw the appearance of his
two folio volumes Commentariorum linguae Latinae. This work
was dedicated to Francis I., who gave him the privilege of print-
ing during ten years any works in Latin, Greek, Italian or
French, which were the product of his own pen or had received
his supervision; and accordingly, on his release from an imprison-
ment occasioned by his justifiable homicide of a painter named
Compaing, he began at Lyons his typographical and editorial
labours. That he was not altogether unaware of the dangers
to which he was exposed from the bigotry of the time is shown
not only by the tone of his mottoes — Preserve moi, Seigneur, des
calomnies des hommes, and Durior est spectatae virtutis quam
incognitae conditio — but also by the fact that he endeavoured first
of all to conciliate his opponents by publishing a Goto christianus,
or Christian moralist, in which he made profession of his creed.
The catholicity of his literary appreciation, in spite of his ultra-
Ciceronianism, was soon displayed by the works which proceeded
from his press — ancient and modern, sacred and secular, from the
New Testament in Latin to Rabelais in French. But before the
term of his privilege expired his labours were interrupted by his
enemies, who succeeded in imprisoning him (1542) on the charge
of atheism. From a first imprisonment of fifteen months Dolet
was released by the advocacy of Pierre Duchatel, bishop of Tulle;
from a second (1544) he escaped by his own ingenuity; but,
venturing back from Piedmont, whither he had fled in order
that he might print at Lyons the letters by which he appealed
for justice to the king of France, the queen of Navarre and the
parlement of Paris, he was again arrested, branded as a relapsed
atheist by the theological faculty of the Sorbonne, and on the 3rd
of August 1546 put to the torture, strangled and burned in the
Place Maubert. On his way thither he is said to have composed
the punning pentameter — Non dolet ipse Dolet, sed pia turba dolet.

Whether Dolet is to be classed with the representatives of
Protestantism or with the advocates of anti-Christian rationalism
has been frequently disputed; by the principal Protestants of
his own time he was not recognized, and by Calvin he is formally
condemned, along with Agrippa and his master Villanova, as
having uttered execrable blasphemies against the Son of God;
but, to judge by the religious character of a large number of the
books which he translated or published, such a condemnation is
altogether misplaced. His repeated advocacy of the reading of
the Scriptures in the vulgar tongue is especially noticeable. A
statue of Dolet was erected on the Place Maubert in 1889.

See J. F. Nee de la Rochelle, Vie d'&tienne Dolet (1779); Joseph
Boulmier, E. Dolet, so. vie, ses ceuvres, son martyre (1857) ; A. F. Didot,
Etssai iur la typographic (1852) and article in the Nouvelle]Biographie
generate; L. Michel. Dolet: sa statue, place Maubert: ses amis, ses
ennemis (1889); R. C. Christie, fctienne Dolet, the Martyr of the
Renaissance (2nd ed., 1889), containing a full bibliography of works
published by him as author or printer; O. Galtier, tLtienne Dolet
(Paris, 1908). The ptoces, or trial, of Dolet was published (1836) by
A. H. Taillandier from the registers of the parlement of Paris.

DOLGELLEY (Dolgellau, dale of hazels), a market town and
the county town of Merionethshire, North Wales, situated on the
streams Wnion and Aran at the north base of Cader Idris, on
the Cambrian and Great Western railways, 232 m. from London.
Pop. of urban district (1901) 2437. It consists of small squares
and narrow streets, with a free grammar school (1665), market
hall, assize hall, county gaol, &c. The . so-called parliament
house (1404) of Owen Glendower's members has been demolished.
There is some trade in coarse flannel and tweed. Glendower's

treaty with Charles of France (Owinus D.G. princeps Walliae. . .
Datum apitd Dolguelli . . . ) was dated here. The families of
county rank in the neighbourhood include those of Nannau,
Hengwrt (the famous Hengwrt Welsh MSS. are at Peniarth),
Caerynwch, Fronwnion, Bron-y-gadair, Brynygwin, Brynadda,
Abergwynnant, Garthangharad. The county family, Vaughan,
claims descent from Rodric Fawr, king of North Wales,
Glendower's kinsman and enemy lived at Nannau. Scott
(Marmion. vi. canto, note) refers to the demon oak at Nannau
in 1813. Among neighbouring hills are Moel OSrwm (or
Orthrwm — of sacrifice or of oppression) and Moel Cynwch.

DOLGORUKI, VASILY LUKICH, COUNT (1672-1739), Russian
diplomatist and minister, was one of the first batch of young
Russians whom Peter the Great sent abroad to be educated.
From 1687 to 1700 he resided at Paris, where he learned
thoroughly the principal European languages, acquired the
superficial elegance of the court of Versailles, and associated with
the Jesuits, whose moral system he is said to have appropriated.
On his return home he entered the diplomatic service. From
1706 to 1707 he represented Russia in Poland; and from 1707
to 1720 he was her minister at Copenhagen, where he succeeded
in persuading King Frederick IV. to join the second coalition
against Charles XII. At the end of 1720 he was transferred to
Versailles, in order to seek the mediation of France in the pro-
jected negotiations with Sweden and obtain the recognition of
Peter's imperial title by the French court. In 1 724 he represented
Russia at Warsaw and in 1726 at Stockholm, the object of the
latter mission being to detach Sweden from the Hanoverian
alliance, in which he did not succeed. During the reign of
Peter II. (1727-1730) Dolgoruki was appointed a member of
the supreme privy council, and after procuring the banishment of
Menshikov he appropriated the person of the young emperor,
whom he would have forced to marry his niece Catherine but for
Peter's untimely death. He then drew up a letter purporting to
be the last will of the emperor, appointing Catherine Dolgoruki
his successor, but shortly afterwards abandoned the nefarious
scheme as impracticable, and was one of the first to support the
election of Anne of Courland to the throne on condition that she
first signed nine " articles of limitation," which left the supreme
power in the hands of the Russian council. Anne, who repudiated
the " articles " on the first opportunity, never forgave Dolgoruki
for this. He was deprived of all his offices and dignities on the
1 7th of April 1730, and banished first to his country seat and
then to the Solovetsky monastery. Nine years later the charge of
forging the will of Peter II. was revived against him, and he was
tortured and then beheaded at Novgorod on the 8th of November

1739-

See Robert Nisbet Bain, The Pupils of Peter the Great (London,
1895). (R. N. B.)

DOLHAIN, the most eastern town of Belgium, situated on the
Vesdre, N. E. of Verviers and close to the Prussian frontier. Pop.
(1904) 4757. It is quite a modern town, occupying the site of the
lower town of the ancient city of Limburg, which was destroyed
by Louis XIV. in 1675. On a rocky eminence above Dolhain
are still to be seen the fine ruins of the old castle of Limburg, the
cradle of the ancient family of that name from which sprang
the Luxemburg family and several emperors of Germany. The
Gothic church of St George of the i3th century has been restored.
At a short distance from Dolhain is the famous dam of the Gileppe,
the vast reservoir constructed to supply Verviers with water free
from lime for its cloth manufactures. The aqueduct from Gileppe
to Verviers is nearly 5^ m. in length.

DOLICHOCEPHALIC (long-headed), a term invented by
Andreas Retzius to denote (as opposed to " brachycephalic ")
those skulls the diameter of which from side to side, or the
transverse diameter, is small in comparison with the longitudinal
diameter or that from front to back. Retzius, though inventing
the term, did not define it precisely. Paul Broca applied it to
skulls having a cephalic index of seventy-five and under, and this
limit is generally adopted. Dolichocephaly, according to Retzius,
was the distinctive cranial feature of the earliest inhabitants
of Europe. To-day it is characteristic of the negro races, of the

DOLL— DOLLAR

389

Papuans, the Polynesians and the Australians, though among the
negritos and some of the pigmy races of Africa brachycephalic
skulls are the rule. Of the yellow races the Eskimo is the most
dolichocephalic. Of white races the Arabs and Kabyles of
Algeria, and the Guanchos of the Canary Islands, are most
notable for dolichocephalic tendency. Dolichocephaly is some-
times frontal, as among adult whites, sometimes occipital or
confined to the back of the head, as among inferior negro-races,
Australians, Papuans and newly-born whites.

DOLL, a child's plaything in the shape of a human figure or
taken as representing one. The word " doll " was not in common
use in the middle ages, " children's babies " and other terms being
substituted for it; the commonly accepted view is that it is
abbreviated from the name Dorothy (cf. Scottish "Doroty").
" Idol " has also been connected with it; but the accent is held to
tell against this. Another derivation is from Norse da-ul (woman) ,
with which may be compared O.H.G. toccha, M.H.G. docke, a girl,
doll, used also in the sense of butterfly, nightmare, &c., thus
connecting the doll with magic and superstition. The same
connexion is found in Asia Minor, South India, among the Pueblo
peoples and in South Africa; philology apart, therefore, the
derivation from " idol " has much to recommend it, and some
side influence from this word may well have caused the selection
of the form " doll." Dolls proper should be distinguished from
(a) idols, (6) magical figurines, (c) votive offerings, (d) costume
figures. The festival figures of Japan, like the bambino of Italy,
given to the child only on certain saints' days, hardly come
within the category of dolls.

Dolls were known in ancient Egypt(XVIIIthDynasty)and Asia
Minor; they were common both in Greece and Rome; Persius
mentions that girls vowed them to Venus when they got married;
dolls found in the catacombs are preserved in the Vatican and
the Museum Carpegna. The vtvp6o-!raffTOi> (Lat. crepundia) of
Greek finds of the 6th and later centuries B.C. was a marionette.
Dolls were in use among the Arabs at the time of Mahomet, and
the prophet's nine-year-old wife Ayesha is said to have induced
him to join her in her play with them. Although Mahommedan-
ism prohibits the making of figures in human shape, dolls do not
seem to have disappeared from Mahommedan countries, though
substitutes for them are perhaps more common there than
elsewhere.

Dolls are extremely common in Africa. There seem to be
forms peculiar to different regions, such as the flat, spade-shaped
figure on the Gold Coast. Among the Wasaramo the girls carry
from the age of puberty till the birth of their first child an object
indistinguishable from the ordinary doll; it is called mwana ya
kiti (stool-child) because it is placed on a stool at home; it
probably has a magical significance. The same may be said of
the Australian figurines; others, made of cane, are undoubtedly
children's dolls; excellently moulded wax figures are also found.
In Asia dolls properly so-called are apparently rare; but there are
specimens in museums from the Malay peninsula, Persia and
South India, and in Asia Minor children use cushions, &c., as
surrogates. They are found in Alaska among the Eskimo. Most
Red Indian tribes had them; a mother who has lost her child
carries its dolls and other playthings. Cortes is said to have found
Montezuma and his court playing with elaborate dolls; they
have been dug up from prehistoric Peruvian graves. In the Gran
Chaco metacarpal bones of the rhea are in use, wrapped in a
blanket when they represent male, in a petticoat when they
are female.

But little attention has been paid to the psychological side
of dolls. Though many boys play with them, dolls are mainly
confined to girls; and female dolls predominate in the proportion
of twelve to one. The culmination of the doll instinct is between
the age of eight and nine; but they are not entirely dropped till
much later; in fact unmarried and childless women sometimes
keep it up for years. In children it is said by Hall to be by no
means always a manifestation of the maternal instinct; for dolls
are not always regarded as children, and the proportion of adults
increases with the age of the children. But the important point
is whether the child regarded itself as older or younger than the

doll. There is, on the other hand, a tendency to neglect dolls for
babies and a reverse current of love of dolls which arises out of
love of babies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For a list of works see A. MacDonald, Man and
Abnormal Man (U. S. Senate Document, 1905), vol. ix. No. 187,
p. 275); see also Andree, Ethnogiaphische Parallelen N. F. ;
Schlegel, Indische iBibliothek. i. 139; Brandenburgia, xi. 28;
Delineator, Iviii. 927; Globus, Ixxv. 354, Ixxx. 205; Internal.
Archiv f. Ethnog. vii. 45; Ladies' Home Journ. xvi. ; Weslermann's
Monalshefte (Feb. 1899, &c.) ; Man (1903, No. 22). For the psycho-
logical side see Paedagogical Seminary, iv. 129, discussed in Con-
temporary Rev. Ixxv. 58; Mrs F. H. Burnett, "The One I know
best of all "; Sully, Studies of Childhood; G. Sand, Histoire de ma
vie. (N. W. T.)

DOLLAR, a town of Clackmannanshire, Scotland, 6 m. N.E. of
Alloa by the North British railway, not far from the Devon.
Pop. (1901) 1619. The village, which is beautifully situated,
contains several handsome stone villas occupied by families
attracted to the town by its educational facilities. The academy,
housed in a fine mass of buildings of the Grecian order (opened
about 1819), was founded by Captain John McNab (1732-1802), a
native who began life as a herdboy, and afterwards became a rich
shipowner. From the burn of Dollar (or Dolour), which runs
through the ravine of Dollar Glen, the town draws its water-
supply. On an isolated hill above the junction of the parent
streams, named Sorrow and Care, stands the ruin of Castle
Campbell, known also as Gloom Castle, an old stronghold of the
Argyll family. The castle was burned by the Macleans in 1644,
in the interest of the marquess of Montrose, and not again
restored. Although a ruin it is carefully preserved. The Rev. Dr
James Aitken Wylie (1808-1890), the historian of Protestantism,
was a minister in Dollar for several years. Patrick Gibson, the
etcher and landscape-painter, was drawing-master at the academy
from 1824 to 1829, and William Tennant, the author of Anster
Fair, was a teacher of classics from 1819 till 1834, when he was
appointed to the chair of Hebrew in St Andrews University.
Harviestoun Castle, about midway between Dollar and
Tillicoultry, once belonged to the Tait family, and here Archibald
Campbell Tait, archbishop of Canterbury, spent some of his
boyhood.

DOLLAR, a silver coin at one time current in many European
countries, and adopted under varying forms of the name else-
where. The word " dollar " is a modified form of thaler, which,
with the variant forms (daler, dalar, daalder, tallero, &c.), is said
to be a shortened form of Joachimsthaler. This Joachimsthaler
was the name given to a coin intended to be the silver equivalent
of the gold gulden, a coin current in Germany from the i4th
century. In 1516 a rich silver mine was discovered in
Joachimsthal (Joachim's dale), a mining district of Bohemia, and
the count of Schlitz, by whom it was appropriated, caused a
great number of silver coins to be struck (the first having the date
1518), bearing an effigy of St Joachim, hence the name. The
Joachimsthaler was also sometimes known as the Schlickenthaler.
The first use of the word dollar in English was as applied to this
silver coin, the thaler, which was current in Germany at various
values from the i6th century onwards, as well as, more particu-
larly, to the unit of the German monetary union from 1857 to
1873, when the mark was substituted for the thaler. The Spanish
piece-of-eight (reals) was also commonly referred to as a dollar.
When the Bank of England suspended cash payments in 1797,
and the scarcity of coin was very great, a large number of these
Spanish coins, which were held by the bank, were put into
circulation, after having been countermarked at the Mint with
a small oval bust of George III., such as was used by the Gold-
smiths' Company for marking plate. Others were simply over-
stamped with the initials G.R. enclosed in a shield. In 1804
the Maundy penny head set in an octagonal compartment was
employed. Several millions of these coins were issued. These
Spanish pieces-of-eight were also current in the Spanish-American
colonies, and were very largely used in the British North American
colonies. As the reckoning was by pounds, shillings and pence
in the British- American colonies, great inconveniences naturally
arose, but these were to some extent lessened by the adoption of a
tariff list, by which the various gold and silver coins circulating

390

DOLLING— DOLLINGER

were rated. In 1787 the dollar was introduced as the unit in
the United States, and it has remained as the standard of value
either in silver or gold in that country. For the history of the
various changes in the weights and value of the coin see
NUMISMATICS. The Spanish piece-of-eight was also the ancestor
of the Mexican dollar, the Newfoundland dollar, the British
dollar circulating in Hong Kong and the Straits Settlements, and
the dollar of the South American republics, although many of
them are now dollars only in name.

DOLLING, ROBERT WILLIAM RADCLYFFE (1851-1902),
English divine, known as Father Dolling, was born at Magheralin,
Co. Down, and educated at Harrow and Cambridge. From 1878
to 1882 he was warden of one of the houses of the Postmen's
League, started by Father Stanton of St Alban's, Holborn. He
was ordained in 1 883 to a curacy at Corscombe, Dorset, but resided
in London as head of St Martin's mission, Stepney. In 1885 a
difficulty as to the relation of his mission to Holy Trinity parish,
Stepney, led to his resignation, and he next accepted the charge
of St Agatha's, Landport, the Winchester College mission. The
remarkable reforms he accomplished there may be ascertained
from his Ten years in a Portsmouth slum (London 1896). In 1885
he again resigned, owing to the bishop of Winchester's refusal to
sanction the extreme ritual used in the service at St Agatha's.
In 1897 he visited America, where his preaching made a great im-
pression. He returned to England in the following year as vicar
of St Saviour's, Poplar, and retained that living until his death.

An account of Polling's person and missi'onary work among the
poor is given in The Life of Father Dolling (London, 1903), by the
Rev. C. E. Osborne.

DOLLINGER, JOHANN JOSEPH IGNAZ VON (1799-1890),
German theologian and church historian, was born at Bamberg,
Bavaria, on the 28th of February 1799. He came of an in-
tellectual stock, his grandfather and father having both been
physicians of eminence and professors of one or other of the
branches of medical science; his mother too belonged to a family
not undistinguished in intellectual power. Young Dollinger was
first educated in the gymnasium at Wiirzburg, and then began to
study natural philosophy at the university in that city, where his
father now held a professorship. In 1817 he began the study of
mental philosophy and philology, and in 1818 turned to the study
of theology, which he believed to lie beneath every other science.
He particularly devoted himself to an independent study of
ecclesiastical history, a subject very indifferently taught in
Roman Catholic Germany at that time. In 1820 he became
acquainted with Victor Aime Huber (1800-1869), a fact which
largely influenced his life. On the sth of April 1822 he was
ordained priest, after studying at Bamberg, and in 1 823 he became
professor of ecclesiastical history and canon law in the lyceum
at Aschaffenburg. He then took his doctor's degree, and in
1826 became professor of theology at Munich, where he spent the
rest of his life. About this time Dollinger brought upon himself
the animadversion of Heine, who was then editor of a Munich
paper. The unsparing satirist described the professor's face as
the " gloomiest " in the whole procession of ecclesiastics which
took place on Good Friday.

It has been stated that in his earlier years Dollinger was a
pronounced Ultramontane. This does not appear to have been
altogether the case; for, very early in his professorial career
at Munich, the Jesuits attacked his teaching of ecclesiastical
history, and the celebrated J. A, Mohler (q.v.) who afterwards
became his friend, on being appealed to, pronounced on the whole
in his favour. He also entered into relations with the well-known
French Liberal Catholic Lamennais, whose views on the reconcilia-
tion of the Roman Catholic Church with the principles of modern
society had aroused much suspicion in Ultramontane circles. In
1832 Lamennais, with his friends Lacordaire and Montalembert,
visited Germany, and obtained considerable sympathy in their
attempts to bring about a modification of the Roman Catholic
attitude to modern problems. Dollinger seems to have regarded
favourably the removal, by the Bavarian government, in 1841,
of Professor Kaiser from his chair, because he had taught the
infallibility of the pope. On the other hand, he published a

treatise in 1838 against mixed marriages, and in 1843 wrote
strongly in favour of requiring Protestant soldiers to kneel at
the consecration of the Host when compelled officially to be
present at Mass. Moreover, in his works on The Reformation
(3 vols. Regensburg, 1846-1848) and on Luther (1851, Eng, tr.,
1853) he is very severe on the Protestant leaders, and he also
accepts, in his earlier works, the Ultramontane view then current
on the practical condition of the Church of England, a view which
in later days he found reason to change. Meanwhile he had
visited England, where he was well received; and he afterwards
travelled in Holland, Belgium and France, acquainting himself
with the condition and prospects of the Roman Catholic Church.
In 1842 he entered into correspondence with the leaders of the
Tractarian movement in England, and some interesting letters
have been preserved which were exchanged between him and
Pusey, Gladstone and Hope Scott. When the last-named joined
the Church of Rome he was warmly congratulated by Dollinger on
the step he had taken. He, however, much regretted the gradual
and very natural trend of his new English allies towards extreme
Ultramontane views, of which Archdeacon, afterwards Cardinal.
Manning ultimately became an enthusiastic advocate. In 1845
Dollinger was made representative of his university in the second
chamber of the Bavarian legislature. In 1847, in consequence of
the fall from power of the Abel ministry in Bavaria, with which he
had been in close relations, he was removed from his professorship
at Munich, but in 1849 he was invited to occupy the chair of
ecclesiastical history. In 1848, when nearly every throne in
Europe was shaken by the spread of revolutionary sentiments,
he was elected delegate to the national German assembly at
Frankfort, — a sufficient proof that at this time he was regarded as
no mere narrow and technical theologian, but as a man of wide
and independent views.

It has been said that his change of relations to the Papacy dated
from the Italian war in 1859, but no sufficient reason has
been given for this statement. It is more probable that, like
Grosseteste, he had imbibed in early youth an enthusiastic
sentiment of attachment to the Papacy as the only centre of
authority, and the only guarantee for public order in the Church,
but that his experience of the actual working of the papal
system (and especially a visit to Rome in 1857) had to a certain
extent convinced him how little correspondence there was between
his ideal and the reality. He may also have been unfavourably
impressed with the promulgation by Pius IX. in 1854 of the dogma
of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin. But what-
ever may have been his reasons, he ultimately became the leader
of those who were energetically opposed to any addition to, or
more stringent definition of, the powers which the Papacy had
possessed for centuries. In some speeches delivered at Munich in
1 86 1 he outspokenly declared his view that the maintenance of
the Roman Catholic Church did not depend on the temporal
sovereignty of the pope. His book on The Church and the
Churches (Munich, 1861) dealt to a certain extent with the same
question. In 1863 he invited 100 theologians to meet at Malines
and discuss the question which Lamennais and Lacordaire had
prematurely raised in France, namely, the attitude that should
be assumed by the Roman Catholic Church towards modern ideas.
His address to the assembled divines was " practically a declara-
tion of war against the Ultramontane party." He had spoken
boldly in favour of freedom for the Church in the Frankfort
national assembly in 1848, but he had found the authorities of his
Church claiming a freedom of a very different kind from that for
which he had contended. The freedom he claimed for the Church
was freedom to manage her affairs without the interference of
the state; the champions of the papal monarchy, and notably
the Jesuits, desired freedom in order to put a stop to the dis-
semination of modern ideas. The addresses delivered in the
Catholic congress at Malines were a declaration in the direction
of a Liberal solution of the problem of the relations of Church
and State. The pope for a moment seemed to hesitate, but
there could be little doubt what course he would ultimately
pursue, and after four days' debate the assembly was closed at
his command. On the Sth of December 1864 Pius IX. issued

DOLLINGER

391

the famous Syllabus, in which he declared war against modern
science and progress (see SYLLABUS). It was in connexion with
this question that Bellinger published his Past and Present of
Catholic Theology (1863) and his Universities Past and Present
(Munich, 1867).

We now approach the critical period of Bellinger's life. It was
about this time that some of the leading theologians of the Roman
Catholic Church, conceiving that the best way of meeting present
perils was to emphasize, as well as to define more clearly, the
authority of the pope, advised him to make his personal infalli-
bility a dogma of the Church, and urged strenuously on him
the necessity of calling a council for that purpose. There was
considerable opposition in various quarters. Many bishops and
divines considered the proposed definition a false one. Others,
though accepting it as the truth, declared its promulgation to
be inopportune. But the headquarters of the opposition was
Germany, and its leader was Bellinger, whose high reputation and
vast stores of learning placed him far above any other member of
the band of the theological experts who now gathered around him.
Among them were his intimate friends Johann Friedrich (q.v.)
and J. N. Huber, in Bavaria. In the rest of Germany he found
many supporters, chiefly professors in the Catholic faculty of
theology at Bonn: among these were the famous canonist von
Schulte, Franz Heinrich Reusch, the ecclesiastical historian
Joseph Langen, as well as J.H. Reinkens, afterwards bishop of the
Old Catholic Church in Germany, Knoodt, and other distinguished
scholars. In Switzerland, Professor Edward Herzog, who became
Old (or, as it is sometimes called, Christ-) Catholic bishop in
Switzerland, and other learned men supported the movement.
Early in 1869 the famous Letters of Janus (which were at once
translated into English; 2nd ed. Das Papsttum, 1891) began to
appear. They were written by Bellinger in conjunction with
Huber and Friedrich, afterwards professor at Munich. In these
the tendency of the Syllabus towards obscurantism and papal
despotism, and its incompatibility with modern thought, were
clearly pointed out ; and the evidence against papal infallibility,
resting, as the Letters asserted, on the False Becretals, and
accepted without controversy in an age of ignorance, was ably
marshalled for the guidance of the council. When, on the 8th of
Becember 1869, it had actually assembled, the world was kept
informed of what was going on in the Letters of Quirinus, written
by Bellinger and Huber while the debates of the council were
proceeding. Some of these letters appeared in the German
newspapers, and an English translation was published by
Rivington. Augustin Theiner, the librarian at the Vatican, then
in disgrace with the pope for his outspoken Liberalism, kept his
German friends well informed of the course of the discussions.
The proceedings of the council were frequently very stormy, and
the opponents of the dogma of infallibility complained that they
were not unfrequently interrupted, and that endeavours were
made to put them down by clamour. The dogma was at length
carried by an overwhelming majority, and the dissentient bishops,
who — with the exception of two — had left the council before the
final division, one by one submitted (see VATICAN COUNCIL).
Bollinger, however, was not to be silenced. He headed a protest
by forty-four professors in the university of Munich, and gathered
together a congress at Nuremberg, which met in August 1870 and
issued a declaration adverse to theVatican decrees. An immense
ferment took place. In Bavaria, where Bellinger's influence was
greatest, the strongest determination to resist the resolutions of
the council prevailed. But the authority of the council was held
by the archbishop of Munich to be paramount, and he called upon
Bollinger to submit. Instead of submitting, Bollinger, on the
28th of March 1871, addressed a memorable letter to the arch-
bishop, refusing to subscribe the decrees. They were, he said,
opposed to Holy Scripture, to the traditions of the Church for
the first 1000 years, to historical evidence, to the decrees of the
general councils, and to the existing relations of the Roman
Catholic Church to the state in every country in the world. " As
a Christian, as a theologian, as an historian, and as a citizen," he
added, " I cannot accept this doctrine."

The archbishop replied by excommunicating the disobedient

professor. This aroused fresh opposition. Bollinger was almost
unanimously elected rector-magnificus of the university of
Munich, and Oxford, Edinburgh and Marburg universities
conferred upon him the honorary degree of doctor of laws and
Vienna that of philosophy. The Bavarian clergy invited Bishop
Loos of the Jansenist Church in Holland, which for more than 150
years had existed independent of the Papacy and had adopted
the name of " Old Catholic," to hold confirmations in Bavaria.
The offer was accepted, and the bishop was received with
triumphal arches and other demonstrations of joy. The three
Butch Old Catholic bishops declared themselves ready to con-
secrate a bishop, if it were desired. The momentous question was
discussed at a meeting of the opponents of the Vatican decrees,
and it was resolved to elect a bishop and ask the Butch bishops to
consecrate him. Bollinger, however, voted against the proposi-
tion, and withdrew from any further steps towards the promotion
of the movement. This was the critical moment in the history of
the resistance to the decrees. Had Bollinger, with his immense
reputation as a scholar, as a divine and as a man, allowed himself
to be consecrated bishop of the Old Catholic Church, it is
impossible to say how wide the schism would have been. But
he declined to initiate a schism. His refusal lost Bavaria to the
movement; and the number of Bavarian sympathizers was still
further reduced when the seceders, in 1878, allowed their priests
to marry, a decision which Bollinger, as was known, sincerely
regretted. The Old Catholic Communion, however, was formally
constituted, with Reinkens at its head as bishop, and it still
continues to exist (see OLD CATHOLICS).

Bellinger's attitude to the new community was not very
clearly defined. It may be difficult to reconcile the two declara-
tions made by him at different times: " I do not wish to join a
schismatic society; I am isolated," and " As for myself, I
consider that I belong by conviction to the Old Catholic com-
munity." The latter declaration was made some years after the
former, in a letter to Pastor Widmann. The nearest approach to
a reconciliation of the two statements would appear to be that
while, at his advanced age, he did not wish to assume the
responsibility of being head of a new denomination, formed
in circumstances of exceptional difficulty, he was unwilling to
condemn those who were ready to hazard the new departure.
" By conviction " he belonged to the Old Catholics, but he never
formally joined them. Yet at least he was ready to meet their
leaders, to address them, and to discuss difficult problems with
them. His addresses on the reunion of the Churches, delivered
at the Bonn Conference of 1872, show that he was by no means
hostile to the newly formed communion, in whose interests these
conferences were held. In 1874 and again in 1875, he presided
over the Reunion Conferences held at Bonn and attended by
leading ecclesiastics from the British Isles and from the Oriental
Church, among whom were Bishop Christopher Wordsworth of
Lincoln; Bishop Harold Browne of Ely; Lord Plunket, arch-
bishop of Bublin; Lycurgus, archbishop of Syros and Tenos;
Canon Liddon; and Professor Ossinine of St Petersburg. At the
latter of these two conferences, when Bollinger was seventy-
six years of age, he delivered a series of marvellous addresses in
German and English, in which he discussed the state of theology
on the continent, the reunion question, and the religious condition
of the various countries of Europe in which the Roman Catholic
Church held sway. Not the least of his achievements on this
occasion was the successful attempt, made with extraordinary
tact, ability, knowledge and perseverance, to induce the Orientals,
Anglicans and Old Catholics present to accept a formula of con-
cord, drawn from the writings of the leading theologians of the
Greek Church, on the long-vexed question of the Procession of the
Holy Spirit. This result having been attained, he passed the rest
of his days in retirement, emerging sometimes from his retreat
to give addresses on theological questions, and also writing, in
conjunction with his friend Reusch, his last book, Geschichte
der Moralstreitigkeiten in der romisch-katholischen Kirche seit
dem sechzehnten Jahrhundert mil Beitrdgen zur Geschichte und
Charakteristik des Jesuitenordens (Nordlingen, 1889), in which he
deals with the moral theology of St Alfonso de' Liguori. He died

392

DOLLOND— DOLOMIEU

in Munich, on the I4th of January 1890, at the age of ninety-one.
Even in articulo mortis he refused to receive the sacraments
from the parish priest at the cost of submission, but the last
offices were performed by his friend Professor Friedrich.

In addition to the works referred to in the foregoing sketch, we may
mention The Eucharist in the First Three Centuries (Mainz, 1826) ; a
Church History (1836, Eng. trans. 1840); Hifpolytus and Callistus
(1854, Eng. trans., 1876); First Age of Christianity (1860); Lectures
en the Reunion of the Churches; The Vatican Decrees; Studies in
European History (tr. M. Warre, 1890) ; Miscellaneous Addresses
(tr. M. Warre, 1894).

See Life by J. Friedrich (3 vols. 1899-1901); obituary notice in
The Times, nth January 1890; L. von Kobell, Conversations of
Dr DoUinger (tr. by K. Gould, 1892). (J. J. L.*)

DOLLOND, JOHN (1706-1761), English optician, was the son
of a Huguenot refugee, a silk-weaver at Spitalfields; London,
where he was born on the loth of June 1706. He followed his
father's trade, but found time to acquire a knowledge of Latin,
Greek, mathematics, physics, anatomy and other subjects. In
1752 he abandoned silk- weaving and joined his eldest son, Peter
Dollond (1730-1820), who in 1750 had started in business as a
maker of optical instruments. His reputation grew rapidly,
and hi 1761 he was appointed optician to the king. In 1738 he
published an " Account of some experiments concerning the
different refrangibility of light " (Phil. Trans., 1758), describing
the experiments that led him to the achievement with which his
name is specially associated, the discovery of a means of construct-
ing achromatic lenses by the combination of crown and flint
glasses. Leonhard Euler in 1 747 had suggested that achromatism
might be obtained by the combination of glass and water lenses.
Relying on statements made by Sir Isaac Newton, Dollond
disputed this possibility (Phil. Trans., 1753), but subsequently,
after the Swedish physicist, Samuel Klingenstjerna (1698-1765),
had pointed out that Newton's law of dispersion did not harmonize
with certain observed facts, he began experiments to settle the
question. Early in 1757 he succeeded in producing refraction
without colour by the aid of glass and water lenses, and a few
months later he made a successful attempt to get the same result
by a combination of glasses of different qualities (see TELESCOPE) .
For this achievement the Royal Society awarded him the Copley
medal in 1758, and three years later elected him one of its fellows.
Dollond also published two papers on apparatus for measuring
small angles (Phil. Trans., 1753, 1754). He died in London, of
apoplexy, on the 3Oth of November 1761.

An account of his life, privately printed, was written by the Rev.
John Kelly (1750-1809), the Manx scholar, who married one of his
granddaughters.

DOLMAN (from Turk, dolaman), originally a long and loose
garment left unfastened in front, and with narrow sleeves. It is
worn generally by the Turks, and is not unlike a cassock in shape.
The name was given to the uniform jacket, worn by hussars, and
slung from the shoulders with the sleeves hanging loose; and it is
also used for a similar garment worn by ladies, with wide cape-
like arrangements instead of sleeves.

DOLNJA TUZLA, or DONJI Sou, the capital of the Dolnja
Tuzla district, in Bosnia, beautifully situated on the Jala or Julia,
a small stream flowing into the Spreia, which joins the Bosna
at Doboj, 39 m. W.N.W.; and on a branch railway from Doboj.
Pop. (1895) 10,227; almost all, including a permanent colony
of gipsies, being Moslems. Dolnja Tuzla is the seat of a district
court and an Orthodox bishop; with several churches, many
mosques, a hospital, gymnasium and commercial school. Besides
large alkali works, it has a vigorous trade in grain, livestock,
timber and coal, from the surrounding hills, where there is a colony
of Hungarian miners; while the salt springs, owned by the state
both at Dolnja, or Lower, and Gornja, or Upper Tuzla, 6 m. E.,
are without a rival in the Balkan Peninsula.

Dolnja Tuzla was called by the Romans Ad Salinas.
Constantine Porphyrogenitus mentions it, in the loth century, as
Salenes; in other medieval documents it appears as Sou, Sow or
Soli. Its modern name is derived from the Turkish tuz, " salt."
In 1690 the Austrians routed the Turks at Gornja Tuzla, and
removed the Franciscan friars, with about 3000 other Roman
Catholics, into Slavonia.

DOLOMIEU, DEODAT GUY SILVAIN TANCREDE GRATET

DE (1750-1801), French geologist and mineralogist, was born at
Dolomieu, near Tour-du-Pin,in the department of Isere in France,
on the 24th of June 1 7 50. He was admitted in his infancy a mem-
ber of the Order of Malta. In his nineteenth year he quarrelled
with a knight of the galley on which he was serving, and in the
duel that ensued killed him. He was condemned to death for his
crime, but in consideration of his youth the grand master granted
him a pardon, which, at the instance of Cardinal Torrigiani, was
confirmed by Pope Clement XIII., and after nine months'
imprisonment he was set at liberty. Throughout that period he
had solaced himself with the study of the physical sciences, and
during his subsequent residence at Metz he continued to devote
himself to them. In 1775 he published his Recherches sur la
pesanteur des corps a differences distances du centre de la terre,
and two Italian translations of mineralogical treatises by A. F.
Cronstedt (1702-1765) and T. O. Bergman (1735-1784). These
works gained for him the honour of election as a corresponding
member of the Academic des Sciences at Paris. To obtain leisure
to follow his favourite pursuits Dolomieu now threw up the
commission which, since the age of fifteen, he had held in the
carabineers, and in 1777 he accompanied the bailli (afterwards
Cardinal L. R. E.) de Rohan to Portugal. In the following year
he visited Spain, and in 1780 and 1781 Sicily and the adjacent
islands. Two months of the year 1782 were spent in examining
the geological structure of the Pyrenees, and in 1783 the earth-
quake of Calabria induced him to go to Italy. The scientific
results of these excursions are given in his Voyage aux ties de
Lipari (1783); Memoire sur le tremblement de terre de la Calabre
(1784); Memoire sur les ties Ponces, et catalogue raisonni des
produits de I' Etna (1788) and other works. In 1789 and 1790 he
busied himself with an examination of the Alps, his observations
on which form the subject of numerous memoirs published in the
Journal de physique. The mineral dolomite, which was named
after him, was described by Dolomieu in 1791. He returned
to France in that year, bringing with him rich collections of
minerals. On the i4th of September 1792 the due de la Roche-
foucauld, with whom he had been for twenty years on terms of
the closest intimacy, was assassinated at Forges, and Dolomieu
retired with the widow and daughter of the duke to their estate of
Roche Guyon, where he wrote several important scientific papers.
The events of^the 9th Thermidor (July 27, 1794) having restored
the country to some tranquillity, Dolomieu recommenced his
geological tours, and visited various parts of France with which
he had been previously unacquainted. He was in 1 796 appointed
engineer and ptofessor at the school of mines, and was chosen a
member of the Institute at the time of its formation. At the end
of 1797 he joined the scientific staff which in 1798 accompanied
Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt. He had proceeded up the Nile
as far asCairo when ill-health made his return toEurope necessary,
and on the 7th of March 1799 he set sail from Alexandria. His
ship proving unseaworthy put into Taranto, and as Naples was
then at war with France, all the French passengers were made
prisoners. On the 2 2nd of May they were carried by ship to Mes-
sina, whence, with the exception of Dolomieu, they embarked
for the coast of France. Dolomieu had been an object of the
hatred of the Neapolitan court since 1783, when he revealed to
the grand master of his order its designs against Malta, and the
calumnies of his enemies on that island served now as a pretext for
his detention. He was confined in a pestilential dungeon, where,
clothed in rags, and having nothing but a little straw for a bed, he
languished during twenty-one months. Dolomieu, however, did
not abandon himself to despair. Deprived of writing materials,
he made a piece of wood his pen, and with the smoke of his lamp
for ink he wrote upon the margins of a Bible, the only book he
still possessed, his treatise Sur la philosophic mintralogique et sur
I'espece minerale (1801). Friends entreated, but in vain, for his
liberty; it was with difficulty that they succeeded in furnishing
him with a little assistance, and it was only by virtue of a special
clause in the treaty between France and Naoles that, on the isth
of March 1801, he was released. On his arrival in France he
commenced the duties of the chair of mineralogy at the museum

DOLOMITE

393

of natural history, to which, after the death of Daubenton,
he had been elected in January 1800. His course of lectures
concluded, he revisited Switzerland. Returning thence he reached
the residence of his brother-in-law at Chateau-Neuf, in the
department of Sa6ne-et-Loire, where he was seized with a fever,
to which in a few days he succumbed, on the 26th of November
1801.

Dolomieu's geological theories are remarkable for originality
and boldness of conception. The materials constituting the
primordial globe he held to have arranged themselves according
to their specific gravities, so as to have constituted a fluid central
sphere, a solid crust external to this, next a stratum of water,
and lastly the atmosphere. Where water penetrated through the
crust, solidification took place in the underlying fluid mass, which
enlarging in consequence produced rifts in the superincumbent
rocks. Water rushing down through the rifts became decom-
posed, and the resulting effervescence occasioned submarine
volcanoes. The crust of the earth he believed to be continually
increasing in thickness, owing to the deposition of aqueous rocks,
and to the gradual solidification of the molten interior, so that
the volcanic eruptions and other geological phenomena of former
must have been of far greater magnitude and frequency than
those of recent times.

See Lac£p£de, " filoge historique de Dolomieu," in Memoires de la
classe des sciences de I'Institut (1806) ; Thomson, in Annals of Philo-
sophy, vol. xii. p. 161 (1808). .

DOLOMITE, a mineral species consisting of calcium and
magnesium carbonate, CaMg (COa)2, and occurring as rhombo-
hedral crystals or large rock-masses. Analyses of most well-
crystallized specimens correspond closely with the above
formula, the two carbonates being present in equal molecular
proportions (CaCO3,S4-35; MgCO3,4S-65%). Normal dolomite
is thus not an isomorphous mixture of calcium and magnesium
carbonates, but a double salt; and any variations in composition
are to be explained by the isomorphous mixing of this double
salt with carbonates of calcium, iron, magnesium, manganese,
and rarely of zinc and cobalt.

In crystalline form dolomite is very similar to calcite, belonging

to the same group of rhombohedral carbonates; the primitive

^--~.^ rhombohedron, r (100), parallel to

./^/"^^^ tne faces of which there are perfect

^r I \^ cleavages, has interfacial angles of

I r I r >73° 4S'> t^le an8te °f tne cleavage

/ [^ /'rhombohedron of calcite being 74°

[ jS ^-^^ / 55'. A specially characteristic feature

\/ r ^^~^/ is that this rhombohedron is fre-

^^-•^^ ^^ quently the only form present on the

^^vv^ crystals (in calcite it is rare except

FIG. i. in combination with other forms);

the faces are also usually curved

(fig. i ), sometimes to an extraordinary degree giving rise to saddle-
shaped crystals (fig. 2). Crystals with plane faces are usually
twinned, there being an interpenetration of two rhombohedra
with the vertical axes parallel. The secondary twin-lamination,
parallel to the obtuse rhombohedron
e (no), so common in calcite, does not
exist in dolomite. In the degree of
symmetry possessed by the crystals there
is, however, an important difference be-
tween calcite and dolomite; the former
has the full number of planes and axes
of symmetry of a rhombohedral crystal,
whilst the latter is hemihedral with
parallel faces, having only an axis of
triad symmetry and a centre of sym-
metry. This lower degree of symmetry, which is the same as
that of dioptase and phenacite, is occasionally shown by the
presence of an obliquely placed rhombohedron, and also by
the want of symmetry in the etching and elasticity figures
on the faces of the primitive rhombohedron.

Dolomite is both harder (H. = 3|-4) and denser (sp. gr. 2-85)
than calcite. The two minerals may also be readily distinguished

FIG. 2.

by the fact that dolomite is not acted upon by cold, dilute acids
(see below, Dolomite Rock). Crystals of dolomite vary from
transparent to translucent, and often exhibit a pearly lustre,
especially when the faces are curved; the colour is usually white
or yellowish.

The crystallized mineral was first examined chemically by
P. Woulfe in 1779, and was named compound-spar by R. Kirwan
in 1784; other early names are bitter-spar, rhomb-spar and
pearl-spar (but these included other rhombohedral carbonates).
The name dolomite (dolomie of N. T. de Saussure, 1792) is in
honour of the French geologist, D. G. Dolomieu, who in 1791
noted that certain Tyrolese calcareous rocks and Italian marbles
effervesce only slightly in contact with acid; this name was for
many years applied to the rock only, but was later extended to
the crystallized mineral, first in the form dolomite-spar.

In the white crystalline dolomite-rock of the Binnenthal near
Brieg in Switzerland beautiful water-clear crystals of dolomite
are found; and crystallized masses occur embedded in serpentine,
talc-schist and other magnesian silicate rocks. The best crystal-
lized specimens are, however, usually found in metalliferous
deposits; for example, in the iron mines of Traversella near
Ivrea in Piedmont (as large twinned rhombohedra) and Cleator
Moor in Cumberland; in the deposits of lead and zinc ores at
Alston in Cumberland, Laxey in the Isle of Man, Joplin in
Missouri; and in the silver veins of Schemnitz in Hungary and
Guanajuato in Mexico.

Several varieties of dolomite have been distinguished, depending
on differences in structure and chemical composition. Miemite
is a crystallized or columnar variety, of a pale asparagus-green
colour, from Miemo near Volterra in Tuscany; taraspite is a
similar variety from Tarasp in Switzerland. Gurhofite, from
Gurhof near Aggsbach in Lower Austria, is snow-white, compact
and porcellanous. Brossite, from the Brosso valley near Ivrea in
Piedmont, and tharandite, f rom Tharand in Saxony, are crystal-
lized varieties containing iron. Closely related is the species
ankerite (q.v.). (L. J. S.)

Dolomite Rock. — The rock dolomite, also known as dolomitic
or magnesian limestone, consists principally of the mineral of the
same name, but often contains admixture of other substances,
such as calcite, quartz, carbonate and oxides of iron, argillaceous
material, and chert or chalcedony. Dolomites when very pure
and well crystallized may be snowy white (e.g. some examples
from the eastern Alps), but are commonly yellow, creamy,
brownish or grey from the presence of impurities. They tend
to be crystalline, though on a fine scale, and appear under the
microscope composed of small sharply angular rhombohedra,
with a perfect cleavage and very strong double refraction. They
can be often recognized by this, but are most certainly dis-
tinguished from similar limestones or marbles by tests with weak
acid. Dolomite dissolves only very slowly in dilute hydrochloric
acid in the cold, but readily when the acid is warmed; limestones
are freely attacked by the acid in either state. Magnesian lime-
stones, which contain both dolomite and calcite, may be etched
by exposing polished surfaces for a brief time to cold weak acid;
the calcite is removed, leaving small pits or depressions. The
distribution of the calcite may be rendered more clear by using
ferric chloride solution. This is decomposed, leaving a yellow
stain of ferric hydrate where the calcite occurred. Alternatively,
a solution of aluminium chloride will serve; this precipitates
gelautinous alumina on contact with calcite and the film can be
stained with aniline dyes (Lemberg's solution). The dolomite is
not affected by these processes.

Dolomites of compact structure have a higher specific gravity
than Kmestones, but they very often have a cavernous or drusy
character, the walls of the hollows being lined with small crystals
of dolomite with a pearly lustre and rounded faces. They are also
slightly harder, and for these and other reasons they last better
as building stones and wear better when used for paving or road-
mending. Dolomites are rarely fossiliferous, as the process of
dolomitization tends to destroy any organic remains originally
present. As compared with limestones they are less frequently
well bedded, but there are exceptions to this rule. Many

394

DOLOMITES— DOLPHIN

dolomites, particularly those of the north of England, show a very
remarkable concretionary structure. The beds look as if made up
of rounded balls of all sizes from a foot or two in diameter down-
wards. Often they are stuck together like piles cf shot or bunches
of grapes. They are composed of fibrous radiate calcite crystals,
which by some kind of concretionary action have segregated from
the dolomitic material and grouped themselves together in this
way. Other concretions from these beds resemble bunches of
corals, tufts of plants, or present various strange imitative forms.

Dolomite, unlike calcite, is not secreted by marine animals to
build up the hard parts of their skeletons, and it is generally
agreed also that dolomite is only very rarely and under excep-
tional conditions deposited directly from solution in water. On
the other hand, there is much evidence to show that limestones
may absorb or be partly replaced by magnesium carbonate, and
the double salt dolomite substituted for calcite by one of those
processes which are described as " metasomatic." Thus the
Carboniferous limestones of various parts of Britain pass into
dolomites along lines of joint, fissure or fault, or occasionally
along certain bedding planes. At the same time the rock becomes
crystalline, its minute structure is altered, its fossils are effaced,
and as dolomite has a higher specific gravity than limestone,
contraction results and cavities are formed. The prevalence of
crystalline, concretionary and drusy structures in dolomite can
thus be simply explained. The process may actually be studied
in many " magnesian limestones," in which by means of the
microscope we may trace the gradual growth of dolomite crystals
taking place simultaneously with the destruction of the original
features of the limestone. Recent investigations in coral reefs
show that these changes are going on at the present day at no
considerable depths and in rocks which have not long con-
solidated.

All this goes to prove that the double carbonate of calcium and
magnesium is under certain conditions a more stable salt than
either of the simple carbonates, and that these conditions recur in
nature with considerable frequency. Experiments have proved
that at moderately high temperatures (100° to 200° C.) solutions
of magnesium salts will convert calcite into dolomite in the
laboratory, and that aragonite is even more readily affected than
calcite. The analogy with dolomitization of limestones is strong
but not complete, as the latter process must take place at ordinary
temperatures and approximately under atmospheric pressures.
No completely satisfactory explanation of the change, from the
standpoint of the geologist, has as yet been advanced, though
much light has been thrown upon the problem. Many limestones
are rich in aragonite, but this in course of time tends to re-
crystallize as calcite. Magnesium salts are abundant in sea- water,
and in the waters of evaporating enclosed coral lagoons and of
many bitter lakes. Calcite is more soluble than dolomite in water
saturated with carbonic acid and would tend to be slowly removed
from a limestone, while the dolomite increased in relative propor-
tion. Dolomite also being denser than calcite may be supposed to
replace it more readily when pressure is increased. These and
many other factors probably co-operate to effect the transmuta-
tion of limestones into dolomites.

Examples of dolomitization may be obtained in practically
every geological formation in which limestones occur. The
oldest rocks are most generally affected, e.g. the Cambrian lime-
stones of Scotland, but the change occurs, as has already been
stated, even in the upraised coral reefs of the Indian and Pacific
oceans which are very recent formations. It is very interesting to
note that dolomites are very frequent among rocks which indicate
that desert or salt-lake conditions prevailed at the time of their
deposit. The dolomite or magnesian limestone of the English
Permian is an instance of this. The explanation may be found
in the fact that the waters of bitter lakes are usually rich in
magnesium salts which, percolating through beds of limestone,
would convert them into dolomite. Among the most famous
dolomites are those of the Dolomite Alps of Tirol. They are of
Triassic age and yield remarkably picturesque mountain scenery;
it is believed that some were originally coral reefs; they are now
highly crystalline and often contain interesting minerals and ores.

The galena limestone of the North American Trenton rocks is
mostly a dolomite.

Dolomites furnish excellent building stones, and those of the
north-east of England (Mansfield stone, &c.) have long been
regarded with great favour on account of their resistance to
decomposition. They vary a good deal in quality, and have not
all proved equally satisfactory in practice. Part of the Houses of
Parliament at Westminster is built of dolomite. (J. S. F.)

DOLOMITES, THE, a mountain district in the South Tirolese
Alps, though sometimes it is erroneously considered to form part
of some other chain than the Alps. The distinguishing feature of
this district is that it is composed of magnesian limestone, which
rises in peaks of a most singular degree of sharpness and streaked
by veins of the most startling colours. Nowadays it has become
well known to tourists, who, however, keep mainly to a few great
centres, though most of the more striking peaks were first
ascended in the late sixties and early seventies of the ipth century
by English mountaineers. Roughly speaking the Dolomite
region lies between the Brenner railway from Franzensfeste
to Trent (W.) and the road over the Monte Croce Pass from
Innichen in the Drave valley by way of the Sexten glen and
the Piave valley to Belluno and Feltre (E.). On the north it is
limited by the railway line from Innichen to Franzenfeste, and
on the south by the railway and road from Trent to Feltre. The
highest summit is the Marmolata (10,972 ft.), but far more
typical are the Sorapiss, the Cimon della Pala, the Langkofel,
the Pelmo, the Drei Zinnen, the Sass Maor and the Rosengarten
(see ALPS). Among the chief tourist resorts are St Ulrich (in
the Groden valley), San Martino di Castrozza (near Primiero),
Caprile and Cortina d'Ampezzo.

Besides the Dolomites included in the above region there are
several other Dolomite groups (though less extensive) in the Alps.
N. W. of Trent rises the Tosa group, while in Switzerland there are
the Piz d'Aela group, S.W. of Bergun on the Albula Pass route,
and the curious little group N. of the village of Splugen, besides
other isolated peaks between the St Gotthard and Lukmanier
Passes. In Dauphine itself (the home of the geologist Dolomieu)
the mountain districts of the Royannais, of the Vercors, and of
the Devoluy (all S.W. of Grenoble) are more or less Dolomitic in
character.

See J. Gilbert and G. C. Churchill, The Dolomite Mountains
(London, 1864); Miss L. Tuckett, Zigzagging among Dolomites
(London, 1871); P. Grohmann, Wanderungen in den Dolomiten
(Vienna, 1877) ; L. Sinigaglia, Climbing Reminiscences of the Dolo-
mites (London, 1896); The Climbs of Norman-Neruda (London,
1899); V. Wolf von Glanvell, Dolomitenfuhrer (Vienna, 1898);
J. Ball, Western Alps (new ed., London, 1898, section 9, Rte. P.
French Dolomites). (W. A. B. C.)

DOLPHIN, a name properly belonging to the common cetacean
mammal known as Delphinus delphis, but also applied to a
number of more or less nearly allied species. The dolphins,
bottle-noses, or, as they are more commonly called, " porpoises,"
are found in abundance in all seas, while some species are
inhabitants of large rivers, as the Amazon. They are among the

The Common Dolphin (Delphinus delphis).

smaller members of the cetacean order, none exceeding 10 ft. in
length. Their food is chiefly fish, for the capture of which their
long narrow beaks, armed with numerous sharp-pointed teeth,
are well adapted, but some also devour crustaceans and molluscs.
They are mostly gregarious, and the agility and grace of their
movements in the water are themes of admiration to the
spectators when a " school of porpoises " is playing round the
bows of a vessel at sea.

The type of the group is the common dolnhin (D. delphis) of the
Mediterranean and Atlantic, which usually measures 6 to 8 ft. in
length, and is thickest near the centre, whe/e the back fin rises to

DOMAT— DOMBROWSKI

395

a height of 9 or 10 in., and whence the body tapers towards both
extremities. The forehead descends abruptly to the base of the
slightly flattened beak, which is about 6 in. long, and is separated
from the forehead by a transverse depression. The mouth is
armed with sharp, slightly curved teeth, of uniform size, varying
in number from forty to fifty on each side of both jaws. The aper-
ture of the ear is exceedingly minute; the eyes are of moderate
size and the blow-hole is crescent-shaped. The colour of the upper
surface is black, becoming lighter on the flanks, and perfectly
white below. Dolphins are gregarious, and large herds oftenfollow
ships. They exhibit remarkable agility, individuals having been
known to leap to such a height out of the water as to fall upon
the deck. Their gambols and apparent relish for human society
have attracted the attention of mariners in all ages, and have
probably given rise to the many fabulous stories told of dolphins.
Their appearance at sea was regarded as a good omen, for although
it presaged a tempest, yet it enabled the sailors to steer for a place
of safety. The dolphin is exceedingly voracious, feeding on fish,
cuttlefishes and crustaceans. On the south coast of England it
lives chiefly on pilchard and mackerel, and when in pursuit of
these is often taken in the nets. The female brings forth a single
young one, which she nurses most carefully. Her milk is
abundant and rich, and during the operation of suckling, the
mother floats in a slightly sidelong position, so as to allow of the
necessary respiration in herself and her young. The dolphin was
formerly supposed to be a fish, and allowed to be eaten by Roman
Catholics when the use of flesh was prohibited, and it seems to
have been esteemed as a delicacy by the French. Among the
seafaring population of Britain the name " dolphin " is most
usually given to the beautifully coloured fish Coryphaena hippuris
— the dorado of the Portuguese, and it is to the latter the poet
is alluding when he speaks of " the dying dolphin's changing
hues."

Many other allied genera, such as Prodelphinus, Sieno,
Lagenorhynchus, &c., are also included in the family Ddphinidae,
some of which live wholly in rivers.

Beside these there is another group of largely freshwater species,
constituting the family Platanistidae, and typified by the susu
(Platanista gangetica), extensively distributed throughout nearly
the whole of the river-systems of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and
Indus, ascending as high as there is water enough to swim in, but
never passing out to sea. It is about 8 ft. long, blind and feeds
on small fish and crustaceans for which it gropes with its long
snout in the muddy waters at the bottom. Into, geoffroyensis,
the single species of its genus, frequents the Amazon, and reaches
an extreme length of 8 ft. It is wholly pink or flesh-coloured, or
entirely black, or black above and pink beneath. A third is the
La Plata dolphin, Stenodelphis blainvillei, a species about 5 ft.
in length. Its colour is palish brown, which harmonizes with the
brown-coloured water of the estuary of the Rio de la Plata. See
CETACEA. (R. L.*)

DOMAT, or DAUMAT, JEAN (1625-1696), French jurisconsult,
was born at Clermont in Auvergne, on the 3oth of November
1625. He was closely in sympathy with the Port-Royalists, was
intimate with Pascal, and at the death of that celebrated philo-
sopher was entrusted with his private papers. He is principally
known from his elaborate legal digest, in three volumes 410,
under the title of Lois civiles dans leur ordre naturd (1689), — an
undertaking for which Louis XIV. settled on him a pension
of 2000 livres. A fourth volume, Le Droit public, was published
in 1697, a year after his death. This is one of the most important
works on the science of law that France has produced. Domat
endeavoured to found all law upon ethical or religious principles,
his motto being L'komme estfait par Dieu et pour Dieu. Besides
the Lois Civiles, Domat made in Latin a selection of the most
common laws in the collections of Justinian, under the title of
Legum ddectus (Paris, 1700; Amsterdam, 1703); it was sub-
sequently appended to the Lois civiles. His works have been
translated into English. Domat died in Paris on the I4th of
March 1696.

In the Journal des savants for 1843 are several papers on Domat
by Victor Cousin, giving much information not otherwise accessible.

DOMBES, a district of eastern France, formerly part of the
province of Burgundy, now comprised in the department of Ain,
and bounded W. by the Sa6ne, S. by the Rhone, E. by the Ain
and N. by the district of Bresse. The region forms an undulating
plateau with a slight slope towards the north-west, the higher
ground bordering the Ain and the Rhone attaining an average
height of about 1000 ft. The Dombes is characterized by an
impervious surface consisting of boulder clay and other relics of
glacial action. To this fact is due the large number of rain-water
pools, varying for the most part from 35 to 250 acres in size which
cover some 23,000 acres of its total area of 282,000 acres. These
pools, artificially created, date in many cases from the isth
century, some to earlier periods, and were formed by landed
proprietors who in those disturbed times saw a surer source
of revenue in fish-breeding than in agriculture. Disease and
depopulation resulted from this policy and at the end of the
1 8th century the Legislative Assembly decided to reduce the area
of the pools which then covered twice their present extent.
Drainage works were continued, roads cut, and other improve-
ments effected during the igth century. Large numbers of fish,
principally carp, pike and tench are still reared profitably, the
pools being periodically dried up and the ground cultivated.

The Dombes (Lat. Dumbae) once formed part of the kingdom of
Aries. In the 1 1 th century, when the kingdom began to break up,
the northern part of the Dombes came under the power of the
lords of Bauge, and in 1218, by the marriage of Marguerite de
Bauge with Humbert IV. of Beaujeu, passed to the lords of
Beaujeu. The southern portion was held in succession by the
lords of Villars and of Thoire. Its lords took advantage of the
excommunication of the emperor Frederick II. to assert their
complete independence of the Empire. In 1400, Louis II., duke
of Bourbon, acquired the northern part of the Dombes, together
with the lordship of Beaujeu, and two years later bought the
southern part from the sires de Thoire, forming the whole into a
new sovereign principality of the Dombes, with Trevoux as its
capital. The principality was confiscated by King Francis I. in
1523, along with the other possessions of the Constable de
Bourbon, was granted in 1527 to the queen-mother, Louise of
Savoy, and after her death was held successively by kings
Francis I., Henry II. and Francis II., and by Catherine de'
Medici. In 1561 it was granted to Louis, duke of Bourbon-
Montpensier, by whose descendants it was held till, in 1682,
" Mademoiselle," the duchess of Montpensier, gave it to Louis
XIV.'s bastard, the duke of Maine, as part of the price for the
release of her lover Lauzun. The eldest son of the duke of Maine,
Louis Auguste de Bourbon (1700-1755), prince of Dombes, served
in the army of Prince Eugene against the Turks (1717), took part
in the War of the Polish Succession (1733-1734), and in that of the
Austrian Succession (1742-1747). He was made colonel-general
of the Swiss regiment, governor of Languedoc and master of the
hounds of France. He was succeeded, as prince of Dombes, by
his brother the count of Eu (q.i>.), who in 1762 surrendered the
principality to the crown. The little principality of Dombes
showed in some respects signs of a vigorous life; the prince's
mint and printing works at Trevoux were long famous, and the
college at Thoissey was well endowed and influential.

See A. M. H. J. Stokvis, Manuel d'histoire (Leiden, 1889);
Guichenon, Histoire de Dombes (1863, 1872) ; and various works by
M. C. Guigue, including Bibliotheca Dumbensis (with Valentin Smith)
(1856-1885).

DOMBROWSKI, JAN HENRYK (1755-1818), Polish general,
was born at Pierszowice in the palatinate of Cracow, on the 29th
of August 1755. Brought up in Saxony, he served for some years
in the Saxon army; but when, in 1791, the Polish diet recalled
all Poles serving abroad, he returned to his native land. Under
Poniatowski, he took part in the campaign of 1792 against the
Russians. In 1794 he distinguished himself under Kosciusko in
the defence of Warsaw. For two years thereafter he lived in
retirement, declining the offers of high ranks in their armies made
to him by Russia and Prussia. He then went to Paris, and in
January 1797 was authorized by the government of the Cisalpine
Republic to organize a Polish legion. This task he executed at

396

DOME

Milan. In command of his legion he played an important part in
the war in Italy, entered Rome in May 1798, and distinguished
himself greatly at the Trebbia (June 19, 1799), and in other
battles and combats of 1799-1801. After the peace of Amiens
he passed, as general of division, into the service of the Italian
republic. Summoned by Napoleon in 1806 to promote a rising in
Poland, he organized several divisions of Poles, and distinguished
himself at Danzig and at Friedland. In 1809 he served in the
Polish campaign and in 1812 he commanded a Polish division in
the Grande Armee, being wounded at the passage of the Beresina.
He fought under Marmont at the battle of Leipzig (1813), and
in the following year returned to Poland. He was one of the
generals entrusted by the tsar with the reorganization of the
Polish army, and was named in 1815 general of cavalry and
senator palatine of the new kingdom of Poland. He retired,
however, in the following year, to his estates in Posen. General
Dombrowski died at his seat of Wina-Gora in Posen on the 26th
of June 1818. He wrote several military historical works in the
Polish language.

DOME (Lat domus, house; Ital. duomo, cathedral), an archi-
tectural term, derived from a characteristic feature of Italian
cathedrals, correctly applied only to a spherical or spheroidal
vault, the horizontal plan of which is always a circle. It may be
supported on a circular wall, as in the Pantheon at Rome; or on
a drum, as in the later Byzantine churches and generally so in the
Renaissance styles; or be carried over a square or polygonal area,
in which case the base of the dome is connected to the lines of the
main wall by pendentives, squinches, corbels or a series of con-
centric arches, or two of these combined. Its section may be semi-
circular, pointed, ovoid or segmental; in the latter case it is
usually termed a cupola, although the pendentives which carry
it continue, on the diagonal lines, the complete spherical dome, as
in the entrance vestibule on the south side of the Sanctuary at
Jerusalem, attributed to Herod, or in those crowning the bays of
the Golden Gateway by Justinian. The dome may be constructed
in horizontal courses, as in the " beehive " tombs at Mycenae,
with joints radiating to the centre, or a compromise between the
two, in a series of small segments of circles, as in the Temple of
Jupiter in Diocletian's palace at Spalato, or again with the lower
portion in horizontal courses and the upper portion with arches,
as in the Pantheon at Rome.

The dome is probably one of the earliest forms of covering
invented by man, but owing probably to its construction in
ephemeral materials, such as the unburnt bricks in Chaldaea,
there are no examples existing. But in a bas-relief (see ARCHI-
TECTURE, fig. 10), brought by Layard from Kuyunjik, are
representations of semicircular and ovoid domes, which show
that the feature was well known in Assyria, and as they build
domes of the same nature down to the present day and without
centring of any kind, it suggests that they may have existed
from the remotest ages. The most ancient examples in Europe
are those of the " beehive " tombs at Mycenae and elsewhere in
Greece, ascribed generally to the nth century B.C. In a sense,
they are not true domes, because they are built in horizontal
courses of stone, which act like the voussoirs of an arch in resist-
ing the thrust of the earth at the back. This did not exist in the
Choragic Monument of Lysicrates or other circular buildings
in Greece, because their vertical sections were not portions of
circles. For this reason, the conical vault of the Baths in Pompeii
is not a dome. The circular Laconicon in the Baths of Titus (A. D.
72) may have been domed, and the great hemicycles in the
Thermae must certainly have been roofed with semi-domes.

The earliest Roman domes are those of the great circular halls
at Baiae near Naples, described as temples, but really forming
part of the immense bathing establishments there, the favourite
place of resort of the Romans during the latter part of the
Republic. The largest on the east side of the Lake of Avernus,
known as the Temple of Apollo, is a circular hall with an internal
diameter of looft. Those of Diana, Mercury and Venus at Baiae,
were 96, 66 and 60 ft. respectively. The vaults were all built in
tufa with horizontal courses in brick and cement. Half of the
dome of the Temple of Mercury had fallen down, showing the

section to have been nearly that of an equilateral arch. From the
fact that there were pierced openings or windows in all these
domes, they probably constituted the frigidaria of the baths.

The first example still existing in Rome is that of the Pantheon
(A.D.I 1 2), where a circular dome, 142 ft. in diameter, rests on a
circular wall, its height being about equal to its diameter. The
lower courses of this dome, built in the Roman brick or tile, were,
up to the top of the third coffer, all laid in horizontal courses;
above that, the construction is not known for certain; externally
a series of small arches is shown, but they rested on a shell
already built. The so-called Temple of Minerva Medica (now
recognized as the Nymphaeum of the Baths of Gallienus, A. D. 366)
is the next dated example. The Nymphaeum was decagonal on
plan, so that small pendentives were required to carry the brick
dome.

The domed Laconicon of the Thermae of Diocletian (A.D. 302)
still exists as the vestibule of the church of Santa Maria degli
Angeli. Of Constantine's time there are two small domed
examples in the tomb of S. Costanza and the Baptistery of the
Lateran, both in Rome, and one in the tomb of Galla Placidia at
Ravenna (c. A.D. 450). From these we pass to the Sassanian
domes at Serbistan and Firuzabad, of the 4th and 5th centuries
respectively. These were built in brick and rested on square
pendentives. In section they were ovoid. In Syria, the dome
over the octagonal church at Esra, built in stone and dated
A.D. 515, is also ovoid, its height being equal to its diameter, i.e.
28 ft. This, as well as the Sassanian domes, was built without
centring. The next example is that of the church of Sta Sophia
at Constantinople, the finest example existing, both in its con-
ception and execution. It was built by Justinian (537-552)
f rom the designs of Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus.
The dome is 104 ft. in diameter, and is carried on pendentives over
a square area. The construction is of brick and stone in alternate
courses, and the lower part of the dome is pierced with forty
windows, which give it an extraordinary lightness. The height
from the pavement of the church to the soffit of the dome is 179 ft.
No dome of similar dimensions was ever again attempted by
the Byzantine architects, and the principal difference in later
examples was the raising of the dome on a circular drum pierced
with windows.

In order to lighten the dome erected over the church of San
Vitale, at Ravenna, it was constructed with hollow cylindrical
jars, fitted, the end of one into the mouth of the other; a similar
contrivance was adopted in the tomb of the empress Helena
(the Torre Pignatiara), the vaults of the Circus of Maxentius on
the Via Appia, and the outer aisles of San Stefano, all at Rome,
thus dispensing with the buttresses of Sta Sophia.

The domes of the earlier mosques in Cairo were built on the
model of Sta Sophia, with windows pierced round the base of
the dome and external buttresses between them; these domes
were all built in brick coated over with cement or stucco. At a
later date, and when built in stone, the upper portion was raised
in height and terminated with a point on which a finial was placed.
These are the domes inside and outside Cairo, which are carved
with an infinity of geometrical patterns interwoven with con-
ventional floral decoration. The upper portion of the dome is
very thin, so that there is little weight and comparatively no
thrust, and it is to these facts that we probably owe their
preservation.

In India, in the " great mosque " of Jama Masjid (A.D. 1560)
and the Gol Gumbaz, or tomb of Mahommed Adil Shah (A. D. 1 630)
at Bijapur, the domes are carried on pendentives consisting of
arches crossing one another and projecting inwards, and their
weight counteracts any thrust there may be in the dome. It is
possibly for a similar reason that in the Jama Masjid of Shah
Jahan at Delhi (1632-1638) and the Taj Mahal (A.D. 1630) the
domes assume a bulbous form, the increased thickness of the
dome below the haunches by its weight served as a counterpoise
to any thrust the upper part of the dome might exert. The form
is not much to be admired, and when exaggerated, as it is in the
churches of Russia, where it was introduced by the Tatars, at
times it became monstrous.

DOMENICHINO

397

From these we pass to the domes of Perigord and La Charente,
the earliest of which date from the commencement of the nth
century. Of the western dome of St Etienne at Perigueux
(A.D. 14) only the pendentives remain, sufficient, however, with
later examples, to show that these French domes were different
from the Byzantine both in construction and form. The
pendentives are built on horizontal courses of stone, and the
voussoirs of the pointed arches which carried them form part
of the pendentives ; a few feet above the top of the arches is a
moulding and a ledge, above which the dome, ovoid in section,
is built. The principal examples following St Etienne are those
of S. Jean-de-Cole, Cahors, Souidac,Solignac,Angoule'me,Fontev-
rault, and lastly St Front at Perigueux, built about 1150, in
imitation of St Mark's at Venice. The domes of the latter church
were introduced into the old basilica about 1063, and were based
on the church of the Apostles at Constantinople, which was pulled
down in the isth century, so that we have only the clear descrip-
tion of Procopius to go by. The domes over the north and south
transepts and the choir of St Mark's are smaller than those over
the nave and crossing, because they had to be fitted in between
more ancient structures. The construction of the domes of
St Mark's is not known, but at St Front the general design
only was copied, and they built them in the Perigordian manner.
The masons from Perigord are also responsible for the domes of
the Crusaders' churches in Palestine and for some of the early
churches still remaining in Cyprus. The domes of San Cyriaco
at Ancona and Sant' Antonio at Padua were based upon those
of St Mark's at Venice.

In central Italy we have the dome (elliptical in plan) of the
cathedral of Pisa, and it was a favourite feature over the crossing
of the churches throughout Italy, being generally carried on
squinch pendentives. The domes of the baptisteries of Florence,
Parma, Trieste and Piacenza, are only internal, being enclosed
with vertical walls and a sloping roof. In Sicily, on account of
the strong Saracenic influence, the squinches are simple versions
of the stalactite pendentives described under ARCHITECTURE:
Mahommedan (q.v.), the earliest example being found in the
church of San Giovanni-dei-Leprosi (A.D. 1072), all the domes
being ovoid in section.

Except in Perigord and La Charente, domes are not found in
the churches in France, but in Spain they were introduced over
the crossing at Burgos, Tarragona and Salamanca cathedrals, and
were made architectural features externally. This is rarely found
in Germany, for although in the cathedrals of Worms, Spires and
Mainz, and in the churches of St Martin and Sankt Maria im
Capitol at Cologne, the crossings are covered by domes, always
carried on squinch pendentives, externally they built lanterns
round them.

In the Renaissance styles, the dome was at once accepted as the
principal characteristic feature, and its erection over the crossing
of Santa Maria del Fiore at Florence was the first important work
entrusted to Brunelleschi. The dome was begun in 1422, and
finished in 1431, with the exception of the lantern, begun the
year of his death in 1444, and completed in 1471. The dome,
which is octagonal on plan, is 139 ft. in diameter, and is built
with an inner and outer casing, concentric one with the other,
tied together by ribs between them: the lower portion is stone,
the upper part is brick.

The double shell was also employed by Michelangelo in the
dome of St Peter's at Rome, the outer shell being raised higher
than the lower and connected by ribs one with the other. The
diameter is 140 ft. and the construction in brick, similar to that
at Florence, but the ribs are in stone from Tivoli. In both these
cases the weight of the lantern was a very important considera-
tion, and is responsible for the repeated repairs required and the
introduction of additional ties.

In this respect Sir Christopher Wren solved the difficulty at
St Paul's cathedral, London, in another way: he provided three
shells, the lower one with an eye in the centre forming the inner
dome as seen from the interior; the middle one of conical form,
and the outer one framed in timber and covered with lead. The
conical shell carries the lantern, the weight of which is carried

direct to the base, bound with iron ties, with such additional
strength as may be given by the portico round.

In all these cases these domes are built on lofty drums, so that
externally they present quite a different appearance to those of
the Pantheon at Rome, or Sta Sophia in Constantinople.

Of other examples, the domes of the Invalides in Paris, by
Mansard ( 1 706) , and of the Pantheon by Soufflot (1735), have each
three shells, the former having a graceful outline. In Spain the
dome of the cathedral at Granada (i 530) and the Escurial (i 563) ;
in Italy those of Sta Maria della Salute at Venice, the small
example of Bramante at Todi (1480) and of the Carignano at
Genoa, are worth recording, as also the dome of the Suleimanie
mosque at Constantinople (1550). See plates illustrating
ARCHITECTURE; and INDIAN ARCHITECTURE. (R. P. S.)

DOMENICHINO (or DOHENICO), ZAHPIERI (1581-1641),
Italian painter, born at Bologna, on the zist of October 1581,
was the son of a shoemaker. The diminutive form of Christian
name by which he is constantly known indicates his short
stature. He was placed, when young, under the tuition of
Denis Calvart; but having been treated with great severity by
that master, he left him, and became a pupil in the academy
of the Caracci, under Agostino. Towards the beginning of the
1 7th century he went to Rome, at the invitation of his fellow-
pupil and intimate Albani, and prosecuted his studies under
Annibale Caracci. The faculty ot Domenichino was slow in its
development. He was at first timid and distrustful of his powers ;
while his studious, unready and reserved manners were mis-
understood by his companions for dulness, and he obtained
the nickname of the " Ox " (Bue). But Annibale Caracci, who
observed his faculties with more attention, predicted that the
apparent slowness of Domenichino's genius would in time produce
what would be an honour to the art of pain ting. When his early
productions had brought him into notice, he studied with extreme
application, and made such advance as to raise his works into a
comparison with those of the most admired masters of the time.
From his acting as a continual censor of his own works, he
became distinguished amongst his fellow-pupils as an accurate
and expressive designer; his colours were the truest to nature;
Mengs, indeed, found nothing to desire in his works, except a
somewhat larger proportion of elegance. That he might devote
his whole powers to the art, Domenichino shunned all society;
or, if he occasionally sought it in the public theatres and walks,
this was in order better to observe the play of the passions in
the features of the people — those of joy, anger, grief, terror and
every affection of the mind — and to commit them vividly to his
tablets;thus, saysBellori, it was that he succeeded in delineating
the soul, in colouring life, and calling forth heartfelt emotions,
at which all his works aim. In personal character he is credited
with temperance and modesty; but, besides his want of socia-
bility, he became somewhat suspicious, and jealous of his master.

In Rome, Domenichino obtained employment from Cardinals
Borghese, Farnese and Aldobrandini, for all of whom he painted
works in fresco. The distinguished reputation which he had
acquired excited the envy of some of his contemporaries.
Lanfranco in particular, one of his most inveterate enemies,
asserted that his celebrated " Communion of St Jerome "
(painted for the church of La Carita towards 1614, for a pittance
of about ten guineas, now in the Vatican Gallery, and ordinarily,
but most irrationally, spoken of as the second or third best oil
picture in the world) was an imitation from Agostino Caracci;
and he procured an engraving of this master's picture of the same
subject (now in the Gallery of Bologna), copies of which were
circulated for the purpose of proving that Domenichino was a
plagiarist. There is in truth a very marked resemblance between
the two compositions. The pictures which Zampieri painted
immediately afterwards, representing subjects from the life of
St Cecilia, only increased the alarm of his competitors, and
redoubled their injustice and malignity. Disgusted with these
cabals, he left Rome for Bologna, where he remained until he was
recalled by Pope Gregory XV., who appointed him principal
painter and architect to the pontifical palace. In this archi-
tectural post he seems to have done little or nothing, although he

398

DOMESDAY BOOK

•was not inexpert in the art. He designed in great part the Villa
di Belvedere at Frascati, and the whole of the Villa Ludovisi, and
some other edifices. From 1630 onwards Domenichino was
engaged in Naples, chiefly on a series of frescoes (never wholly
completed) of the life of St Januarius in the Cappella del Tesoro.
He settled in that city with his family, and opened a school.
There the persecution against him became far more shameful
than in any previous instance. The notorious so-called " Cabal
of Naples " — the painters Corenzio, Ribera and Caracciolo —
leagued together as they were to exclude all alien competition,
plagued and decried the Bolognese artist in all possible ways;
for instance, on returning in the morning to his fresco work, he
would find not infrequently that someone had rubbed out the
performance of the previous day. Perpetual worry is believed
to have brought the life of Domenichino to a close; contemporary
suspicion did not scruple to speak broadly of poison, but this
has remained unconfirmed. He died in Naples, after two days'
illness, on the isth of April 1641.

Domenichino, in correctness of design, expression of the
passions, and simplicity and variety in the airs of his heads,
has been considered little inferior to Raphael; but in fact there
is the greatest gulf fixed between the two. Critics of the i8th
century adulated the Bolognese beyond all reason or toleration;
he is now regarded as commonplace in mind and invention,
lacking any innate ideality, though undoubtedly a forcible,
resolute and learned executant. " We must," says Lanzi,
" despair to find paintings exhibiting richer or more varied
draperies, details of costume more beautifully adapted, or more
majestic mantles. The figures are finely disposed both in place
and action, conducing to the general effect; whilst a light
pervades the whole which seems to rejoice the spirit, growing
brighter and brighter in the aspect of the best countenances,
whence they first attract the eye and heart of the beholder. The
persons delineated could not tell their tale to the ear more plainly
than they speak it to the eye. The ' Scourging of St Andrew,'
which he executed in competition with Guido Reni at Rome
(a fresco in the church of San Gregorio), is a powerful illustration
of this truthful expression, Of the two works of these masters,
Annibale Caracci preferred that of Domenichino. It is said that
in painting one of the executioners the artist actually wrought
himself into a passion, using threatening words and actions, and
that Annibale Caracci, surprising him at that moment, embraced
him, exclaiming with joy, ' To-day, my dear Domenichino, thou
art teaching me.' So novel, and at the same time so natural, it
appeared to him that the artist, like the orator, should feel within
himself all that he is representing to others." Domenichino is
esteemed the most distinguished disciple of the Caracci, or second
only to Guido Reni. Algarotti preferred him to the greatest
masters; and Nicolas Poussin considered the painter of the
" Communion of St Jerome " to be the first after Raphael. His
pictures of " Adam and Eve," and the " Martyrdom of St Agnes,"
in the Gallery of Bologna, are amongst his leading works. Others
of superior interest are his first known picture, a fresco of the
" Death of Adonis, "in the Loggia of the Giardino Farnese, Rome;
the " Martyrdom of St Sebastian," in Santa Maria degli Angeli;
the " Four Evangelists," in Sant' Andrea della Valle; " Diana
and her Nymphs," in the Borghese gallery; the " Assumption of
the Virgin," in Santa Maria di Trastevere; and frescoes in the
neighbouring abbey of Grotta Ferrata, lives of SS. Nilus and
Bartholomew. His portraits are also highly reputed. It is
admitted that in his compositions he often borrowed figures
and arrangements from previous painters. Domenichino was
potent in fresco. He excelled also in landscape painting. In that
style (in which he was one of the earliest practitioners) the natural
elegance of his scenery, his trees, his well-broken grounds, the
character and expression of his figures, gained him as much
public admiration as any of his other performances.

See Bolognini, Life of Domenichino (1839); C. Landon, Works of
Domenichino, with a Memoir (1823). (W. M. R.)

DOMESDAY BOOK, or simply DOMESDAY, the record of the
great survey of England executed for William the Conqueror.
We learn from the English Chronicle that the scheme of this

survey was discussed and determined in the Christmas assembly
of 1085, and from the colophon of Domesday Book that the
survey (descriptio) was completed in 1086. But Domesday Book
(liber) although compiled from the returns of that survey, must
be carefully distinguished from them; nor is it certain that it
was compiled in the year in which the survey was made. (jFor
the making of the survey each county was visited by a group of
royal officers (legati), who held a public inquiry, probably in the
great assembly known as the county court, which was attended
by representatives of every township as well as of the local lords.
The unit of inquiry was the Hundred (a subdivision of the county
which had then an administrative entity), and the return for each
Hundred was sworn to by twelve local jurors, half of them
English and half Normans. What is believed to be a full tran-
script of these original returns is preserved for several of the
Cambridgeshire Hundreds, and is of great illustrative importance).
ThelnquisitioEliensiSjthe " Exon Domesday " (so called from the
preservation of the volume at Exeter) , and the second volume of
Domesday Book, also all contain the full details which the original
returns supplied.

The original MS. of Domesday Book consists of two volumes,
of which the second is devoted to the three eastern counties,
while the first, which is of much larger size, comprises the rest of
England except the most northerly counties. Of these the north-
westerly portion, which had Carlisle for its head, was not con-
quered till some years after the survey was made; but the
omission of Northumberland and Durham has not been satis-
factorily explained. There are also no surveys of London,
Winchester and some other towns. \For both volumes the
contents of the returns were entirely rearranged and classified
according to fiefs. Instead of appearing under the Hundreds and
townships they now appeared under the names of the local
" barons," i.e. those who held the lands directly of the crown in
fee. In each county the list opened with the holding of the king
himself (which had possibly formed the subject of separate
inquiry); then came those of the churchmen and religious
houses; next were entered those of the lay tenants-in-chief
(barones) ; and last of all those of women, of the king's Serjeants
(servientes) , of the few English " thegns " who retained land, and
so forth. In some counties one or more principal towns formed
the subject of a separate section; in some the clamor es (disputed
titles to land) were similarly treated apart. But this description
applies more specially to the larger and principal volume; in
the smaller one the system is more confused, the execution less
perfect. The two volumes are distinguished even more sharply
by the exclusion, in the larger one, of certain details, such as the
enumeration of the live stock, which would have added greatly
to its size. It has, indeed, been suggested that the eastern
counties' volume represents a first attempt, and that it was found
impossible, or at least inconvenient, to complete the work on the
same scale.j

For the object of the survey we have three sources of informa-
tion: (i) the passage in the English Chronicle, which tells us why
it was ordered, (2) the list- of questions which the jurors were
asked, as preserved in the Inquisitio Eliensis, (3) the contents
of Domesday Book and the allied records mentioned above.
Although these can by no means be reconciled in every detail, it
is now generally recognized that the primary object of the survey
was to acertain and record the fiscal rights of the king. These
were mainly (i) the national land-tax (geldum), paid on a fixed
assessment, (2) certain miscellaneous dues, (3) the proceeds
of the crown lands. After a great political convulsion such as
the Norman conquest, and the wholesale confiscation of landed
estates which followed it, it was William's interest to make sure
that the rights of the crown, which he claimed to have inherited,
had not suffered in the process. More especially was this the case
as his Norman followers were disposed to evade the liabilities
of their English predecessors. The Domesday survey therefore
recorded the names of the new holders of lands and the assess-
ments on which their tax was to be paid. But it did more than
this; by the king's instructions it endeavoured to make a
national valuation list, estimating the annual value of all the

DOMESTIC RELATIONS— DOMFRONT

399

land in the country, (i) at the time of King Edward's death,
(2) when the new owners received it, (3) at the time of the survey,
and further, it reckoned, by command, the potential value as
well. It is evident that William desired to know the financial
resources of his kingdom, and probable that he wished to compare
them with the existing assessment, which was one of considerable
antiquity, though there are traces that it had been occasionally
modified. /The great bulk of Domesday Book is devoted to the
somewhat arid details of the assessment and valuation of rural
estates, which were as yet the only important source of national
wealth. After stating the assessment of the manor, the record
sets forth the amount of arable land, and the number of plough-
teams (each reckoned at eight oxen) available for working it,
with the additional number (if any) that might be employed;
then the river-meadows, woodland, pasture, fisheries (i.e. weirs
in the streams), water-mills, saltpans (if by the sea) and other
subsidiary sources of revenue; the peasants are enumerated in
their several classes; and finally the annual value of the whole,
past and present, is roughly estimated. It is obvious that, both
in its values and in its measurements, the survey's reckoning is
very crude/

/ Apart from the wholly rural portions, which constitute its
bulk, Domesday contains entries of interest concerning most of
the towns, which were probably made because of their bearing
on the fiscal rights of the crown therein. These include fragments
of custumals, records of the military service due, of markets,
mints, and so forth. From the towns, from the counties as
wholes, and from many of its ancient lordships, the crown was
entitled to archaic dues in kind, such as honey. The information
of most general interest found in the great record is that on
political, personal, ecclesiastical and social history, which only
occurs sporadically and, as it were, by accident. Much of this was
used by E. A. Freeman for his work on the Norman Conquest.
Although unique in character and of priceless value to the
student, Domesday will be found disappointing and largely
unintelligible to any but the specialist. Even scholars are unable
to explain portions of its language and of its system. This is
partly due to its very early date, which has placed between it
and later records a gulf that is hard to bridge,/

But in the Dialogus de scaccario (temp. Hen. II.) it is spoken of
as a record from the arbitrament of which there was no appeal
(from which its popular name of " Domesday " is said to be
derived). In the middle ages its evidence was frequently in-
voked in the law-courts; and even now there are certain cases
in which appeal is made to its testimony. To the topographer,
as to the genealogist, its evidence is of primary importance;
for it not only contains the earliest survey of a township or
manor, but affords in the majority of cases the clue to its subse-
quent descent. The rearrangement, on a feudal basis, of the
original returns (as described above) enabled the Conqueror and
his officers to see with ease the extent of a baron's possessions;
but it also had the effect of showing how far he had enfeoffed
" under-tenants," and who those under-tenants were. This was
of great importance to William, not only for military reasons,
but also because of his firm resolve to make the under-tenants
(though the " men " of their lords) swear allegiance directly to
himself. As Domesday normally records only the Christian name
of an under-tenant, it is vain to seek for the surnames of families
claiming a Norman origin; but much has been and is still being
done to identify the under-tenants, the great bulk of whom bear
foreign names.

/*T)omesday Book was originally preserved in the royal treasury
at Winchester (the Norman kings' capital), whence it speaks of
itself (in one later addition) as Liber de Wintonia. When the
treasury was removed to Westminster (probably under Henry II.)
the book went with it. Here it remained until the days of
Queen Victoria, being preserved from 1696 onwards in the
Chapter House, and only removed in special circumstances, as
when it was sent to Southampton for photozincographic repro-
duction. It was eventually placed in the Public Record Office,
London, where it can be seen in a glass case in the museum.
In 1869 it received a modern binding. The ancient Domes-

day chest, in which it used to be kept, is also preserved in the
building.

The printing of Domesday, in " record type," was begun by
government in 1773, and the book was published, in two volumes
fol. in 1783; in 1811 a volume of indexes was added, and in 1816
a supplementary volume, separately indexed, containing (i) the
" Exon Domesday " (for the south-western counties), (2) the
Inquisitio Eliensis, (3) the Liber Winton (surveys of Winchester
early in the I2th century), and (4) the Boldon Book — a survey of
the bishopric of Durham a century later than Domesday. Photo-
graphic facsimiles of Domesday Book, for each county separately,
were published in 1861-1863, also by government.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The following are the more important works to be
consulted: — R. Kelham, Domesday Book, illustrated (1788) ; H. Ellis,
General Introduction to Domesday Book (1833), 2 vols., containing valu-
able indexes to the names of persons ; N. E. S. A. Hamilton, Inquisitio
Cantabrigiensis (1876), containing the only transcripts of the original
returns and the text of the Inquisitio Eliensis ; E. A. Freeman, History
of the Norman Conquest, vols. iv. and v. ; F. Seebohm, The English
Village Community (1883); Domesday Studies, 2 vols. (1888, 1891),
on the occasion of the Domesday Commemoration (1886), by various
writers, witli bibliography to date; J. H. Round, Feudal England
(1895); F. W. Maitland, Domesday Book and Beyond (1897);
P. Vinogradoff, Villainage in England (1892) and Growth of the
Manor; A. Ballard, The Domesday Boroughs (1904) and The Domes-
day Inquest (1906), an excellent summary ; W. H. Stevenson, " A con-
temporary description of the Domesday Survey " in The English
Historical Review (the general index to which should be consulted)
(1907). The Victoria County History contains a translation of the
Domesday text, a map, and an explanatory introduction for each
county. (J. H. R.)

DOMESTIC RELATIONS, a term used to express the legal
relations subsisting between the various units that comprise
the family or domestic group. Those units which go to build
up the domestic structure of modern society are parent, child,
husband, wife, master and servant. The law which deals with
the various relations subsisting between them is made up largely
of the law of agency, of contract and of tort. See HUSBAND
AND WIFE; MASTER AND SERVANT; CHILDREN, LAW RELATING
TO; INFANT.

DOMETT, ALFRED (1811-1887), British colonial statesman
and poet, was born at Camberwell Grove, Surrey, on the 2oth of
May 1811. He entered St John's College, Cambridge, but left
the university in 1833. He published one or two volumes of
poetry and contributed several poems to Black-wood's Magazine,
one of which, " A Christmas Hymn," attracted much admiring
attention. For ten years he lived a life of ease in London, where
he became the intimate friend of Robert Browning, of whose
poem " Waring " he was the subject. An interesting account
of the friendship between the two men appeared in The Con-
temporary Review for January 1905, by W. H. Griffin. (See also
Robert Browning and Alfred Domett, edited by F. G. Kenyon,
1906). In 1842 Domett emigrated to New Zealand where
he filled many important administrative posts, being colonial
secretary for New Munster in 1848, secretary for the colony in
1851, and prime minister in 1862. He returned to England in
1871, was created C.M.G. in 1880, and died on the 2nd of
November 1887. Among his books of poetry, Ranolf and
Amelia, a South Sea Day Dream, is the best known (1872), and
Flotsam and Jetsam (1877) is dedicated to Browning.

DOMFRONT, a town of north-western France, capital of
an arrondissement in the department of Orne, 43 m. W.N.W. of
Alengon by rail. Pop. (1906) of the town, 2215; of the commune,
4663. The town, which is picturesquely situated on a bluff over-
looking the Varenne, has a church, Notre-Dame-sur-1'Eau,
dating from the nth century. In the middle ages it was one
of the chief strongholds in Normandy, and there still remain
several towers of its ramparts, and ruins of the keep of its castle
built in ion, rebuilt in the I2th century by Henry II., king of
England, and dismantled at the end of the i6th century. The
town is the seat of a sub-prefect, and has a tribunal of first
instance and a communal college. Cloth is manufactured, and
there are granite quarries in the vicinity. Domfront is said to
have grown up in the 6th century round the oratory of the hermit
St Front, and played an important part in the wars against the

400

DOMICILE

English and the Religious Wars. In 1574 it was occupied by the
Protestant leader Gabriel de Montgomery, who after a stubborn
siege was forced to yield it to Jacques Goyon, count of Matignon.

DOMICILE (Lat. domicilium, from domus, home), in law, a term
which may be defined generally as the place of a man's permanent
abode; a precise definition is a matter of acknowledged difficulty.
Its use in Roman jurisprudence was to fix the jurisdiction to
which a person was subject generally, not by reason of a par-
ticular circumstance, as the place where a contract was made or
where property is situate. Hence it was admitted that a person
might have as many domiciles as he had residences possessing
some degree of permanence. In the middle ages, when a great
diversity of laws had arisen, questions concerning personal status,
as the age of majority or the capacity to contract a given marriage,
came naturally to depend on the law to which the person was
subject by reason of the general jurisdiction over him; and
questions relating to the various items of his movable property
grouped together, as those of his testamentary capacity or of the
succession on his intestacy, had to be considered from a similarly
personal point of view. There resulted a general agreement that
a man's legal character, so to speak, should be determined by
his domicile, and this introduced a stricter notion of domicile,
allowing each person to have but one. He might be subjected
without great inconvenience to more than one jurisdiction, but
not to more than one law. This is the position which domicile
now holds in English jurisprudence. It is the criterion of the law
appb'cable in a large class of cases, and it must be single for each
person; and English courts have continually to struggle with the
difficulty of selecting his domicile from among the various places
in any of which he may be said to reside.

Since the beginning of the igth century most of the leading
continental states have unified their internal laws; and attach-
ment to a province by domicile having thus become an un-
necessary consideration, they have adopted political nationality
as the criterion of the law to be applied in most of the questions
which used to depend on domicile. Thus as between themselves
they have greatly simplified the determination of those questions,
but a similar elimination of domicile is impossible in what
concerns British subjects, because the British empire continues
to include a great variety of laws, as those of England, Scotland,
the province of Quebec, the Cape Colony, &c. Within the
British dominions domicile is the only available criterion of the
legal character of a British subject, and all British courts continue
to apply the same criterion to British subjects outside those
dominions and to foreigners, so that, for example, the age of
majority of a British subject or of a Frenchman domiciled in
Germany would be referred by a British court to German law.
Indeed so deeply is the principle of domicile seated in British law
that only legislative action could allow a British court to substi-
tute a new principle. And even a French, Italian or German
court, applying political nationality as its new criterion to the
legal character of a British subject, could obtain no definite result
unless it supplemented that criterion by the old one, domicile,
in order to connect the person in question with one of the legal
systems existing in the British dominions.

Again, so long as the change of the criterion has not become
universal, a new question is introduced by its having been made
in some countries only. Denmark being one of those European
states which still adhere to the principle of domicile, we will take
it as an example in order not to complicate the illustration by
such differences of internal law as exist in the British dominions.
Suppose that a Danish court has to decide on the age of majority
of a Danish subject domiciled in France, Italy or Germany. Its
rule refers the question to the law of the domicile, and the law of
the domicile refers it back to the law of the political nationality.
What is to be done? This and all other questions relating to
the application of the principle of domicile, which has been only
summarily indicated, are treated under INTERNATIONAL LAW
(PRIVATE). Here we shall deal briefly with the determination of
domicile itself.

The Roman jurists defined domicile to be the place " ubi quis
larem rerumque ac fortunarum summam constituit; unde

rursus non sit discessurus si nihil avocet: unde cum profectus
est, peregrinari videtur: quo si rediit peregrinari jam destitit."
This makes that place the domicile which may be described as the
headquarters of the person concerned; but a man's habits of life
may point to no place, or may point equally to two places, as his
headquarters, and the connexion of domicile with law requires
that a man shall always have a domicile, and never more than
one. The former of these difficulties is met in the manner
described by Lord Westbury in Udny v. Udny (Law Reports,
i House of Lords, Scottish Appeals). " It is," he said, " a settled
principle that no man shall be without a domicile, and to secure
this end the law attributes to every individual as soon as he is born
the domicile of his father, if the child be legitimate, and the
domicile of his mother, if the child be illegitimate. This is called
the domicile of origin, and is involuntary. It is the creation of the
law, not of the party. It may be extinguished by act of law, as
for example by sentence of death or exile for life, which destroys
the status civilis of the criminal; but it cannot be destroyed by
the will and act of the party. Domicile of choice is the creation of
the party. When a domicile of choice is acquired, the domicile
of origin is in abeyance, but is not absolutely extinguished or
obliterated. When a domicile of choice is abandoned, the
domicile of origin revives, a special intention to revert to it not
being necessary. A natural-born Englishman may domicile
himself in Holland, but if he breaks up his establishment there and
quits Holland, declaring that he will never return, it is absurd to
suppose that his Dutch domicile clings to him until he has set up
his tabernacle elsewhere." If to this we add that legitimate
minors follow the changes of the father's domicile and a married
woman follows the domicile of her husband, also that compulsory
detention will not create a domicile, the outlines of involuntary
domicile will have been sufficiently sketched.

For the establishment of a domicile of choice there must be both
animus saidfactum, intention and fact. The fact need not be more
than arrival in the territory of the new domicile if there be the
necessary intention, while any number of years' continuance there
will not found a domicile if the necessary intention is absent. As
the result of the most recent English and Scottish cases it may be
laid down that the necessary intention is incompatible with the
contemplation by the person in question of any event on the
occurence of which his residence in the territory in question
would cease, and that if he has not formed a fixed and settled
purpose of settling in that territory, at least his conduct and
declarations must lead to the belief that he would have declared
such a purpose if the necessity of making an election between that
territory and his former one had arisen. The word territory,
meaning a country having a certain legal system, is used
advisedly, for neither the intention nor the fact need refer to a
locality. It is possible that a Scotsman or a foreigner may have
clearly established a domicile of choice in England, although it
may be impossible to say whether London, Brighton or a house
in the country is his true or principal residence. What is here laid
down has been gradually attained. In the older English cases
an intention to return to the former domicile was not excluded,
if the event on which the return depended was highly uncertain
and regarded by the person in question as remote. Afterwards
a tendency towards the opposite extreme was manifested by
requiring for a domicile of choice the intention to associate oneself
with the ideas and habits of the new territory — Quatenus in illo
exuere patriam, not in the political sense, which it was never
attempted to connect with change of domicile, but in the social
and legal sense. At present it is agreed that the only intention
to be considered is that of residence, but that, if the intention
to reside in the territory be proved to amount to what has been
above stated, a domicile will be acquired from which the legal
consequences will follow, even defeating intentions about them
so clearly expressed as, for instance, by making a will which by
reason of the change of domicile is invalid. The two most
important cases are Douglas v. Douglas, 1871, L. R. 12 Equity
617, before Vice-chancellor Wickens, and Winans v. Alt. Gen.,
1904, Appeal Cases 287, before the House of Lords.

When the circumstances of a person's life point to two territories

DOMINIC

401

as domiciles, the selection of the one which alone can fill that
character often leads to appeals even up to the highest court.
The residence of a man's wife and family as contrasted with his
place of business, his exercise of political or municipal functions,
and any conduct which tends to connect his children with a given
country, as by their education or the start given them in life,
as well as other indications, are often cited as important; but
none of them are in themselves decisive. The situation must
be considered as a whole. When the question is between the
domicile of origin and an alleged one of choice, its solution is
rendered a little easier than it is when the question is between
two alleged domiciles of choice, the burden of proof lying on
the party which contends that the domicile of origin has been
abandoned.

In the state of the law which has been described it will not be
found surprising that an act of parliament, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 121,
recites that by the operation of the law of domicile the expectation
and belief of British subjects dying abroad with regard to the
distribution of their property are often defeated, and enacts that
when a convention to that effect has been made with any foreign
country, no British subject dying in such country shall be
deemed to have acquired a domicile therein, unless he has been
resident in such country for one year previous to death and has
made a declaration in writing of his intention to become domiciled ;
and that British subjects so dying without having so resided and
made such declaration shall be deemed for all purposes of testate
or intestate succession as to movables to retain the domicile they
possessed at the time of going to reside in such foreign country.
Similar exemptions are conferred on the subjects of the foreign
state dying in Great Britain or Ireland. But the act does not
apply to foreigners who have obtained letters of naturalization
in any part of the British dominions. It has not been availed of,
and is indeed an anachronism, ignoring as it does the fact that
domicile has no longer a world-wide importance, owing to the
substitution for it of political nationality as a test of private
law in so many important countries. The United States of
America is not one of those countries, but there the import-
ance of domicile suffers from the habit of referring questions of
capacity to the law of the place of contract instead of to any
personal law. QNO. W.)

DOMINIC, SAINT (1170-1221), founder of the Dominican
Order of Preaching Friars, was born in 1170 at Calaroga in Old
Castile. He spent ten or twelve years in study, chiefly theological,
at Palencia, and then, about 1195, he was ordained and became a
canon in the cathedral chapter of Osma, his native diocese. The
bishop induced his canons to follow the Rule of St Augustine
and thus make themselves Augustinian Canons (?.».); and so
Dominic became a canon regular and soon the prior or provost of
the cathedral community. The years from 1195 to 1203 have
been filled up with fabulous stories of missions to the Moors; but
Dominic stayed at Osma, preaching much in the cathedral, until
1 203, when he accompanied the bishop on an embassy in behalf of
the king of Castile to " The Marches." This has commonly been
taken as Denmark, but more probably it was the French or Italian
Marches. When the embassy was over, the bishop and Dominic
repaired to Rome, and Innocent III. charged them to preach
among the Albigensian heretics in Languedoc. For ten years
(1205-1215) this mission in Languedoc was the work of Dominic's
life.

The Albigenses (q.v.) have received much sympathy, as being
a kind of pre-Reformation Protestants; but it is now recognized
that their tenets were an extreme form of Manichaeism. They
believed in the existence of two gods, a good (whose son was
Christ) and an evil (whose son was Satan) ; matter is the creation of
the evil principle, and therefore essentially evil, and the greatest
of all sins is sexual intercourse, even in marriage; sinful also is
the possession of material goods, and the eating of flesh meat,
and many other things. So great was the abhorrence of matter
that some even thought it an act of religion to commit suicide
by voluntary starvation, or to starve children to death (see
article " Neu-Manichaer " by Otto Zockler in .ed. 3 of Herzog's
Redencyklop&die fiir proteslantische Theologie (1903); or c. iii. of

Paul Sabatier's Life of St Francis) . Such tenets were destructive
not only of Catholicism but of Christianity of any kind and of
civil society itself ; and for this reason so unecclesiastical a person
as the emperor Frederick II. tried to suppress the kindred sects
in Italy. In 1208, after the murder of a papal legate, Innocent
III. called on the Christian princes to suppress the Albigensian
heresy by force of arms, and for seven years the south of France
was devastated by one of the most bloodthirsty wars in history,
the Albigenses being slaughtered by thousands and their property
confiscated wholesale.

During this time, it is the judgment of the most recent
Protestant writer on St Dominic that, though keeping on good
terms with Simon de Montfort, the leader, and praying for the
success of the crusaders' arms during the battle of Muret, " yet,
so far as can be seen from the sources, Dominic took no part
in the crusade, but endeavoured to carry his spiritual activity on
the same lines as before. The oldest trustworthy sources know
nothing of his having exercised the office of Inquisitor during the
Albigensian war " (Grutzmacher). This verdict of a fair-minded
and highly competent Protestant church historian on the most
controverted point of Dominic's career is of great value. His
method was to travel over the country on foot and barefooted,
in extreme poverty, simplicity and austerity, preaching and
instructing in highways and villages and towns, and in the castles
of the nobility, controverting and discussing with the heretics.
He used often to organize formal disputations with Albigensian
leaders, lasting a number of days. Many times plots were laid
against his life. Though in his ten years of preaching a large
number of converts were made, it has to be said that the results
were not such as had been hoped for, and after it all, and after the
crusade, the population still remained at heart Albigensian. A
sense of failure appears in Dominic's last sermon in Languedoc :
" For many years I have exhorted you in vain, with gentleness,
preaching, praying and weeping. But according to the proverb
of my country, ' where blessing can accomplish nothing, blows
may avail.' We shall rouse against you princes and prelates, who,
alas, will arm nations and kingdoms against this land . . . and
thus blows will avail where blessings and gentleness have been
powerless." The threat that seems to be conveyed in these words,
of trying to promote a new crusade, was never carried out; the
remaining years of Dominic's life were wholly given up to the
founding of his order.

The Order of Dominicans grew out of the little band of
volunteers that had joined Dominic in his mission among the
Albigenses. He had become possessed with the idea of addressing
wider circles and of forming an order whose vocation should be to
preach and missionize throughout the whole world. By 1214 the
nucleus of such an institute was formed round Dominic and was
known as the " Holy Preaching." In 1 215 the bishop of Toulouse,
Dominic's great friend, established them in a church and house
of the city, and Dominic went to Rome to obtain the permission
of Innocent III. to found his order of preachers. The course of
events is traced in the article DOMINICANS. After three years, in
1218, the full permission he desired was given by Honorius III.
These last years of his life were spent in journeying backwards and
forwards between Toulouse and Rome, where his abode was at
the basilica of Santa Sabina on the Aventine, given to him by the
pope; and then in extended journeys all over Italy, and to Paris,
and into Spain, establishing friaries and organizing the order
wherever he went. It propagated and spread with extraordinary
rapidity, so that by Dominic's death in 1221, only five or six
years after the first practical steps towards the execution of
the idea, there were over 500 friars and 60 friaries, divided into
8 provinces embracing the whole of western Europe. Thus
Dominic was at his death able to contemplate his great creation
solidly established, and well launched on its career to preach to
the whole world.

It appears that at the end of his life Dominic had the idea of
going himself to preach to the heathen Kuman Tatars on the
Dnieper and the Volga. But this was not to be; he was worn
out by the incessant toils and fatigues and austerities of his
laborious life, and he died at his monastery at Bologna, on the

402

DOMINICA— DOMINICANS

6th of August 1221. He was canonized in 1234 by Gregory IX.,
who, as Cardinal Ugolino, had been the great friend and supporter
both of Dominic and of Francis of Assisi. As St Dominic's
character and work do not receive the same general recognition
as do St Francis of Assisi 's, it will be worth while to quote from
the appreciation by Prof. Griitzmacher of Heidelberg: — " It is
certain that Dominic was a noble personality of genuine and true
piety. . . . Only by the preaching of pure doctrine would he
overcome heretics. ... He was by nature soft-hearted, so that
he often shed tears through warm sympathy. ... In the purity
of his intention and the earnestness with which he strove to carry
out his ideal, he was not inferior to Francis."

The chief sources for St Dominic's life are the account by Jordan
of Saxony, his successor as master-general of the order, and the
evidence of the witnesses at the Process of Canonization, — all in the
Bollandists' Acta sanctorum, Aug. 4. Probably the best modern Life
is that by Jean Guiraud, in the series Les Saints (translated into
English by Katharine de Mattos, 1901); the bibliography contains
a useful list of the chief sources for the history of St Dominic and
the order, and of the best modern works thereon. See also the
article " Dominicus " in ed. 2 of Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexicon,
and Griitzmacher's excellent article " Dominikus," in ed. 3 of
Herzog, Realencyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie, already
referred to. (E. C. B.)

DOMINICA, the largest of the five presidencies in the colony of
the Leeward Islands, British West Indies. It lies in 15° 30' N.
and 61° 20' W., between the French islands of Martinique and
Guadeloupe, at a distance of about 25 m. from each, is 29 m. long,
has a maximum breadth of 16 m. and an area of 291 sq. m. A
range of lofty rugged mountains traverses the island from N. to S.,
broken in the centre by a narrow plain drained by the rivers
Layou and Pagoua, flowing W. and E. respectively. The highest
point is Morne Diablotin (5314 ft.), situated in the northern half
of the range. Signs of volcanic activity abound in the shape of
solfataras, subterranean vapours and hot springs; while in the
south is the greatest natural curiosity, the renowned Boiling Lake.
It lies on the mountain side, 2300 ft. above the sea, its banks are
steep and its depth unknown, being more than 300 ft. at a short
distance from the margin. Its seething waters are often forced 3 ft.
above the normal level by the pressure of the escaping gases; and
the fumes rising from the lake are occasionally poisonous. The
island is botanically remarkable for its great number of peculiar
species, offering in this respect a marked contrast to the poverty
of the adjacent islands. The hills are covered with valuable
timber, while coffee, limes, oranges, india-rubber trees, spices and
all tropical fruits grow luxuriantly in the rich brown mould of the
lowlands. There are some thirty streams of considerable size,
besides numerous mountain torrents, and this abundance of
water renders the island very fertile. The fisheries are pro-
ductive, and honey and wax are furnished by wild bees, originally
introduced from Europe. The temperature varies from 78° to 86°
F. in the hot season from August to October, and from 72° to 84°
in the cooler months; the rainfall varies in different parts from
50 to 162 in. per annum, but the porous soil soon absorbs the rain,
rendering the atmosphere dry and invigorating.

The manufactures include sugar, lime-juice and essential oils;
the exports are coffee, cocoa, sugar, limes and lime-juice, essential
oils and fruit of all kinds. The inhabitants in 1901 numbered
28,894. The majority are negroes; the whites are of French
and British descent. There are also a few Caribs, the remnant
of the aboriginal population. A French patois is the language of
the peasantry, but English is generally understood. The capital,
Roseau (5764), is a fortified town and a port; Portsmouth, the
only other town, possesses the better harbour in Prince Rupert's
Bay on the north-west. In religion the Roman Catholics
predominate, and a bishop resides at Roseau, but there is no
established church. Education is free and compulsory, and
the Cambridge local examinations are held annually.

Dominica was so named on its discovery by Columbus in 1493,
in commemoration of the date, Sunday (Dies Dominica) the 3rd
of November. Dominica was included in the grant of various
islands in the Caribbean Sea made in 1627 by Charles I. to the
earl of Carlisle, but the first Europeansettlers (1632) wereFrench.
They brought with them negro slaves and lived on terms of

friendship with the Caribs, who were then a numerous body. In
1660 a treaty appears to have been made between the French,
British and the natives assigning St Vincent and Dominica to
the Caribs, but shortly afterwards attempts were made by the
British to gain a foothold in the island. These attempts failed,,
and in 1748 it was once more agreed by France and Great Britain
that Dominica should be left in the undisturbed possession of the
natives. Nevertheless the French settlers increased, and the
island came under the rule of a French governor. It was captured
by the British in 1761 and formally ceded by France at the peace
of Paris, 1763, French settlers being secured in their estates. In
1 7 78 a French force from Martinique seized the island. Rodney's
victory over De Grasse in the neighbouring sea in 1782 was
followed by the restoration of the island to Britain in 1783; in
the interval the trade of Dominica had been ruined. In 1795 a
force from Guadeloupe made an unsuccessful descent on the
island, and in 1805 the French general La Grange, at the head of
4000 troops, took Roseau and pillaged the island — an event now
remembered as the most memorable in its history. The French
were, however, unable to make good their hold, and Dominica
has remained since undisturbed in British possession. Its later
history presents few features not common to the other British
West Indian islands.

Since 1872 Dominica has formed part of the colony of the
Leeward Islands, but local affairs are in the hands of an adminis-
trator, aided by an executive council of ten members. In 1898
the local legislature, in consideration of pecuniary assistance
from Great Britain, passed an act abrogating the semi-elective
constitution and providing for a legislative council of twelve
nominated members, six of whom sit ex officio.

DOMINICANS, otherwise called Friars Preachers, and in
England Black Friars, from the black mantle worn over a white
habit, an order of friars founded by St Dominic (q.v.) . Their first
house was in Toulouse, where the bishop established them at the
church of St Remain, 1215. Dominic at once went to Rome to
obtain permission to found an order of preachers whose sphere of
activity should be the whole world, but Innocent III. said they
must adopt one of the existing rules. Dominic returned to
Toulouse and it was resolved to take the Rule of St Augustine,
Dominic himself having been an Augustinian canon at Osma (see
AUGUSTINIAN CANONS). Dominic went again to Rome, and
during the year 1216 he obtained from Honorius III. a series of
confirmations of the community at Toulouse as a congregation of
Canons Regular of St Augustine with a special mission to preach.
Early in 1218 an encyclical bull was issued to the bishops of
the whole Catholic world recommending to them the " Order of
Friars Preachers," followed in 1221 by another ordering them
to give to the friars faculties to preach and hear confessions in
their dioceses. Already in 1217 Dominic had scattered the little
band of seventeen over the world — to Paris, into Spain, and one
he took with himself to Rome. Within a few months there were
forty friars in Rome, at Santa Sabina on the Aventine, and thirty
in Paris; and before Dominic's death in 1221 friaries had been
established at Lyons, Limoges, Reims, Metz, Poitiers and
Orleans; at Bologna, Milan, Florence, Verona, Piacenza and
Venice; at Madrid, Palencia, Barcelona and Seville; at
Friesach in Carinthia; at Cracow and Prague; and friars were
on their way to Hungary and England.

The order took definite shape at the two general chapters
held at Bologna in 1220 and 1221. At first it had been but a
congregation of canons regular and had worn the canons' black
cassock with white linen rochet. But now a white woollen habit
with a black cloak or mantle was assumed. The Rule of St
Augustine was supplemented by a body of regulations, adopted
mostly from those of the Premonstratensian canons. At the head
of the order was the master-general, elected for life until recent
times, when the term of office was limited to six and then to
twelve years; he enjoys supreme power over the entire order,
both houses and individuals, all of whom are directly subject to
him. He dwells in Rome and is assisted by a council. The order
is divided into provinces and over each is a provincial, elected for
four years. Each friary has its prior, elected by the community

DOMINIS

403

every four years. The friars belong not to the house or province
in which they make their profession, but to the order; and it
rests with the master-general to assign to each his place of
residence. The manner of life was very austere — midnight office,
perpetual abstinence from meat, frequent disciplines, prolonged
fasts and silence. At St Dominic's suggestion, and under his
strong pressure, but not without considerable opposition, the
general chapter determined that the poverty practised in the
order should be not merely individual, as in the monastic orders,
but corporate, as among the Franciscans; so that the order
should have no possessions, except the monastic buildings
and churches, no property, no fixed income, but should live
on charity and by begging. Thus, doubtless in imitation of the
Franciscans, the Dominicans became a mendicant order.

The extraordinarily rapid propagation of the institute suffered
no diminution through the founder's death ; this was mainly due to
the fact that his four immediate successors in the generalate were
men of conspicuous ability and high character. In a few years
the Dominicans penetrated into Denmark, Sweden, Russia,
Prussia and Poland, preaching and missionizing in the still pagan
districts of these countries; and soon they made their way to
Greece and Palestine and thence to central Asia. St Hyacinth, a
Pole received by St Dominic, during missionary journeys extend-
ing over thirty-five years travelled over the north and east of
Europe and into Tatary, Tibet and northern China. In 1252 the
pope addressed a letter to the Dominicans who were preaching
" among the Saracens, Greeks, Bulgarians, Kumans, Syrians,
Goths, Jacobites, Armenians, Jews, Tatars, Hungarians."
From the i4th century until the middle of thei7th the Dominicans
had numerous missions in Persia, India and China, and in the
northern parts of Africa. They followed the Spanish and
Portuguese explorers and conquerors both to the East and to the
West, converting, protecting and civilizing the aborigines. On
these missionary enterprises great numbers of Dominicans laid
down their life for the Gospel.

Another conspicuous field of work of the Dominicans lay in the
universities. It had been St Dominic's policy to aim at founding
houses first of all in the great university towns— at Paris,
Bologna, Palencia, Oxford. This policy was adhered to, and the
Dominicans soon became a power in the universities, occupying
chairs in those just named and in Padua, Cologne, Vienna, Prague
and Salamanca. The scholastic doctors Albert the Great and
Thomas Aquinas were the leaders in this side of Dominican
activity, and the order's influence on the course of medieval
theological development was exercised mainly by these doctors
and by the Dominican school of theology, which to this day has
maintained the principles and methods elaborated by St Thomas.

The Dominican name is in an especial way associated with the
Inquisition, the office of Inquisitor in all countries, including
Spain, having usually been held by Dominicans. The vicissitudes
of the order have been much like those of other orders — periods
of relaxation being followed by periods of revival and reform;
but there were not any reforms of the same historical importance
as in most other orders, the policy having been to keep all such
movements strictly within the organization of the order. In 1425
Martin V. relaxed for some houses the law of corporate poverty,
allowing them to hold property, and to have fixed sources of
income; and fifty years later Sixtus IV. extended this mitigation
to the entire order, which thereby ceased to be mendicant. This
change caused no troubles, as among the Franciscans, for it was
felt that it did not touch St Dominic's fundamental idea.

The Friars Preachers came to England and were established at
Oxford in 1221, and by the end of the century fifty friaries were
founded ail over England, usually in the towns, and several in
Ireland and Scotland. In London they were first on the site of
Lincoln's Inn, but in 1275 they migrated to that now occupied
by Printing-house Square, and their name survives in Blackfriars
Bridge. The only nunnery was at Dartford. At the Dissolution
there were fifty-seven friaries (see lists in F. A. Gasquet's English
Monastic Life, Catholic Dictionary and C. F. Palmer's Life of
Cardinal Howard, where historical notes are added). In Mary's
reign some of the scattered friars were brought together and

established in Smithfield, and the remnant of the nuns were
restored to Dartford. In 1559 these houses were suppressed and
the nuns and two friars expatriated, and for a hundred years there
was no English Dominican community. But throughout the
reigns of Elizabeth and the early Stuarts there were usually some
Dominicans, either Englishmen professed in foreign monasteries
or foreigners, labouring on the English mission or attached to the
foreign embassies. In 1658 Friar Thomas Howard (afterwards
Cardinal) succeeded in establishing at Bornhem near Antwerp a
house for the English friars. From that time there has always
been an organized body of English Dominicans, again and again
reduced almost to extinction, but ever surviving; it now has
half a dozen thriving friaries. The Irish province also survived
the days of persecution and possesses a dozen friaries. In 1840
Lacordaire restored the French province. In 1900 there were 43 50
Dominicans, including lay brothers, and 300 friaries, scattered
all over the world. Missionary work still holds a prominent
place in Dominican life; there are missions in Annam, Tongking
and China, and in Mesopotamia, Mosul and Kurdistan. They
have also a remarkable school for Biblical studies and research at
Jerusalem, and the theological faculty in the Roman Catholic
university at Fribourg in Switzerland is in their hands. There
have been four Dominican popes: Innocent V. (t 1276),
Benedict XI. (f 1304), Pius V. (t 1572), Benedict XIII.
(t i73o).

The friars form the " First Order " ; the nuns, or Dominicanesses,
the " Second Order." The latter may claim to have chrono-
logical precedence over the friars, for the first nunnery was
established by St Dominic in 1206 at Prouille in the diocese of
Toulouse, as a refuge for women converted from the Albigensian
heresy. The second convent was at San Sisto in Rome, also
founded by Dominic himself. From that time the institute
spread widely. The rule resembled that of the friars, except that
the nuns were to be strictly enclosed and purely contemplative ;
in course of time, however, they undertook educational work. In
1909 there were nearly 100 nunneries of the Second Order, with
some 1500 nuns. They have schools and orphanages in South
Africa, especially in the Transvaal.

A considerable number of other convents for women follow the
Rule of the " Third Order." This rule was not written until the
1 5th century, and it is controverted whether, and in what sense,
it can be held that the " Third Order " really goes back to St
Dominic, or whether it grew up in imitation of the Franciscan
Tertiaries. Besides the conventual Tertiaries, there are con-
fraternities of lay men and women who strive to carry out this
rule while living their family life in the world (see TERTIARIES).
St Catharine of Siena was a Dominican Tertiary.

See the authorities cited in the article DOMINIC, SAINT;
also Helyot, Hist, des ordres religieux (1714), iii. cc. 24-29, and Max
Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen (1896), §§ 86-91 ; and C. F.
Palmer, Life of Cardinal Howard (1867), which gives a special account
of the English Dominican province. (E. C. B.)

DOMINIS, MARCO ANTONIO DE (1560-1624), Italian theo-
logian and natural philosopher, was born of a noble Venetian
family in 1560 in the island of Arbe, off the coast of Dalmatia.
He was educated by the Jesuits in their colleges at Loreto and
Padua, and is supposed by some to have joined their order; the
more usual opinion, however, is that he was dissuaded from doing
so by Cardinal Aldobrandini. For some time he was employed as
a teacher at Verona, as professor of mathematics at Padua, and
professor of rhetoric and philosophy at Brescia. In 1 596 he was
appointed to the bishopric of Segnia (Zengg) in Dalmatia, and two
years later was raised to the archbishopric of Spalato and primacy
of Dalmatia and Croatia. His endeavours to reform the Church
soon brought him into conflict with his suffragans; and the
interference of the papal court with his rights as metropolitan,
an attitude intensified by the quarrel between the papacy and
Venice, made his position intolerable. This, at any rate, is the
account given in his own apology — the Consilium profectionis —
in which he also states that it was these troubles that led him
to those researches into ecclesiastical law, church history and
dogmatic theology, which, while confirming-him in his love for the
ideal of " the true Catholic Church," revealed to him how far the

404

DOMINOES

papal system was from approximating to it. After a visit to
Rome, when he in vain attempted to gain the ear of Pope Paul V.,
he resigned his see in September 1616, wrote at Venice his
Consilium profectionis, and then went by way of Switzerland,
Heidelberg and Rotterdam to England, where he arrived in
December. He was welcomed by the king and the Anglican
clergy with great respect, was received into the Church of England
in St Paul's cathedral, and was appointed master of the Savoy
(1618) and dean of Windsor (1619); he subsequently presented
himself to the living of West Ilsley, Berkshire. Contemporary
writers give no pleasant account of him, describing him as fat,
irascible, pretentious and very avaricious; but his ability was
undoubted, and in the theological controversies of the time he
soon took a foremost place. His published attacks on the papacy
succeeded each other in rapid succession: the Papatus Romanus,
issued anonymously (London, 1617; Frankfort, 1618), the
Scogli del naufragio Christiana, written in Switzerland (London,
(?) 1618), of which English, French and German translations also
appeared, and a Sermon preached in Italian, &•<;., before the king.
But his principal work was the De repuUica ecclesiastica, of which
the first part — after revision by Anglican theologians — was
published under royal patronage in London (1617), in which he
set forth with a great display of erudition his theory of the church.
In the main it is an elaborate treatise on the historic organization
of the church, its principal note being its insistence on the divine
prerogatives of the Catholic episcopate as against the encroach-
ments of the papal monarchy. In 1619 Dominis published in
London, with a dedication to James I., Paolo Sarpi's Historia del
Concilia Tridentino, the MS. of which he had brought with him
from Venice. It is characteristic of the man that he refused to
hand over to Sarpi a penny of the money present given to him by
the king as a reward for this work.

Three years later the ex-archbishop was back again in Rome,
doing penance for his heresies in St Peter's with a cord round his
neck. The reasons for this sudden revolution in his opinions,
which caused grave scandal in England, have been much debated ;
it is probably no libel on his memory, however, to say that they
were connected with the hopes raised by the elevation of his
kinsman, Alessandro Ludovisi.to the papal throne as Gregory XV.
(1621). It is said that he was enticed back to Rome by the
promise of pardon and rich preferment. If so, he was doomed to
bitter disappointment. He had barely time to publish at Rome
(1623) his Sui reditus ex Angliae consilium, an abject repudiation
of his anti-papal works as written " non ex cordis sinceritate, non
ex bona conscientia, non ex fide," when Gregory died (July 1623).
During the interregnum that followed, the proceedings of the
Inquisition against the archbishop were revived, and they
continued under Urban VIII. Before they were concluded,
however, Dominis died in prison, on the 8th of September 1624.
Even this did not end his trial, and on the zoth of December
judgment was pronounced over his corpse in the church of Santa
Maria sopra Minerva. By order of the Inquisition his body was
taken from the coffin, dragged through the streets of Rome,
and publicly burnt in the Campo di Fiore. By a strange irony of
fate the publication of his Reditus consilium was subsequently
forbidden in Venice because of its uncompromising advocacy
of the supremacy of the pope over the temporal powers. As a
theologian and an ecclesiastic Dominis was thoroughly dis-
credited; as a man of science he was more happy. He was the
first to put forward a true theory of the rainbow, in his De radiis
visus et lucis in iiitris perspectives et iride (Venice, 1611).

See the article by Canon G. G. Perry in the Diet. Nat. Biog., and
that by Benrath in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie (ed. 1898), iv.
p. 781, where a full bibliography is given. Also H. Newland, Life
and Contemporaneous Church History of Antonio de Dominis (Oxford,
1859)-

DOMINOES, a game unknown until the i8th century, and
probably invented in Italy, played with twenty-eight oblong
pieces, or dominoes, known also as cards or stones, having ivory
faces backed with ebony; from this ebony backing, as resembling
the cloak (usually black) called a domino (see MASK), the name
is said to be derived. Cardboard dominoes to be held in the hand
are also in use. The face of each card is divided into two squares

by a black line, and in each square half the value of the card
is indicated by its being either a blank or marked with one or
more black pips, generally up to six, but some sets run as high
as double-nine. There are various ways of playing dominoes
described below.

The Block and Draw Games. — The dominoes are shuffled face down-
wards on the table. The lead is usually decided by drawing for the
highest card, but it is sometimes held that any doublet takes pre-
cedence. The cards are then reshuffled, and each player draws at
random the number of cards required for the particular form of the
game, usually seven. The cards left behind are called the stock.
To play a card is known technically as to pose. The leader poses first,
generally playing his highest domino, since at the end the player
loses according to the number of pips in the cards he has left in his
hand. By some rules, a player after playing a double may play
another card which matches it: e.g. if he plays double-six he may
play another card which has a six at one end. The second player
has to match the leader's pose by putting one of his cards in juxta-
position at one end, i.e. if the leader plays four-five, the second player
has to play a card which contains either a four or a five, the five being
applied to the five, or the four to the four. Doublets are placed
a cheval (crosswise). If a player cannot match, he says " go," and
his opponent plays, unless the Draw game — the usual game — is
being played, in which case the player who cannot match draws from
the stock (two cards must always be left in the stock) till he takes
a card that matches. If a player succeeds in posing all his cards, he
calls " Domino !" and wins the hand, scoring as many points as
there are pips on the cards still held by his opponent. If neither

E layer can match, that player wins who has the fewest pips left in
is hand, and he scores as many points as are left in the two hands
combined (sometimes only the excess held by his opponent); but
when a player has called " Go!" his adversary must match if he can,
in which case the other player may be able to match in turn. A
game is generally loo points.

All Fives (or Muggins). — Each player takes five cards. If the
leader poses either double-five, six-four, five-blank, or three-two, he
scores the number of pips that are on the card. If in the course of
play a player can play such a card as makes the sum of the end pips,
5, 10, 15 or 20, he scores that number; e.g. if to two-four he can play
double-four (d cheval) he scores 10; if to six-one he plays six-four he
scores 5. He must pose if he can match; if he cannot, he draws till
be can. Scores are called and taken immediately. At the point of
domino, the winner scores in points the multiple of five which is
nearest to the number of pips in his adversary's hand : e.g. he scores
25 if his adversary has 27 pips, 30 if he has 28. If neither hand can
match, the lowest number of pips wins, and the score is taken as
before, without addition or subtraction, according to the adversary's
pips.

All Threes is played in the same manner as Muggins, save that
three or some multiple of three are aimed at.

Threes-and- Fives is similar, but only one point is scored for each
five or three made at the two ends, though they can be scored in
combination. Thus A plays six-five; B six-one; B scores 2 points
for 5-1 (two threes). A plays one-five; B double five; B now scores
8 more, 5 for five threes and 3 for three fives.

Domino-Whist is played by four players. Partners are drawn for
as at Whist, the player drawing the highest card leading. Each
player takes seven cards. There are no tricks, trumps or honours.
The cards are played as in ordinary dominoes, a hand being finished
when one of the players plays his last card, or when both ends are
blocked. Pips are then counted, and the holder or holders of the
highest number score to their debit the aggregate number of points.
The side that is first debited with 100 points loses the game. Strength
in a suit is indicated by the lead; i.e. a lead of dpuble-blank or
double-six implies strength in blanks or sixes respectively.

Matador (from the Spanish word meaning " killer," i.e. of the bull
in a bull-fight). This is a favourite and perhaps the most scientific
form of the game. It is played on a different principle from the
preceding variations, the object being not to match the end number,
but to pose such a number, as, added to the end, will make seven;
e.g. to a five a two must be played, to a three a four, &c. Seven
dominoes are drawn and the highest double begins. When a player
cannot make a seven on either end he must draw from the stock until
he secures a card that will enable him to make seven, two cards
remaining in the stock. As Matadoris played with dominoes no higher
than six, a blank means the blocking of that end. In this case no
further play can take place at that end excepting by posing a matador,
which may be played at any time. There aie four matadors, the 6-1,
5-2, 4-3 and double-blank. It is often better to draw one or more
fresh cards than to play one's last matador, as it may save the game
at a critical juncture. In posing a double counts as a single number
only, but in scoring the full number of pips is counted. When the
game has been definitely blocked the player whose pips aggregate the
lower number scores the number of the combined hands (sometimes
only the excess in his opponent's hand), the game being usually ipo.
Matador can be played by three persons, inwhichcase the two having
the lowest scores usually combine against the threatening winner;
and also by four, either each for himself or two on a side.

DOMINUS— DON

405

Other varieties of the game not often played are the Bergen game,
Sevastopol and Domino Loo.

See Card and Table Games by Hoffmann (London, G. Routledge
& Sons).

DOMINUS (from an Indo-European root dam-, cf. Gr. Sa^dv,
to subdue, and Eng. " tame "), the Latin word for master or
owner. As a title of sovereignty the term under the republic at
Rome had all the associations of the Greek rvpavvos; refused
during the early principate, it finally became an official title of
the Roman emperors under Diocletian. Dominus, the French
equivalent being sieur, was the Latin title of the feudal (superior
and mesne) lords, and also an ecclesiastical and academical title.
The ecclesiastical title was rendered in English " sir," which was
a common prefix before the Reformation for parsons, as in
" Sir Hugh Evans " in Shakespeare's Merry Wives of Windsor. The
academical use was for a bachelor of arts, and so is still used at
Cambridge and other universities. The shortened form " dom "
is used as a prefix of honour for ecclesiastics of the Roman
Church, and especially for members of the Benedictine and other
religious orders. The same form is also a title of honour in
Portugal, as formerly in Brazil, used by members of the blood
royal and others on whom it has been conferred by the sovereign.
The Spanish form " don " is also a title, formerly applicable only
to the nobility, and now one of courtesy and respect applied to
any member of the better classes. The feminine form " donna "
is similarly applied to a lady. The English colloquial use of
" don" for a fellow or tutor of a college at a university is derived
either from an application of the Spanish title to one having
authority or position, or from the academical use of dominus.
The earliest use of the word in this sense appears, according to the
New English Dictionary, in South's Sermons (1660). An English
corruption " dan " was in early use as a title of respect, equiva-
lent to " master." The particular literary application to poets is
due to Spenser's use of " Dan Chaucer, well of English undefyled "
(Faery Queen, IV. ii. 32).

DOMITIAN (TiTtis FLAVIUS DOMITIANUS), Roman emperor
A.D. 81-96, the second son of Titus Flavius Vespasianus and
Flavia Domitilla, twelfth of the Caesars, and third of the Flavian
dynasty, was born at Rome on the 24th of October A.D. 51.
When Vespasian was proclaimed emperor at Alexandria, Domitian
escaped with difficulty from the temple of the Capitol, which had
been set on fire by the Vitellians, and remained in hiding till his
father's party proved victorious. After the fall of Vitellius he
was saluted as Caesar, or prince imperial, by the troops, obtained
the city praetorship, and was entrusted with the administration
of Italy till his father's return from the East. But although in
his father's lifetime he several times filled the office of consul, and
after his death was nominally the partner in the empire with his
brother Titus, he never took any part in public business, but
lived in great retirement, devoting himself to a life of pleasure
and of literary pursuits till he succeeded to the throne. The
death of Titus, if not hastened by foul means, was at least eagerly
welcomed by his brother. Domitian's succession (on the i3th of
September 81) was unquestioned, and it would seem that he had
intended, so far as his weak volition and mean abilities would
allow, to govern well. Like Augustus, he attempted a reforma-
tion of morals and religion. As chief pontiff he inquired rigorously
in to the character of the vestal virgins, three of whom were buried
alive; he enforced the laws against adultery, mutilation, and the
grosser forms of immorality, and forbade the public acting of
mimes. He erected many temples and public buildings (amongst
them the Odeum, a kind of theatre for musical performances) and
restored the temple of the Capitol. He passed many sumptuary
laws, and issued an edict forbidding the over-cultivation of vines
to the neglect of corn-growing. Finally, he took a personal share
in the administration of justice at Rome, checked the activity of
the informers (delatores), and exercised a jealous supervision over
the governors of provinces. Such public virtues at first counter-
balanced his private vices in the eyes of the people. Domitian
was the first emperor who arrogated divine honours in his life-
time, and caused himself to be styled Our Lord and God in public
documents. Doubtless in the poems of writers like Martial this

deification was nothing but fulsome flattery, but in the case of
the provincials it was a sincere tribute to the impersonation of
the Roman Empire, as the administrator of good government
and the peacemaker of the world. Even when Rome and Italy
smarted beneath his proscriptions and extortions, the provinces
were undisturbed.

Though he took the title of imperator more than twenty times,
and enjoyed at least one triumph, Domitian's military achieve-
ments were insignificant. He defeated the Chatti, annexed the dis-
trict of the Taunus, and estabh'shed the Limes as a line of defence;
but he suffered defeats at the hands of the Quadi, Sarmatae and
Marcomanni; in Dacia he received a severe check, and was
obliged to purchase peace (90) from Decebalus by the payment of
a large sum of money and by guaranteeing a yearly tribute — the
first instance in Roman history. His jealousy was provoked by
the successes of Agricola in Britain, who was recalled to Rome (85)
in the midst of his conquests, condemned to retirement, and
perhaps removed by poison. The revolt of Antonius Saturninus,
the commander of the Roman forces in Upper Germany (88 or 89) ,
marks the turning-point in his reign (on the date see H. Schiller,
Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit, i. pt. 2, p. 524, note 2). It was
speedily crushed; but from that moment Domitian's character
changed. He got rid of all whom he disliked on the charge of
having taken part in the conspiracy, and no man of eminence was
safe against him. He was in constant fear of assassination and
distrusted all around him. During the last three years of his life
his behaviour was that of a madman. He sentenced to death his
own cousin and nephew by marriage, Flavius Clemens, whose
wife he banished for her supposed leaning towards Judaism
(Christianity). A conspiracy among his own freedmen — set on
foot, it is said, by his wife Domitia Longina, who knew her own
life to be threatened — cut short his career. He was stabbed in his
bedroom by a freedman of Clemens named Stephanus on the i8th
of September 96.

AUTHORITIES. Ancient. — Tacitus, Histories, Hi. iv. ; Suetonius,
Domitian; Dio Cassius Ixvi., Ixvii. ; Tacitus, Agricola, 18-22.
Modern accounts by A. Imhof, T. Flavius Domitianus (Halle, 1857),
which, while not claiming any special originality, is based on a
conscientious study of authorities; A. Halberstadt, De imperatoris
Domitiani moribus et rebus (Amsterdam, 1877), an attempt to
rehabilitate Domitian; S. Gsell, Essai sur le regne de I'empereur
Domitien (1894), very complete in every respect; H. Schiller (as
above), pp. 520-538; C. Meriyale, Hist, of the Romans under the
Empire, ch. 61, 62. For Domitian's attitude towards Christianity
see V. Schultze in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie fur protestan-
tische Theologie, iv. (1898); Sir W. M. Ramsay, The Church in the
Roman Empire (1903); E. G. Hardy, Christianity and the Roman
Government (1894); J. B. Bury, Appendix 8 to vol. ii. of his edition
of Gibbon.

DOMR^MY-LA-PUCELLE, a village of eastern France, in the
department of Vosges, on the left bank of the Meuse, 7 m. N. of
Neufchateau by road. Pop. (1906) 233. Domremy was the birth-
place of Joan of Arc, and the cottage in which she was born still
stands. Above the door are the arms of France and of Joan of Arc
and an inscription of 1481 reading " Vive labeur; vive le roi
Louys." There are several monuments to the heroine, and a
modern basilica has been erected in her honour on a neighbouring
hill, where she is said to have heard the voices in obedience to
which she took up the sword. The story of the heroine is annually
celebrated by a play in which the villagers take part.

DON (anc. Tanais), a river of European Russia, called Tuna or
Duna by the Tatars, rising in Lake Ivan (580 ft. above sea-level)
in the government of Tula, where it has communication with
the Volga by means of the Yepifan Canal, which links it with the
Upa, a tributary of the Oka, which itself enters the Volga. The
Don, after curving east through the government of Ryazan,
flows generally south through the governments of Tambov, Orel,
Voronezh and the Don Cossacks territory, describing in the last-
named a sweeping loop to the east, in the course of which it
approaches within 48 m. of the Volga in 49° N. In the middle of
the Don Cossacks territory it turns definitely south-west, and
finally enters the north-east extremity of the Sea cf Azov, form-
ing a delta 130 sq. m. in extent. Its total length is 1325 m., and
its drainage area is calculated at 166,000 sq. m. The average fall

406

DON— DONATELLO

of the river is about 5 J in. to the mile. In its upper course, which
may be regarded as extending to the confluence of the Voronezh
in 51° 40', the Don flows for the most part through a low-lying,
fertile country, though in the government of Ryazan its banks
are rocky and steep, and in some places even precipitous. In the
middle division, or from the mouth of the Voronezh to the point
where it makes its nearest approach to the Volga, the stream cuts
its way for the most part through Cretaceous rocks, which in many
places rise on either side in steep and elevated banks, and at
intervals encroach on the river-bed. A short distance below the
town of Rostov it breaks up into several channels, of which the
largest and most southern retains the name of the river. Before
it receives the Voronezh the Don has a breadth of 500 to 700, or
even in a few places 1000 ft., while its depth varies from 4 to 20 ft. ;
by the time it reaches its most eastern point the depth has
increased to 8-50 ft., and the ordinary breadth to 700-1000 ft.,
with an occasional maximum of 1400 ft.; in the lowest division
the depth is frequently 70 ft., and the breadth in many places
1870 ft. Generally speaking, the right bank is high and the left
flat and low. Shallow reaches are not uncommon, and there are
at least seven considerable shoals in the south-western part of the
course; partly owing to this cause, and partly to the scarcity of
ship-timber in the Voronezh government, the Don, although
navigable as far up as Voronezh, does not attain any great
importance as a means of communication till it reaches
Kachalinskaya in the vicinity of the Volga. From that point,
or rather from Kalach, where the railway (built in 1862) from the
Volga has its western terminus, the traffic is very extensive. Of
the tributaries of the river, the Voronezh, the Khoper, the
Medvyeditsa and the Donets are navigable — the Donets having a
course of 680 m., and during high water affording access to the
government of Kharkov. The Manych, another large affluent on
the left, marks the ancient line of water connexion between the
Sea of Azov and the Caspian Sea. The lower section of the Don is
subject to two annual floods, of which the earlier, known as the
" cold water," is caused by the melting of the snow in the country
of the Don Cossacks, and the later, or the " warm water," is due
to the same process taking place in the region drained by the
upper parts of the stream. About the beginning of June the river
begins to subside with great rapidity; in August the water is very
low and navigation almost ceases; but occasionally after the
September rains the traffic with small craft is again practicable.
Since the middle of the i8th century there have been five floods of
extraordinary magnitude, — namely, in 1748, 1786, 1805, 1820 and
1845. The river is usually closed by ice from November or
December to March or April, and at rare intervals it freezes in
October. At Aksai, in the delta, it remains open on the average
for 250 days in the year, at the mouth of the Medvyeditsa for 239,
and at Novo-Cherkask, on another arm of the delta, for 246. This
river supports a considerable fishing population, who despatch
salt fish and caviare all over Russia. Salmon and herrings are
taken in large numbers. (P. A. K.; J.T. BE.)

DON, a river in the south of Aberdeenshire, Scotland, rising in
peat-moss to the east of Glen Avon on the borders of Banffshire,
at a height of nearly 2000 ft. above the sea. It follows a generally
easterly course, roughly parallel with that of the Dee, and a few
miles to the south of it, falling into the North Sea close to Old
Aberdeen, after a run of 82 m. At the mouth the two rivers
are only 2$ m. apart. Like its greater neighbour, the Don is an
excellent salmon stream. On the left its chief affluents are the
Ernan, Nochty, Bucket and Urie; on the right, the Conrie,
Carvie, Deskry and Strow. The principal places of interest
on its banks are Strathdon, Towie, Kildrummy, Alford, Keig,
Monymusk, Inverurie, Kintore and Dyce.

DON AGHADEE, a market town of Co. Down, Ireland, in the
north parliamentary division, near the south of Belfast Lough, on
the Irish Channel, 25 m. E. by N. of Belfast by a branch of the
Belfast and Co. Down railway. Pop. (1901) 2073. It is the
nearest port in Ireland to Great Britain, being 21^ m. S.W. of
Portpatrick in Wigtownshire. Telegraph and telephone cables
join these ports, but a regular passenger route does not exist owing
to the unsuitability of Portpatrick. Donaghadee harbour admits

vessels up to 200 tons. On the north-east side of the town there
is a rath or encampment 70 ft. high, in which a powder magazine
is erected. The parish church dates from 1626. There are two
holy wells in the town. The town is frequented as a seaside
watering-place in the summer months.

DONALDSON, SIR JAMES (1831- ), Scottish classical
scholar, educational and theological writer, was born at Aberdeen
on the 26th of April 1831. He was educated at Aberdeen
University and New College, London. In 1854 he was appointed
rector of the Stirling high school, in 1866 rector of that of
Edinburgh, in 1881 professor of humanity in the university of
Aberdeen, and in 1890 principal of the university of St Andrews,
by the Universities (Scotland) Act. His chief works are:
Modern Greek Grammar (1853) ; Lyra Graeca (1854), specimens of
Greek lyric poetry from Callinus to Soutsos; A Critical History
of Christian Literature and Doctrine from the Death of the Apostles
to the Niccne Council (i.-iii., 1864-1866; new ed. of i. as The
Apostolical Fathers, 1874), a book unique of its kind in England
at the time of its appearance and one which adds materially
to the knowledge of Christian antiquities as deduced from
the apostolic fathers; Lectures on the History of Education in
Prussia and England (1874); The Westminster Confession of
Faith and the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England (1905) ;
Woman, her position and influence in ancient Greece and Rome
(1907). He was knighted in 1907.

DONALDSON, JOHN WILLIAM (1811-1861), English philo-
logist and biblical critic, was born in London on the 7th of June
1811. He was educated at University College, London, and
Trinity College, Cambridge, of which society he subsequently
became fellow. In 1841 he was elected headmaster of King
Edward's school, Bury St Edmunds. In 1855 he resigned his
post and returned to Cambridge, where his time was divided
between literary work and private tuition. He died on the loth
of February 1861. He is remembered as a pioneer of philology
in England, and as a great scholar in his day, though much of
his work is now obsolete. The New Cratylus (1839), the book on
which his fame mainly rests, was an attempt to apply to the
Greek language the principles of comparative philology. It was
founded mainly on the comparative grammar of Bopp, but a
large part of it was original, Bopp's grammar not being completed
till ten years after the first edition of the Cratylus. In the
Varronianus (1844) the same method was applied to Latin,
Umbrian and Oscan. His Jashar (1854), written in Latin as an
appeal to the learned world, and especially to German theologians,
was an attempt to reconstitute the lost biblical book of Jashar
from the remains of old songs and historical records, which,
according to the author, are incorporated in the existing text of
the Old Testament. His bold views on the nature of inspiration,
and his free handling of the sacred text, aroused the anger of the
theologians. Of his numerous other works the most important
are The Theatre of the Greeks; The History of the Literature of
Ancient Greece (a translation and completion of C. O. M tiller's
unfinished work) ; editions of the Odes of Pindar and the Antigone
of Sophocles; a Hebrew, a Greek and a Latin Grammar.

DONATELLO (diminutive of Donate) (c. 1386-1466), Italian
sculptor, was the son of Niccolo di Betto Bardi, a member of the
Florentine Woolcombers' Gild, and was born in Florence probably
in 1386. The date is conjectural, since the scanty contemporary
records of Donatello's life are contradictory, the earliest docu-
mentary reference to the master bearing the date 1406, when
a payment is made to him as an independent sculptor. That
Donatello was educated in the house of the Martelli family, as
stated by Vasari, and that he owed to them his introduction to his
future friend and patron, Cosimo de' Medici, is very doubtful, in
view of the fact that his father had espoused the cause of the
Albizzi against the Medici, and was in consequence banished from
Florence, where his property was confiscated. It is, however,
certain that Donatello received his first training, according to
the custom of the period, in a goldsmith's workshop, and that he
worked for a short time in Ghiberti's studio. He was too young
to enter the competition for the baptistery gates in 1402, from
which Ghiberti issued victorious against Brunelleschi, Jacopo

DONATELLO

407

della Quercia, Niccolo d'Arezzo and other rivals. But when
Brunellcschi in his disappointment left Florence and went to
Rome to study the remains of classic art he was accompanied by
young Donatello. Whilst pursuing their studies and excavations
on classic soil, which made them talked about amongst the
Romans of the day as " treasure seekers," the two young men
made a living by working at the goldsmiths' shops. This Roman
sojourn was decisive for the entire development of Italian art in
the i.sth century, for it was during this period that Brunelleschi
undertook his measurements of the Pantheon dome and of other
Roman buildings, which enabled hkn to construct the nobk
cupola of S. Maria del Fiore in Florence, while Donatello acquired
his knowledge of classic forms and ornamentation. The two
masters, each in his own sphere, were to become the leading
spirits in the art movement of the isth century. Brunelleschi 's
buildings and Donatello's monuments are the supreme expression
of the spirit of the early Renaissance in architecture and sculpture
and exercised a potent influence upon the painters of that age.

Donatello probably did not return to Florence before 1405,
since the earliest works in that city that can be traced to his chisel
are two small statues of " prophets " for the north door of the
cathedral, for which he received payment in November 1406 andin
the beginning of 1408. In the latter year he was entrusted with
the important commissions for the marble " David," now at the
Bargello, and for the colossal seated figure of " St John the
Evangelist," which until 1 588 occupied a niche of theold cathedral
facade, and is now placed in a dark chapel of the Duomo. We
find him next employed at Or San Michele, where between 1340
and 1406 only four of the fourteen niches had been filled. As the
result of a reminder sent by the Signory to the gilds who had
undertaken to furnish the statues, the services of Ciuffagni,Nanni
di Banco, Ghiberti and Donatello were enlisted, and Donatello
completed between 1412 and 1415 the" St Peter," the "St George"
(the original, now in the Bargello, has been replaced by a copy)
and the " St Mark." He probably also assisted Nanni di Banco in
his group of four saints. To this early period — in spite of Dr
Bode's contention, who places it about twenty years later —
belongs the wooden crucifix in S. Croce, the most striking instance
of Donatello's realism in rendering the human form and his first
attempt at carving the nude. It is said that this crucifix was
executed in rivalry with Brunelleschi 's noble work at S. Maria
Novella, and that Donatello, at the sight of his friend's work,
exclaimed, " It has been left to you to shape a real Christ, whilst I
have made a peasant." In this early group of statues, from the
prophets for the cathedral door to the " St George," can be
followed the gradual advance from Gothic stiffness of attitude and
draping to a forceful rendering of the human form and of move-
ment, which is a distinct approach to the classic ideal; from
the massiveness of the heavily draped figure to easy poise and
muscular litheness. All these figures were carved in marble and
are admirably conceived in relation to their architectural setting.
In fact, so strong is this tendency that the " St Mark," when
inspected at the master's workshop, was disapproved of by the
heads of the Gild of Linen- weavers, but aroused public enthusiasm
when placed in situ, and at a later date received Michelangelo's
unstinted admiration.

Between the completion of the niches for Or San Michele
and his second journey to Rome in 1433, Donatello was chiefly
occupied with statuary work for the campanile and the cathedral,
though from this period dates the bronze figure of the Baptist
for the christening font of Orvieto Cathedral, which was never
delivered and is now among the treasures of the Berlin museum.
This, and the " St Louis of Toulouse," which originally occupied
a niche at Or San Michele and is now badly placed at S. Croce,
were the first works in bronze which owed their origin to the
partnership of Donatello with Michelozzo, who undertook the
casting of the models supplied by his senior. The marble statues
for the campanile, which are either proved to be Donatello's
by documentary evidence or can be recognized as his work
from their style, are the " Abraham," wrought by the master
in conjunction with Giovanni di Bartolo (il Rosso); the
" St John the Baptist"; the so-called " Zuccone " (Jonah?);

"Jeremiah"; " Habakuk " (?); the unknown "prophet"
who is supposed to bear the features of the humanist Poggio
Bracciolini; and possibly he may have had a share in the
completion of the " Joshua " commenced by Ciuffagni in 1415.
All these statues, and the " St John " at the Bargello, mark a bold
departure from the statuesque balance of the " St Mark " and
" St George " to an almost instantaneous impression of life. The
fall of the draperies is no longer arranged in harmonious lines, but
is treated in an accidental, massive, bold manner. At the same
time the heads are no longer, as it were, impersonal, but almost
cruelly realistic character portraits of actual people, just as the
arms and legs and necks are faithfully copied from life with all
their angularities and deviations from the lines of beauty. During
this period Donatello executed some work for the baptismal font
at S. Giovanni in Siena, which Jacopo della Quercia and his
assistants had begun in 1416. Though the Florentine's share in
it is confined to a relief which may have been designed, or even
begun, by Jacopo, and a few statuettes, it is of considerable
importance in Donatello's life-work, as it includes his first
attempt at relief sculpture—except the marble relief on the socle
of the " St George "—his first female figures,—" Faith " and
" Hope," and his first putti. The relief, " Herod's Feast," shows
already that power of dramatic narration and the skill of express-
ing the depth of space by varying the treatment from plastic
roundness to the finest stiacciato, which was to find its mature
expression in the panels of the altar of S. Antonio in Padua and of
the pulpit of S. Lorenzo in Florence. The casting of the pieces
for the Siena font was probably done by Michelozzo, who is also
credited with an important share in the next two monumental
works, in the designing of which Donatello had to face a new
problem — the tomb of John XXIII. in the baptistery (begun
about 1425), and that of Cardinal Brancacci at S. Angelo a Nilo in
Naples (executed in Pisa, 1427). The noble recumbent figure of
the defunct on the former, the relief on the sarcophagus, and the
whole architectural design, are unquestionably due to Donatello;
the figure of the pope is the most beautiful tomb figure of the isth
century, and served as the model on which Rossellino, Desiderio,
and other sculptors of the following period based their treatment
of similar problems. Donatello's share in the Naples monument
is probably confined to the characteristic low relief of the
" Ascension." The baptistery tomb shows how completely
Donatello had mastered the forms of Renaissance architecture,
even before his second visit to Rome. An earlier proof of his
knowledge of classic art is his niche for the " St Louis " at Or S.
Michele, now occupied by Verrocchio's " Christ and St Thomas."
Similar in treatment to the " Ascension " relief is the " Charge to
St Peter " at South Kensington, which is almost impressionistic
in its suggestion of distance and intervening atmosphere expressed
by the extreme slightness of the relief. Another important work
of this period, and not, as Vasari maintains, of Donatello's youth,
is the " Annunciation " relief, with its wealth of delicately
wrought Renaissance motifs in the architectural setting.

When Cosimo, the greatest art patron of his time, was exiled
from Florence in 1433, Michelozzo accompanied him to Venice,
whilst Donatello for the second time went to Rome to drink once
more at the source of classic art. The two works which still
testify to his presence in this city, the " Tomb of Giovanni
Crivelli " at S. Maria in Aracoeli, and the " Ciborium " at St
Peter's, bear the stamp of classic influence. Donatello's return to
Florence in the following year almost coincides with Cosimo's.
Almost immediately, in May 1434, he signed a contract for the
marble pulpit on the facade of Prato cathedral, the last work
executed in collaboration with Michelozzo, a veritable bacchan-
alian dance of half-nude putti, pagan in spirit, passionate in its
wonderful rhythmic movement — the forerunner of the " singing
tribune " for Florence cathedral, at which he worked inter-
mittently from 1433 to 1440, and which is now restored to its
original complete form at the museum of the Opera del Duomo.
But Donatello's greatest achievement of his "'classic period " is
the bronze " David " at the Bargello, the first nude statue of the
Renaissance, the first figure conceived in the round, independent
of any architectural surroundings — graceful, well-proportioned,

408

DONATI— DONATION OF CONSTANTINE

superbly balanced, suggestive of Greek art in the simplification
of form, and yet realistic, without any striving after ideal pro-
portions. The same tendencies are to be noted in the bronze
putto at the Bargello.

In 1443 Donatello was invited to Padua to undertake the
decoration of the high altar of S. Antonio, but in the period
preceding his departure he not only assisted Brunelleschi in the
decoration of the sacristy of S. Lorenzo, towards which the bronze
doors are his chief contribution, but found time to chisel, or model
in wax or terra-cotta, for Cosimo and other private patrons, most
of the portrait busts and small reliefs, which are now distributed
over the museums of the world. His first work in Padua was the
bronze crucifix for the high altar, a work immeasurably superior
to the early wooden crucifix at S. Croce, both as regards nobility
of expression and subtlety of form. In the very year when
Donatello arrived in Padua the famous Condottiere Erasmo de'
Narni, called Gattamelata, had died, and when it was decided to
honour his memory with an equestrian statue, it was only natural
that this master should be chosen to undertake a task from the
difficulties of which all others may well have shrunk — had shrunk,
indeed, since classic times. This commission, and the reliefs and
figures for the high altar, kept Donatello in Padua for ten years,
though during that time he visited Venice (where he carved the
wooden " St John " at the Fran) and probably Mantua, Ferrara
and Modena. At least, he was in communication with Borso d'
Este of Modena about a project for an equestrian statue, and had
to give expert opinion about two equestrian statues at Ferrara.
In his workshop in Padua he gathered around him quite a
small army of assistants, stone-carvers, metal-workers, painters,
gilders and bronze-casters. The Gattamelata was finished and
set up in 1453 — a work powerful and majestic in its very repose;
there is no striving for dramatic effect, no exaggerated muscular
action, but the whole thing is dominated by the strong, energetic
head, which is modelled with the searching realism of the Zuccone
and the Poggio heads. The high altar, for which Donatello
executed twenty-two reliefs, seven statues and the crucifix, was
completed in 1450, but had subsequently to undergo many
changes, in the course of which the original disposition of the
sculptures was entirely lost sight of, the present arrangement
being due to Camillo Boi to ( 1 89 5) . The chief features of the altar
are the wonderfully animated and dramatic bronze reliefs, four in
number, of the " Miracles of St Anthony."

With the exception of another visit to Siena in 1457, of which
the bronze " St John " in the cathedral is a reminder, Donatello
spent the remaining years of his life in Florence. Closely akin
to the rugged " St John " at Siena, and therefore probably
contemporaneous, is the repulsively ugly, emaciated "Magdalen"
at the baptistery in Florence. The dramatic intensity of the
" Judith " group in the Loggia de' Lanzi, which was originally
placed in the court of the Medici Palace, marks it as belonging
to the post-Paduan period of the master's life. His last work of
importance was the bronze reliefs for the pulpit of S. Lorenzo,
commissioned about 1460, and finished after Donatello's death
by his pupil Bertoldo. The reliefs of the " Flagellation " and
" Crucifixion " at the Victoria and Albert Museum are typical
examples of the master's style at this closing period of his life.
He died on the isth of December 1466.

As happened subsequently to Velazquez and Frans Hals,
Donatello, whose supreme mastery had been acknowledged by
Michelangelo, Raphael and the other giants of the late Renais-
sance, almost sank into oblivion during the i8th and early igth
centuries, and only in comparatively recent times has he been
restored to the eminent position which is his due in the history of
art. The full power of his genius was only revealed to the world
when, at the quincentenary celebration of his birth, the greater
part of his life-work was brought together in Florence. The large
hall at the Bargello has ever since been devoted to the display of
his works, the numerous original bronzes and marbles and terra-
cottas being supplemented by casts of works at other places, such
as the colossal Gattamelata monument.

AUTHORITIES. — Before the date of the Florence exhibition in 1886
the only books on the subject of Donatello — apart from references in

jeneral histories of art — were Pastor's Donatella (Giessen, 1882) and
temper's Donatello, seine Zeit und seine Schide (Vienna, 1875). Since
then the great Florentine sculptor has received attention from many
of the leading art writers, though England has only contributed a
not very complete record of his life and work by Hope Rea, Donatello
[London, 1900), and an excellent critical study by Lord Balcarres,
Donatello (London, 1903), besides a translation of A. G. Meyer's
:ully illustrated and exhaustive monograph in the Knackfuss series
(London, 1904). Other notable books on the subject are: — Eugene
Miintz, Donatello (Paris, 1885), and in the series of Les Artistes
celebres (Paris, 1890); Schmarzow, Donatella (Breslau, 1886); Cava-
lucci, Vita ed opere del Donatello (Milan, 1886) ; Tschudi, Donatello
e la critica moderna (Turin, 1887); Reymond, Donatello (Florence,
1899); and Bode, Florentiner Btldhauer der Renaissance (Donatello
als Architekt und Dekorator, Die Madcmnenreliefs Donatellos)
(Berlin, 1902). (P. G. K.)

DONATI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1826-1873), Italian
astronomer, was born at Pisa on the i6th of December 1826. He
entered the observatory of Florence as a student in 1852, became
assistant to G. B. Amici in 1854, and was appointed in 1864 to
succeed him as director. A new observatory at Arcetri near
Florence, built under his supervision, was completed in 1872.
During the ten years 1854-1864 Donati discovered six comets,
one of which, first seen on the 2nd of June 1858, bears his name
(see COMET). He observed the total solar eclipse of the i8th of
July 1860, at Torreblanca in Spain, and in the same year began
experiments in stellar spectroscopy. In 1862 he published a
memoir, Intorno die strie degli spettri stellari, which indicated the
feasibility of a physical classification of the stars; and on the sth
of August 1864 discovered the gaseous composition of comets
by submitting to prismatic analysis the light of one then visible.
An investigation of the great aurora of the 4th of February 1872
led him to refer such phenomena to a distinct branch of science,
designated by him " cosmical meteorology "; but he was not
destined to prosecute the subject. Attending the International
Meteorological Congress of August 1873 at Vienna, he fell ill of
cholera, and died a few hours after his arrival at Arcetri, on the
2oth of September 1873.

See Vierteljahrsschrift der astr. Gesellschaft (Leipzig), ix. 4;
Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Society, xxxiv. 153; Memorie degli
spettroscopisti italiani, ii. 125 (G. Cacciatore); Nature, viii. 556;
&c. (A. M. C.) ,

DONATIO MORTIS CAUSA (grant in case of death), in law, a
gift of personal property made in contemplation of death and
intended either expressly or impliedly to take_complete effect only
if the donor dies of the illness affecting him at the time of the gift.
The conception as well as the name is borrowed from Roman law,
and the definition given by Justinian (Inst. ii. 7. i) applies equally
to a donatio mortis causa in Roman and English law. A distinction,
however, has arisen between the English and civil codes; by
English law delivery either actual or (when from the nature of the
thing actual delivery is impossible) constructive is essential, and
this delivery must pass not only the possession but the dominion
of the thing given; by the civil law, in some cases at least,
delivery of possession was not essential (see the judgment of Lord
Chancellor Hardwicke in Ward v. Turner, 1751, 2 Ves. sen. 431,
where the whole question is exhaustively discussed). A donatio
mortis causa stands halfway between a gift inter vinos and a
legacy, and has some of the characteristics of each form of
disposition. It resembles a legacy in that (i) it is revocable
during the donor's life, (2) it is subject to legacy and estate duty,
and (3) it is liable to satisfy debts of the testator in default of
other assets. On the other hand, it resembles a gift inter vivas
in that it takes effect from delivery; therefore the consent of the
executor is not necessary. Anything may be the subject of a
donatio mortis causa, the absolute property in which can be made
to pass by delivery after the donor's death either in law or equity;
this will cover bankers' deposit notes, bills of exchange, and notes
and cheques of a third person, but not promissory notes and
cheques of the donor in favour of the donee, for the donor's
signature is merely an authority for his banker to pay, which is
revoked by his death.

DONATION OF CONSTANTINE (Donatio Constantini), the
supposed grant by the emperor Constantine, in gratitude for his
conversion by Pope Silvester, to that pope and his successors.

DONATION OF CONSTANTINE

409

for ever, not only of spiritual supremacy over the other great
patriarchates and over all matters of faith and worship, but also of
temporal dominion over Rome, Italy and " the provinces, places
and civitates of the western regions." The famous document,
known as the Constitutum Constantini and compounded of various
elements (notably the apocryphal Vita S. Silvestri), was forged
at Rome some time between the middle and end of the 8th
century, was included in the pth century in the collection known
as the False Decretals, two centuries later was incorporated in
the Decretum by a pupil of Gratian, and in Gibbon's day was still
" enrolled among the decrees of the canon law," though already
rejected " by the tacit or modest censure of the advocates of
the Roman church." It is now universally admitted to be a
gross forgery.1 In spite, however, of Gibbon's characteristic
scepticism on this point, it is certain that the Constitutum was
regarded as genuine both by the friends and the enemies of the
papal pretensions throughout the middle ages. 2 Though no use
of it was made by the popes during the gth and loth centuries,
it was quoted as authoritative by eminent ecclesiastics of the
Prankish empire (e.g. by Ado of Vienne and Hincmar of Reims) ,
and it was employed by two Prankish popes, Gregory V. and
Silvester II., in urging certain territorial claims. But not till 1050
was it made the basis of the larger papal claims, when another
Prankish pope, Leo IX., used it in his controversy with the
Byzantines. From this time forward it was increasingly used by
popes and canonists in support of the papal pretensions, and from
the 1 2th century onwards became a powerful weapon of the
spiritual against the temporal powers. It is, however, as Cardinal
Hergenrother points out, possible to exaggerate its importance in
this respect; a charter purporting to be a grant by an emperor to
a pope of spiritual as well as temporal jurisdiction was at best a
double-edged weapon; and the popes generally preferred to base
their claim to universal sovereignty on their direct commission
as vicars of God. By the partisans of the Empire, on the other
hand, the Donation was looked upon as the fans et origo malorum,
and Constantine was regarded as having, in his new-born zeal,
betrayed his imperial trust. The expression of this opinion is not
uncommon in medieval literature (e.g.Walther von derVogelweide,
Pfeiffer's edition, 1880, Nos. Ssand 164), the most famous instance
being in the Inferno of Dante (xix. 115):

" Ahi, Costantin, di questo mal fu matre
Non la tua conversion, ma quella dote
Che da te prese il primo ricco patre ! "

The genuineness of the Constitutum was first critically assailed
by Laurentius Valla in 1440, whose De falso credita et ementita
Constantini donation* dedamatio opened a controversy that lasted
until, at the close of the i8th century, the defence was silenced.
In modern times the controversy as to the genuineness of the
document has been succeeded by a debate scarcely less lively
as to its date, its authorship and place of origin. The efforts of
Roman Catholic scholars have been directed (since Baronius
ascribed the forgery to the Greeks) to proving that the fraud was
not committed at Rome. Thus Cardinal Hergenrother holds
that it was written by a Frank in the 9th century, in order to
prove that the Greeks had been rightfully expelled from Italy
and that Charlemagne was legitimate emperor. This view, with
variations, was maintained by the writer of an article in the
Civiltd catlolicaia 1864 (Serie v. vol. x. pp. 303, &c.) and supported
by Grauert, who maintains that the document was concocted at
the abbey of St Denis, after 840. The evidence now available,
however, confirms those who ascribe an earlier date to the
forgery and place it at Rome. The view held by Gibbon and
Dollinger among others,3 that the Constitutum is referred to in

1 Dr Hodgkin's suggestion (Italy and her Invaders, vii. p. 153) that
the Constitutum may have been originally a mere pious romance,
recognized as such by its author and his contemporaries, and laid up
in the papal archives until its origin was forgotten, is wholly incon-
sistent with the unquestioned results of the critical analysis of the
text.

8 Leo of Vercelli, the emperor Otto III.'s chancellor, protested that
the Constitutum^ was a forgery, but without effect. The attacks upon
it by the heretical followers of Arnold of Brescia (1152) convinced
neither the partisans of the pope nor those of the emperor.

3 So Langen (1883) and E. Mayer (1904).

the letter of Pope Adrian I. to Charlemagne (778), is now indeed
largely rejected; there is nothing in the letter to make such an
assumption safe, and the same must be said of Friedrich's attempt
to find such reference in the letter addressed in 785 by the same
pope to Constantine VI., emperor of the East, and his mother
Irene. Still less safe is it to ascribe the authorship of the forgery
to any particular pope on the ground of its style; for papal
letters were drawn up in the papal chancery and the style
employed there was apt to persist through several pontificates.
Friedrich's theory that the Constitutum is a composite document,
part written in the 7th century, part added by Paul I. when
a deacon under Stephen II., though supported by a wealth
of learning, has been torn to tatters by more than one critic
(G. Kriiger, L. Loening).

On one point, however, a fair amount of agreement seems now
to have been reached, a result due to the labour in collating
documents of Scheffer-Boichorst, namely, that the style of the
Constitutum is generally that of the papal chancery in the latter
half of the 8th century. This being granted, there is room for
plentiful speculation as to where and why it was concocted. We
may still hold the opinion of Dollinger that it was intended to
impress the barbarian Pippin and justify in his eyes the Frank
intervention in favour of the pope in Italy; or we may share the
view of Loening (rejected by Brunner, Rechtsgeschichte) that the
forgery was a pious fraud on the part of a cleric of the Curia,
committed under Adrian I.,4 with the idea of giving a legal
basis to territorial dominion which that pope had succeeded in
establishing in Italy. The donations of Pippin and Charlemagne
established him as sovereign de facto; the donation of Constantine
was to proclaim him as sovereign dejure. It is significant in this
connexion that it was under Adrian (c. 774) that the papal
chancery ceased to date by the regnal years of the Eastern emperor
and substituted that of the pontificate. Dollinger's view is
supported and carried a step further by H. Bohmer, who by
an ingenious argument endeavours to prove that the Constitutum
was forged in 753, probably by the notary Christophorus, and
was carried with him by Pope Stephen II. to the court of Pippin,
in 754, with an eye to the acquisition of the Exarchate. In
support of this argument it is to be noted that the forged docu-
ment first appears at the abbey of St Denis, where Stephen spent
the winter months of 754. E. Mayer, on the other hand, denies
that the Constitutum can have been forged before the news of the
iconoclastic decrees of the council of Constantinople of 754 had
reached Rome. He lays stress on the relation of the supposed
confession of faith of Constantine, embodied in the forgery, to
that issued by the emperor Constantine V., pointing out the
efforts made by the Byzantines between 756 and the synod of
Gentilly in 767 to detach Pippin from the cause of Rome and the
holy images. The forgery thus had a double object: as a
weapon against Byzantine heresy and as a defence of the papal
patrimony. As the result of an exhaustive analysis of the text
and of the political and religious events of the time, Mayer comes
to the conclusion that the document was forged about 775, i.e. at
the time when Charlemagne was beginning to reverse the policy
by which in 774 he had confirmed the possession of the duchies of
Spoleto and Benevento to the pope.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See Dollinger, Papstfabeln des Mittelalters
(Munich, 1863; Eng. trans. A. Plummer, 1871); " Janus," Der Pabst
und das Konzil (Munich, 1869; Eng. trans. 1869); Hergenrother,
Catholic Church and Christian State (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1872;
Eng. trans. 2 vols. 1876); W. Martens, Die romische Frage unter
Pippin u. Karl d. Grossen (Stuttgart, 1881), with text; H. Grauert,
" Die Konstantinische Schenkung " in Hist. Jahrb. der Gorres-
Gesellsch. iii. (1882), iv. (1883); Langen, " Entstehung u. Tendenz
der Konst. Schenkungsurkunde " in Sybel's Hist. Zeitschr. 1.
(1883); L. Weiland, "Die Konst. Schenkung" in Zeitschr. f.
Kirchenrecht, xxii. (1887-1888), maintains that the Constitutum was
forged at Rome between 813 and 875, in connexion with the papal
claim to crown the emperors; H. Brunner and K. Zeumer, Die
Konstantinische Schenkungsurkunde (Berlin, 1888; Festgaben fur
R. v. Gneist), with text ; Fnedrich, Die Konst.Schenkung (Nordlingen,
1889), with text; W. Martens, Die falsche Generalkonzession Kon-
stantins des Grossen (Munich, 1889) ; P. Scheffer-Boichorst, " Neue

4 This is also W. Mayer's view in his later work. In his Die
romische Frage (1881) he had placed the forgery in 805 or 806.

DONATISTS

Forschungen iiber die Konst. Schenkung," i. ii. (Mitteilungen des
Instituts fur osterr. Geschichtsforschung, x. (1889), xi. (1890); G.
Kriiger, " Die Frage der Entstehungszeit der Konst. Schenkung," in
Theologische Literatnrzeitung, xiv. (1889); J. Hodgkin, Italy and her

Invaders, vol. vii. p. 135 (Oxford, 1899); article " Konstantinische

Schenkung," G. H. Bohmer, in Herzog-Hauck, Realency>

E. Mayer, " Die Schenkungen Konstantins und Pipms " in

Deutsche Zeitschr. fur Kirchenrecht (Tubingen, 1904). Laurentius
Valla's treatise was issued in a new edition, with French translation
and historical introduction, by A. Bonneau, La Donation de
Constantin (Lisieux, 1879). (W. A. P.)

DONATISTS, a powerful sect which arose in the Christian
church of northern Africa at the beginning of the 4th century.1
In its doctrine it sprang from the same roots, and in its history
it had in many things the same character, as the earlier Novatians.
The predisposing causes of the Donatist schism were the belief,
early introduced into the African church, that the validity of
all sacerdotal acts depended upon the personal character of the
agent, and the question, arising out of that belief, as to the
eligibility for sacerdotal office of the traditores, or those who had
delivered up their copies of the Scriptures under the compulsion
of the Diocletian persecution; the exciting cause was the election
of a successor to Mensurius, bishop of Carthage, who died in 311.
Mensurius had held moderate views as to the treatment of the
traditores, and accordingly a strong fanatical party had formed
itself in Carthage in opposition to him, headed by a wealthy and
influential widow named Lucilla, and countenanced by Secundus
of Tigisis, episcopus primae sedis in Numidia. There were thus two
parties, each anxious to secure the succession to the vacant see.
The friends of the late bishop fixed their choice on Caecilian, the
archdeacon, and secured his election and his consecration by
Felix, the bishop of Aptunga, before the other party were ready
for action. It had been customary for the Numidian bishops
to be present at the election and consecration of the bishop of
Carthage, who as metropolitan of proconsular Africa occupied a
position of primacy towards all the African provinces. Caecilian's
party, however, had not waited for them, knowing them to be in
sympathy with their opponents. Soon after Caecilian's consecra-
tion, Secundus sent a commission to Carthage, which appointed
an interventor temporarily to administer the bishopric which
they regarded as vacant. Then Secundus himself with seventy
of the Numidian bishops arrived at Carthage. A synod of Africa
was formed, before which Caecilian was summoned; his con-
secration was declared invalid, on the ground that Felix had been
a traditor; and finally, having refused to obey the summons to
appear, he was excommunicated, and the lector Majorinus, a
dependant of Lucilla's, consecrated in his stead. This synod
forbade the African churches to hold communion with Caecilian,
the schism became overt, and in a very short time there were
rival bishops and rival churches throughout the whole province.

It was soon clear, by the exclusion of the " Pars Majorini "
from certain privileges conferred on the African church, that the
sympathies of Constantine were with the other party (Eusebius,
Hist. eccl. x. 6, 7). To investigate the dispute an imperial
commission was issued to five Gallic bishops, under the presidency
of Melchiades, bishop of Rome. The number of referees was
afterwards increased to twenty, and the case was tried at Rome
in 3i3.2 Ten bishops appeared on each side, the leading re-
presentative of the Donatists being Donatus of Casae Nigrae.
The decision was entirely in favour of Caecilian, and Donatus was
found guilty of various ecclesiastical offences An appeal was
taken and allowed; but the decision of the synod of Aries in
314 not only confirmed the position of Caecilian, but greatly
strengthened it by passing a canon that ordination was not

'There were three prominent men named Donatus connected
with the movement — Donatus of Casae Nigrae ; Donatus surnamed
Magnus, who succeeded Majorinus as the Donatist bishop of
Carthage; and Donatus of Bagoi, a leader of the circumcelliones,
who was captured and executed c. 350. The name of the sect was
derived from the second of these. The Donatists themselves
repudiated the designation, which was applied to them by their
opponents as a reproach. They called themselves " Pars Maiorini "
or Pars Donati."

2 The Donatist movement affords a valuable illustration of the
new importance which the changed position of the church under
Constantine gave to the synodal system of ecclesiastical legislation.

invalid because performed by a traditor, if otherwise regular.
Felix had previously been declared innocent after an examination
of records and witnesses at Carthage. A further appeal to the
emperor in person was heard at Milan in 3 16, when all points were
finally decided in favour of Caecilian, probably on the advice of
Hosius, bishop of Cordova. Henceforward the power of the state
was directed to the suppression of the defeated party. Persistent
Donatists were no longer merely heretics; they were rebels
and incurred the confiscation of their church property and the
forfeiture of their civil rights.

The attempt to destroy the sect by force had the result of
intensifying its fanaticism. Majorinus, the Donatist bishop of
Carthage, died in 315, and was succeeded by Donatus, surnamed
Magnus, a man of great force of character, under whose influence
the schism gained fresh strength from the opposition it en-
countered. Force was met with force; the Circumcelliones,
bands of fugitive slaves and vagrant (circum cellas) peasants,
attached themselves to the Donatists, and their violence reached
such a height as to threaten civil war. In 321 Constantine, see-
ing probably that he had been wrong in abandoning his usual
policy of toleration, sought to retrace his steps by granting
the Donatists liberty to act according to their consciences,
and declaring that the points in dispute between them and the
orthodox should be left to the judgment of God. Thiswise policy,
to which he consistently adhered to the close of his reign, was not
followed by his son and successor Constans, who, after repeated
attempts to win over the sect by bribes, resorted to persecution.
The renewed excesses of the Circumcelliones, among whom were
ranged fugitive slaves, debtors and political malcontents of all
kinds, had given to the Donatist schism a revolutionary aspect;
and its forcible suppression may therefore have seemed to
Constans even more necessary for the preservation of the empire
than for the vindication of orthodoxy. The power which they
had been the first to invoke having thus declared so emphatically
and persistently against them, the Donatists revived the old
world-alien Christianity of the days of persecution, and repeated
Tertullian's question, " What has the emperor to do with the
church ? " (Quid est imperatori cum ecclesia ?) Such an attitude
aggravated the lawlessness of the Circumcellion adherents of
the sect, and their outrages were in turn made the justification
for the most rigorous measures against the whole Donatist
party indiscriminately. Many of their bishops fell victims to
the persecution, and Donatus (Magnus) and several others were
banished from their sees.

With the accession of Julian (361) an entire change took place
in the treatment of the Donatists. Their churches were restored
and their bishops reinstated (Parmenianus succeeding the
deceased Donatus at Carthage), with the natural result of greatly
increasing both the numbers and the enthusiasm of the party.
A return to the earlier policy of repression was made under
Valentinian I. and Gratian, by whom the Donatist churches were
again closed, and all their assemblies forbidden. It was not,
however, until the commencement of the 5th century that the
sect began to decline, owing largely to the rise among them of a
group of moderate and scholarly men like the grammarian
Tychonius, who vainly strove to overcome the more fanatical
section. Against the house thus divided against itself both state
and church directed not unsuccessful assaults. In 405 an edict
was issued by the emperor Honorius commanding the Donatists,
under the severest penalties, to return to the Catholic church.
On the other hand, Augustine, bishop of Hippo, after several
years' negotiation, arranged a great conference between the
Donatists and the orthodox, which was held under the authority
of the emperor at Carthage in 411. There were present 286
Catholics and 279 Donatist bishops. Before entering on the
proceedings the Catholics pledged themselves, if defeated, to give
up their sees, while in the other event they promised to recognize
the Donatists as bishops on their simply declaring their adherence
to the Catholic church. The latter proposal, though it was
received with scorn at the time, had perhaps ultimately as much
influence as the logic of Augustine in breaking the strength of the
schism. The discussion, which lasted for three days, Augustine

DONATUS— DONCASTER

411

and Aurelius of Carthage being the chief speakers on the one side,
and Primian and Petilian on the other, turned exclusively upon
the two questions that had given rise to the schism — first, the
question of fact, whether Felix of Aptunga who consecrated
Caecilian had been a traditor; and secondly, the question of
doctrine, whether a church by tolerance of unworthy members
within its pale lost the essential attributesof purity andcatholicity.
The Donatist position, like that of the Novatians, was that the
mark of the true church is to guard the essential predicate of
holiness by excluding all who have committed mortal sin; the
Catholic standpoint was that such holiness is not destroyed by
the presence of unworthy members in the church but rests upon
the divine foundation of the church and upon the gift of the Holy
Spirit and the communication of grace through the priesthood.
In the words of Optatus of Milevi, sanctitas de sacramentis
colligitur, non de superbia personarum pondera. And the much
wider diffusion of the orthodox church was also taken as practical
confirmation that it alone possessed what was regarded as the
equally essential predicate of catholicity.

The decision of Marcellinus, the imperial commissioner, was in
favour of the Catholic party on both questions, and it was at once
confirmed on an appeal to the emperor. The severest penal
measures were enforced against the schismatics; in 414 they
were denied all civil rights, in 415 the holding of assemblies was
forbidden on pain of death. But they lived on, suffering with
their orthodox brethren in the Vandal invasions of the sth
century, and like them finally disappearing before the Saracen
onslaught two centuries later.

AUTHORITIES. — i. Contemporary sources: Optatus Milevitanus
De Schismate Donatistarum adversus Parmenianum, written c. 368
(Dupin's ed., Paris, 1700), and several of the works of Augustine.
2. Modern : C. W. F. Walch, Entwurf einer vollstandigen Historie
der Ketzereien (Leipzig, 1768); Hauck-Herzog, Realencyk. fur prot.
Theol., art. " Donatismus " by N. Bonwetsch, who cites the literature
very fully ; W. Moller, History of the Christian Church (vol. i. pp.
331 ff.t 445 ff.); D. Volter, Der Ursprung des Donatismus (Freiburg,
1883).

DONATUS, AELIUS, Roman grammarian and teacher of
rhetoric, flourished in the middle of the 4th century A.D. The
only fact known regarding his life is that he was the tutor of St
Jerome. He was the author of a number of professional works, of
which there are still extant: — Ars grammatica; the larger portion
of his commentary on Terence (a compilation from other com-
mentaries), but probably not in its original form; and a few
fragments of his notes on Virgil, preserved and severely criticized
by Servius, together with the preface and introduction, and life of
Virgil. The first of these works, and especially the section on the
eight parts of speech, though possessing little claim to originality,
and in fact evidently based on the same authorities which were
used by the grammarians Charisius and Diomedes, attained such
popularity as a school-book that in the middle ages the writer's
name, like the French Calepin, became a common metonymy (in
the form donet) for a rudimentary treatise of any sort. On the
introduction of printing editions of the little book were multiplied
to an enormous extent. It is extant in the form of an Ars Minor,
which only treats of the parts of speech, and an Ars Major, which
deals with grammar in general at greater length.

Aelius Donatus is to be distinguished from Tiberius Claudius
Donatus, the author of a commentary (Interpretaliones) on the
Aeneid (of far less value than that of Servius), who lived about
fifty years later.

The best text of the Ars and the commentaries upon it by Servius
and others is in H. Keil, Grammalici Latini, iv. ; of the commentary
on Terence there is an edition by P. Wessner (1902, Teubner series),
with bibliography and full account. of MSS. See generally E. A.
Grafenhan, Geschichte der klassischen Philologie im Altertum, iv.
(1850); P. Rosenstock, De Donate, Terenti . . . explicatore (1886);
H. T. Karsten, De comm. Don. ad Terenti fabulas origine et com-
postttone (Leiden, 1907). For the commentary of Tiberius Donatus
see O. Ribbeck, Prolegomena to Virgil, Grafenhan (as above), and
V. Burkas, De Tiberii Claudii Donati in Aeneidem commentario (1889).
I he text will be found in G. Fabricius's edition of Virgil (1561),
ed. by H. George, i. (1905 foil.).

DONAUWORTH, a town of Germany in the kingdom of
Bavaria, on the left bank of the Danube, at the confluence of the
Wornitz, 25 m. N. of Augsburg by rail and at the junction of lines

to Ulm and Ingolstadt. Pop. 5000. It is an ancient town and
has several medieval buildings of interest. Notable among its
seven churches (six Roman Catholic) are the Kloster-Kirche
(monasterial), a beautiful Gothic edifice with the sarcophagus
of Maria of Brabant, and that of the former Benedictine abbey.
Heilig-Kreuz, with a lofty tower. Remarkable among secular
buildings are the Gothic town hall, and the so-called Tanz-haus,
which now includes both a theatre and a school. The industries
embrace machinery, brewing and saw-milling; the place is of
some importance as a river port, and the centre of a considerable
agricultural trade.

Donauworth grew up in the course of the nth and i2th
centuries under the protection of the castle of Mangoldstein,
became in the i3th a seat of the duke of Upper Bavaria, who,
however, soon withdrew to Munich to escape from the manes of
his wife Maria of Brabant, whom he had there beheaded on an
unfounded suspicion of infidelity. The town received the freedom
of the Empire in 1308, and maintained its position in spite of the
encroachments of Bavaria till 1607, when the interference of the
Protestant inhabitants with the abbot of the Heilig-Kreuz called
forth an imperial law authorizing the duke of Bavaria to inflict
chastisement for the offence. In the Thirty Years' War it was
stormed by Gustavus Adolphus (1632), and captured by King
Ferdinand (1634). In the vicinity, on the Schellenberg, the
Bavarians and French were defeated by Marlborough and
Prince Louis of Baden on the 2nd of July 1704. The imperial
freedom restored to the town by Joseph I. in 1705 was again lost
by reincorporation with Bavaria in 1714. In the neighbourhood
the Austrians under Mack were, on the 6th of October 1805,
decisively defeated by the French under Soult.

See Konigsdorfer, Geschichte des Klosters zum Heiligen Kreuz in
Donauworth (1819-20).

DON BENfTO, a town of western Spain, in the province of
Badajoz; near the left bank of the river Guadiana, on the Madrid-
Badajoz-Lisbon railway. Pop. (1900) 16,565. Don Benito is a
thriving and comparatively modern town; for it dates only from
the i sth century, when it was founded by refugees from Don
Llorente, who deserted their own town owing to the danger of
floods from the Guadiana. Besides manufactures of brandy,
flour, oil, soap, linen and cloth, it has an active trade in wheat,
wine and fruit, especially melons.

DONCASTER, a market-town and municipal borough in the
Doncaster parliamentary division of the West Riding of York-
shire, England, 156 m. N. by W. from London. Pop. (1901)
28,932. It lies in a flat plain on the river Don, with slight hills
rising westward. It is an important station on the Great Northern
railway, whose principal locomotive and carriage works are here,
and it is also served by the North Eastern, Great Eastern, Great
Central, Lancashire & Yorkshire, and Midland railways. The
Don affords intercommunication with Goole and the Humber.
The parish church of St George, occupying the site of an older
structure of the same name, destroyed by fire in 1853, was finished
in 1858 under the direction of Sir G. G. Scott. It is a fine cruciform
structure of Decorated character, with a central tower 170 ft.
high, and contains a particularly fine organ. St James's church
was erected, under the same architect and Lord Grimthorpe, by
the Great Northern railway company. Other important build-
ings are the town hall, mansion house, free library and art school,
corn exchange and markets. The grammar school was founded
in 1553 and reorganized in 1862. Doncaster race-meetings are
widely famous. The racecourse lies i m. S.E. of the town. The
old course is i m. 7 fur. 70 yds. in length, and the Sandall course
of i m. was added in 1892. The grand stand was erected in 1777,
but there are several additional stands. Races have long been
held at Doncaster, and there was a stand on the course before the
year 1615. The St Leger takes its name from Lieut.-General
St Leger, who originated the race in 1776; but it was not so
named till 1778. The meetings are held in the second week of
September. A system of electric tramways connects the town
with its principal suburbs. The agricultural trade is extensive,
and there are iron, brass and agricultural machine works.
Doncaster lies on the outskirts of a populous district extending

412

DON COSSACKS— DONEGAL

up the valley of the Don. Two miles S.W. is the urban district
of Balby-with-Hexthorpe (pop. 6781); and 7 m. S. is that of
Tickhill, where there are remains of a Norman castle. Wheatley
(3S79) lies 2 m- N.E. The borough of Doncaster is under a
mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors. Area, 1695 acres.

History. — There was a Roman station here, and numerous
remains of the Roman period have been found. In the reign of
Edward the Confessor, Doncaster, as a berewic of the manor of
Hexthorp, belonged to Earl Tostig; but before 1086 it had been
granted to Robert, earl of Mortain, whose successor William was
attainted for treason in the time of Henry I. The overlordship
then fell to the crown,, and the families of Frossard, Mauley and
Salvin successively held the manor as underlords. Doncaster was
evidently a borough held of the crown for a fee farm rent before
1194, when Richard I. granted and confirmed to the burgesses
their soke and town to hold by the ancient rent and by twenty-
five marks yearly. The town was incorporated in 1467 by Edward
IV., who granted a gild merchant and appointed that the town
should be governed by a mayor and two serjeants-at-mace elected
every year by the burgesses. Henry VII., while confirming this
charter in 1505, granted further that the burgesses should hold
their town and soke with all the manors in the soke on payment
of a fee farm. He also by another charter in 1508 confirmed
letters patent granted by Peter de Mauley in 1341, by which the
latter renounced to the inhabitants of Doncaster all the manorial
claims which he had upon them, with the " pernicious customs "
which his ancestors claimed from bakejs, brewers, butchers,
fishers and wind-fallen trees. In 1623 Ralph Salvin tried to
regain the manor of Doncaster from the mayor and burgesses,
who, fearing that the case would go against them, agreed to pay
about £3000, in return for which he gave up his claim to all the
manors in the soke. Charles II. in 1664 gave the town a new
charter, granting that it should be governed by a mayor, twelve
aldermen and twenty-four capital burgesses, but since this was not
enrolled and was therefore of no effect the burgesses obtained
another charter from James II. in 1684 by which the town was
governed until the Municipal Corporation Act. In 1 200 a fair at
Doncaster on the vigil and day of St James the Apostle was con-
firmed to Robert de Turnham, who held the manor in right of
his wife, with the addition of an extra day, for which he had to
give the king two palfreys worth loos. each. By the charter of
1194 the burgesses received licence to hold a fair on the vigil,
feast and morrow of the Annunciation, and this with the fair on
St James's day was confirmed to them by Henry VII. in 1505.
The fairs and markets are still held under these charters.

See Victoria County History, Yorkshire; Edward Miller, The
History and Antiquities of Doncaster (1828-1831); Calendar to the
Records of the Borough of Doncaster, published by the Corporation.

DON COSSACKS, TERRITORY OF THE (Russ. Donskaya
Oblast), a government of S.E. Russia, bounded W. by the govern-
ments of Voronezh, Kharkov and Ekaterinoslav, S.W. by the Sea
of Azov, S. by the governments of Kuban and Stavropol, and E.
by those of Astrakhan and Saratov. Area, 63,532 sq. m. Pop.
1,010,135 in 1867, 2,585,920 in 1897 and 3,125,400 (estimate) in
1906. It belongs almost entirely to the region of the South
Russian steppes, but in the N., W. and S.W. presents more the
aspects of elevated plains gapped with ravine-like river-courses,
while in the S.E., towards the Manych depression, it passes over
into the arid Aral-Caspian steppes (e.g. Zadonsk Steppe), dotted
over with salt lakes. Geologically the region is made up of
Carboniferous limestones, clay slates and sandstones, containing
anthracite and coal; of Cretaceous marls, chalk, sandstone and
greensands — chalk cliffs, in fact, accompany the Don for 200 m.;
and of Miocene limestones and clays. The surface, especially W.
of the Don, is the fertile black earth, intermingled here and there,
especially in the Zadonsk Steppe, with clay impregnated with salt.
The government is drained by the Don and its tributaries, of
which the Donets, Chir and Mius enter from the right and the
Khoper and Medvyeditsa from the left. The Don is navigable
throughout the government, and at Kalach is connected by a
railway, 45 m. long, with Tsaritsyn on the Volga, routes by which
an enormous amount of heavy merchandise is transported. The

climate is continental and dry, the average temperatures being —
year 43° Fahr., January 13°, July 72° at Uryupina (in 50° 48'
N.; alt. 92 ft.); and year 48°, January 21°, July 73° at Taganrog.
The annual rainfall at the same two places is 13-4 and 17 -4 in.
respectively. Foiests cover only 2 % of the area.

Nearly one-half of the population are Cossacks, the other
ethnological groups being (1897) 27,234 Armenians, 2255 Greeks,
1267 Albanians, 16,000 Jews and some 30,000 Kalmuck Tatars,
who are Lamaists in religion. Nearly all the rest of the people,
except the Jews and about 3000 Mahommedans, belong to the
Orthodox Eastern Church. The Cossacks own nearly 30,000,000
acres of land. The government is well provided with schools,
especially on the Cossack territory. Agriculture is the principal
occupation, but the crops vary very greatly from year to year,
owing to deficiency of rain. Vines are cultivated on a large scale,
and tobacco is grown in the south. Cattle-breeding is important,
and there are fine breeds of horses and large flocks of sheep.
Productive fisheries are carried on at the mouth of the Don.
Nearly 13,000 persons are engaged in coal-mining; the coalfields
form part of the vast Donets coal basin (10,420 sq. m., with a
total output of nearly 1 3 ,000,000 tons annually) . Some iron ore,
gypsum, salt and limestone are also produced. The principal
branches of manufacturing industry are flour-milling, potteries,
ironworks and tobacco factories. The exports consist chiefly
of cereals, cattle, horses, sheep, wine, fish and hides. The
government is under the administration of the ministry of
war, and is divided into nine districts — Donets (chief town,
Kamenskaya with 23,576 inhabitants in 1897), First Don dis-
trict (Konstantinovskaya, 8800), Second Don district (Nizhne-
Chirskaya, 15,196), Rostov (Rostov-on-Don, 119,889), Salsky
(Velikoknyazheskaya), Taganrog (Taganrog, 58,928 in 1900),
Ust-medvyeditsa (Ust-medvyeditsa, 16,000), Khoper (Uryupina,
9600), Cherkasky (Novo-cherkassk, 52,005). The capital of
the government is Novo-cherkassk. Many of the Cossack
stanitsas (villages) are very populous. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)

DONEGAL, a county in the extreme north-west of Ireland, in
the province of Ulster, bounded N. and W. by the Atlantic Ocean,
E. by Lough Foyle and the counties Londonderry and Tyrone,
and S. by Donegal Bay and the counties Fermanagh and Leitrim.
The area is 1,197,153 acres, or about 187 isq. m.,the county being
the largest in Ireland after Cork and Mayo. This portion of the
country possesses little natural wealth; its physical character-
istics are against easy communications, and although its northern
coast affords one or two good natural harbours, there is no
commercial inducement to take advantage of them. The fine
scenery and other natural attractions of Donegal thus remained
practically unknown until late in the igth century, but an effort
was then made by Lord George Hill to introduce wealth from
without into the county, and to develop its resources in this,
almost the only possible direction. The county possesses a large
extent of sea-coast indented by numerous inlets. Ballyshannon
harbour, the most southern of these, is small, and has a bar at
its mouth, as has Donegal harbour farther north. Killybegs
harbour is Veil sheltered, and capable of receiving large vessels.
These, with Bruckles or M'Swiney's Bay, and Teelin harbour,
suitable for small vessels, are arms of the fine inlet of Donegal
Bay. The western shore is beautified by the indentations of
Loughros Beg, Gweebarra, Trawenagh and Inishfree Bays. On
the north is Sheephaven, within which is Dunfanaghy Bay, where
the largest ships may lie in safety, as they may also in Mulroy
Bay and Lough Swilly farther east. Lough Foyle, which divides
Donegal from Londonderry, is a noble sheet of water, but is
shallow and in part dry at ebb tide, contracted at its entrance,
and encumbered with shoals. A few miles west of Malin Head,
the most northerly point of the mainland of Ireland, the varied
and extensive Lough Swilly runs far into the interior. From
these two loughs much land has been reclaimed. Numerous
islands and rocks stud the coast. The largest island is North Aran,
about 15 m. in circumference, with a lofty hill in its centre, and a
gradual declivity down to the sea. On the northern coast are
Tory Island, and, farther east, Inishtrahull, the ultima Thule of
Ireland. The inhabitants of these islands obtain a precarious

DONEGAL

4*3

livelihood by fishing, kelp-burning and rude husbandry, but are
often reduced to extreme destitution.

Mountains and irregular groups of highlands occupy the whole
interior of the county, and a considerable portion is bog and moor-
land. Errigal mountain in the north-west attains an elevation of
2466 ft. and commands from its summit a fine view over a con-
siderable portion of the country. In its vicinity, the Derryveagh
mountains reach 2240 ft. in Slieve Snaght; Muckish is 2197 ft.;
in the south Bluestack reaches 2219 ft.; and hi the Innishowen
peninsula between Loughs Swilly and Foyle, another Slieve
Snaght is 2019 ft. in elevation. At the western extremity of the
north coast of Donegal Bay stands Slieve League, whose western
flank consists of a mighty cliff, descending almost sheer to the
Atlantic, exhibiting beautiful variegated colouring, and reaching
an extreme height of 1972 ft. From these details it will appear
that the scenery of the highlands and the sea-coast often attain a
character of savage and romantic grandeur; whereas the eastern
and southern portions are generally less elevated and more fertile,
but still possess considerable beauty. A considerable portion of
the surface, however, is occupied by bogs, and entirely destitute
of timber.

With the exception of the tidal river Foyle, which forms the
boundary between this county and Tyrone and Londonderry,
the rivers, though numerous, are of small size. The branches of
the Foyle which rise in Donegal are the Derg, issuing from Lough
Derg, and the Finn, rising in the beautiful little lake of the same
name in the highlands, and passing through some of the best
cultivated land in the county. The Foyle, augmented by their
contributions, and by those of several other branches from the
counties Tyrone and Londonderry, proceeds northward, dis-
charging its waters into the southern extremity of Lough Foyle,
at the city of Londonderry. It is navigable for vessels of large
burden to this place, and thence by lighters of fifty tons as far as
Lifford. Boats of fourteen tons can proceed up the Finn river as
far as Castlefinn. The fine river Erne flows from Lough Erne
through the southern extremity of the county into the southern
extremity of Donegal Bay. Its navigation is prevented by a fall
of 12 ft., generally called the Salmon Leap, in the neighbour-
hood of Ballyshannon, and by rapids between Ballyshannon and
Belleek, on the confines of Co. Fermanagh. The Gweebarra, the
Owenea, and the Eask are the only other streams of any note.
Lakes are very numerous in Donegal. The most remarkable, and
also the largest, is Lough Derg, comprising within its waters
several islets, on one of which, Station Island, is the cave
named St Patrick's Purgatory, a celebrated place of resort for
pilgrims and devotees. The circumference of the lake is about
9 m., and the extent of the island to which the pilgrims are
ferried over is less than i acre. The landscape round Lough
Derg is desolate and sombre in the extreme, barren moors and
heathy hills surrounding it on all sides. Salmon, sea-trout and
brown trout afford sport in most of the rivers and loughs, and
Glen ties for the Owenea river, and Gweedore for the Clady, in the
west; Killybegs for the Eanymore and Eask, in the south; and
Rathmelton and Rosapenna for the Owencarrow and Leannan,
in the north, may be mentioned as centres. Ballyshannon and
Bundoran, in the extreme south, are centres for the Erne and
other waters outside the county.

Geology. — The dominant feature in the geology of this county is
the north-east and south-west strike forced upon the older rocks
during earth-movements that set in at the close of Silurian times.
The granite that forms characteristically the core of the folds is
probably of the same age as that of Leinster, or may possibly repre-
sent older igneous masses, brought into a general parallelism during
the main epoch of stress. The oldest recognizable series of rocks
is the Dalradian, and its quartzites form the white summits of
Muckish, Errigal and Aghla. The intruding granite, which pre-
dominates in the north-west, has frequently united with the meta-
morphic series to form composite gneiss. In the southern mass near
Pettigo, once regarded as Archaean and fundamental, residual
" eyes " of the hornblendic rocks that are associated with the
Dalradian series remain floating, as it were, in the gneiss. North ol
this, the country is wilder, consisting largely of mica-schist, through
which a grand mass of unfoliated granite rises at Barnesmore. The
course of the Gweebarra, or Glen Beagh, of the Glendowan mountains,
and the Aghla ridge, have all been determined by the general strike

imparted to the country. At Donegal Bay the Lower Carboniferous
sandstone and limestone come in as a synclinal, and the limestone
extends to Bundoran. Small Carboniferous outliers on the summits
of the great cliff of Slieve League show the former extension of these
strata. Bog iron-ore is raised as a gas-purifier; and talc-schist has
been worked for steatite at Crohy Head. In most parts of the west
the patches of glacial drift form the only agricultural 'and. The
fine-grained sandstone of Mount Charles near Donegal is a well-
known building stone, and the granites of the north-west have
attracted much attention.

Industries. — The modes of agriculture present little that is
peculiar to the county, and the spade still supplies the place
of the plough where the rocky nature of the surface prevents
the application of the latter implement. The soil of the greater
portion of the county, i.e. the granite, quartz and mica slate
districts, is thin and cold, while that on the carboniferous lime-
stone is warm and friable. Owing to the boggy nature of the soil,
agriculture has not made much progress, although in certain
districts (Gweedore, for instance) much land has been brought
under cultivation through the enteiprise of the proprietors.
Roughly speaking, however, about 45 % of the land is waste,
35 % pasture and 15 % tillage. Wheat and barley are quite
an inconsiderable crop, and in this as well as in other respects
Donegal is much behind the rest of Ulster in the extent of its
crops. It bears, however, a more favourable comparison as
regards its live stock, as cattle, sheep and poultry are extensively
kept.

In Donegal, as in other counties of Ulster, the linen manu-
facture affords employment to a number of inhabitants, especially
at Raphoe, while the manufacture of excellent homespun, woollen
stockings and worked muslin is carried on pretty extensively.
The trade in. these manufactures and in the domestic produce
of the county finds its principal outlets through the port of
Londonderry and the inland town of Strabane, Co. Tyrone.
The deep-sea fisheries are important, and are centred at Killybegs,
Gweedore and Rathmullen. The salmon fishery is also prose-
cuted to a considerable extent, the principal seats of the trade
being at Ballyshannon and Letterkenny.

The railway system includes the County Donegal railway from
Londonderry south-west to Donegal town and Killybegs, with
branches to Glenties, a village near the west coast, and to
Ballyshannon; and the Londonderry and Lough Swilly, serving
Letterkenny, and continuing to Burtonport with a branch north
to Buncrana, a watering-place on Lough Swilly, and Cardonagh
in the Innishowen peninsula. From Letterkenny the line con-
tinues to Dunfanaghy on the north coast, thence to Gweedore
and Burtonport.

Population and Administration. — The population (185,635 in
1891; 173,722 in 1901) decreases less seriously than in most Irish
counties, though the proportion of emigrants is large. About
78 % of the population is Roman Catholic, and almost the whole
is rural. The native Erse naturally dies out slowly in this remote
county, and the Donegal dialect is said to be the purest in the
Irish language. The towns are small in extent and importance.
Lifford (pop. 446), the county town, is practically a suburb
of Strabane, in the neighbouring Co. Tyrone. Ballyshannon
(2359) on the river Erne, Letterkenny (2370) at the head of Lough
Swilly, and Donegal (1214) at the head of the bay of that name,
are the other principal towns. The principal watering-places are
Moville on Lough Foyle, Buncrana and Rathmelton on Lough
Swilly; while, following the coast from north to south, Rosapenna,
Dunfanaghy, Gweedore, Dungloe and Ardara, with Bundoran
in the extreme south, are seaside villages frequently visited.
Resorts deserving mention for the attractive scenery for which
they are centres, are — Ardara, on the Owenea river, where the
cliffs of the neighbouring coast are particularly fine; Carrick,
Malin Head, the beautiful land-locked bay of Mulroy, Narin on
Boylagh Bay, Portsalon on Lough Swilly, and Stranorlar, a small
market town near the fine mountain pass of Barnesmore.

Donegal contains seven baronies and fifty parishes. Assizes
are held at Lifford, and quarter sessions at Ballyshannon, Bun-
crana, Donegal, Cardonagh, Glenties, Letterkenny and Lifford.
The county is in the Protestant dioceses of Clogher and Deny,

414

DONEGAL— DONGOLA

and the Roman Catholic dioceses of Raphoe, Clogher and Derry.
The county returned twelve members to the Irish parliament;
after the Union it returned two; but it is now divided into north,
east, south and west divisions, each returning one member.

History and Antiquities. — The greater part of Donegal was
anciently called Tyrconnell (<?.».) or the country of Conall; and
it was sometimes called O'Donnell's country, after the head
chieftains of the district. This district was formed into the
county of Donegal in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, in 1585,
by the lord-deputy Sir John Perrott. The most noteworthy
architectural remains of antiquity in the county are to be found
at the head of Lough Swilly, where, situated on the summit of
a hill 802 ft. high, some remarkable remains exist of a fortress
or palace of the northern Irish kings. These are known as the
Grianan of Aileach, and evidently date from a period prior to the
j 2th century. On Tory Island there are one of the best specimens
of a round tower and some other interesting remains. Numerous
ruins of ancient castles along the coast prove that much attention
was formerly paid to the defence of the country from invasion.
The principal are — Kilbarron Castle, an ancient stronghold of
the O'Clerys, near Ballyshannon; Donegal Castle, built by the
O'Donnells, anciently their chief residence, and now a fine ruin
standing close to the water's edge; Burt Castle, built in the reign
of Henry VIII. on the shores of Lough Swilly by Sir Cahir
O'Dogherty, to whom is also attributed the erection of Green
Castle, one of the strongholds of the clan on Lough Foyle. Near
the Castle of Doe, or M'Swiney's Castle, at Horn Head, is a
natural perforation in the roof of a cave, called M'Swiney's Gun,
formed by the workings of the ocean into the overhanging cliff.
When the wind blows due north, and the tide is at half flood, the
gun is seen to spout up jets of water to a height of 100 ft., attended
with explosions heard occasionally in favourable weather at an
immense distance. Gulmore Fort, on the coast of Lough Swilly,
supposed to have been erected by the O'Doghertys, having come
into the possession of the crown, was granted in 1609 to the
corporation of London. It was afterwards enlarged or rebuilt,
and acted a prominent part in the celebrated siege of Derry.
Traces of religious houses, some existing only in traditionary or
documental records, are also numerous. The ruins of that of
Donegal, founded in 1474, afford proofs of its ancient grandeur.
At Raphoe, 5 m. N.W. of Lifford, is the cathedral of a former
diocese united to that of Derry in 1835.

DONEGAL, a small seaport and market town of Co. Donegal,
Ireland (not, as its name would suggest, the county town, which
is Lifford), in the south parliamentary division, at the head of
Donegal Bay, and the mouth of the river Eask, on the Donegal
railway. Pop. (1001) 1214. Its trade in agricultural produce
is hampered by the unsatisfactory condition of its harbour, the
approach to which is beset with shoals. Here are the ruins of
a fine Jacobean castle, occupying the site of a fortress of the
O'Donnells of Tyrconnell, but built by Sir Basil Brooke in 1610.
There are also considerable remains of a Franciscan monastery,
founded in 1474 by one of the O'Donnells, and here were compiled
the famous " Annals of the Four Masters," a record of Irish
history completed in 1636 by one Michael O'Clery and his
coadjutors. There is a chalybeate well near the town, and ~t\ m.
S., at Ballintra, a small stream forms a series of limestone caverns
known as the Pullins. Donegal received a charter from James I.,
and returned two members to the Irish parliament. The name is
said to signify the " fortress of the foreigners," and to allude to a
settlement by the Northmen.

DONELSON, FORT, an entrenched camp at Dover, Tennessee,
U.S.A., erected by the Confederates in the Civil War to guard the
lower Cumberland river, and taken by the Federals on the i6th of
February 1862. It consisted of two continuous lines of entrench-
ments on the land side, and water batteries commanding the river.
After the capture (Feb. 6) of Fort Henry on the lower Tennessee
the Union army (three divisions) under Brigadier- General U. S.
Grant marched overland to invest Donelson, and the gunboat
flotilla (Commodore A. H. Foote) descended the Tennessee and
ascended the Cumberland to meet him. Albert Sidney Johnston,
the Confederate commander in Kentucky, had thrown a large

garrison under General Floyd into Donelson, and Grant was at
first outnumbered; though continually reinforced, the latter had
at no time more than three men to the Confederates' two. The
troops of both sides were untrained but eager.

On the 1 2th and I3th of February 1862 the Union divisions,
skirmishing heavily, took up their positions investing the fort,
and on the I4th Foote's gunboats attacked the water batteries.
The latter received a severe repulse, Foote himself being amongst
the wounded, and soon afterwards the Confederates determined
to cut their way through Grant's lines. On the I5th General
Pillow attacked the Federal division of McClernand and drove it
off the Nashville road; having done this, however, he halted,
and even retired. Grant ordered General C. F. Smith's division
to assault a part of the lines which had been denuded of its
defenders in order to reinforce Pillow. Smith personally led his
young volunteers in the charge and carried all before him. The
Confederates returning from the sortie were quite unable to shake
his hold on the captured works, and, Grant having reinforced
McClernand with Lew 'Wallace's division, these two generals
reoccupied the lost position on the Nashville road. On the i6th,
the two senior Confederate generals Floyd and Pillow having
escaped by steamer, the infantry left in the fort under General
S. B. Buckner surrendered unconditionally. The Confederate
cavalry under Colonel Forrest made its escape by road. The
prisoners numbered about 15,000 out of an original total of
18,000.

DONGA, a Bantu word for a ravine, narrow watercourse or
gully formed by the action of water. Adopted by the European
residents of South Africa from the Kaffirs, the use of the word
has been extended by English writers to ravines or watercourses
of the nature indicated in various other parts of the world. It is
almost equivalent to the Arabic khor, which, however, also means
the dry bed of a stream, or a stream flowing through a ravine.
The Indian word nullah (properly a watercourse) has also the
same significance. The three words are often used interchange-
ably by English writers.

DONGOLA, a mudiria (province) of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.
It lies wholly within the region known as Nubia and extends along
both banks of the Nile from about 18° N. to 20° N. The rainfall
is very slight, and the area of fertility is mainly confined to
the lands watered by the Nile. Beyond stretches eastward the
Nubian desert, westward the Libyan desert. The Wadi el Kab
(Gab), west of and parallel to the Nile, contains, however, a good
deal of arable land. This wadi, which is some 63 m. long, obtains
water by percolation from the Nile. Farther west is the extensive
plateau of Jebel Abiad, and beyond, some 250 m. due west of
Debba, is Bir Natron, or Bir Sultan, a valley whence natron is
obtained. In this desert region is found the addax, the rarest
of Sudan antelopes. The chief grain crops are durra and barley,
and date palms are extensively cultivated. The province is also
noted for a breed of strong, hardy horses. The largest town
is Dongola, but the administrative headquarters of the mudiria
are at New Merawi (Merowe, Meroe), on the left bank of the Nile,
below the 4th cataract. Other towns, also on the Nile, are Debba
and Korti, whence start caravan routes to Kordofan and
Omdurman. At Jebel Barkal, in the neighbourhood of Merawi,
and elsewhere in the mudiria, are ancient ruins (see SUDAN:
Anglo-Egyptian). Old Merawi, on the right bank of the Nile,
and Sanam Abu Dom, on the left bank, indicate the site of
the Ethiopian city of Napata. From Kareima, on the right or
northern bank of the Nile, 6 m. above New Merawi, a railway
(opened in March 1906) runs to Abu Hamed, whence there is
railway connexion with the Red Sea, Khartum and Egypt.
From Kareima downstream the Nile is navigable to Kerma,
just above the 3rd cataract. Between 1896 and 1904 a rail-
way ran between Kerma and Wadi Haifa. In the last-named
year this railway was closed. It had been built for purely
military purposes and was unremunerative as a commerical
undertaking.

The Dongolese (Dongolawi, Danaglas, Danagalehs) are
Nubas in type and language, but have a large admixture of Arab,
Turk and other blood. They are great agriculturists and keen

DONGOLA— DONIZETTI

traders, and were notorious slave-dealers. South of Old Dongola
the inhabitants are not Nubians but Shagia (q.v.), and the Nubian
tongue is replaced by Arabic. Of the nomad desert tribes the
chief are the Hawawir and Kabbabish.

The country now forming the mudiria was once part of the
ancient empire of Ethiopia (<?.».), Napata being one of its capital
cities. From about the beginning of the Christian era the
chief tribes in the region immediately south of Egypt were the
Blemmyes and the Nobatae. The last named became converted
to Christianity about the middle of the 6th century, through
the instrumentality, it is stated, of the empress Theodora. A
chieftain of the Nobatae, named Silko, between the middle and
the close of that century, conquered the Blemmyes, founded a
new state, apparently on the ruins of that of the southern Meroe
(Bakarawiya), made Christianity the official religion of the
country, and fixed his capital at (Old) Dongola. This state, now
generally referred to as the Christian kingdom of Dongola, lasted
for eight or nine hundred years. Though late in reaching Nubia,
Christianity, after the wars of Silko, spread rapidly, and when
the Arab conquerors of Egypt sought to subdue Nubia also they
met with stout resistance. Dongola, however, was captured by
the Moslems in 652, and the country laid under tribute (bakt) —
400 men having to be sent yearly tc Egypt. This tribute was
paid when it could be enforced; at periods the Nubians gained
the upper hand, as in 737 when Cyriacus, their then king, marched
into Egypt with a large army to redress the grievances of the
Copts. There is a record of an embassy sent by a king
Zacharias in the pth century to Bagdad concerning the tribute,
while by the close of the loth century the Nubians seem to have
regained almost complete independence. They did not, however,
possess any part of the Red Sea coast, which was held by the
Egyptians, who, during the 9th and loth centuries, worked the
emerald and gold mines between the Nile and the Red Sea. The
kingdom, according to the Armenian historian Abu Salih, was
in a very flourishing condition in the I2th century. It then
extended from Assuan southward to the 4th cataract, and
contained several large cities. Gold and copper mines were
worked. The liturgy used was in Greek. In 1173 Shams
addaula, a brother of Saladin, attacked the Nubians, captured
the city of Ibrim (Primis), and among other deeds destroyed
700 pigs found therein. The Egyptians then retired, and for
about 100 years the country was at peace. In 1275 the
Mameluke sultan Bibars aided a rebel prince to oust his uncle
from the throne of Nubia; the sultans Kalaun and Nasir also
sent expeditions to Dongola, which was several times captured.
Though willing to pay tribute to the Moslems, the Nubians
clung tenaciously to Christianity, and, despite the raids to which
the country was subjected, it appears during the I2th and ijth
cen turies to have been fairly prosperous. No serious attempt was
made by the Egyptians to penetrate south of Napata, nor is it
certain how far south of that place the authority of the Dongola
kingdom (sometimes known as Mukarra) extended. It was
neighboured on the south by another Christian state, Aloa (Aiwa) ,
with its capital Soba on the Blue Nile.

Cut off more and more from free intercourse with the Copts
in Egypt, the Nubian Christians at length began to embrace
Jewish and Mahommedan doctrines; the decay of the state was
hastened by dissensions between Mukarra and Aloa. Neverthe-
less, the Nubians were strong enough to invade upper Egypt
during the reign of Nawaya Krestos (1342-1372), because the
governor of Cairo had thrown the patriarch of Alexandria
into prison. The date usually assigned for the overthrow of the
Christian kingdom is 1351. Only the northern part of the country
(as far as the 3rd cataract) came under the rule of Egypt. Never-
theless, according to Leo Africanus, at the close of the isth
century Christianity and native states still survived in Nubia,
and in the i6th century the Nubians sent messengers to Abyssinia
to Father Alvarez, begging him to appoint priests to administer
the sacraments to them — a request with which he was not able
to comply. Thereafter the Nubian Church is without records.
The Moslems may have extinguished it in blood, for the region
between Dongola and Shendi appears to have been depopulated.

Between Assuan and Hannek the Turks introduced in the
i6th century numbers of Bosnians, whose descendants ruled
the district, paying but a nominal allegiance to the Porte. At
Ibrim, Mahass, and elsewhere along the banks and in the islands
of the Nile, they built castles, now in ruins. South of Hannek
the kings of Sennar became overlords of the country. As the
power of the Sennari declined, the nomad Shagia (or Shaikiyeh)
attained pre-eminence in the Dongola district.

About 1812 Mamelukes fleeing from Mehemet Ali, the pasha
of Egypt, made themselves masters of part of the country,
destroying the old capital and building a new one lower down the
Nile. In 1820 both Mamelukes and Shagia were conquered by
the Egyptians, and the DongoJa province annexed to Egypt.
In consequence of the rising of the Dervishes Egypt evacuated
Dongola in 1 886. The attempt to set up an independent govern-
ment failed, and the Dervishes held the town until September
1896, when it was reoccupied by an Egyptian force.

See J. L. Burckhardt, Travels in Nubia (London, 1819) ; Naum
Bey Shucair, The History and Geography oj the Sudan (in Arabic,
3 vols., Cairo, 1903); E. A. Wallis Budge, The Egyptian Sudan
(2 vols., London, 1907).

DONGOLA, a town of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, which gives
its name to a mudiria. It is situated on the W. bank of the Nile,
about 45 m. above the 3rd cataract, in 19° 10' N., 30° 29' E.
Pop. about 10,000. It is 1082 m. S. of Cairo by river and 638 m.
N. of Khartum by the same route. Its commerical outlet,
however, is Port Sudan, on the Red Sea, 600 m. E.S.E. by
steamer and railway. It is a thriving, well-built town; an
important agricultural and trading centre. Lignite is found on
the east bank of the Nile opposite the town. Founded c. 1812 by
Mamelukes who fled to Nubia from the persecutions of Mehemet
Ali, the town is called Dongola Makara (New Dongola) to
distinguish it from Dongola Agusa (Old Dongola), which it
supplanted. It is also called El Ordi (the barracks), a
reminiscence of the buildings erected by the Egyptians after
their occupation of the town in 1820. The Mahdi Mahommed
Ahmed was a native of Dongola. In 1884-1885 the town was
the base of the British troops in their advance on Khartum.

Dongola Agusa, 75 m. upstream from New Dongola, now a
heap of ruins, was the capital of the Nubian state usually called
the Christian kingdom of Dongola. An Arab historian of the i ith
century describes it as a large city with many churches, fine
houses and wide streets. It is said to have been finally destroyed
by the Mamelukes. On a hill near the ruins is a mosque in which
is an Arabic inscription stating that the building was opened " on
the 2oth Rabi el Aneh in the year 717 (June i, 1317 A.D.) after
the victory of Sefeddin Abdallah en Nasir over the Infidels."

DONIZETTI, GAETANO (1798-1848), Italian musical composer,
was born at Bergamo in 1798, the son of a government official
of limited means. Originally destined for the bar, he showed at
an early age a strong taste for art. At first, strangely enough,
he mistook architecture for his vocation, and only after an
unsuccessful trial in that direction did he discover his real talent.
He entered the conservatoire of his native city, where he studied
under Simon Mayr, the fertile operatic composer. His second
master was Mattei, the head master of the celebrated music
school of Bologna, where Donizetti resided for three years.
After his return to Bergamo the young composer determined
to devote himself to dramatic music, but his father insisted upon
his giving lessons with a view to immediate gain. The disputes
arising from this cause ultimately led to Donizetti's enlisting
in the army. But this desperate step proved beneficial against
all expectation. The regiment was quartered at Venice, and here
the young composer's first dramatic attempt, an opera called
Enrico comte di Borgogna, saw the light in 1818.

The success of this work, and of a second opera brought out
in the following year, established Donizetti's reputation. He
obtained his discharge from the army, and henceforth his operas
followed each other in rapid and uninterrupted succession at
the rate of three or four a year. Although he had to contend
successively with two such dangerous rivals as Rossini and
Bellini, he succeeded in taking firm hold of the public, and the

416

DONJON— DON JUAN

brilliant reception accorded to his Anna Bolena at Milan carried
his name beyond the limits of his own country. In 1835 Donizetti
went for the first time to Paris, where, however, his Marino
Faliero failed to hold its own against Bellini's Purilani, then
recently produced at the Theatre Italien. The disappointed
composer went to Naples, where the enormous success of his
Lucia di Lammermoor consoled him for his failure in Paris. For
Naples he wrote a number of works, none of which is worth
notice. In 1840 the censorship refused to pass his Poliuto, an
Italian version of Corneille's Polyeucte, in consequence of which
the disgusted composer once more left his country for Paris.
Here he produced at the Opera Comique his most popular opera,
La Fille du regiment, but again with little success. It was not till
after the work had made the round of the theatres of Germany
and Italy that the Parisians reconsidered their unfavourable
verdict. A serious opera, Les Martyrs, produced about the same
time with the Daughter of the Regiment, was equally unsuccessful,
and it was reserved to La Favorila, generally considered as
Donizetti's masterpiece, to break the evil spell. His next im-
portant work, Linda di Chamounix, was written for Vienna,
where it was received most favourably in 1842, and the same
success accompanied the production of Don Pasquale after
Donizetti's return to Paris in 1843. Soon after this event the
first signs of a fatal disease, caused to a great extent by overwork,
began to show themselves. The utter failure of Don Sebastian,
a large opera produced soon after Don Pasquale, is said to have
hastened the catastrophe. A paralytic stroke in 1844 deprived
Donizetti of his reason; for four years he lingered on in a state
of mental and physical prostration. A visit to his country was
proposed as a last resource, but he reached his native place only
to die there on the ist of April 1848. - "• ..

The sum total of his operas amounts to sixty-four. The large
number of his works accounts for many of their chief defects.
His rapidity of working made all revision impossible. It is said
that he once wrote the instrumentation of a whole opera within
thirty hours, a time hardly sufficient, one would think, to put
the notes on paper. And yet it may be doubted whether more
elaboration would have essentially improved his work; for the
last act of the Favorita, infinitely superior to the preceding ones,
is also said to have been the product of a single night.

There is a strange parallelism observable in the lives of Rossini,
Bellini and Donizetti. They had no sooner established their
reputations on the Italian stage than they left their own country
for Paris, at that time the centre of the musical world. All three
settled in France, and all three were anxious to adapt the style
of their music to the taste and artistic traditions of their adopted
country. The difference which exists between Rossini's Tell and
his Semiramide may, although in a less striking degree, be noticed
between Donizetti's Fille du regiment and one of his earlier
Italian operas. But here the parallel ends. As regards artistic
genius Donizetti can by no means be compared with his illustrious
countrymen. He has little of Bellini's melancholy sweetness, less
of Rossini's sparkle, and is all but devoid of spontaneous dramatic
impulse. For these shortcomings he atones by a considerable
though by no means extraordinary store of fluent melody, and
by his rare skill in writing for the voice. The duet in the last
act of the Favorita and the ensemble in Lucia following upon the
signing of the contract, are masterpieces of concerted music in
the Italian style. These advantages, together with considerable
power of humorous delineation, as evinced in Don Pasquale and
L'Elisir d'amore, must account for the unimpaired vitality of
many of his works on the stage.

DONJON (from a Late Lat. accusative form domnionem,
connected with domnus or dominus, a lord), the French term
for the keep of a medieval castle, used now in distinction to
" dungeon " (q.v.), the prison, which is only an anglicized
spelling (see also KEEP).

DON JUAN, a legendary "character, whose story has found
currency in various European countries. He was introduced into
formal literature in the Spanish El Burlador de Sevilla y convidado
de piedra, a play which was first printed at Barcelona in 1630,
and is usually attributed to Tirso de Molina; but the story of a

profligate inviting a dead man to supper, and finding his invita-
tion accepted, was current before 1630, and is not peculiar to
Spain. A Don Juan Tenorio is said to have frequented the court
of Peter the Cruel, and at a later period another Don Juan
Tenorio, a dissolute gallant, is reported as living at Seville;
but there is no satisfactory evidence of their existence, and it is
unlikely that the Don Juan legend is based on historical facts.
It exists in Picardy as Le Souper de fantdme, and variants of it
have been found at points so far apart as Iceland and the Azores;
the available evidence goes to show that Don Juan is a universal
type, that he is the subject of local myths in many countries,
that he received his name in Spain, and that the Spanish version
of his legend has absorbed certain elements from the French story
of Robert the Devil. Some points of resemblance are observable
between El Burlador de Sevilla and Dineros son calidad, a play of
earlier date by Lope de Vega; but these resemblances are super-
ficial, and the character of Don Juan, the incarnation of perverse
sensuality and arrogant blasphemy, may be considered as the
creation of Tirso de Molina, though the ascription to him of El
Burlador de Sevilla has been disputed. The Spanish drama was
apparently more popular in Italy than in Spain, and was fre-
quently given in pantomime by the Italian actors, who accounted
for its permanent vogue by saying that Tirso de Molina had sold
his soul to the devil for fame. A company of these Italian mimes
took the story into France in 1657, and it was dramatized by
Dorimond in 1659 and by De Villiers in 1661; their attempts
suggested Le Festin de pierre (1665) to Moliere, who, apparently
with the Spanish original before his eyes, substituted prose for
verse, reduced the supernatural element, and interpolated comic
effects completely out of keeping with the earlier conception.
Later adaptations by Rosimond and Thomas Corneille were even
less successful. The story was introduced into England by Sir
Aston Cokain in his unreadable Tragedy of Ovid (1669), and was
the theme of The Libertine (1676), a dull and obscene play by
Shadwell. Goldoni's D. Giovanni Tenorio osia II Dissolute, based
upon the adaptations of Moliere and Thomas Corneille, is one of
his least interesting productions. Tirso de Molina's play was
recast, but not improved, by Antonio de Zamora early in the
i8th century. A hundred years later the character of Don Juan
was endowed with a new name in Espronceda's Estudiante de
Salamanca; Don F61ix de Montemar is plainly modelled on Don
Juan Tenorio, and rivals the original in licentiousness, impiety
and grim humour. But the most curious resuscitation of the
type in Spain is the protagonist in Zorrilla's Don Juan Tenorio,
which is usually played in all large cities during the first week in
November, and has come to be regarded as an essentially national
work. It is hi fact little more than an adaptation of the elder
Dumas' Don Juan de Marana, which, in its turn, derives chiefly
from M6rimee's novel, Les Ames du purgatoire. Less exotic are
Zorrilla's two poems on the same subject — El Desafio del diablo
and El Testigo de bronce. Byron's Don Juan presents a Regency
lady-killer who resembles Ulloa's murderer in nothing but his
name.

The sustained popularity of the Don Juan legend is undoubtedly
due in great measure to Mozart's incomparable setting of Da
Ponte's mediocre libretto. In this pale version of El Burlador de
Sevilla the French romantic school made acquaintance with Don
Juan, and hence, no doubt, the works of Merimee and Dumas
already mentioned, Balzac's Elexir d'une longue trie, and Alfred
de Mussel's Une Matinee de Don Juan and Namouna. The
legend has been treated subsequently by Flaubert and Barbey
d'Aurevilly in France, by Landau and Heyse in Germany, and by
Sacher-Masoch in Austria. It has always fascinated composers.
Mozart's Don Giovanni has annihilated the earlier operas of Le
Tellier, Righini, Tritto, Gardiand Gazzaniga; but Gluck's ballet-
music still survives, and Henry Purcell's setting — the oldest of
all — has saved some of Shadwell's insipid lyrics from oblivion.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — F. de Simone Brouwer, Don Giovanni nella
poesia e nell' arte musicale (Napoli, 1894); A. Farinelli, Don
Giovanni: Note critiche (Torino, 1896) ; A. Farinelli, Cuatro palabras
sobre Don Juan y la literatura donjuanesca del porvenir in the
Homenaje d Menendez y Pelayo (Madrid, 1899), vol. i. pp. 205-
222. (J. F.-K.)

DONKIN— DONNE

DONKIN, SIR RUFANE SHAW (1773-1841), British soldier,
came of a military family. His father, who died, a full general,
in 1821, served with almost all British commanders from Wolfe to
Gage. Rufane Donkin was the eldest child, and received his first
commission at the age of five in his father's regiment; he joined,
at fourteen, with eight years' seniority as a lieutenant. Becoming
a captain in 1793, he was on active service in the West Indies in
1 794, and (as major) in 1 796. At the age of twenty-five he became
lieutenant-colonel, and in 1 798 led a light battalion with distinc-
tion in the Ostend expedition. He served with Cathcart in
Denmark in 1807, and two years later was given a brigade in the
army in Portugal, which he led at Oporto and Talavera. He was
soon transferred, as quartermaster-general, to the Mediterranean
command, in which he served from 1810 to 1813, taking part
in the Catalonian expeditions. Sir John Murray's failure at
Tarragona did not involve Donkin, whose advice was proved
to be uniformly ignored by the British commander. In July
1815 Major-General Donkin went out to India, and distinguished
himself as a divisional commander in Hastings' operations
against the Mahrattas (1817-1818), receiving the K.C.B. as his
reward. The death of his young wife seriously affected him, and
he went to the Cape of Good Hope on sick leave. From 1820 to
1821 he administered the colony with success, and named the
rising seaport of Algoa Bay Port Elizabeth in memory of his wife.
In 1821 he became lieutenant-general and G.C.H. The rest of
his life was spent in literary and political work. He was one of
the original fellows of the Royal Geographical Society, and was a
member of the Royal Society and of many other learned bodies.
His theories as to the course of the river Niger, published under
the title Dissertation on the Course and Probable Termination of the
Niger (London, 1829), involved him in a good deal of controversy.
From 1832 onwards he sat in the House of Commons, and in 1835
was made surveyor-general of the ordnance. He committed
suicide at Southampton in 1841. He was then a general, and
colonel of the nth Foot.

See Jerdan, National Portraits, vol. Hi. ; Gentleman's Magazine,
xcii. i. 273.

DONNAY, CHARLES MAURICE (1859- ), French
dramatist, was born of middle-class parents in Paris in 1859. He
made his serious debut as a dramatist on the little stage of the
Chat Noir with Phrynt (1891), a series of Greek scenes. Lysistrata,
a four-act comedy, was produced at the Grand Theatre in 1892
with Mme Rejane in the title part. Later plays were F olle
Entreprise (1894); Pension de famille (1894); Complices (1895),
in collaboration with M. Groselande; Amants (1895), produced
at the Renaissance theatre with Mme Jeanne Granier as Claudine
Rozeray; La Douloureuse (1897); L'A/ranchie (1898); Georgette
Lemeunier (1898); Le Torrent (1899), at the Comedie Franchise;
Education de prince (1900); La Clairiere (1900), and Oiseaux de
passage (1904), in collaboration with L. Descaves; La Bascule
(1901); L'Autre danger, at the Comedie Francaise (1902); Le
Relour de Jerusalem (1903); L' scolade (1904); and Paratlre
(1906). With Amanls he won a great success, and the play was
hailed by Jules Lemaitre as the Berenice of contemporary French
drama. Very advanced ideas on the relations between the sexes
dominate the whole series of plays, and the witty dialogue is
written with an apparent carelessness that approximates very
closely to the language of every day.

DONNE, JOHN (1573-1631), English poet and divine of the
reign of James I., was bom in 1573 in the parish of St Nicholas
Olave, in the city of London. His father was a wealthy merchant,
who next year became warden of the Company of Ironmongers,
but died early in 1576. Donne's parents were Catholics, and his
mother, Elizabeth Heywood, was directly descended from the
sister of the great Sir Thomas More; she was the daughter of
John Heywood the epigrammatist. As a child, Donne's precocity
was such that it was said of him that " this age hath brought
forth another Pico della Mirandola." He entered Hart Hall,
Oxford, in October 1584, and left it in 1587, proceeding for a time
to Cambridge, where he took his degree. At Oxford he began his
friendship with Henry Wotton, and at Cambridge, probably, with
Christopher Brooke. Donne was " removed to London " about
vin. 14

1590, and in 1592 he entered Lincoln's Inn with the intention
of studying the law.

When he came of age, he found himself in possession of a
considerable fortune, and about the same time rejected the
Catholic doctrine in favour of the Anglican communion. He
began to produce Satires, which were not printed, but eagerly
passed from hand to hand; the first three are known to belong
to 1593, the fourth to 1594, while the other three are probably
some years later. In 1596 Donne engaged himself for foreign
service under the earl of Essex, and " waited upon his lordship "
on board the " Repulse," in the magnificent victory of the i ith of
June. We possess several poems written by Donne during this
expedition, and during the Islands Voyage of 1597, in which he
accompanied Essex to the Azores. According to Walton, Donne
spent some time in Italy and Spain, and intended to proceed to
Palestine, " but at his being in the farthest parts of Italy, the
disappointment of company ,or of a safe convoy ,or the uncertainty
of returns of money into those remote parts, denied him that
happiness." There is some reason to suppose that he was on the
continent at intervals between 1595 and the winter of 1597. His
lyrical poetry was mainly the product of his exile, if we are to
believe Ben Jonson, who told Drummond of Hawthornden that
Donne " wrote all his best pieces ere he was 25 years old." At
his return to England he became private secretary hi London to
Sir Thomas Egerton, the lord keeper (afterwards Lord Brackley),
in whose family he remained four years. In 1 600 he found himself
in love with his master's niece, Anne More, whom he married
secretly in December 1601. As soon as this act was discovered,
Donne was dismissed, and then thrown into the Fleet prison
(February 1602), from which he was soon released. His circum-
stances, however, were now very much straitened. His own
fortune had all been spent and " troubles did still multiply
upon him." Mrs Donne's cousin, Sir Francis Wooley, offered
the young couple an asylum at his country house of Pyrford,
where they resided until the end of 1604.

During the latter part of his residence in Sir Thomas Egerton's
house, Donne had composed the longest of his existing poems,
The Progress of the Soul, not published until 1633. In tne spring
of 1605 we find the Donnes living at Camberwell, and a little
later in a small house at Mitcham. He had by this time
" acquired such a perfection " in civil and common law that he
was able to take up professional work, and he now acted as a
helper to Thomas Morton in his controversies with the Catholics.
Donne is believed to have had a considerable share in writing the
pamphlets against the papists which Morton issued between 1604
and 1607. In the latter year, Morton offered the poet certain
preferment in the Church, if he would only consent to take holy
orders. Donne, however, although he was at this time become
deeply serious on religious matters, did not think himself fitted
for the clerical life. In 1607 he started a correspondence with Mrs
Magdalen Herbert of Montgomery Castle, the mother of George
Herbert. Some of these pious epistles were printed by Izaak
Walton. These exercises were not of a nature to add to his
income, which was extremely small. His uncomfortable little
house he speaks of as his " hospital " and his " prison; " his
wife's health was broken and he was bowed down by the
number of his children, who often lacked even clothes and food.
In the autumn of 1608, however, his father-in-law, Sir George
More, became reconciled with them, and agreed to make them a
generous allowance. Donne soon after formed part of the brilliant
assemblage which Lucy, countess of Bradford, gathered around
her at Twickenham; we possess several of the verse epistles he
addressed to this lady. In 1609 Donne was engaged in composing
his great controversial prose treatise, the Pseudo-Martyr, printed
in 1610; this was an attempt to convince Roman Catholics in
England that they might, without any inconsistency, take the
oath of allegiance to James I. In 1611 Donne wrote a curious
and bitter prose squib against the Jesuits, entitled Ignatius his
Conclave. To the same period, but possibly somewhat earlier,
belongs the apology for the principle of suicide, which was not
published until 1644, long after Donne's death. This work, the
Biathanatos, is an attempt to show that " the scandalous disease

DONNE

of headlong dying," to which Donne himself in his unhappy moods
had " often such a sickly inclination," was not necessarily and
essentially sinful.

In 1610 Donne formed the acquaintance of a wealthy gentleman,
Sir Robert Drury of Hawsted, who offered him and his wife an
apartment in his large house in Drury Lane. Drury lost his only
daughter, and in 1611 Donne published an extravagant elegy on
her, entitled An Anatomy of the World, to which he added in 1612
a Progress of the Soul on the same subject; he threatened to
celebrate the " blessed Maid," Elizabeth Drury, in a fresh elegy
on each anniversary of her death, but he happily refrained from
the third occasion onwards. At the close of 1611 Sir Robert
Drury determined to visit Paris (but not, as Walton supposed, on
an embassy of any kind), and he took Donne with him. When
he left London, his wife was expecting an eighth child. It
seems almost certain that her fear to have him absent led him
to compose one of his loveliest poems:

" Sweetest Love, I do not go
For weariness of thee."

He is said to have had a vision, while he was at Amiens, of his
wife, with her hair over her shoulders, bearing a dead child in her
arms, on the very night that Mrs Donne, in London (or more
probably in the Isle of Wight) , was delivered of a still-born infant.
He suffered, accordingly, a great anxiety, which was not removed
until he reached Paris, where he received reassuring accounts of
his wife's health. The Drurys and Donne left Paris for Spa in
May 1612, and travelled in the Low Countries and Germany
until September, when they returned to London. In 1613
Donne contributed to the Lachrymae lachrymarum an obscure
and frigid elegy on the death of the prince of Wales, and wrote
his famous Marriage Song for St Valentine's Day to celebrate the
nuptials of the elector palatine with the princess Elizabeth. About
this time Donne became intimate with Robert Ker, then Viscount
Rochester and afterwards the infamous earl of Somerset, from
whom he had hopes of preferment at court. Donne was now in
weak health, and in a highly neurotic condition. He suggested to
Rochester that if he should enter the church, a place there might
be found for him. But he was more useful to the courtier in his
legal capacity, and Rochester dissuaded him from the ministry.
At the close of 1614, however, the king sent for Donne to Theo-
bald's, and " descended to a persuasion, almost to a solicitation
of him, to enter fnto sacred orders," but Donne asked for a few
days to consider. Finally, early in 1614, King, bishop of London,
" proceeded with all convenient speed to ordain him, first deacon,
then priest." He was, perhaps, a curate first at Paddington, and
presently was appointed royal chaplain.

His earliest sermon before the king at Whitehall carried his
audience " to heaven, in holy raptures." In April, not without
much bad grace, the university of Cambridge consented to make
the new divine a D .D . In the spring of 1 6 1 6, Donne was presented
to the living of Keyston, in Hunts., and a little later he became
rector of Sevenoaks; the latter preferment he held until his
death. In October he was appointed reader in divinity to the
benchers of Lincoln's Inn. His anxieties about money now
ceased, but in August 1617 his wife died, leaving seven young
children in his charge. Perhaps in consequence of his bereave-
ment, Donne seems to have passed through a spiritual crisis,
which inspired him with a peculiar fervour of devotion. In 1618
he wrote two cycles of religious sonnets, La Corona and the Holy
Sonnets, the latter not printed in complete form until by Mr
Gosse in 1899. Of the very numerous sermons preached by Donne
at Lincoln's Inn, fourteen have come down to us. His health
suffered from the austerity of his life, and it was probably in
connexion with this fact that he allowed himself to be persuaded
in May 1619 to accompany Lord Doncaster as his chaplain on an
embassy to Germany. Having visited Heidelberg, Frankfort and
other German cities, the embassy returned to England at the
opening of 1620.

In November 1621, James I., knowing that London was " a
dish " which Donne " loved well," " carved " for him the deanery
of St Paul's. He resigned Keyston, and his preachership in
Lincoln's Inn (Feb., 1622). In October 1623 he suffered from

a dangerous attack of illness, and during a long convalescence
wrote his Devotions, a volume published in 1624. He was now
appointed to the vicarage of St Dunstan's in the West. In April
1625 Donne preached before the new king, Charles I., a sermon
which was immediately printed, and he now published his Four
Sermons upon Special Occasions, the earliest collection of his
discourses. When the plague broke out he retired with his
children to the house of Sir John Danvers in Chiswick, and for
a time he disappeared so completely that a rumour arose that
he was dead. Sir John had married Donne's old friend, Mrs
Magdalen Herbert, for whom Donne wrote two of the most
ingenious of his lyrics, " The Primrose " and " The Autumnal."
The popularity of Donne as a preacher rose to its zenith when he
returned to his pulpit, and it continued there until his death.
Walton, who seems to have known him first in 1624, now became
an intimate and adoring friend. In 1630 Donne's health, always
feeble, broke down completely, so that, although in August of
that year he was to have been made a bishop, the entire break-
down of his health made it worse than useless to promote him.
The greater part of that winter he spent at Abury Hatch, in
Epping Forest, with his widowed daughter, Constance Alley n,
and was too ill to preach before the king at Christmas. It is
believed that his disease was a malarial form of recurrent quinsy
acting upon an extremely neurotic system. He came back to
London, and was able to preach at Whitehall on the i2th of
February 1631. This, his latest sermon, was published, soon
after his demise, as Death's Duel. He now stood for his statue to
the sculptor, Nicholas Stone, standing before a fire in his study
at the Deanery, with his winding-sheet wrapped and tied round
him, his eyes shut, and his feet resting on a funeral urn. This
lugubrious work of art was set up in white marble after his death
in St Paul's cathedral, where it may still be seen. Donne died on
the 3ist of March 1631, after he had lain " fifteen days earnestly
expecting his hourly change." His aged mother, who had lived
in the Deanery, survived him, dying in 1632.

Donne's poems were first collected in 1633, and afterwards in
1635, 1639, 1649, 1650, 1654 and 1669. Of his prose works, the
Juvenilia appeared in 1633; the LXXX Sermons in 1640;
Biathanatos in 1644; Fifty Sermons in 1649; Essays in Divinity,
1651; his Letters to Several Persons of Honour, 1651; Paradoxes,
Problems and Essays, 1652; and Six and Twenty Sermons, 1661.
Izaak Walton's Life of Donne, an admirably written but not
entirely correct biography, preceded the Sermons of 1640. The
principal editor of his posthumous writings was his son, John
Donne the younger (1604-1662), a man of eccentric and
scandalous character, but of considerable talent.

The influence of Donne upon the literature of England was
singularly wide and deep, although almost wholly malign. His
originality and the fervour of his imaginative passion made him
extremely attractive to the younger generation of poets, who saw
that he had broken through the old tradition, and were ready to
follow him implicitly into new fields. In the i8th century his
reputation almost disappeared, to return, with many vicissitudes
in the course of the igth. It is, indeed, singularly difficult to
pronounce a judicious opinion on the writings of Donne. They
were excessively admired by his own and the next generation,
praised by Dryden, paraphrased by Pope, and then entirely
neglected for a whole century. The first impression of an
unbiassed reader who dips into the poems of Donne is unfavour-
able. He is repulsed by the intolerably harsh and crabbed
versification, by the recondite choice of theme and expression,
and by the oddity of the thought. In time, however, he perceives
that behind the fantastic garb of language there is an earnest
and vigorous mind, an imagination that harbours fire within its
cloudy folds, and an insight into the mysteries of spiritual life
which is often startling. Donne excels in brief flashes of wit and
beauty, and in sudden daring phrases that have the full perfume
of poetry in them. Some of his lyrics and one or two of his elegies
excepted, the Satires are his most important contribution to
literature. They are probably the earliest poems of their kind
in the language, and they are full of force and picturesqueness.
Their obscure and knotty language only serves to give peculiar

DONNYBROOK— DOOR

419

brilliancy to the not uncommon passages of noble perspica-
city. To the odd terminology of Donne's poetic philosophy
Dryden gave the name of " metaphysics," and Johnson, bor-
rowing the suggestion, invented the title of the " metaphysical
school " to describe, not Donne only, but all the amorous and
philosophical poets who succeeded him, and who employed a
similarly fantastic language, and who affected odd figurative
inversions.

Izaak Walton's Life, first published in 1640, and entirely recast
in 1659, has been constantly reprinted. The best edition of Donne's
Poems was edited by E. K. Chambers in 1896. His prose works have
not been collected. In 1899 Edmund Gosse published in two
volumes The Life and Letters of John Donne, for the first time revised
and collected. (E. G.)

DONNYBROOK, a part of Dublin, Ireland, in the south-east of
the city. The former village of the name was famous for a fair
held under licence from King John in 1204. It gained, however,
such a scandalous notoriety for disorder that it was discontinued
in 1855, the rights being purchased for £3000.

DONOSO CORTES, JUAN, Marquis de Valdegamas (1800-1853),
Spanish author and diplomatist, was born at Valle de la Serena
(Extremadura) on the 6th of May 1809, studied law at Seville,
and entered politics as an advanced liberal under the influence of
Quintana (q.v.). His views began to modify after the rising at La
Granja, and this tendency towards conservatism, which became
more marked on his appointment as private secretary to the
Queen Regent, finds expression in his Lecciones de derecho
politico (1837). Alarmed by the proceedings of the French
revolutionary party in 1848-1849, Donoso Cortes issued his
Ensayo sobre el catolicismo, el liberalismo, y el socialismo con-
siderados en sus principles fundamenlales (1851), denouncing
reason as the enemy of truth and liberalism as leading to social
ruin. He became ambassador at Paris, and died there on the
3rd of May 1853. The Ensayo has failed to arrest the movement
against which it was directed, and is weakened by its extravagant
paradoxes; but, with all its rhetorical excesses, it remains the
finest specimen of impassioned prose published in Spain during
the igth century.

Donoso Cortes' works were collected in five volumes at Madrid
(1854-1855) under the editorship of Gavino Tejado.

DONOVAN, EDWARD (1768-1837), English naturalist, was the
author of many popular works on natural history and botany.
In 1702 appeared the first volume of his Natural History of
British Insects, which extended to sixteen volumes, and was
completed in 1813. He also published Natural Histories of
British Birds, in 10 vols. Svo (1799-1819), of British Fishes, in
5 vols. (1802-1808), of British Shells, in 5 vols. (1800-1804), a
series of illustrated works on The Insects of India, China, New
Holland, &c., in 3 vols. 4to (1798-1805), and Excursions in South
Wales and Monmouthshire (1805). To these works must be added
his periodical entitled The. Naturalist's Repository, a monthly
publication, of which three volumes were completed (1823-1825),
and an Essay on the Minute Parts of Plants in general. Donovan
was author of the articles on natural history in Rees's Cyclopaedia.
In 1833 he published a Memorial respecting my Publications in
Natural History, in which he complains that he had been nearly
ruined by his publishers. He was a fellow of the Linnean Society,
and died in London on the ist of February 1837.

DOOM (Old Eng. ddm, a word common to Teut. languages for
that which is set up or ordered, from " do," in its original meaning
of "place"; cf. Gr. Okfus, from stem of rWinu), originally a
law or enactment, the legal decision of a judge, and particularly
an adverse sentence on a criminal. The word is thus applicable
to the adverse decrees of fate, and particularly to the day of
judgment. The verb " deem," to deliver a judgment, and hence
to give or hold an opinion, is a derivative, and appears also in
various old Teutonic forms. It is seen in " deemster," the name
of the two judges of the Isle of Man.

DOON DE MAYENCE, a hero of romance, who gives his name
to the third cycle of the Charlemagne romances, those dealing
with the feudal revolts. There is no real unity in the geste of
Doon de Mayence. The rebellious barons are connected by the

trouveres with Doon by imaginary genealogical ties, and all are
represented as in opposition to Charlemagne, though their
adventures, in so far as they possess a historical basis, must
generally be referred to earlier or later periods than the reign of
the great emperor. The general insolence of their attitude to
the sovereign suggests that Charlemagne is here only a name for
his weaker successors. The tradition of a traitorous family of
Mayence, which was developed in Italy into a series of stories of
criminals, was however anterior to the Carolingian cycle, for an
interpolator in the chronicle of Fredegarius states (iv. 87) that
the army of Sigebert was betrayed from within its own ranks by
men of Mayence in a battle fought with Radulf on the banks of
the Unstrat in Thuringia. The chief heroes of the poems which
make up the geste of Doon de Mayence are Ogier the Dane (q.v.),
the four sons of Aymon (see RENAUD), and Huon of Bordeaux
(q.v.). It is probable that Doon himself was one of the last
personages to be clearly defined, and that the chanson de geste
relating his exploits was drawn up partly with the view of supply-
ing a suitable ancestor for the other heroes. The latter half of
the poem, the story of Doon's wars in Saxony, is perhaps based on
historical events, but the earlier half, which is really a separate
romance dealing with his romantic childhood, is obviously pure
fiction and dates from the i3th century. Doon had twelve sons:
Gaufrey de Dane Marche (Ardennes?), the father of Ogier;
Doon de Nanteuil, whose son Gamier married the beautiful Aye
d 'Avignon; Griffon d'Hauteville, father of the arch-traitor
Ganelon; Aymon de Dordone or Dourdan, whose four sons were
so relentlessly pursued by Charles; Beuves d'Aigremont, whose
son was the enchanter Maugis; Sevin or Seguin, the father of
Huon of Bordeaux; Girard de Roussillon, and others less known.
The history of these personages is given in Doon de Mayence,
Gaufrey, the romances relating to Ogier, Aye d'Avignon, the
fragmentary Doon de Nanteuil, Gui de Nanteuil, Tristan de
Nanteuil, P arise la Duchesse, Maugis d'Aigremont, Vivien
I'amachour de Monbranc, Renaus de Montauban or Les Quatre Fils
Aymon, and Huon de Bordeaux. Some of this material, which
dates in its existing form from the i2th and i3th centuries,
remains unpublished, but the chief poems are available in the
series of Anciens Poetes de la France (1859, &c.).

See Hist. lilt, de la France, vols. xxii. and xxvi. (1^52 and 1873), for
analyses of these poems by Paulin Paris; also J. Barrois, Elements
carolingiens (Paris, 1846); W. Niederstadt, Alter und Heimat der
altfr. Doon (Greifswald, 1889). The prose romance, La Fleur des
batailles Doolin de Mayence, was printed by Antoine Verard (Paris,
1501), by Alain Lotrian and Denis Janot (Paris, c. 1530), by
N. Bonfons (Paris; no date), by J. Waesbergue (Rotterdam, 1604),
&c. .

DOOR (corresponding to the Gr. Oiipa, Lat. fores or valvae;
the English word, with other forms common in allied languages,
comes from the same Indo-European stem as the Gr. 6vpa and
Lat. fores), in architecture, the slab, flap or leaf forming the
enclosure of a doorway (q.v.) , either in wood, metal or stone. The
earliest records are those represented in the paintings of the
Egyptian tombs, in which they are shown as single or double
doors, each in a single piece of wood. In Egypt, where the
climate is intensely dry, there would be no fear of their warping,
but in other countries it would be necessary to frame them, which
according to Vitruvius (iv. 6.) was done with stiles (scapi) and
rails (impages): the spaces enclosed being filled with panels
(tympana) let into grooves made in the stiles and rails. The stiles
were the vertical boards, one of which, tenoned or hinged, is
known as the hanging stile, the other as the middle or meeting
stile. The horizontal cross pieces are the top rail, bottom rail,
and middle or intermediate rails. The most ancient doors were
in timber, those made for King Solomon's temple being in olive
wood (i Kings vi. 31-35), which were carved and overlaid with
gold. The doors dwelt upon in Homer would appear to have
been cased in silver or brass. Besides olive wood, elm, cedar, oak
and Cyprus were used. All ancient doors were hung by pivots
at the top and bottom of the hanging stile which worked in
sockets in the lintel and cill, the latter being always in some hard
stone such as basalt or granite. Those found at Nippur by Dr
Hilprecht, dating from 2000 B.C., were in dolorite. The tenons of

420

DOORWAY

the gates at Balawat (see fig.) (895-825 B.C.) were sheathed with
bronze (now in the British Museum). These doors or gates were
hung in two leaves, each about 8 ft. 4 in. wide and 27 ft. high; they
were encased with bronze bands or strips, 10 in. high, covered
with repousse decoration of figures, &c. The wood doors would
seem to have been about 3 in. thick, but the hanging stile was
over 14 in. in diameter. Other sheathings of various sizes in
bronze have been found, which proves this to have been the
universal method adopted to protect the wood pivots. In the
Hauran in Syria, where timber is scarce, the
doors were made in stone, and one measuring
5 ft. 4 in. by 2 ft. 7 in. is in the British Museum;
the band on the meeting stile shows that it
was one of the leaves of a double door. At
Kuffeir near Bostra in Syria, Burckhardt found
stone doors, 9 to 10 ft. high, being the entrance
doors of the town. In Etruria many stone
doors are referred to by Dennis.

The ancient Greek and Roman doors were
either single doors (jtovoBvpai., unifores), double
doors (SiOvpM, bifores or geminae) or folding
doors (irrvxts, vafaae); in the last case the
leaves were hinged and folded back one over
Balawat Gates, the other. At Pompeii, in the portico of
sheath and socket. Eumachia, is a painting of a door with three
fTarl is- 'eaves> tne two outer ones of which were

-

, by permission of presumably hung, the inner leaf folding on
Chapman & Hall Ltd. Qne Qr tfae other; hinges connecting the

folding leaves of a door have been found in Pompeii. In the tomb
of Theron at Agrigentum there is a single four-panel door carved
in stone. In the Blundell collection is a bas-relief of a temple
with double doors, each leaf with five panels. Among existing
examples, the bronze doors in the church of SS. Cosmas and
Damiano, in Rome, are important examples of Roman metal
work of the best period; they are in two leaves, each with two
panels, and are framed in bronze. Those of the Pantheon are
similar in design, with narrow horizontal panels in addition,
at the top, bottom and middle. Two other bronze doors of the
Roman period are in the Lateran Basilica.

The doors of the church of the Nativity at Bethlehem (6th
century) are covered with plates of bronze, cut out in patterns:
those of Sta Sophia at Constantinople, of the 8th and gth cen-
tury, are wrought in bronze, and the west doors of the cathedral
of Aix-la-Chapelle (gth century), of similar manufacture, were
probably brought from Constantinople, as also some of those
in St Mark's, Venice.

Of the nth and I2th centuries there are numerous examples
of bronze doors, the earliest being one at Hildesheim, Germany
(1015). Of others in South Italy and Sicily, the following are the
finest: in Sant' Andrea, Amain (1060); Salerno (1099); Canosa
(mi); Troja, two doors (1119 and 1124); Ravello (1179), by
Barisano of Trani, who also made doors for Trani cathedral; and
in Monreale and Pisa cathedrals, by Bonano of Pisa. In all these
cases the hanging stile had pivots at the top and bottom. The
exact period when the hinge was substituted is not quite known,
but the change apparently brought about another method of
strengthening and decorating doors, viz. with wrought-iron bands
of infinite varieties of design. As a rule three bands from which
the ornamental work springs constitute the hinges, which have
rings outside the hanging stiles fitting on to vertical tenons run
into the masonry or wooden frame. There is an early example of
the 1 2th century in Lincoln; in France the metal work of the
doors of Notre Dame at Paris is perhaps the most beautiful in
execution, but examples are endless throughout France and
England.

Returning to Italy, the most celebrated doors are those of the
Baptistery of Florence, which together with the door frames are
all in bronze, the borders of the latter being perhaps the most
remarkable: the modelling of the figures, birds and foliage of the
south doorway, by Andrea Pisano (1330), and of the east doorway
by Ghiberti (1425-1452), are of great beauty; in the north door
(1402-1424) Ghiberti adopted the same scheme of design for the

panelling and figure subjects in them as Andrea Pisano, but in the
east door the rectangular panels are all filled with bas-reliefs, in
which Scripture subjects are illustrated with innumerable figures,
these being probably the gates of Paradise of which Michelangelo
speaks.

The doors of the mosques in Cairo were of two kinds; those
which, externally, were cased with sheets of bronze or iron, cut out
in decorative patterns, and incised or inlaid, with bosses in relief;
and those in wood, which were framed with interlaced designs
of the square and diamond, this latter description of work being
Coptic in its origin. The doors of the palace at Palermo, which
were made by Saracenic workmen for the Normans, are fine
examples and in good preservation. A somewhat similar
decorative class of door to these latter is found in Verona, where
the edges of the stiles and rails are bevelled and notched.

In the Renaissance period the Italian doors are quite simple,
their architects trusting more to the doorways for effect; but in
France and Germany the contrary is the case, the doors being
elaborately carved, especially in the Louis XIV. and Louis XV.
periods, and sometimes with architectural features such as
columns and entablatures with pediment and niches, the doorway
being in plain masonry. While in Italy the tendency was to give
scale by increasing the number of panels, in France the contrary
seems to have been the rule; and one of the great doors at
Fontainebleau, which is in two leaves, is entirely carried out
as if consisting of one great panel only.

The earliest Renaissance doors in France are those of the
cathedral of St Sauveur at Aix (1503); in the lower panels there
are figures 3 ft. high in Gothic niches, and in the upper panels a
double range of niches with figures about 2 ft. high with canopies
over them, all carved in cedar. The south door of Beauvais
cathedral is in some respects the finest in France; the upper
panels are carved in high relief with figure subjects and canopies
over them. The doors of the church at Gisors (1575) are carved
with figures in niches subdivided by classic pilasters superimposed.
In St Maclou at Rouen are three magnificently carved doors;
those by Jean Goujon have figures in niches on each side, and
others in a group of great beauty in the centre. The other doors,
probably about forty to fifty years later, are enriched with bas-
reliefs, landscapes, figures and elaborate interlaced borders.

In England in the i7th century the door panels were raised
with " bolection " or projecting mouldings, sometimes richly
carved, round them; in the i8th century the mouldings worked
on the stiles and rails were carved with the egg and tongue orna-
ment. (R. P. S.)

DOORWAY (corresponding to the Gr. TruXTj, Lat. porta), in
architecture, the entrance to a building, apartment or enclosure.
The term is more generally applied to the framing of the opening
in wood, stone or metal. The representations in painting, and
existing examples, show that whilst the jambs of the doorway
in Egyptian architecture were vertical, the outer side had almost
the same batter as the walls of the temples. In the doorways of
enclosures or screen walls there was no lintel, but a small projec-
tion inwards at the top, to hold the pivot of the door. In Greece
the linings of the earliest doorways at Tiryns were in wood, and in
order to lessen the bearing of the lintel the dressings or jambs
(antepagmenta) sloped inwards, so that the width of the doorway
opening was less at the top than at the bottom. In the entrance
doorway of the tomb of Agamemnon at Mycenae, 18 ft. in height,
the width is about 6 in. less at the top than at the bottom. The
lintel of the Greek doorway projected on either side beyond the
dressings, constituting what are known as the shoulders or knees
(projecturae), a characteristic feature which has been retained
down to our time. The next step was to work a projecting
moulding round the dressings and lintel forming the architrave.
Examples with shoulders in stone exist in the Beule doorway of
the Acropolis at Athens, in the tomb of Theron, and in a temple
at Agrigentum in Sicily; also in the temples of Hercules at Cora,
and of Vesta at Trivoli, and with a peculiar pendant in all the
Etruscan tombs. The most beautiful example of a Greek door-
way is that under the north portico of the Erechtheum (420 B.C.).
There is a slight diminution in the width at the top of the opening,

DOPPLERITE— DORCHESTER, VISCOUNT

421

and outside the ordinary architrave mouldings (which here and in
all classic examples are derived from those of the architrave of an
order) is a band with rosettes, which recall the early decorative
features in Crete and Mycenae; the band being carried across the
top of the lintel and surmounted by a cornice supported on each
side by corbels (ancones).

In the Roman doorways, excepting those at Cora and Tivoli,
there is, as a rule, no diminishing of the width, which is generally
speaking half of the height. The dimensions of some of the
Roman doorways are enormous; in the temple of the Sun at
Palmyra the doorway is 15 ft. 6 in. wide and 33 ft. high; and in
the temple of Jupiter at Baalbec, 20 ft. wide and 45 ft. high, the
lintel is composed of three stones forming voussoirs the keystone
measuring 7 ft. at the bottom, 8 ft. at the top, 10 ft. high and 7 ft.
6 in. deep.

All the doorways mentioned above have cornices, and in those
at Palmyra and Baalbec richly carved friezes with side corbels.
In the Pantheon there is a plain convex frieze, but the outer
mouldings of the architrave and the bed-mould of the cornice
are richly carved. In the Byzantine doorways at Sta Sophia,
Constantinople, a bold convex moulding and a hollow take the
place of the fasciae of the classic architrave.

So far we have only referred to square-headed doorways, but
the side openings of the triumphal arches of Titus and Constantine
are virtually doorways, and they have semicircular heads, the
mouldings of which are the same as those of the square-headed
examples. In Saxon doorways, which had semicircular heads,
the outer mouldings projected more boldly than in classic
examples, and were sometimes cut in a separate ring of stone like
the hood mould of later date.

During the Romanesque period hi all countries, the doorway
becomes the chief characteristic feature, and consists of two or
more orders, the term " order " in this case being applied to the
concentric rings of voussoirs forming the door-head. In classic
work the faces of these concentric rings were nearly always flush
one with the other; in Romanesque work the upper one projected
over the ring immediately below, and the employment of a
different design in the carving of each ring produced a magnificent
and imposing effect: in the Italian churches the decoration of the
arch mould is frequently carried down the door jambs, and the
same is found, but less often, in the English and French doorways;
but as a rule each ring or order is carried by a nook shaft, those in
England and France being plain, but in Italy and Sicily elaborately
carved with spirals or other ornaments and sometimes inlaid with
mosaic.

The deeply recessed Norman doorways in English work
required a great thickness of wall, and this was sometimes
obtained by an addition outside, as at Iffley, Adel, Kirkstall and
other churches.

In France, during the Gothic period, the several orders were
carved with figure sculpture, as also the door jambs; and the
great recessing of these doorways brought them more into the
categories of porches. In England much less importance was
given to the Gothic doorways, and although they consisted of
many orders, these were emphasized only by deep hollows and
converse mouldings and always carried on angle or nook shafts.
In the perpendicular period the pointed-arch doorway was often
enclosed within a square head-moulding, the spandrel being
enriched with foliage or quatrefoil tracery.

In the Mahommedan style the doorway itself is comparatively
simple, except that the voussoirs of its lintel are joggled with a
series of curves, and being of different coloured stones have a
decorative effect. These doorways are placed in a rectangular
recess roofed with the stalactite vault.

With the Renaissance architect, the doorway continued as the
principal characteristic of the style; the actual door-frame was
simply moulded, by enclosing it with pilasters or columns,
isolated or semi-detached, raised on pedestals and carrying
an entablature with pediment and other kind of super-doorway;
and great importance was given to the feature. In the Italian
cinquecento period, the panels of the side pilasters were enriched
with the most elaborate carving, and this would seem to have

been an ancient Roman method, to judge by portions of carved
panels now in the museums of Rome. The doorways of Venice
are remarkable in this respect. At Como the two side doorways
of the cathedral, one of which is said to be by Bramante, are of
great beauty, and the same rich decoration is found throughout
Spain and France. In Germany and England the pattern book
too often suggested designs of an extremely rococo character, and
it was under the influence of Palladio, through Inigo Jones, that
in England the architect returned to the simpler and purer
Italian style. (R. P. S.)

DOPPLERITE, a naturally occurring organic substance found
in amorphous, elastic or jelly-like masses, of brownish-black
colour, in peat beds in Styria and in Switzerland. It is tasteless,
insoluble in alcohol and ether, and is described by Dana as an
acid substance, or mixture of different acids, related to humic
acid.

DORAN, JOHN (1807-1878), English author, was born in
London of Irish parentage on the nth of March 1807. He became
tutor in several distinguished families, and while travelling on
the continent contributed journalistic sketches to The Literary
Chronicle, a paper which was afterwards incorporated with The
Athenaeum. His play, Justice or the Venetian Jew, was produced
at the Surrey theatre in 1824, and in 1830 he began to write
translations from French, German, Latin and Italian authors for
The Bath Journal. After some years of travel on the continent
he became in 1841 literary editor of The Church and State
Gazette, and in 1852 under the title of Filia dolorosa produced a
memoir of Maria Therese Charlotte, duchesse d'Angouleme. Two
years later he became a regular contributor to The Athenaeum,
succeeding Hepworth Dixon as editor for a short time in 1869.
until he became editor of Notes and Queries in 1870. His most
elaborate work, Their Majesties' Servants, a history of the English
stage from Betterton to Kean, was published in 1860, and was
supplemented by In and About Drury Lane, which was written
for Temple Bar and was not published in book form till 1885,
after Doran's death. Among his other works may be mentioned
Table Traits and Habits of Men (1854), TheQueens of the House of
Hanover (1855), Knights and their Days (1856). Monarchs retired
from Business ( 1 8 56) , The History of Court Fools ( 1 8 58) , an edition
of the Bentley Ballads (1858), The Last Journals of Horace
Walpole (2 vols., 1859), The Princess of Wales (1860), and the
Memoirs of Queen Adelaide (1861). These were followed by A
Lady of the Last Century (1873), an account of Mrs Elizabeth
Montagu and the blue-stockings; London in Jacobite Times
(1877); and Memories of our Great Towns (1878). Doran died
in London, on the 25th of January 1878.

DORAT, CLAUDE JOSEPH (1734-1780), French man of letters,
was born in Paris on the 3ist of December 1 734. He belonged to
a family whose members had for generations been lawyers, and he
entered the corps of the king's musketeers. He obtained a great
vogue by his Reponse d'Abailard d Heloise, and followed up this
first success with a number of heroic epistles, Les Victimes de
I' amour, ou lettres de quelques amants celebres (1776). Dorat was
possessed by an ambition quite out of proportion to his very
mediocre ability. Besides light verse he wrote comedies, fables
and, among other novels, Les Sacrifices de I 'amour, ou leltres de la
vicomtesse de Senanges et du chevalier de Versenay (1771). He tried
to cover his failures as a dramatist by buying up a great number
of seats, and his books were lavishly illustrated by good artists
and expensively produced, to secure their success. He was
maladroit enough to draw down on himself the hatred both of
the philosophe party and of their arch-enemy Charles Palissot, and
thus cut himself off from the possibility of academic honours.
Le Tartufe litteraire (1777) attacked La Harpe and Palissot, and
at the same time D'Alembert and Mile de Lespinasse. Dorat
died on the 2gth of April 1780 in Paris.

See G. Desnoireterres, Le Chevalier Dorat et les pastes legers au
XVIII' siecle (1887). For the bibliographical value of his works, see
Henry Cohen, Guide de I 'amateur de livres a figures et a vignettes du
XVIII' siecle (editions of Ch. Mehl, 1876, and R. Portalis, 1887).

DORCHESTER, DUDLEY CARLETON, VISCOUNT (1573-1632),
English diplomatist, son of Antony Carleton of Baldwin

422

DORCHESTER, IST BARON— DORCHESTER

Brightwell, Oxfordshire, and of Jocosa, daughter of John Goodwin
of Winchington, Buckinghamshire, was born on the loth of
March 1573, and educated at Westminster school and Christ
Church, Oxford, where he graduated M.A. in 1600. He travelled
abroad, and was returned to the parliament of 1604 as member
for St Mawes. Through his connexion as secretary with the earl
of Northumberland his name was associated with the Gunpowder
Plot, but after a short confinement he succeeded in clearing
himself of any share in the conspiracy. In 1610 he was knighted
and was sent as ambassador to Venice, where he was the means
of concluding the treaty of Asti. He returned in 1615, and next
year was appointed ambassador to Holland. The policy of
England on the continent depended mainly upon its relations with
that state, and Carleton succeeded in improving these, in spite of
his firm attitude on the subject of the massacre of Amboyna, the
bitter commercial disputes between the two countries, and the
fatal tendency of James I. to seek alliance with Spain. It was in
his house at the Hague that the unfortunate Elector Frederick
and the princess Elizabeth took refuge in 1621. Carleton
returned to England in 1625 with the duke of Buckingham,
and was made vice-chamberlain of the household and a privy
councillor. Shortly afterwards he took part in an abortive
mission to France in favour of the French Protestants and to
inspire a league against the house of Austria. On his return in

1626 he found the attention of parliament, to which he had been
elected for Hastings, completely occupied with the attack upon
Buckingham. Carleton endeavoured to defend his patron, and
supported the king's violent exercise of his prerogative. It was
perhaps fortunate that his further career in the Commons was
cut short by his elevation in May to the peerage as Baron Carleton
of Imbercourt. Shortly afterwards he was despatched on
another mission to the Hague, on his return from which he was
created Viscount Dorchester in July 1628. He was active in
forwarding the conferences between Buckingham and Contarini
for a peace with France on the eve of the duke's intended
departure for La Rochelle, which was prevented by the latter's
assassination. In December 1628 he was made principal secretary
of state, and died on the isth of February 1632, being buried in
Westminster Abbey. He was twice married, and had children,
but all died in infancy, and the title became extinct. Carleton
was one of the ablest diplomatists of the time, and his talents
would have secured greater triumphs had he not been persistently
hampered by the mistaken and hesitating foreign policy of the
court.

His voluminous correspondence, remarkable for its clear, easy and
effective style, and for the writer's grasp of the main points of policy,
covers practically the whole history of foreign affairs during the
period 1610-1628, and furnishes valuable material for the study of
the Thirty Years' War. His letters as ambassador at the Hague,
January i6l"6 to December 1620, were first edited by Philip Yorke,
afterwards second earl of Hardwicke, with a biographical and
historical preface, in 1757; his correspondence from the Hague in

1627 by Sir Thomas Phillipps in 1841 ; other letters are printed in the
Cabala, and in T. Birch's Court and Times of James I. and Charles I.,
but by far the greater portion remains in MS. among the state papers.

DORCHESTER, GUY CARLETON, ist BARON (1724-1808),
British general, and administrator, was born at Strabane, Co.
Tyrone, Ireland, on the 3rd of September 1724. He served with
distinction on the continent under the duke of Cumberland, and
in 1759 in America as quartermaster-general, under his friend
Wolfe. He was wounded at the capture of Quebec, and promoted
to the rank of brigadier-general. In 1766 he was appointed
governor-general of Canada, which position he held till 1778.
His justice and kindliness greatly endeared him to the recently
conquered French-Canadians, and did much to hold them neutral
during the War of American Independence. He ordered the first
codification of the civil law of the province, and was largely
responsible for the passing of the Quebec Act. On the American
invasion of Canada in 1 77 5 he was compelled to abandon Montreal
and narrowly escaped capture, but defended Quebec (q.v.) with
skill and success. In October of the same year he destroyed the
American flotilla on Lake Champlain. In 1777 he was superseded
in his command of the military forces by Major-General John
Burgoyne, and asked to be recalled. He returned, however, to

America in May 1782 as commander-in-chief, remaining till
November 1783.- In 1786 he was again sent to Canada as
governor-general and commander of the forces, with the title of
Baron Dorchester. Many important reforms marked his rule; he
administered the country with tact and moderation, and kept it
loyal to the British crown amid the ferment caused by the French
Revolution, and by the attempts of American emissaries to
arouse discontent. In 1791 the province was divided into Upper
and Lower Canada by the Constitutional Act. Of this division
Carleton disapproved, as he did also of a provision tending to
create in the new colony an hereditary aristocracy. In 1796
he insisted on retiring, and returned to England. He died on the
loth of November 1808. He married in 1772 a daughter of the
2nd earl of Effingham, and had nine children, being succeeded
in the title by his grandson Arthur. On the death in 1897 of the
4th baron (another grandson) the title became extinct, but was
revived in 1899 for his cousin and co-heiress Henrietta Anne
as Baroness Dorchester.

J. C. Dent's Canadian Portrait Gallery (Toronto, 1880) gives a
sketch of Lord Dorchester's Canadian career. His life by A. G.
Bradley is included in the Makers of Canada series (Toronto). Most
of his letters and state papers, which are indispensable for a know-
ledge of the period, are in the archives department at Ottawa, and
are calendared in Brymner's Reports on Canadian Archives (Ottawa,
1885, seq.). . (W. L. G.)

DORCHESTER, a market town and municipal borough and
the county town of Dorsetshire, England, in the southern par-
liamentary division, 135 m. S.W. by W. from London by the
London & South Western railway; served also by the Great
Western railway. Pop. (1901) 9458. It stands on an eminence
on the right bank of the river Frome, within a wide open tract of
land, containing 3400 acres, held under the duchy of Cornwall,
called Fordington Field. Several of the streets are planted with
trees, and the town is nearly surrounded by fine avenues. St
Peter's church is a Perpendicular building with a fine tower. All
Saints and Holy Trinity churches are modern, but Fordington
church retains Norman and Transitional details. Of public
buildings the principal are — the town-hall, with market-house,
shire-hall, county prison and county hospital; there is also a
county museum, containing many local objects of much interest.
The grammar school (founded in 1569) is endowed with
exhibitions tp Oxford and Cambridge. There is a statue to
William Barnes the Dorsetshire poet (1801-1886). The town is
noted also for its ale. It is a place of considerable agricultural
trade, and large sheep and lamb fairs are held annually. The
borough is under a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors.
Area 1648 acres.

History. — Durnovaria was here, a Romano-British country
town of considerable size, probably successor to a British tribal
centre of the Durotriges. The walls can be traced in part, and
many mosaics, remains of houses, &c., have been found. The
remains of an amphitheatre are seen at Maumbury Rings, near
the town. Maiden Castle, 2 m. S.W. of the town, is a vast earth-
work considered to have been a stronghold of the tribe of the
Durotriges. There are other such remains in the vicinity. Little
mention of Dorchester (Dornccaster, Dorcestre) occurs in Saxon
annals, but a charter from ^Jthelstan to Milton Abbey in 939 is
dated at villa regalis quae dicitur Doracestria, and at this period it
possessed a mint. According to the Domesday Survey it was a
royal borough, and at the time of Edward the Confessor contained
172 houses, of which 100 had been totally destroyed since
the Conquest. Mention is made of a castle at Dorchester in
records of the I2th and i3th centuries; and the Franciscan
priory, founded some time before 1331, is thought to have been
constructed out of its ruins. The latter was suppressed among
the lesser monasteries in 1536. Edward II. granted the borough
to the bailiffs and burgesses at a fee-farm rent of £20 for five
years, and the grant was renewed in perpetuity by Edward III.
Richard III. empowered the burgesses to elect a coroner and two
constables, to be exempt from tolls, and to try minor pleas in the
king's court within the borough before a steward to be chosen by
themselves. The first charter of incorporation, granted by James
I. in 1610, established a governing council of two bailiffs and

DORCHESTER

423

fifteen capital burgesses. Charles I. in 1629 instituted a mayor,
six aldermen and six capital burgesses, and also incorporated all
the freemen of the borough, for the purposes of trade, under the
government of a council consisting of a governor, assistants and
twenty-four freemen, the governor and four assistants to be
chosen out of the twenty-four by the freemen, and five other
assistants to be chosen by the mayor out of the capital burgesses;
the Council was empowered to hold four courts yearly and
to make laws for the regulation of the markets and trade.
Dorchester returned two members to parliament from 1295, until
the Representation of the People Act of 1868 reduced the number
to one; by the Redistribution Act of 1885 the representation was
merged in the county. Edward III. granted to the burgesses
the perquisites from three fairs lasting one day at the feasts of
Holy Trinity, St John Baptist and St James, and markets
on Wednesday, Friday and Saturday. Elizabeth granted an
additional three days' fair at Candlemas. The days of the fairs
and markets have remained unchanged. The cloth industry
which flourished during the i6th century never recovered from
the depression following on the Civil War. The malting and
brewing industries came into prominence in the lyth century,
when there was also a considerable serge manufacture, which has
since declined.

See Victoria County History, Dorsetshire; John Hutchins, The
History and Antiquities of the Town and Borough of Dorchester (3rd
edition, corrected, augmented and improved by W. Shipp and
J. W. Hodson, Blandford, 1865).

DORCHESTER, a large village in the south parliamentary
division of Oxfordshire, England, 9 m. S.S.E. of Oxford by road,
on the river Thame, i m. from its junction with the Thames.
This is a site of much historical interest. There was a Roman
station near the present village, facing, across the Thames, the
double isolated mound known as Wittenham Hills (historically
Sinodun), on one summit of which are strong early earthworks.
In Dorchester itself the chief point of interest is the abbey church
of St Peter and St Paul. This consists of a nave of great length,
primarily of the transitional Norman period ; a choir with arcades
of the finest Decorated work; north choir aisle of the close of
the i3th century, south choir aisle (c. 1300) and south nave aisle
(c. 1320). The tower (western) is an erection of the late I7th
century. The eastern bay of the choir is considered to have been
• added as a Lady chapel, and the north window is a magnificent
example of a " Jesse window," in which the tracery represents
the genealogical tree of Jesse, the complete execution of the design
being carried on in the glass. The sedilia and piscina are very fine.
The Decorated windows on the south side of the church form a
beautiful series, and there are monuments and brasses of great
interest.

Dorchester (Dorcinia, Dornacestre, Dorchecestre) was con-
quered by the West Saxons about 560. It occupied a com-
manding position at the junction of the Thames and the Thame,
and in 635 was made the seat of a bishopric which at its founda-
tion was the largest in England, comprising the whole of Wessex
and Mercia. The witenagemot of Wessex was held at Dorchester
three times in the 9th century, and in 958 ^Ethelstan held a
council here. In the nth century, however, the town is described
as small and ill-peopled and remarkable only for the majesty of
its churches, and in about 1086 William I. and Bishop Remigius
removed the bishop's stool to Lincoln, as a city more worthy of
the distinction. According to the Domesday Survey Dorchester
was held by the bishop of Lincoln; it was assessed at 100
hides and comprised two mills. In 1140 Alexander bishop
of Lincoln founded an abbey of Black Canons at Dorchester,
but the town declined in importance after the removal of the
cathedral, and is described by 16th-century writers as a mere
agricultural village and destitute of trade.

See Victoria County History, Oxfordshire; Henry Addington, Some
Account of the Abbey Church of St Peter and St Paul at Dorchester,
Oxfordshire, reissue with additional notes (Oxford, 1860).

DORCHESTER, a residential and manufacturing district of
Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A., a separate town until 1870,
between the Neponset river on the S. and South Boston and
Boston proper on the N. It is served by three lines of the New

York, New Haven & Hartford railway. A ridge, with an
average height of about 100 ft. above the sea, extends through
the district from N. to S. and commands delightful views of
Boston Bay to the E. and of the Blue Hills to the S. There are
many large private estates, with beautiful lawns, and Franklin
Field and Franklin Park, one of the largest parks of the Boston
park system, are in Dorchester. The Shawmut school for girls
is in the district. Among the landmarks are the Barnard Capen
house, built in the fourth decade of the i;th century and now
probably the second oldest house in New England; and the James
Blake house (1648), now the home of the Dorchester Historical
Society, which has a library and a museum. Opposite the Blake
house formerly stood the house in which Edward Everett was
born. Not far away is the old Dorchester burying ground, which
dates from 1634; it has many curious epitaphs, and contains the
graves of Barnard Capen, who died in 1638 (probably the oldest
marked grave in the United States); of William Stoughton
(1631-1701), chief justice of the court which tried the Salem
" witches " in 1692, lieutenant-governor of the colony from 1692,
acting governor in 1694-1699 and 1700-1701, and founder of the
original Stoughton Hall, Harvard; and of Richard Mather,
pastor of the First Parish church here from 1636 until his death.
In Dorchester Maria Susana Cummins (1827-1866) wrote The
Lamplighter (1854), one of the most popular novels of its time,
and William T. Adams (" Oliver Optic ") and Charles Pollen
Adams (" Yawcob Strauss ") did much of their writing; it
was long the home of Mrs Lucy Stone (Blackwell). Among the
manufactures are cocoa, chocolate, &c. (of the long-established
Walter Baker & Co.), paper, crushing and grinding machinery
(Sturtevant Mill Co.), chemicals, horseshoe nails, valves, organs
and pianos, lumber, automobiles and shoe machinery.

Dorchester was founded by about 140 colonists from Dorset-
shire, England, with whom the movement for planting the colony
in Massachusetts Bay was begun under the leadership of Rev.
John White. They organized as a church while at Plymouth,
England, in March 1630, then embarked in the ship " Mary
ard John," arrived in Boston Bay two weeks before Governor
Winthrop with the rest of the fleet, and in June selected Savin
Hill (E. of what is now Dorchester Avenue and between Crescent
Avenue and Dorchester Bay) as the site for their settlement.
At the time the place was known as Mattapanock, but they named
it Dorchester. Town affairs were at first managed by the church,
but in October 1633 a town government was organized, and the
example was followed by the neighbouring settlements; this
seems to have been the beginning of the town-meeting form of
government in America. Up to this time Dorchester was the
largest town in the colony, but dissatisfaction arose with the
location (Boston had a better one chiefly on account of the deeper
water in its harbour), and in 1635-1637 many of the original
settlers removed to the valley of the Connecticut where they
planted Windsor. New settlers, however, arrived at Dorchester
and in 1639 that town established a school supported by a public
tax; this was the first free school in America supported by direct
taxation or assessment on the inhabitants of a town.1 In
October 1695, a few of the inhabitants of Dorchester organized a
church and in December removed to South Carolina where they
planted another Dorchester (on the N. bank of the Ashley river,
about 26 m. from Charleston); by 1752 they had become
dissatisfied with their location, which was unhealthy, and they
gradually removed to Georgia, where they settled at Medway

1 In 1635 the general court of the colony of Massachusetts Bay had
granted to Dorchester Thompson's Island, situated near the coast of
the township. By the township of Dorchester this island was ap-
portioned among the freemen of the township. On the 2Oth of May
1639 it was ordered that the proprietors of land in this island should
collectively pay a " rent of twenty pounds a year forever," this rent
" to be paid to such a school-master as shall undertake to teach
English, Latin, and other tongues, and also writing," it being " left
to the discretion of the elders and the seven men for the time being
whether maids shall be taught with the boys or not." In 1642 the
proprietors of the island conveyed it to the township " for and
toward the maintenance of a free school in Dorchester aforesaid for
the instructing and teaching of children and youth in good literature
and learning."

424

DORDOGNE— DORfi

(half way between the Ogeechee and Altamaha rivers), their
settlement soon developing into St John's Parish (see GEORGIA:
History). It was the fortification of Dorchester Heights, under
orders from General Washington, on the night of the 4th and sth
of March 1776, that forced the British to evacuate Boston. At
one time Dorchester extended from Boston nearly to the Rhode
Island line; but its territory was gradually reduced by the
creation of new townships and additions to old ones. Dorchester
Neck was annexed to Boston in 1804, Thompson's Island in 1834,
and the remaining portions in 1855 and 1870.

See W. D. Orcutt, Good Old Dorchester (Cambridge, 1893).

DORDOGNE, a river of central and south-western France,
rising at a height of 5640 ft. on the Puy-de-Sancy, a mountain of
the department-of Puy-de-D6me, and flowing to the Garonne with
which it unites at Bee d'Ambes to form the Gironde estuary.
It has a length of 295 m. and the area of its basin is 9214 sq. m.
Descending rapidly from its source, sometimes over cascades,
the river soon enters deep gorges through which it flows as far as
Beaulieu (department of Correze) where it debouches into a wide
and fertile valley and is shortly after joined by the Cere. Enter-
ing the department of Lot, it abandons a south-westerly for a
westerly course and flowing in a sinuous channel traverses the
department of Dordogne, where it receives the waters of the
Vezere. Below the town of Bergerac it enters the department of
Gironde, where at Libourne it is joined by the Isle and widens
out, attaining at its union with the Garonne 45 m. from the
sea a width of nearly 3300 yds. A few miles above this point the
river is spanned by the magnificent bridges of Cubzac-les-
Ponts, which carry a road and railway. Below its confluence
with the Vezere, over the last 112 m. of its course, the river
carries considerable navigation. The influence of the highest
tides is felt at Pessac, a distance of 100 m. from the ocean.

DORDOGNE, an inland department of south-western France,
formed in 1790 from nearly the whole of Perigord, a part of
Agenais, and small portions of Limousin and of Angoumois.
Area 3560 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 447,052. It is bounded N. by
Haute- Vienne, W. by Charente,Charente-Inferieure and Gironde,
S. by Lot-et-Garonne, and E. by Lot and Correze. Situated on
the western slopes of the Massif Central, Dordogne consists in the
north-east and centre of sterile plateaus sloping towards the west,
where they end in a region of pine forests known as the Double.
The greatest altitudes are found in the highlands of the north,
where many points exceed 1300 ft. in height. The department is
intersected by many fertile and beautiful river valleys, which
converge from its northern and eastern borders towards the south-
west. The Dordogne is the principal river of the department and
its chief affluent is the Isle, which crosses the centre of the depart-
ment and flows into the Dordogneat Libourne.in the neighbouring
department of Gironde. The Dronne and the Auvezere, both
tributaries of the Isle, are the other main rivers. The climate is
generally agreeable and healthy, but rather humid, especially in
the north-east. Agriculture flourishes in the south and south-west
of the department, especially in the valleys of the Dordogne and
Isle, the rest of its surface being covered to a great extent by
woods and heath. Pasture and forage amply suffice for the raising
of large flocks and herds. The vine, cultivated mainly in the
neighbourhood of Bergerac, and tobacco are important sources of
profit. Wheat and maize are the chief cereals and potatoes are
largely grown. The truffles of Perigord are famous for their
abundance and quality. The plum and cider-apple yield good
crops. In the forests the prevailing trees are the oak and
chestnut. The fruit of the latter is much used both as food by
the people and for fattening hogs, which are reared in large
numbers. The walnut is extensively grown for its oil. The
department has mines of lignite, and produces freestone, lime,
cement, mill-stone, peat, potter's clay and fireclay. The leather
industry and the preparation of preserved foods are important,
and there are flour-mills, brick and tile works, earthenware
manufactories, printing works, chemical works and a few iron
foundries. Exports consist of truffles, wine, chestnuts and other
fruit, live stock, poultry, and minerals of various kinds. Dordogne
is served by the Orleans railway; the Dordogne, the Isle and the

Vezere furnish nearly 200 m. of navigable waterway. It is divided
into the arrondissements of Perigueux, Bergerac, Nontron,
Riberac and Sarlat, with 47 cantons and 587 communes, and
belongs to the ecclesiastical province of Bordeaux, to the
academic (educational division) of Bordeaux and to the region of
the XII. army corps, which has its headquarters at Limoges. Its
court of appeal is at Bordeaux.

Perigueux, the capital. Bergerac, Sarlat and Brant6me are the
principal towns (see separate articles). There are several other
places of interest. Bourdeilles has two finely preserved chateaux,
one of the i4th century, with an imposing keep, the other in
the Renaissance style of the i6th century. Both buildings are
contained within the same fortified enceinte. The celebrated
chateau of Biron, founded in the nth century, preserves examples
of many subsequent architectural styles, among them a beautiful
chapel of late Gothic and early Renaissance workmanship.
The chateau of Jumilhac-le- Grand belongs to the isth century.
Dordogne possesses several medieval bastides, the most perfect
of which is Monpazier. At Cadouin there are the remains of a
Cistercian abbey. Its church is a fine cruciform building in the
Romanesque style, while the cloister is an excellent example of
Flamboyant architecture. St Jean-de-C61e has an interesting
Romanesque church and a chateau of the isth, i6th and i8th
centuries. In the rocks of the valley of the lower Vezere there
are prehistoric caves of great archaeological importance, in which
have been found tools, and carvings on bone, flint and ivory.
Troglodytic dwellings are to be found in many other places in
Dordogne (see CAVE).

DORDRECHT (abbreviated Dordt, or Dorf), a town and river-
port of Holland, in the province of South Holland, on the south
side of the Merwede, and a junction station 125 m. by rail S.E.
of Rotterdam. Steam ferries connect it with Papendrecht and
Zwyndrecht on the opposite shore, and it has excellent com-
munication by water in every direction. Pop. (1900) 38,386.
Dordrecht presents a picturesque appearance with its busy quays
and numerous canals and windmills, its quaint streets and
curiously gabled houses. The Groote Kerk, of Our Lady, whose
massive tower forms a conspicuous object in the views of the
town, dates from the i4th century and contains some finely
carved stalls (1540) by Jan Terween Aertsz, a remarkable pulpit
UTSQ)) many old monuments and a set of gold communion plate.
In the town museum is an interesting collection of paintings,
chiefly by modern artists, but including also pictures by some of
the older masters, among whom Ferdinand Bol, the two Cuyps,
Nicolas Maes, Godefried Schalcken, and in later times Ary
Scheffer, were all natives of Dordrecht. The celebrated 17th-
century statesman John de Witt was also a native of the town.
Close to the museum is one of the old city gates, rebuilt in 1618,
and now containing a collection of antiquities belonging to the
Oud-Dordrecht Society. The South African Museum (1902)
contains memorials of the Boer War of 1899-1902. The harbour
of Dordrecht still has a large trade, but much has been diverted
to Rotterdam. Large quantities of wood are imported from
Germany, Scandinavia and America. There are numerous
saw-mills, shipbuilding yards, engineering works, distilleries,
sugar refineries, tobacco factories, linen bleacheries and stained
glass, salt and white lead works.

Dordrecht was founded by Count Dirk III. of Holland in 1018,
becoming a town about 1200. One of the first towns in the
Netherlands to embrace the reformed religion and to throw off
the yoke of Spain, it was in 1572 the meeting-place of the de-
puties who asserted the independence of the United Provinces.
In 1618 and 1619 it was the seat of the synod of Dort (q.v.).

DOR6, LOUIS AUGUSTE GUSTAVE (1832-1883), French
artist, the son of a civil engineer, was born at Strassburg on the
6th of January 1832. In 1848 he came to Paris and secured a
three years' engagement on the Journal pour rire. His facility
as a draughtsman was extraordinary, and among the books he
illustrated in rapid succession were Balzac's Contes drolatiques
(1855), Dante's Inferno (1861), Don Quixote (1863), The Bible
(1866), Paradise Lost (1866), and the works of Rabelais (1873).
He painted also many large and ambitious compositions of a

DORIA— DORIANS

425

religious or historical character, and made some success as a
sculptor, his statue of Alexandra Dumas in Paris being perhaps
his best-known work in this line. He died on the 25th of January
1883.

DORIA, ANDREA (1466-1560), Genoese condottiere and
admiral, was born at Oneglia of an ancient Genoese family.
Being left an orphan at an early age, he became a soldier of
fortune, and served first in the papal guard and then under various
Italian princes. In 1503 we find him fighting in Corsica in the
service of Genoa, at that time under French vassalage, and he
took part in the rising of Genoa against the French, whom he
compelled to evacuate the city. From that time forth it was as
a naval captain that he became famous. For several years he
scoured the Mediterranean in command of the Genoese fleet,
waging war on the Turks and the Barbary pirates. In the mean-
while Genoa had been recaptured by the French, and in 1522 by
the Imperialists. But Doria now veered round to the French or
popular faction and entered the service of King Francis I., who
made him captain-general; in 1524 he relieved Marseilles, which
was besieged by the Imperialists, and helped to place his native
city once more under French domination. But he was dissatisfied
with his treatment at the hands of Francis, who was mean about
payment, and he resented the king's behaviour in connexion with
Savona, which he delayed to hand back to the Genoese as he had
promised; consequently on the expiry of Doria's contract we
find him in the service of the emperor Charles V. (1528). He
ordered his nephew Filippino, who was then blockading Naples
in concert with a French army, to withdraw, and sailed for
Genoa, where, with the help of some leading citizens, he expelled
the French once more and re-established the republic under
imperial protection. He reformed the constitution in an
aristocratic sense, most of the nobility being Imperialists, and put
an end to the factions which divided the city. He refused the
lordship of Genoa and even the dogeship, but accepted the
position of perpetual censor, and exercised predominant influence
in the councils of the republic until his death. He was given two
palaces, many privileges, and the title of Liberator et Pater
Palriae. As imperial admiral he commanded several expeditions
against the Turks, capturing Corona and Patras, and co-operating
with the emperor himself in the capture of Tunis (1535). Charles
found him an invaluable ally in the wars with Francis, and through
him extended his domination over the whole of Italy. Doria's
defeat by the Turks at Preveza in 1538 was said to be not in-
voluntary, and designed to spite the Venetians whom he detested.
He accompanied Charles on the ill-fated Algerian expedition of
1541, of which he disapproved, and by his ability just saved the
whole force from complete disaster. For the next five years he
continued to serve the emperor in various wars, in which he was
generally successful and always active, although now over seventy
years old; there was hardly an important event in Europe in
which he had not some share. After the peace of Crepy between
Francis and Charles in 1544 he hoped to end his days in quiet.
But his great wealth and power, as well as the arrogance of his
nephew and heir Giannettino Doria, made him many enemies,
and in 1547 the Fiesco conspiracy to upset the power of his house
took place. Giannettino was murdered, but the conspirators were
defeated, and Andrea showed great vindictiveness in punishing
them. Many of their fiefs he seized for himself, and he was
implicated in the murder of Pier Luigi Farnese, duke of Parma
(see FARNESE), who had helped Fiesco. Other conspiracies
followed, of which the most important was that of Giulio Cibo
(1548), but all failed. Although Doria was ambitious and harsh,
he was a good patriot and successfully opposed the emperor
Charles's repeated attempts to have a citadel built in Genoa and
garrisoned by Spaniards; neither blandishments nor threats
could win him over to the scheme. Nor did age lessen his energy,
for in 1550, when eighty-four years old, he again put to sea to
punish the raids of his old enemies the Barbary pirates, but with
no great success. War between France and the Empire having
broken out once more, the French seized Corsica, then admin-
istered by the Genoese Bank of St George; Doria was again
summoned, and he spent two years (1553-1555) in the island

fighting the French with varying fortune. He returned to Genoa
for good in 1555, and being very old and infirm he gave over the
command of the galleys to his great-nephew Giovanni Andrea
Doria, who conducted an expedition against Tripoli, but proved
even more unsuccessful than his uncle had been'at Algiers, barely
escaping with his life. Andrea Doria died on the 25th of
November 1560, leaving his estates to Giovanni Andrea. The
family of Doria-Pamphilii-Landi (q.v.) is descended from him and
bears his title of prince of Melfi. Doria was a man of indomitable
energy and a great admiral. If he appears unscrupulous and even
treacherous he did but conform to the standards of 16th-century
Italy.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — E. Petit's Andre Doria (Paris, 1887) is an ac-
curate and documented biography, indicating all the chief works on
the subject, but the author is perhaps unduly harsh in his judgment of
the admiral ; F. D. Guerrazzi's Vita di Andrea Doria (yd ed., Milan,
1874) ; among the earlier works L. Cappelloni's Vita di Andrea Doria
I Italian edition, Genoa, 1863) and V. Sigonius's VitaAndreaeDoriae
(1576) may be mentioned ; see also " Document; ispano-genovesi del-
1'Archivio di Simancas " in the AM della Societd ligure di Storia patria,
vol. viii. ; the Archivio storico italiano (serie iii. tome iv. parte i.,
1866) contains a bibliography, but a great deal has been published
since that date. (L. V. *)

DORIANS, a name applied by the Greeks to one of the principal
groups of Hellenic peoples, in contradistinction to lonians and
Aeolians. In Hellenic times a small district known as Doris in
north Greece, between Mount Parnassus and Mount Oeta,
counted as " Dorian " in a special sense. Practically all Pelo-
ponnese, except Achaea and Elis, was " Dorian," together with
Megara, Aegina, Crete, Melos, Thera, the Spdrades Islands and
the S.W. coast of Asia Minor, where Rhodes, Cos, Cnidus and
(formerly) Halicarnassus formed a " Dorian " confederacy.
" Dorian " colonies, from Corinth, Megara, and the Dorian
islands, occupied the southern coasts of Sicily from Syracuse to
Selinus. Dorian states usually had in common the " Doric "
dialect, a peculiar calendar and cycle of festivals of which the
Hyacinthia and Carneia were the chief, and certain political
and social institutions, such as the threefold " Dorian tribes."
The worships of Apollo and Heracles, though not confined to
Dorians, were widely regarded as in some sense " Dorian " in
character.

But those common characters are not to be pressed too far.
The northern Doris, for example, spoke Aeolic, while Elis, Phocis,
and many non-Dorian districts of north-west Greece spoke
dialects akin to Doric. Many Dorian states had additional " non-
Dorian tribes "; Sparta, which claimed to be of pure and typical
Dorian origin, maintained institutions and a mode of life which
were without parallel in Peloponnese, in the Parnassian and
in the Asiatic Doris, and were partially reflected in Crete
only.

Most non-Dorian Greeks, in fact, seem to have accepted much
as Dorian which was in fact only Spartan: this was particularly
the case in the political, ethical and aesthetic controversies of the
5th and 4th centuries B.C. Much, however, which was common
(in art, for example) to Olympia, Argolis and Aegina, and might
thus have been regarded as Dorian, was conspicuously absent
from the culture of Sparta.

Traditional History. — In the diagrammatic family tree of the
Greek people, as it appears in the Hesiodic catalogue (6th century)
and in Hellanicus (sth century), the " sons of Hellen " are Dorus,
Xuthus (father of Ion and Achaeus) and Aeolus. Dorus' share
of the inheritance of Hellen lay in central Greece, north of the
Corinthian Gulf, between Xuthus in north Peloponnese and
Aeolus in Thessaly. His descendants, either under Dorus or
under a later king Aegimius, occupied Histiaeotis, a district of
northern Thessaly, and afterwards conquered from the Dryopes
the head-waters of the Boeotian Cephissus between Mount
Parnassus and Mount Oeta. This became " Doris " par excellence.
Services rendered to Aegimius by Heracles led (i) to the adoption
of Hyllus, son of Heracles, by Aegimius, side by side with his own
sons Dymas and Pamphylus, and to a threefold grouping of the
Dorian clans, as Hylleis, Dymanes and Pamphyli; (2) to the
association of the people of Aegimius in the repeated attempts
of Hyllus and his family to recover their lost inheritance in

426

DORIANS

Peloponnese (see HERACLIDAE). The last of these attempts
resulted in the " Dorian conquest " of the " Achaeans " and
" lonians " of Feloponnese, and in the assignment of Argolis,
Laconia and Messenia to the Heracleid leaders, Temenus,
Aristodemus and Cresphontes respectively; of Elis to their
Aetolian allies; and of the north coast to the remnants of the
conquered Achaeans. The conquest of Corinth and Megara was
placed a generation later: Arcadia alone claimed to have
escaped invasion. This conquest was dated relatively by
Thucydides (i. 12) at eighty years after the Trojan War and
twenty years after the conquest of Thessaly and Boeotia by the
similar "invaders from Arne"; absolutely by Hellanicus and
his school (sth century) at 1149 B.C.; by Isocrates and Ephorus
(4th century B.C.) at about 1070 B.C.; and by Sosibius,
Eratosthenes (3rd century), and later writers generally, at the
generations from 1125 to noo B.C.

The invasion was commonly believed to have proceeded by way
of Aetolia and Elis, and the name Naupactus was interpreted as
an allusion to the needful " shipbuilding " on the Corinthian
Gulf. One legend made Dorus himself originally an Aetolian
prince; the participation of Oxylus, and the Aetolian claim
to Elis, appear first in Ephorus (4th century). The conquest
of Laconia at least is represented in sth-century tradition as
immediate and complete, though one legend admits the previous
death of the Heracleid leader Aristodemus, and another describes
a protracted struggle in the case of Corinth. Pausanias, however
(following Sosibius) , interprets a long series of conflicts in Arcadia
as stages in a gradual advance southward, ending with the
conquest of Amyclae by King Teleclus (c. 800 B.C.) and of Helos
by King Alcamenes (c. 770 B.C.).

Of the invasion of Argolis a quite different version was already
current in the 4th century. This represents the Argive Dorians
as having come by sea (apparently from the Maliac Gulf, the
nearest seashore to Parnassian Dorib), accompanied by survivors
of the Dryopes (former inhabitants of that Doris), whose traces in
south Euboea (Styra and Carystus), in Cythnus, and at Eion
(Halieis), Hermione and Asine in Argob's, were held to indicate
their probable route.

The Homeric Dorians of Crete were also interpreted by Andron
and others ford century) as an advance-guard of this sea-borne
migration, and as having separated from the other Dorians while
still in Histiaeotis. The 5th-century tradition that the Heracleid
kings of Macedon were Temenid exiles from Argos may belong to
the same cycle.

The fate of the Dorian invaders was represented as differing
locally. In Messenia (according to a legend dramatized by
Euripides in the 5th century, and renovated for political ends in
the 4th century) the descendants of Cresphontes quarrelled
among themselves and were exterminated by the natives. In
Laconia Aristodemus (01 his twin sons) effected a rigid military
occupation which eventually embraced the whole district, and
permitted (a) the colonization of Melos, Thera and parts of Crete
(before 800 B.C.), (b) the reconquest and annexation of Messenia
(about 750 B.C.), (c) a. settlement of half-breed Spartans at
Tarentum in south Italy, 700 B.C. In Argos and other cities of
Argolis the descendants of the Achaean chiefs were taken into
political partnership, but a tradition of race-feud lasted till
historic times. Corinth, Sicyon and Megara, with similar
political compromises, mark the limits of Dorian conquest;
a Dorian invasion of Attica (c. 1066 B.C.) was checked by the
self-sacrifice of King Codrus: "Either Athens must perish or her
king." Aegina was reckoned a colony of Epidaurus. Rhodes,
and some Cretan towns, traced descent from Argos; Cnidus from
Argos and Sparta; the rest of Asiatic Doris from Epidaurus or
Troezen in Argolis. The colonies of Corinth, Sicyon and Megara,
and the Sicilian offshoots of the Asiatic Dorians, belong to historic
times (8th-6th centuries).

Criticism of the Traditional History. — The following are the
problems: — (i) Was there a Dorian invasion as described in the
legends; and, if not, how did the tradition arise? (2) Who were
the Dorian invaders, and in what relation did they stand to the
rest of the population of Greece? (3) How far do the Dorian

states, or their characteristics, represent the descendants, or the
culture, of the original invaders?

The Homeric poems (i2th-ioth centuries) know of Dorians
only in Crete, with the obscure epithet Tpixaucts, and no hint
of their origin. All those parts of Peloponnese and the islands
which in historic times were " Dorian " are ruled by recently
established dynasties of " Achaean " chiefs; the home of the
Asiatic Dorians is simply " Caria "; and the geographical
"catalogue" in Iliad ii. ignores the northern Doris altogether.

The almost total absence from Homer not only of " Dorians "
but of " lonians " and even of " Hellenes " leads to the conclusion
that the diagrammatic genealogy of the " sons of Hellen " is of
post-Homeric date; and that it originated as ah attempt to
classify the Doric, Ionic and Aeolic groups of Hellenic settlements
on the west coast of Asia Minor, for here alone do the three names
correspond to territorial, linguistic and political divisions. The
addition of an " Achaean " group, and the inclusion of this and
the Ionic group under a single generic name, would naturally
follow the recognition of the real kinship of the " Achaean "
colonies of Magna Graecia with those of Ionia. But the attempt
to interpret, in terms of this Asiatic diagram, the actual distribu-
tion of dialects and peoples in European Greece, led to difficulties.
Here, in the 8th-6th centuries, all the Dorian states were in the
hands of exclusive aristocracies, which presented a marked
contrast to tie subject populations. Since the kinship of the
latter with the members of adjacent non-Dorian states was
admitted, two different explanations seem to have been made,
(i) on behalf of the non-Dorian populations, either that the
Dorians were no true sons of Hellen, but were of some other
northerly ancestry; or that they were merely Achaean exiles;
and in either case that their historic predominance resulted from
an act of violence, ill-disguised by their association with the
ancient claims of the Peloponnesian Heraclidae; (2) on behalf
of the Dorian aristocracies, that they were in some special sense
" sons of Hellen," if not the only genuine Hellenes; the rest of
the European Greeks, and in particular the anti-Dorian Athenians
(with their marked likeness to lonians), being regarded as
Hellenized barbarians of " Pelasgian " origin (see PELASGIANS).
This process of Hellenization, or at least its final stage, was
further regarded as intimately connected with a movement of
peoples which had brought the " Dorians " from the northern
highlands into those parts of Greece which they occupied in
historic times.

So long as the Homeric poems were believed to represent
Hellenic (and mainly Ionian) beliefs of the gth century or later,
the historical value of the traditions of a Dorian invasion was
repeatedly questioned; most recently and thoroughly by J.
Beloch (Gr. Geschichte, i., Strassburg, 1893), as being simply an
attempt to reconcile the political geography of Homer (i.e. of
Sth-century lonians describing 12th-century events) with that of
historic Greece, by explaining discrepancies (due to Homeric
ignorance) as the result of " migrations " in the interval. Such
legends often arise to connect towns bearing identical or similar
names (such as are common in Greece) and to justify political
events or ambitions by legendary precedents; and this certainly
happened during the successive political rivalries of Dorian
Sparta with non-Dorian Athens and Thebes. But in proportion
as an earlier date has become more probable for Homer, the
hypothesis of Ionic origin has become less tenable, and the belief
better founded (i) that the poems represent accurately a well-
defined phase of culture in prehistoric Greece, and (2) that this
" Homeric " or " Achaean " phase was closed by some such
general catastrophe as is presumed by the legends.

The legend of a Dorian invasion appears first in Tyrtaeus, a 7th-
century poet, in the service of Sparta, who brings the Spartan
Heracleids to Peloponnese from Erineon in the northern Doris;
and the lost Epic of Aegimius, of about the same date, seems to
have presupposed the same story. In the sth century Pindar
ascribes to Aegimius the institutions of the Peloponnesian
Dorians, and describes them as the " Dorian folk of Hyilus and
Aegimius," and as " originating from Pindus " (Pyth. v. 75: cf.
Fr. 4). Herodotus, also in the sth century, describes them as the

DORIANS

427

typical (perhaps in contrast to Athenians as the only genuine)
Hellenes, and traces their numerous wanderings from (i) an
original home " in Deucalion's time " in Phthiotis (the Homeric
" Hellas ") in south Thessaly, to (2) Histiaeotis " below Ossa
and Olympus " in north-east Thessaly (note that the historic
Histiaeotis is " below Pindus " in north-west Thessaly): this was
" in the days of Dorus," i.e. it is at this stage that the Dorians
are regarded as becoming specifically distinct from the generic
" Hellene ": thence (3) to a residence " in Pindus," where they
passed as a " Macedonian people." Hence (4) they moved south
to the Parnassian Doris, which had been held by Dryopes:
and hence finally (5) to Peloponnese. Elsewhere he assigns the
expulsion of the Dryopes to Heracles in co-operation not with
Dorians but with Malians. Here clearly two traditions are
combined: — one, in which the Dorians originated from Hellas
in south Thessaly, and so are " children of Hellen "; another, in
which they were a " Macedonian people " intruded from the north,
from Pindus, past Histiaeotis to Doris and beyond. It is a note-
worthy coincidence that in Macedonia also the royal family
claimed Heracleid descent; and that "'Pindus " is the name both
of the mountains above Histiaeotis and of a stream in Doris.
It is noteworthy also that later writers (e.g. Andron in Strabo
475) derived the Cretan Dorians of Homer from those of
Histiaeotis, and that other legends connected Cretan peoples and
places with certain districts of Macedon.

Thucydides agrees in regarding the Parnassian Doris as the
" mother-state " of the Dorians (i. 107) and dates the invasion (as
above) eighty years after the Trojan War; this agrees approxi-
mately with the pedigree of the kings of Sparta, as given by
Herodotus, and with that of. Hecataeus of Miletus (considered as
evidence for the foundation date of an Ionian refugee-colony).
Thucydides also accepts the story of Heracleid leadership.

The legend of an organized apportionment of Peloponnese
amongst the Heracleid leaders appears first in the sth-century
tragedians, — not earlier, that is, than the rise of the Peloponnesian
League, — and was amplified in the 4th century; the Aetolians'
aid, and claim to Elis, appear first in Ephorus. The numerous
details and variant legends preserved by later writers, particu-
larly Strabo and Pausanias, may go back to early sources (e.g.
Herodotus distinguished the " local " from the " poetic " versions
of events in early Spartan history); but much seems to be
referable to Ephorus and the 4th-century political and rhetorical
historians: — e.g. the enlarged version of the Heracleid claims in
Isocrates (Archidamus, 1 20) and the theory that the Dorians were
mere disowned Achaeans (Plato, Laws, 3). Moreover, many
independent considerations suggest that in its main outlines
the Dorian invasion is historical.

The Doric Dialects. — These dialects have strongly marked
features in common (future in -<reo> -<rto> -<rco; ist pers. plur.
in -/its; KO. for av; -a€ -ari =i]), but differ more among
themselves than do the Ionic. Laconia with its colonies (includ-
ing those in south Italy) form a clear group, in which -e and -o
lengthen to -)j and -w as in Aeolic. Corinth (with its Sicilian
colonies) , the Argolid towns, and the Asiatic Doris, form another
group, in which -e and -o become -«i and -on as in Ionic.
Connected with the latter (e.g. by -ei and -ou) are the " northern"
group: — Phocis, including Delphi, with Aetolia, Acarnania,
Epirus and Phthiotis in south Thessaly. But these have also
some forms in common with the " Aeolic " dialect of Boeotia
and Thessaly, which in historic times was spoken also in Doris;
Locris and Elis present similar northern " Achaean-Doric "
dialects. Arcadia, on the other hand, in the heart of Peloponnese,
retained till a late date a quite different dialect, akin to the
ancient dialect of Cyprus, and more remotely to Aeolic.
This distribution makes it clear (i) that the Doric dialects of
Peloponnese represent a superstratum, more recent than the
speech of Arcadia; (2) that Laconia and its colonies preserve
features alike, -i\ and -o> which are common to southern Doric
and Aeolic; (3) that those parts of "Dorian" Greece in which
tradition makes the pre-Dorian population " Ionic," and in which
the political structure shows that the conquered were less
completely subjugated, exhibit the Ionic -a. and -ov; (4) that as

we go north, similar though more barbaric dialects extend far
up the western side of central-northern Greece, and survive also
locally in the highlands of south Thessaly; (5) that east of the
watershed Aeolic has prevailed over the area which has legends
of a Boeotian and Thessalian migration, and replaces Doric in the
northern Doris. All this points on the one hand to an intrusion
of Doric dialect into an Arcadian-and-Ionic-speaking area; on
the other hand to a subsequent expansion of Aeolic over the
north-eastern edge of an area which once was Dorian. But this
distribution does not by itself prove that Doric speech was the
language of the Dorian invaders. Its area coincides also approxi-
mately with that of the previous Achaean conquests; and if the
Dorians were as backward culturally as traditions and archaeology
suggest, it is not improbable that they soon adopted the language
of the conquered, as the Norman conquerors did in England. As
evidence of an intrusion of northerly folk, however, the distribu-
tion of dialects remains important. See GREEK LANGUAGE.

The common calendar and cycle of festivals, observed by all
Dorians (of which the Carneia was chief), and the distribution in
Greece of the worships of Apollo and Heracles, which attained
pre-eminence mainly in or near districts historically " Dorian,"
suggest that these cults, or an important element in them, were
introduced comparatively late, and represent the beliefs of a fresh
ethnic superstratum. The steady dependence of Sparta on the
Delphic oracle, for example, is best explained as an observance
inherited from Parnassian ancestors.

The social and political structure of the Dorian states of
Peloponnese presupposes likewise a conquest of an older highly
civilized population by small bands of comparatively barbarous
raiders. Sparta in particular remained, even after the reforms of
Lycurgus, and on into historic times, simply the isolated camp of
a compact army of occupation, of some 5000 families, bearing
traces still of the fusion of several bands of invaders, and main-
tained as an exclusive political aristocracy of professional soldiers
by the labour of a whole population of agricultural and industrial
serfs. The serfs were rigidly debarred from intermixture or social
advancement, and were watched by their masters with a suspicion
fully justified by recurrent ineffectual revolts. The other states,
such as Argos and Corinth, exhibited just such compromises
between conquerors and conquered as the legends described,
conceding to the older population, or to sections of it, political
incorporation more or less incomplete. The Cretan cities,
irrespective of origin, exhibit serfage, militant aristocracy, rigid
martial discipline of all citizens, and other marked analogies with
Sparta; but the Asiatic Dorians and the other Dorian colonies
do not differ appreciably in their social and political history from
their Ionian and Aeolic neighbours. Tarentum alone, partly from
Spartan origin, partly through stress of local conditions, shows
traces of militant asceticism for a while.

Archaeological evidence points clearly now to the conclusion
that the splendid but overgrown civilization of the Mycenaean
or " late Minoan " period of the Aegean Bronze Age collapsed
rather suddenly before a rapid succession of assaults by com-
paratively barbarous invaders from the European mainland north
of the Aegean; that these invaders passed partly by way of
Thrace and the Hellespont into Asia Minor, partly by Macedon
and Thessaly into peninsular Greece and the Aegean islands;
that in east Peloponnese and Crete, at all events, a first shock
(somewhat later than 1500 B.C.) led to the establishment of a
cultural, social and political situation which in many respects
resembles what is depicted in Homer as the " Achaean " age, with
principal centres in Rhodes, Crete, Laconia, Argolis, Attica,
Orchomenus and south-east Thessaly; and that this regime was
itself shattered by a second shock or series of shocks somewhat
earlier than 1000 B.C. These latter events correspond in character
and date with the traditional irruption of the Dorians and their
associates.

The nationality of these invaders is disputed. Survival of fair
hair and complexion and light eyes among the upper classes in
Thebes and some other localities shows that the blonde type of
mankind which is characteristic of north-western Europe had
already penetrated into Greek lands before classical times; but

428

DORIA-PAMPHILII-LANDI— DORION

the ascription of the same physical traits to the Achaeans of
Homer forbids us to regard them as peculiar to that latest wave
of pre-classical immigrants to which the Dorians belong; and
there is no satisfactory evidence as to the coloration of the
Spartans, who alone were reputed to be pure-blooded Dorians
in historic times.

Language is no better guide, for it is not clear that the Dorian
dialect is that of the most recent conquerors, and not rather that
of the conquered Achaean inhabitants of southern Greece; in any
case it presents no such affinities with any non-Hellenic speech
as would serve to trace its origin. Even in northern and west-
central Greece, all vestige of any former prevalence has been
obliterated by the spread of " Aeolic " dialects akin to those of
Thessaly and Boeotia; even the northern Doris, for example,
spoke "Aeolic" in historic times.

The doubt already suggested as to language applies still more
to such characteristics as Dorian music and other forms of art, and
to Dorian customs generally. It is clear from the traditions about
Lycurgus (<?.».), for example, that even the Spartans had been a
long while in Laconia before their state was rescued from disorder
by his reforms; and if there be truth in the legend that the new
institutions were borrowed from Crete, we perhaps have here too
a late echo of the legislative fame of the land of Minos. Certainly
the Spartans adopted, together with the political traditions of the
Heracleids, many old Laconian cults and observances such as
those connected with the Tyndaridae.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — K. O. Muller, Die Dorier (ed. F. W. Schneidewin,
Breslau, 1844); G. Gilbert, Studien zur altipartanischen Geschichte
(Gottingen, 1872); H. Gelzer, " Die Wanderzuge der lakedamo-
nischen Dorier," in Rhein. Museum, xxxii. (1877), p. 259; G. Busolt,
Die Lakedaimonier und ihre Bundesgenossen, i. (Leipzig, 1878) ;
S. Beloch, " Die dprische Wanderung, in Rhein. Mus. xlv. (1890),
555 ff. ; H. Collitz, Sammlung der gr. Dialekt-Inschriften, iii.
(Gottingen, 1899-1905) ; R. Meister, " Dorier und Achaer" inAbh. d.
K. Sachs. Ges. Wiss. (Phil.-hist. Kl.), xxiv. 3 (Leipzig, 1904).

(J.I. M.)

DORIA-PAMPHILII-LANDI, a princely Roman family of
Genoese extraction. The founder of the house was Ansaldo
d'Oria, consul of Genoa in the I2th century, but the authentic
pedigree is traced no further back than to Paolo d'Oria (1335).
The most famous member of the family was Andrea Doria (q.v.),
perpetual censor of Genoa in 1528 and admiral to the emperor
Charles V., who was created prince of Melfi (1531) and marquis
of Tursi (in the kingdom of Naples) in 1555. The marquisate of
Civiez and the county of Cavallamonte were conferred on the
family in 1576, the duchy of Tursi in 1594, the principality of
Avella in 1607, the duchy of Avigliano in 1613. In 1760 the title
of Reichsfurst or prince of the Holy Roman Empire was added
and attached to the lordship of Torriglia and the marquisate
of Borgo San Stefano, together with the qualification of Hoch-
geboren. That same year the Dorias inherited the fiefs and titles
of the house of Pamphilii-Landi of Gubbio, patricians of Rome
and princes of San Martino, Valmontano, Val di Toro, Bardi
and Corupiano. The Doria-Pamphilii palace in Rome, a splendid
edifice, was built in the i7th century, and contains a valuable
collection of paintings. The Villa Doria-Pamphilii with its
gardens is one of the loveliest round Rome. During the siege of
1849 it was Garibaldi's headquarters.

DORION, SIR ANTOINE AIM61 (1816-1891), Canadian
lawyer and statesman, son of Pierre Dorion and Genevieve
Bureau, was born in the parish of Sainte Anne de la Perade on the
I7th of January 1816. He was educated at Nicolet College, and
in his twenty-second year went to Montreal to read law with
M. Cherrier, an eminent lawyer for whom he retained a lasting
friendship. On the 6th of January 1842 he was admitted to the
bar of the province, became the partner of M. Cherrier, and in the
course of a few years attained the highest rank in his profession.
He married in 1848 Iphigenie, daughter of Dr Jean Baptiste
Trestler, of Vaudreuil. Dorion descended from an old Liberal
family which from early days had supported the reform party in
Canada. His father, a merchant of Sainte Anne, was a member
of the legislative assembly for the county of Champlain, from

1 In the baptismal certificate the name is entered as "Erne"
( = Edme-Aime).

1830 to 1838, and his grandfather, on the maternal side, repre-
sented the county of Saint Maurice in the same body from
1819 to 1830. At the time that Doricn commenced the study of
law, Canada was entering upon a new phase of her political life.
The rebellion of 1837 had resulted in the suspension of the
constitution of 1791, and the union of the provinces, effected
under the Imperial Act of 1840, was framed to compel the
obedience of the refractory population. It was an unsatisfactory
measure, providing a single legislature for two provinces, with an
equal number of representatives from each province, irrespective
of population. At the time the lower province was the larger, but
it was foreseen that a tide of English emigration would eventually
place the upper province in the stronger position. Indeed, at the
date'of the Union, there were many English residents in the lower
province, so that in the aggregate the Engh'sh had then the
majority. From the first it was apparent that representation by
population would become an issue, and for several years there was
a constant struggle for the establishment of responsible govern-
ment, which was only achieved after the contest of 1848, when
the La Fontaine-Baldwin administration was maintained in
power. The difficulty had been avoided during the first years of
the Union by La Fontaine, who succeeded in uniting English and
French Liberals, and by substituting principles for race carried
out a policy based upon a broader conception of human interests.
Although a decisive victory had been gained by La Fontaine and
Baldwin in 1848, they did not press for an immediate overthrow
of institutions which for years had been a cause of contention,
and their influence gradually diminished until, on the 28th of
October 1851, the administration was handed over to Hincks
and Morin. Liberal principles had now become aggressive;
the new leaders did not keep abreast of the spirit of the times,
their majority decreased, and, on the nth of September 1854,
a government was formed by McNab and Morin.

The elections of 1854 had brought new blood into the ranks of
the Liberal party, young men eager to carry out measures of
reform, and Dorion was chosen as leader. Under the coalition
brought about by McNab between the Tories of Upper Canada
and the Liberals of the lower province old abuses were removed,
and, after the abolition of seigneurial tenure and clergy reserves,
it appeared that the political atmosphere was clear. In 1856 the
question of representation by population was again prominent.
Upper Canada had increased, and it contributed a larger share to
the revenue, and demanded proportionate representation. La
Fontaine had pointed out, at the time he was prime minister,
that representation by population would subject the weaker
province to the control of the stronger, and that as he would not
impose the principle upon Upper Canada at the time he would
not concede it, without constitutional restraint, if her position
were reversed. Upper Canada now became aggressive aijd the
question had to be settled. Macdonald, who became prime
minister in 1856, and had formed a new government with Cartier
in 1857, maintained that no amendment to the constitution was
necessary; tha.t existing conditions were satisfactory. Brown,
on the opposite side of the House, declared that representation
by population was imperative, with or without constitutional
changes; and Dorion appears to have suggested the true remedy,
when he gave notice of a motion in 1856: —

"That a committee be appointed to inquire into the means that
should be adopted to form a new political and legislative organization
of the heretofore provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, either by
the establishment of their former territorial divisions or by a division
of each province, so as to form a federation, having a federal govern-
ment and a local legislature for each one of the new provinces, and to
deliberate as to the course which should be adopted to regulate the
affairs of united Canada, in a manner which would be equitable to
the different sections of the province."

Dorion was in advance of the time. He understood the true
principle of federative union as applicable to Canada. But he did
not pursue this idea, and in fact his following was never sufficiently
strong to enable him to give effect to the sound measures he was so
capable of formulating. This, perhaps, was his special weakness.
On the 2nd of August 1858 he formed an administration with
Brown, but was forced to resign after being in office three days.

DORIS— DORMOUSE

429

When the question of confederation was discussed a few years
later he opposed the scheme, believing there was nothing to
justify the union at the time, although he admitted " that
commercial intercourse may increase sufficiently to render
confederation desirable." In 1873 he accepted the portfolio of
minister of justice in the Mackenzie government, and during the
six months that he was in office passed the Electoral Law of 1874
and the Controverte'd Elections Act. Dorion sat as member of
the assembly for the province of Canada for the city of Montreal
from 1854 to 1861, for the county of Hochelaga from 1862 to 1867;
as member of the House of Commons for the county of Hochelaga
from 1867 to July 1872, and for the county of Napierville from
September 1872 to June 1874, when he was appointed chief
justice of the province. In 1878 he was created a knight bachelor.
He died at Montreal on the 3ist of May 1891. No more able or
upright judge ever adorned the Canadian bench. He had a broad,
clear mind, vast knowledge, and commanded respect from the
loftiness of his character and the strength of his abilities. The
keynote of his life was an unswerving devotion to duty.

See Dorion, a Sketch, by Fennings Taylor (Montreal, 1865) ; and
" Sir Antoine Amie Dorion," by Sir Wilfrid Laurier, in The Week
(1887). (A. G. D.)

DORIS, in ancient geography, a small district in central Greece,
forming a wedge between Mts. Oeta and Parnassus, and contain-
ing the head-waters of the Cephissus, which passes at the gorge of
Dadion into the neighbouring land of Phocis. This little valley,
which nowhere exceeds 4 m. in breadth and could barely give
sustenance to four small townships, owed its importance partly to
its command over the strategic road from Heracleia to Amphissa,
which pierced the Parnassus range near Cytinium, but chiefly
to its prestige as the alleged mother-country of the Dorian
conquerors of Peloponnesus (see DORIANS). Its history is mainly
made up of petty wars with the neighbouring Oetaeans and
Phocians. The latter pressed them hard in 457, when the
Spartans, admitting their claim to be the Dorian metropolis, sent
an army to their aid, and again during the second Sacred War
(356-346). Except for a casual mention of its cantonal league
in 196, Doris passed early out of history, the inhabitants may
have been exterminated during the conflicts between Aetolia
and Macedonia.

See Strabo, pp. 417, 427; Herodotus i. 56, viii. 31; Thucydides
i. 107, iii. 92; Diodorus xii. 29, 33; W. M. Leake, Travels in
Northern Greece, chap. xi. (London, 1835). (M. O. B. C.)

DORISLAUS. ISAAC (1595-1649), Anglo-Dutch lawyer and
diplomatist, was born in 1595 at Alkmaar, Holland, the son of
a minister of the Dutch reformed church. He was educated at
Leiden, removed to England about 1627, and was appointed to a
lectureship in history at Cambridge, where his attempt to justify
the Dutch revolt against Spain led to his early resignation. In
1629 he was admitted a commoner of the College of Advocates.
In 1632 he made his peace at court, and on two occasions acted
as judge advocate, in the bishops' war of 1640 and in 1642 in
the army commanded by Essex. In 1648 he became one of the
judges of the admiralty court, and was sent on a diplomatic
errand to the states general of Holland. He assisted in preparing
the charge of high treason against Charles I.,and,while negotiating
an alliance between the Commonwealth and the Dutch Republic,
was murdered at the Hague by royalist refugees on the loth of
May 1649. His remains were buried in Westminster Abbey, and
moved in 1661 to St Margaret's churchyard.

DORKING, a market town in the Reigate parliamentary
division of Surrey, England, 26 m. S.S.W. of London, on the
London, Brighton & South Coast and the South-Eastern &
Chatham railways. Pop. of urban district (igbi) 7670. It is
pleasantly situated on the river Mole, in a sheltered vale near
the base of Box Hill. It is the centre of an extensive residential
district. The parish church of St Martin's is a handsome edifice
rebuilt in 1873. Lime of exceptionally good quality is burnt to
a large extent in the neighbourhood, and forms an important
article of trade; it is derived from the Lower Chalk formation.
Dorking has long been famous for a finely flavoured breed of fowl
distinguished by its having five toes. Several fine mansions
are in the vicinity of the town, notably that of Deepdene, contain-

ing part of a gallery of sculpture collected here by Thomas Hope,
the author of A nastasius. A Roman road, which crossed from the
Sussex coast to the Thames, passed near the present churchyard of
St Martin.

DORLEANS, LOUIS (1542-1629), French poet and political
pamphleteer, was born in 1 542, in Paris. He studied under Jean
Daurat, and after taking his degree in law began to practise at
the bar with but slight success. He wrote indifferent verses, but
was a redoubtable pamphleteer. After the League had arrested
the royalist members of parliament, he was appointed (1589)
advocate-general. His " Avertissement des catholiques anglais aux
Fran$ais catholiques du danger oil Us sont de perdre la religion et
d' experimenter, comme en Angleterre, la cruaute des ministres s'ils
reQoivent a la couronne un roi qui soil herttique " went through
several editions, and was translated into English. One of his
pamphlets, Le Banquet ou apres-dinSe du comte d' Arete, in which
he accused Henry of insincerity in his return to the Roman
Catholic faith, was so scurrilous as to be disapproved of by many
members of the League. When Henry at length entered Paris,
Dorleans was among the number of the proscribed. He took
refuge in Antwerp, where he remained for nine years. At the
expiration of that period he received a pardon, and returned to
Paris, but was soon imprisoned for sedition. The king, however,
released him after three months in the Conciergerie, and by this
means attached him permanently to his cause. His last years
were passed in obscurity, and he died in 1629.

DORMER (from Lat. dormire, to sleep), in architecture, a
window rising out of the roof and lighting the room in it: some-
times, however, pierced in a small gable built flush with the wall
below, or corbelled out, as frequently in Scotland. In Germany,
where the roofs are very lofty, there are three or four rows of
dormers, one above the other, but it does not follow that the space
in the roof is necessarily subdivided by floors. In some of the
French chateaux the dormers (Fr. lucarne) are highly elaborated,
and in some cases, as in Chambord, they form the principal
architectural features. In these cases they are either placed flush
with the wall or recede behind a parapet and gutter only, so as to
rest on the solid wall, as they are built in stone. In Germany
they assume larger proportions and constitute small gables with
two or three storeys of windows. The term " dormer " arose
from the windows being those of sleeping-rooms. In the phrase
" dormer beam " or " dormant beam," meaning a tie-beam, we
have the same sense as in the modern " sleeper."

DORMITORY (Lat. dormitorium, a sleeping place), the name
given in monasteries to the monks' sleeping apartment. Some-
times it formed one long room, but was more generally subdivided
into as many cells or partitions as there were monks. It was
generally placed on the first floor with a direct entrance into the
church. The dormitories were sometimes of great length; the
longest known, in the monastery of S. Michele in Bosco near
Bologna (now suppressed), is said to have been over 400 ft. In
some of the larger mansions of the Elizabethan period the space
in the roof constitutes a long gallery, which in those days was
occasionally utilized as a dormitory. The name " dormitory " is
also applied to the large bedrooms with a number of beds, in
schools and similar modern institutes.

DORMOUSE (a word usually taken to be connected with Lat.
dormire, to sleep, with " mouse " added, cf. Germ. Schlafratle;
it is not a corruption of Fr. dormeuse; Skeat suggests a connexion
with Icel. dar, benumbed, cf. Eng. " doze "), the name of a small
British rodent mammal having the general appearance of a
squirrel. This rodent, Muscardinus avellanarius, is the sole re-
presentative of its genus, but belongs to a family — the Gliridae,
or Myoxidae — containing a small number of Old World species.
All the dormice are small rodents (although many of them are
double the size of the British species), of arboreal habits, and for
the most part of squirrel-like appearance; some of their most
distinctive features being internal. In the more typical members
of the group, forming the sub-family Glirinae, there are four pairs
of cheek-teeth, which are rooted and have transverse enamel-folds.
As the characters of the genera are given in the article RODENTIA
it will suffice to state that the typical genus Glis is represented by

430

DORNBIRN— DORNOCH

the large European edible dormouse, G. vulgaris (or G. glis), a grey
species with black markings known in Germany as Siebenschldfcr;
the genus ranges from continental Europe to Japan. The common
dormouse Miiscardinus avellanarius, ranging from England to
Russia and Asia, is of the size of a mouse and mainly chestnut-
coloured. The third genus is represented by the continental lerol ,
or garden-dormouse, Eliomys guercinus, which is a large parti-
coloured species, with several local forms — either species or races.
Lastly, Graphiurus, of which the species are also large, is solely
African. In their arboreal life, and the habit of sitting up on their
hind-legs with their food grasped in the fore-paws, dormice are like
squirrels, from which they differ in being completely nocturnal.
They live either among bushes or in trees, and make a neat nest for
the reception of their young, which are born blind. The species
inhabiting cold climates construct a winter nest in which they
hibernate, waking up at times to feed on an accumulated store of
nuts and other food. Before retiring they, become very fat, and
at such times the edible dormouse is a favourite article of diet on
the Continent. At the beginning of the cold season the common
dormouse retires to its nest, and curling itself up in a ball, becomes
dormant. A warmer day than usual restores it to temporary
»activity, and then it supplies itself with food from its autumn
hoard, again becoming torpid till roused by the advent of spring.
The young are generally four in number, and are produced twice a
year. They are born blind, but in a marvellously short period are
able to cater for themselves; and their hibernation begins later
in the season than with the adults. The fur of the dormouse is
tawny above and paler beneath, with a white patch on the throat.
A second subfamily is represented by the Indian Platacanlhemys
and the Chinese Typhlomys, in which there are only three pairs of
cheek-teeth; thus connecting the more typical members of the
family, with the Muridae. (R. L.*)

DORNBIRN, a township in the Austrian province of the
Vorarlberg, on the right bank of the Dornbirner Ach, at the point
where it flows out of the hilly region of the Bregenzerwald into the
broad valley of the Rhine, on its way to the Lake of Constance.
It is by rail 75 m. S. of Bregenz, and 15 m. N. of Feldkirch. It is
the most populous town in the Vorarlberg, its population in 1900
being 13,052. The name Dornbirn is a collective appellation for
four villages — Dornbirn, Hatlerdorf , Oberdorf and Haselstauden
— which straggle over a distance of about 3 m. It is the chief
industrial centre in the Vorarlberg, the regulated Dornbirner
Ach furnishing motive power for several factories for cotton
spinning and weaving, worked muslin, dyeing, iron-founding
and so on. (W. A. B. C.)

DORNBURG, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Saxe-
Weimar, romantically situated on a hill 400 ft. above the Saale,
on the railway Grossheringen-Jena and 7 m. N.E. of the latter.
Pop. 700. Dornburg is an ancient town, but is chiefly famous
for its three grand-ducal castles. Of these, the Altes Schloss is
built on the site of an imperial stronghold (Kaiserpfalz), once a
bulwark against the Slavs, often a residence of the emperors Otto
II. and Otto III., and where the emperor Henry II. held a diet in
1005; the Neues Schloss in Italian style of architecture, built
1 728-1 748, with pretty gardens. Here Goethe was often a guest,
" healing the blows of fate and the wounds of the heart in
Dornburg." The third and southernmost of the three is the so-
called Stohmannsches Rittergut, purchased in 1824 and fitted as a
modern palace.

DORNER, ISAAC AUGUST (1800-1884), German Lutheran
divine, was born at Neuhausen-ob-Eck in Wurttemberg on the
zoth of June 1809. His father was pastor at Neuhausen. He was
educated at Maulbronn and the university of Tubingen. After
acting for two years as assistant to his father in his native place
he travelled in England and Holland to complete his studies
and acquaint himself with different types of Protestantism. He
returned to Tubingen in 1834, and in 1837 was made professor
extraordinarius of theology. As a student at the university, one
of his teachers had been Christian Friedrich Schmid (1794-1852),
author of a well-known book, Biblische Theologie des Neuen
Testamentes, and one of the most vigorous opponents of F. C.
Baur. At Schmid's suggestion, and with his encouragement,

Dorner set to work upon a history of the development of the
doctrine of the person of Christ, Entwicklungsgeschichte de,r Lehre
von der Person Christi. He published the first part of it in 1835,
the year in which Strauss, his colleague, gave to the public his
Life of Jesus; completed it in 1839, and afterwards considerably
enlarged it for a second edition (1845-1856). It was an indirect
reply to Strauss, which showed " profound learning, objectivity
of judgment, and fine appreciation of the moving ideasof history "
(Otto Pfleiderer). The author at once took high rank as a
theologian and historian, arid in 1839 was invited to Kiel as
professor ordinarius. It was here that he produced, amongst
other works, Das Princip unserer Kirche nach dem innern
Verhaltniss seiner zwei Seiten betrachtet (1841). In 1843 he
removed as professor of theology to Konigsberg. Thence he was
called to Bonn in 1847, and to Gottingen in 1853. Finally in 1862
he settled in the same capacity at Berlin, where he was a member
of the supreme consistorial council. A few years later (1867) he
published his valuable Geschichte der protestantischen Theologie
(Eng. trans., History of Protestant Theology, 2 vols.,i87i), in which
he " developed and elaborated," as Pfleiderer says, " his own
convictions by his diligent and loving study of the history of
the Church's thought and belief." The theological positions to
which he ultimately attained are best seen in his Christliche
Glaubenslehre, published shortly before his death (1870-1881).
It is "a work extremely rich in thought and matter. It takes the
reader through a mass of historical material by the examination
and discussion of ancient and modern teachers, and so leads up to
the author's own view, which is mostly one intermediate between
the opposite extremes, and appears as a more or less successful
synthesis of antagonistic theses " (Pfleiderer). The companion
work, System der christlichen Siltenlehre, was published by his son
August Dorner in 1886. He also contributed articles to Herzog-
Hauck's Realencyklopadie, and was the founder and for many
years one of the editors of the Jahrbiicher fiir deulsche Theologie.
He died at Wiesbaden on the 8th of July 1884. One of the most
noteworthy of the " mediating " theologians, he has been ranked
with Friedrich Schleiermacher, J. A. W. Neander, Karl Nitzsch,
Julius Miiller and Richard Rothe.

His son, AUGUST (b. 1846), after studying at Berlin and acting
as Repetent at Gottingen (1870-1873), became professor of the-
ology and co-director of the theological seminary at Wittenberg.
Amongst his works is Augustinus, sein Iheologisches System und
seine religionsphilosoph. Anschauung (1873), and he is theauthor
of the article on Isaac Dorner in the Allgemeine deulsche
Biographie.

See Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie; Allgemeine deutsche
Biographie (1904) ; Otto Pfleiderer, The Development of Theology in
Germany since Kant (1890); F. Lichtenberger, History of German
Theology in the Nineteenth Century (1889); Carl Schwarz, Zur
Geschichte der neuesten Theologie (1869). (M. A. C.)

DORNOCH, a royal and police burgh and county town of
Sutherlandshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 624. It lies on the north
shore of Dornoch Firth, an arm of the North Sea, 7! m. S.S.E. of
Mound station on the Highland railway by light railway. Its dry
and bracing climate and fine golf course have brought it into
great repute as a health and holiday resort. Before the Reforma-
tion it was the see of the bishopric of Caithness and Sutherland.
The cathedral, built by Bishop Gilbert de Moravia (Moray)
(d. 1245), the last Scot enrolled in the Calendar of Scottish saints,
was damaged by fire in 1570, during the raid of the Master of
Caithness and Mackay of Strathnaver, and afterwards neglected
till 1837, when it was restored by the 2nd duke of Sutherland,
and has since been used as the parish church. Noticeable for its
high roo'f, low tower and dwarf spire, the church consists of an
aisleless nave, chancel (adorned with Chantrey's statue of the ist
duke) and transepts. It is the burying-place of the Sutherland
family and contains the remains of sixteen earls. Of the ancient
castle, which was also the bishop's palace, only the west tower
exists, the rest of the structure having been destroyed in the out-
rage of 1 570. The county buildings adjoin it. Dornoch became
a royal burgh in 1628, and, as one of the Wick burghs, returns
a member to parliament. It was the scene of the last execution
for witchcraft in Scotland (1722). At Embo, 2 m. N.N.E., a

DOROHOI— DORSET, EARLS OF

431

sculptured stone commemorates the battle with the Danes in the
i3th century, in which Richard de Moravia was killed. He was
buried in the cathedral, where his effigy was found in the chancel.
Skibo castle, about 4 m. W. of Dornoch, once a residence of the
bishops of Caithness, was acquired in 1898 by Andrew Carnegie.

DOROHOI, or DOROGOI, the capital of the department of
Dorohoi, Rumania; on the right bank of the river Jijia, which
broadens into a lake on the north. Pop. (1900) 12, 701, more than
half being Jews. The Russian frontier is about 30 m. E., the
Austrian 20 m. W. ; and there is railway communication with
Botoshani and Jassy. Dorohoi is a market for the timber and
farm produce of the north Moldavian highlands; merchants
from the neighbouring states flock to its great fair, held on
the 1 2th of June. There is a church built by Stephen the Great
(1458-1504).

DOROTHEUS, a professor of jurisprudence in the law school of
Berytus in Syria,and one of the three commissioners appointed by
the emperor Justinian to draw up a book of Institutes, after the
model of the Institutes of Gaius, which should serve as an intro-
duction to the Digest already completed. His colleagues were
' Tribonian and Theophilus, and their work was accomplished in
533. Dorotheus was subsequently the author of a commentary
on the Digest, which is called the Index, and was published by
him in 542. Fragments of this commentary, which was in the
Greek language, have been preserved in the Scholia appended
to the body of law compiled by order of the emperor Basilius the
Macedonian and his son Leo the Wise, in the gth century, known
as the Basilica, from which it seems probable that the com-
mentary of Dorotheus contained the substance of a course of
lectures on the Digest delivered by him in the law school of
Berytus, although it is not cast in a form so precisely didactic
as the Index of Theophilus.

D'ORSAY, ALFRED GUILLAUME GABRIEL, COUNT (1801-
1852), the famous dandy and wit, was born in Paris on the 4th of
September 1801, and was the son of General D'Orsay, from whom
he inherited an exceptionally handsome person. Through his
mother he was grandson by a morganatic marriage of the king
of Wiirttemberg. In his youth he entered the French army,
and served as a garde du corps of Louis XVIII. In 1822, while
stationed at Valence on the Rhone, he formed an acquaintance
with the earl and countess of Blessington (q.v.) which quickly
ripened into intimacy, and at the invitation of the earl he ac-
companied the party on their tour through Italy. In the spring
of 1823 he met Lord Byron at Genoa, and the published corre-
spondence of the poet at this period contains numerous references
to the count's gifts and accomplishments, and to his peculiar
relationship to the Blessington family. A diary which D'Orsay
had kept during a visit to London in 1821-1822 was submitted to
Byron's inspection, and was much praised by him for the know-
ledge of men and manners and the keen faculty of observation
it displayed. On the ist of December 1827 Count D'Orsay
married Lady Harriet Gardiner, a girl of fifteen, the daughter of
Lord Blessington by his previous wife. The union, if it rendered
his connection with the Blessington family less ostensibly
equivocal than before, was in other respects an unhappy one, and
a separation took place almost immediately. After the death of
Lord Blessington, which occurred in 1829, the widowed countess
returned to England, accompanied by Count D'Orsay, and her
home, first at Seamore Place, then at Gore House, soon became
a resort of the fashionable literary ard artistic society of London,
which found an equal attraction in host and in hostess. The
count's charming manner, brilliant wit, and artistic faculty were
accompanied by benevolent moral qualities, which endeared him
to all his associates. His skill as a painter and sculptor was
shown in numerous portraits and statuettes representing his
friends, which were marked by great vigour and truthfulness, if
wanting in the finish that can only be reached by persistent
discipline. Count D'Orsay had been from his youth a zealous
Bonapartist, and one of the most frequent guests at Gore House
was Prince Louis Napoleon. In 1849 he went bankrupt, and the
establishment at Gore House being broken up, he went to Paris
with Lady Blessington, who died a few weeks after their arrival.

He endeavoured to provide for himself by painting portraits.
He was deep in the counsels of the prince president, but the
relation between them was less cordial after the coup d'etat, of
which the count had by anticipation expressed his strong dis-
approval. His appointment to the post of director of fine arts
was announced only a few days before his death, which occurred
on the 4th of August 1852.

Much information as to the life and character of Count D'Orsay
is to be found in Richard Madden's Literary Life and Correspondence
of the Countess of Blessington (1855).

DORSET, EARLS, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF, English
titles one or more of which have been borne by the families of
Beaufort, Grey and Sackville. About 1070 Osmund, or Osmer,
an alleged son of Henry, count of Seez, by a sister of William the
Conqueror, is said to have been created earl of. Dorset, but the
authority is a very late one and Osmund describes himself simply
as bishop (of Salisbury). William de Mohun of Dunster, a
partisan of the empress Matilda, appears as earl of Dorset or
Somerset, these two shires being in early times united under a
single sheriff. In 1397 John Beaufort, earl of Somerset (d. 1410),
the eldest son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, and Catherine
Swinford, was created marquess of Dorset; two years later,
however, he was reduced to his former rank of earl of Somerset.
In 1411 his brother Thomas, afterwards duke of Exeter, was
created earl of Dorset, and in 1441 his youngest son Edmund
obtained the same dignity. Two years later Edmund was created
marquess of Dorset and still later duke of Somerset. Edmund's
son Henry, duke of Somerset and marquess of Dorset, was
attainted during the Wars of the Roses, and was beheaded after
the battle of Hexham in May 1464, when the titles became extinct.
In 1475 Thomas Grey, 8th Lord Ferrers of Groby (1451-1501),
a son of Sir John Grey (d. 1 46 1 ) and a stepson of King Edward I V. ,
having resigned the earldom of Huntingdon, which he had
received in 1471, was created marquess of Dorset (see below).
He was succeeded in this title by his son Thomas (1477-1530),
and then by his grandson Henry (c. 1510-1554), who was created
duke of Suffolk in 1551. When in February 1554 Suffolk was
beheaded for sharing in the rising of Sir Thomas Wyat, the
marquessate of Dorset again became extinct; but in 1604
Thomas Sackville (see the account of the family under SACKVILLE,
IST BARON) was created earl of Dorset (see below), and his
descendant the 7th earl was created duke in 1720. In 1843 the
titles became extinct.

THOMAS GREY, IST MARQUESS OF DORSET (1451-1501), was the
elder son of Sir John Grey, 7th Lord Ferrers of Groby (i 43 2- 1461),
by his wife Elizabeth Woodville, afterwards queen of
Edward IV. He fought for Edward at Tewkesbury, ££
and became Lord Harington and Bonville by right of
his wife Cecilia, daughter of William Bonville, 6th Lord Harington
(d. 1460) ; in 1475 he was created marquess of Dorset, and he was
also a knight of the Garter and a privy councillor. After the
death of Edward IV. Dorset and his brother Richard Grey were
among the supporters of their half-brother, the young king
Edward V.; thus they incurred the enmity of Richard duke of
Gloucester, afterwards Richard III., and Richard Grey having
been arrested, was beheaded at Pontefract in June 1483, while his
elder brother, the marquess, saved his life by flight. Dorset was
one of the leaders of the duke of Buckingham's insurrection, and
when this failed he joined Henry earl of Richmond in Brittany,
but he was left behind in Paris when the future king crossed over
to England in 1485. After Henry's victory at Bosworth the
marquess returned to England and his attainder was reversed,
but he was suspected and imprisoned when Lambert Simnel
revolted; he had, however, been released and pardoned, had
marched into France and had helped to quell the Cornish rising,
when he died on the aoth of September 1501.

Dorset's sixth son, Lord Leonard Grey (c. 1490-1541), went
to Ireland as marshal of the English army in 153 5, being created
an Irish peer as Viscount Grane in the same year, but he never
assumed this title. In 1536 Grey was appointed lord deputy of
Ireland in succession to Sir William Skeffington; he was active in
marching against the rebels and he presided over the important

432

DORSET, EARLS OF

parliament of 1 536, but he was soon at variance with the powerful
family of the Butlers and with some of the privy councillors.

He did not relax his energy in seeking to restore order, but he
was accused, probably with truth, of favouring the family of
the Geraldines, to whom he was related, and the quarrel with the
Butlers became fiercer than ever. Returning to England in 1 540
he was thrown into prison and was condemned to death for
treason. He was beheaded on the 28th of July 1541 (see R.
Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors, vol. i., 1885).

THOMAS GREY, 2ND MARQUESS OF DORSET (1477-1530), the
eldest son of the ist marquess, fled to Brittany with his father
in 1484; after receiving several marks of the royal favour and
succeeding to the title, he was imprisoned by Henry VII., and
remained in prison until 1509. He was on very good terms with
Henry VIII., who in 1512 appointed him to command the English
army which was to invade France in conjunction with the Spanish
forces under Ferdinand of Aragon. In spite of the failure which
attended this enterprise, Dorset again served in France in the
following year, and in 1516 he was made lieutenant of the order
of the Garter. Later he was at the Field of the Cloth of Gold,
and he was warden of the eastern and middle marches towards
Scotland in 1523 and the following years. He received many
other positions of trust and profit from the king, and he helped
to bring about the fall of Cardinal Wolsey, under whom he
had probably been educated. He was famous for his skill in
the tournament. He died on the loth of October 1530.

His eldest son Henry Grey, 3rd marquess of Dorset, was in 1 55 1
created duke of Suffolk (q.v.) . A younger son, Lord Thomas Grey,
was beheaded in April 1554 for sharing in the rebellion of Sir
Thomas Wyat; another son, Lord John Grey, was also sentenced
to death for his share in this rising, but his life was spared owing
to the efforts of his wife Mary, daughter of Sir Anthony Browne.
Under Elizabeth, Lord John, a strong Protestant, was restored to
the royal favour, and he died on the ipth of November 1569. In
1603 his son Henry (d. 1614) was created Baron Grey of Groby,
and in 1628 his great-grandson Henry was made earl of Stamford.

THOMAS SACKVILLE, IST EARL OF DORSET (c. 1530-1608),
English statesman and poet, son of Sir Richard Sackville and
his wife Winifrede, daughter of Sir John Bruges or
vtf/e /toe. " Bridges, lord mayor of London, was born at Buckhurst,
in the parish of Withyham, Sussex. In his fifteenth
or sixteenth year he is said to have been entered at Hart Hall,
Oxford ; but it was at Cambridge that he completed his studies
and took the degree of M.A. He joined the Inner Temple, and
was called to the bar. He married at the age of eighteen Cicely,
daughter of Sir John Baker of Sissinghurst, Kent; in 1558 he
entered parliament as member for Westmorland, in 1559 he
sat for East Grinstead, Sussex, and in 1563 for Aylesbury in
Buckinghamshire. A visit to the continent in 1565 was in-
terrupted by an imprisonment at Rome, caused by a rash
declaration of Protestant opinions. The news of his father's
death on the 2ist of April 1 566 recalled him to England. On his
return he was knighted in the queen's presence, receiving at the
same time the title of baron of Buckhurst. With his mother he
lived at the queen's palace of Sheen, where he entertained in 1568
Odet de Coh'gni, cardinal de Chatillon. In 1571 he was sent
to France to congratulate Charles IX. on his marriage with
Elizabeth of Austria, and he took part in the negotiations for
the projected marriage of Elizabeth with the duke of Anjou. He
became a member of the privy council, and acted as a com-
missioner at the state trials. In 1572 he was one of the peers
who tried Thomas Howard, duke of Norfolk, and in 1586 he was
selected to convey the sentence of death to Mary, queen of Scots,
a task he is said to have performed with great consideration. He
was sent in 1587 as ambassador to the Hague "to expostulate in
favour of peace with a people who knew that their existence
depended on war, to reconcile those to delay who felt that delay
was death, and to heal animosities between men who were
enemies from their cradles to their graves."1 This task was
further complicated by the parsimony and prevarication of

1 J. L. Motley, Hist, of the United Netherlands (vol. ii. p. 216, ed.
1867).

Elizabeth. Buckhurst carried out under protest the foolish and
often contradictory orders he received. His plain speaking on the
subject of Leicester's action in the Netherlands displeased the
queen still more. She accused him on his return of having
followed his instructions too slavishly, and ordered him to keep
to his own house for nine months. His disgrace was short, for in
1 588 he was presented with the order of the Garter, and was sent
again to the Netherlands in 1589 and 1598. He was elected
chancellor of the university of Oxford in 1591, and in 1599 he
succeeded Lord Burghley as lord high treasurer of England. In
1 60 1 as high steward he pronounced sentence on Essex, who had
been his rival for the chancellorship and his opponent in politics.
James I. confirmed him in the office of lord treasurer, the duties
of which he performed with the greatest impartiality. He was
created earl of Dorset in 1604, and died suddenly on the igth of
April 1608, as he was sitting at the council table at Whitehall.
His eldest son, Robert, the 2nd earl (1561-1609), was a member of
parliament and a man of great learning. Two other sons were
William (c. 1568-1591), a soldier who was killed in the service of
Henry IV. of France, and Thomas (1571-1646), also a soldier.

It is not by his political career, distinguished as it was, that
Sackville is remembered, but by his share in early life in two works,
each of which was, in its way, a new departure in English litera-
ture. In A Myrroure for Magistrates, printed by Thomas
Marshe in 1559, he has sometimes been erroneously credited with
the inception of the general plan as well as with the most valuable
contributions. But there had been an earlier edition, for the
editor, William Baldwin, states in his preface that the work was
begun and partly printed " four years agone." He also says that
the printer (John Wayland) had designed the work as a continua-
tion of Lydgate's Fall of Princes derived from the narrative of
Bochas. Fragments of this early edition are extant, the title page
being sometimes found bound up with Lydgate's book. It runs
A Memoriall of such princes, as since the tyme of Richard the
seconde, have been unfortunate in the realme of England, while the
1559 edition has the running title A brief e memorial of unfortunate
Englysh princes. The disconnected poems by various authors
were given a certain continuity by the simple device of allowing
the ghost of each unfortunate hero " to bewail unto me [Baldwin]
his grievous chances, heavy destinies and woefull misfortunes."
After a delay caused by an examination by Stephen Gardiner,
bishop of Worcester, the book appeared. It contained nineteen
tragic legends by six poets, William Baldwin, George Ferrers,
" Master " Cavyll, Thomas Chaloner, Thomas Phaer and John
Skelton. In 1 563 appeared a second edition with eight additional
poems by William Baldwin, John Dolman, Sackville, Francis
Segar, Thomas Churchyard and Cavyll. Sackville contributed
the Complaint of Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham, to which
he prefixed an Induction. This was evidently designed as an
introduction to a version of the whole work, and, being arbitrarily
transposed (1610) to the beginning by a later editor, Richard
Niccols, led to the attribution of the general design to Sackville,
an error which was repeated by Thomas Warton. The originators
were certainly Baldwin and his " printer." In 1574 Thomas
Marshe printed a series of new tragedies by John Higgins as the
Firste parte of the Mirour for Magistrates. . . . From the coming
of Brute to the Incarnation. The seventh edition ( 1 578) contained
for the first time the two tragedies of Eleanor Cobham and
Humphrey duke of Gloucester. In 1587, when the original
editor was dead, the two quite separate publications of Baldwin
and Higgins were combined. The primary object of this earliest
of English miscellanies was didactic. It was to be a kind of text-
book of British history, illustrating the evils of ambition. The
writers pretended to historical accuracy, but with the notable
exceptions of Churchyard and Sackville they paid little attention
to form. The book did much to promote interest in English
history, and Mr W. J. Courthope has pointed out that the
subjects of Marlowe's Edward II., of Shakespeare's Henry VI.,
Richard II. and Richard III. are already dealt with in the
Myrroure.

Sackville's Induction opens with a description of the oncoming
of winter. The poet meets with Sorrow, who offers to lead him to

DORSET, EARLS OF

433

the infernal regions that he may see the sad estate of those ruined
by their ambition, and thus learn the transient characterof earthly
joy. At the approaches of Hell he sees a group of terrible abstrac-
tions, Remorse of Conscience, Dread, Misery, Revenge, Care, &c.,
each vividly described. The last of these was War, on whose shield
he saw depicted the great battles of antiquity. Finally, penetrat-
ing to the realm of Pluto himself, he is surrounded by the shades,
of whom the duke of Buckingham is the first to advance, thus
introducing the Complaint. To this induction the epithet
" Dantesque " has been frequently applied, but in truth Sackville's
models were Gavin Douglas and Virgil. The dignity and artistic
quality of the narrative of the fall of Buckingham are in strong
contrast to the crude attempts of Ferrers and Baldwin, and make
the work one of the most important between the Canterbury Tales
and the Faerie Queene.

Sackville has also the credit of being part author with Thomas
Norton of the first legitimate tragedy in the English language.
This was Gorboduc or Ferrex and Porrex, performed as part of the
Christmas festivities (1560-1561) by the society of the Inner
Temple, and afterwards on the i8th of January 1561 before
Elizabeth at Whitehall. The argument is as follows:

" Gorboduc, king of Brittaine, devided his Realme in his lyfe time
to his Sones, Ferrex and Porrex. The Sonnes lell to dyvision and
discention. The yonger kylled the elder. The Mother, that more
dearelv loved thelder, fr revenge kylled the yonger. The people,
moved with the Crueltie of the facte, rose in Rebellion, and Slewe
both father and mother. The Nobilitie assembled, and most terribly
destroyed the Rebelles. And afterwards for want of Issue of the
Prince, wherby the Succession of the Crowne became uncertayne,
they fell to Ciuill warre, in whiche both they and many of their Issues
were slayne, and the Lande for a longe tyme almoste desolate, and
myserablye wasted."

The argument shows plainly enough the didactic intention of
the whole, and points the moral of the evils of civil discord. The
story is taken from Book II. chap. xvi. of Geoffrey of Monmouth's
history. It was first printed (1565) in an unauthorized edition
as The Tragedie of Gorbodw " whereof three Actes were wrytten
by Thomas Nortone, and the two laste by Thomas Sackvyle."
Norton's share has been generally minimized, and it seems safe
to assume that Sackville is responsible for the general design. In
1570 appeared an authentic edition, The Tragedie of Ferrex and
Porrex, with a preface from the printer to the reader stating that
the authors were " very much displeased that she (the tragedy) so
ran abroad without leave." The tragedies of Seneca were now
being translated, and the play is conceived on Senecan lines.
The plot was no doubt chosen for its accumulated horrors from
analogy with the tragic subjects of Oedipus and Thyestes. None
of the crimes occur on the stage, but the action is described in
lofty language by the characters. The most famous and harrow-
ing scene is that in which Marcello relates the murder of Porrex by
his mother (Act IV. sc. ii.). The paucity of action is eked out by
a dumb show to precede each act, and the place of the Chorus
is supplied by four " ancient and sage men of Britain." In the
variety of incident, however, the authors departed from the
classical model. The play is written in excellent blank verse, and
is the first example of the application of Surrey's innovation to
drama. Jasper Heywood in the poetical address prefixed to his
translation of the Thyestes alludes to " Sackvylde's Sonnets
sweetly sauste," but only one of these has survived. It is pre-
fixed to Sir T. Hoby's translation of Castiglione's Courtier.
Sackville's poetical preoccupations are sufficiently marked in the
subject matter of these two works, which remainthe sole literary
productions of an original mind.

The best edition of the Mirror for Magistrates is that of Joseph
Haslewood (1815). Gorboduf was edited for the Shakespeare Society
by W. D. Cooper in 1847; in 1883 by Miss L. Toulmin Smith for
C. Vollmoller's Englische Sprach-und Litteraturdenkmale (Heilbronn,
1883). The Works of Sackville were edited by C. Chappie (1820) and
by the Hon. and Rev. Reginald Sackville-West (1859). See also
A Mirror for Magistrates (1898) by Mr W. F. Trench; an excellent
account in Mr W. J. Courthope's History of English Poetry, vol. i. pp
ii I et seq. ; and an important article by Dr J. W. Cunliffe in the
Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. iii.

EDWARD SACKVILLE, 4™ EARL OF DORSET (1501-1652),
son of the 2nd earl, succeeded his brother Richard, the 3rd earl

(1590-1624), in March 1624. He had attained much notoriety by
killing Edward Bruce,2nd Lord Kinloss, in a duel, in August 1613,
the place in the Netherlands where this encounter took place being
called Bruceland in quite recent times, and in 1620 he was one of
the leaders of the English contingent which fought for James I.'s
son-in-law, Frederick V., elector palatine of the Rhine, at the
battle of the White Hill, near Prague. In the House of Commons,
where he represented Sussex, Sackville was active in defending
Bacon and in advocating an aggressive policy with regard to the
recovery of the Rhenish Palatinate; twice he was ambassador
to France, and he was interested in Virginia and the Bermuda
Islands. Under Charles I. he was a privy councillor and lord
chamberlain to Queen Henrietta Maria. He was frequently
employed by the government from the accession of Charles until
the outbreak of the Civil War, when he joined the king at York,
but he disliked the struggle and was constant in his efforts to
secure peace. At Oxford he was lord chamberlain to the king
and lord president of his council, but Charles did not altogether
approve of his pacific attitude, and is said on one occasion to have
remarked to him " Your voice is the voice of Jacob, but your
hands are the hands of Esau." He died on the I7th of July 1652.
His wife Mary (d. 1645), daughter of Sir George Curzon, was
governess to the sons of Charles I., the future kings Charles II.
and James II. His character is thus summed up by S. R.
Gardiner: " Pre-eminent in beauty of person, and in the vigour
of a cultivated intellect, he wanted nothing to fit him for the
highest places in the commonwealth but that stern sense of duty
without which no man can be truly great."

CHARLES SACKVILLE, 6rn EARL OF DORSET (1638-1706),
English poet and courtier, son of Richard Sackville, sth earl
(1622-1677), was born on the 24th of January 1638. His mother
was Frances Cranfield, sister and heiress of Lionel, 3rd earl of
Middlesex, to whose estates and title he succeeded in 1674,
being created Baron Cranfield and 4th earl of Middlesex in 1675.
He succeeded to his father's estates and title in August 1677.
Buckhurst was educated privately, and spent some time abroad
with a private tutor, returning to England shortly before the
Restoration. In Charles II. 's first parliament he sat for East
Grinstead in Sussex. He had no taste for politics, however, but
won a reputation as courtier and wit at Whitehall. He bore his
share in the excesses for which Sir Charles Sedley and the earl of
Rochester were notorious. In 1662 he and his brother Edward,
with three other gentlemen, were indicted for the robbery and
murder of a tanner named Hoppy. The defence was that they
were in pursuit of thieves, and mistook Hoppy for a highwayman.
They appear to have been acquitted, for when in 1663 Sir Charles
Sedley was tried for a gross breach of public decency in Covent
Garden, Buckhurst, who had been one of the offenders, was asked
by the lord chief justice " whether he had so soon forgot his
deliverance at that time." Something in his character made his
follies less obnoxious to the citizens than those of the other rakes,
for he was never altogether unpopular, and Rochester is said to
have told Charles II. that he did not " know how it was, my Lord
Dorset might do anything, yet was never to blame." In 1665 he
volunteered to serve under the duke of York in the Dutch War.
His famous song, " To all you ladies now at Land," was written,
according to Prior, on the night before the victory gained over
" foggy Opdam " off Harwich (June 3, 1665). Dr Johnson, with
the remark that " seldom any splendid story is wholly true,"
says that the earl of Orrery had told him it was only retouched on
that occasion. In 1667 Pepys laments that Buckhurst had lured
Nell Gwyn away from the theatre, and that with Sedley the two
kept " merry house " at Epsom. Next year the king was paying
courttoNell, and her " Charles the First," as she called Buckhurst,
was sent on a " sleeveless errand " into France to be out of the
way. His gaiety and wit secured the continued favour of Charles
II., but did not especially recommend him to James II., who could
not, moreover, forgive Dorset's lampoons on his mistress,
Catharine Sedley, countess of Dorchester. On James's accession,
therefore, he retired from court. He concurred in the invitation
to William of Orange, who made him privy councillor, lord
chamberlain (1689), and knight of the Garter (1692). During

434

DORSETSHIRE

William's absences in 1695-1698 he was one of the lord justices
of the realm.

He was a generous patron of men of letters. When Dryden
was dismissed from the laureateship, he made him an equivalent
pension from his own purse. Matthew Prior, in dedicating his
Poems on Several Occasions (1709) to Dorset's son, affirms that
his opinion was consulted by Edmund Waller; that the duke of
Buckingham deferred the publication of his Rehearsal until he
was assured that Dorset would not "rehearse upon him again ";
and that Samuel Butler and Wycherley both owed their first
recognition to him. Prior's praise of Dorset is no doubt ex-
travagant, but when his youthful follies were over he appears
to have developed sterling qualities, and although the poems he
has left are very few, none of them are devoid of merit. Dryden 's
" Essay on Satire "and the dedication of the "Essay on Dramatic
Poesy " are addressed to him. Walpole (Catalogue of Noble
Authors, iv.) says that he had as much wit as his first master, or his
contemporaries Buckingham and Rochester, without the royal
want of feeling, the duke's want of principles or the earl's want of
thought; and Congreve reported of him when he was dying that
he " slabbered " more wit than other people had in their best
health. He was three times married, his first wife being Mary,
widow of Charles Berkeley, earl of Falmouth. He died at Bath on
the 2gth of January 1706.

The fourth act of Pompey the Great, a tragedy translated out of
French by certain persons of honour, is by Dorset. The satires for
which Pope classed him with the masters in that kind seem to have
been short lampoons, with the exception of A faithful catalogue of
our most eminent ninnies (reprinted in Bibliotheca Curiosa, ed.
Goldsmid, 1885). The Works of the Earls of Rochester, Roscommon and
Dorset, the Dukes of Devonshire, Buckinghamshire, &c., with Memoirs
of their Lives (1731) is catalogued (No. 20841) by H. G. Bonn in 1841.
His P,oems are included in Anderson's and other collections of the
British poets.

LIONEL CRANFIELD SACKVILLE, IST DUKE OF DORSET (1688-
1765), the only son of the 6th earl, was born on the i8th of
January 1688. He succeeded his father as 7th earl of Dorset in
January 1706, and was created duke of Dorset in 1720. He was
lord steward of the royal household from 1725 to 1730, and lord-
lieutenant of Ireland from 1730 to 1737; he was again lord
steward from 1737 to 1745, and was lord president of the council
from 1745 to 1751. In 1750 he was appointed lord-lieutenant of
Ireland for the second time, and after a stormy viceroyalty he
was dismissed from office in 1755. The duke, who was several
times one of the lords justices of Great Britain and -held many
other positions of trust, died on the loth of October 1765. Heleft
three sons: Charles, the 2nd duke; John Philip (d. 1765); and
George, who took the additional name of Germain in 1770, and in
1782 was created Viscount Sackville (<?.».).

CHARLES SACKVILLE, 2ND DUKE OF DORSET (1711-1769), an
associate of Frederick, prince of Wales, was a member of parlia-
ment for many years and a lord of the treasury under Henry
Pelham; he died on the 5th of January 1769, when his nephew,
John Frederick (1745-1799), became the 3rd duke. This noble-
man was ambassador in Paris from 1 783 to 1 789, and lord steward
of the household from 1789 to 1799; he died on the i9th of July
1799, and was succeeded by his only son, George John Frederick
(1793-1815). When the 4th duke died unmarried in February
1815, the titles passed to his kinsman, Charles Sackville Germain
(1767-1843), son and heir of the ist Viscount Sackville, who thus
became sth duke of Dorset. When he died on the 2gth of July
1843 the titles became extinct.

DORSETSHIRE (DORSET), a south-western county of England,
bounded N.E. by Wiltshire, E. by Hampshire, S. by the English
Channel, W. by Devonshire and N.W. by Somersetshire. The
area is 987 -9 sq. m. The surface is for the most part broken. A
line of hills or downs, forming part of the system to which the
general name of the Western Downs is applied, enters the county
in the north-east near Shaftesbury, and strikes across it in a
direction generally W. by S., leaving it towards Axminster and
Crewkerne in Devonshire. East of Beaminster in the south-west
another line, the Purbeck Downs, branches S.E. to the coast, which
it follows as far as the district called the Isle of Purbeck in the

south-east of the county. Both these ranges occasionally exceed
a height of 900 ft. Of the principal rivers and streams, the Stour
rises just outside the county in Wiltshire, and flows with a general
south-easterly course to join the Hampshire Avon close to its
mouth. It receives the Cale, Lidden and other streams in its
upper course, and breaches the central hills in its middle course
between Sturminster Newton and Blandford. The Lidden and
Cale are the chief streams of the well-watered and fertile district
known as the Vale of Blackmore. The small river Piddle or Trent
and the larger Frome, rising in the central hills, traverse a plain
tract of open country between the central and southern ranges,
and almost unite their mouths in Poole Harbour. In the north-
west the Yeo, collecting many feeders, flows northward to join the
Parret and so sends its waters to the Bristol Channel. The Char,
the Brit and the Bride, with their feeders, water many picturesque
short valleys in the south-west. The coast is always beautiful,
and in some parts magnificent. In the east it is broken by the
irregular, lake-like inlet of Poole Harbour, pleasantly diversified
with low islands, shallow, and at low tide largely drained. South
of this a bold foreland, the termination of the southern hills (here
called Ballard Down) divides Studland Bay from Swanage Bay,
after which the coast line turns abruptly westward round Durlston
Head. The peninsula thus formed with Poole Harbour on the
north is known as the Isle of Purbeck, an oblong projection
measuring 10 m. by 7. St Albans or Aldhelms Head is the next
salient feature, after which the fine cliffs are indented with many
little bays, of which the most noteworthy is the almost landlocked
Lulworth Cove. The coast then turns southward to embrace
Weymouth Bay and Portland Roads, where a harbour of refuge
with massive breakwaters is protected to the south by the Isle
of Portland. The isle is connected with the mainland by Chesil
Bank, a remarkable beach of shingle. After this the coast is less
broken than before and continues highly picturesque as far as the
confines of the county near Lyme Regis. This small town, with
Charmouth, Bridport, Weymouth, Lulworth Cove and Swanage,
are in considerable favour as watering-places.

Geology. — Occupying as it does the central and most elevated

Eart of the county, the Chalk is the most prominent geological
irmation in Dorsetshire. It sweeps in a south-westerly direction,
as a belt of high ground about 12 m. in width, from Cranborne Chase,
through Blandford, Milton Abbas and Frampton to Dorchester;
westward it reaches a point just north of Beaminster. From about
Dorchester the Chalk outcrop narrows and turns south-eastward by
Portisham, Bincombe, to West Lulworth, thence the crop proceeds
eastward as the ridge of the Purbeck Hills, and finally runs out to sea
as the headland between Studland and Swanage Bays.

Upon the Chalk in the eastern part of the county are the Eocene
beds of the Hampshire Basin. These are fringed by the Reading
Beds and London Clay, which occur as a narrow belt from Cranborne
through Wimborne Minster, near Bere Regis and Piddletown ; here
the crop swings round south-eastward through West Knighton,
Winfrith and Lulworth, and thence along the northern side of the
Purbeck Hills to Studland. Most of the remaining Eocene area is
occupied by the sands, gravel and clay of the Bagshot series. The
Agglestone Rock near Studland is a hard mass of the Bagshot forma-
tion ; certain clays in the same series in the Wareham district have a
world- wide reputation for pottery purposes; since they are exported
from Poole Harbour they are often known as " Poole Clay." From
beneath the Chalk the Selbornian or Gault and Upper Greensand
crops out as a narrow, irregular band. The Gault clay is only dis-
tinguishable in the northern and southern districts. Here and
there the Greensand forms prominent hills, as that on which the town
of Shaftesbury stands. The Upper Greensand appears again as
outliers farther west, forming the high ground above Lyme Regis,
Golden Cap, and Pillesden and Lewesden Pens. The Lower Green-
sand crops out on the south side of the Purbeck Hills and may be
seen at Punfield Cove and Worbarrow Bay, but this formation thins
out towards the west. By the action of the agencies of denudation
upon the faulted anticline of the Isle of Purbeck, the Wealden beds
are brought to light in the vale between Lulworth and Swanage; a
similar cause has accounted for their appearance at East Chaldon.
South of the strip of Weald Clay is an elevated plateau consisting of
Purbeck Beds which rest upon Portland Stone and Portland Sand.
Cropping out from beneath the Portland beds is the Kimmeridge Clay
with so-called " Coal " bands, which forms the lower platform near
the village of that name.

The Middle Purbeck building stone and Upper Purbeck Paludina
marble have been extensively quarried in the Isle of Purbeck.^ An
interesting feature in the Lower Purbeck is the " Dirt bed," the
remains of a Jurassic forest, which may be seen near Mupe Bay and

DORSETSHIRE

435

on the Isle of Portland, where both the Purbeck and Portland forma-
tions are well exposed, the latter yielding the well-known freestones.
In the north-west of the county the Kimmeridge Clay crops in a
N.-S. direction from the neighbourhood of Gillingham by Woolland
to near Buckland Newton; in the south, a strip runs E. and W.
between Abbotsbury, Upway and Osmington Mill. Next in order
come the Corallian Beds and Oxford Clay which follow the line of
the Kimmeridge Clay, that is, they run from the north to the south-
west except in the neighbourhood of Abbotsbury and Weymouth,
where these beds are striking east and west.

Below the Oxford Clay is the Cornbrash, which may be seen near
Redipole, Stalbridge and Stourton; then follows the Forest garble,
which usually forms a strong escarpment over the Fuller's Earth
beneath — at Thornford the Fuller's Earth rock is quarried. Next
comes the Inferior Oolite, quarried near Sherborne and Beaminster;
the outcrop runs on to the coast at Bridport. Beneath the Oolites are
the Midford sands, which are well exposed in the cliff between
Bridport and Burton Brandstock. Except where the Greensand
outliers occur, the south-western part of the county is occupied by
Lower and Middle Lias beds. These are clays and marls in the upper
portions and limestones below. Rhaetic beds, the so-called " White
Lias," are exposed in Pinhay Bay.

Many of the formations in Dorsetshire are highly fossiliferous,
notably the Lias of Ly me Regis, whence Ichthyosaurus and other large
reptiles have been obtained; remains of the Iguanodon have been
taken from the Wealden beds of the Isle of Purbeck ; the Kimmeridge
Clay, Inferior Oolite, Forest Marble and Fuller's Earth are all
fossil-bearing rocks. The coast exhibits geological sections of
extreme interest and variety; the vertical and highly inclined strata
of the Purbeck anticline are well exhibited at Gad Cliff or near
Ballard Point ; at the latter place the fractured fold is seen to pass
into an " overthrust fault."

Climate and Agriculture. — The air of Dorsetshire is remarkably
mild, and in some of the more sheltered spots on the coast semi-
tropical plants are found to flourish. The district of the clays
obtains for trie county the somewhat exaggerated title of the
" garden of England," though the rich Vale of Blackmore and
the luxuriant pastures and orchards in the west may support the
name. Yet Dorsetshire is not generally a well-wooded county,
though much fine timber appears in the richer soils, in some of the
sheltered valleys of the chalk district, and more especially upon
the Greensand. About three-fourths of the total area is under
cultivation, and of this nearly five-eighths is in permanent
pasture, while there are in addition about 26,000 acres of hill
pasturage; the chalk downs being celebrated of old as sheep-
walks. Wheat, barley and oats are grown about equally.
Turnips occupy nearly three-fourths of the average under green
crops. Sheep are largely kept, though in decreasing numbers.
The old horned breed of Dorsetshire were well known, but
Southdowns or Hampshires are now frequently preferred.
Devons, shorthorns and Herefords are the most common breeds
of cattle. Dairy farming is an important industry.

Other Industries. — The quarries of Isles of Portland and
Purbeck are important. The first supplies a white freestone
employed for many of the finest buildings in London and else-
where. Purbeck marble is famous through its frequent use by
the architects of many of the most famous Gothic churches in
England. A valuable product of Purbeck is a white pipeclay,
largely applied to the manufacture of china, for which purpose it
is exported to the Potteries of Staffordshire. Industries, beyond
those of agriculture and quarrying, are slight, though some ship-
building is carried on at Poole, and paper is made at several towns.
Other small manufactures are those of flax and hemp in the
neighbourhood of Bridport and Beaminster, of bricks, tiles and
pottery in the Poole district, and of nets (braiding, as the industry
is called) in some of the villages. There are silk-mills at Sherborne
and elsewhere. There are numerous fishing stations along the
coast, the fishing being mostly coastal. There are oyster beds in
Poole Harbour. The chief ports are Poole, Weymouth, Swanage,
Bridport, and Lyme Regis. The harbour of refuge at Portland,
under the Admiralty, is an important naval station, and is
fortified.

Communications. — The main line of the London & South
Western railway serves Gillingham and Sherborne in the north
of the county. Branches of this system serve Wimborne, Poole
Swanage, Dorchester, Weymouth and Portland. The two last
towns, with Bridport, are served by the Great Western railway
the Somerset & Dorset line (Midland and 'South Western joint)

'ollows the Stour valley by Blandford and Wimborne; and Lyme
Regis is the terminus of a light railway from Axminster on the
South Western line.

Population and Administration. — The area of the ancient
county is 632,270 acres, with a population in 1891 of 194,517, and
n 1901 of 202,936.. The area of the administrative county is
625, 578 acres. The county contains 35 hundreds. It is divided
nto northern, eastern, southern and western parliamentary
divisions, each returning one member. In contains the following'
municipal boroughs — Blandford Forum (pop. 3649), Bridport
(5710), Dorchester, the county town (9458), Lyme Regis (2095),
Poole (19,463), Shaftesbury (2027), Wareham (2003), Weymouth
and Melcombe Regis (19,831). The following are other urban
districts — Portland (15,199), Sherborne (5760), Swanage (3408),
Wimborne Minster (3696) . Dorsetshire is in the western circuit,
and assizes are held at Dorchester. It has one court of quarter
sessions, and is divided into nine petty sessional divisions. The
boroughs of Bridport, Dorchester, Lyme Regis, Poole, and
Weymouth and Melcombe Regis have separate commissions of
the peace, and the borough of Poole has in addition a separate
court of quarter sessions. There are 289 civil parishes. The
ancient county, which is almost entirely in the diocese of
Salisbury, contains 256 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly
or in part.

History. — The kingdom of Wessex originated with the settle-
ment of Cerdic and his followers in Hampshire in 495, and at
some time before the beginning of the 8th century the tide of
conquest and colonization spread beyond the Frome and Kennet
valleys and swept over the district which is now Dorsetshire.
In 705 the West Saxon see was transferred to Sherborne, and the
numerous foundations of religious houses which followed did much
to further the social and industrial development of the county;
though the wild and uncivilized state in which the county yet lay
may be conjectured from the names of the hundreds and of their
meeting-places, at barrows, boulders and vales. In 787 the Danes
landed at Portland, and in 833 they arrived at Charmouth with
thirty-five ships and fought Tvith Ecgbert. The shire is first
mentioned by name in the Saxon Chronicle in 845, when the
Danes were completely routed at the mouth of the Parret by
the men of Dorsetshire under Osric the ealdorman. In 876 the
invaders captured Wareham, but were driven out next year by
Alfred, and 120 of their ships were wrecked at Swanage. During
the two following centuries Dorset was constantly ravaged by the
Danes, and in 1015 Canute came on a plundering expedition to
the mouth of the Frome. Several of the West Saxon kings
resided in Dorsetshire, and ./Ethelbald and /Ethelbert were
buried at Sherborne, and Jithelred at Wimborne. In the reign of
Canute Wareham was the shire town; it was a thriving seaport,
with a house for the king when he came there on his hunting
expeditions, a dwelling for the shire-reeve and accommodation
for the leading thegns of the shire. At the time of the Conquest
Dorset formed part of Harold's earldom, and the resistance
which it opposed to the Conqueror was punished by a merciless
harrying, in which Dorchester, Wareham and Shaftesbury were
much devastated, and Bridport utterly ruined. .

No Englishman retained estates of any importance after the
Conquest, and at the time of the Survey the bulk of the land,
with the exception of the forty-six manors held by the king, was
in the hands of religious houses, the abbeys of Cerne, Milton
and Shaftesbury being the most wealthy. There were 272 mills
in the county at the time of the Survey, and nearly eighty men
were employed in working salt along the coast. Mints existed
at Shaftesbury, Wareham, Dorchester and Bridport, the three
former having been founded by ^Ethektan. The forests of
Dorsetshire were favourite hunting-grounds of the Norman kings,
and King John in particular paid frequent visits to the county.

No precise date can be assigned for the establishment of the
shire system in Wessex, but in the time of Ecgbert the kingdom
was divided into definite pagi, each under an ealdorman, which no
doubt represented the later shires. The Inquisitio Geldi, drawn
up two years before the Domesday Survey, gives the names of
the 39 pre-Conquest hundreds of Dorset. The 33 hundreds and

436

DORSIVENTRAL— DORT, SYNOD OF

21 liberties of the present day retain some of the original names,
but the boundaries have suffered much alteration. The 8000
acres of Stockland and Dalwood reckoned in the Dorset Domesday
are now annexed to Devon, and the. manor of Hoi well now
included in Dorset was reckoned with Somerset until the igth
century. Until the reign of Elizabeth Dorset and Somerset were
united under one sheriff.

After the transference of the West Saxon see from Sherborne
to Sarum in 1075, Dorset remained part of that diocese until 1 542,
when it was included in the newly formed diocese of Bristol.
The archdeaconry was coextensive with the shire, and was
divided into five rural deaneries at least as early as 1291.

The vast power and wealth monopolized by the Church in
Dorsetshire tended to check the rise of any great county families.
The representatives of the families of Mohun, Brewer and
Arundel held large estates after the Conquest, and William
Mohun was created earl of Dorset by the empress Maud. The
families of Clavel, Lovell, Maundeville, Mautravers, Peverel and
St Lo also came over with the Conqueror and figure prominently
in the early annals of the county.

Dorsetshire took no active part in the struggles of the Norman
and Plantagenet period. In 1627 the county refused to send men
to La Rochelle, and was reproved for its lack of zeal in the service
of the state. On the outbreak of the Civil War of the 1 7th century
the general feeling was in favour of the king, and after a series of
royalist successes in 1643 Lyme Regis and Poole were the only
garrisons in the county left to the parliament. By the next year
however, the parliament had gained the whole county with the
exception of Sherborne and the Isle of Portland. The general
aversion of the Dorsetshire people to warlike pursuits is
demonstrated at this period by the rise of the " clubmen," so
called from their appearance without pikes or fire-arms at the
county musters, whose object was peace at all costs, and who
punished members of either party discovered in the act of
plundering.

In the I4th century Dorsetshire produced large quantities of
wheat and wool, and had a prosperous clothing trade. In 1626
the county was severely visited by the plague, and from this
date the clothing industry began to decline. The hundred of
Pimperne produced large quantities of saltpetre in the I7th
century, and the serge manufacture was introduced about this
time. Portland freestone was first brought into use in the reign
of James I., when it was employed for the new banqueting house
at Whitehall, and after the Great Fire it was extensively used by
Sir Christopher Wren. In the 1 8th century Blandf ord, Sherborne
and Lyme Regis were famous for their lace, but the industry has
now declined.

The county returned two members to parliament in 1290,
and as the chief towns acquired representation the number was
increased, until in 1572 the county and nine boroughs returned
a total of twenty members. Under the Reform Act of 1832 the
county returned three members, and Corfe Castle was dis-
franchised. By the Representation of the People Act of 1868
Lyme Regis was disfranchised, and by the Redistribution Act
of 1885 the remaining boroughs were disfranchised.

Antiquities. — Remains of medieval castles are inconsiderable,
with the notable exception of Corfe Castle and the picturesque
ruins of Sherborne Castle, both destroyed after the Civil War of
the 1 7th century. The three finest churches in the county are the
abbey church of Sherborne, Wimborne Minster and Milton Abbey
church, a Decorated and Perpendicular structure erected on the
site of a Norman church which was burnt. It has transepts,
chancel and central tower, but the nave was not built. This was
a Benedictine foundation of the loth century, and the refectory
of the 1 5th century is incorporated in the mansion built in 1772.
At Ford Abbey part of the buildings of a Cistercian house are
similarly incorporated. There are lesser monastic remains at
Abbotsbury, Cerne and Bindon. The parish churches of Dorset-
shire are not especially noteworthy as a whole, but those at Cerne
Abbas and Beaminster are fine examples of the Perpendicular
style, which is the most common in the county. A little good
Norman work remains, as in the churches of Bere Regis and

Piddletrenthide, but both these were reconstructed in the
Perpendicular period; Bere Regis church having a superb
timber roof of that period.

The dialect of the county, perfectly distinguishable from those
of Wiltshire and Somersetshire, yet bearing many common marks
of Saxon origin, is admirably illustrated in some of the poems of
William Barnes (?.».). Many towns, villages and localities are
readily to be recognized from their descriptions in the " Wessex "
novels of Thomas Hardy (q.v.).

A curious ancient Survey of Dorsetshire was written by the
Rev. Mr Coker, about the middle of the iyth century, and
published from his MS. (London, 1732). See also J. Hutchins,
History and Antiquities of the County of Dorset (London, 1774);
2nd ed. by R. Gough and E. B. Nichols (1796-1815); 3rd ed.
by W. Shipp and J. W. Hodson (1861-1873); C. Warne, Ancient
Dorset (London, 1865); R. W. Eyton, A Key to Domesday,
exemplified by an analysis and digest of the Dorset Survey
(London, 1878); C. H. Mayo, Bibliotheca Dorsetiensis (London,
1885); W. Barnes, Glossary of Dorset Dialect (Dorchester, 1886);
H. J. Mpule, Old Dorset (London, 1893) ; Victoria County History,
Dorsetshire.

DORSIVENTRAL (Lat. dorsum, the back, venter, the belly), a
term used to describe an organ which has two surfaces differing
from each other in appearance and structure, as an ordinary
leaf.

DORT, SYNOD OF. An assembly of the Reformed Dutch
Church, with deputies from Switzerland, the Palatinate, Nassau,
Hesse, East Friesland, Bremen, Scotland and England, called to
decide the theological differences existing between the Arminians
(or Remonstrants) and the Calvinists(or Counter-Remonstrants),
was held at Dort or Dordrecht (q.v.) in the years 1618 and 1619.
The government of Louis XIII. prohibited the attendance of
French delegates. During the life of Arminius a bitter con-
troversy had sprung up between his followers and the strict
Calvinists, led by Francis Gomar, his fellow-professor at Leiden;
and, in order to decide their disputes, a synodical conference was
proposed, but Arminius died before, it could be held. At the
conference held at the Hague in 1610 the Arminians addressed
a remonstrance to the states-general in the form of five articles,
which henceforth came to be known as the five points of
Arminianism. In these they reacted against both the supra-
lapsarian and the infralapsarian developments of the doctrine
of predestination and combated the irresistibility of grace; they
held that Christ died for all men and not only for the elect, and
were not sure that the elect might not fall from grace. This
conference had no influence in reconciling the opposing parties,
and another, held at Delft in the year 1613, was equally un-
successful. In 1614, at the instance of the Arminian party, an
edict was passed by the states-general, in which toleration of the
opinions of both parties was declared and further controversy
forbidden; but this act only served, by rousing the jealousy of
the Calvinists, to fan the controversial flame into greater fury.
Gradually the dispute pervaded all classes of society, and the
religious questions became entangled with political issues;
the partisans of the house of Orange espoused the cause of the
stricter Calvinism, whereas the bourgeois oligarchy of republican
tendencies, led by Oldenbarnevelt and Hugo Grotius, stood for
Arminianism. In 1617 Prince Maurice of Orange committed
himself definitely to the Calvinistic party, found an occasion
for throwing Oldenbarnevelt and Grotius into prison, and in
November of that year called a synod intended to crush the
Arminians. This synod, which assembled at Dort in November
1618, was strictly national — called by the national authority to
decide a national dispute, and not intended to have more than a
national influence. The foreign deputies were invited to attend,
only to assist by their advice in the settlement of a controversy
which concerned the Netherland church alone, and which the
Netherland church alone could decide. At the fourth sitting
it was decided to cite Simon Episcopius and several other
Remonstrants to appear within fourteen days before the synod,
to state and justify their doctrines. It was also agreed to allow
the Arminian deputies to take part in the deliberations, only on
condition that they forbore to consult with, or in any way assist,

DORTMUND— DORY

437

their cited brethren, but this they refused. During the interval
between the citation and the appearance of the accused, the
professorial members of the synod was instructed to prepare
themselves to be able to confute the Arminian errors, and the
synod occupied itself with deliberations as to a new translation of
the Bible, for which a commission was named, made arrangements
for teaching the Heidelberg catechism, and granted permission
to the missionaries of the East Indies to baptize such children of
heathen parents as were admitted into their families. Atthe 25th
sitting Episcopius and the others cited appeared, when Episcopius
surprised the deputies by a bold and outspoken defence of his
views, and even went so far as to say that the synod, by excluding
the Arminian deputies, could now only be regarded as a schismatic
assembly. The Remonstrants were asked to file copious explana-
tions of the five points in dispute (Sententia Remonstrantium),
but objecting to the manner in which they were catechized, they
were, at the 57th sitting, dismissed from the synod as convicted
" liars and deceivers." The synod then proceeded in their
absence to judge them from their published writings, and came
to the conclusion that as ecclesiastical rebels and trespassers they
should be deprived of all their offices. The synodical decision
in regard to the five points is contained in the canons adopted
at the I36th session held on the 23rd of April 1619; the points
were: unconditional election, limited atonement, total depravity,
irresistibility of grace, final perseverance of the saints. The issue
of supralapsarianism v. infralapsarianism was avoided. These
doctrinal decisions and the sentence against the Remonstrants
were, at the i44th sitting, read in Latin before a large audience in
the great church. The Remonstrants were required to subscribe
the condemnation, and many of them refused and were banished.
The synod was concluded on the pth of May 1 61 9, by a magnificent
banquet given by the chief magistrate of Dort. The Dutch
deputies remained a fortnight longer to attend to ecclesiastical
business. Though the canons of Dort were adopted by but two
churches outside of Holland, the synod ranks as the most
impressive assemblage of the Reformed Church.

AUTHORITIES. — Acta synodi nationalis . . . Dordrechti habitae
(Lugd. Bat. 1620, official edition) ; Acta der Nationale Synode te
Dordrecht 1618 (Leiden, 1887), French translation (Leiden, 1622 and
1624, 2 vols.), for the Canons, and the Sententia Remonstrantium,
E. F. Karl Miiller, Die Bekenntnisschriften der refprmierten Kirche
(Leipzig, 1903), p. lix. ff., 843 ff. ; for canons and abridged translation
used by the Reformed Church in America, P. Schaff, The Creeds oj
Christendom (3rd ed., New York, 1877), 550 ff. See also H. Heppe, in
Niedner's Zeitschrift fur die historische Theologie, Bd. 23 (Hamburg,
1853), 226-327 (letters of Hessian deputies) ; Acta etscripta synodalia
Dordracena ministrorum Remonstrantium, Hardervici, 1620 (valuable
side-lights) ; A. Schweizer, Die protestantischen Centraldogmen in ihrer
Entwicklung innerhalb der reformierten Kirche, zweite Halfte (Zurich,
1856), 25-224; H. C. Rogge in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie,
Bd. 4 (Leipzig, 1898), 798-802; H. H. Kuyper, De Post- Acta of
Nahandelingen van de Nationale Synode van Dordrecht, een historische
Studie (Amsterdam, 1899, new material); J. Reitsma, Geschiednis
van de Henorming en de Heniormde Kerk der Nederlanden (2nd ed.
Groningen, 1899); F. Loofs, Dogmengeschichte (4th ed., Halle, 1906),
935 ff. ; T. Van Oppenraij, La Predestination dans I'Eglise reformee
des Pays-Bas depuis I'origine jusqu'au synode national de Dordrecht
(Louvain, 1906). (W. W. R.*)

DORTMUND, a town of Germany, the chief commercial centre
of the Prussian province of Westphalia, on the Emscher, in a
fertile plain, 50 m. E. from Dusseldorf by rail. Pop. (1875)
57,742; (1895) 111,232; (1905) 175,292. Since the abolition of
the old walls in 1863 and the conversion of their site into pro-
menades, the town has rapidly assumed a modern appearance.
The central part, however, with its winding narrow streets, is
redolent of its historical past, when, as one of the leading cities of
the Hanseatic League, it enjoyed commercial supremacy over all
the towns of Westphalia. Among its ancient buildings must be
mentioned the Reinoldikirche, with fine stained-glass windows,
the Marienkirche, the nave of which dates from the i ith century,
the Petrikirche, with a curious altar, and the Dominican church,
with beautiful cloisters. The 13th-century town hall was
restored in 1899 and now contains the municipal antiquarian
museum, having been superseded by a more commodious build-
ing. Among the chief modern structures may be mentioned the
magnificent post office, erected in 1895, the provincial law courts,

the municipal infirmary and the large railway station. To the W.
of the last there existed down to 1906 (when it was removed) one
of the ancient lime trees of the Konigshof, where the meetings
of the Vehmgericht were held (see FEHMIC COURTS) . But the real
interest of Dortmund centres in its vast industries, which owe
their development to the situation of the town in the centre of
the great Westphalian coal basin. In the immediate vicinity are
also extensive beds of iron ore, and this combination of mineral
wealth has enabled the town to become a competitor with Essen,
Oberhausen, Duisburg and Hagen in the products of the iron
industry. These in Dortmund more particularly embrace steel
railway rails, mining plant, wire ropes, machinery, safes and
sewing machines. Dortmund has also extensive breweries, and,
in addition to the manufactured goods already enumerated, does
a considerable trade in corn and wood. Besides being well
furnished with a convenient railway system, linking it with
the innumerable manufacturing towns and villages of the iron
district, it is also connected with the river Ems by the
Dortmund-Ems Canal, 170 m. in length.

Dortmund, the Throtmannia of early history, was- already
a town of some importance in the 9th century. In 1005 the
emperor Henry II. held here an ecclesiastical council, and in 1016
an imperial diet. The town was walled in the I2th century, and
in 1387-1388 successfully withstood the troops of the archbishop
of Cologne, who besieged it for twenty-one months. About the
middle of the I3th century it joined the Hanseatic League. At
the close of the Thirty Years' War the population had become
reduced to 3000. In 1803 Dortmund lost its rights as a free
town, and was annexed to Nassau. The French occupied it in
1806, and in 1808 it was made over by Napoleon to the grand-duke
of Berg, and became the chief town of the department of Ruhr.
Through the cession of Westphalia by the king of the Netherlands,
on the 3ist of May 1815, it became a Prussian town.

See Thiersch, Geschichte der Freireichsstadt Dortmund (Dort, 1854),
and Ludoff, Bau- und Kunstdenkmdler in Dortmund (Paderborn,
; also A. Shadwell, Industrial Efficiency (London, 1906).

DORY, or JOHN DORY (Zeusfaber), an Acanthopterygian fish,
the type of the family Zeidae, held in such esteem by the ancient
Greeks that they called it Zeus after their principal divinity. Its
English name is probably a corruption of the French jaune doree,
and has reference to the prevailing golden-yellow colour of the
living fish. The body in the dory is much compressed, and is
nearly oval in form, while the mouth is large and capable of
extensive protrusion. It possesses two dorsal fins, of which the
anterior is armed with long slender spines, and the connecting
membrane is produced into long tendril-like filaments; while a
row of short spines extends along the belly and the roots of the
anal and dorsal fins. The colour of the upper surface is olive-
brown; the sides are yellowish, and are marked with a prominent
dark spot, on account of which the dory divides with the haddock
the reputation of being the fish from which Peter took the tribute
money. It is an inhabitant of the Atlantic coasts of Europe,
the Mediterranean and the Australian seas. It is occasionally
abundant on the coasts of Devon and Cornwall, and is also found,
though more sparingly, throughout the British seas. It is exceed-
ingly voracious, feeding on molluscs, shrimps and the young
of other fish; and Jonathan Couch (1789-1870), author of a
History of British Fishes, states that from the stomach of a single
dory he has taken 25 flounders, some 2\ in. long, 3 fatherlashers
half grown and 5 stones from the beach, one 15 in. in length.
They are often taken in the fishermen's nets off the Cornwall and
Devon coast, having entered these in pursuit of pilchards. They
are seldom found in deep water, preferring sandy bays, among the
weeds growing on the bottom of which they lie in wait for their
prey, and in securing this they are greatly assisted by their great
width of gape, by their power of protruding the mouth, and by the
slender filaments of the first dorsal fins, which float like worms in
the water, while the greater part of the body is buried in the sand,
and thus they entice the smaller fishes to c.ome within easy reach
of the capacious jaws. The dory often attains a weight of 1 2 ft,
although those, usually brought into the market do not average
more than 6 or 7 Ib. It is highly valued as an article of food.

DOSITHEUS MAGISTER— DOSTOIEVSKY

The family Zeidae has assumed special interest of late, O. Thilo l
and G. A. Boulenger2 having shown that they have much in
common with the flat-fishes or Pleuronectidae and must be nearly
related to the original stock from which this asymmetrical type
has been evolved, especially if theUpper Eocene genus A mphistium
be taken into consideration. This affinity is further supported by
the observations made by L. W. Byrne3 on the asymmetry in the
number and arrangement of the bony plates at the base of the
dorsal and anal fins in the young of the John Dory. (G. A. B.)

DOSITHEUS MAGISTER, Greek grammarian, flourished at
Rome in the 4th century A.D. He was the author of a Greek
translation of a Latin grammar, intended to assist the Greek-
speaking inhabitants of the empire in learning Latin. The
translation, at first word for word, becomes less frequent, and
finally is discontinued altogether. The Latin grammar used was
based on the same authorities as those of Charisius and Diomedes,
which accounts for the many points of similarity. Dositheus
contributed very little of his own. Some Greek-Latin exercises
by an unknown writer of the 3rd century, to be learnt by heart
and traaslated, were added to the grammar. They are of con-
siderable value as illustrating the social life of the period
and the history of the Latin language. Of these 'Ep/j.r/vtvtiaTa
(Inter pretamenta), the third book, containing a collection of words
and phrases from everyday conversation (na8rintpu>ri 6/wXia)
has been preserved. A further appendix consisted of Anecdotes,
Letters and Rescripts of the emperor Hadrian; fables of Aesop;
extracts from Hyginus; a history of the Trojan War, abridged
from the Iliad; and a legal fragment, Hepl eXeufapcbo-ecop (De
manumissionibus) .

Editions: Grammatical in H. Keil, Grammatici Latini, vii. and
separately (1871); Hermeneumata by G. Gotz (1892) (in G. Lowe's
Corpus glossariorum Latinorum, iii.) and E. Booking (1832), which
contains the appendix (including the legal fragment) ; see also
C. Lachmann, Versuch iiber Dositheus (1837) ; H. Hagen, De Dosithei
magistri quae feruntur glossis (1877).

DOSSAL (dossel, dorsel or dosel; Fr. dos, back), an ecclesi-
astical ornamented clcth suspended behind the altar.

DOSSERET, or impost block (a Fr. term, from dos, back),
in architecture, the cubical block of stone above the capitals
in a Byzantine church, used to carry the arches and vault, the
springing of which had a superficial area greatly in excess of the
column which carried them.

DOST MAHOMMED KHAN (1793-1863), founder of the
dynasty of the Barakzai in Afghanistan, was born in 1793. His
elder brother, the chief of the Barakzai, Fatteh Khan, took
an important part in raising Mahmud to the sovereignty of
Afghanistan in 1800 and in restoring him to the throne in 1809.
That ruler repaid his services by causing him to be assassinated in
1818, and thus incurred the enmity of his tribe. After a bloody
conflict Mahmud was deprived of all his possessions but Herat,
the rest of his dominions being divided among Fatteh Khan's
brothers. Of these Dost Mahommed received for his share
Ghazni, to which in 1826 he added Kabul, the richest of the
Afghan provinces. From the commencement of his reign he
found himself involved in disputes with Ranjit Singh, the Sikh
ruler of the Punjab, who used the dethroned Saduzai prince,
Shuja-ul-Mulk, as his instrument. In 1834 Shuja made a last
attempt to recover his kingdom. He was defeated by Dost
Mahommed under the walls of Kandahar, but Ranjit Singh seized
the opportunity to annex Peshawar. The recovery of this
fortress became the Afghan amir's great concern. Rejecting
overtures from Russia, he endeavoured to form an alliance with
England, and welcomed Alexander Burnes to Kabul in 1837.
Burnes, however, was unable to prevail on the governor-general,
Lord Auckland, to respond to the amir's advances. Dost
Mahommed was enjoined to abandon the attempt to recover
Peshawar, and to place his foreign policy under British guidance.
In return he was only promised protection from Ranjit Singh, of

1 " Die Vorfahren der Schollen," Biol. Centralbl. xxii. (1002), p. 717.

1 " On the systematic position of the Pleuronectidae/' Ann. and
Mag. N. H. x. (1902), p. 295.

' On the number and arrangement of the bony plates of the young
John Dory," Biometrika, ii. (1902), p. 115.

whom he had no fear. He replied by renewing his relations with
Russia, and in 1838 Lord Auckland set the British troops in
motion against him. In March 1839 the British force under
Sir Willoughby Cotton advanced through the Bolan Pass, and
on the 26th of April it reached Kandahar. Shah Shuja was
proclaimed amir, and entered Kabul on the 7th of August, while
Dost Mahommed sought refuge in the wilds of the Hindu Rush.
Closely followed by the British, Dost was driven to extremities,
and on the 4th of November 1840 surrendered as a prisoner. He
remained in captivity during the British occupation, during the
disastrous retreat of the army of occupation in January 1 84 2 , and
until the recapture of Kabul in the autumn of 1842. He was then
set at liberty, in consequence of the resolve of the British govern-
ment to abandon the attempt to intervene in the internal politics
of Afghanistan. On his return from Hindustan Dost Mahommed
was received in triumph at Kabul, and set himself to re-establish
his authority on a firm basis. From 1846 he renewed his policy
of hostility to the British and allied himself with the Sikhs; but
after the defeat of his allies at Gujrat on the 2ist of February
1849 he abandoned his designs and led his troops back into
Afghanistan. In 1850 he conquered Balkh, and in 1854 he
acquired control over the southern Afghan tribes by the capture
of Kandahar. On the 3oth of March 1855 Dost Mahommed
reversed his former policy by concluding an offensive and
defensive alliance with the British government. In 1857 he
declared war on Persia in conjunction with the British, and in
July a treaty was concluded by which the province of Herat was
placed under a Barakzai prince. During the Indian Mutiny Dost
Mahommed punctiliously refrained from assisting the insurgents.
His later years were disturbed by troubles at Herat and in
Bokhara. These he composed for a time, but in 1862 a Persian
army, acting in concert with Ahmad Khan, advanced against
Kandahar. The old amir called the British to his aid, and,
putting himself at the head of his warriors', drove the enemy
from his frontiers. On the 26th of May 1863 he captured
Herat, but on the gth of June he died suddenly in the midst
of victory, after playing a great role in the history of Central
Asia for forty years. He named as his successor his son, Shere
Ali Khan. (E. I. C.)

DOSTOIEVSKY, FEODOR MIKHAILOVICH (1821-1881),
Russian author, born at Moscow, on the 3oth of October 1821,
was the second son of a retired military surgeon of a decayed noble
family. He was educated at Moscow andat the military engineer-
ing academy at St Petersburg, which he left in 1843 with the grade
of sub-lieutenant. Next year his father died, and he resigned his
commission in order to devote himself to literature — thus com-
mencing a long struggle with ill-health and penury. In addition
to the old Russian masters Gogol and Pushkin, Balzac and
George Sand supplied him with literary ideals. He knew little of
Dickens, but his first story is thoroughly Dickensian in character.
The hero is a Russian " Tom Pinch," who entertains a pathetic,
humble adoration for a fair young girl, a solitary waif like himself.
Characteristically the Russian story ends in " tender gloom."
The girl marries a middle-aged man of property; the hero dies of
a broken heart, and his funeral is described in lamentable detail.
The germ of all Dostoievsky's imaginative work may be discovered
here. The story was submitted in manuscript to the Russian
critic, Bielinski, and excited his astonishment by its power over
the emotions. It appeared in the course of 1846 in the Recueil de
Saint- Petersbourg, under the title of " Poor People." An English
version, Poor Folk, with an introduction by Mr George Moore,
appeared in 1894. The successful author became a regular
contributor of short tales to the Annals of the Country, a monthly
periodical conducted by Kraevsky; but he was wretchedly paid,
and his work, though revealing extraordinary power andin tensity,
commonly lacks both finish and proportion. Poverty and
physical suffering robbed him of the joy of life and filled him with
bitter thoughts and morbid imaginings. During 1847 he became
an enthusiastic member of the revolutionary reunions of the
political agitator, Petrachevski. Many of the students and
younger members did little more than discuss the theories of
Fourier and other economists at these gatherings. Exaggerated

DOUAI

439

reports were eventually carried to the police; and on the 23rd
of April 1849 Dostoievsky and his brother, with thirty other
suspected personages, were arrested. After a short examination
by the secret police they were lodged in the fortress of St Peter and
St Paul at St Petersburg, in which confinement Feodor wrote his
story A Little Hero. On the 22nd of December 1849 the accused
were all condemned to death and conveyed in vans to a large
scaffold in the Simonovsky Place. As the soldiers were preparing
to carry out the sentence, the prisoners were informed that their
penalty was commuted to exile in Siberia. The novelist's sentence
was, four years in Siberia and enforced military service in the
ranks for life. On Christmas eve 1849 he commenced the long
journey to Omsk, and remained in Siberia, " like a man buried
ab've, nailed down in his coffin," for four terrible years. His
Siberian experiences are graphically narrated in a volume to
which he gave the name of Recollections of a Dead-House (1858).
It was known in an English translation as Buried Alive in Siberia
(1881; another version, 1888). His release only subjected him
to fresh indignities as a common soldier at Semipalatinsk; but in
1858, through the intercession of an old schoolfellow, General
Todleben, he was made an under-officer; and in 1859, upon the
accession of Alexander II., he was finally recalled from exile.
In 1858 he had married a widow, Madame Isaiev, but she died
at St Petersburg in 1867 after a somewhat stormy married life.

After herding for years with the worst criminals, Dostoievsky
obtained an exceptional insight into the dark and seamy side of
Russian life. He formed new conceptions of human life, of the
balance of good and evil in man, and of the Russian character.
Psychological studies have seldom, if ever, found a more intense
form of expression than that embodied by Dostoievsky in his
novel called Crime and Punishment. The hero Raskolnikov is a
poor student, who is led on to commit a murder partly by self-
conceit, partly by the contemplation of the abject misery around
him. Unsurpassed in poignancy in the whole of modern literature
is the sensation of compassion evoked by the scene between the
self-tormented Raskolnikov and the humble street-walker, Sonia,
whom he loves, and from whom, having confessed his crime, he
derives the idea of expiation. Raskolnikov finally gives himself
up to the police and is exiled to Siberia, whither Sonia follows him.
The book gave currency to a number of ideas, not in any sense
new, but specially characteristic of Dostoievsky: the theory, for
instance, that in every life, however fallen and degraded, there are
ecstatic moments of self-devotion; the doctrine of purification
by suffering, and by suffering alone; and the ideal of a Russian
people forming a social state at some future period bound together
by no obligation save mutual love and the magic of kindness.
In this visionary prospect, as well as in his objection to the use of
physical force, Dostoievsky anticipated in a remarkable manner
some of the conspicuous tenets of his great successor Tolstoy.
The book electrified the reading public in Russia upon its appear-
ance in 1866, and its fame was confirmed when it appeared in Paris
in 1867. To his remarkable faculty of awakening reverberations
of melancholy and compassion, as shown in his early work,
Dostoievsky had added, by the admission of all, a rare mastery
over the emotions of terror and pity. But such mastery was not
long to remain unimpaired. Crime and Punishment was written
when he was at the zenith of his power. His remaining works ex-
hibit frequently a marvellous tragic and analytic power, but they
are unequal, and deficient in measure and in balance. The chief
of them are: The Injured and the Insulted, The Demons (1867),
Ttieldiot(i&6<)), The Adult (1875), The Brothers Karamzov (1881).

From 1865, when he settled in St Petersburg, Dostoievsky
was absorbed in a succession of journalistic enterprises, in the
Slavophil interest, and suffered severe pecuniary losses. He had
to leave Russia, in order to escape his creditors, and to seek refuge
in Germany and Italy. He was further harassed by troubles*with
his wife, and his work was interrupted by epileptic fits and other
physical ailments. It was under such conditions as these that his
most enduring works were created . He managed finally to return
to Russia early in the seventies, and was for some time director
of The Russian World. From 1876 he published a kind of review,
entitled Garnet d'un icrivain, to the pages of which he committed

many strange autobiographical facts and reflections. The last
ight years of his life were spent in comparative prosperity at St
Petersburg, where he died on the gth of February 1881.

His life had been irremediably seared by his Siberian experi-
mces. He looked prematurely old; his face bore an expression
of accumulated sorrow; in disposition he had become distrustful,
taciturn, contemptuous — his favourite theme the superiority of
the Russian peasant over every other class; as an artist, though
uncultured, he had ever been subtle and sympathetic, but latterly
he was tortured by tragic visions and morbidly preoccupied by
exceptional and perverted types. M. de Vogue, in his admirable
Ecrivains russes, has worked out with some success a parallel
between the later years of Dostoievsky and those of Jean Jacques
Rousseau. Siberia effectually convinced the novelist of the
impotence of Nihilism in such a country as Russia; but though
he was assailed by ardent Liberals for the reactionary trend of
his later writings, Dostoievsky became, towards the end of his
life, an extremely popular figure, and his funeral, on the i2th of
February 1881, was the occasion of one of the most remarkable
demonstrations of public feeling ever witnessed in the Russian
capital. The death of the Russian novelist was not mentioned in
the London press; it is only since 1885, when Crime and Punish-
ment first appeared in English, that his name has become at all
familiar in England, mainly through French translations.

A complete edition of his novels was issued at St Petersburg in
fourteen volumes (1882-1883). Two critical studies by Tchij and
Zelinsky appeared at Moscow in l885,and a German life by Hoffmann
at Vienna in 1899. (T. SE.)

DOUAI, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Nord, 20 m. S. of Lille on the Northern
railway between that city and Cambrai. Pop. (1906) town,
21,679; commune, 33,247. Douai is situated in a marshy plain
on the banks of the Scarpe which intersects the town from south
to north, and supplies water to a canal skirting it on the west.
The old fortifications; of which the Porte de Valenciennes (isth
century) is the chief survival, have been demolished to make
room for boulevards and public gardens. The industrial towns
of Dorignies, Sin-le- Noble and Aniche are practically suburbs
of Douai. Of the churches, that of Notre-Dame (i2th and
i4th centuries) is remarkable for the possession of a fine altar-
piece of the early i6th century, composed of wooden panels
painted by Jean Bellegambe, a native of Douai. The principal
building of the town is a handsome hotel de ville, partly of the
15th century, with a lofty belfry. The Palais de Justice (i8th
century) was formerly the town house (refuge) of the abbey of
Marchiennes. Houses of the i6th, i7th and i8th centuries are
numerous. There is a statue of Madame Desbordes Valmore,
the poet (d. 1859), a native of the town. The municipal museum
contains a library of over 85,000 volumes as well as 1 800 MSS., and
a fine collection of sculpture and paintings. Douai is the seat
of a court of appeal, a court of assizes and a subprefect, and has a
tribunal of first instance, a board of trade-arbitrators, an exchange,
a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France.
Its educational institutions include a lycee, training colleges, a
school of mines, an artillery school, schools of music, agriculture,
drawing, architecture, &c., and a national school for instruction
in brewing and other industries connected with agriculture. In
addition to other iron and engineering works, Douai has a large
cannon foundry and an arsenal; coal-mining and the manufacture
of glass and bottles and chemicals are carried on on a large scale
in the environs; among the other industries are flax-spinning,
rope-making, brewing and the manufacture of farm implements,
oil, sugar, soap and leather. Trade, which is largely water-borne,
is In grain and agricultural products, coal and building material.

Douai, the site of which was occupied by a castle (Castrum
Duacense) as early as the 7th century, belonged in the middle
ages to the counts of Flanders, passed in 1384 to the dukes of
Burgundy, and so in 1477 with the rest of the Netherlands to
Spain. In 1667 it was captured by Louis XIV., and was ulti-
mately ceded to France by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. His-
torically Douai is mainly important as the centre of the political
and religious propaganda of the exiled English Roman Catholics.

4-40

DOUARNENEZ— DOUBLE BASS

In 1562 Philip II. of Spain founded a university here, in which
several English- scholars were given chairs; and in connexion
with this William Allen (q.v.) in 1568 founded the celebrated
English college. It was here that the " Douai Bible " was pre-
pared (see Vol. IV. p. 341). There were also an Irish and a
Scots college and houses of English Benedictines and Francis-
cans. All these survived till 1793, when the university was
suppressed. For the Douai Bible see BIBLE, ENGLISH.

See F. Brassart, Hist, du chateau et de la chdtellenie de Douai
(Douai, 1877-87); C. Mine, Hist. pop. de Douai (ib. 1861) ; B. Ward,
Dawn of the Catholic Revival (London, 1909); Handecceur, Hist, du
College anglais, Douai (Reims, 1898) ; Daucoisne, Etablissements
britanniques a Douai (Douai, 1881).

DOUARNENEZ, a fishing-port of western France, in the depart-
ment of Finistere,on the southern shore of the Bay of Douarnenez
15 m. N.W. of Quimper by rail. Pop. (1906) 13,472. Its sardine
fishery, which is carried on from the end of June to the beginning
of December, gives occupation to about 800 boats, and between
3000 and 4000 men, and the preserving of the fish is an important
industry. Mackerel fishing, boat-building and rope and net
making also occupy the inhabitants. There is a lighthouse on
the small island of Tristan off Douarnenez.

DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives
the present pronunciation, through the Old Fr. duble, from Lat.
duplus, twice as much), twice as much, or large, having two
parts, having a part repeated, coupled, &c. The word appears as
a substantive with the special meaning of the appearance to a
person of his own apparition, generally regarded as a warning, or
of such an apparition of one living person to another, the German
Doppelganger (see APPARITIONS). Another word often used
with this meaning is " fetch." According to the New English
Dictionary, " fetch " is chiefly of Irish usage, and may possibly
be connected with " fetch," to bring or carry away, but it may
be a separate word. The Corpus Glossary of the beginning of the
loth century seems to identify a word/cecce with more, meaning
a goblin which appears in " nightmare." " Double " is also used
of a person whose resemblance to another is peculiarly striking
or remarkable, so that confusion between them may easily arise.

DOUBLE BASS (Fr. contrebasse; Ger. Kontrabass, Gross Bass
Geige; Ital. contrabasso, violone), the largest member of the
modern family of stringed instruments played with a bow, known
as the violin family, and the lowest in pitch. The double bass
differs slightly in construction from the other members of the
family in that it has slanting shoulders (one of the features of the
viola da gamba, see VIOLIN) ; that is to say that where the belly
is joined by the neck and finger-board, it has a decided point,
whereas in the violin, viola and violoncello, the finger-board is at
right-angles to the horizontal part of a wide curve. It is probable
that the shoulders of the double bass were made drooping for the
sake of additional strength of construction on account of the strain
caused by the tension of the strings. The double bass was formerly
made with a flat back — another characteristic of the viol family —
whereas now the back is as often found arched as flat. The bow
is for obvious reasons shorter and stouter than the violin bow.

The technique of the double bass presents certain difficulties
inherent in an instrument of such large proportions. The stretches
for the fingers are very great, almost double those required for the
violoncello, and owing to the thickness of the strings great force
is required to press them against the finger-board when they are
vibrating. The performer plays standing owing to the great size of
the instrument.

The double bass sometimes has three strings tuned in England

and Italy in fourths; (S_

in France and Germany

to fifths. (B — : Owing to the scoring of modern

composers, however, it was found necessary to adopt an accord-
ance of four strings in order to obtain the additional lower notes
required, although this entaijs the sacrifice of beauty of tone, the
three-stringed instrument being more sonorous. Some orchestras
make a compromise dividing the double basses into two equal sections
of three and four-stringed basses. The four strings are tuned

in fourths: — &= = Mr A. C. White, finding that

an additional lower compass was required, first tuned his double
1 The real sounds are an octave lower.

bass with three strings to *-*— — -

afterwards adding

a fourth string, the lower D. By this accordance the third and
fourth strings gain additional power and clearness from the fact
that the first and second, being their octaves higher, vibrate in
sympathy, obviating the necessity of making the 'cello play in octaves
with the double basses to increase the tone when the lowest register
is used. In order to obtain equal sonority on his double bass with
four strings, Mr White2 found it necessary to have a wider bridge
measuring about 5 in., so that the distance between the strings
should remain the same as on a double bass with three strings, thus
allowing plenty of room for vibration. The neck was also widened
in proportion. A five-stringed double bass was sometimes

used in Germany tuned either to \2~ , <» *^

or to

E3E

-. =? j =: but such instruments have been almost

superseded by those with four strings. A somewhat larger double
bass with five strings by Karl Otno of Leipzig was introduced
between 1880 and 1890 with the following accordance: —

The practical compass of the double bass extends from

to — = (real sounds) with all chromatic intervals. In order

to avoid using numerous ledger lines the music is written an octave
higher. The qualityof toneisverypowerfulbutsomewhatrough,and
variesgreatly in its gradations. The notesof the lowest register, when
played piano, sound weird and sometimes grotesque, and are some-
times used instead of the kettledrum ; when played forte the tone is
grand and full. The lowest octave is mainly used as a fundamental
octave bass to 'cello, bassoon or trombone. The tone of the pizzicato
is full and rich owing to the slowness of the vibrations, and it changes
character according to the harmonies which lie above it: with a
chord of the diminished seventh above it, for instance, the pizzicato
sounds like a menace, but with the common chord calm and majestic.
Both natural and artificial harmonics are possible on the double bass,
the former being the best; but they are seldom used in orchestral
works. As an instance of their use may be cited the scene by the
Nile at the beginning of the third act of Verdi's A ida, where harmonics
are indicated for both 'cellos and double basses.

The technical capabilities of the double bass are necessarily some-
what more limited than those of the violoncello. Quick passages,
though possible, are seldom written for it; they cannot sound clear
owing to the time required for the strings to vibrate. An excellent
effect is produced by what is known as the intermittent tremolo:
owing to the elasticity of the bow, it rebounds several times on the
strings when a single blow is sharply struck, forming a series of
short tremolos. The double bass is the foundation of the whole
orchestra and therefore of great importance; it plays the lowest
part, often, as its name indicates, only doubling the 'cello part an
octave lower. It is only since the beginning of the igth century that
an independent voice has occasionally been allotted to it, as in the
Scherzo of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony in C minor: —

CONTRABASSI. ^. ^ fi , „

ffiFk-s — .-I— l-a-^-H — ' I &• I P • 1 1° • =

^EK* ^r^^F^-i T- H- I' -™-

pp

These opening bars are played soli by "cellos and double basses, a
daring innovation of Beethoven's which caused quite a consternation
at first in musical circles.

The remote origin of the double bass is the same as that of the
violin.3 It was evolved from the bass viol; whether the trans-
formation took place simultaneously with that of the violin from
the treble viol or preceded it, has not been definitely proved, but
both Gasparo da Salo and Maggini constructed double basses,
which were in great request in the churches. De Salo made one
with three strings for St Mark's, Venice, which is still preserved
there.4 It was Dragonetti's favourite concert instrument, pre-
sented to him by the monks of St Mark, and, according to the
desire expressed in his will, the instrument was restored after his
death to St Mark's, where it is at present preserved. Dragonetti
used a straight bow similar to the violoncello bow, held overhand
with. the hair slanting towards the neck of the instrument; it

1 The Double Bass (Novello, Music Primers, No. 32), p. 6.

3 See Kathleen Schlesinger, The Instruments of the Orchestra,
Part II. " The Precursors of the Violin Family " (1908-1909).

4 See Laurent Grillet, Les Ancetres du violon et du violoncelle (Paris,
1901), tome ii. p. 159; IWillebald Leo von Lustgendorff, Die Geigen
und Lautenmacher vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart (Frankfurt a. M.,
1004), p. 50; A. C. White, The Double Bass, p. 8.

DOUBLEDAY— DOUBS

441

was introduced into England from Paris, and is a favourite with
orchestral players. Praetorius gives an illustration of a sub-bass
viol da gamba or gross contra-bass geige1 "recently constructed,"
which displaced the other large contra-bass viols; of which he
also gives an illustration.2

Giovanni Bottesini (1822-1889) was the greatest virtuoso on
the double bass that the world has ever known. It was not only
the perfection of his technique and tone which won him artistic
fame, but also the delicacy of his style and his exquisite taste
in phrasing. (K. S.)

DOUBLEDAY, ABNER (1819-1893), American soldier, was
born at Ballston Spa, New York, on the 26th of June 1819,
and graduated from West Point in 1842. He served in the U.S.
artillery during the Mexican War, being present at the battles of
Monterey and Buena Vista. He was second in command at Fort
Sumter, Charleston, South Carolina, when it was bombarded and
taken by the Confederates in 1861, and later in the campaign of
that year he served in the Shenandoah valley as a field officer. In
February 1862 he was made a brigadier-general of volunteers and
employed in the lines of Washington. He commanded a division
in the Army of the Potomac in the second Bull Run campaign and
at Antietam, becoming major-general U.S.V. in November 1862.
He continued to command his division in the Fredericksburg and
Chancellorsville campaigns, and on the first day of the battle of
Gettysburg he led the I. corps, and for a time all the Union forces
on the field, after the death of General Reynolds. In the latter
part of the war he was employed in various administrative and
military posts; in July 1863 he was breveted colonel, and
in March 1865 brigadier-general and major-general U.S.A.
General Doubleday continued in the army after the war, becoming
colonel U.S.A. in 1867; he retired in 1873. He published two
important works on the Civil War, Reminiscences of Forts Sumter
and Moultrie (1876) and Chancellorsville and Gettysburg (1882),
the latter being a volume of the series " Campaigns of the Civil
War." He died at Mendham, New Jersey, on the 26th of
January 1893.

His younger brother, ULYSSES DOUBLEDAY (1824-1893),
fought through the Civil War as an officer of volunteers, was
breveted brigadier-general U.S.V. in March 1865, and com-
manded a brigade at the battle of Five Forks (ist April).

DOUBLEDAY, THOMAS (1790-1870), English politician and
author, was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne in February 1790. In
early life he adopted the views of William Cobbett, and was active
in promoting the agitation which resulted in the passing of the
Reform Bill of 1832. As secretary of the Northern Political
Union of Whigs and Radicals he took a prominent part in
forwarding the interests of Earl Grey and the reforming party.
In 1858-1859 he was a member of the council of the Northern
Reform Union; and to the last he was a keen observer of political
events. He succeeded his father, George Doubleday, as partner
in a firm of soap manufacturers at Newcastle, but devoted his
attention rather to literature than to mercantile affairs. On the
failure of the firm he obtained the office of registrar of St Andrew's
parish, Newcastle, a post which he held until appointed secretary
to the coal trade. He died at Bulman's Village, Newcastle-on-
Tyne, on the i8th of December 1870. In 1832 Doubleday
published an Essay on Mundane Moral Government, and in 1842
he attacked some of the principles of Malthus in his True Law of
Population. He also wrote A Political Life of Sir Robert Peel
(London, 1856); A Financial, Statistical and Monetary History
of England from 1688 (London, 1847); Matter for Materialists
(London, 1870); The Eve of St Mark, a Romance of Venice; and
three dramas, The Statue Wife, Diocletian and Caius Marius, in
addition to some fishing songs, and many contributions to various
newspapers and periodicals.

DOUBLET (a Fr. word, diminutive of double, folded or of two
thicknesses), a close-fitting garment, with or without sleeves,
extending from the neck to a little below the waist, worn by men
of all ranks and ages from the I4th century to the time of Charles

1 M. Praetorius, Syntagma music. (Wolfenbiittel, 1618 and 1620),
PP- 54-55 and pi. v. (l).
1 Ib. pi. vi. No. 4.

II., when it began to be superseded by coat and waistcoat. The
doublet was introduced into England from France, and was
originally padded for defence or warmth. " Doublet " is also
used of a pair or couple — a thing that is the facsimile of another;
as in philology, one of two words differing in form, but repre-
sented by an identical root, as " alarm " or " alarum "; in optics,
of a pair of lenses, combined, for example, to correct aberration.
In the work of the lapidary a doublet is a counterfeit gem, made
by cementing two pieces of plain glass or crystal on each side of a
layer of glass (coloured to represent the stone counterfeited);
a thiu portion of a genuine stone may be cemented upon an in-
ferior one, as a layer of diamond upon a topaz, or ruby on a garnet.

DOUBS, a river of eastern France, rising in the Jura at the foot
of the Noirmont ridge at a height of 3074 ft. and flowing into the
Saone. Its course is 269 m. in length, though the distance from
its source to its mouth is only 56 m. in direct h'ne; its basin has an
area of 3020 sq. m. Flowing N.E. the river traverses the lake of
St Point and passes Pontarlier; thenceforth its course lies chiefly
through wooded gorges of great grandeur. After skirting the
town of Morteau, below which it expands into the picturesque lake
of Chaillexon and descends over the Falls of the Doubs (88 ft. in
height), the river for about 28 m. forms the frontier between
France and Switzerland. Flowing into the latter country for
a short distance, it turns abruptly west, then north, and finally
at Voujeaucourt, south-west. Just below that town the river is
joined by the canal from the Rhone to the Rhine, to accommodate
which its course has been canalized as far as Dole. Till it reaches
Besanjon which lies on a peninsula formed by the river, the Doubs
passes no town of importance except Pontarlier. Some distance
below Besancon it enters the department of Jura, passes Dole,
and leaving the region of hill and mountain, issues into a wide
plain. Traversing this, it receives the waters of the Loue, its
chief affluent, and broadening out to a width of 260 ft., at length
reaches the Sa6ne at Verdun. Below Dole the river is navigable
only for some 8 m. above its mouth.

DOUBS, a frontier department of eastern France, formed in
1790 of the ancient principality of Montbeliard and of part of
the province of Franche-Comte. It is bounded E. and S.E. by
Switzerland, N. by the territory of Belfort and by Haute Saone,
and W. and S.W. by Jura. Pop. (1906) 298,438. Area, 2030 sq.
m. The department takes its name from the river Doubs, by
which it .is traversed. Between the Ognon, which forms the
north-western limit of the department, and the Doubs, runs a
range of low hills known as " the plain." The rest of Doubs is
mountainous, four parallel chains of the Jura crossing it from N.E.
to S.W. The Lomont range, the lowest of these chains, dominates
the left bank of the Doubs. The central region is occupied by
hilly plateaux covered with pasturage and forests, while the rest
of the department is traversed by the remaining three mountain
ranges, the highest and most easterly of which contains the Mont
d'Or (4800 ft.), the culminating point of Doubs. Besides the
Doubs the chief rivers are its tributaries, the Dessoubre, watering
the east of the department, and the Loue, which traverses its
south-western portion. The climate is in general cold and rainy,
and the winters are severe. The soil is stony and loamy, and at
the higher levels there are numerous peat-bogs. Approximately a
fifth of the total area is planted with cereals; more than a third is
occupied by pasture. In its agricultural aspect the department
may be divided into three regions. The highest, on which the
snow usually lies from six to eight months in the year, is in part
barren, but on its less exposed slopes is occupied by forests of fir
trees, and affords good pasturage for cattle. In the second or
lower region the oak, beech, walnut and sycamore flourish; and
the valleys are susceptible of cultivation. The region of the plain
is the most fertile, and produces all kinds of cereals as well as
hemp, vegetables, vines and fruit. Cattle-rearing and dairy-
farming receive much attention ; large quantities of cheese, of the
nature of Gruyere, are produced, mainly by the co-operative
cheese-factories or fruitieres. The rivers of the department
abound in gorges and falls of great beauty. The most important
manufactures are watches, made chiefly at Besancon and Morteau,
hardware (Hfirimoncourt and Valentigney), and machinery.

442

DOUCE— DOUGLAS, HOUSE OF

Large iron foundries are found at Audincourt (pop. 5317) and
other towns. The distillation of brandy and absinthe, and the
manufacture of cotton and woollen goods, automobiles and paper,
are also carried on. Exports include watches, h've-stock, wine,
vegetables, iron and hardware; cattle, hides, timber, coal, wine
and machinery are imported. Large quantities of goods, in
transit between France and Switzerland, pass through the depart-
ment. Among its mineral products are building stone and lime,
and there are peat workings. Doubs is served by the Paris-
Lyon railway, the line from Dole to Switzerland passing, via
Pontarlier, through the south of the department. The canal
from the Rhone to the Rhine traverses it for 84 miles.

The department is divided into the arrondissements of
Besangon, Baume-les-Dames, Montbeliard and Pontarlier, with
27 cantons and 637 communes. It belongs to the academie
(educational circumscription) and the diocese of Besancon, which
is the capital, the seat of an archbishop and of a court of appeal,
and headquarters of the VII. army corps. Besides Besancon
the chief towns are Montbeliard and Pontarlier (qq.v.). Ornans, a
town on the Loue, has a church of the i6th century and ruins of a
feudal castle, which are of antiquarian interest. Montbenolt on
the Doubs near Pontarlier has the remains of an Augustine abbey
(i3th to i6th centuries). The cloisters are of the isth century,
and the church contains, among other works of art, some fine
stalls executed in the i6th century. Lower down the Doubs is
the town of Morteau, with the Maison Pertuisier, a house of the
Renaissance period, and a church which still preserves remains
of a previous structure of the i3th century. Baume-les-Dames
owes the affix of its name to a Benedictine convent founded
in 763, to which only noble ladies were admitted. Numerous
antiquities have been found at Mandeure (near Montbeliard),
which stands on the site of the Roman town of Epomanduodurum.

DOUCE, FRANCIS (1757-1834), English antiquary, was born
in London in 1757. His father was a clerk in Chancery. After
completing his education he entered his father's office, but soon
quitted it to devote himself to the study of antiquities. He
became a prominent member of the Society of Antiquaries, and
for a time held the post of keeper of manuscripts in the British
Museum, but was compelled to resign it owing to a quarrel with
one of the trustees. In 1807 he published his Illustrations of
Shakespeare and Ancient Manners (2 vols. 8vo), which contained
some curious information, along with a great deal of trifling
criticism and mistaken interpretation. An unfavourable notice
of the work in The Edinburgh Review greatly irritated the author,
and made him unwilling to venture any further publications. He
contributed, however, a considerable number of papers to the
Archaeologia and The Gentleman's Magazine. In 1833 he published
a Dissertation on the various Designs of the Dance of Death, the
substance of which had appeared forty years before. He died on
the 30th of March 1834. By his will he left his printed books,
illuminated manuscripts, coins, &c., to the Bodleian library; his
own manuscript works to the British Museum, with directions
that the chest containing them should not be opened until the ist
of January 1900; and his paintings, carvings and miscellaneous
antiquities to Sir Samuel Meyrick, who published an account of
them, entitled The Doucean Museum.

DOUGLAS, the name of a Scottish noble family, now re-
presented by the dukes of Hamilton (Douglas-Hamilton, heirs-
male), the earls of Home (Douglas-Home) who also bear the
title of Baron Douglas of Douglas, the dukes of Buccleuch and
Queensberry (Montagu-Douglas-Scott), the earls of Morton
(Douglas), the earls of Wemyss (Wemyss-Charteris-Douglas),
and the baronets Douglas of Carr, of Springwood, -of Glenbervie,
&c. The marquessate of Douglas and the earldom of Angus, the
historic dignities held by the two chief branches of the family,
the Black and the Red Douglas, are merged in the Hamilton
peerage. The name represented the Gaelic dubh glas, dark water,
and Douglasdale, the home of the family in Lanarkshire, is still
in the possession of the earls of Home. The first member of the
family to emerge with any distinctness was William de Douglas,
or Dufglas, whose name frequently appears on charters from 1175
to 1213. He is said to have been brother, or brother-in-law, of

Freskin of Murray, the founder of the house of Murray. His
second son, Brice (d. 1222), became bishop of Moray, while the
estate fell to the eldest, Sir Archibald (d. c. 1240).

SIR WILLIAM OF DOUGLAS (d. 1298), called " le hardi,"
Archibald's grandson, was the first formally to assume the title
of lord of Douglas. After the death of his first wife, Elizabeth,
daughter of Alexander the Steward, he abducted from the manor
of the La Zouches at Tranent an heiress, Eleanor of Lovain,
widow of William de Ferrers, lord of Groby in Leicestershire, who
in 1291 appeared by proxy in the court of the English king,
Edward I., to answer for the offence of marrying without his
permission. He gave a grudging allegiance to John de Baliol,
and swore fealty to Edward I. in 1291; but when the Scottish
barons induced Baliol to break his bond with Edward I. he com-
manded at Berwick Castle, which he surrendered after the sack
of the town by the English in 1 296. After a short imprisonment
Douglas was restored to his Scottish estates on renewing his
homage to Edward I., but his English possessions were forfeited.
He joined Wallace's rising in 1297, and died in 1298, a prisoner in
the Tower of London.

His son, SIR JAMES OF DOUGLAS (1286-1330), lord of Douglas,
called the " Good," whose exploits are among the most romantic
in Scottish history, was educated in Paris. On his return he
found an Englishman, Robert de Clifford, in possession of his
estates. His offer of allegiance to Edward I. being refused, he
cast in his lot with Robert Bruce, whom he joined before his
coronation at Scone in 1306. From the battle of Methven he
escaped with Bruce and the remnant of his followers, and ac-
companied him in his wanderings in the Highlands. In the next
year they returned to the south of Scotland. He twice outwitted
the English garrison of Douglas and destroyed the castle. One of
these exploits, carried out on Palm Sunday, the igth of March
1307, with barbarities excessive even in those days, is known as
the " Douglas Larder." Douglas routed Sir John de Mowbray at
Ederford Bridge, near Kilmarnock, and was entrusted with the
conduct of the war in the south, while Bruce turned to the High-
lands. In 1308 he captured Thomas Randolph (afterwards earl
of Moray), soon to become one of Bruce's firm supporters, and a
friendly rival of Douglas, whose exploits he shared. He made
many successful raids on the English border, which won for him
the dreaded name of the " Black Douglas " in English households.
Through the capture of Roxburgh Castle in 1314 by stratagem,
the assailants being disguised as black oxen, he secured Teviot-
dale; and at Bannockburn, where he was knighted on the battle-
field, he commanded the left wing with Walter the Steward.
During the thirteen years of intermittent warfare that followed
he repeatedly raided England. He slew Sir Robert de Nevill, the
" Peacock of the North," in single combat in 1316, and in 1319
he invaded Yorkshire, in company with Randolph, defeating
an army assembled by William de Melton, archbishop of York,
at Mitton-on-Swale (September 20), in a fight known as " The
Chapter of Myton." In 1322 he captured the pass of Byland in
Yorkshire, and forced the English army to retreat. He was
rewarded by the " Emerald Charter," granted by Bruce, which
gave him criminal jurisdiction over the family estates, and
released the lords of Douglas from various feudal obligations.
The emerald ring which Bruce gave Douglas in ratification of the
charter is lost, but another of the king's gifts, a large two-handed
sword (bearing, however, a later inscription), exists at Douglas
Castle. In a daring night attack on the English camp in Weardale
in 1327 Douglas came near capturing Edward III. himself.
After laying waste the northern counties he retreated, without
giving battle to the English. Before his death in 1329 Bruce
desired Douglas to carry his heart to Palestine in redemption
of his unfulfilled vow to go on crusade. Accordingly Sir James
set out in 1330, bearing with him a silver casket containing the
embalmed heart of Bruce. He fell fighting with the Moors in
Spain on the 25th of August of that year, and was buried in
St Bride's Church, Douglas. Since his day the Douglases have
borne a human heart in their coat of arms. Sir James was said
to have fought in seventy battles and to have conquered in fifty-
seven. His exploits, as told in Froissart's Chronicles and in John

DOUGLAS, EARLS OF

443

Barbour's Bruce, are familiar from Scott's Tales of a Grandfather
and Castle Dangerous. His half-brother, Sir Archibald, defeated
Edward Baliol at Annan in 1332, and had just been appointed
regent of Scotland for David II. when he risked a pitched battle
at Halidon Hill, where he was defeated and killed (1333), with
his nephew William, lord of Douglas. The inheritance fell to
his brother, a churchman, Hugh the "Dull" (b. 1294), who
surrendered his lands to David II.; and a re-grant was made
to William Douglas, next referred to.

WILLIAM DOUGLAS, IST EARL OF DOUGLAS (c. 1327-1384),
had been educated in France, and returned to Scotland in 1348.
In 1353 he killed in Ettrick Forest his kinsman, William,1 the
knight of Liddesdale (c. 1300-1353), known as the " Flower of
Chivalry," who had been warden of the western marches during
David II. 's minority, and had taken a heroic share in driving the
English from southern Scotland. Liddesdale had in 1342 lost
the king's favour by the murder of Sir Alexander Ramsay of
Dalhousie, whom David had made constable of the castle of
Roxburgh and sheriff of Teviotdale in his place; he was taken
prisoner at Nevill's Cross in 1346, and only released on becoming
liegeman of Edward III. for the lands of Liddesdale and the
castle of the Hermitage; Liddesdale 2 was also accused of
contriving the murder of Sir David Barclay in 1350. Some of his
lands fell to his kinsman and murderer, who was created earl of
Douglas in 1358. In 1357 his marriage with Margaret, sister and
heiress of Thomas, i3th earl of Mar, eventually brought him the
estates and the earldom of Mar. During a short truce with the
warden of the English marches he had served in France, being
wounded at Poitiers in 1356. He was one of the securities for the
payment of David II. 's ransom, and in consequence of the royal
misappropriation of some moneys raised for this purpose Douglas
was for a short time in rebellion in 1363. In 1364^0 joined David
II. in seeking a treaty with England which should deprive Robert
the Steward, formerly an ally of Douglas, of the succession by
putting an English prince on the Scottish throne. The in-
dependence of Scotland was to be guaranteed, and a special
clause provided for the restoration of the English estates of the
Douglas family. On the accession of Robert II. he was neverthe-
less reconciled, becoming justiciar of southern Scotland, and the
last years of his life were spent in making and repelling border
raids. He died at Douglas in May 1384, and was succeeded by
his son James. By his wife's sister-in-law, Margaret Stewart,
countess of Angus in her own right, and widow of the i3th earl of
Mar, he had a son George, afterwards ist earl of Angus.

JAMES, 2ND EARL or DOUGLAS AND MAR(C. 1358-1388), married
Lady Isabel Stewart, daughter of Robert II. In 1385 he made
war on the English with the assistance of a French contingent
under John de Vienne. He allowed the English to advance to
Edinburgh, wisely refusing battle, and contented himself with a
destructive counter-raid on Carlisle. Disputes soon arose between
the allies, and the French returned home at the end of the year.
In 1388 Douglas captured Hotspur Percy's pennon in a skirmish
near Newcastle. Percy sought revenge in the battle of Otterburn
(August 1388), which ended in a victory for the Scots and the
capture of Hotspur and his brother, though Douglas fell in the
light. The struggle, narrated by Froissart, is celebrated in the
English and Scottish ballads called " Chevy Chase " and " The
Battle of Otterburn." Sir Philip Sidney " never heard the olde
song of Percy and Douglas that I found not my heart mooved
more than with a trumpet " (Apologie for Poelrie). The 2nd earl
left no legitimate male issue. His natural sons William and
Archibald became the ancestors of the families of Douglas 01

1 A descendant of a younger son of the original William de Douglas.

" On the murder of the knight of Liddesdale, his lands, with the
exception of Liddesdale and the .Hermitage forfeited to the crown
and then secured by his nephew, fell to his nephew, Sir James
Douglas of Dalkeith and Aberdpur (d. 1420), whose great-grandson
James Douglas, 3rd Lord Dalkeith (d. 1504), became earl of Morton
in 1458 on his marriage with Lady Joan Stewart, third daughter of
James I. His grandson, the 3rd earl, left daughters only, of whom
the eldest, Margaret, married James Hamilton, earl of Arran, regent
of Scotland, ancestor of the dukes of Hamilton; Elizabeth married
in 1543 James Douglas, who became by this marriage 4th earl of
Morton.

Drumlanrig (see QUEENSBERRY) and Douglas of Cavers. His
sister Isabel became countess of Mar, inheriting the lands of Mar
and his unentailed estates.

The earldom and entailed estates of Douglas reverted by the
patent of 1358 to ARCHIBALD DOUGLAS, 3RD EARL OF DOUGLAS,
called " The Grim " (c. 1328-6. 1400), a natural son of the " good"
Sir James. With his cousin, the ist earl of Douglas, he had
fought at Poitiers, where he was taken prisoner, but was released
through ignorance of his real rank. On his return to Scotland he
became constable and sheriff of Edinburgh, and, later, warden of
the western marches, where his position was strengthened by his
becoming lord of Galloway in 1369 and by his purchase of the
earldom of Wigtown in 1 3 7 2 . He further increased his estates by
his marriage with Joanna Moray, heiress of Bothwell. During the
intervals of war with the English he imposed feudal law on the
border chieftains, drawing up a special cede for the marches. He
was twice sent on missions to the French court. The power of the
Black Douglas overshadowed the crown under the weak rule' of
Robert III., and in 1399 he arranged a marriage between David,
duke of Rothesay, the king's son and heir, and his own daughter,
Marjory Douglas. Rothesay was already contracted to marry
Elizabeth Dunbar, daughter of the earl of March, who had paid a
large sum for the honour. March, alienated from his allegiance by
this breach of faith on the king's part, now joined the English
forces. A natural son of Archibald, Sir William of Douglas, lord
of Nithisdale (d. 1392), married Egidia, daughter of Robert III.

Archibald the Grim was succeeded by his eldest son,ARCHiBALD,
4TH EARL OF DOUGLAS, ist duke of Touraine, lord of Galloway
and Annandale (1372-1424), who married in 1390 Lady Margaret
Stewart, eldest daughter of John, earl of Carrick, afterwards King
Robert III. In 1400 March and Hotspur Percy had laid waste
eastern Scotland as far as Lothian when they were defeated by
Douglas (then master of Douglas) near Preston. With the regent,
Robert, duke of Albany, he was suspected of complicity in the
murder (March 1402) of David, d"uke of Rothesay, who was in
their custody at Falkland Castle, but both were officially declared
guiltless by the parliament. In that year Douglas raided England
and was taken prisoner at Homildon Hill by the Percys. He
fought on the side of his captors at Shrewsbury (1403), and was
taken prisoner by the English king Henry IV. He became
reconciled during his captivity with the earl of March,whose lands
had been conferred on Douglas, but were now, with the exception
of Annandale, restored. He returned to Scotland in 1409, but
was in constant communication with the English court for the
release of the captive king James I. In 141 2 he had visited Paris,
when he entered into a personal alliance with John the Fearless,
duke of Burgundy, and in 1423 he commanded a contingent of
10,000 Scots sent to the help of Charles VII. against the English.
He was made lieutenant-general in the French army, and received
the peerage-duchy of Touraine with remainder to his heirs-male.
The new duke was defeated and slain at Verneuil (1424) with his
second son, James; his persistent ill-luck earned him the title
of the Tyneman (the loser).

ARCHIBALD, STH EARL OF DOUGLAS (c. 1391-1439), succeeded
to his father's English and Scottish honours, though he never
touched the revenues of Touraine. He fought at Bauge in 1421,
and was made count of Longueville in Normandy.

His two sons, WILLIAM, 6xn EARL (1423 ?-i44o), and David,
were little more than boys at the time of their father's death in
1439. " They can hardly have been guilty of any real offence when,
on the 24th of November 1440, they were summoned to court by
Sir William Crichton, lord chancellor of Scotland, and, after a
mock trial in the young king's presence, were beheaded forthwith
in the courtyard of Edinburgh Castle. This murder broke up the
dangerous power wielded by the Douglases. The lordships of
Annandale and Bothwell fell to the crown; Galloway to the earl's
sister Margaret, the "Fair Maid of Galloway"; while the
Douglas lands passed to his great-uncle JAMES DOUGLAS, 7TH
EARL OF DOUGLAS, called the " Gross,"of Balvany (1371-1444),
lord of Abercorn and Aberdour, earl of Avondale (cr. 1437),
younger son of the 3rd earl.

The latter's sons, WILLIAM (c. 1425-1452) and JAMES (1426-

DOUGLAS, SIR C.— DOUGLAS, GAVIN

444

1488), became 8th and gth earls respectively; Archibald became
earl of Moray by marriage with Elizabeth Dunbar, daughter and
co-heiress of James, earl of Moray; Hugh was created earl of
Ormond in 1445; John was lord of Balvany; Henry became
bishop of Dunkeld.

The power of the Black Douglases was restored by the 8th earl,
who recovered Wigtown, Galloway and Bothwell by marriage (by
papal dispensation) with his cousin, the Fair Maid of Galloway.
He was soon high in favour with James II., and procured the
disgrace of Crichton, his kinsmen's murderer, by an alliance with
his rival, Sir Alexander Livingstone. In 1450 James raided the
earl's lands during his absence on a pilgrimage to Rome; but
their relations seemed outwardly friendly until in 1452 the king
invited Douglas to Stirling Castle under a safe-conduct, in itself,
however, a proof of strained relations. There James demanded
the dissolution of a league into which Douglas had entered with
Alexander Lindsay, the " Tiger " earl (4th) of Crawford. On
Douglas's refusal the king murdered him (February 22) with his
own hands, the courtiers helping to despatch him. The tales of
the hanging of Sir Herbert Herries of Terregles and the murder
of McLellan of Bombie by Douglas rest on no sure evidence.

JAMES DOUGLAS, QTH EARL (and last), denounced his brother's
murderers and took up arms, but was obliged by the desertion of
his allies to submit. He obtained a papal dispensation to marry
his brother's widow, in order to keep the family estates together.
He intrigued with the English court, and in 1455 rebelled once
more. Meanwhile another branch of the Douglas family, known
as the Red Douglas, had risen into importance (see ANGUS, EARLS
OF), and George Douglas, 4th earl of Angus (d. 1463), great-
grandson of the ist earl of Douglas, took sides with the king
against his kinsmen. James Douglas, again deserted by his chief
allies, fled to England, and his three brothers, Ormond, Moray
and Balvany, were defeated by Angus at Arkinholm on the Esk.
Moray was killed, Ormond taken prisoner and executed, while
Balvany escaped to England. Their last stronghold, the Thrieve
in Galloway, fell, and the lands of the Douglases were declared
forfeit, and were divided among their rivals, the lordship of
Douglas falling to the Red Douglas, 4th earl of Angus. In
England the earl of Douglas intrigued against his native land; he
was employed by Edward IV. in 1461 to negotiate a league with
the western highlanders against the Scottish kingdom. In 1484
he was taken prisoner while raiding southern Scotland, and was
relegated to the abbey of Lindores, where he died in 1488.

The title of Douglas was restored in 1633 when WILLIAM, nth
earl of Angus (1580-1660), was created IST MARQUESS OF
DOUGLAS by Charles I. In 1645 he joined Montrose at Philip-
haugh, and was imprisoned in 1646 at Edinburgh Castle, only
obtaining his release by signing the Covenant. His eldest son,
Archibald, created earl of Ormond, Lord Bothwell and Hartside,
in 1651, predeceased his father; Lord James Douglas (c. 1617-
1645) and his half-brother, Lord George Douglas (c. 1636-1692),
created earl of Dumbarton in 1675, successively commanded
a Scots regiment1 in the French service. William (1635-1694),
created earl of Selkirk in 1646, became 3rd duke of Hamilton after
his marriage (1656) with Anne, duchess of Hamilton in her own
right. By the failure of heirs in the elder branches of the family
the dukes of Hamilton (q.v.) became heirs-male of the house of
Douglas.

JAMES DOUGLAS, 2ND MARQUESS OF DOUGLAS (1646-1700),
succeeded his grandfather in 1660. His eldest son, John, by
courtesy earl of Angus, raised a regiment of 1 200 men, first known
as the Angus regiment, later as the Cameronians (26th Foot).
He was killed at its head at Steinkirk in 1692. The younger son,
ARCHIBALD, 3RD MARQUESS (1694-1761), was created duke of
Douglas in 1703, but the dukedom became extinct on hi? death,
without heirs, in 1761. He was a consistent supporter of the
Hanoverian cause, and fought at Sheriffmuir. The heir-pre-
sumptive to the Douglas estates was his sister, Lady Jane Douglas
(1698-1753), who in 1746 secretly married Colonel, afterwards
Sir, John Steuart of GrandtuUy, by whom she had twin sons, born

1 Transferred to the British service in 1669 and eventually known
as the Royal Scots regiment.

in Paris in 1 748. These children were alleged to be spurious, and
when Lady Jane and the younger of the two boys died in 1753,
the duke refused to acknowledge the survivor as his nephew;
but in 1760 he was induced, under the influence of his wife, to
revoke a will devising the estates to the Hamiltons in favour of
Lady Jane's son, Archibald James Edward Steuart (1748-1827),
ist baron Douglas of Douglas (cr. 1790) in the British peerage.
The inheritance of the estates was disputed by the Hamiltons,
representing the male line, but the House of Lords decided in
favour of Douglas in 1 769. Three of his sons succeeded Archibald
Douglas as Baron Douglas, but as they left no male issue the title
passed to the earls of Home, Cospatrick Alexander, nth earl of
Home, having married a granddaughter of Archibald, ist Baron
Douglas. Their descendants, the earls of Home, represent the
main line of Douglas on the female side.

AUTHORITIES. — David Hume of Godscroft (i56o?-i63o), who was
secretary to Archibald Douglas, 8th earl of Angus, wrote a History
of the House and Race of Douglas and Angus, printed under his
daughter's superintendence (Edinburgh, 1644). He was a partial
historian, and his account can only be accepted with caution.
Modern authorities are Sir William Fraser, The Douglas Book (4 vols.,
Edinburgh, 1885), and Sir H. Maxwell, History of the House of
Douglas (2 vols., 1902). See also G. E. C.[okayne]'s Peerage, and
Douglas's Scots Peerage; Calendar of State Papers, Scottish Series,
The Hamilton Papers, &c.

DOUGLAS, SIR CHARLES, Bart. (d. 1789), British admiral,
a descendant of the Scottish earls of Morton, was promoted
lieutenant in the navy on the 4th of December 1753. Nothing is
known of his early life. He became commander on the 24th of
February 1759, and attained to post rank in 1761. When the War
of American Independence began, he took an active part in the
defence of Canada in 1775, and he afterwards commanded the
" Stirling Castle " 64 in the battle of the Ushant, 27th of July
1778. His reputation is based first on the part he played in the
battle of Dominica, i2th of April 1782, and then on the improve-
ments in gunnery which he introduced into the British navy.
It appears from the testimony of Sir F. Thesiger (d. 1805), who
was present on the quarter-deck of the flagship, that Sir Charles
Douglas, who was then captain of the fleet, first pointed out to
Rodney the possibility and the advantage of passing through
the French line. His advice was taken with reluctance. On the
other hand, Lord Hood accuses Douglas of living in such abject
fear of his admiral that he did not venture to speak with the
freedom which his important post entitled him to take. His more
certain claim to be ranked high among naval officers is founded
on the many improvements he introduced into naval gunnery.
Some account of these will be found in the writings of his son.
He became rear-admiral on the 24th of September 1787, and died
suddenly of apoplexy in February 1 789. He was made a baronet
for his services in the West Indies.

There is a life of Sir Charles Douglas in Charnock, Biogr. Nav.
vi. 427.

DOUGLAS, GAVIN (i474?-i522), Scottish poet and bishop,
third son of Archibald, 5th earl of Angus (called the " great earl of
Angus " and " Bell-the-Cat "), was born c. 1474, probably at one
of his father's seats. He was a student at St Andrews, 1489-1494,
and thereafter, it is supposed, at Paris. In 1496 he obtained the
living of Monymusk, Aberdeenshire, and later he became parson
of Lynton (mod. Linton) and rector of Hauch (mod. Prestonkirk),
in East Lothian; and about 1501 was preferred to the deanery or
provostship of the collegiate church of St Giles, Edinburgh, which
he held with his parochial charges. From this date till the battle
of Flodden, in September 1513, he appears to have been occupied
with his ecclesiastical duties and literary work. Indeed all the
extant writings by which he has earned his place as a poet and
translator belong to this period. After the disaster at Flodden he
was completely absorbed in public business. Three weeks after
the battle he, still provost of St Giles, was admitted a burgess of
Edinburgh, his father, the " Great Earl," being then civil provost
of the capital. The latter dying soon afterwards (January 1514)
in Wigtownshire, where he had gone as justiciar, and his son
having been killed at Flodden, the succession fell to Gavin's
nephew Archibald (6th earl). The marriage of this youth to
James IV.'s widow on the 6th of August 1514 did much to

DOUGLAS, GAVIN

445

identify the Douglases with the English party in Scotland, as
against the French party led by Albany, and incidentally to
determine the political career of bis uncle Gavin. During thefirst
weeks of the queen's sorrow after the battle, Gavin, with one or
two colleagues of the council, acted as personal adviser, and it
may be taken for granted that he supported the pretensions
of the young earl. His own hopes of preferment had been
strengthened by the death of many of the higher clergy at
Flodden. The first outcome of the new connexion was his
appointment to the abbacy of Aberbrothock by the queen regent,
before her marriage, probably in June 1514. Soon after the
marriage she nominated him archbishop of St Andrews, in
succession to Elphinstone, archbishop-designate. But Hepburn,
prior of St Andrews, having obtained the vote of the chapter,
expelled him, and was himself in turn expelled by Forman,
bishop of Moray, who had been nominated by the pope. In the
interval, Douglas's rights in Aberbrothock had been transferred
to James Beaton, archbishop of Glasgow, and he was now without
title or temporality. The breach between the queen's party and
Albany's had widened, and the queen's advisers had begun an
intrigue with England, to the end that the royal widow and
her young son should be removed to Henry's court. In those
deliberations Gavin Douglas took an active part, and for this
reason stimulated the opposition which successfully thwarted his
preferment.

In January 1515 on the death of George Brown, bishop of
Dunkeld, Douglas's hopes revived. The queen nominated him
to the see, which he ultimately obtained, though not without
trouble. For the earl of Athole had forced his brother. Andrew
Stewart, prebendary of Craig, upon the chapter, and had put him
in possession of the bishop's palace. The queen appealed to the
pope and was seconded by her brother of England, with the result
that the pope's sanction was obtained on the i8th of February
1515. Some of the correspondence of Douglas and his friends
incident to this transaction was intercepted. When Albany came
from France and assumed the regency, these documents and the
" purchase " of the bishopric from Rome contrary to statute were
made the basis of an attack on Douglas, who was imprisoned in
Edinburgh Castle, thereafter in the castle of St Andrews (under
the charge of his old opponent, Archbishop Hepburn), and later
in the castle of Dunbar, and again in Edinburgh. The pope's
intervention procured his release, after nearly a year's imprison-
ment. The queen meanwhile had retired to England. After
July 1516 Douglas appears to have been in possession of his see,
and to have patched up a diplomatic peace with Albany.

On the 1 7 th of May 1 5 1 7 the bishop of Dunkeld proceeded with
Albany to France to conduct the negotiations which ended in
the treaty of Rouen. He was back in Scotland towards the end
of June. Albany's longer absence in France permitted the party-
faction of the nobles to come to a head in a plot by the earl of
Arran to seize the earl of Angus, the queen's husband. The issue
of this plot was the well-known fight of "Clear-the-Causeway,"
in which Gavin Douglas's part stands out in picturesque relief.
The triumph over the Hamiltons had an unsettling effect upon the
earl of Angus. He made free of the queen's rents and abducted
Lord Traquair's daughter. The queen set about to obtain a
divorce, and used her influence for the return of Albany as a
means of undoing her husband's power. Albany's arrival in
November 1521, with a large body of French men-at-arms,
compelled Angus, with the bishop and others, to flee to the
Borders. From this retreat Gavin Douglas was sent by the earl
to the English court, to ask for aid against the French party and
against the queen, who was reported to be the mistress of the
regent. Meanwhile he was deprived of his bishopric, and forced,
for safety, to remain in England, where he effected nothing in the
interests of his nephew. The declaration ol war by England
against Scotland, in answer to the recent Franco-Scottish negotia-
tions, prevented his return. His case was further complicated by
the libellous animosity of Beaton, archbishop of St Andrews
(whose' life he had saved in the " Clear-the-Causeway " incident),
who was anxious to thwart his election to the archbishopric of St
Andrews, now vacant by the death of Forman. In 1522 Douglas

was stricken by the plague which raged in London, and died at
the house of his friend Lord Dacre. During the closing years
of exile he was on intimate terms with the historian Polydore
Vergil, and one of his last acts was to arrange to give Polydore a
corrected version of Major's account of Scottish affairs. Douglas
was buried in the church of the Savoy, where a monumental brass
(removed from its proper site after the fire in 1864) still records his
death and interment.

Douglas's literary work, now his chief claim to be remembered,
belongs, as has been stated, to the period 1501-1513, when he was
provost of St Giles. He left four poems.

1. The Police of Honour, his earliest work, is a piece of the
later type of dream-allegory, extending to over 2000 lines in nine-
lined stanzas. In its descriptions of the various courts on their
way to the palace, and of the poet's adventures — first, when he
incautiously slanders the court of Venus, and later when after his
pardon he joins in the procession and passes to see the glories of
the palace — the poem carries on the literary traditions of the
courts of love, as shown especially in the " Romaunt of the Rose"
and " The Hous of Fame." The poem is dedicated to James IV.,
not without some lesson in commendation of virtue and honour.
No MS. of the poem is extant. The earliest known edition
(c- X553) was printed at London by William Copland; an Edin-
burgh edition, from the press of Henry Charteris, followed in
1579. From certain indications in the latter and the evidence
of some odd leaves discovered by David Laing, it has been con-
cluded that there was an earlier Edinburgh edition, which has
been ascribed to Thomas Davidson, printer, and dated c. 1540.

2. King Hart is another example of the later allegory, and, as
such, of higher literary merit. Its subject is human life told in
the allegory of King Heart in his castle, surrounded by his five
servitors (the senses), Queen Plesance, Foresight and other
courtiers. The poem runs to over 900 lines and is written in
eight-lined stanzas. The text is preserved in the Maitland folio
MS. in the Pepysian library, Cambridge. It is not known to
have been printed before 1 786, when it appeared in Pinkerton's
Ancient Scottish Poems.

3. Conscience is in four seven-lined stanzas. Its subject is the
''conceit" that men first clipped away the ''con" from "con-
science" and left "science" and "na mair." Then they lost
" sci," and had nothing but " ens " (" that schrew, Riches and
geir").

4. Douglas's longest, last, and in some respects most im-
portant work is his translation of the Aeneid, the first version
of a great classic poet in any English dialect. The work includes
the thirteenth book by Mapheus Vegius; and each of the
thirteen books is introduced by a prologue. The subjects and
styles of these prologues show great variety: some appear to be
literary exercises with little or no connexion with the books which
they introduce, and were perhaps written earlier and for other
purposes. In the first, or general, prologue, Douglas claims a
higher position for Virgil than for his master Chaucer, and attacks
Caxton for his inadequate rendering of a French translation of the
Aeneid. That Douglas undertook this work and that he makes a
plea for more accurate scholarship in the translation have been
the basis of a prevalent notion that he is a Humanist in spirit and
the first exponent of Renaissance doctrine in Scottish literature.
Careful study of the text will not support this view. Douglas
is in all important respects even more of a medievalist than
his contemporaries; and, like Henryson and Dunbar, strictly
a member of the allegorical school and a follower, in the most
generous way, of Chaucer's art. There are several early MSS.
of the Aeneid extant: (a) in the library of Trinity College,
Cambridge, c. 1525, (6) the Elphynstoun MS. in the library of the
university of Edinburgh, c. 1525, (c) the Ruthven MS. in the
same collection, c. 1535, (d) in the library of Lambeth Palace,
1 545-1 546. The first printed edition appeared in London in 1 5 53.
An Edinburgh edition was issued from the press of Thomas
Ruddimanin 1710.

For Douglas's career see, in addition to the public records and
general histories, Bishop Sage's Life in Ruddiman s edition, and tl at
By John Small in the first volume of his edition of the Works of Gavin

446

DOUGLAS, SIR H.— DOUGLAS, STEPHEN

Douglas (4 vols., 1874, the only collected edition of Douglas's works)
A new edition of the texts is much to be desired. On Douglas'
place in Scottish literature see SCOTLAND: Scottish Literature, alsc
G. Gregory Smith's Transition Period (1900) and chapters in th
Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. ii. (1908). P. Lange'
dissertation Chaucer s Einfluss auf die Originaldichtungen des Schotten
Gavin Douglas (Halle, 1882) draws attention to Douglas's indebted
ness to Chaucer. Further discussion of the question of Douglas'
alleged Humanism will be found in Courthope's History of English
Poetry, i. (1895), T. F. Henderson's Scottish Vernacular Literature
(1898), and J.H. Mi\lar's Literary History of Scotland (1903). Forthe
language of the poems see G. Gregory Smith's Specimens of Middle
Scots (1902). (G. G. S.)

DOUGLAS, SIR HOWARD, Bart. (1776-1861), British general
younger son of Admiral Sir Charles Douglas, was born at Gosport
in 1776, and entered the Royal Military Academy in 1790. He
was commissioned second lieutenant in the Royal Artillery in
1794, becoming first lieutenant a few months later. In 1795 he
was shipwrecked while in charge of a draft for Canada, and lived
with his men for a whole winter on the Labrador coast. Soon
after his return to England in 1799 he was made a captain-
lieutenant, and in the same year he married. In his regimental
service during the next few years, he was attached to all branches
of the artillery in succession, becoming captain in 1804, after which
he was placed on half-pay to serve at the Royal Military College.
Douglas was at this time (1804) appointed to a majority in the
York Rangers, a corps immediately afterwards reduced, and he
remained on the roll of its officers until promoted major-general.
The senior department of the R.M.C. at High Wycombe, of which
he was in charge, was the forerunner of the Staff College. Douglas,
since 1806 a brevet lieutenant-colonel, served in 1808-1809 in the
Peninsula and was present at Corunna, after which he took part
in the Walcheren expedition. In 1809 he succeeded to the
baronetcy on the death of his half-brother, Vice-admiral Sir
William Henry Douglas. In 1812 he was employed in special
missions in the north of Spain, and took part in numerous minor
operations in this region, but he was soon recalled, the home
government deeming his services indispensable to the Royal
Military College. He became brevet colonel in 1814 and C.B.
in 1815. In 1816 appeared his Essay on the Principles and
Construction of Military Bridges (subsequent editions 1832, 1853) ;
in 1819, Observations on the Motives, Errors and Tendency of M.
Carnot's System of Defeme, and in the following year his Treatise
on Naval Gunnery (of which numerous editions and translations
appeared up to the general introduction of rifled ordnance). In
1821 he was promoted major-general. Douglas's criticisms of
Carnot led to an important experiment being carried out at
Woolwich in 1822, and his Naval Gunnery became a standard
text-book, and indeed first drew attention to the subject of which
it treated. From 1823 to 1831 Sir Howard Douglas was governor
of New Brunswick, and, while there, he had to deal with the
Maine boundary dispute of 1828. He also founded Fredericton
College, of which he was the first chancellor. On his return to
Europe he was employed in various missions, and he published
about this time Naval Evolutions, a controversial work dealing
with the question of " breaking the line " (London, 1832). From
1835 to 1840 Douglas, now a G.C.M.G., was lord high com-
missioner of the Ionian Islands, where, amongst other reforms, he
introduced a new code of laws. In 1837 he became a lieutenant-
general, in 1840 a K.C.B., in 1841 a civil G.C.B., and in 1851 a
general. From 1842 to 1847 Douglas sat in parliament, where he
took a prominent part in debates on military and naval matters
and on the corn laws. He was frequently consulted on important
military questions. His later works included Observations on the
Modern System of Fortification, &c. (London, 1859), and Naval
Warfare Under Steam (London, 1858 and 1860). He died on the
9th of November 1861 at Tunbridge Wells. Sir Howard Douglas
was a F.R.S., one of the founders of the R.G.S., and an honorary
D.C.L. of Oxford University. Shortly before his death he
declined the offer of a military G.C.B.

See S. W. Fullom, Life of Sir Howard Douglas (London, 1862), and
irentleman s Magazine, 3rd series, xii. 90-92.

DOUGLAS, JOHN (1721-1807), Scottish man of letters and
Anglican bishop, was the son of a small shopkeeper at Pittenweem,
Fife, where he was born on the i4th of July 1721. He was

educated at Dunbar and at Balliol College, Oxford, where he took
his M.A. degree in 1743, and as chaplain to the 3rd regiment
of foot guards he was at the battle of Fontenoy, 1745. He then
returned to Balliol as a Snell exhibitioner; became vicar of High
Ercall, Shropshire, in 1750; canon of Windsor, 1762; bishop of
Carlisle, 1787 (and also dean of Windsor, 1788); bishop of
Salisbury, 1791. Other honours were the degree of D.D., 1758
and those of F.R.S. and F.S.A. in 1778. Douglas was not con-
spicuous as an ecclesiastical administrator, preferring to his livings
the delights of London in winter and the fashionable watering-
places in summer. Under the patronage of the earl of Bath he
entered into a good many literary controversies, vindicating
Milton from W. Lauder's charge of plagiarism (1750), attacking
David Hume's rationalism in his Criterion of Miracles (1752), and
the Hutchinsonians in his Apology for the Clergy (1755). He also
edited Captain Cook's Journals, and Clarendon's Diary and
Letters ( 1 7 63) . He died on the 1 8th of May 1 807 , and a volume of
Miscellaneous Works, prefaced by a short biography, was published
in 1820.

DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD (1813-186!), American
statesman, was born at Brandon, Vermont, on the 23rd of April
1813. His father, a physician, died in July 1 8 1 3 , and the boy was
under the care of a bachelor uncle until he was fourteen, when his
uncle married and Douglas was thrown upon his own resources.
He was apprenticed to a cabinetmaker in Middlebury, Vt., and
then to another in Brandon, but soon abandoned this trade.' He
attended schools at Brandon and Canandaigua (N. Y.), and began
the study of law. In 1833 he went West, and finally settled in
Jacksonville, Illinois, where he was admitted to the bar in March
1834, and obtained a large practice. From the first he took an
active interest in politics, identifying himself with the Jackson
Democrats, and his rise was remarkably rapid even for the Middle
West of that period. In February 1835 he was elected public
arosecutor of the first judicial circuit, the most important at that
time in Illinois; in 1835 he was one of several Democrats in
Morgan county to favour a state Democratic convention to elect
delegates to the national convention of 1836 — an important move
toward party regularity; in December 1836 he became a member
of the state legislature. In 1837 he was appointed by President
Van Buren registrar of the land office at Springfield, which had
ust become the state capital. In 1840 he did much to carry the
state for Van Buren; and for a few months he was secretary of
state of Illinois. He was a judge of the supreme court of Illinois
rom 1841 to 1843. In 1843 he was elected to the national House
)f Representatives.

In Congress, though one of the youngest members, he at once
prang into prominence by his clever defence of Jackson during
he consideration by the House of a bill remitting the fine
mposed on Jackson for contempt of court in New Orleans. He
was soon recognized as one of the ablest and most energetic of the
Democratic leaders. An enthusiastic believer in the destiny
>f his country and more especially of the West, and a thorough-
going expansionist, he heartily favoured in Congress the measures
which resulted in the annexation of Texas and in the Mexican
War — in the discussion of the annexation of Texas he suggested
as early as 1845 that the states to be admitted should come
n slave or free, as their people should vote when they applied
o Congress for admission, thus foreshadowing his doctrine of
' Popular Sovereignty." He took an active share in the Oregon
ontroversy, asserting his unalterable determination, in spite
f President Folk's faltering from the declaration of his party's
platform, not to " yield up one inch " of the territory to Great
Jritain, and advocating its occupation by a military force;
ndeed he consistently regarded Great Britain as the natural and
oremost rival of the United States, the interests of the two
lations, he thought, being always opposed, and few senators
ought more vigorously the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty or Great
Britain's reassertion of the right of search on the high seas. He
rdently supported the policy of making Federal appropriations
of land, but not of money) for internal improvements of a
ational character, being a prominent advocate of the con-
truction, by government aid, of a trans-continental railway,

DOUGLAS

447

and the chief promoter (1850) of the Illinois Central; in 1854 he
suggested that Congress should impose tonnage duties from which
towns and cities might themselves pay for harbour improvement,
&c. To him as chairman of the committee on territories, at first
in the House, and then in the Senate, of which he became a
member in December 1847, it fell to introduce the bills for
admitting Texas, Florida, Iowa, Wisconsin, Minnesota, California
and Oregon into the Union, and for organizing the territories of
Minnesota, Oregon, New Mexico, Utah, Washington, Kansas and
Nebraska. In 1848 he introduced a bill proposing that all the
territory acquired from Mexico should be admitted into the
Union as a single state, and upon the defeat of this bill proposed
others providing for the immediate admission of parts of this
territory.

In the bitter debates concerning the keenly disputed question
of the permission of slavery in the territories, Douglas was
particularly prominent. Against slavery itself he seems never to
have had any moral antipathy; he married (1847) the daughter1
of a slaveholder, Colonel Robert Martin of North Carolina, and a
cousin of Douglas's colleague in Congress, D. S. Reid; and his
wife and children were by inheritance the owners of slaves, though
he himself never was. He did more probably than any other
one man, except Henry Clay, to secure the adoption of the
Compromise Measures of 1850. In 1849 the Illinois legislature
demanded that its representatives and senators should vote for
the prohibition of slavery in the Mexican cession, but next year
this sentiment in Illinois had grown much weaker, and, both
there and in Congress, Douglas's name was soon to become
identified with the so-called " popular sovereignty " or " squatter
sovereignty " theory, previously enunciated by Lewis Cass, by
which each territory was to be left to decide for itself whether it
should or should not have slavery. In 1850 his power of specious
argument won back to him his Chicago constituents who had
violently attacked him for not opposing the Fugitive Slave Law.

The bill for organizing the territories of Kansas and Nebraska,
which Douglas reported in January 1854 and which in amended
form was signed by the president on the 3oth of May, reopened
the whole slavery dispute — wantonly, his enemies charged, for the
purpose of securing Southern support, — and caused great popular
excitement, as it repealed the Missouri Compromise, and declared
the people of " any state or territory " " free to form and regulate
their domestic institutions in their own way, subject only to the
Constitution of the United States." The passage of this Kansas-
Nebraska Bill, one of the most momentous in its consequences
ever passed by the Federal Congress, was largely a personal
triumph for Douglas, who showed marvellous energy, adroitness
and resourcefulness, and a genius for leadership. There was great
indignation throughout the free states; and even in Chicago
Douglas was unable to win for himself a hearing before a public
meeting. In 1852, and again in 1856, he was a candidate for the
presidential nomination in the national Democratic convention,
and though on both occasions he was unsuccessful, he received
strong support. In 1857 he broke with President Buchanan and
the " administration " Democrats and lost much of his prestige in
the South, but partially restored himself to favour in the North,
and especially in Illinois, by his vigorous opposition to the method
of voting on the Lecompton constitution, which he maintained
to be fraudulent, and (in 1858) to the admission of Kansas into
the Union under this constitution. In 1858, when the Supreme
Court, after the vote of Kansas against the Lecompton con-
stitution, had decided that Kansas was a " slave " territory, thus
quashing Douglas's theory of " popular sovereignty," he engaged
in Illinois in a close and very exciting contest for the senatorship
with Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candidate, whom he met
in a series of debates (at Ottawa, Freeport, Jonesboro, Charleston,
Galesburg, Quincy and Alton), in one of which, that at Freeport,
Douglas was led to declare that any territory, by " unfriendly

1 Her death in 1853 was a great blow to him and embittered him.
In November 1856 he married Adele Cutts, a Maryland belle, a grand-
niece of Dolly Madison, and a Roman Catholic, who became the
leader of Washington society, especially in the winter of 1857-1858,
when Douglas was in revolt against Buchanan.

legislation," could exclude slavery, no matter what the action of
the Supreme Court. This, the famous " Freeport Doctrine," lost
to Douglas the support of a large element of his party in the South,
and in Illinois his followers did not poll so large a vote as Lincoln's.
Douglas, however, won the senatorship by a vote in the legisla-
ture of 54 to 46. In the Senate he was not reappointed chairman
of the committee on territories. In 1860 in the Democratic
national convention in Charleston the adoption of Douglas's
platform brought about the withdrawal from the convention of
Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, South Carolina, Florida, Texas
and Arkansas. The convention adjourned to Baltimore, where
the Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky and Maryland
delegations left it, and where Douglas was nominated for the
presidency by the Northern Democrats; he campaigned
vigorously but hopelessly, boldly attacking disunion, and in the
election, though he received a popular vote of 1,376,957, he
received an electoral vote of only 12 — Lincoln receiving 180.
Douglas urged the South to acquiesce in Lincoln's election.
On the outbreak of the Civil War, he denounced secession as
criminal, and was one of the strongest advocates of maintaining
the integrity of the Union at all hazards. At Lincoln's request he
undertook a mission to the border states and the North-west to
rouse the spirit of Unionism; he spoke in West Virginia. Ohio
and Illinois. He died on the 3rd of June 1861 at Chicago, where
he was buried on the shore of Lake Michigan; the site was
afterwards bought by the state, and an imposing monument
with a statue by Leonard Volk now stands over his grave.

In person Douglas was conspicuously small, being hardly five
feet in height, but his large head and massive chest and shoulders
gave him the popular sobriquet " The Little Giant." His voice
was strong and carried far, he had little grace of delivery, and his
gestures were often violent. As a resourceful political leader, and
an adroit, ready, skilful tactician in debate, he has had few equals
in American history.

See Allen Johnson's Stephen A. Douglas: A Study in American
Politics (New York, 1908), W. G. Brown's Stephen Arnold Douglas
(Boston, 1902), and an excellent review of his later life in James Ford
Rhodes's History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850
(New York, 1893-1906); also P. O. Ray, Repeal of the Missouri
Compromise (Cleveland, Ohio, 1909), and E. C. Carr, Stephen A.
Douglas (Chicago, 1909).

DOUGLAS, the capital of the Isle of Man, a municipal borough
and a favourite watering-place. Pop. (1901) 19,223. It stands
on a fine semicircular bay on the east coast of the island, at the
common mouth of two streams, the Awin-Dhoo and Awin-Glass,
62 m. W.N.W. of Fleetwood and 80 m. N.W. of Liverpool. The
older streets are irregular and narrow, but the town has greatly
extended in modern times, with numerous terraces of good
dwelling-houses. A fine parade sweeps round the bay, which,
from Derby Castle on the north to Douglas Head on the south,
has a circuit exceeding 2 m. Low hills, penetrated by the
valleys of the Dhoo and Glass, encircle the town on the north,
west and south, the southern spur projecting seaward in the
promontory of Douglas Head. The harbour, in the river mouth,
lies immediately north of this; vessels drawing 9 ft. may enter it
during neap tides, and those drawing 13 ft. during spring tides.
A castellated building, called the Tower of Refuge, erected in
1832, marks the dangerous Conister rocks, north of the harbour
entrance. The Battery pier protects the entrance on the south-
west, and there is a short pier (the Red pier) within the harbour,
while the Victoria pier on the north, at which passengers can land
and embark at all heights of the tide, was erected in 1872. There
is regular daily communication with Liverpool by the steamers of
the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company, and during the season
there are connexions with Fleetwood, Barrow, Dublin, Belfast
and Glasgow. Douglas is connected by electric tramway north-
ward with Laxey, the summit of the mountain of Snaefell and
Ramsey, and southward with Port Soderick, while the Isle of
Man railway runs to Peel in the west, and Castietown and Port
Erin in the south-west. The town has services of cable and
horse trams. The various popular attractions of Douglas
include theatres, dancing halls, a race-course and two golf links
Howstrake and Quarter Bridge. The shore of the bay is of firm

DOUGLAS— DOUKHOBORS

sand (covered at high tide) , and the sea-bathing is good. Among
buildings and institutions in Douglas may be mentioned the
legislative buildings (1893), the town hall (1899), the large free
library, the court house and the Isle of Man hospital. Castle
Mona, erected in 1804 by John, 4th duke of Arrol and lord of
Man, is transformed into an hotel. St George's church, the oldest
remaining in Douglas, dates from 1 780. Douglas was incorporated
in 1895, and is governed by a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen
councillors.

DOUGLAS, a village of Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901)
1206. It is situated on Douglas water, 3 m. from Douglas station
on the branch line from Carstairs to Ayr, 1 1 m. by road S.S.W. of
Lanark. It is a place of ancient aspect, bearing evident signs of
decay, but possesses peculiar interest as the original home of the
great Douglas family. Of the old castle, Scott's Castle Dangerous,
only a tower exists. The stronghold repeatedly changed hands
during the wars waged against Edward I. for the independence
of Scotland. The modern castle is the seat of the earl of Home.
Only the choir and spire remain of the 12th-century church of
St Bride, the patron saint of the Douglases. The vault beneath
the choir was, until 1761, the burial-place of the family, and it
contains a silver case said to hold the ashes of the heart of the
"good Sir James" (1286-1330). Ini879thechoirwasrestoredand
the tombs (including that of Sir James Douglas) repaired. David
Hackston of Rathillet, the Covenanter, is stated to have been
captured in the village (in a house still standing) after the battle
of Aird's Moss in 1680. On the hill of Auchensaugh (1286 ft.),
2§ m. S.E., the Cameronians assembled in 1712 to renew the
Solemn League and Covenant. This gathering, the "Auchensaugh
Wark," as it was called, led up to the secession of the Reformed
Presbyterians from the Kirk.

DOUGLASS, FREDERICK (1817-1895), American orator and
journalist, was born in Tuckahoe, Talbot county, Maryland,
probably in February 1817. His mother was a negro slave of
exceptional intelligence, and his father was a white man. Until
nearly eight years of age, he was under the care of his grand-
mother; then he lived for a year on the plantation of Colonel
Edward Lloyd, of whose vast estate his master, Captain Aaron
Anthony, was manager. After a year he was sent to Baltimore,
where he lived in the family of Hugh Auld, whose brother,
Thomas, had married the daughter of Captain Anthony; Mrs
Auld treated him with marked kindness and without her husband's
knowledge began teaching him to read. With money secretly
earned by blacking boots he purchased his first book, the
Columbian Orator; he soon learned to write " free passes " for
runaway slaves. Upon the death of Captain Anthony in 1833,
he was sent back to the plantation to serve Thomas Auld,
who hired him out for a year to one Edward Covey, who had a
wide reputation for disciplining slaves, but who did not break
Frederick's spirit. Although a new master, William Freeland,
who owned a large plantation near St Michael's, Md., treated
him with much kindness, he attempted to escape in 1836, but
his plans were suspected, and he was put in jail. From lack of
evidence he was soon released, and was then sent to Hugh Auld
in Baltimore, where he was apprenticed as a ship caulker. He
learned his trade in one year, and in September 1838, masquerad-
ing as a sailor, he escaped by railway train from Baltimore to New
York city. For the sake of greater safety he soon removed to
New Bedford, Massachusetts, where he changed his name from
Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey to Frederick Douglass,
" Douglass " being adopted at the suggestion of a friend who
greatly admired Scott's Lady of the Lake. For three years he
worked as a day labourer in New Bedford. An extempore speech
made by him before an anti -slavery meeting at Nantucket, Mass.,
in August 1841 led to his being appointed one of the agents of
the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society, and in this capacity he
delivered during the next four years numerous addresses against
slavery, chiefly in the New England and middle states. To quiet
the suspicion that he was an impostor, in 1845 he published the
Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave.
Fearing his recapture, his friends persuaded him to go to England,
and from August 1845 to April 1847 he lectured in Ireland,

Scotland and England, and did much to enlist the sympathy
of the British public with the Abolitionists in America. Before
his return a sum of £150 was raised by subscription to secure
his legal manumission, thus relieving him from the fear of being
returned to slavery in pursuance of the Fugitive Slave Law.
From 1847 to 1860 he conducted an anti-slavery weekly journal,
known as The North Star, and later as Frederick Douglass's Paper,
at Rochester, New York, and, during this time, also was a
frequent speaker at anti-slavery meetings. At first a follower of
Garrison and a disunionist, he allied himself after 1851 with the
more conservative political abolitionists, who, under the leader-
ship of James G. Birney, adhered to the national Constitution
and endeavoured to make slavery a dominant political issue. He
disapproved of John Brown's attack upon Harper's Ferry in 1859,
and declined to take any part in it. During the Civil War he was
among the first to suggest the employment of negro troops by the
United States government, and two of his sons served in the Union
army. After the war he was for several years a popular public
lecturer; in September 1866 he was a delegate to the national
Loyalist convention at Philadelphia; and in 1869 he became the
editor, at Washington, of a short-lived weekly paper, The New
National Era, devoted to the interests of the negro race. In 187 1
he was assistant secretary of the Santo Domingo commission,
appointed by President Grant. He was marshal of the District
of Columbia from 1877 to 1881, was recorder of deeds for the
district from 1881 to 1886, and from 1889 to 1891 was the
American minister resident and consul-general in the Republic
of Haiti. He died in Anacostia Heights, District of Columbia,
on the 2oth of February 1895. He was widely known for his
eloquence, and was one of the most effective orators whom the
negro race has produced in America.

His autobiography appeared, after two revisions, as The Life and
Times of Frederick Douglass (London, 1882). See F. M. Holland,
Frederick Douglass, The Colored Orator (New York, 1891) ; C. W.
Chesnutt, Frederick Douglass, (Boston, 1899); and Booker T.
Washington, Frederick Douglass (Philadelphia, 1907), in the series
of American Crisis Biographies.

DOUKHOBORS, a name given by the Russian Orthodox clergy
to a community of nonconformist peasants. The word etymo-
logically signifies " spirit-fighters," being originally intended by
the priesthood to convey that they fight against the Spirit of
God; but the Doukhobors themselves accepted the term as
signifying that they fight, not against, but for and with the Spirit.
Of late, however, they have decided to give up this name and call
themselves " Christians of the Universal Brotherhood." This
religious community was first heard of in the middle of the i8th
century. By the end of that century or the beginning of the igth
their doctrine had become so clearly defined, and the number of
their members had so greatly increased, that the Russian govern-
ment and Church, considering this sect to be peculiarly obnoxious,
started an energetic campaign against it. The foundation of the
Doukhobors' teaching consists in the belief that the Spirit of God
is present in the soul of man, and directs him by its word within
him. They understand the coming of Christ in the flesh, his
works, teaching and sufferings, in a spiritual sense. The object of
the sufferings of Christ, in their view, was to give an example
of suffering for truth. Christ continues to suffer in us even now
when we do not live in accordance with the behests and spirit of
his teaching. The whole teaching of the Doukhobors is penetrated
with the Gospel spirit of love. Worshipping God in the spirit,
they affirm that the outward Church and all that is performed in
it and concerns it has no importance for them. The Church is
where two or three are gathered together, i.e. united in the name
of Christ. They pray inwardly at all times; on fixed days they
assemble for prayer-meetings, at which they greet each other
fraternally with low bows, thereby acknowledging every man as a
bearer of the Divine Spirit. Their teaching is founded on tradition,
which is called among them the " Book of Life," because it lives
in their memory and hearts. It consists of sacred songs or chants,
partly composed independently, partly formed out of the contents
of the Bible, which, however, has evidently been gathered by
them orally, as until quite lately they were almost entirely

DOULLENS— DOULTON

449

illiterate and did not possess any written book. They found alike
their mutual relations and their relations to other people — and
not only to people, but to all living creatures — exclusively on
love, and therefore they hold all people equal and brethren. They
extend this idea of equality also to the government authorities,
obedience to whom they do not consider binding upon them in
those cases when the demands of these authorities are in conflict
with their conscience; while in all that does not infringe what
they regard as the will of God they willingly fulfil the desire of
the authorities. They consider killing, violence, and in general all
relations to living beings not based on love as opposed to their
conscience and to the will of God. They are industrious and
abstemious in their lives, and when living up to the standard
of their faith they present one of the nearest approaches to the
realization of the Christian ideal which have ever been attained.
In many ways they have thus a close resemblance to the Quakers
or Society of Friends. For these beliefs and practices the
Doukhobors long endured cruel persecution. Under Nicholas I.,
in the years 1840 and 1850, the Doukhobors, who on religious
grounds refused to participate in military service, were all
banished from the government of Tauris — whither they had been
previously transported from various parts of Russia by Alexander
I. — to Transcaucasia, near the Turkish frontier. But neither the
severe climate nor the neighbourhood of wild and warlike hillmen
shook their faith, and in the course of half a century, in one of the
most unhealthyand unfertile localities in the Caucasus, they trans-
formed this wilderness into flourishing colonies, and continued
to live a Christian and laborious life, making friends with, instead
of fighting, the hillmen. But the wealth to which they attained
in the Caucasus weakened for a time their moral fervour, and
little by little they began to depart somewhat from the require-
ments of their belief. As soon, however, as events happened
among them which disturbed their outward tranquillity, the
religious spirit which had guided their fathers immediately
revived within them. In 1887, in the reign of the tsar Alexander
III., universal military service was introduced in the Caucasus;
and even those for whom, as in the case of the Doukhobors, it
had formerly been replaced with banishment, were called upon to
serve. This measure took the Doukhobors unawares, and at first
they outwardly submitted to it. About the same time, by the
decision of certain government officials, the right to the possession
of the public property of the Doukhobors (valued at about
£50,000) passed from the community to one of their members,
who had formed out of the more demoralized Doukhobors a group
of his own personal adherents, which was henceforth called the
" Small Party." Soon afterwards several of the most respected
representatives of the community were banished to the govern-
ment of Archangel. This series of calamities was accepted by the
Doukhobors as a punishment from God, and a spiritual awaken-
ing of a most energetic character ensued. The majority (about
1 2 ,000 in number) resolved to revive hi practice the traditions left
them by their fathers, which they had departed from during the
period of opulence. They again renounced tobacco, wine, meat
and every kind of excess, many of them dividing up all their
property in order to supply the needs of those who were in want,
and they collected a new public fund. They also renounced all
participation in acts of violence, and therefore refused military
service. In confirmation of their sincerity, in the summer of 1895
the Doukhobors of the " Great Party," as they were called in
distinction from the " Small Party," burnt all the arms which
they, like other inhabitants of the Caucasus, had taken up for
their protection from wild animals, and those who were in the
army refused to continue service. At the commencement of the
reign of the tsar Nicholas II., in 1895, the Doukhobors became
the victims of a series of persecutions, Cossack soldiers plundering,
insulting, beating and maltreating both men and women in every
way. More than 400 families of Doukhobors who were living
in the province of Tiflis were ruined and banished to Georgian
villages. Of 4000 thus exiled, more than 1000 died in the course
of the first two years from exhaustion and disease; and more
would have perished had not information reached Count Leo
Tolstoy and his friends, and through them the Society of Friends
viii. 15

in England. Funds were immediately raised by sympathizers for
alleviating the sufferings of the starving victims. At the same
time an appeal, written by Tolstoy and some of his friends,
requesting the help of public opinion in favour of the oppressed
Doukhobors, was circulated in St Petersburg and sent to the
emperor and higher government officials. The Doukhobors them-
selves asked for permission to leave Russia, and the Society of
Friends petitioned the emperor to the same effect. In March
1898 the desired permission was granted, and the first party of
Doukhobors, 1126 in number, were able in the summer of 1898 to
sail from Batum for Cyprus, which was originally chosen for their
settlement because at that time funds were not sufficient for
transferring them to any other British territory. But as contribu-
tions accumulated, it was found possible to send a number of
Doukhobor emigrants to Canada, whither they arrived in two
parties, numbering above 4000, in January 1899. They were
joined in the spring of the same year by the Cyprus party, and
another party of about 2000 arrived from the Caucasus. In
all about 7500 Doukhobor immigrants arrived in Canada. The
Canadian government did their best to facilitate the immigration,
and allotted land to the Doukhobors in the provinces of Assiniboia
near Yorkto wn and of Saskatchewan nearThunder Hill and Prince
Albert. They were very cordially received by the population
of the Canadian port towns. In April 1 901 , in the Canadian House
of Commons, the minister of justice made a statement about them
in which he said that " not a single offence had been committed
by the Doukhobors; they were law-abiding, and if good conduct
was a recommendation, they were good immigrants. . . . The
large tracts of land demanded population, and if they were not
given to crime, the conclusion was that they would make good
citizens." About eighteen months after they arrived in Canada
the Doukhobors sent the Society of Friends a collective letter in
which they sincerely thanked the English and American Friends
for all the generous help of every kind they had received at their
hands, but begged the Quakers to cease sending them any more
pecuniary support, as they were now able to stand on their own
feet, and therefore felt it right that any further help should be
directed to others who were more in need of it. At Yorktown in
the summer of 1907 the Doukhobors established one of the largest
and best brick-making plants in Canada, a significant testimony
to the way hi which the leaders of the community were working
in the interests of the whole. Now and again small bodies broke
off from the main community and adopted a semi-nomadic life,
but these formed a very small percentage of the total number,
which in 1908 was over 8000.

See also Christian Martyrdom in Russia, by V. Tchertkoff (The
Free Age Press, Christchurch, Hants) ; Aylmer Maude, A Peculiar
People, the Doukhobors. (V. T.)

DOULLENS, a town of • northern France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Somme, on the Authie, 27
m. N. of Amiens by rail. Pop. (1906) 449 5. It has a citadel of the
1 5th and i6th centuries which has often served as a state prison
and is now used as a reformatory for girls. There are also a belfry
of the 1 7th century and two old churches. The town is the seat
of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first instance; it has trade
in phosphates, of which there are workings in the vicinity,
and carries on cotton-spinning and the manufacture of leather,
paper and sugar. Doullens, the ancient Dulincum, was seat of
a viscountship and an important stronghold in the middle ages.
In 1475 it was burnt by Louis XI. for openly siding with the house
of Burgundy. In 1595 it was besieged and occupied by the
Spaniards, but was restored to France by the treaty of Vervins
(i598).

DOULTON, SIR HENRY (1820-1897), English inventor and
manufacturer of pottery, born in Vauxhall on the 25th of July
1820, was from the age of fifteen actively employed in the pottery
works of his father, John Doulton, at Lambeth. One of the first
results of his many experiments was the production of good
enamel glazes. In 1846 he initiated in Lambeth the pipe works,
in which he superintended the manufacture of the drainage and
sanitary appliances which have helped to make the firm of
Doulton famous. In 1870 the manufacture of " Art pottery "

5

45°

DOUMER— DOUSA

was begun at Lambeth, and in 1877 works were opened at
Burslem, where almost every variety of china and porcelain, as
well as artistic earthenware, has been produced. Works have
since been opened at Rowley Regis, Smethwick, St Helens,
Paisley and Paris. After the Paris exhibition of 1878 Henry
Doulton was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour. In 1872
the " Art department " was instituted in the Doulton works,
giving employment to both male and female artists, amongst
whom such workers as George Tinworth and the Misses Barlow
have obtained a reputation outside their immediate sphere. In

1887 Doulton received the honour of knighthood, and a few years
later was awarded the Albert medal by the Society of Arts. He
married in 1849 the daughter of Mr J. L. Kennaby; she died in
1888. Sir Henry Doulton took an active interest, as almoner,
in St Thomas's hospital. He died in London on the i8th of
November 1897.

DOUMER, PAUL (1857- ), French politician, was born at
Aurillac. He studied law and made his debut in politics as chef de
cabinet to Floquet, when president of the chamber in 1885. In

1888 he was elected Radical deputy for the department of the
Aisne. Defeated in the general elections of September 1889, he
was elected again in 1890 by the arrondissement of Auxerre. As
minister of finance in the Bourgeois cabinet (from the 3rd of
November 1895 to the 2ist of April 1896) he tried without suc-
cess to introduce an income-tax. In January 1897 he became
governor of Indo-China, where he carried out important public
works. In 1902 he returned to France and was elected by Laon
to the chamber as a Radical. He refused, however, to support the
Combes ministry, and formed a Radical dissident group, which
grew in strength and eventually caused the fall of the ministry.
Doumer became a prominent personage in Paris and was elected
president of the chamber in January 1905, being re-elected in
January 1906. At the presidential election of the i7th of January
1906 he was a candidate in opposition to M. Fallieres and obtained
only 371 votes against 449; and the new chamber passed him
over as its new president in favour of Henri Brisson. As an
author he is known by his L'Indo-Chinefranc.aise (1904), and Le
Livre de mesfils (1906).

DOUMIC, RENE (1860- ), French critic and man of letters,
was born in Paris, and after a distinguished career at the Ecole
Normale began to teach rhetoric at the College Stanislas. He was
a contributor to the Moniteur, the Journal des Debats and the
Revue bleue, but was best known as the independent and un-
compromising literary critic of the Revue des Deux Mondes. His
works include : Elements d'histoire Utter air e (1888); Portraits
d'ecrivains (1892); De Scribe it Ibsen (1893); Ecrivains d'aujour-
d'hui (1894); Etudes sur la litlerature franc.aise (5 vols., 1896-
1905); Les Jeunes (1896); Essais sur le theatre conlemporain
(1897); Les Hommes et les idees du XlX'siecle (1903); and an
edition of the Lettres d'Elvire a Lamartine (1905).

DOUNE, a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, 8| m. N.W.
of Stirling by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 930. It is
situated on the left bank of the Teith, here crossed by the bridge
built in 1535 by Robert Spittal, tailor to James IV. The town
was once famous for its pistols and sporrans (as the purses worn
with the kilt are called), which were in great request by the
clansmen of the Highlands. Doune Castle, now in ruins, occupies
a commanding position on the Teith, at the point where it is
joined by the Ardoch. .It is believed to have been built by
Murdoch, 2nd duke of Albany (d. 1425), and was sometimes a
residence of the sovereigns, among them James V. and Queen
Mary. A nephew of Rob Roy held it for Prince Charlie, and it
figures in Scott's Waverley. It belongs to the earl of Moray
(Murray) , who derives from it his title of Lord Doune, and was the
home of James Stewart, the " bonnie earl " of Moray, murdered at
Donibristle in Fife by the earl of Huntly (1592). The braes of
Doune lie to the north-west of the town and extend towards Uam
Var. Deanston (pop. 652), I m. S.W. of Doune, on the right bank
of the Teith, was the scene of the labours of James Smith (i 789-
1850), the agricultural engineer, who was also manager of the
cotton mills established there in 1 785. On his farm Smith carried
out his experiments in deep and thorough draining, and also

invented a reaping machine, the subsoil plough and numerous
other valuable appliances.

DOURO (Span. Duero, Port. Douro, anc. Durius), a river of
the Iberian Peninsula. The Douro rises south of the Sierra de
la Demanda, in the Pico de Urbion, an isolated mountain mass
7389 ft. high. It describes a wide curve eastwards past Soria,
then flows westward across the Castilian table-land, passing
south of Valladolid, with Toro and Zamora on its right bank;
then from a point 3 m. E. of Paradella to Barca d'Alva it flows
south-west and forms the frontier between Spain and Portugal
for 65 m. It crosses Portugal in a westerly direction through a
narrow and tortuous bed, and enters the Atlantic 3 m. below
Oporto at Sao Joao da Foz. The length of the Douro, which is
greater than that of any other Iberian river except the Tagus and
Guadiana, is probably about 485 m.; but competent authorities
differ widely in their estimates, the extremes given being 420 and
507 m. In Spain the Douro receives from the right the rivers
Pisuerga, Valderaduey and Esla, and from the left several small
streams which drain the Sierra Guadarrama, besides the more
important rivers Adaja, Tormes and Yeltes; in Portugal it
receives the Agueda, C6a and Paiva from the left, and the Sabor,
Tua and Tamega from the right. The area drained by the Douro
and its tributaries is upwards of 37,50x3 sq. m., and includes the
greater part of the vast plateau of Old Castile, between the water-
sheds of the Cantabrian Mountains, on the north, and the
Guadarrama, Credos, Gata and Estrella ranges, on the south.
The lower stream is beset with numerous rapids, called pantos,
and is subject to swift and violent inundations. On this account
navigation is attended with difficulties and risks between its
mouth and Barca d'Alva; but a railway, running for the most
part along the right bank, skirts the river during the greater part
of its course through Portugal. The mouth of the river is partly
blocked by a sandy bar; only ships of light draught can enter,
while those of greater burden are accommodated at the harbour
of Leixoes, an artificial basin constructed about 3 m. N. On its
way through Portugal the Douro traverses the Paiz do Vinho,
one of the richest wine-producing territories in the world; large
quantities of wine are conveyed to Oporto in sailing boats. The
Douro yields an abundance of fish, especially trout, shad and
lampreys.

DOUROUCOULI, apparently the native name (perhaps derived
from their cries) of a small group of American monkeys ranging
from Nicaragua to Amazonia and eastern Peru, and forming the
genus Nyctipithecus. In addition to the absence of prehensile
power in their tails, douroucoulis, also known as night-apes, are
distinguished by their large eyes, the sockets of which occupy
nearly the whole front of the upper part of the skull, the partition
between the nostrils being in consequence narrower than usual.
The ears are short, and the hair round the eyes forms a disk.
Douroucoulis live in parties, and are purely nocturnal, sleeping
during the day in hollow trees, and coming out at night to feed on
insects and fruits, when they utter piercing cat-like screams.

DOUSA, JANUS [Jan van der Does], lord of Noordwyck
(1545-1604), Dutch statesman, historian, poet and philologist,
and the heroic defender of Leiden, was born at Noordwyck, in
the province of Holland, on the 6th of December 1545. He began
his studies at Lier in Brabant, became a pupil of Henry Junius
at Delft in 1560, and then passed on in succession to Louvain,
Douai and Paris. Here he studied Greek under Pierre Dorat,
professor at the College Royal, and became acquainted with the
chancellor L'H6pital, Turnebus, Ronsard and other eminent
men. On his return in 1565 he married Elizabeth van Zuylen.
His name stands in the list of nobles who in that year formed a
league against Philip II. of Spain, but he does not appear to have
taken any active part in public affairs till 1572, when he was sent
as a member of an embassy to England. He was not, however,
at first very eager to commit himself to the fortunes of William
the Silent, prince of Orange, but having once chosen his side,
he threw himself heart and soul into the struggle for freedom
from the Spanish yoke. Fortunately for Leiden he was residing
in the town at the time of the famous siege. He held no post in
the government, but in the hour of need he, though not trained to

DOVE

PLATE I.

ROCK DOVE OR BLUE ROCK PIGEON, Columba livia.

STOCK DOVE, Columba oenas.

AMERICAN WILD CARRIER PIGEON, RING DOVE OR WOOD PIGEON,

Ectopistes migratorius. Columba palumbus.

(After the coloured drawings by Mme. Knip (Pauline de Courcelles), painter to the Empress Marie Louise, in Les Pigeons.
VI1I.450. Text by C. J. Themminck, Paris, 1811.)

PLATE II.

DOVE

NICOBAR PIGEON, Caloenas nicobarica.
(After Mme. Knip, as above.)

CROWNED PIGEON, Goura coronala
(After Mme. Knip, as above.)

Photographs of two typical pedigree Homing or Racing Pigeons, colours black and blue chequer, bred and shown by
Frederick Romer, Esq., prize-winners in races from France to England.

By permission of the proprietors of the Racing Pigeon

DOUVILLE— DOVE

45

arms, took the command of a company of troops. His fearlessness
and unshaken resolution had no small influence in encouraging
the regents and the citizens to prolong the defence. On the
foundation of the university of Leiden by William the Silent,
Dousa was appointed first curator, and he held this office for
nearly thirty years. Through his friendships with foreign scholars
he drew to Leiden many illustrious teachers and professors.
After the assassination of the prince of Orange in 1584, Dousa
undertook a private journey to England to try and persuade
Queen Elizabeth to support the cause of the states, and in 1585 he
went at the head of a formal embassy for the same purpose.
About the same time he was appointed keeper of the archives of
Holland (registermeester van Holland), and the opportunities thus
afforded him of historical research he turned to good account.
He had three sons and five daughters. All his sons acquired
a reputation for learning, but two of them died before their
father. Dousa was author of several volumes of Latin verse
and of philological commentaries on Horace, Plautus, Catullus
and other Latin poets. His principal work is the Annals of
Holland, which first appeared in a metrical form in 1599, and
was published in prose under the title of Bataviae Hollandiaeque
annales in 1601. Dousa also took part as editor or contributor
in various other publications. He died at Noordwyck on the
8th of October 1604, and was interred at the Hague ; but no
monument was erected to his memory till 1792, when one of his
descendants placed a tomb to his honour in the church of
Noordwyck. There are good portraits of the Great Dousa, as he
is often called, by Visscher and Houbraken.

DOUVILLE, JEAN BAPTISTS (i794?-i837), French traveller,
was born at Hambye, in the department of Manche. Having at
an early age inherited a fortune, he decided to gratify his taste
for foreign travel. According to his own profession he visited
India, Kashmir, Khorasan, Persia, Asia Minor and many parts
of Europe. In 1826 he went to South America, and in 1827 left
Brazil for the Portuguese possessions on the west coast of Africa,
where his presence in March 1828 is proved by the mention
made of him in letters of Castillo Branco, the governor-general
of Loanda. In May 1831 he reappeared in France, claiming to
have pushed his explorations into the very heart of central Africa.
His story was readily accepted by the Societ6 de G6ographie of
Paris, which hastened to recognize his services by assigning him
the great gold medal, and appointing him their secretary for the
year 1832. On the publication of his narrative, Voyage au Congo
et dans I'interieur de V Afrique iquinoxiale, which occupied three
volumes and was accompanied by an elaborate atlas, public
enthusiasm ran high. Before the year 1832 was out, however,
it was established that Douville's Voyage was romance and not
verity. He had probably been inspired by the appearance of
Ren6 Caillie's account of his journey to Timbuktu, and wished
to obtain a share of the fame attaching to African explorers.
Douville tried vainly to establish the truth of his story in Ma
Defense (1832), and Trente mois de ma vie, ou quinze mois avanl et
quinze mois apres man voyage au Congo (1833). Mile Audrun, a
lady to whom he was about to be married, committed suicide
from grief at the disgrace; and the adventurer withdrew in 1833
to Brazil, and proceeded to make explorations in the valley of
the Amazon. According to Dr G. Gardner, in his Travels in the
Interior of Brazil (1846), he was murdered in 1837 on the banks
of the Sao Francisco for charging too high for his medical
assistance. Douville may well have explored part of the pro-
vince of Angola, and Sir Richard Burton maintained that the
Frenchman's descriptions of the country of the Congo were life-
like; that his observations on the anthropology, ceremonies,
customs and maladies of the people were remarkably accurate;
and that even the native words used in his narrative were "for
the most part given with unusual correctness." It has been
shown, however, that the chief source of Douville's inspiration
was a number of unpublished Portuguese manuscripts to which
he had access.

DOUW (or Dow), GERHARD (1613-1680), Dutch painter,
was born at Leiden on the 7th of April 1613. His first instructor
in drawing and design was Bartholomew Dolendo, an engraver;

and he afterwards learned the art of glass-painting under Peter
Kouwhoorn. At the age of fifteen he became a pupil of
Rembrandt, with whom he continued for three years. From the
great master of the Flemish school he acquired his skill in colour-
ing, and in the more subtle effects of chiaroscuro ; and the style
of Rembrandt is reflected in several of his earlier pictures, notably
in a portrait of himself at the age of twenty-two, in the Bridge-
water House gallery, and in the " Blind Tobit going to meet his
Son," at Wardour Castle. At a comparatively early point in his
career, however, he had formed a manner of his own distinct
from, and indeed in some respects antagonistic to, that of his
master. Gifted with unusual clearness of vision and precision
of manipulation, he cultivated a minute and elaborate style of
treatment ; and probably few painters ever spent more time and
pains on all the details of their pictures down to the most trivial.
He is said to have spent five days in painting a hand; and his
work was so fine that he found it necessary to manufacture his
own brushes. Notwithstanding the minuteness of his touch, how-
ever, the general effect was harmonious and free from stiffness,
and his colour was always admirably fresh and transparent. He
was fond of representing subjects in lantern or candle light, the
effects of which he reproduced with a fidelity and skill which no
other master has equalled. He frequently painted by the aid of
a concave mirror, and to obtain exactness looked at his subject
through a frame crossed with squares of silk thread. His practice
as a portrait painter, which was at first considerable, gradually
declined, sitters being unwilling to give him the time that he
deemed necessary. His pictures were always small in size,
and represented chiefly subjects in still life. Upwards of 200
are attributed to him, and specimens are to be found in most
of the great public collections of Europe. His chef-d'oeuvre is
generally considered to be the " Woman sick of the Dropsy," in
the Louvre. The " Evening School," in the Amsterdam gallery,
is the best example of the candlelight scenes in which he excelled.
In the National Gallery, London, favourable specimens are to
be seen in the " Poulterer's Shop," and a portrait of himself.
Douw's pictures brought high prices, and it is said that President
Van Spiring of the Hague paid him 1000 florins a year simply
for the right of pre-emption. Douw died in 1680. His most
celebrated pupil was Francis Miens.

DOVE, a river of England, tributary to the Trent, rising in Axe
Edge, Derbyshire, and through almost its entire course forming
the boundary of that county with Staffordshire. In its upper
course it traverses a fine narrow valley, where the limestone hills
exhibit many picturesque cliffs, gullies and caves. Dovedale,
that part of the valley which lies between Dove Holes and
Thorpe Cloud (or with a wider significance between the towns of
Hartington and Ashbourne), is especially famous. Below Thorpe
Cloud the Dove receives on the west the waters of the Manifold,
which, like its tributary the Hamps, and other streams in the
limestone district, has part of its course below ground. Near the
village of Rocester the Churnet joins the Dove on the west, and
then the course of the main stream, hitherto southerly, bends
nearly easterly on passing Uttoxeter, and, winding through a
widening valley, joins the Trent at Newton Solney, a short
distance below Burton-on-Trent. The length of the valley is
about 40 m. and the total fall of the river about 1450 ft. The
Dove is well known for its trout-fishing, and the portion of the
upper valley called Beresford Dale, below Hartington, has a
special interest for fishermen through its associations with Izaak
Walton and his friend Charles Cotton, whose fishing-house stands
near the Pike Pool, a reach of the river with a lofty rock rising
from its centre.

DOVE (Dutch duyve, Dan. due, Ice. dufa, Ger. Taube), a
name most commonly applied by ornithologists to the smaller
members of the group of birds usually called pigeons (Columbae);
but no sharp distinction can be drawn between pigeons and
doves, and in general literature the two words are used almost
indifferently, while no one species can be pointed out to which
the word dove, taken alone, seems to be absolutely proper. The
largest of the group to which the name is applicable is perhaps
the ring-dove, or wood-pigeon, also called in many parts of

452

DOVER, BARON

Britain cushat and queest (Columba palumbus, Linn.), a very
common bird throughout the British Islands and most parts
of Europe. It associates in winter in large flocks, the numbers
of which (owing partly to the destruction of predaceous animals,
but still more to the modern system of agriculture, and the
growth of plantations in many districts that were before treeless)
have increased enormously. In former days, when the breadth of
land in Britain under green crops was comparatively small, these
birds found little food in the dead season, and this scarcity was a
natural check on their superabundance. But since the extended
cultivation of turnips and plants of similar use the case is altered,
and perhaps at no time of the year has provender become more
plentiful than in winter. The ring-dove may be easily dis-
tinguished from other European species by its larger size, and
especially by the white spot on either side of its neck, forming a
nearly continuous " ring," whence the bird takes its name, and
the large white patches in its wings, which are very conspicuous
in flight. It breeds several times in the year, making for its nest
a slight platform of sticks on the horizontal bough of a tree, and
laying therein two eggs — which, as in all the Columbae, are white.
It is semi-domestic in the London parks.

The stock-dove (C. aenas of most authors) is a smaller species,
with many of the habits of the former, but breeding by preference
in the stocks of hollow trees or in rabbit-holes. It is darker in
colour than the ring-dove, without any white on its neck or
wings, and is much less common and more locally distributed.

The rock-dove (C. livid, Temm.) much resembles the stock-dove,
but is of a lighter colour, with two black bars on its wings, and a
white rump. In its wild state it haunts most of the rocky parts
of the coast of Europe, from the Faeroes to the Cyclades, and,
seldom going inland, is comparatively rare. Yet, as it is without
contradiction the parent-stem of all British domestic pigeons, its
numbers must far exceed those of both the former put together.
In Egypt and various parts of Asia it is represented by what
Charles Darwin has called " wild races," which are commonly
accounted good " species " (C. schimperi, C. affinis, C. intermedia,
C. leuconota, and so forth), though they differ from one another
far less than do nearly all the domestic forms, of which more than
150 kinds that " breed true," and have been separately named,
are known to exist. Very many of these, if found wild, would
have unquestionably been ranked by the best ornithologists
as distinct " species " and several of them would as undoubtedly
have been placed in different genera. These various breeds are
classified by Darwin 1 in four groups as follows: —

GROUP I., composed of a single Race, that of the " Pouters,"
having the gullet of great size, barely separated from the crop, and
often inflated, the body and legs elongated, and a moderate bill.
The most strongly marked sub-race, the Improved English Pouter,
is considered to be the most distinct of all domesticated pigeons.

GROUP II. includes three Races: — (i) "Carriers," with a long
pointed bill, the eyes surrounded by much bare skin, and the neck
and body much elongated; (2) " Runts," with a long, massive bill,
and the body of great size; and (3) " Barbs," with a short, broad
bill, much bare skin round the eyes, and the skin over the nostrils
swollen. Of the first four and of the second five sub-races are dis-
tinguished.

GROUP III. is confessedly artificial, and to it are assigned five
Races: — (i) " Fan-tails," remarkable for the extraordinary develop-
ment of their tails, which may consist of as many as forty-two
rectrices in place of the ordinary twelve; (2) " Turbits ' and
" Owls," with the feathers of the throat diverging, and a short thick
bill; (3) " Tumblers," possessing the marvellous habit of tumbling
backwards during flight, or, in some breeds, even on the ground, and
having a short, conical bill; (4) " Frill-backs," in which the feathers
are reversed; and (5) "Jacobins," with the feathers of the neck
forming a hood, and the wings and tail long.

GROUP IV. greatly resembles the normal form, and comprises
two Races: — (i) " Trumpeters," with a tuft of feathers at the base
of the neck curling forward, the face much feathered, and a very
peculiar voice, and (2) Pigeons scarcely differing in structure from
the wild stock.

Besides these some three or four other little-known breeds exist,
and the whole number of breeds and sub-breeds almost defies
computation. The difference between them is in many cases far

1 TheVariation of Animals and Plants under Domestication (London,
1868), vol. i. pp. 131-224.

from being superficial, for Darwin has shown that there is scarcely
any part of the skeleton which is constant, and the modifications
that have been effected in the proportions of the head and sternal
apparatus are very remarkable. Yet the proof that all these
different birds have descended from one common stock is nearly
certain. Here there is no need to point out its bearing upon the
theory of natural selection. The antiquity of some of these
breeds is not the least interesting part of the subject, nor is the use
to which one at least of them has long been applied. The dove
from the earliest period in history has been associated with the
idea of a messenger (Genesis viii. 8-12), and the employment
of pigeons in that capacity, developed successively by Greeks,
Romans, Mussulmans and Christians, has come down to modern
times.

The various foreign species, if not truly belonging to the genus
Columba, are barely separable therefrom. Of these examples
may be found in the Indian, Ethiopian and Neotropical regions.
Innumerable other forms entitled to the name of " dove " are
to be found in almost every part of the world, and nowhere more
abundantly than in the Australian Region. A. R. Wallace (Ibis,
1865, pp. 365-400) considers that they attain their maximum
development in the Papuan Subregion, where, though the land
area is less than one-sixth that of Europe, more than a quarter of
all the species (some 300 in number) known to exist are found —
owing, he suggests, to the absence of forest-haunting and fruit-
eating mammals, which are in most cases destructive to eggs
also.

To a small group of birds the name dove is, however, especially
applicable in common parlance. This is the group containing
the turtle-doves — -the time-honoured emblem of tenderness
and conjugal love. The common turtle-dove of Europe ( Turtur
auritus) is one of those species which are gradually extending
their area. In England, in the i8th century, it seems to have been
chiefly, if not solely, known in the southern and western counties.
Though in the character of a straggler only, it now reaches the
extreme north of Scotland, and is perhaps nowhere more
abundant than in many of the midland and eastern counties of
England. On the continent of Europe the same thing has been
observed, though indeed not so definitely; and this species has
appeared as a casual visitor within the Arctic Circle. Its graceful
form and the delicate harmony of its modest colouring are pro-
verbial. The species is migratory, reaching Europe late in April
and retiring in September. Another species, and one perhaps
better known from being commonly kept in confinement, is
that called by many the collared or Barbary dove (T. risorius)
— the second English name probably indicating that it was by
way of the Barbary coast that it was brought to England.
This is distinguished by its cream-coloured plumage and black
necklace. (A. N.)

DOVER, GEORGE JAMES WELBORE AGAR-ELLIS, BAKON
(1797-1833), English man of letters, born on the i4th of January
1797, was the only son of the 2nd Viscount Clifden. He was
educated at Westminster school and at Christ Church, Oxford.
In 1818 he was returned to parliament as member for Heytesbury.
He afterwards represented Seaford (1820), Ludgershall (1826)
and Okehampton (1830). He seconded Canning's motion in
1822 for a bill to relieve the disabilities of Roman Catholic peers,
and consistently supported liberal principles. In party politics,
however, he took little interest, but he zealously advocated in
parliament and elsewhere that state encouragement should be
given to the cause of literature and the fine arts. In 1824 he was
the leading promoter of the grant of £57,000 for the purchase of
John Julius Angerstein's collection of pictures, which formed the
foundation of the National Gallery. On the formation of Lord
Grey's administration, in November 1830, he was appointed chief
commissioner of woods and forests, but was compelled by delicate
health to resign it after two months' occupancy. In June 1831,
during the lifetime of his father, he was raised to the House of
Lords, receiving an English peerage with the title of Baron Dover.
He was president (1832) of the Royal Society of Literature, a
trustee of the British Museum and of the National Gallery, and
a commissioner of public records. He died on the icth of July

DOVER, EARL OF— DOVER

1833. Lord Dover's works are chiefly historical, and include
The True History of the Iron Mask, extracted from Documents in
The French Archives (1826), Inquiries respecting the Character of
Clarendon (1827), and a Life of Frederick II. (1831). He also
edited the Ellis Correspondence (1829) and Walpole's Letters to
Sir Horace Mann (1833).

DOVER, HENRY JERMYN, EARL OF (c. 1636-1708), was the
second son of Sir Thomas Jermyn, of Rushbroke, Suffolk, elder
brother of Henry Jermyn, earl of St Albans (q.v.). Jermyn
surpassed his uncle, St Albans, in reputation for profligacy,
figuring frequently as " the little Jermyn " in the Grammont
Memoirs, as the lover of Lady Castlemaine, Lady Shrewsbury,
Miss Jennings and other beauties of the court of Charles II.
He was also a noted duellist and a lifelong gambler. While the
court was in exile, he obtained a post in the household of the duke
of York, to whom he became master of the horse at the Restora-
tion. Being a Roman Catholic he enjoyed a position of influence
with James II., who on his accession raised Jermyn to the peerage
as Baron Dover in 1685, and appointed him lieutenant-general of
the royal guard in 1686. At the Revolution, Dover adhered to
James, whom he followed abroad, and in July 1689 the deposed
sovereign created him Baron Jermyn of Royston, Baron Ipswich,
Viscount Cheveley and earl of Dover; these honours being among
the " Jacobite peerages " which were not recognized by the
English government, though Jermyn became generally known as
the earl of Dover. He commanded a troop at the battle of the
Boyne; but shortly afterwards made his submission to William
III. He succeeded his brother Thomas as 3rd Baron Jermyn of
St Edmundsbury in 1 703 , and died in 1 708. As he left no children
by his wife, Judith, daughter of Sir Edmund Poley, of Badley,
Suffolk, his titles became extinct at his death.

See Samuel Pepys, Diary, edited by H. B. Wheatley, 9 vols.
(London, 1893); Anthony Hamilton, Memoirs of Grammont (Bohn
edition, London, 1846); J. S. Clarke, Life of James II., 2 vojs.
(London, 1816); Narcissus Luttrell, Brief Relation of State Affairs
i678-i7i4,6vols. (Oxford, 1857).

DOVER, ROBERT (1575-1641), English captain and attorney,
is known as the founder and director for many years of the
" Cotswold Games," which he originated as a protest against
the growing Puritanism of the day. These sports, which were
referred to by contemporary writers as " Mr Robert Dover's
Olimpick Games upon the Cotswold Hills," consisted of cudgel-
playing, wrestling, running at the quintain, jumping, casting the
bar and hammer, hand-ball, gymnastics, rural dances and games
and horse-racing, the winners in which received valuable prizes.
They continued from about the year 1604 until three years
after the death of Dover, which took place in 1641. They were
revived for a brief period in the reign of Charles II.

DOVER, the capital of Delaware, U.S.A., and the county seat
of Kent county, on the St Jones River, in the central part of the
state, about 48 m. S. of Wilmington and about 9 m. from Delaware
Bay. Pop. (1890) 3061; (1900) 3329 (772 negroes); (1910) 3720.
Dover is served by the Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washington
railway (Pennsylvania system). The state house, built about
1722 for a court house, was remodelled for its present purpose
in 1791; it contains the state library, which in 1908 had about
50,000 bound volumes. Dover is the seat of the Wilmington
Conference Academy (Methodist Episcopal) ; and about 2 m. N.
is the state college for coloured students (co-educational; opened
in 1892), an agricultural and manual training school. The
surrounding country is largely devoted to the raising of small
fruit. Among the manufactures are canned fruit and meat
(especially poultry), timber, machine shop products, baskets and
crates, and silk. The town was laid out in 1717; in 1777 it
replaced New Castle as the capital of the state, and in 1829 it
was incorporated as a town. Dover was the birthplace of the
American patriot, Caesar Rodney (1728-1784), whose home near
Dover is still standing.

DOVER, a seaport and municipal and parliamentary borough
of Kent, England, one of the Cinque Ports, 76 m. E.S.E. of
London by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1891)
33,S03; (1901) 41,794. It is situated at the mouth of a small

453

stream, the Dour, whose valley here breaches the high chalk cliffs
which fringe the coast on either hand. It is an exceptionally
healthy locality, and the steep shore and open downs make it
an agreeable summer resort. The better residential quarters lie
along the seaboard and on the higher ground, notably on a western
spur of the Castle Hill. The dominant object of the place is the
castle, on the east height, 375 ft. above sea-level, between which
and the batteries on the western heights lies the old town. The
castle occupies a space of 35 acres. Within its precincts are a
Roman pharos or lighthouse, still exhibiting the Roman masonry;
the ancient fortress church (St Mary in Castro) ; some remains of
the Saxon fort; and the massive keep and subsidiary defences
(such as the Constable's, Avranche's, and other towers) of the
Norman building. The church, substantially unaltered, forms an
almost unique Christian relic. It has been called Roman, but is
later. It is cruciform in shape, and the walls are built mainly of
flint, but jambs and arches are formed of Roman bricks. At the
end of the I2th century it was remodelled and given an Early
English character. In the beginning of the i8th century it was
dismantled and turned into a storehouse ; and so continued until
1863, when, having been restored by Sir G. G. Scott, it was again
opened for divine service, and is now the chapel of the castle
garrison.

The view from the castle keep includes on a clear day the line
of cliffs from Folkestone to Ramsgate on the one side, and from
Boulogne to Gravelines on the other side of the strait. The cliffs
are honeycombed in all directions with military works. They
are covered by modern works on the north side known as Fort
Burgoyne, and additional works extend eastwards towards St
Margaret's Bay. The western heights, where is the foundation
of another Roman lighthouse, form a further circuit of fortifica-
tions. They are still more elevated than the castle. A military
shaft, locally known as the Corkscrew Staircase, affords com-
munication between the barracks and the town. Remains were
discovered here in 1854 of a round church of the Templars (Holy
Sepulchre), 32 ft. in diameter; the church, doubtless, in which
King John made his submission to the Papal Nuncio in 1213.
Archcliffe Fort lies to the south-west of old Dover. There may
further be mentioned the remnant of the Saxon collegiate church
of the canons of St Martin, and the parish church of St Mary the
Virgin. This last was rebuilt and enlarged in 1843-1844, but
preserves the three bays of the Saxon church, with its western
narthex, on which was superimposed the Norman tower, which
presents its rich front to the street. The rest of the church is
mainly Norman and Early English. A later Norman church
stands under the Castle Hill, but its parochial status was trans-
ferred to the modern church of St James.

The remains of the splendid foundation of St Martin's priory,
of the 1 2th century, include the great gate, the house refectory,
with campanile, and the spacious strangers' refectory, now incor-
porated in Dover College. The college of St Martin for twenty-two
secular canons, which had been established in the castle in 696,
was removed into the town in the beginning of the 8th century,
and in 1139 became a Benedictine priory under the jurisdiction of
that at Canterbury, to which see the lands are still attached. The
interior of the refectory is very fine. In High Street may be seen
the noble hall and truncated fabric of the Maison Dieu founded by
Hubert de Burgh in the i3th century for the reception of pilgrims
of all nations. From the time of Henry VIII. to 1830 it was used
as a crown victualling office, but was subsequently purchased by
the corporation and adapted as a town hall. The new town hall
adjoining the old hall of the Maison Dieu was opened in 1883.
The museum (1849) contains an interesting collection of local
antiquities and a natural history collection.

Among various charitable institutions are the National Sailors'
Home and the Gordon Boys' and Victoria Seaside Orphanages.
Besides the church of St James, mentioned above, other modern
churches are those of Holy Trinity and Christ church, and further
up the valley there are the parish churches of Charlton (originally
Norman) and Buckland (Early English). Among educational
establishments is Dover College, occupying the site and remaining
buildings of St Martin's priory, with additional modern buildings.

454

DOVER

It was instituted in 1871, and educates about 220 boys. There
is a separate junior school.

Dover is the only one of the Cinque Ports which is still a great
port. It is one of the principal ports for passenger communica-
tions across the Channel, steamers connecting it with Calais and
Ostend. The Admiralty pier was begun in 1847 and practically
completed to a length of about 2000 ft. in 1871. In 1888 the
gates of Wellington dock were widened to admit a larger type
of Channel steamers; new coal stores were erected on the
Northampton quay; the slipway was lengthened 40 ft., and
widened for the reception of vessels up to 800 tons. In 1891 it
was resolved to construct a new commercial harbour at an
estimated cost of about £700,000. Begun in 1893, the works
included the construction of an east pier (" Prince of Wales's
Pier "), running parallel to the general direction of the Admiralty
pier and in conjunction with it enclosing an area of sheltered water
amounting to seventy-five acres. This pier was completed in 1902.
A railway line connected with the South-Eastern and Chatham
system runs to its head, and in July 1903 it was brought into use
for the embarcation of passengers by transatlantic liners. In
1896 and subsequent years funds were voted by parliament for
the construction of an artificial harbour for naval purposes, having
an area of 610 acres, of which 322 acres were to have a depth of
not less than 30 ft. at low water. The scheme comprised three
enclosing breakwaters — on the west an extension of the Admiralty
pier in a south-easterly direction for a length of 2000 ft.; on the
south an isolated breakwater, 4200 ft. long, curving round shore-
ward at its eastern end to accord with the direction of the third
breakwater; on the east, which runs out from the shore in a
southerly direction for a length of 3320 ft. These three break-
waters, with a united length of rather more than if m., are each
built of massive concrete blocks in the form of a practically
vertical wall founded on the solid chalk and rising to a quay level
of 10 ft. above high water. Two entrances, one 800 ft. and the
other 600 ft. in width, with a depth of about seven fathoms at
low water, are situated at either end of the detached break-
water. The plan also included the reclamation of the foreshore
at tde foot of the cliffs, between the castle jetty and the root
of the eastern breakwater, by means of a massive sea-wall. The
construction of three powerful forts was undertaken in defence
of the harbour, which was opened in 1909.

Besides the mail service and harbour trade, Dover has a trade
in shipbuilding, timber, rope and sail making, and ships' stores.
Dover is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Canterbury.
The parliamentary borough returns one member. The town
is governed by a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors.
Area, 2026 acres.

History. — Dover (Dubris) was one of the ports for continental
traffic in Roman times. In the 4th century it was guarded by
a fort lying down near the harbour, and forming part of the
defences of the Saxon shore (Litus Saxonicum). As a Cinque
Port, Dover (Dofra, Dovorra) had to contribute twenty of the
quota of ships furnished by those ports; in return for this service
a charter of liberties was granted to the ports by Edward the
Confessor, making the townsmen quit of shires and hundreds,
with the right to be impleaded only at Shepway, and other
privileges, which were confirmed by subsequent kings, with
additions, down to James II. During the middle ages Dover
Castle was an object of contention both in civil wars and foreign
invasions, and was considered the key to England; the constable
of the castle, who from the reign of John was appointed by the
crown, was also warden of the Cinque Ports. The castle was
successfully defended in 1216 against the French under the
dauphin Louis by Hubert de Burgh, who was also the founder of
the Maison Dieu established for the accommodation of pilgrims.
The title of mayor as chief municipal officer first occurs about the
middle of the i3th century, when the town was governed by a
mayor and twelve jurats. The Cinque Ports were first represented
in the parliament of 1265; Dover returned two members until
1885 when the number was reduced to one. In 1685 Charles II.
confirmed to the inhabitants of Dover a fair beginning on the nth
of November, which had been held of old in the town, and granted

two others on the 23rd and 24th of April and the 25th and 26th
of September.

After the decay of Richborough harbour the passage from
Dover to Whitsand, and later to Calais, became the accustomed
route to France, and by a statute of 1465 no one might ship for
Calais except at Dover. The guardians of the harbour were
incorporated by James I. in 1607.

See S. P. H. Statham, History of the Castle, Town and Port of
Dover (London, 1899); and Dover, Charters and other Documents
(London, 1902).

BATTLE OF DOVER

This famous and important naval victory was won off the town
of Dover by the ships of the Cinque Ports on the 2ist of August
1217, during the minority of King Henry III. The barons, who
were in arms against his father King John, had called Louis, son
of Philip Augustus, king of the French, to their aid. Having
been recently defeated in Lincoln, they were hard pressed, and
reinforcements weresent to them from Calais in a fleet commanded
by a pirate and mercenary soldier called Eustace the Monk. His
real name is uncertain, but according to the chronicle of Lanercost
it was Matthew. He passed the Straits of Dover with a numerous
flotilla laden with military machines and stores, and also carrying
many knights and soldiers. The Monk's fleet was seen from
Dover, where the regent; Hubert de Burgh, lay with a navalforce
of the Cinque Ports, said to have been very small. Sixteen
vessels of large size for the time, and a number of smaller craft, is
said to have been their total strength. But medieval estimates
of numbers are never to be trusted, and the strength of the Cinque
Port squadron was probably diminished to exalt the national
glory. It put to sea, and by hugging the wind gained the weather
gage of the French adventurer. Eustace is said to have been
under the impression that they meant to attack Calais in his
absence, and to have derided them because he had left the town
well guarded. When they were to windward of his fleet the Cinque
Port ships bore down on the enemy. As they approached they
threw unslaked lime in the air and the wind blew it in the faces
of the French. This form of attack, and the flights of arrows
discharged by the English (which flew with the wind), produced
confusion in the crowded benches of the French vessels, which
in most cases must have been little more than open boats. It is
further said that in some cases at least the English vessels were
" bearded," that is to say, strengthened by iron bands across the
bows for ramming, and that they sank many of the French. The
Monk was certainly defeated, and his fleet was entirely scattered,
sunk or taken. His own vessel was captured. Eustace, who had
concealed himself in the bilge, was dragged out. In answer to his
appeals for quarter and promises to pay ransom, he was told by
Richard, the bastard son of King John, that he was a traitor who
would not be allowed to deceive more men. His head was struck
off by Richard, and was sent round the ports on a pike. The
Cinque Port seamen returned in triumph, towing their prizes,
after throwing the common soldiers overboard, and taking the
knights to ransom according to the custom of the age.

The political importance of the battle was very great, for it
gave the death-blow to the cause of the barons who supported
Louis, and it fixed Henry III. on the throne. But the defeat and
death of the Monk was widely regarded as in a peculiar sense a
victory over the powers of evil. The man became within a few
years after his death the hero of many legends of piracy and
necromancy. It was said that after leaving the cloister he studied
the black art in Toledo, which had a great reputation in the middle
ages as a school of witchcraft. A French poem written seemingly
within a generation after his death represents him as a wizard.
In a prose narrative discovered and printed by M. Francisque
Michel, it is said that he made his ship invisible by magic spells.
A brother wizard in the English fleet, by name Stephen Crabbe,
detected him while he was invisible to others. The bold and
patriotic Crabbe contrived to board the bewitched flagship, and
was seen apparently laying about him with an axe on the water —
which the spectators took to be a proof either that he was mad, or
that this was the devil in his shape. At last he struck off the
head of Eustace, upon which the spell was broken, and the ship

DOVER

455

H A R B 0 V R

appeared. Crabbe was torn to pieces — presum ably by the familiar
spirits of the Monk — and the fragments were scattered over the
water. Saint Bartholomew, whose feast is on the 2ist of August,
came to encourage the English by his presence and his voice.

Ascertainable fact concerning Eustace is less picturesque, but
enough is known to show that he was an adventurous and
unscrupulous scoundrel. In his youth he was a monk, and left
the cloister to claim an inheritance from the count of Boulogne.
Not having received satisfaction he became a freebooter on land
and sea, and mercenary soldier. He is frequently mentioned in
the Pipe, Patent and Close Rolls. For a time he served King
John, but when the king made friends with the count of Boulogne,
he fled abroad, and entered the service of the French prince Louis
and his father Philip Augustus. Chroniclers lavish on him the
titles of " archipirata," " vir flagitiosissimus et nequissimus,"
and poets made him an associate of the devil.

The evidence concerning Eustace is collected by Herren Wendelin
Forster and Johann Trost, in their edition of the French poem
" Wistasse le moine " (Halle, 1891). See for the battle Sir N.
Harris Nicolas, History of the Royal Navy (London, 1847).

DOVER, a city and the county seat of Strafford county, New
Hampshire, U.S.A., on the Cochecho river, at the head of naviga-
tion, 10 m. N.W. of Portsmouth. Pop. (1890) 12,790; (1900)
13,207, of whom 3298 were foreign-born; (1910 census)
13,247. Land area, 26-4 sq. m. It is at the intersection of two
branches of the Boston & Maine railway, and is served by several
interurban electric lines. The street plan is irregular. Dover
has a fine city hall of red brick and freestone; a public library
containing (1907) 34,000 volumes; the Wentworth hospital; the
Wentworth home for the aged ; a children's and an orphans' home.
The Strafford Savings Bank is said to be the largest and oldest
savings institution in the state. Dover has long had a considerable
commerce, both by rail and by water, that by water being chiefly

Emery Walker sc.

in coal and building materials. The navigation of the Cochecho
river has been greatly improved by the Federal government, at a
cost between 1829 and 1907 of about $300,000, and in 1909 there
was a navigable channel, 60-75 ft. wide and 7 ft. deep at mean low
water, from Dover to the mouth of the river; the mean range
of tides is 6-8 ft. The Cochecho river falls 31$ ft. within the
city limits and furnishes water-power for factories; among the
manufactures are textiles, boots and shoes, leather belting, sash,
doors and blinds, carriages, machinery and bricks. In 1905
Dover ranked fourth among the manufacturing cities of the state,
and first in manufactures of woollens; the value of the city's
total factory product in that year was $6,042,901. Dover is one
of the two oldest cities in the state. In May 1623 a settlement
was established by Edward Hilton on Dover Point, about 5 m.
S.E. of the Cochecho Falls; the present name was adopted in
1639, and with the development of manufacturing and trading
interests the population gradually removed nearer the falls;
Hilton and his followers were Anglicans, but in 1633 they were
joined by several Puritan families under Captain Thomas Wiggin,
who settled on Dover Neck (i m. above Dover Point), which for
100 years was the business centre of the town. As the settlement
was outside the jurisdiction of any province, and as trouble arose
between the two sects, a plantation covenant was drawn up and
signed in 1640 by forty-one of the inhabitants. Dissensions,
however, continued, and in 1641, by the will of the majority,
Dover passed under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts and so
remained for nearly half a century. The town, between 1675 and
1725, suffered greatly from Indian attacks, particularly from that
of the 28th of June 1689 at Cochecho Falls. Dover was first
chartered as a city in 1855. Within the original territory of the
town were included Newington, set off in 1713, Somersworth
(1729), Durham (1732), Medbury (1755), Lee, set off from Durham
in 1766, and Rollinsford, set off from Somersworth in 1849.

456

DOVER— DOWDEN

See Jeremy Belknap, History of New Hampshire (Philadelphia,
1784-1792); and Rev. Dr A. H. Quint's Historical Memoranda of
Persens and Places in Old Dover, N.H., edited by John Scales
(Dover, 1900).

DOVER, a town of Morris county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the
Rockaway river and the Morris canal, about 40 m. by rail W.N.W.
of Hoboken. Pop. (1900) 5938, of whom 947 were foreign-born;
(1905) 6353; (1910) 7468. The area of the town is 1-72 sq. m.
Dover is at the junction of the main line and the Morris & Essex
division of the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western railway
(which has large repair shops here), and is also served by the High
Bridge branch of the Central of New Jersey, and by an electric
line connecting with neighbouring towns. The town is situated
about 570 ft. above sea-level. Building stone, used extensively
for railway bridges, and iron ore abound in the vicinity. The
river furnishes good water-power, and the town has various
manufactures, including stoves and ranges, boilers, bar iron,
rivets, steel castings, rock drills, air compressors, silk hose and
underwear, organzine or thrown silk, and overalls. The water-
works are owned by the town, water being obtained from wells
varying in depth from 193 to 213 ft. Dover was settled as early
as 1748, and was separated from Randolph township and
incorporated as a town in 1869.

DOVERCOURT, a watering-place in the Harwich parliamentary
division of Essex, England, immediately S.W. of Harwich, with
a station between Parkeston Quay and Harwich town on the
Great Eastern railway, 70 m. N.E. by E. from London. Pop.
(1901) 3894. The esplanade and sea-wall front the North Sea,
and there is a fine expanse of sand affording good bathing. There
is also a chalybeate spa. The scenery of the neighbouring
Orwell and Stour estuaries is pleasant. The church, which stands
inland in the old village distinguished as Upper Dovercourt, is
Early English and later; it formerly possessed a miraculous
rood which became an object of pilgrimage of wide repute. It is
said to have been stolen and burnt in 1532, three of the four
thieves being subsequently taken and hanged.

DOW, LORENZO (1777-1834), American preacher, noted for
his eccentricities of dress and manner, was born at Coventry,
Connecticut, on the i6th of October 1777. He was much troubled
in his youth by religious perplexities, but ultimately joined the
Methodists, and in 1 798 was appointed a preacher " on trial " in a
New York circuit. In the following year, however, he crossed the
Atlantic and preached as a missionary to the Catholics of Ireland,
and thereafter was never connected officially with the ministry
of the Methodist Church, though he remained essentially a
Methodist in doctrine. Everywhere, in America and Great
Britain, he attracted great crowds to hear and see him, and he was
often persecuted as well as admired. In 1805 he visited England,
introduced the system of camp meetings, and thus led the way
to the formation of the Primitive Methodist Society. Dow's
enthusiasm sustained him through the incessant labours of more
than thirty years, during which he preached in almost all parts of
the United States. His later efforts were directed chiefly against
the Jesuits; indeed he was in general a vigorous opponent of
Roman Catholicism. He died in Georgetown, District of
Columbia, on the and of February 1834. Among his publications
are: Polemical Works (1814); The Stranger in Charleston, or
the Trial and Confession of Lorenzo Dow (1822) ; A Short Account
of a Long Travel; with Beauties of Wesley (1823); and the
History of a Cosmopolite; or the Four Volumes of the Rev.
LorenzoDow's Journal, concentrated in One, containing his Ex-
perience and Travels from Childhood to 1814 (1814; many later
editions) ; this volume also contains " All the Polemical Works
of Lorenzo." The edition of 1854 was entitled The Dealings of
God, Man, and the Devil as exemplified in the Life, Experience
and Travels of Lorenzo Dow.

DOW, NEAL (1804-1897), American temperance reformer, was
born at Portland, Maine, on the 2oth of March 1 804. His parents
were Quakers and he was educated at the Friends' School in New
Bedford, Massachusetts. He subsequently became a merchant
in his native city and rose to a position of importance in its
business and political life, riis chief interest, however, was in

the temperance question, and he early attracted attention as an
ardent champion of the prohibition of the sale of intoxicating
drinks. He drafted the drastic Maine prohibitory law of 1851.
He was mayor of Portland in 1851 and in 1855, and was a member
of the Maine legislature in 1858-1859. Early in the Civil War
he became colonel of the I3th Maine Volunteer Infantry. He
served in General B. F. Butler's New Orleans expedition, was
commissioned brigadier-general of volunteers in April 1862, and
subsequently commanded for a time the department of Florida.
He was twice wounded in the attack on Port Hudson, on the zyth
of May 1863, and was taken prisoner, remaining eight months in
Libby and other prisons before he was exchanged. After the war
he devoted a great part of his time and energy to the extension
of the prohibition movement in America and England. Through
his exertions the prohibitory amendment was added to the Maine
constitution in 1884. In 1880 he was the candidate of the
National Prohibition Party for president, polling 10,305 votes.
He died at Portland on the 2nd of October 1897.

His Reminiscences were published at Portland in 1898.

DOWAGER (from the Old Fr. douagiere, mod. douairiere),
strictly, a widow in the enjoyment of dower. " Dowager " is
also applied to widows of high rank to distinguish them from
the wives of their sons, as queen-dowager, dowager-duchess, &c.
The title was first used in England of Catherine of Aragon, widow
of Arthur, prince of Wales, who was styled princess dowager till
her marriage with Henry VIII. By transference the word is used
of an elderly lady.

DOWDEN, EDWARD (1843- ), Irish critic and poet, son of
John Wheeler Dowden, merchant and landowner, was born at
Cork on the 3rd of May 1843, being three years junior to his
brother John, who became bishop of Edinburgh in 1886. His
literary tastes were shown early, in a series of essays written at the
age of twelve. His home education was continued at Queen's
College, Cork, and Trinity College, Dublin; at the latter uni-
versity he had a distinguished career, becoming president of the
Philosophical Society, and winning the vice-chancellor's prize
for English verse and prose, and the first senior moderatorship
in ethics and logic. In 1867 he was elected professor of oratory
and Engh'sh literature in Dublin University. His first book,
Shakespeare, his Mind and Art (1875), was a revision of a course of
lectures, and made him widely known as a critic, being translated
into German and Russian; and his Poems (1876) went into a
second edition. His Shakespeare Primer (1877) was also translated
into Italian and German. In 1878 he was awarded the
Cunningham gold medal of the Royal Irish Academy " for his
literary writings, especially in the field of Shakespearian criticism."
Later works by him in this field were his Shakespeare's Sonnets
(1881), Passionate Pilgrim (1883), Introduction to Shakespeare
(1893), Hamlet (1899), Romeo and Juliet (1900), Cymbeline (1903),
and his article (National Review, July 1902) on " Shakespeare as
a Man of Science," criticizing T. E. Webb's Mystery of William
Shakespeare. His critical essays " Studies in Literature "
(1878), " Transcripts and Studies " (1888), " New Studies in
Literature " (1895) showed a profound knowledge of the currents
and tendencies of thought in various ages and countries; but it
was his Life of Shelley (1886) that made him best known to the
public at large. In 1900 he edited an edition of Shelley's works.
Other books by him which indicate his interests in literature are
his Southey (in the " English Men of Letters " series, 1880),
his edition of Southey's Correspondence with Caroline Bowles
(1881), and Select Poems of Southey (1895), his Correspondence of
Sir Henry Taylor (1888), his edition of Wordsworth's Poetical
Works (1892) and of his Lyrical Ballads (1890), his French
Revolution and English Literature (1897; lectures given at
Princeton University in 1896), History of French Literature (1897) ,
Puritan and Anglican (1900), Robert Browning (1904) and Michel
de Montaigne (1905). His devotion to Goethe led to his succeed-
ing Max Miillerin 1888 as president of the English Goethe Society.
In 1889 he became the first Taylorian lecturer at Oxford, and
from 1892 to 1896 was Clark lecturer at Trinity College,
Cambridge. To his sagacity in research are due, among other
matters of literary interest, the first account of Carlyle's

DOWDESWELL— DOWN

457

" Lectures on periods of European culture "; the identification
of Shelley as the author of a review (in The Critical Review of
December 1814) of a lost romance by Hogg; description of
Shelley's " Philosophical View of Reform "; a MS. diary of Fabre
D'Eglantine; and a record by Dr Wilhelm Weissenborn of
Goethe's last days and death. He also discovered a " Narrative
of a Prisoner of War under Napoleon " (published in Blackwood's
Magazine), an unknown pamphlet by Bishop Berkeley, some
unpublished writings of Hayley relating to Cowper, and a unique
copy of the Tales of Terror. His wide sympathies and scholarly
methods made his influence on criticism both sound and
stimulating, and his own ideals are well described in his essay on
" The Interpretation of Literature " in his Transcripts and
Studies. As commissioner of education in Ireland (1896-1901),
trustee of the National Library of Ireland, secretary of the Irish
Liberal Union and vice-president of the Irish Unionist Alliance,
he enforced his view that literature should not be divorced from
practical life. He married twice, first (1866) Mary Clerke, and
secondly (1895) Elizabeth Dickinson West, daughter of the dean
of St Patrick's.

DOWDESWELL, WILLIAM (1721-1775), English politician,
was a son of William Dowdeswell of Pull Court, Bushley,
Worcestershire, and was educated at Westminster school, at
Christ Church, Oxford, and at the university of Leiden. He
became member of parh'ament for the family borough of
Tewkesbury in 1747, retaining this seat until 1754, and from 1761
until his death he was one of the representatives of Worcester-
shire. Becoming prominent among the Whigs, Dowdeswell was
made chancellor of the exchequer in 1765 under the marquess of
Rockingham, and his short tenure of this position appears to have
been a successful one, he being in Lecky 's words ' ' a good financier,
but nothing more." To the general astonishment he refused to
abandon his friends and to take office under Lord Chatham, who
succeeded Rockingham in August 1766. Dowdeswell then led
the Rockingham party in the House of Commons, taking an
active part in debate until his death at Nice on the 6th of
February 1775. The highly eulogistic epitaph on his monument
at Bushley was written by Edmund Burke.

DOWER (through the Old Fr. douaire from late Lat. dotarium,
classical Lat. dos, dowry) , in law, the life interest of the widow in a
third part of her husband's lands. There were originally five
kinds of dower: (i) at common law; (2) by custom; (3) ad ostium
ecdesiae, or at the church porch; (4) ex assensu patris; (5) de la
plus belle. The last was a conveyance of tenure by knight
service, and was abolished in 1660, by the act which did away
with old tenures. Dower ad ostium ecdesiae, by which the
bride was dowered at the church porch (where all marriages
used formerly to take place), and dower ex assensu patris,
by the father of the bridegroom, though long obsolete, were
formally abolished by the Dower Act 1834. Dower is governed
in the United Kingdom, so far as women married after the ist of
January 1834 are concerned, by the Dower Act 1834, and under it
only attaches on the husband's death to the lands which he
actually possessed for an estate of inheritance at the time of his
death. It must be claimed within twelw years of the time of its
accrual, but only six years' arrears are recoverable. The wife is
also entitled to dower out of equitable estates, but joint estates
are exempt. By the act the wife's dower is placed completely
under her husband's control. It does not attach to any land
actually disposed of by him in his lifetime or by his will, nor to any
land from which he has declared by deed his wife shall not be
entitled to dower. He may also defeat her right, either as to any
particular land or to all his lands, by a declaration in his will;
while it is subject to all the deceased husband's debts and
contracts, and to any partial estates which he may have created
during his life or by his will. A widow tenant in dower may make
leases for twenty-one years under the Settled Estates Act 1878.
Free-bench is an analogous right in regard to copyhold land; it
does not fall within the Dower Act 1834, and varies with the
custom of each manor. At common law, and prior to the act of
1834, dower was of a very different nature. The wife's right
attached, while the husband was still living, to any land whereof

he was solely seised in possession (excluding equitable and joint
estates) for an estate of inheritance at any time during the
continuance of the marriage, provided that any child the wife
might have had could have been heir to the same, even though
no child was actually born. When once this right had attached
it adhered to the lands, notwithstanding any sale or devise the
husband might make; nor was it h'able for his debts. In this
way dower proved an obstacle to the free alienation of land, for it
was necessary for a husband wishing to make a valid conveyance
to obtain the consent of his wife releasing her right to dower.
This release was only effected by a fine, the wife being separately
examined. Often, by reason of the expense involved, the wife's
concurrence was not obtained, and thus the title of the purchaser
was defective during the wife's lifetime. The acceptance of a
jointure by the wife before marriage was, however, destructive of
dower, if after marriage she was put to her election between it
and dower. By the ingenuity of the old conveyancers, devices,
known as " uses to bar dower " (the effect of which was that the
purchaser never had at any time an estate of inheritance in
possession), were found to prevent dower attaching to newly
purchased lands, and so to enable the owner to give a clear title,
without the need of the wife's concurrence^ in the event of his
wishing, in his turn, to convey the land. All this was, however,
swept away by the Dower Act 1834, and a purchaser of land no
longer need trouble himself to inquire whether the dower of the
wife of the vendor has been barred, or to insist on her concurrence
in a fine. (H. S. S.)

DOWIE, JOHN ALEXANDER (1848-1907), founder of
" Zionism," was born in Edinburgh, and went as a boy to South
Australia with his parents. He returned in 1868 to study for the
Congregationalist ministry at Edinburgh University, and sub-
sequently became pastor of a church near Sydney, Australia.
He was a powerful preacher, and later, having become imbued
with belief in his powers as a healer of disease by prayer, he
obtained sufficient following to move to Melbourne, build a
tabernacle, and found " The Divine Healing Association of
Australia and New Zealand." In 1888 he went to America,
preaching and " healing," and in spite of opposition and ridicule
attracted a number of adherents. In 1896 he established " The
Christian Catholic Apostolic Church in Zion," with himself as
" First Apostle "; and in 1901, with money liberally contributed
by his followers, he founded Zion City, on a site covering about
10 sq. m. on the west shore of Lake Michigan, with a central
temple for the Zionist church. In 1903 and 1904, in the course of
a visit to the branches of the Zionist movement throughout the
world, he appeared in London, but was mobbed. In April 1906 a
revolt against his domination took place in Zion City. He was
charged with peculation and with practising polygamy, and was
deposed, with the assent of his own wife and son. A suit brought
by him in the United States district court to recover possession
of the Zion City property, valued at two millions sterling, was
unsuccessful, and his defalcations were fully proved. Dowie was
now broken in health and unmistakably insane; he was struck
with paralysis and gradually becoming weaker died in Zion City
in March 1907.

DOWLAS, the name given to a plain cloth, similar to sheeting,
but usually coarser. It is made in several qualities, from line
warp and weft to two warp and weft, and is used chiefly for
aprons, pocketing, soldiers' gaiters, linings and overalls. The
finer makes are sometimes made into shirts for workmen, and
occasionally used for heavy pillow-cases. The word is spelt in
many different ways, but the above is the common way of
spelling adopted in factories, and it appears in the same form in
Shakespeare's First Part of Henry IV., Act III. scene 3. The
modern dowlas is a good, strong and closely woven linen fabric.

DOWN, a maritime county of Ireland, in the province of
Ulster, occupying the most easterly' part of the island, bounded N.
by Co. Antrim and Belfast Lough, E. and S. by the Irish Sea, and
W. by Co. Armagh. The area is 607, 916 acres, or nearly 950 sq. m.
The coast line is indented by several loughs and bays. The largest
of these is Strangford Lough, a fine sheet of water studded with
260 islets, 54 of which have names. All are well wooded or

458

DOWN

rich in pasturage. The lough runs for 10 m. northwards, and
the ancient castles and ruined abbeys on some of the islets render
the scene one of singular interest and beauty. Farther south
Dundrum Bay forms a wider expanse of water. In the south-
west Carlingford Lough separates the county from Louth.
There are no lakes of importance. Between Strangford and
Carlingford loughs the county is occupied by a range of hills
known in its south-western portion as the Mourne Mountains,
which give rise to the four principal rivers — the Bann, the Lagan,
the Annacloy and the Newry. This mass includes, several
striking peaks, of which the principal is Slieve Donard, rising
finely direct from the sea to a height of 2796 ft., which is exceeded
in Ireland only by one peak in the Wicklow range, and by the
higher reeks in Killarney. Several other summits exceed 2000 ft.
Holy wells and mineral springs are numerous in Co. Down.
Theseare both chalybeate and sulphurous, and occur at Ardmillan,
Granshaw, Dundonnell,Magheralin, Dromore, Newry, Banbridge
and Tierkelly. Those of Struell near Downpatrick were accred-
ited with miraculous powers by the natives until recent times, and
religious observances of an extravagant nature took place there.

Geology. — The foundationof this countyisSilurianrockthroughout,
the slates and sandstones striking as a whole north-east, but giving
rise to a country of abundant small hills. The granite that appears
along the same axis in Armagh continues from Newry to Slieve
Croob, furnishing an excellent building stone. South of it, the
Eocene granite of the Mournes forms a group of rocky summits, set
with scarps and tors, and divided by noble valleys, which are not yet
choked by the detritus of these comparatively youthful mountains.
Basalt dykes abound, being well seen along the coast south of
Newcastle. At the head of Strangford Lough, the basalt, possibly
as intrusive sheets, has protected Triassic sandstone, which is
quarried at Scrabo Hill. A strip of marine Permian occurs on the
shore at Holywood. The north-west of the county includes, at Moira,
a part of the great basaltic plateaux, with Chalk and Trias protected
by them. The haematite of dehomet near Banbridge is well spoken
of. Topaz and aquamarine occur in hollows in the granite of the
Mournes. The Mourne granite is quarried above Annalong, and an
ornamental dolerite is worked at Rosstrevor.

Industries. — The predominating soil is a loam of little depth, in
most places intermixed with considerable quantities of stones of
various sizes, but differing materially in character according to the
nature of the subsoil. Clay is mostly confined to the eastern coast,
and to the northern parts of Castlereagh. Of sandy soil the
quantity is small ; it occurs chiefly near Dundrum. Moor grounds
are mostly confined to the skirts of the mountains. Bogs, though
frequent, are scarcely sufficient to furnish a supply of fuel to the
population. Agriculture is in a fairly satisfactory condition.
The bulk of the labouring population is orderly and industrious,
and dwell in circumstances contrasting well with those of others
of their class in some other parts of Ireland. Tillage land
declines somewhat in favour of pasture land. Oats, potatoes
and turnips are the principal crops; flax, formerly important,
is almost neglected. The breed of horses is an object of much
attention, and some of the best racers in Ireland have been bred
in this county. The native breed of sheep, a small hardy race, is
confined to the mountains. The various other kinds of sheep have
been much improved by judicious crosses from the best breeds.
Pigs are reared in great numbers, chiefly for the Belfast market,
where the large exportation occasions a constant demand for
them. Poultry farming is a growing industry. The fisheries, of
less value than formerly, are centred at Donaghadee, Newcastle,
Strangford and Ardglass, the headquarters of the herring fishery.
The chief industries in the county generally are linen manu-
facture and bleaching, and brewing.

Communications. — The Great Northern railway has an
alternative branch route to its main line by Portadown, from
Lisburn through Banbridge to Scarva, with a branch from
Banbridge to Ballyroney and Newcastle. Newry is on a branch
from the Dublin-Belfast line to Warrenpoint on Carlingford
Lough. The main line between Lisburn and Portadown touches
the north-western extremity of the county. The eastern part of
the county is served by the Belfast & County Down railway with
its main line from Belfast to Newcastle to Dundrum Bay, and
branches from Belfast to Bangor, Comber to Newtownards
and Donaghadee, Ballynahinch Junction to Ballynahinch, and

Downpatrick to Ardglass and Killough. The Newry Canal skirts
the west of the county, and the Lagan Canal intersects the rich
lands in the Lagan valley to the north.

Population and Administration. — The population (219,405 in
1891; 205,889 in 1901) decreases slightly. The population in
1891 on the area of the county before the Local Government
(Ireland) Act 1898 was 224,008, for in this case the figures for
part of the county borough of Belfast were included. This is
worth notice from the comparative point of view, since, whereas
emigration to foreign ports is considerable, a large portion of the
moving population travels no farther than the metropolis of
Belfast. About 39% of the population is of the Presbyterian
faith, about 31 % Roman Catholic, among whom, as usual,
education is in the most backward condition; about 23% are
Protestant Episcopalians.

The following are the principal towns: — Newry (pop. 12,405),
Newtownards (9110), Banbridge (5006), Downpatrick (2993 ;
thecountytown), Holywood (3840), Gilford (1199), Bangor (5903),
Dromore (2307), Donaghadee (2073), Comber (2095) and Warren-
point (1817). Other small towns are Portaferry, Rathfryland,
Killyleagh, Kilkeel, Ballynahinch, Dundrum, a small port, and
Hillsborough, near Dromore, where the castle is the seat of the
marquesses of Downshire. There are several popular watering-
place on the coast, notably Newcastle, Donaghadee, Ardglass
and Rosstrevor. On the shore of Belfast Lough are many
pleasant residential villages and seats of the wealthy class in
Belfast. The county is divided into fourteen baronies, and
contains sixty-four parishes. The assizes are held at Down-
patrick, and quarter-sessions at the same town and at Banbridge,
Newry and Newtownards. The county is in the Protestant
diocese of Down, and the Roman Catholic dioceses of Down and
Dromore. Down returns four members to parliament — for the
north, south, east and west divisions. The borough of Newry
returns a member. Previous to the act of Union the county
returned fourteen members to the Irish parliament.

History and Antiquities. — The period at which Down was
constituted a county is not certain. A district, however, appears
to have borne this name before the beginning of the I4th century,
but little is known of it even later than this. However, when in
'535 Sir John Perrot undertook the shiring of Ulster, Down and
Antrim were excepted as already settled counties. That some
such settlement would have been attempted at an early period is
likely, as this coast was a place of Anglo-Norman colonization,
and to this movement was due the settlement of the baronies of
Lecale, the Ards and others.

The county is not wanting in interesting remains. At
Slidderyford, near Dundrum, there is a group of ten or twelve
pillar stones in a circle, about 10 ft. in height. A very curious
cairn on the summit of Slieve Croob is 80 yds. in circumference at
the base and 50 at the top, where is a platform on which cairns of
various heights are found standing. The village of Anadorn is
famed for a cairn covering a cave which contains ashes and human
bones. Cromlechs, or altars, are numerous, the most remarkable
being the Giant's Ring, which stands on the summit of a hill near
the borders of Antrim.' This altar is formed of an unwrought
stone 7 ft. long by 65 broad, resting in an inclined position on rude
pillars about 3 ft. high. . This solitary landmark is in the centre of
an enclosure about a third of a mile in circumference, formed of a
rampart about 20 ft. high, and broad enough on the top to permit
two persons to ride abreast. Near Downpatrick is a rath, or
encampment, three-quarters of a mile in circumference. In its
vicinity are the ruins of Saul Abbey, said to have been founded by
St Patrick, and Inch Abbey, founded by Sir John de Courcy in
1 1 80. The number of monastic ruins is also considerable. The
most ancient and celebrated is the abbey or cathedral of Down-
Patrick. Dundrum Castle, attributed to the de Courcy family,
stands finely above that town, and affords an unusual example
(for Ireland) of a donjon keep. The castle of Hillsborough is of
Carolean date. There are three round towers in the county, but
all are fragmentary.

DOWN, a smooth rounded hill, or more particularly an expanse
of high rolling ground bare of trees. The word comes from the

DOWNES— DOWNMAN

459

Old English dun, hill. This is usually taken to be a Celtic word.
The Gaelic and Irish dun and Welsh din are specifically used of a
hill-fortress, and thus frequently appear in place-names, e.g. Dum-
barton, Dunkeld, and in the Latinized termination — dttnum,
e.g. Lugdunum, Lyons. The Old Dutch duna, which is the same
word, was applied to the drifted sandhills which are a prevailing
feature of the south-eastern coast of the North Sea (Denmark and
the Low Countries), and the derivatives, Ger. Dune, modern
Dutch duin, Fr. dune, have this particular meaning. The
English " dune " is directly taken from the French. The low
sandy tracts north and south of Yarmouth, Norfolk, are known as
the " Dunes," which may be a corruption of the Dutch or French
words. From " down," hill, comes the adverb " down," from
above, in the earlier form " adown," i.e. off the hill. The word
for the soft under plumage of birds is entirely different, and
comes from the Old Norwegian dun, cf. cedar-dun, eider-down.
For the system of chalk hills in England known as " The Downs "
see DOWNS.

DOWNES [D(O)UNAEUS], ANDREW (c. 1540-1628), English
classical scholar, was born in the county of Shropshire. He was
educated at Shrewsbury and St John's College, Cambridge, where
he did much to revive the study of Greek, at that time at a very
low ebb. In 1571 he was elected fellow of his college, and, in
1585, he was appointed to the regius professorship of Greek,
which he held for nearly forty years. He died at Colon, near
Cambridge, on the and of February 1627/1628. According to
Simonds d'Ewes (Autobiography, ed. J. O. Halliwell, i. pp. 139,
141), who attended his lectures on Demosthenes and gives a slight
sketch of his personality, Downes was accounted " the ablest
Grecian of Christendom." He published little, but seems to have
devoted his chief attention to the Greek orators. He edited
Lysias Pro caede Eratosthenis (1593); Praelectiones in Philip-
picam de pace Demosthenis (1621), dedicated to King James I.;
some letters (written in Greek) to Isaac Casaubon, printed in
the Epistolae of the latter; and notes to St Chrysostom, in
Sir Henry Savile's edition. Downes was also one of the seven
translators of the Apocrypha for the " authorized " version of
the Bible, and one of the six learned men appointed to revise
the new version after its completion.

DOWNING, SIR GEORGE, Bart. (c. 1624-1684), English
soldier and diplomatist, son of Emmanuel Downing, barrister,
and of Lucy, sister of Governor John Winthrop, was born in
England about I624.1 His family joined Winthrop in America in
1638, settling in Salem, Massachusetts, and Downing studied
at Harvard College. In 1645 he sailed for the West Indies as a
preacher and instructor of the seamen, and arrived in England
some time afterwards, becoming chaplain to Colonel John Okey's
regiment. Subsequently he seems to have abandoned his religious
vocation for a military career, and in 1650 he was scout-master-
general of Cromwell's forces in Scotland, and as such received in
1657 a salary of £365 and £500 as a teller of the exchequer. His
marriage in 1654 with Frances, daughter of Sir William Howard
of Naworth, and sister of the ist earl of Carlisle, aided his
advancement. In Cromwell's parliament of 1654 he represented
Edinburgh, and Carlisle in those of 1656 and 1659. He was one of
the first to urge Cromwell to take the royal title and restore the
old constitution. In 1655 he was sent to France to remonstrate
on the massacre of the Protestant Vaudois. Later in 1657 he
was appointed resident at The Hague, to effect a union of the
Protestant European powers, to mediate between Portugal and
Holland and between Sweden and Denmark, to defend the
interests of the English traders against the Dutch, and to inform
the government concerning the movements of the exiled royalists.

He showed himself in these negotiations an able diplomatist.
He was maintained in his post during the interregnum subsequent
to the fall of Richard Cromwell, and was thus enabled in April
1660 to make his peace !with Charles II., to whom he com-
municated Thurloe's despatches, and declared his abandonment
of " principles sucked in " in New England, of which he now "saw
the error." At the Restoration, therefore, Downing was knighted

The date of his birth is variously given as 1623, 1624 and 1625
(Sibley's Harvard Graduates, 1883).

(May 1660), was continued in his embassy in Holland, was
confirmed in his tellership of the exchequer, and was further
rewarded with a valuable piece of land adjoining St James's Park
for building purposes, now known as Downing Street.2 Consider-
ing his past, he showed a very indecent zeal in arresting in
Holland and handing over for execution the regicides Barkstead,
Corbet and Okey. Pepys, who characterized his conduct as odious
though useful to the king, calls him a " perfidious rogue," and
remarks that " all the world took notice of him for a most
ungrateful villain for his pains."3 On the ist of July 1663 he
was created a baronet. Downing had from the first been hostile to
the Dutch as the commercial rivals of England. He had strongly
supported the Navigation Act of 1660, and he now deliberately
drew on the fatal and disastrous war. During its continuance he
took part at home in the management of the treasury, introduced
the appropriation of supplies, opposed strongly by Clarendon as
an encroachment on the prerogative, and in May 1667 was made
secretary to the commissioners, his appointment being much
welcomed by Pepys.4 He had been returned for Morpeth in the
convention parliament of April 1660, a constituency which he
represented in every ensuing parliament till his death, and he
spoke with ability on financial and commercial questions. He
was appointed a commissioner of the customs in 1671. Thesame
year he was again sent to Holland to replace Sir William Temple,
to break up the policy of the Triple alliance and incite another
war between Holland and England in furtherance of the French
policy. His unpopularity there was extreme, and after three
months' residence Downing fled to England, in fear of the fury of
the mob. For this unauthorized step he was sent to the Tower
on the 7th of February 1672, but released some few weeks after-
wards. He defended the Declaration of Indulgence the same
year, and made himself useful in supporting the court policy.
He died in July 1684. Downing Street, London, is named after
him, while Downing College, Cambridge, derived its name from
his grandson, the 3rd baronet. The title became extinct when
the 4th baronet, Sir Jacob G. Downing, died in 1764.

Downing was undoubtedly a man of great political and
diplomatic ability, but his talents were rarely employed for the
advantage of his country and his character was marked by
all the mean vices, treachery, avarice, servility and ingratitude.
" A George Downing " became a proverbial expression in New
England to denote a false man who betrayed his trust.6 He
published a large number of declarations and discourses, mostly
in Dutch, enumerated in Sibley's biography, and wrote also
" A True Relation of the Progress of the Parliament's Forces
in Scotland " (1651), Thomason Tracts, Brit. Mus., E 640 (5).

DOWNMAN, JOHN (1750-1824), English portrait painter, was
the son of Francis Downman, attorney, of St Neots, by Charlotte
Goodsend, eldest daughter of the private secretary to George I.;
his grandfather, Hugh Downman (1672-1729), having been the
master of the House of Ordnance at Sheerness. He is believed to
have been born near Ruabon, educated first at Chester, then at
Liverpool, and finally at the Royal Academy schools, and he was
for a while in the studio of Benjamin West. His exquisite pencil
portrait drawings, slightly tinted in colour, usually from the
reverse, are well known, and many of them are of remarkable
beauty. Several volumes of sketches for these drawings are still
in existence. Downman is believed to have beeii " pressed " for
the navy as a young man, and on his escape settled down for
a while in Cambridge, eventually coming to London, and later
( 1 804) going to reside in Kent in the village of West Mailing. He
afterwards spent some part of his life in the west of England,
especially in Exeter, and then travelled all 'over the country
painting his dainty portraits. Ini8i8he settled down at Chester,
finally removing to Wrexham, where his only daughter married
and where he died and was buried. He was an associate of the
Royal Academy. The Downman family is usually known as a
Devonshire one, but the exact connexion between the artist

1 Col. of St Pap. ; Dom. (1661-1662) p. 408 ; Notes and Queries, ix.
ser. vii. 92.

3 Diary, March 12, 17, 1662. * 76. May 27, 1667.

5 Sibley, i. 46.

460

DOWNPATRICK— DOWNSHIRE, MARQUESS OF

and the Devonshire branch has not been traced. Many of
his portraits have attached to them remarks of considerable
importance respecting the persons represented.

See John Downman, his Life and Works, by G. C. Williamson
(London, 1907). (G. C. W, )

DOWNPATRICK, a market town and the county town of Co.
Down, Ireland, in the east parliamentary division, 28 m. S.S.E. of
Belfast by the Belfast & County Down railway. Pop. (1901)
2993. It stands picturesquely on a sloping site near the south-
west extremity of Strangford Lough. It is the seat of the
Protestant and Roman Catholic dioceses of Down. St Patrick
founded the see about 440, but the present Protestant cathedral
dates from 1790, the old structure, * after suffering many
vicissitudes, having been in ruins for 250 years. The cathedral is
said to contain the remains of its founder, together with those of
St Columba and St Bridget. A round tower adjoining it was
destroyed in 1790. A small trade is carried on at Strangford
„ Lough by means of vessels up to 100 tons, which discharge at
Quoile quay, about i m. from the town; but vessels of larger
tonnage can discharge at a steamboat quay lower down the Quoile.
The imports are principally iron, coal, salt and timber; the
exports barley, oats, cattle, pigs and potatoes. Linen manu-
facture is also carried on, and brewing, tanning and soap-making
give considerable employment. The Down corporation race-
meeting is important and attracts visitors from far outside the
county. The rath or dun from which the town is named remains
as one of the finest in Ireland. It was called Rath-Keltair, or the
rath of the hero Keltar, and covers an area of 10 acres. In the
vicinity of the town are remnants of the monastery of Saul,
a foundation ascribed to St Patrick, and of Inch Abbey (1180),
founded by Sir John de Courcy. Three miles south is a fine stone
circle, and to the south-east are the wells of Struell, famous as
miraculous healers among the peasantry until modern times.
The town is of extreme antiquity. It was called Dun-leth-glas,
the fort of the broken fetters, from the miraculous deliverance
from bondage of two sons of Dichu, prince of Lecale, and the first
convert of St Patrick. It is the Dunum of Ptolemy, and was
a residence of the kings of Ulster. It was already incorporated
early in the i sth century. It returned two members to the Irish
parliament until the Union in 1800, and thereafter one to the
Imperial parliament until 1832.

DOWNS, the name of a system of chalk hills in the south-east of
England. For the etymology of the word and its meaning see
DOWN. It is most familiar in its application to the two ranges of
the North and South Downs. Of these the North Downs are
confined chiefly to the counties of Surrey and Kent, and the South
to Sussex. Each forms a well-defined long range springing from
the chalk area of Dorsetshire and Hampshire, to which, though
broken up into a great number of short ranges and groups of hills,
the general name of the Western Downs is given. The Downs
enclose the rich district of the Weald (q.v.).

The North Downs, extending from a point near Farnham to the
English Channel between Dover and Folkestone, have a length
along the crest line, measured directly, of 95 m. The crest,
however, is not continuous, as the hills are breached by a suc-
cession of valleys, forming gaps through which high-roads and
railways converge upon London. The rivers flowing through
these gaps run northward, and, except in the extreme east, are
members of the Thames basin. These breaching valleys, which
are characteristic of the South Downs also, " carry us back to a
ti;ne when the greensand and chalk were continued across, or
almost across, the Weald in a great dome." The rivers " then
ran down the slopes of the dome, and as the chalk and greensand
gradually weathered back . . . deepened and deepened their
valleys, and thus were enabled to keep their original course." *
The western termination of the North Downs is the Hog's Back, a
narrow ridge, little more than a quarter of a mile broad at the
summit, sloping sharply north and south, and reaching 489ft. in
height. At the west end a depression occurs where the rivers Wey
and Blackwater closely approach each other; and it is thought
that the Wey has beheaded the Blackwater, which formerly
1 Avebury, The Scenery of England, ch. xi.

flowed through the gap. In this depression lies Farnham, the
first of a series of towns which have grown up at these natural
gateways through the hills. The Wey, flowing south of the Hog's
Back, breaches the Downs at its eastern extremity, the town of
Guildford standing at this point. The next gap is that of the Mole,
in which Dorking lies. Between Guildford and Dorking the main
line of the Downs reaches a height of 712 ft., but a lateral
depression, followed by the railway between these towns, marks
off on the south a loftier range of lower greensand, in which Leith
Hill, famous as a view-point, is 965 ft. in height. East of the Mole
the northward slope of the Downs is deeply cut by narrow valleys,
and the depression above Redhill may have been traversed by a
stream subsequently beheaded by the Mole. A height of 868 ft.
is attained east of Caterham. The next river to break through
the main line is the Darent, but here another lateral depression,
watered by the headstreams of that river, marks off the Ragstone
Ridge,southof Sevenoaks,reaching8ooft. The lateral depression
is continued along the valleys of streams tributary to the Medway,
so that nearly as far as Ashford the Downs consist of two parallel
ranges; but the Medway itself breaches both, Maidstone lying in
the gap. The elevation now begins to decrease, and 682 ft. is the
extreme height east of the Medway. The direction, hitherto E.
by N., trends E.S.E. The final complete breach is made by the
Great Stour, between Ashford and Canterbury, east of which a
height of 600 ft. is rarely reached. The valley of the Little Stour,
however, offers a well-marked pass followed by the Folkestone-
Canterbury railway, and the North Downs finally fall to the sea
in the grand white cliffs between Dover and Folkestone.

The South Downs present similar characteristics on a minor
scale. Springing from the main mass of the chalk to the south of
Petersfield they have their greatest elevation (889 ft. in Butser
Hill) at that point, and extend E. by S. for 65 m. to the English
Channel at the cliffs of Beachy Head. As in the case of the
North Downs a succession of rivers breach the hills, and a
succession of towns mark the gaps. These are, from east to west,
the Arun, with the town of Arundel, the Adur, with Shoreham,
the Ouse, with Lewes and Newhaven, and the Cuckmere, with no
considerable town. The steep slope of the South Downs is north-
ward towards the Weald. The southern slopes reach the coast
east of Brighton, but west of this town a flat coastal belt
intervenes, widening westward. Apart from the complete
breaches mentioned, the South Downs, scored on the south with
many deep vales, are generally more easily penetrable than the
North Downs, and the coast is less continuous.

Smooth convex curves are characteristic of the Downs; their
graceful and striking outline gives them an importance in the
landscape in excess of their actual height; their flanks are well
wooded, their summits covered with close springy turf.

" THE DOWNS " is also the name of a roadstead in the English
Channel off Deal between the North and the South Foreland. It
forms a favourite anchorage during heavy weather, protected on
the east by the Goodwin Sands and on the north and west by the
coast. It has depths down to 12 fathoms. Even during southerly
gales some shelter is afforded, though under this condition wrecks
are not infrequent.

DOWNSHIRE, WILLS HILL, IST MARQUESS OF (1718-1793),
son of Trevor Hill, ist Viscount Hillsborough, was bom at
Fairford in Gloucestershire on the 3oth of May 1718. He became
an English member of parliament in 1741, and an Irish viscount
on his father's death in the following year, thus sitting in both the
English and Irish parliaments. In 1751 he was created earl of
Hillsborough in the Irish peerage; in 1754 he was made comp-
troller of the royal household and an English privy councillor;
and in 1756 he became a peer of Great Britain as baron of
Harwich. For nearly two years he was president of the board of
trade and plantations under George Grenville, and after a brief
period of retirement he filled the same position, and then that of
joint postmaster-general, under the earl of Chatham. From
1768 to 1772 Hillsborough was secretary of state for the colonies
and also president of the board of trade, becoming an English
earl on his retirement; in 1779 he was made secretary of state
for the northern department, and he was created marquess of

DOWRY— DOYLE, SIR A. C.

461

Downshire seven years after his final retirement in 1782. Both
in and out of office he opposed all concessions to the American
colonists, but he favoured the project for a union between England
and Ireland. Reversing an earlier opinion Horace Walpole says
Downshire was " a pompous composition of ignorance and want
of judgment." He died on the ;th of October 1793 and was
succeeded by his son Arthur (1753-1801), from whom the present
marquess is descended.

DOWRY (in Anglo-Fr. dowarie, O. Fr. douaire, Med. Lat.
dotaria, from Lat. dos, from root of dare, to give; in Fr. dot), the
property which a woman brings with her at her marriage, a wife's
marriage portion (see SETTLEMENT) .

DOWSER and DOWSING (from the Cornish " dowse," M.E.
duschcn, to strike or fall), one who uses, or the art of using, the
dowsing-rod (called " deusing-rod " by John Locke in 1691), or
" striking-rod " or divining-rod, for discovering subterranean
minerals or water. (See DIVINING-ROD.)

DOXOLOGY (Gr. So^p\oyia, a praising, giving glory), an
ascription of praise to the Deity. The early Christians continued
the Jewish practice of making such an ascription at the close of
public prayer (Origen, Ilepi eux^s, 33) and introduced it after
the sermon also. The name is often applied to the Trisagion
(tersanctus), or " Holy, Holy, Holy," the scriptural basis of which
is found in Isaiah vi. 3, and which has had a place in the worship
of the Christian church since the 2nd century; to the Hallelujah
of several of the Psalms and of Rev. xix. ; to such passages of
glorification as Rom. ix. 5, xvi. 27, Eph. iii. 21; and to the last
clause of the Lord's Prayer as found in Matt. vi. 13 (A.V.), which
critics are generally agreed in regarding as an interpolation, and
which, while used in the Greek and the Protestant churches, is
omitted in the Roman rite. It is used, however, more definitely
as the designation of two hymns distinguished by liturgical
writers as the Greater and Lesser Doxologies.

The origin and history of these it is impossible to trace fully.
The germ of both is to be found in the Gospels; the first words of
the Greater Doxology, or Gloria in Excelsis, being taken from
Luke ii. 14, and the form of the Lesser Doxology, or Gloria Patri,
having been in all probability first suggested by Matt, xxviii. 19.
The Greater Doxology, in a form approximating to that of the
English prayer-book, is given in the Apostolical Constitutions (vii.
47). At this time (c. 37 5) it ran thus: " Glory to God on high, and
on earth peace to men of (his) goodwill. We praise thee, we bless
thee, we worship thee, we glorify thee, we give thanks to thee for
thy great glory. O Lord God, heavenly king, God the Father
Almighty; O Lord, the only begotten Son, Jesus Christ; O Lord
God, Lamb of God, Son of the Father, that takest away the sins
of the world, have mercy upon us; Thou that takest away the
sins of the world, receive our prayer; Thou that sittest at the
right hand of the Father, have mercy upon us; For Thou alone
art holy. Thou only, Jesus Christ, with the Holy Ghost, art most
high in the glory of God the Father. Amen." This is the earliest
record of it, but it is also found in the Alexandrine Codex. Alcuin
attributes the authorship of the Latin form — the Gloria in
Excelsis — to St Hilary of Poitiers (died 367). The quotations
from the hymn in the pseudo-Athanasian De Virginitate, and in
Chrysostom (Horn. 69 in Matth.), include only the opening words
(those from St Luke's gospel), though the passage in Athanasius
shows by an el caelera that only the beginning of the hymn is
given. These references indicate that the hymn was used in
private devotions; as it does not appear in any of the earliest
liturgies, whether Eastern or Western, its introduction into the
public services of the church was probably of a later date than has
often been supposed. Its first introduction into the Roman
liturgy is due to Pope Symmachus (498-514), who ordered it to
be sung on Sundays and festival days. There was much opposi-
tion to the expansion, but it was suppressed by the fourth council
of Toledo in 633. Until the end of the nth century its use was
confined to bishops, and to priests at Easter and on their installa-
tion. The Mozarabic liturgy provides for its eucharistic use on
Sundays and festivals. In these and other early liturgies the
Greater Doxology occurs immediately after the beginning of the
service; in the English prayer-book it introduced at the close

of the communion office, but it does not occur in either the
morning or evening service. This doxology is also used in the
Protestant Episcopal and Methodist Episcopal churches of
America, as indeed in most Protestant churches at the eucharist.

The Lesser Doxology, or Gloria Patri, combines the character
of a creed with that of a hymn. In its earliest form it ran simply
— " Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy
Ghost, world without end, Amen," or " Glory be to the Father,
in (or through) the Son, and in (or through) the Holy Ghost."
Until the rise of the Arian heresy these forms were probably
regarded as indifferent, both being equally capable of an orthodox
interpretation. When the Arians, however, finding the second
form more consistent with their views, adopted it persistently
and exclusively, its use was naturally discountenanced by the
Catholics, and the other form became the symbol of orthodoxy.
To the influence of the Arian heresy is also due the Catholic
addition — " as it was in the beginning, is now, and ever shall be,"
the use of which was, according to some authorities, expressly
enjoined by the council of Nicaea. There is no sufficient evidence
of this, but there exists a decree of the second council of Vaison
(529), asserting its use as already established in the East propter
haereticorum astutiam, and ordering its adoption throughout the
churches of the West. In the Western Church the Gloria Patri is
repeated at the close of every psalm, in the Eastern Church at
the close of the last psalm. This last is the optional rule of the
American Episcopal Church.

Metrical doxologies are often sung at the end of hymns, and the
term has become especially associated with the stanza beginning
" Praise God from whom all blessings flow," with which Thomas
Ken, bishop of Winchester, concluded his morning and evening
hymns.

See J. Bingham, Biog. cedes, xiv. 2; Siegel, Christl. Alterthiimer,
i. 515, &c.; F. Procter, Book of Common Prayer, p. 212; W. Palmer,
Orig. Liturg. iv. § 23; art. " Liturgische Formeln " (by Drews) in
Hauck-Herzog, Realencyk. fur prot. Theol. xi. 547.

DOYEN, GABRIEL FRANCOIS (1726-1806), French painter,
was born at Paris in 1726. His passion for art prevailed over his
father's wish, and he became in his twelfth year a pupil of Vanloo.
Making rapid progress, he obtained at twenty the Grand Prix,
and in 1748 set out for Rome. He studied the works of Annibale
Caracci, Cortona, Giulio Romano and Michelangelo, then visited
Naples, Venice, Bologna and other Italian cities, and in 1755
returned to Paris. At first unappreciated and disparaged, he
resolved by one grand effort to conquer a reputation, and in 1758
he exhibited his " Death of Virginia." It was completely success-
ful, and procured him admission to the Academy. Among his
greatest works are reckoned the " Miracle des Ardents," painted
for the church of St Genevieve at St Roch (1773) ; the " Triumph
of Thetis," for the chapel of the Invalides; and the " Death of St
Louis," for the chapel of the Military School. In 1776 he was
appointed professor at the Academy of Painting. Soon after
the beginning of the Revolution he accepted the invitation of
Catherine II. and settled at St Petersburg, where he was loaded
with honours and rewards. He died there on the sth of June 1806.

DOYLE, SIR ARTHUR CONAN (1850- ), English novelist,
eldest son of the artist Charles Doyle, was born on the 22nd
of May 1859. He was sent to Stonyhurst College, and further
pursued his education in Germany, and at Edinburgh University
where he graduated M.B. in 1881 and M.D. in 1885. He had
begun to practise as a doctor in Southsea when he published
A Study in Scarlet in 1887. Micah Clarke (1888), a tale of
Monmouth's rebellion, The Sign of Four (1889), and The White
Company (1891), a romance of Du Guesclin's time, followed. In
Rodney Stone (1896) he drew an admirable sketch of the prince
regent; and he collected a popular series of stories of the
Napoleonic wars in The Exploits of Brigadier Gerard (1896). In
1891 he attained immense popularity by The Adventures of
Sherlock Holmes, which first appeared in The Strand Magazine.
These ingenious stories of the success of the imperturbable
Sherlock Holmes, who had made his first appearance in A Study
in Scarlet (1887), in detecting crime and disentangling mystery,
found a host of imitators. The novelist himself returned to his

462

DOYLE, SIR F. H. C.— DOZY

hero in The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes (1893), The Hound of the
Baskervilles (1902), and The Return of Sherlock Holmes (1905).
His later books include numerous novels; plays, The Story of
Waterloo (i 894) , in which Sir Henry Irving played the leading part,
The Fires of Fate (1909), and The House of Temperley (1909);
and two books in defence of the British army in South Africa —
The Great Boer War (1900) and The War in South Africa; its
Causes and Conduct (1902). Dr Conan Doyle served as registrar
of the Langman Field Hospital in South Africa, and was knighted
in 1902.

DOYLE, SIR FRANCIS HASTINGS CHARLES, Bart. (1810-
1888), English man of letters, was born at Nunappleton,
Yorkshire, on the 2ist of August 1810. He was the son of Major-
General Sir Francis Hastings Doyle, ist baronet (1783-1839),
and was educated at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he
took a first-class in classics in 1831. He read for the bar and was
called in 1837. He had been elected to a fellowship of All Souls'
in 1835, and his interests were chiefly literary. Among his
intimate friends was Mr Gladstone, at whose marriage he assisted
as " best man "; but in later life their political opinions widely
differed. In 1834 he published Miscellaneous Verses, reissued
with additions in 1840. This was followed by Two Destinies
(1844), The Duke's Funeral (1852), Return of the Guards and other
Poems (1866); and from 1867 to 1877 he was professor of poetry
at Oxford. In 1869 some of the lectures he delivered were
published in book form. One of the most interesting was his
appreciation of William Barnes, and the essay on Newman's
Dream of Gerontius was translated into French. In 1886 he
published his Reminiscences, full of records of the interesting
people he had known. Sir Francis Doyle succeeded his father
(chairman of the board of excise) as 2nd baronet in 1839, and
in 1844 married Sidney, daughter of Charles Watkin Williams
Wynn (1775-1850). From 1845 he held various important
offices in the customs. He died on the 8th of June 1888. Doyle's
poetry is memorable for certain isolated and spirited pieces in
praise of British fortitude. The best-known are his ballads on the
" Birkenhead " disaster and on " The Private of the Buffs."

DOYLE, JOHN ANDREW (1844-1907), English historian, the
son of Andrew Doyle, editor of The Morning Chronicle, was born
on the I4th of May 1844. He was educated at Eton and at
Balliol College, Oxford, winning the Arnold prize in 1868 for
his essay, The American Colonies. He was a fellow of All Souls'
from 1870 until his death, which occurred at Crickhowell, South
Wales, on the 4th of August 1907. His principal work is The
English Colonies in America, in five volumes, as follows: Virginia,
Maryland and the Carolinas (i vol., 1882), The Puritan Colonies
(2 vols., 1886), The Middle Colonies (i vol., 1907), and The
Colonies under the House of Hanover (i vol., 1907), the whole
work dealing with the history of the colonies from 1607 to 1759.
Doyle also wrote chapters i., ii., v. and vii. of vol. vii. of the
Cambridge Modern History, and edited William Bradford's His-
tory of the Plimouth Plantation (1896) and the Correspondence
of Susan Ferrier (1898)'.

DOYLE, RICHARD (1824-1883), English artist, son of John
Doyle, the caricaturist known as " H. B." (1797-1868), was born
in London in 1824. His father's " Political Sketches " took the
town by storm in the days of Lord Grey and Lord Melbourne.
The son was an extremely precocious artist, and in his " Home for
the Holidays," done when he was twelve, and his " Comic English
Histories," drawn four years later, he showed extraordinary gifts
of humour and fancy. He had no art training outside his father's
studio. In 1843 he joined the staff of Punch, drawing cartoons
and a vast number of illustrations, but he retired in 1850, in
consequence of the attitude adopted by that paper towards what
was known as " the papal aggression," and especially towards
the pope himself. In 1854 he published his " Continental Tour
of Brown, Jones and Robinson." His illustrations to three of the
Christmas Books of Charles Dickens, and to The Newcomes by
Thackeray, are reckoned among his principal achievements; and
his fanciful pictures of elves and fairies have always been general
favourites. He died on the nth of December 1883. His most
popular drawing is his cover of Punch.

DOZSA, GY6RGY (d. 1514), Hungarian revolutionist, was a
Szekler squire and soldier of fortune, who won such a reputation
for valour in the Turkish wars that the Hungarian chancellor,
Tamas Bakocz, on his return from Rome in 1514 with a papal
bull preaching a holy war in Hungary against the Moslems,
appointed him to organize and direct the movement. In a few
weeks he collected thousands of so-called Kuruczok (a corruption
of Cruciati), consisting for the most part of small yeomen,
peasants, wandering students, friars and parish priests, the hum-
blest and most oppressed portion of the community, to whom
alone a crusade against the Turk could have the slightest attrac-
tion. They assembled in their counties, and by the time Dozsa
had drilled them into some sort of discipline and self-confidence,
they began to air the grievances of their class. No measures had
been taken to supply these voluntary crusaders with food or
clothing; as harvest-time approached, the landlords commanded
them to return to reap the fields, and on their refusing to do so,
proceeded to maltreat their wives and families and set their
armed retainers upon the half -starved multitudes. Instantly the
movement was diverted from its original object, and the peasants
and their leaders began a war of extermination against the
landlords. By this time Dozsa was losing control of the rabble,
which had fallen under the influence of the socialist parson of
Czegled, Lorincz Meszaros. The rebellion was the more dangerous
as the town rabble was on the side of the peasants, and in Buda
and other places the cavalry sent against the Kuruczok were
unhorsed as they passed through the gates. The rebellion spread
like lightning, principally in the central or purely Magyar
provinces, where hundreds of manor-houses and castles were
burnt and thousands of the gentry done to death by impalement,
crucifixion and other unspeakable methods. Dozsa's camp at
Czegled was the centre of the jacquerie, and from thence he sent
out his bands in every direction, pillaging and burning. In vain
the papal bull was revoked, in vain the king issued a proclama-
tion commanding the peasantry to return to their homes under
pain of death. By this time the rising had attained the
dimensions of a revolution; all the feudal levies of the kingdom
were called out against it; and mercenaries were hired in haste
from Venice, Bohemia and the emperor. Meanwhile Dozsa had
captured the city and fortress of Csanad, and signalized his
victory by impaling the bishop and the castellan. Subsequently,
at Arad, the lord treasurer, Istvan Telegdy, was seized and
tortured to death with satanic ingenuity. It should, however,
in fairness be added that only notorious bloodsuckers, or
obstinately resisting noblemen, were destroyed in this way.
Those who freely submitted were always released on parole, and
Dozsa not only never broke his given word, but frequently
assisted the escape of fugitives. But he could not always control
his followers when their blood was up, and infinite damage was
done before he could stop it. At first, too, it seemed as if the
government were incapable of coping with him. In the course of
the summer he took the fortresses of Arad, Lippa and Vilagos;
provided himself with guns and trained gunners; and one of his
bands advanced to within five leagues of the capital. But his half-
naked, ill-armed ploughboys were at last overmatched by the mail-
clad chivalry of the nobles. Dozsa, too, had become demoralized
by success. After Csanad, he issued proclamations which can
only be described as nihilistic. His suppression had become a
political necessity. He was finally routed at Temesvar by the
combined forces of Janos Zapolya and Istvan Bathory, was
captured, and condemned to sit on a red-hot iron throne, with a
red-hot iron crown on his head and a red-hot sceptre in his hand.
This infernal sentence was actually carried out, and, life still
lingering, the half-roasted carcass of the unhappy wretch, who
endured everything with invincible heroism, was finally devoured
by half-a-dozen of his fellow-rebels, who by way of preparation
had been starved for a whole week beforehand.

See Sandor Marki, Dozsa Gyorgy (Hung.), Budapest, 1884.

(R. N. B.)

DOZY, REINHART PIETER ANNE (1820-1883), Dutch
Arabic scholar of French (Huguenot) origin, was born at Leiden
in February 1820. The Dozys, like so many other contemporary

DRACAENA— DRACHMANN

463

French families, emigrated to the Low Countries after the
revocation of the edict of Nantes, but some of the former appear
to have settled in Holland as early as 1647. Dozy studied at the
university of Leiden, obtained the degree of doctor in 1844, was
appointed an extraordinary professor of history in 1850, and
professor in 1857. The first results of his extensive studies in
Oriental literature, Arabic language and history, manifested
themselves in 1847, when he published Al-Marrakushi's History
of the Almohades (Leiden, 2nd ed., 1881), which, together with his
Scriptorum Arabumlocide Abbaditis (Leiden, 1846-1863, 3 vols.),
his editions of Ibn-Adhari's History of Africa and Spain (Leiden,
1848-1852, 3 vols.), of Ibn-Badrun's Historical Commentary on the
Poem of Ibn-Abdun (Leiden, 1848), and his Dictionnaire detaille
des noms des vetements chez les Arabes (Amsterdam, 1845) — a work
crowned by the Dutch Institute — stamped Dozy as one of the
most learned and critical Arabic scholars of his day. But his real
fame as a historian mainly rests on his great work, Histoire des
Mussulmans d'Espagne,jusqu'a la conquete de I' Andalousie par les
Almoramdes, 711-1110 (Leiden, 1861; 2nd ed., ibid., 1881); a
graphically written account of Moorish dominion in Spain, which
shed new light on many obscure points, and has remained the
standard work on the subject. Dozy's Recherclies sur I' hisloire el
la literature de I'Espagne pendant le moyen dge (Leiden, 2 vols.,
1849; 2nd and 3rd ed., completely recast, 1860 and 1881) form a
needful and wonderfully trenchant supplement to his Histoire des
Mussulmans, in which he mercilessly exposes the many tricks
and falsehoods of the monks in their chronicles, and effectively
demolishes a good part of the Cid legends. As an Arabic scholar
Dozy stands well-nigh unsurpassed in his Supplement aux
dictionnaires arabes (Leiden, 1877-1881, 2 vols.), a work full of
research and learning, a storehouse of Arabic lore. To the same
class belongs his Glossaire des mots espagnols et portugais, derives
de I'Arabe, edited with Dr W. H. Engelmann of Leipzig (Leiden,
1866; 2nd ed., 1868), and a similar list of Dutch words derived
from the Arabic. Dozy also edited Al Makkari's Analectes sur
I'histoire et la litterature des Arabes d'Espagne (Leiden, 1855-
1861, 2 vols.), and, in conjunction with his friend and worthy
successor, Professor De Goeje, at Leiden, Idrisi's Description de
I'Afrique et de I'Espagne (1866), also the Calendrier de Cordoue de
I'annie p6i; lexle arabe et ancienne traduction latine (Leiden,
1874). Het Islamisme (Islamism; Haarlem, 1863, 2nd ed., 1880;
French translation) is a popular exposition of Mahommedanism,
of a more controversial character; and De Israelieten te Mekka
(" The Israelites at Mecca," Haarlem, 1864) became the subject of
a rather heated discussion in Jewish circles. Dozy died at Leiden
in May 1883. (H. Ti.)

DRACAENA, in botany, a genus of the natural order Liliaceae,
containing about fifty species in the warmer parts of the Old
World. They are trees or shrubs with long, generally narrow
leaves, panicles of small whitish flowers, and berried fruit. The
most remarkable species is Dracaena Draco, the dragon-tree of
the Canary Isles, which reaches a great size and age. The
famous specimen in Teneriffe, which was blown down by a
hurricane in 1868, when measured by Alexander von Humboldt,
was 70 ft. high, with a circumference of 45 ft. several feet above
the ground. A resin exuding from the trunk is known as dragon's
blood (<?.».).

Many of the cultivated so-called Dracaenas belong to the
closely-allied genus Cordyline. They are grown for the beauty
of form, colour and variegation of their foliage and are extremely
useful as decorative stove plants or summer greenhouse plants,
or for room and table decoration. They are easy to grow and
may be increased by cuttings planted in sandy soil in a tempera-
ture of from 65° to 70° by night, the spring being the best time
for propagation. The old stems laid flat in a propagating frame
will push young shoots, which may be taken off with a heel when
2 or 3 in. long, and planted in sandy peat in 3-in. pots; the tops
can also be taken off and struck. The established plants do best
in fibry peat made porous by sand. In summer they should
have a day temperature of 75°, and in winter one of 65°. Shift
as required, using coarser soil as the pots become larger. By
the end of the summer the small cuttings will have made nice

plants, and in the spring following they can be kept growing by
the use of manure water twice a week. Those intended for the
conservatory should be gradually inured to more air by mid-
summer, but kept out of cold draughts. When the plants get
too large they can be headed down and the tops used for cuttings.

A large number of the garden species of Dracaena are varieties
of Cordyline terminalis. D. Goldieana is a grandly variegated
species from west tropical Africa, and requires more heat.

DRACHMANN, HOL6ER HENRIK HERBOLDT (1846-1908),
Danish poet and dramatist, son of Dr A. G. Drachmann, a
physician of Copenhagen, whose family was of German ex-
traction, was born in Copenhagen on the 9th of October 1846.
Owing to the early death of his mother, who was a Dane, the
child was left much to his own devices. He soon developed a
fondness for semi-poetical performances, and loved to organize
among his companions heroic games, in which he himself took
such parts as those of Tordenskjold and Niels Juul. His studies
were belated, and he did not enter the university until 1865,
leaving it in 1866 to become a student in the Academy of Fine
Arts. From 1866 to 1870 he was learning, under Professor
Sorensen, to become a marine painter, and not without success.
But about the latter date he came under the influence of Georg
Brandes, and, without abandoning art, he began to give himself
more and more to literature. At various periods he travelled
very extensively in England, Scotland, France, Spain and Italy,
and his literary career began by his sending letters about his
journeys to the Danish newspapers. After returning home, he
settled for some time in the island of Bornholm, painting sea-
scapes. He nowissued his earliest volume of poems, Digte (1872),
and joined the group of young Radical writers who gathered
under the banner of Brandes. Drachmann was unsettled, and
still doubted whether his real strength lay in the pencil or in the
pen. By this time he had enjoyed a surprising experience of
life, especially among sailors, fishermen, students and artists,
and the issues of the Franco-German War and the French
Commune had persuaded him that a new and glorious era was
at hand. His volume of lyrics, Daempede Melodier (" Muffled
Melodies," 1875), proved that Drachmann was a poet with a real
vocation, and he began to produce books in prose and verse with
great rapidity. Ungt Blod (" Young Blood," 1876) contained
three realistic stories of contemporary life. But he returned to
his true field in his magnificent Sange ved Havet; Venezia
(" Songs of the Sea; Venice," 1877), and won the passionate
admiration of his countrymen by his prose work, with interludes
inverse, called Derovre fra Graensen ("Over the Frontier there,"
1877), a series of impressions made on Drachmann by a visit to
the scenes of the war with Germany. During the succeeding
years he was a great traveller, visiting most of the principal
countries of the world, but particularly familiarizing himself,
by protracted voyages, with the sea and with the life of man in
maritime places. In 1879 he published Ranker og Roser
(" Tendrils and Roses "), amatory lyrics of a very high order of
melody, in which he showed a great advance in technical art.
To the same period belongs Paa Somands Tro og Love (" On the
Faith and Honour of a Sailor," 1878), a volume of short stories
in prose. It was about this time that Drachmann broke with
Brandes and the Radicals, and set himself at the head of a sort
of " nationalist " or popular-Conservative party in Denmark.
He continued to celebrate the life of the fishermen and sailors
in books, whether in prose or verse, which were the most popular
of their day. Paul og Virginie and Lars Kruse (both 1879) ; Osten
for Sol og vestenfor Maone (" East of the Sun and Moon," 1880);
Puppe og Sommerfugl (" Chrysalis and Butterfly," 1882); and
Strandby Folk (1883) were among these. In 1882 Drachmann pub-
lished his fine translation, or paraphrase, of Byron's Don Juan.
In 1885 his romantic play called Der var en Gang (" Once upon a
Time ") had a great success on the boards of the Royal theatre,
Copenhagen; and his tragedies of Volund Smed (" Wayland the
Smith ") and Brav-Karl (1897) made him the most popular
playwright of Denmark. He published in 1894 a volume of
exquisitely fantastic Melodramas in rhymed verse, a collection
which contains some of Drachmann's most perfect work. His

DRACO— DRACONTIUS

novel Med den brede Pensel (" With a Broad Brush," 1887) was
followed in 1890 by Forskrevet, the history of a young painter,
Henrik Gerhard, and his revolt against his bourgeois surround-
ings. With this novel is closely connected Den hellige lid (" The
Sacred Fire," 1899), in which Drachmann speaks in his own
person. There is practically no story in this autobiographical
volume, which abounds in lyrical passages. In 1899 he produced
his romantic play called Gurre; in 1900 a brilliant lyrical drama,
Hallfred Vandraadeskjald; and in 1903, Del gronne Haab. He
died in Copenhagen on the I4th of January 1908.

See an article by K. Gjellerup in Dansk Biografisk Lexikon vol. iv.
(Copenhagen, 1890). (E. G.)

DRACO (7th century B.C.), Athenian statesman, was Archon
Eponymus (but see J. E. Sandys, Constitution of Athens, p. 12,
note) in 621 B.C. His name has become proverbial as an in-
exorable lawgiver. Up to his time the laws of Athens were
unwritten, and were administered arbitrarily by the Eupatridae.
As at Rome by the twelve Tables, so at Athens it was found
necessary to allay the discontent of the people by publishing
these unwritten laws in a codified form, and Draco, himself
a Eupatrid, carried this out. According to Plutarch (Life of
Solon): " For nearly all crimes there was the same penalty of
death. The man who was convicted of idleness, or who stole a
cabbage or an apple, was liable to death no less than the robber
of temples or the murderer." For the institution of the 51
Ephetae and their relation to the Areopagus in criminal juris-
diction see GREEK LAW. The orator Demades (d. c. 318 B.C.)
said that Draco's laws were written in blood. Whether this
implies peculiar severity, or merely reflects the attitude of a
more refined age to the barbarous enactments of a primitive
people, among whom the penalty of death was almost universal
for all crimes, cannot be decided. According to Suidas, however,
in his Lexicon, the people were so overjoyed at the change he
made, that they accidentally suffocated him in the theatre at
Aegina with the rain of caps and cloaks which they flung at him
in their enthusiasm.

The appearance in 1891 of Aristotle's lost treatise on the
constitution of Athens gave rise to a most important controversy
on the subject of Draco's work. From the statements contained
in chapter iv. of this treatise, and inferences drawn from them,
many scholars attributed to Draco the construction of an entirely
new constitution for Athens, the main features of which were:

(1) extension of franchise to all who could provide themselves
with a suit of armour — or, as Gilbert (Constitutional Antiquities,
Eng. trans, p. 121) says, to the Zeugite class, from which mainly
the hoplites may be supposed to have come; (2) the institution
of a property qualification for office (archon 10 minae, strategus
100 minae); (3) a council of 401 members (see BOULE); (4)
magistrates and councillors to be chosen by lot; further, the
four Solonian classes are said to be already in existence.

For some time, especially in Germany, this constitution was
almost universally accepted; now, the majority of scholars
reject it. The reasons against it, which are almost overwhelm-
ing, may be-shortly summarized. ( i ) It is ignored by every other
ancient authority, except an admittedly spurious passage in
Plato1; whereas Aristotle says of his laws " they are laws, but
he added the laws to an existing constitution " (Pol. ii. 9. 9).

(2) It is inconsistent with other passages in the Constitution of
Athens. According to c. vii., Solon repealed all laws of Draco
except those relating to murder; yet some of the most modern
features of Solon's constitution are found in Draco's constitution.

(3) Its ideas are alien to the 7th century. It has been said that
the qualification of the strategus was ten times that of the archon.
This, reasonable in the 5th, is preposterous in the 7th century,
when the archon was unquestionably the supreme executive
official. Again, it is unlikely that Solon, a democratic reformer,
would have reverted from a democratic wealth qualification
such as is attributed to Draco, to an aristocratic birth quali-

1 A passage (long overlooked) in Cicero, De rtpublica, shows that,
bv the 1st century B.C. the interpolation had already been made;
the quotation is evidently taken from the list in c. xli. of the
Constitution, which it reproduces.

fication. Thirdly, if Draco had instituted a hoplite census,
Solon would not have substituted citizenship by birth. (4) The
terminology of Draco's constitution is that of the sth, not the
7th, century, whereas the chief difficulty of Solon's laws is the
obsolete 6th-century phraseology. (5) Lastly, a comparison
between the ideals of the oligarchs under Theramenes (end of
Sth century) and this alleged constitution shows a suspicious
similarity (hoplite census, nobody to hold office a second time
until all duly qualified persons had beeen exhausted, fine of one
drachma for non-attendance in Boule). It is reasonable, there-
fore, to conclude that the constitution of Draco was invented
by the school of Theramenes, who wished to surround their
revolutionary views with the halo of antiquity; hence the
allusion to " the constitution of our father " (17 irarptos iroXireta).
This hypothesis is further corroborated by a criticism of the
text. Not only is chapter iv. considered to be an interpolation
in the text as originally written, but later chapters have been
edited to accord with it. Thus chapter iv. breaks the connexion
of thought between chapters iii. and v. Moreover, an inter-
polator has inserted phrases to remove what would otherwise
have been obvious contradictions: thus (a) in chapter vii.,
where we are told that Solon divided the citizens into four classes
(niiJitMTa) , the interpolator had added the words " according
to the division formerly existing " ( KoB&irip divpt]Ttu KOI Trportpoc) ,
which were necessary in view of the statement that Draco gave
the franchise to the Zeugites; (6) in chapter xli., where successive
constitutional changes are recorded, the words " the Draconian "
(•?! eirl ApoKovros) are inserted, though the subsequent figures are
not accommodated to the change. Solon is also here spoken of as
the founder of democracy, whereas the Draconian constitution
of chap. iv. contains several democratic innovations. Two
further points may be added, namely, that whereas Aristotle's
treatise credits Draco with establishing a money fine, Pollux
definitely quotes a law of Draco in which fines are assessed at
so many oxen; secondly, if chapter iv. did exist in the original
text, it is more than curious that though the treatise was widely
read in antiquity there is no other reference to Draco's consti-
tution except the two quoted above. In any case, whatever
were Draco's laws, we learn from Plutarch's life of Solon that
Solon abolished all of them, except those dealing with homicide.

AUTHORITIES. — Beside the works of J. E. Sandys and G. Gilbert
quoted above, see those quoted in article CONSTITUTION OF ATHENS;
(jrote, Hist, of Greece (ed. 1907), pp. 9-11, with references; and
histories of Greece published after 1894. (J. M. M.)

DRACO ("the Dragon"), in astronomy, a constellation of
the northern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century
B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.); it was catalogued by
Ptolemy, 31 stars, Tycho Brahe, 32, Hevelius, 40. The Greeks
had many fables concerning this constellation ; one is that when
Heracles killed the dragon guarding the Hesperian fruit Hera
transferred the creature to heaven as a reward for its services.
The planetary nebula H. I V. 37 Draconis is of a decided pale blue
colour, and one of the most conspicuous objects of its class.

DRACONTIUS, BLOSSIUS AEMILIUS, of Carthage (according
to the early tradition, of Spanish origin), Christian poet, flour-
ished in the latter part of the 5th century A.D. He belonged
to a family of landed proprietors, and practised as an advocate
in his native place. After the conquest of the country by the
Vandals, Dracontius was at first allowed to retain possession
of his estates, but was subsequently deprived of his property
and thrown into prison by the Vandal king, whose triumphs he
had omitted to celebrate, while he had written a panegyric on
a foreign and hostile ruler. He subsequently addressed an
elegiac poem to the king, asking pardon and pleading for release.
The result is not known, but it is supposed that Dracontius
obtained his liberty and migrated to northern Italy in search
of peace and quietness. This is consistent with the discovery
at Bobbio of a 15th-century MS., now in the Museo Borbonico
at Naples, containing a number of poems by Dracontius (the
Carmina minor a). The most important of his works is the
De laudibus Dei or De Deo in three books, wrongly attributed
by MS. tradition to St Augustine. The account of the creation,

DRAFTED MASONRY— DRAGOMAN

465

which occupies the greater part of the first book, was at an early
date edited separately under the title of Hexaemeron, and it was
not till 1791 that the three books were edited by Cardinal
Arevalo. The apology (Satisfactio) consists of 158 elegiac
couplets; it is generally supposed that the king addressed is
Gunthamund (484-496). The Carmina minor a, nearly all in
hexameter verse, consist of school exercises and rhetorical
declamations, amongst others the fable of Hylas, with a preface
to his tutor, the grammarian Felicianus; the rape of Helen;
the story of Medea; two epithalamia. It is also probable that
Dracontius was the author of the Orestis tragoedia, a poem of
some 1000 hexameters, which in language, metre and general
treatment of the subject exhibits a striking resemblance to the
other works of Dracontius. Opinions differ as to his poetical
merits, but, when due allowance is made for rhetorical exaggera-
tion and consequent want of lucidity, his works show considerable
vigour of expression, and a remarkable knowledge of the Bible
and of Roman classical Literature.

EDITIONS. — De Deo and Satisfactio, ed. Arevalo, reprinted in
Migne's Patrologiae cursus, Ix. ; Carmina minora, ed. F. de Duhn
(1873). On Dracontius generally, see A. Ebert, Allgemeine Geschichte
der Lit. des Mittelalters im Abendlande, i. (1874); C. Rossberg, In
D. Carmina minora (1878); H. Mailfait, De Dracontii poetae lingua
(1902). On the Orestis tragoedia, see editions by R. Peiper (1875)
and C. Giarratino (Milan, 1906); pamphlets by C. Rossberg (1880,
on the authorship; 1888, materials for a commentary).

DRAFTED MASONRY, in architecture, the term given to large
stones, on the face of which has been dressed round the edge
a draft or sunken surface, leaving the centre portion as it came
from the quarry. The dressing is worked with an adze of eight
teeth to the inch, used in a vertical direction and to a width of
2 to 4 in. The earliest example of drafted masonry is found in
the immense platform built by Cyrus 530 B.C. at Pasargadae in
Persia. It occurs again in the palace of Hyrcanus, known as the
Arak-el-Emir (176 B.C.), but is there inferior in execution. The
finest drafted masonry is that dating from the time of Herod, in
the tower of David and the walls of the Haram in Jerusalem, and
at Hebron. In the castles built by the Crusaders, the adze
has been worked in a diagonal direction instead of vertically.
In all these examples the size of the stones employed is some-
times enormous, so that the traditional influence of the
Phoenician masons seems to have lasted till the I2th century.

DRAG (from the Old Eng. dragan, to draw; the word preserves
the g which phonetically developed into' iv) , that which is drawn
or pulled along a surface, or is used for drawing or pulling.
The term is thus applied to a harrow for breaking up clods of
earth, or for an apparatus, such as a grapnel, net or dredge, used
for searching water for drowned bodies or other objects. As a
name of a vehicle, "drag" is sometimes used as equivalent to
" break," a heavy carriage without a body used for training
horses, and also a large kind of wagonette, but is more usually
applied to a privately owned four-horse coach for four-in-hand
driving. The word is also given to the " shoe " of wood or iron,
placed under the wheel to act as a brake, and also to the " drift "
or " sea-anchor," usually made of spars and sails, employed for
checking the lee-way of a ship when drifting. In fox-hunting,
the " drag " is the line of scent left by the fox, but more particu-
larly the term is given to a substitute for the hunting of a fox
by hounds, an artificial line of scent being laid by the dragging
of a bag of aniseed or other strong smelling substance which a
pack will follow.

DRAGASHANI (Rumanian Draga^ani], a town of Rumania,
near the right bank of the river Olt, and on the railway between
Caracal and Ramnicu Valcea. Pop. (1900) 4398. The town
is of little commercial importance, but the vineyards on the
neighbouring hills produce some of the best Walachian wines.
Dragashani stands on the site of the Roman Rusidava. In 1821
the Turks routed the troops of Ypsilanti near the town. /

DRAGOMAN (from the Arabic ^^>-j> terjuman,a.n interpreter
or translator; the same root occurs in the Hebrew word tar gum
signifying translation, the title of the Chaldaean translation of
the Bible), a comprehensive designation applied to all who act
as intermediaries between Europeans and Orientals, from the

hotel tout or travellers' guide, hired at a few shillings a day,
to the chief dragoman of a foreign embassy whose functions
include the carrying on of the most important political negotia-
tions with the Ottoman government, or the dragoman of the
imperial divan (the grand master of the ceremonies) .

The original employment of dragomans by the Turkish
government arose from its religious scruples to use any language
save those of peoples which had adopted Islamism. The political
relations between the Porte and the European states, more
frequent in proportion as the Ottoman power declined, com-
pelled the sultan's ministers to make use of interpreters, who
rapidly acquired considerable influence. It soon became neces-
sary to create the important post of chief dragoman at the Porte,
and there was no choice save to appoint a Greek, as no other race
in Turkey combined the requisite knowledge of languages with
the tact and adroitness essential for conducting diplomatic
negotiations. The first chief dragoman of the Porte was Panayot
Nikousia, who held his office from 1665 to 1673. His successor,
Alexander Mavrocordato, surnamed Exaporritos, was charged
by the Turkish government with the delicate and arduous
negotiation of the treaty of Carlowitz, and by his dexterity
succeeded, in spite of his questionable fidelity to the interests
of his employers, in gaining their entire confidence, and in
becoming the factotum of Ottoman policy. From that time
until 1821 the Greeks monopolized the management of Turkey's
foreign relations, and soon established the regular system
whereby the chief dragoman passed on as a matter of course to
the dignity of hospodar of one of the Danubian principalities.

In the same way, the foreign representatives accredited to
the Porte found it necessary, in the absence of duly qualified
countrymen of their own, to engage the services of natives,
Greek, Armenian, or Levantine, more or less thoroughly ac-
quainted with the language, laws and administration of the
country. Their duties were by no means confined to those of
a mere translator, and they became the confidential and in-
dispensable go-betweens of the foreign missions and the Porte.
Though such dragomans enjoyed by treaty the protection of
the country employing them, they were by local interests and
family ties very intimately connected with the Turks, and the
disadvantages of the system soon became apparent. Accord-
ingly as early as 1669 the French government decided on the
foundation of a school for French dragomans at Constantinople,
for which in later years was substituted the £cole des langues
orientates in Paris; most of the great powers eventually took
some similar step, England also adopting in 1877 a system,
since modified, for the selection and tuition of a corps of British-
born dragomans.

The duties of an embassy dragoman are extensive and not
easily defined. They have been described as partaking at once
of those of a diplomatist, a magistrate, a legal adviser and an
administrator. The functions of the first dragoman are mainly
political; he accompanies the ambassador or minister at his
audiences of the sultan and usually of the ministers, and it is he
who is charged with the bulk of diplomatic negotiations at the
palace or the Porte. The subordinate dragomans transact the
less important business, comprising routine matters such as
requests for the recognition of consuls, the settlement of claims
or furthering of other demands of their nationals, and in general
all the various matters in which the interests of foreign subjects
may be concerned. An important part of the dragoman's duties
is to attend during any legal proceedings to which a subject
of his nationality is a party, as failing his attendance and
his concurrence in the judgment delivered such proceedings are
null and void. Moreover, the dragoman is frequently enabled,
through the close relations which he necessarily maintains with
different classes of Turkish officials, to furnish valuable and
confidential information not otherwise obtainable. The high
estimation in which the dragomans are held by most foreign
powers is shown by the fact that they are usually and in the
regular course promoted to the most important diplomatic posts.
This is the case in the Russian and Austrian services (where
more than one ambassador began his career as a junior dragoman)

466

DRAGOMIROV— DRAGON

and generally in the German service; the French chief drago-
man usually attains the rank of minister plenipotentiary. The
value of a tactful and efficient intermediary can hardly be
over-estimated, and in the East a personal interview of a few
minutes often results in the conclusion of some important matter
which would otherwise require the exchange of a long and
laborious correspondence. The more important consulates in
the provinces of Turkey are also provided with one or more
dragomans, whose duties, mutatis mutandis, are of a similar
though less important nature. In the same way banks, railway
companies and financial institutions employ dragomans for
facilitating their business relations with Turkish officials.

DRAGOMIROV, MICHAEL IVANOVICH (1830-1905), Russian
general and military writer, was born on the 8th of November
1830. He entered the Guard infantry in 1849, becoming 2nd
lieutenant in 1852 and lieutenant in 1854. In the latter year he
was selected to study at the Nicholas Academy (staff college),
and here he distinguished himself so much that he received a
gold medal, an honour which, it is stated, was paid to a student
of the academy only twice in the I9th century. In 1856 he was
promoted staff-captain and in 1858 full captain, being sent in
the latter year to study the military methods in vogue in other
countries. He visited France, England and Belgium, and
wrote voluminous reports on the instructional and manoeuvre
camps of these countries at Chalons, Aldershot and Beverloo.
In 1859 he was attached to the headquarters of the king of
Sardinia during the campaign of Magenta and Solferino, and
immediately upon his return to Russia he was sent to the Nicholas
Academy as professor of tactics. Dragomirov played a leading
part in the reorganization of the educational system of the army,
and acted also as instructor to several princes of the imperial
family. This post he held until 1863, when, as a lieutenant-
colonel, he took part in the suppression of the Polish insurrection
of 1863-64, returning to St Petersburg in the latter year as
colonel and chief of staff to one of the Guard divisions. During
the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Dragomirov was attached to
the headquarters of the II. Prussian army. He was present at
the battles on the upper Elbe and at Koniggratz, and his
comments on the operations which he witnessed are of the
greatest value to the student of tactics and of the war of 1866.

In 1868 he was made a major-general, and in the following
year became chief of the staff in the Kiev military circum-
scription. In 1873 he was appointed to command the i4th
division, and in this command he distinguished himself very
greatly in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. The I4th division
led the way at the crossing of the Danube at Zimnitza, Drago-
mirov being in charge of the delicate and difficult operation of
crossing and landing under fire, and fulfilling his mission with
complete success. Later, after the reverses before Plevna, he,
with the cesarevich and Generals Todleben and Milutine,
strenuously opposed the suggestion of the Grand-duke Nicholas
that the Russian army should retreat into Rumania, and the
demoralization of the greater part of the army was not per-
mitted to spread to Dragomirov's division, which retained its
discipline unimpaired and gave a splendid example to the rest.

He was wounded at the Shipka Pass, and, though promoted
lieutenant-general soon after this, was not able to see further
active service. He was also made adjutant-general to the tsar
and chief of the S3rd Volhynia regiment of his old division.
For eleven years thereafter General Dragomirov was chief of
the Nicholas Academy, and it was during this period that he
collated and introduced into the Russian army all the best
military literature of Europe, and in many other ways was active
in improving the moral and technical efficiency of the Russian
officer-corps, especially of the staff officer. In 1889 Dragomirov
became commander-in-chief of the Kiev military district, and
governor-general of Kiev, Podolsk and Volhynia, retaining this
post until 1903. He was promoted to the rank of general of
infantry in 1891. His advanced age and failing health prevented
his employment at the front during the Russo-Japanese war
of 1004-5, but his advice was continually solicited by the general
headquarters at St Petersburg, and while he disagreed with

General Kuropatkin in many important questions of strategy
and military policy, they both recommended a repetition of the
strategy of 1812, even though the total abandonment of Port
Arthur was involved therein. General Dragomirov died at
Konotop on the 28th of October 1905. In addition to the orders
which he already possessed, he received in 1901 the order of
St Andrew.

His larger military works were mostly translated into French,
and his occasional papers, extending over a period of nearly
fifty years, appeared chiefly in the Voienni Svornik and the
Razoiedschik; his later articles in the last-named paper were,
like the general orders he issued to his own troops, attentively
studied throughout the Russian army. His critique of Tolstoy's
War and Peace attracted even wider attention. Dragomirov
was, in formal tactics, the head of the " orthodox " school. His
conservatism was not, however, th6 result of habit and early
training, but of deliberate reasoning and choice. His model
was, as he admitted in the war of 1866, the British infantry of
the Peninsular War, but he sought to reach the ideal, not through
the methods of repression against which the " advanced "
tacticians revolted, but by means of thorough efficiency in the
individual soldier and in the smaller units. He inculcated the
" offensive at all costs," and the combination of crushing short-
range fire and the bayonet charge. He carried out the ideas of
Suvarov to the fullest extent, and many thought that he pressed
them to a theoretical extreme unattainable in practice. His
critics, however, did not always realize that Dragomirov de-
pended, for the efficiency his unit required, on the capacity of the
leader, and that an essential part of the self-sacrificing discipline
he exacted from his officers was the power of assuming responsi-
bility. The details of his brilliant achievement of Zimnitza
suffice to give a clear idea of Dragomirov's personality and of
the way in which his methods of training conduced to success.

DRAGON (Fr. dragon, through Lat. draco, from the Greek;
connected with StpKOfiai, " see," and interpreted as " sharp-
sighted "; O.H. Ger. tracho, dracho, M.H.G. troche, Mod.
Ger. Drachen; A.S. draca, hence the equivalent English form
" drake," " fire-drake," cf. Low Ger. and Swed. drake, Dan.
drage), a fabulous monster, usually conceived as a huge winged
fire-breathing lizard or snake. In Greece the word dpaxuv was
used originally of any large serpent, and the dragon of mythology,
whatever shape it may have assumed, remains essentially a
snake. For the part it has played in the myths and cults of
various peoples and ages see the article SERPENT-WORSHIP.
Here it may be said, in general, that in the East, where snakes
are large and deadly (Chaldea, Assyria, Phoenicia, to a less
degree in Egypt), the serpent or dragon was symbolic of the
principle of evil. Thus Apophis, in the Egyptian religion, was
the great serpent of the world of darkness vanquished by Ra,
while in Chaldaea the goddess Tiamat, the female principle of
primeval Chaos, took the form of a dragon. Thus, too, in the
Hebrew sacred books the serpent or dragon is the source of death
and sin, a conception which was adopted in the New Testament
and so passed into Christian mythology. In Greece and Rome,
on the other hand, while the oriental idea of the serpent as an
evil power found an entrance and gave birth to a plentiful brood
of terrors (the serpents of the Gorgons, Hydra, Chimaera and
the like) , the draconles were also at times conceived as beneficent
powers, sharp-eyed dwellers in the inner parts of the earth, wise
to discover its secrets and utter them in oracles, or powerful to
invoke as guardian genii. Such were the sacred snakes in the
temples of Aesculapius and the sacri dracontes in that of the
Bona Dea at Rome; or, as guardians, the Python at Delphi and
the dragon of the Hesperides.

In general, however, the evil reputation of dragons was the
stronger, and in Europe it outlived the other. Christianity,
of course, confused the benevolent and malevolent serpent-
deities of the ancient cults in a common condemnation. The very
" wisdom of the serpent " made him suspect; the devil, said
St Augustine, "leo et draco est; leo propter impetum, draco
propter insidias." The dragon myths of the pagan East took
new shapes in the legends of the victories of St Michael and

DRAGON

467

St George; and the kindly snakes of the " good goddess " lived
on in the immanissimus draco whose baneful activity in a cave
of the Capitol was cut short by the intervention of the saintly
pope Silvester I. (Duchesne, Liber pontificates, i. 109 seq.). In
this respect indeed Christian mythology found itself in harmony
with that of the pagan North. The similarity of the Northern
and Oriental snake myths seems to point to some common origin
in an antiquity too remote to be explored. Whatever be the
origin of the Northern dragon, the myths, when they first become
articulate for us, show him to be in all essentials the same as that
of the South and East. He is a power of evil, guardian of hoards,
the greedy withholder of good things from men; and the slaying
of a dragon is the crowning achievement of heroes — of Siegmund,
of Beowulf, of Sigurd, of Arthur, of Tristram — even of Lancelot,
the beau ideal of medieval chivalry. Nor were these dragons
anything but very real terrors, even in the imaginations of the

Dragon Lizard (Draco taeniopterus).

learned, until comparatively modern times. As the waste places
were cleared, indeed, they withdrew farther from the haunts
of men, and in Europe their last lurking-places were the in-
accessible heights of the Alps, where they lingered till Jacques
Balmain set the fashion which has finally relegated them to the
realm of myth. In the works of the older naturalists, even in
the great Historia animalium of so critical a spirit as Conrad
Gesner (d. 1564), they still figure as part of the fauna known to
science.

As to their form, this varied from the beginning. The
Chaldaean dragon Tiamat had four legs, a scaly body, and wings.
The Egyptian Apophis was a monstrous snake, as were also,
originally at least, the Greek dracontes. The dragon of the
Apocalypse (Rev. xii. 3), " the old serpent," is many-headed,
like the Greek Hydra. The dragon slain by Beowulf is a snake
(worm), for it " buckles like a bow "; but that done to death
by Sigurd, though its motions are heavy and snake-like, has
legs, for he wounds it " behind the shoulder." On the other
hand, the dragon seen by King Arthur in his dreams is, according
to Malory, winged and active, for it " swoughs " down from

the sky. The belief in dragons and the conceptions of their
shape were undoubtedly often determined, in Europe as in
China, by the discovery of the remains of the gigantic extinct
saurians.

The qualities of dragons being protective and terror-inspiring,
and their effigies highly decorative, it is natural that they should
have been early used as warlike emblems. Thus, in Homer
(Iliad xi. 36 seq.), Agamemnon has on his shield, besides the
Gorgon's head, a blue three-headed snake (dp&Kuv), just as ages
afterwards the Norse warriors painted dragons on their shields
and carved dragons' heads on the prows of their ships. From the
conquered Dacians, too, the Romans in Trajan's time borrowed
the dragon ensign which became the standard of the cohort as
the eagle was that of the legion; whence, by a long descent, the
modern dragoon. Under the later East Roman emperors the purple
dragon ensign became the ceremonial standard of the emperors,
under the name of the dpaKovrtiov. The imperial fashion
spread; or similar causes elsewhere produced similar results.
In England before the Conquest the dragon was chief among
the royal ensigns in war. Its origin, according to the legend pre-
served in the Flares historiarum, was as follows. Uther Pen-
dragon, father of King Arthur, had a vision of a flaming dragon
in the sky, which his seers interpreted as meaning that he should
come to the kingdom. When this happened, after the death of
his brother Aurelius, " he ordered two golden dragons to be
fashioned, like to those he had seen in the circle of the star, one
of which he dedicated in the cathedral of Winchester, the other
he kept by him to be carried into battle." From Uther Dragon-
head, as the English called him, the Anglo-Saxon kings borrowed
the ensign, their custom being, according to the Flares, to stand
in battle inter draconem el standardum. The dragon ensign,
which was borne before Richard I. in 1191 when on crusade
" to the terror of the heathen beyond the sea," was that of the
dukes of Normandy; but even after the loss of Normandy the
dragon was the battle standard of English kings (signum regium
quod Draconem vacant), and was displayed, e.g. by Henry III. in
1245 when he went to war against the Welsh. Not till the 20th
century, under King Edward VII., was the dragon officially
restored as proper only to the British race of Uther Pendragon,
by its incorporation in the armorial bearings of the prince of
Wales. As a matter of fact, however, the dragon ensign was
common to nearly all nations, the reason for its popularity
being naively stated in the romance of Athis (quoted by Du
Cange),

" Ce souloient Remains porter,
Ce nous fait moult a redouter:"

" This the Romans used to carry, This makes us very much to
be feared." Thus the dragon and wyvern (i.e. a two-legged
snake, M.E. wivere, viper) took their place as heraldic symbols
(see HERALDRY).

As an ecclesiastical symbol it has remained consistent to the
present day. Wherever it is represented it means the principle
of evil, the devil and his works. In the middle ages the chief
of these works was heresy, and the dragon of the medieval
church legends and mystery plays was usually heresy. Thus
the knightly order of the vanquished dragon, instituted by the
emperor Sigismund in 1418, celebrated the victory of orthodoxy
over John Huss. Hell, too, is represented in medieval art as a
dragon with gaping jaws belching fire. Of the dragons carried
in effigy in religious processions some have become famous, e.g.
the Gargouille (gargoyle) at Rouen, the Graully at Metz, and the
Tarasque at Tarascon. Their popularity tended to disguise their
evil significance and to restore to them something of the beneficent
qualities of the ancient dracontes as local tutelary genii.

In the East, at the present day, the dragon is the national
symbol of China and the badge of the imperial family, and as
such it plays a large part in Chinese art. Chinese and Japanese
dragons, though regarded, as powers of the air, are wingless.
They are among the deified forces of nature of the Taoist religion,
and the shrines of the dragon-kings, who dwell partly in water
and partly on land, are set along the banks of rivers.

The constellation Draco (anguis, serpens) was probably so

DRAGONETTI— DRAGON-FLY

called from its fanciful likeness to a snake. Numerous myths,
in various countries, are however connected with it. The
general character of these may be illustrated by the Greek story
which explains the constellation as being the dragon of the
Hesperides slain by Heracles and translated by Hera or Zeus
to the heavens.

See C. V. Daremberg and E. Saglio, Diclionnaire des antiquites
grecques et romaines (Paris, 1886, &c.), s.v. "Draco"; Pauly-
Wissowa, Realencyclopadie, s.v. " Drakon "; Du Cange, Glossarium,
s.v. "Draco"; La Grande Encyclopedic, s.v. "Dragon"; J. B.
Panthot, Histoire des dragons et des escarboucles (Lyons, 1691). See
also the articles EGYPT: Religion, and BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN
RELIGION. (W. A. P.)

In zoology the name " dragon " is now applied to a highly
interesting, but very harmless, group of small flying lizards form-
ing the genus Draco, belonging to the Agamidae, a family of
Saurian reptiles. About 20 species of " flying dragons " inhabit
the various Indo-Malayan countries; one, D. dussumieri, occurs
in Madras. They are small creatures, measuring about 10 in.
long, including the tail, which in some cases is more than half
of the entire length. The head is small, and the throat is pro-
vided with three pouches which are spread out when they lie
on the trunks of trees. They are, however, chiefly remarkable
for the wing-like cutaneous processes with which their sides are
provided, and which are extended and supported by greatly
elongated ribs. These form a sort of parachute by which the
animals are enabled to glide from branch to branch of the trees
on which they live, but, being altogether independent of the fore
limbs, they cannot be regarded as true wings, nor do they enable
the lizard to fly, but merely to make extensive leaps. But they
have the habit of opening and folding these prettily coloured
organs, when resting upon a branch, which gives them the
appearance of butterflies. When not in use they are folded
by the side after the manner of a fan, and the dragon can
then walk or run with considerable agility. Its food consists
of insects.

DRAGONETTI, DOMENICO (1763-1846), Italian double-bass
player, was born in Venice on the 7th of April 1763. Having
become famous as a performer on his instrument, he went
to London in 1794, where his playing created a furore. He
was the friend of Haydn and of Beethoven, and a well-known
character in his day. He died in London on the i6th of April
1846.

DRAGON-FLY (Ger. Wasserjungfer; Swed. trollslanda; Dan.
guldsmed; Dutch, scherpstekendevlieg; Fr. demoiselle), the
popular English name applied to the members of a remarkable
group of insects which formed the genus Libellula of Linnaeus
and the ancient authors. In some parts of the United States
they appear to be known as " devil's darning needles," and in
many parts of England are termed " horse-stingers." It is
almost needless to say that (excepting to other insects upon
which they prey) they are perfectly innocuous, though some of
the larger species can inflict a momentarily painful bite with
their powerful jaws. Their true systematic position is still
contested and somewhat uncertain. By most of the older
systematists they were placed as forming part of the hetero-
geneous order Neuroptera. J. C. Fabricius, however, elevated
them to the rank of a distinct order, which he termed Odonata;
and whatever may be the difference of opinion amongst authors
at the present day, that term is almost universally employed
for the group. W. F. Erichson transferred all the groups of
so-called Neuroplera with incomplete metamorphoses, hence in-
cluding the dragon-flies, as a division of Orthoptera, which he
termed Pseudo-Neuroptera. K. E. A. Gerstacker more recently
•also retains them in the Orthoplera, terming those groups in
which the earlier states are subaquatic Orthoptera amphibotica.
All entomologists are agreed in maintaining the insects as form-
ing a group marked by characters at once extraordinary and
isolated in their nature, and in most modern classifications they
are treated as a distinct order.

The group Odonata is divided into three families, and each of
these again into two subfamilies. The families are the Agri-
onidae, Aeschnidae and Libellulidae — the first including the sub-

families Calopterygina and Agrionina, the second Gomphina
and Aeschnina, and the third Cordulina and Libellulina.

Anatomy. — The structure of a dragon-fly being so very remarkable,
it is necessary to enter somewhat extensively into details. The head
is comparatively small, and excavated posteriorly, connected very
slightly with the prothorax, on which it turns almost as on a pivot.

facets, which are often larger on the upper portion. The antennae,
which are smaller in proportion than in almost any other insects,
consist only of two short swollen basal joints and a 5 or 6-jointed
bristle-like thread. The large labrum conceals the jaws and inner
mouth parts. The lower lip, or labium (formed by the conjoined
second maxillae), is attached to a very small chin piece (or mentum),
and is generally very large, often (Agrionidae) divided almost to its
base into two portions, or more frequently entire or nearly so; on
each side of it are two usually enormous hypertrophied pieces, which
form the " palpi," and which are often furnished at the tips with an
articulated spine (or terminal joint), the whole structure serving
to retain the prey. Considerable diversity of opinion exists with
respect to the composition of the mouth parts, and by some authors
the " palpi " have been termed the side pieces of the lower lip. The
prothorax is extremely small, consisting of only a narrow ring. The
rest of the thorax is very large, and consolidated into a single piece
with oblique sutures on the sides beneath the wings.

The abdomen varies excessively in form, the two extremes being
the filiform structure observable in most Agrionidae, and the very
broad and depressed formation seen in the familiar British Libellula
depressa. It consists of ten distinct segments, whereof the basal two
and those at the apex are short, the others elongate, the first being
excessively short. In a slit on the under side of the second in the
male, accompanied by external protuberances, are concealed the
genital organs: on the under side of the eighth in the female is a
scale-like formation, indicating the entrance to the oviduct. The
tenth is always provided in both sexes with prominent appendages,
differing greatly in form, and often furnishing the best specific (and
even generic) characters.

The legs vary in length and stoutness, but may, as a rule, be termed
long and slender. The anterior pair probably assist in capturing
and holding insect prey, but the greatest service all the legs render
is possibly in enabling the creature to rest lightly, so that it can quit
a position of repose in chase of passing prey in the quickest possible
manner. The coxa is short and stout, followed by a still shorter
trochanter; the femora and tibiae long and slender, almost in-
variably furnished on their under surface with two series of strong
spines, as also are the tarsi, which consist of three slender joints,
the last having two long and slender claws.

The wings are always elongate, and furnished with strong longi-
tudinal neuration and dense transverse nervules strengthening the
already strong (although typically transparent) membrane. In
the Agrionidae both pairs are nearly equal, and are carried vertically
and longitudinally in repose, and the neuration and membrane are
less strong; hence the species of this family are not so powerful on
the wing as are those of the other groups in which the wings are
horizontally extended in a position ready for instant service. The
neuration is peculiar, and in many respects without precise analogy
in other groups of insects, but it is not necessary here to enter into
more than some special points. The arrangement of the nervures at
the base of the wing is very singular, and slight differences in it form
useful aids to classification. In the Aeschnidae and Libellulidae this
arrangement results in the formation of a triangular space (known
as the " triangle "), which is either open or traversed by nervules;
but in many Agrionidae this space, instead of being triangular, is
oblong or elongately quadrate, or with its upper edge partly straight
and partly oblique. This fixitude of type in neuration is not one
of the least important of the many peculiarities exhibited in these
insects.

The internal structure is comparatively simple. The existence
of salivary glands, denied by L. Duprix, has been asserted by
O. Poletajewa. The rest of the digestive apparatus consists of an
elongate canal extending from mouth to anus, comprising the
oesophagus, stomach and intestine, with certain dilatations and
constrictions; the characteristic Malpighian vessels are stated to
number about forty, placed round the posterior extremity of the
stomach. Dragon-flies eat their prey completely, and do not content
themselves by merely sucking its juices; the harder portions are
rejected as elongate, nearly dry, pellets of excrement.

Pairing. — But the most extraordinary feature in the economy —
one which has attracted the attention of naturalists from remote
times — is the position of the genital organs, and the corresponding
anomalous manner in which the pairing of the sexes and impregnation
is effected. In the male the intromittent organ is situated in a slit
on the under surface of the second abdominal segment ; it is usually
very crooked or sinuous in form, and is accompanied by sheaths, and
by external hooks or secondary appendages, and also by seminal
vessels. But the ducts of the vessels connected with the testes unite
and open on the under surface of the ninth segment; hence, before
copulation can take place, it is necessary that the vessels in the second

DRAGON-FLY

469

segment be charged from this opening, and in the majority of cases
tins is done by the male previously to seeking the female. In the
latter sex the entrance to the oviduct and genital organs is on the
under surface of the eighth abdominal segment. The act of pairing
may be briefly stated as follows. The male, when flying, seizes the
prothorax of the female with the strong appendages at the extremity
of the abdomen, and the abdomen of this latter sex is then curved
upward so as to bring the under side of the eighth segment into

FIG. i . — The anterior portion of
the body of Aeschna cyanea
freed from the nymph-cuticle.

FIG. 2. — The tail being
extricated.

contact with the organs of the second segment of the male. In the
more powerful Libellulidae, &c., the act is of short duration, and it
is probable that polygamy and polyandry exist, for it possibly
requires more than one almost momentary act to fertilize all the
eggs in the ovaries of a female. But in many Agrionidae, and in
some others, the male keeps his hold of the prothorax of the female
for a lengthened period, retaining himself in flight in an almost
perpendicular manner, and it may be that the deposition of eggs and
pairing goes on alternately. There is, however, much yet to be
learned on these points. The gravid female usually lays her eggs
in masses (but perhaps sometimes singly), and the operation may
be witnessed by any one in localities frequented by these insects.
She hovers for a considerable time over nearly the same spot, rapidly
dipping the apex of her abdomen into the water, or at any rate
touching it, and often in places where there are no water-weeds,

so that in all probability the
eggs fall at once to the bottom.
But in some of the Agrionidae
the female has been often
noticed by trustworthy ob-
servers to creep down the
stems of aquatic plants several
inches below the surface,
emerging after the act of
oviposition has been effected ;
and in the case of Lestes sponsa,
K. T. E. von Siebold saw the
male descend with the female.
The same exact observer
noticed also in this species
that the female makes slight
incisions in the stems or
leaves of water plants with
the double serrated apparatus
(vulva) forming a prolonga-
tion of the ninth segment
beneath, depositing an egg in
each incision. He has seen
two pairs thus occupied be-
neath the surface on one and
the same stem.

Larva and Nymph. — The
duration of the subaquatic
life of a dragon-fly is no
doubt variable, according
to the species. In the
smaller forms it is probably
less than a year, but precise evidence is wanting as to the
occurrence of two broods in one year. On the other hand,
it is certain that often a longer period is requisite to enable
the creature to attain its full growth, and three years have
been stated to be necessary for this in the large and powerful

FIG. 3. — The whole body
extricated.

A nax formosus. Like all insects with incomplete metamorphoses,
there is no quiescent pupal condition, no sharp line of demar-
cation between the larval and so-called " nymph " or pen-
ultimate stage. The creature goes on eating and increasing in
size from the moment it emerges from the egg to the time when
it leaves the water to be transformed into the aerial perfect
insect. The number of moults is uncertain, but they are without
doubt numerous. At probably about the antepenultimate of
these operations, the rudimentary wings begin to appear as
thoracic buddings, and in the full-grown nymph these wings
overlap about one-half of the dorsal surface of the abdomen. In
structure there is a certain amount of resemblance to the perfect
insect, but the body is always much stouter and shorter, in some
cases most disproportionately so, and the eyes are always
separated; even in those genera (e.g. Aeschna) in which the eyes
of the imago are absolutely contiguous, the most that can be
seen in the larva is a prolongation towards each other, and there
are no ocelli. The legs are shorter and more fitted for crawling
about water plants and on the bottom. In the mouth parts the
mandibles and maxillae are similar in form to those of the adult,
but there is an
extraordinary and
unique modification
of the lower lip.
This is attached
to an elongate and
slender mentum
articulated to the
posterior portion of
the lower surface of
the head, slightly
widened at its ex-
tremity, to which
is again articulated
the labium proper,
which is very large,
flattened, and
gradually dilated
to its extremity;
but its form differs
according to group
as in the perfect
insect. Thus in the
A g rionidae it is
deeply cleft, and
with comparatively
slender side-pieces
(or palpi), and
strongly developed

FIG. 4. — The perfect insect (the wings
having acquired their full dimensions) resting
to dry itself, preparatory to the wings being
horizontally extended.

articulated spines; in the Aeschnidae
it is at the most notched, with narrow side-pieces and very
strong spines; in the Libellulidae it is entire, often triangular
at its apex, and with enormously developed palpi with-
out spines, but having the opposing inner edges furnished
with interlocking serrations. The whole of this apparatus is
commonly termed the mask. In a state of repose it is applied
closely against the face, the elongated mentum directed back-
ward and lying between the anterior pair of legs; but when an
approaching victim is seen the whole apparatus is suddenly
projected, and the prey caught by the raptorial palpi; in some
large species it is capable of being projected fully half an inch
in front of the head. The prey, once caught and held by this
apparatus, is devoured in the usual manner. There are two
pairs of thoracic spiracles, through which the nymph breathes
during its later life by thrusting the anterior end of the body
into the air; but respiration is mostly effected by a peculiar
apparatus at the tail end, and there are two different methods.
In the Agrionidae there arej;hree elongate flattened plates, or
false gills, full of tracheal ramifications, which extract the air
from the water, and convey it to the internal tracheae (in Calo-
pteryx these plates are excessively long, nearly equalling the
abdomen), the plates also serving as means of locomotion. But
in the other groups these external false gills are absent, and in

470

DRAGON-FLY

their place are five valves, which by their sudden opening and
closing force in the water to the rectum, the walls of which are
furnished with branchial lamellae. The alternate opening and
closing of these valves enables the creature to make quick jerks
or rushes (incorrectly termed " leaps ") through the water,1 and,
in conjunction with its mouth parts, to make sudden attacks
upon prey from a considerable distance. Well-developed
Aeschnid larvae have been observed to take atmospheric air
into the rectum. The lateral angles of the terminal abdominal
segments are sometimes produced into long curved spines. In
colour these larvae are generally muddy, and they frequently
have a coating of muddy particles, and hence are less likely to be
observed by their victims. If among insects the perfect dragon-
fly may be termed the tyrant of the air, so may its larva be styled
that of the water. Aquatic insects and larvae form the principal
food, but there can be no doubt that worms, the fry of fish, and
even younger larvae of their own species, form part of the bill
of fare. The " nymph " when arrived at its full growth sallies
forth from the water, and often crawls a considerable distance
(frequently many feet up the trunks of trees) before it fixes itself
for the final change, which is effected by the thorax splitting
longitudinally down the back, through which fissure the perfect
insect gradually drags itself. The figures indicate this process as
observed in Aeschna cyanea.

The Complete Insect. — For a considerable time after its emer-
gence a dragon-fly is without any of its characteristic colours,
and is flaccid and weak, the wings (even in those groups in which
they are afterwards horizontally extended) being held vertically
in a line with the abdomen. By degrees the parts harden, and
the insect essays its first flight, but even then the wings have
little power and are semi-opaque in appearance, as if dipped
in mucilage. In most species of Calopterygina, and in some
others, the prevailing colour of the body is a brilliant bronzy
green, blue or black, but the colours in the other groups vary
much, and often differ in the sexes. Thus in Libellula depressa
the abdomen of the fully adult male is covered with a bluish
bloom, whereas that of the female is yellow; but several days
elapse before this pulverulent appearance is attained, and a
comparatively young male is yellow like the female. The wings
are typically hyaline and colourless, but in many species (espe-
cially Calopterygina and Libellidina) they may be wholly or
in part opaque and often black, due apparently to gradual
oxydization of a pigment between the two membranes of which
the wings are composed; the brilliant iridescence, or metallic
lustre, so frequently found is no doubt due to interference — the
effect of minute irregularities of the surface — and not produced
by a pigment. A beautiful little genus (Chalcopteryx) of Calo-
pterygina from the Amazon is a gem in the world of insects, the
posterior wings being of the most brilliant fiery metallic colour,
whereas the anterior remain hyaline.

These insects are pre-eminently lovers of the hottest sunshine
(a few are somewhat crepuscular), and the most powerful and
daring on the wing in fine weather become inert and compara-
tively lifeless when at rest in dull weather, allowing themselves
to be captured by the fingers without making any effort to escape.
Many of the larger species (Aeschna, &c.) have a habit of affecting
a particular twig or other resting place like a fly-catcher among
birds, darting off after prey and making long excursions, but
returning to the chosen spot. A. R. Wallace, in his Malay
Archipelago, states that the inhabitants of Lombok use the large
species for food, and catch them by means of limed twigs.

They are distributed over the whole world excepting the
polar regions, but are especially insects of the tropics. At the
present day about 2200 species are known, dispersed unequally
among the several subfamilies as follows: Agrionina, 700
species; Calopterygina, 280; Gomphina, 320; Aeschnina, 170;
Corduliina, 130; Libellulina, 600. In Europe proper only 100
species have been observed, and about 46 of these occur in the
British islands. New Zealand is excessively poor, and can only
number 8 species, whereas they are very numerous in Australia.

1 A similar contrivance was suggested and (if the writer mistakes
not) actually tried as a means of propelling steamships.

Some species are often seen at sea, far from land, in calm weather,
in troops which are no doubt migratory; the common Libellula
quadrimaculata, which inhabits the cold and temperate regions
of the northern hemisphere, has been frequently seen in immense
migratory swarms. One species (Pantala fiavescens) has about
the widest range of any insect, occurring in the Old World from
Kamtchatka to Australia, and in the New from the Southern
States to Chili, also all over Africa and the Pacific islands, but is
not found in Europe. The largest species occur in the Aeschnina
and Agrionina; a member of the former subfamily from Borneo
expands to nearly 6| in., and with a moderately strong body
and powerful form; in the latter the Central American and
Brazilian Megaloprepus caerulatus and species of Mecistogaster
are very large, the former expanding to nearly 7 in., and the
latter to nearly as much, but the abdomen is not thicker than
an ordinary grass-stem and of extreme length (fully 5 in. in
Mecistogaster).

Fossils. — Among fossil insects dragon-flies hold a conspicuous
position. Not only do they belong to what appears to have
been a very ancient type, but in addition, the large wings and
strong dense reticulation are extremely favourable for preserva-
tion in a fossil condition, and in many cases all the intricate
details can be as readily followed as in a recent example. From
the Carboniferous strata of Commentry, France, C. Brongniart
has described several genera of gigantic insects allied to dragon-
flies, but with less specialized thoracic segments and simpler
wing-neuration. These form a special group — the Protodonata.
True Odonata referable to the existing families are plentiful in
Mesozoic formations; in England they have been found more
especially in the Purbeck beds of Swanage, and the vales of
Wardour and Aylesbury, in the Stonesfield Slate series, and in
the Lias and Rhaetic series of the west of England. But the
richest strata appear to be those of the Upper Miocene at
Oeningen, near Schaffhausen in the Rhine valley; the Middle
Miocene at Radaboj, near Krapina in Croatia; the Eocene of
Aix, in Provence; and more especially the celebrated Secondary
rocks furnishing the lithographic stone of Solenhofen, in Bavaria.
This latter deposit would appear to have been of marine origin,
and it is significant that, although the remains of gigantic
dragon-flies discovered in it are very numerous and perfect, no
traces of their subaquatic conditions have been found, although
these as a rule are numerous in most of the other strata, hence
the insects may be regarded as having been drowned in the sea
and washed on shore. Many of these Solenhofen species differ
considerably in form from those now existing, so that Dr H. A. L.
Hagen, who has especially studied them, says that for nearly all
it is necessary to make new genera. It is of great interest, how-
ever, to find that a living Malayan genus (Euphaea) and another
living genus Uropetala, now confined to New Zealand, are repre-
sented in the Solenhofen deposits, while a species of Mega-
podagrion now entirely Neotropical, occurs in the Eocene beds
of Wyoming.

A notice of fossil forms should not be concluded without the
remark that indications of at least two species have been found
in amber, a number disproportionately small if compared with
other insects entombed therein; but it must be remembered
that a dragon-fly is, as a rule, an insect of great power, and in all
probability those then existing were able to extricate themselves
if accidentally entangled in the resin.

See E. de Selys-Longchamps, Monographic des Libellulidees
d'Europe (Brussels, 1840); Synopses des Agnonines, Calopterygines,
Gomphines, et Gordulines, with Supplements (Brussels, from 1853
to 1877); E. de Selys-Longchamps and H. A. L. Hagen, Revue des
Odonates d'Europe (Brussels, 1850); Monographic des Calopteryeines
et des Gomphines (Brussels, 1854 and 1858) ; Charpentier, Libellulinae
europeae (Leipzig, 1840). For modern systematic work see various
papers by R. M'Lachlan, P. P. Calvert, J. G. Needham, R. Martin,
E. B. Williamson, F. Karsch, &c. ; also H. Tumpel, Die Geradflugler
Mitleleuropas (Eisenach, 1900); and W. F. Kirby, Catalogs of
Neuroptera Odonata (London, 1890). For habits and details of trans-
formation and larval life, see L. C. Miall, Natural History of Aquatic
Insects (London, 1895); H. Dewitz, Zool. Anz. xiii. (1891); and
J. G. Needham, Bull. New York Museum, Ixviii. (1903). For geo-
graphical distribution, G. H. Carpenter, Sci. Proc. R. Dublin Soc.
viii. (1897). For British species, W. J. Lucas, Handbook of British

DRAGON'S BLOOD— DRAINAGE OF LAND

Dragonflies (London, 1899). For wings and mechanism of flight,
R. von Lendenfeld, S.B. Akad. Wien, Ixxxiii. (1881), and J. G.
Needham, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. xxvi. (1903). For general mor-
phology, R. Heymons, Abhandl. k. preuss. Akad. (1896), and Ann.
Hofmus. Wein, xix. (1904). (R. M'L.; G. H. C.)

DRAGON'S BLOOD, a red-coloured resin obtained from several
species of plants. Calamus draco (Willd.), one of the rotang or
rattan palms, which produces much of the dragon's blood of
commerce, is a native of Further India and the Eastern Archi-
pelago. The fruit is round, pointed, scaly, and the size of a large
cherry, and when ripe is coated with the resinous exudation
known as dragon's blood. The finest dragon's blood, called
jernang or djernang in the East Indies, is obtained by beating
or shaking the gathered fruits, sifting out impurities, and melting
by exposure to the heat of the sun or by placing in boiling water;
the resin thus purified is then usually moulded into sticks or
quills, and after being wrapped in reeds or palm-leaves, is ready
for market. An impurer and inferior kind, sold in lumps of
considerable size, is extracted from the fruits by boiling. Dragon's
blood is dark red-brown, nearly opaque and brittle, contains
small shell-like flakes, and gives when ground a fine red powder;
it is soluble in alcohol, ether, and fixed and volatile oils. If
heated it gives off benzoic acid. In Europe it was once valued
as a medicine on account of its astringent properties, and is now
used for colouring varnishes and lacquers; in China, where it is
mostly consumed, it is employed to give a red facing to writing
paper. The drop dragon's blood of commerce, called cinnabar
by Pliny (N.H. xxxiii. 39), and sangre de dragon by Barbosa was
formerly and is still one of the products of Socotra, and is
obtained from Dracaena cinnabari. The dragon's blood of the
Canary Islands is a resin procured from the surface of the leaves
and from cracks in the trunk of Dracaena draco. The hardened
juice of a euphorbiaceous tree, Croton draco, a resin resembling
kino, is the sangre del drago or dragon's blood of the Mexicans,
used by them as a vulnerary and astringent.

DRAGOON (Fr. dragon, Ger. Dragoner), originally a mounted
soldier trained to fight on foot only (see CAVALRY). This
mounted infantryman of the late i6th and I7th centuries, like
his comrades of the infantry who were styled " pike " and
" shot," took his name from his weapon, a species of carbine
or short musket called the " dragon." Dragoons were organized
not in squadrons but in companies, like the foot, and their officers
and non-commissioned officers bore infantry titles. The invariable
tendency of the old-fashioned dragoon, who was always at a
disadvantage when engaged against true cavalry, was to improve
his horsemanship and armament to the cavalry standard. Thus
" dragoon " came to mean medium cavalry, and this significance
the word has retained since the early wars of Frederick the Great,
save for a few local and temporary returns to the original mean-
ing. The phrases " to dragoon " and " dragonnade " bear
witness to the mounted infantry period, this arm being the most
efficient and economical form of cavalry for police work and
guerrilla warfare. The " Dragonnades," properly so called,
were the operations of the troops (chiefly mounted) engaged in
enforcing Louis XIV.'s decrees against Protestants after the
revocation of the edict of Nantes. In the British service the
dragoons (ist Royals, 2nd Scots Greys, 6th Inniskillings) are
heavy cavalry, the Dragoon Guards (seven regiments) are
medium, as are the dragoons of other countries. The light
cavalry of the British army in the i8th and early igth century
was for the most part called light dragoons.

DRAGUIGNAN, the chief town of the department of the Var
in S.E. France; 51 m. N.E. of Toulon, and 28$ m. N.W. of
Frejus by rail; situated at a height of 679 ft. above the level
of the sea, at the southern foot of the wooded heights of Malmont,
and on the left bank of the Nartuby river; pop. (1906) 7766.
It possesses no notable buildings, save a modern parish church,
a prefecture, also modern, and a building wherein are housed the
town library and a picture gallery, with some fair works of art.
In modern times the ramparts have been demolished, and new
wide streets pierced through the town.

DRAINAGE OF LAND. The verb " to drain," with its sub-
stantives " drain " and " drainage," represents the 0. Eng.

dreahnian, from the same root found in " dry," and signifies
generally the act of drawing off moisture or liquid from some-
where, and so drinking dry, and (figuratively) exhausting; the
substantive " drain " being thus used not only in the direct
sense of a channel for carrying off liquid, but also figuratively
for a very small amount such as would be left as dregs. The
term " drainage " is applied generally to all operations involving
the drawing off of water or other liquid, but more particularly
to those connected with the treatment of the soil in agriculture,
or with the removal of water and refuse from streets and houses.
For the last, see SEWERAGE; the following article being devoted
to the agricultural aspects of this subject. See also the articles
RECLAMATION OF LAND, CANAL, IRRIGATION, RIVER ENGINEER-
ING, WATER SUPPLY and (law) WATER RIGHTS.

Agricultural or field drainage consists in the freeing of the soil
from stagnant and superfluous water by means of surface
or underground channels. It may be distinguished from the
draining of land on a large scale which is exemplified in the re-
clamation of the English Fens (see FENS). Surface drainage is
usually effected by ploughing the land into convex ridges off
which the water runs into intervening furrows and is conveyed
into ditches. For several reasons this method is ineffective, and,
where possible, is now superseded by underground drainage by
means of pipe-tiles. Land is not in a satisfactory condition with
respect to drainage unless the rain that falls upon it can sink
down to the minimum depth required for the healthy develop-
ment of the roots of crops and thence find vent either through
a naturally porous subsoil or by artificial channels.

A few of the evils inseparable from the presence of overmuch
water in the soil may be enumerated. Wet land, if in grass,
produces only the coarser grasses, and many subaquatic plants
and mosses, which are of little or no value for pasturage; its
herbage is late in spring, and fails early in autumn; the animals
grazed upon it are unduly liable to disease, and sheep, especially,
to foot-rot and liver-rot. In the case of arable land the crops are
poor and moisture-loving weeds flourish. Tillage operations on
such land are easily interrupted by rain, and the period always
much limited in which they can be prosecuted at all; the com-
pactness and toughness of the soil renders each operation more
arduous, and its repetition more necessary than in the case of
dry land. The surface must necessarily be thrown into ridges,
and the furrows and cross-cuts cleared out after each process
of tillage, and upon this surface-drainage as much labour is
expended in twenty years as would suffice to make under-drains
enough to lay it permanently dry. With all these precautions
the best seed time is often missed, and this usually proves the
prelude to a scanty crop, or to a late and disastrous harvest.
The cultivation of the turnip and other root crops, which require
the soil to be wrought to a deep and free tilth, either becomes
altogether impracticable and must be abandoned for the safe
but costly bare fallow, or is carried out with great labour and
hazard; and the crop, when grown, can neither be removed from
the ground, nor consumed upon it by sheep without damage by
" poaching."

The roots of plants require both air and warmth. A deep
stratum through which water can percolate, but in which it
can never stagnate, is therefore necessary. A waterlogged soil
is impenetrable by air, and owing to the continuous process of
evaporation and radiation, its temperature is much below that of
drained soil. The surface of the water in the supersaturated
soil is known as the " water-table " and is exemplified in water
standing in a well. Water will rise in clay by capillarity to a
height of 50 in., in sand to 22 in. Above the " water-table "
the water is held by capillarity, and the percentage of water held
decreases as we approach the surface where there may be perfect
dryness. Draining reduces the " surface tension " of the capil-
lary water by removal of the excess, but the " water-table "
may be many feet below. Drains ordinarily remove only excess
of capillary water, an excess of percolating water in wet weather.

In setting about the draining of a field, or farm, or estate, the
first point is to secure a proper outfall. The lines of the receiving
drains must next be determined, and then the direction of the

472

DRAINAGE OF LAND

parallel drains. The former must occupy the lowest part of the
natural hollows, and the latter must run in the line of the greatest
slope of the ground. In the case of flat land, where a fall is
obtained chiefly by increasing the depth of the drains at their
lower ends, these lines may be disposed in any direction that is
found convenient; but in undulating ground a single field may
require several distinct sets of drains lying at different angles,
so as to suit its several slopes. When a field is ridged in the line
of the greatest ascent of the ground, there is an obvious con-
venience in adopting the furrows as the site of the drains; but
wherever this is not the case the drains must be laid off to suit
the contour of the ground, irrespective of the furrows altogether.
When parts of a field are flat, and other parts have a considerable
acclivity, it is expedient to cut a receiving drain near to the
bottom of the slopes, and to give the flat ground an independent
set of drains. In laying off receiving drains it is essential to give
hedgerows and trees a good offing, lest the conduit be obstructed
by the roots.

When a main drain is so placed that parallel ones empty into
it from both sides, care should be taken that the inlets of the
latter are not made exactly opposite to each other. Much of
the success of draining depends on the skilful planning of these
main drains, and in making them large enough to discharge the
greatest flow of water to which they may be exposed. Very
long main drains are to be avoided. Numerous outlets are also
objectionable, from their liability to obstruction. An outlet to
an area of from 10 to 15 acres is a good arrangement. These
outlets should be faced with mason work, and guarded with iron
gratings.

The distance and depth apart of the parallel drains is deter-
mined chiefly by reference to the texture of the soil. In an
impervious clay the flow of the water is much impeded and the
water-table can be controlled only by frequent lines of pipes.
On such land it is customary to lay them about 3 ft. from the
surface and from 15 to 21 ft. apart. In lighter soils the depth,
and proportionately the distance apart, is increased, but the
drains are rarely more than 4 ft. 6 in. below the surface, though
they may be 75 or 100 apart. A fall of at least i in 200 is
desirable.

There are various forms of under-drainage, some of them
alluded to in the historical section below, but by far the common-
est is by means of cylindrical or oval pipes of burnt clay about
i ft. in length, sometimes supplemented by collars, though
nowadays the use of these is being abandoned. Pipes vary in
bore from 2 in. for the parallel to 6 in. for the main drains.

In constructing a drain, it is of importance that the bottom be
cut out just wide enough to admit the pipes and no more. Pipes,
when accurately fitted in, are much less liable to derangement
than when laid in the bottom of a trench several times their
width, into which a mass of loose earth must necessarily be
returned. This is easily effected m the case of soils tolerably
free from stones by the use of draining spades and the tile-hook
which are represented in the accompanying cut. The tile-hook is
an implement by means of which the pipes may be lowered from
the edge of the trench and laid at the bottom. An implement,
sometimes propelled by steam, known as the draining plough,
can be used for opening the trenches. Draining can be carried
on at all seasons, but is usually best done in autumn or summer.
A thoroughly trustworthy and experienced workman should
be selected to lay the pipes, with instructions to set no pipes
until he is satisfied that the depth of the drains and level of the
bottoms are correct. The expense of tile-drainage may vary
from about £2:105. per acre on locse soils to £10 an acre on the
most tenacious soils, the rate of wages and the cost of the pipes,
the depth of the trenches and the ease with which they can be
dug, all influencing the cost of the process.

Drainage is not a modern discovery. The Romans were
careful to keep their arable lands dry by means of open trenches
or covered drains filled with stones or twigs. It is at least several
centuries since covered channels of various kinds were used by
British husbandmen for drying their land. Walter Blith (see
AGRICULTURE) about the middle of the i;th century wrote of

the improvement which might be effected in barren land by free-
ing it from the excess of stagnant water on or near the surface
by means of channels filled with faggots or stones, but his
principles, never generally adopted, were ultimately forgotten.
In the latter half of the i8th century. Joseph Elkington, a
Warwickshire farmer, discovered a plan of laying dry sloping
ground that is drowned by the outbursting of springs. When
the higher-lying portion of such land is porous, rain falling upon
it sinks down until it is arrested by clay or other impervious
matter, which causes it again to issue at the surface and wet the
lower-lying ground. Elkington showed that by cutting a deep
drain through the clay, aided when necessary by wells or auger
holes, the subjacent bed of sand or gravel in which a body of
water is pent up by the clay, as in a vessel, might be tapped
and the water conveyed harmlessly in the covered drain to the
nearest ditch or stream. In the circumstances to which it is
applicable, and in the hands of skilful drainers, Elkington's

Draining Implements.

plan, known as " sink-hole drainage," by bringing into play the
natural drainage furnished by porous strata, is often eminently
successful.

During the subsequent thirty or forty years most of the drain-
ing that took place was on this system, and an immense capital
was expended in such works with varying results. Things
continued in this position until about 1823, when James Smith
of Deanston, having discovered anew those principles of draining
so long before indicated by Blith, proceeded to exemplify them
in his own practice, and to expound them to the public in a way
that speedily effected a complete revolution in the art of draining,
and marked an era in agricultural progress. Instead of persisting
in fruitless attempts to dry extensive areas by a few dexterous
cuts, he insisted on the necessity of providing every field that
needed draining at all with a complete system of parallel under-
ground channels, running in the line of the greatest slope of the
ground, and so near to each other that the whole rain falling at
any time upon the surface should sink down and be carried off
by the drains. A main receiving drain was to be carried along
the lowest part of the ground, with sub-drains in every subor-
dinate hollow that the ground presented. The distances between
drains he showed must be regulated by the greater or less reten-
tiveness of the ground operated upon, and gave 10 to 40 ft. as
the limits of their distance apart. The depth which he prescribed
for his parallel drains was 30 in., and these were to be filled with
12 in. of stones small enough to pass through a 3-in. ring — in
short a new edition of Blith's drain. Josiah Parkes, engineer

DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS

473

to the Royal Agricultural Society, advocated a greater distance
apart for the drains, and, in order that the subterranean water
might be reached, a depth of at least 4 ft.

The cultivated lands of Britain being disposed in ridges which
usually lie in the line of greatest ascent, it became customary
to form the drains in each furrow, or in each alternate, or third
or fourth one, as the case might require, or views of economy
dictate and hence the system soon came to be popularly called
" furrow draining." From the number and arrangement of
the drains, the terms " frequent " and " parallel " were also
applied to it. Smith himself more appropriately named it, from
its effects, "thorough draining." The sound principles thus
promulgated by him were speedily adopted and extensively
carried into practice. The great labour and cost incurred in
procuring stones in adequate quantities, and the difficulty of
carting them in wet seasons, soon led to the substitution of
" tiles," and soles of burnt earthenware. The limited supply
and high price of these tiles for a time impeded the progress
of the new system of draining; but the invention of tile-making
machines removed this impediment, and gave a stimulus to this
fundamental agricultural improvement. The substitution of
cylindrical pipes for the original horse-shoe tiles has still further
lowered the cost and increased the efficiency and permanency
of drainage works.

The system introduced by Smith of Deanston has now been
virtually adopted by all drainers. Variations in matters of
detail (having respect chiefly to the depth and distance apart
of the parallel drains) have indeed been introduced; but the
distinctive features of his system are recognized and acted
upon.

A great stimulus was given to the improvement of land by the
passing in England of a series of acts of parliament, which removed
certain obstacles that effectually hindered tenants with limited
interests from investing capital in works of drainage and kindred
amelioration. The Public Money Drainage Acts 1846-1856 author-
ized the advance of public money to landowners to enable them to
make improvements in their lands, not only by draining, but by
irrigation, the making of permanent roads, clearing, erecting build-
ings, planting for shelter, &c. The rapid absorption of the funds
provided by these acts led to further legislative measures by which
private capital was rendered available for the improvement of land.
A series of special improvement acts were passed, authorizing
companies to execute or advance money for executing improvements
in land. Finally, the Land Improvement Act 1864, amended and
extended by the act of 1899, gave facilities for borrowing money by
charging the cost of draining, &c., as a rent-charge upon the inherit-
ance of the land. The instalments must be repaid with interest in
equal amounts extending over a fixed term of years by the tenant
for life during his lifetime, the tenant being bound to maintain the
improvements.

See C. G. Elliott, Engineering for Land Drainage (New York,
'QOS) I F. H. King, Irrigation and Drainage (New York, 1899);
G. S. Mitchell, Handbook of Land Drainage (London, 1898), with a
good bibliography.

DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS (c. 1545-1595), English admiral, was
born near Tavistock, Devonshire, about 1545 according to most
early authorities, but possibly as early as 1539 (see Corbett,
vol. i., Appendix A). His father, a yeoman and a zealous
Protestant, was obliged to take refuge in Kent during the
persecutions in the reign of Queen Mary. He obtained a naval
chaplaincy from Queen Elizabeth, and is said to have been after-
wards vicar of Upnor Church (evidently a misprint or slip of the
pen for Upchurch) on the Medway. Young Drake was educated
at the expense and under the care of Sir John Hawkins, who was
his kinsman; and, after passing an apprenticeship on a coasting
vessel, at the age of eighteen he had risen to be purser of a ship
trading to Biscay. At twenty he made a voyage to Guinea;
and at twenty-two he was made captain of the " Judith." In
that capacity he was in the harbour of San Juan de Ulloa, in the
Gulf of Mexico, where he behaved most gallantly in the actions
under Sir John Hawkins, and returned with him to England,
having acquired great reputation, though with the loss of all the
money which he had embarked in the expedition. In 1570 he
obtained a regular privateering commission from Queen Eliza-
beth, the powers of which he immediately exercised in a cruise
in the Spanish Main. Having next projected an attack against

the Spaniards in the West Indies to indemnify himself for his
former losses, he set sail in 1572, with two small ships named
the " Pasha " and the " Swan." He was afterwards joined by
another vessel; and with this small squadron he took and
plundered the Spanish town of Nombre de Dios. With his men
he penetrated across the isthmus of Panama, and committed
great havoc among the Spanish shipping. From the top of a tree
which he climbed while on the isthmus he obtained his first view
of the Pacific, and resolved " to sail an English ship in these
seas." In these expeditions he was much assisted by the Maroons,
descendants of escaped negro slaves, who were then engaged
in a desultory warfare with the Spaniards. Having embarked
his men and filled his ships with plunder, he bore away for
England, and arrived at Plymouth on the gth of August 1573.

His success and honourable demeanour in this expedition
gained him high reputation; and the use which he made of his
riches served to raise him still higher in popular esteem. Having
fitted out three frigates at his own expense, he sailed with them
to Ireland, and rendered effective service as a volunteer, under
Walter, earl of Essex, the father of the famous but unfortunate
earl. After his patron's death he returned to England, where
he was introduced to Queen Elizabeth (whether by Sir Christopher
Hatton is doubtful), and obtained a favourable reception. In
this way he acquired the means of undertaking the expedition
which has immortalized his name. The first proposal he made
was to undertake a voyage into the South Seas through the
Straits of Magellan, which no Englishman had hitherto ever
attempted. This project having been well received at court,
the queen furnished him with means; and his own fame quickly
drew together a sufficient force. The fleet with which he sailed
on this enterprise consisted of only five small vessels, and their
united crews mustered only 166 men. Starting on the i3th
of December 1577, his course lay by the west coast of Morocco
and the Cape Verde Islands. He reached the coast of Brazil on
the 6th of April, and entered the Rio de la Plata, where he parted
company with two of his ships; but having met them again,
and taken out their provisions, he turned them adrift. On the
1 9th of June he entered the port of St Julian's, where he remained
two months, partly to lay in provisions, and partly delayed by
the trial and execution of Thomas Doughty, who had plotted
against him. On the 2ist of August he entered the Straits of
Magellan. The passage of the straits took sixteen days, but then
a storm carried the ships to the west; on the 7th of October,
having made back for the mouth of the strait, Drake's ship and
the two vessels under his vice-admiral Captain Wynter were
separated, and the latter, missing 'the rendezvous arranged,
returned to England. Drake went on, and came to Mocha Island,
off the coast of Chile, on the 25th of November. He thence
continued his voyage along the coast of Chile and Peru, taking
all opportunities of seizing Spanish ships, and attacking them
on shore, till his men were satiated with plunder; and then
coasted along the shores of America, as far as 48° N. lat., in an
unsuccessful endeavour to discover a passage into the Atlantic.
Having landed, however, he named the country New Albion,
and took possession of it in the name of Queen Elizabeth.
Having careened his ship, he sailed thence on the 26th of July
1579 for the Moluccas. On the 4th of November he got sight
of those islands, and, arriving at Ternate, was extremely well
received by the sultan. On the loth of December he made the
Celebes, where his ship unfortunately struck upon a rock, but
was taken off without much damage. On the nth of March he
arrived at Java, whence he intended to have directed his course
to Malacca; but he found himself obliged to alter his purpose,
and to think of returning home. On the 26th of March 1580 he
again set sail; and on the isth of June he doubled the Cape of
Good Hope, having then on board only fifty-seven men and
three casks of water. He passed the line on the I2th of July,
and on the i6th reached the coast of Guinea, where he watered.
On the i ith of September he made the Island of Terceira, and on
the 26th of September (?) he entered the harbour of Plymouth.
This voyage round the world, the first accomplished by an
Englishman, was thus performed in two years and about ten

474

DRAKE, N.— DRAKENSBERG

months. The queen hesitated for some time whether to recog-
nize his achievements or not, on the ground that such recognition
might lead to complications with Spain, but she finally decided
in his favour. Accordingly, soon after his arrival she paid a
visit to Deptford, went on board his ship, and there, after
partaking of a banquet, conferred upon him the honour of knight-
hood, at the same time declaring her entire approbation of all
that he had done. She likewise gave directions for the preser-
vation of his ship, the " Golden Hind," that it might remain a
monument of his own and his country's glory. After the lapse
of a century it decayed and had to be broken up. Of the sound
timber a chair was made, which was presented by Charles II.
to the university of Oxford. In 1581 Drake became mayor of
Plymouth; and in 1585 he married a second time, his first wife
having died in 1583. In 1585, hostilities having commenced
with Spain, he again went to sea, sailing with a fleet to the West
Indies, and taking the cities of Santiago (in the Cape Verde
Islands), San Domingo, Cartagena and St Augustine. In
1587 he went to Lisbon with a fleet of thirty sail; and having
received intelligence of a great fleet being assembled in the
bay of Cadiz, and destined to form part of the Armada, he
with great courage entered the port on the iQth of April, and
there burnt upwards of 10,000 tons of shipping — a feat which
he afterwards jocosely called " singeing the king of Spain's
beard," In 1588, when the Spanish Armada was approaching
England, Sir Francis Drake was appointed vice-admiral under
Lord Howard, and made prize of a very large galleon, commanded
by Don Pedro de Valdez, who was reputed the projector of the
invasion, and who struck at once on learning his adversary's
name.

It deserves to be noticed that Drake's name is mentioned
in the singular diplomatic communication from the king of
Spain which preceded the Armada: —

" Te veto ne pergas bello defendere Belgas;
Quae Dracus eripuit nunc restituantur oportet;
Quas pater evertit jubeo te condere cellas:
Religio Papae fac restituatur ad unguera."

To these lines the queen made this extempore response: —
" Ad Graecas, bone rex, fiant mandata kalendas."

In 1589 Drake commanded the fleet sent to restore Dom
Antonio, king o* Portugal, the land forces being under the orders
of Sir John Norreys; but they had hardly put to sea when the
commanders differed, and thus the attempt proved abortive.
But as the war with Spain continued, a more formidable ex-
pedition was fitted out, under Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis
Drake, against their settlements in the West Indies, than had
hitherto been undertaken during the whole course of it. Here,
however, the commanders again disagreed about the plan;
and the result in like manner disappointed public expectation.
These disasters were keenly felt by Drake, and were the principal
cause of his death, which took place on board his own ship, near
the town of Nombre de Dios, in the West Indies, on the 28th of
January 1595.

The older Lives by Samuel Clarke (1671) and John Barrow, junr.
(1843), have been superseded by Julian Corbett's two admirable
volumes on Drake and the Tudor Navy (1898), the best source of
information on the subject, which were preceded by the same
author's Sir Francis Drake in the " English Men of Action " series
(1890). See also E. J. Payne's edition of Voyages of the Elizabethan
Seamen to A merica : Thirteen original narratives from the collection of
Hakluyt (new ed., 1893).

DRAKE, NATHAN (1766-1836), English essayist and phy-
sician, son of Nathan Drake, an artist, was born at York in
1766. He was apprenticed to a doctor in York in 1779, and in
1786 proceeded to Edinburgh University, where he took his
degree as M.D. in 1789. In 1790 he set up as a general prac-
titioner at Sudbury, Suffolk, where he found an intimate friend
in Dr Mason Good (d. 1827). In 1792 he removed to Hadleigh,
Suffolk, where he died in 1836. His works include several
volumes of literary essays, and some papers contributed to
medical periodicals; but his most important production was
Shakespeare and his Times, inciting the Biography of the Poet,

Criticisms on his Genius and Writings; a new Chronology of his
Plays; a Disquisition on the Object of his Sonnets; and a History
of the Manners, Customs and Amusements, Superstitions, Poetry
and Elegant Literature of his Age (2 vols., 1817). The title
sufficiently indicates the scope of this ample work, which has
the merit, says G. G. Gervinus (Shakespeare Commentaries, Eng.
trans., 1877) " of having brought together for the first time into
a whole the tedious and scattered material of the editions and
of the many other valuable labours of Tyrwhitt, Heath, Ritson
&c."

DRAKENBORCH, ARNOLD (1684-1748), Dutch classical
scholar, was born at Utrecht on the ist of January 1684. Having
studied philology under Graevius and Burmann the elder, and
law under Cornelius VanEck, ini7i6hesucceededBurmannin his
professorship (conjointly with C. A. Duker), which he continued
to hold till his death on the i6th of January 1748. Although
he obtained the degree of doctor of laws, and was intended for
the legal profession, he determined to devote himself to philo-
logical studies. His edition of Livy (1738-1746, and subsequent
editions) is the work on which his fame chiefly rests. The preface
gives a particular account of all the literary men who have at
different periods commented on the works of Livy. The edition
itself is based on that of Gronovius; but Drakenborch made
many important alterations on the authority of manuscripts
which it is probable Gronovius had never seen. He also
published Disserlatio de praefectis urbi (1704; reprinted at
Frankfort in 1752 with a life of Drakenborch); Dissertatio de
officio praefectorum praetorio (1707); and an edition of Silius
Italicus (1717).

DRAKENSBERG (Quathlamba or Kahlamba, i.e. " heaped up
and jagged," of the natives), a mountain chain of S.E. Africa,
running parallel to the coast from Basutoland to the Limpopo
river — a distance of some 600 m. The Drakensberg are the
eastern part of the rampart which forms the edge of the inner
tableland of South Africa. The sides of the mountains facing
the sea are in general precipitous; on their inner face they slope
more or less gently to the plateau. The culminating points of
the range, and the highest lands in South Africa, are found in
a sharp bend from S.E. to N.W. in about 29° S. 29° E., where
" the Berg " (as the range is called locally) forms the frontier
between Natal and Basutoland. Within 60 m. of one another are
three mountains, Giant's Castle, Champagne Castle or Cathkin
Peak, and Mont aux Sources, 10,000 to 11,000 or more ft. above
the sea. From Mont aux Sources the normal N.E. direction of
the range is resumed. Conspicuous among the heights along the
Orange Free State, Transvaal and Natal frontiers are Tintwa,
Malani, Inkwelo and Amajuba or Majuba (?.».), all between
7000 and 8000 ft. The Draken's Berg — the particular hill from
which the range is named — is 5682 ft. high and lies between
Malani and Inkwelo heights. It was so named by the iioor-
trekkers about 1840. North of Majuba the range enters the
Transvaal. Here the elevation is generally lower than in
the south, but the Mauch Berg is about 8500 ft. high. At its
northernmost point the range joins 'the Zoutpansberg. In their
southern part the Drakensberg form the parting between the
rivers draining west to the Atlantic and those flowing south
and east to the Indian Ocean. At Mont aux Sources rise the
chief headwaters of the Orange, Tugela and other rivers. In
the north, however, several streams rising in the interior plateau,
e.g. the Komati, the Crocodile and the Olifants, pierce the
Drakensberg and reach the Indian Ocean. The range has
numerous passes, many available for wheeled traffic. Van
Reenen's Pass, between Tintwa and Malani, is crossed by a
railway which connects the Orange Free State and Natal:
Laing's Nek, the main pass leading from Natal to the Transvaal,
which lies under the shadow of Majuba, is pierced by a railway
tunnel. The railway from Delagoa Bay to Pretoria crosses the
Drakensberg by a very steep gradient. Several subsidiary
ranges branch off from the main chain of the Berg. This is
especially the case in Natal, where one range is known as the
Little Drakensberg. (See further BASUTOLAND; NATAL and
TRANSVAAL.)

DRAMA

475

DRAMA (literally "action," from Gr. dpav, act or do), the term
applied to those productions of Art which imitate or, to use a more
modern term, " represent " action by introducing the personages
taking part in them as real, and as employed in the action itself.
There are numerous varieties of the drama,, differing more or less
widely from one another, both as to the objects imitated and as to
the means used in the process. But they all agree in the method or
manner which is essential to the drama and to dramatic art,
namely, imitation in the way of action. The function of all Art
being to give pleasure by representation (see FINE ARTS), it is
clear that what is distinctive of any one branch or form must be
the manner in which this function is performed by it. In the
epos, for instance, the method or manner is narrative, and even
when Odysseus tells of his action, he is not acting.

i. THEORY OF THE DRAMA, AND DRAMATIC ART
The first step towards the drama is the assumption of character,
whether real or fictitious. It is caused by the desire, inseparable

from human nature, to give expression to feelings and
thfdrama. ideas. These man expresses not only by sound and

gesture, like other animals, and by speech significant by
its delivery as well as by its purport, but also by imitation
superadded to these. To imitate, says Aristotle, is instinctive in
man from his infancy, and no pleasure is more universal than that
which is given by imitation. Inasmuch as the aid of some sort of
dress or decoration is usually at hand, while the accompaniment
of dance or song, or other music, naturally suggests itself,
especially on joyous or solemn occasions, we find that this pre-
liminary step is taken among all peoples, however primitive or
remote. But it does not follow, as is often assumed, that they
possess a drama in germ. Boys playing at soldiers, or men
walking in a pageant — a shoemaker's holiday in ribbons and
flowers, or a Shetland sword-dance — none of these is in itself a
drama. This is not reached till the imitation or representation
extends to action.

An action which is to present itself as such to human minds
must enable them to recognize in it a procedure from cause to

effect. This of course means, neither that the cause

suggested must be the final cause, nor that the result

shown forth need pretend to be the ultimate result.
We look upon an action as ended when the purpose with which it
began is shown to have been gained or frustrated; and we trace
the beginning of an action back to the human will that set it on
foot — though this will may be in bondage to a higher or stronger
will, or to fate, in any or all of its purposes. Without an action in
the sense stated — without a plot, in a word — there can be no
drama. But the very simplest action will satisfy the dramatic
test; a mystery representing the story of Cain and Abel without
a deviation from the simple biblical narrative, a farce exhibiting
the stalest trick played by designing sobriety upon oblivious
drunkenness, may each of them be a complete drama. But even
to this point, the imitation of action by action in however crude
a form, not all peoples have advanced.

But after this second step has been taken, it only remains for
the drama to assume a form regulated by certain literary laws,

in order that it may become a branch of dramatic
literature literature. Such a literature, needless to say, only a

limited number of nations has come to possess; and,
while some are to be found that have, or have had, a drama with-
out a dramatic literature, it is quite conceivable that a nation
should continue in possession of the former after having ceased
to cultivate the latter. It is self-evident that no drama which
forms part of a dramatic literature can ignore the use of speech;
and however closely music, dancing and decoration may
associate themselves with particular forms or phases of the
drama, their aid cannot be more than adventitious. As a
matter of fact, the beginnings of dramatic composition are, in the
history of such literatures as are well known to us, preceded by
the earlier stages in the growth of the .lyric and epic forms of
poetry, or by one of these at all events; and it is in the continua-
tion of both that the drama in its literary form takes its origin in
those instances which lie open to our study.

While the aid of all other arts — even, strictly speaking, the aid
of the literary art — is merely an accident, the co-operation of the
art of acting is indispensable to that of the drama. Thedra-
The dramatic writer may have reasons for preferring to matte and
leave the imagination of his reader to supply the the hi*-
absence of this co-operation; but, though the term t££le
" literary drama " is freely used of works kept away
from the stage, it is in truth either a misnomer or a self-condemna-
tion. It is true that the actor only temporarily interprets, and
sometimes misinterprets, the dramatist, while occasionally he
reveals dramatic possibilities in a character or situation which
remained hidden from their literary inventor. But this only
shows that the courses of the dramatic and the histrionic arts dp
not run parallel; it does not contradict the fact that theft
conjunction is, on the one side as well as on the other, indispen-
sable. No drama is more than potentially such till it is acted.

To essay, whether in a brief summary or in more or less
elaborate detail, a statement of the main laws of the drama, has
often been regarded as a superfluous, not to say, futile
effort. But the laws of which it is proposed to give ^/^S0/n<'
some indication here are not so much those which any the drama.
particular literature or period has chosen to set up and
follow, as those abstracted by criticism, in pursuit of its own free
comparative method, from the process that repeats itself in every
drama adequately meeting the demands upon it. Aristotle,
whom we still justly revere as the originator of the theory of the
drama, and thus its great po/wflenjs, was, no doubt, in his
practical knowledge of it, confined to its Greek examples, yet his
object was not to produce another generation of great Attic
tragedians, but rather to show how it was by following the
necessary laws of their art that the great masters, true to them-
selves and to their artistic ends, had achieved what they had
achieved. Still more distinctly was such the aim of the greatest
modern critical writer on the drama, Lessing, whose chief design
was to combat false dramatic theories and to overthrow laws
demonstrated by him to be artificial inventions, unreal figments.
He proved, what before him had only been suspected, that
Shakespeare, though in hopeless conflict with certain rules dating
from the siede de Louis XIV, was not in conflict with those laws
of the drama which are of its very essence, and that, accordingly,
if Shakespeare and the rules in question could not be harmonized,
it was only so much the worse for the rules. To illustrate from
great works, and expound with their aid, the organic processes of
the art to which they belong, is not only among the highest, it
is also one of the most useful functions of literary and artistic
criticism. Nor is there, in one sense at least, any finality about it.
Neither the great authorities on dramatic theory nor the resolute
and acute apologists of more or less transitory phases of the drama
— Corneille, Dryden and many later successors — have exhausted
the statement of the means which the drama has proved, or may
prove, capable of employing. The multitude of technical terms
and formulae which has gathered round the practice of the most
living and the most Protean of arts has at no time seriously
interfered with the operation of creative power. Ontheotherhand,
no dramaturgic theory has (though the attempt has been often
enough made) ever succeeded in giving rise to a single dramatic
work of enduring value, unless the creative force was there to
animate the form.

It is therefore the operation of this creative force which we
are chiefly interested in noting; and its task begins with the
beginning of the dramatist's labours. He must of
course start with the choice of a subject; yet it is
obvious that the subject is merely the dead material
out of which is formed that living something, the action of a
play; and it is only in rare instances — far rarer than might at
first sight appear — that the subject is as it were self-moulded
as a dramatic action. The less experienced a playwright, the
more readily will he, as the phrase is, rush at his subject, more
especially if it seems to him to possess prima facie dramatic
capabilities; and the consequence will be that which usually
attends upon a precipitate start. On the other hand, while the
quickness of a great dramatist's apprehension is apt to suggest

476

DRAMA

[THEORY

to him an infinite number of subjects, and insight and experience
may lead him half instinctively in the direction of suitable
themes, it will often be long before in his mind the subject
converts itself into the initial conception of the action of a play.
To mould a subject — be it a Greek legend, or a portion of a Tudor
chronicle, or one out of a hundred Italian tales, or a true story
of modern life — into the action or fable of a play, is the primary
task of the dramatist, and with this all-important process the
creative part of his work really begins. Although his conception
may expand or modify itself as he executes it, yet upon the
conception the execution must largely depend. The range of
subjects open to a dramatist may be as wide as the world itself,
or it may be restricted by an endless variety of causes, conven-
tions and considerations; and it is quite true that even the
greatest dramatists have not always found time for contemplating
each subject that occurs to them till the ray is caught which
proclaims it a dramatic diamond. What they had time for, and
what only the playwright who entirely misunderstands his art
ignores the necessity of finding time for, is the transformation of
the dead material of the subject into the living action of a drama.

What is it, then, that makes an action dramatic, and without
which no action, whatever may be its nature — serious or ludicrous,
stately or trivial, impetuous as a flame of fire, or light
as a western breeze — can be so described? The answer
to this question can only suggest itself from an attempt
to ascertain the laws which determine the nature of all actions
corresponding to this description. The first of the laws in
question is in so far the most noteworthy among them that it
has been the most amply discussed and the most pertinaciously
misunderstood. This is the law which requires that a dramatic
action should be one — that it should possess unity. What in
the subject of a drama is merely an approximate or supposititious,
must in its action be an actual unity; and it is indeed this
requirement which constitutes the most arduous part of the task
of transforming subject into action. There is of course no actual
unity in any group of events in human life which we may choose
to call by a single collective name — a war, a revolution, a con-
spiracy, an intrigue, an imbroglio. The events of real life,
the facts of history, even the imitative incidents of narrative
fiction, are like the waves of a ceaseless flood; that which binds
a group or body of them into a single action is the bond of the
dramatic idea; and this it is incumbent upon the dramatist
to supply. Within the limits of a dramatic action all its parts
should (as in real life or in history they so persistently refuse
to do) flow into its current like tributaries to a single stream;
or, to vary the figure, everything in a drama should form a link
in a single chain of cause and effect. This law is incumbent upon
every kind of drama — alike upon the tragedy which sets itself
to solve one of the problems of a life, and upon the farce which
sums up the follies of an afternoon.

Such is not, however, the case with certain more or less arbi-
trary rules which have at different times been set up for this or
that kind of drama. The supposed necessity that an action
should consist of one event is an erroneous interpretation of the
law that it should be, as an action, one. For an event is but an
element in an action, though it may be an element of decisive
moment. The assassination of Caesar is not the action of a
Caesar tragedy; the loss of his treasure is not the action of
The Miser. Again, unity of action, while excluding those uncon-
nected episodes which Aristotle so severely condemns, does not
prohibit the introduction of one or even more subsidiary actions
as contributing to the progress of the main action. The sole
indispensable law is that these should always be treated as what
they are — subsidiary only; and herein lies the difficulty, which
Shakespeare so successfully overcame, of fusing a combination
of subjects taken from various sources into the idea of a single
action; herein also lies the danger in the use of that favourite
device of the Spanish and other modern dramas — " by-plots "
or " under-plots." On the other hand, the modern French
drama has largely employed another device — quite legitimate in
itself — for increasing the interest of an action without destroying
its unity. This may be called the dramatic use of backgrounds,

the depiction of surroundings on W(hich the action or its chief
characters seem sympathetically to reflect themselves, back-
biting " good villagers " or academicians who inspire one another
— with tedium. But a really double or multiple action, logically
carried out as such, is inconceivable in a single drama, though
many a play is palpably only two plays knotted into one. It
was therefore not all pedantry which protested against the
multiplicity of action which had itself formed part of the revolt
against the too narrow interpretation of unity adopted by the
French classical drama. Thirdly, unity of action need not imply
unity of hero — for hero (or heroine) is merely a conventional
term signifying the principal personage of the action. It is only
when the change in the degree of interest excited by different
characters in a play results from a change in the conception
of the action itself, that the consequent duality (or multiplicity)
of heroes recalls a faulty uncertainty in the conception of the
action they carry on. Such an objection, while it may hold in
the case of Schiller's Don Carlos, would therefore be erroneously
urged against Shakespeare's Julius Caesar. Lastly, as to the
theory fcwhich made the so-called unities of lime and place con-
stitute, together with that of action, the Three Unities indispen-
sable to the (tragic) drama, the following note must suffice.
Aristotle's supposed exaction of all the Three Unities, having
been expanded by Chapelain and approved by Richelieu, was
stereotyped by Corneille, though he had (as one might say)
got on very well without them, and was finally set forth in
Horatian verse by Boileau. Thus it came to be overlooked that
there is nothing in Aristotle's statement to show that in his
judgment unity of time and place are, like unity of action,
absolute dramatic laws. Their object is by representing an
action as visibly continuous to render its unity more distinctly
or easily perceptible. But the imagination is capable of con-
structing for itself the bridges required for preserving to an
action, conceived of as such, its character of continuousness.
In another sense these rules were convenient usages conducing
to a concise and clear treatment of a limited kind of themes;
for they were a Greek invention, and the repeated resort to the
same group of myths made it expedient for a Greek poet to seek
the subject of a single tragedy in a part only of one of the myths
at his disposal. The observance of unity of place, moreover, was
suggested to the Greeks by certain outward conditions of their
stage — as assuredly as it was adopted by the French in accordance
with the construction and usages of theirs, and as the neglect
of it by the Elizabethans was in their case encouraged by the
established form of the English scene. The palpable artificiality
of these laws needs no demonstration, so long as the true meaning
of the term " action " be kept in view. Of the action of Otliello
part takes place at Venice and part at Cyprus, and yet the whole
is one in itself; while the limits of time over which an action —
Hamlet's progress to resolve, for instance — extends cannot be
restricted by a revolution of the earth round the sun or of the
moon round the earth.

In a drama which presents its action as one, this action must
be complete in itself. This Aristotelian law, like the other, dis-
tinguishes the dramatic action from its subject. The
former may be said to have a real artistic, while the c°mi>l*t*-
latter has only an imaginary real, completeness. The act/oa.
historian, for instance, is aware that the complete ex-
position of a body of events and transactions at which he aims
can never be more than partially accomplished, since he may
present only what he knows, and all human knowledge is im-
perfect. But Art is limited by no such uncertainty. The
dramatist, in treating an action as one, comprehends the whole of
it in the form of his work, since, to him who has conceived it, all
its parts, from cause to effect, are equally clear. It is his fault if
in the action of his drama anything is left unaccounted for —
not motive; though a dramatic motif might not always prove
to be a sufficient explanation in real life. Accordingly, every
drama should represent in organic sequence the several stages
of which a complete action consists, and which are essential to it.
This law of completeness, therefore, lies at the foundation of all
systems of dramatic " construction."

ANALYSIS]

DRAMA

477

Every action, if conceived of as complete, has its causes,
growth, height, consequences and close. There is no binding
law to prescribe the relative length or proportion at
construe- which these several stages in the action should be
iion based treated in a drama; or to regulate the treatment of
on this law suc}j subsidiary actions as may be introduced in aid

of l^e main p'ot> or of suck more or less Directly con"

nected " episodes " as may at the same time advance
and relieve its progress. But experience has necessarily from
time to time established certain rules of practice, and from the
adoption of particular systems of division.for particular species
of the drama — such as that into five acts for a regular tragedy or
comedy, which Roman example has caused to be so largely
followed — has naturally resulted a certain uniformity of relation
between the conduct of an action and the outward sections of a
play. Essentially, however, there is no difference between the
laws regulating the construction of a Sophoclean or Shakespearian
tragedy, a comedy of Moliere or Congreve, and a well-built
modern farce, because all exhibit an action complete in itself.

The " introduction " or " exposition " forms an integral part
of the action, and is therefore to be distinguished from the
Proiorues " Pr°l°gue " m the more ordinary sense of the term,
fad which like the " epilogue " (and the Greek TrapajStwis)

epilogues stands outside the action, and is a mere address to the
outside the pUDiic from author, presenter or actor occasioned

by the play. Prologue and epilogue are mere external,
though at times effective, adjuncts, and have, properly speaking,
as little to do with the construction of a play as the bill which
announces it or the musical prelude which disposes the mind for
its reception. A special kind of preface or argument is the
" dumb-show," which in some old plays briefly rehearses in
pantomime the action that is to follow. The introduction or
Parts at exposition belongs to the action itself; it is, as the
the action. Hindu critics called it, the seed or circumstance from
introduc- which the business arises. Clearness being its primary
'ion or ex- requjsite, many expedients have been at various times

adopted to secure this feature. Thus the Euripidean
prologue, though spoken by one of the characters of the play,
took a narrative form, more acceptable to the audience than to
the critics, and placed itself half without, half within, the action.
The same purpose is served by the separate " inductions " in
many of the old English plays, and by the preludes or prologues,
or whatever name they may assume, in numberless modern
dramas of all kinds — from Faust down to the favourites of the
Ambigu and the Adelphi. More facile is the orientation supplied
in French tragedy by the opening scenes between hero and
confidant, and in French comedy and its derivatives by those
between observant valet and knowing lady's-maid. But all such
expedients may be rendered unnecessary by the art of the
dramatist, who is able outwardly also to present the introduction
of his action as an organic part of that action itself; who seems
to take the spectators in medias res, while he is really building the
foundations of his plot; who touches in the opening of his action
the chord which is to vibrate throughout its course — " Down
with the Capulets ! down with the Montagues !" — " With the
Moor, sayest thou ? "

The exposition, which may be short or long, but which should
always prepare and may even seem to necessitate the action, ends

. when the movement of the action itself begins. This
Opening of . . • 11 -..t.

movement, transition may occasionally be marked with the

utmost distinctness (as in the actual meeting between
the hero and the Ghost in Hamlet), while in other instances sub-
sidiary action or episode may judiciously intervene (as in King
Lear, where the subsidiary action of Gloster and his sons oppor-
tunely prevents too abrupt a sequence of cause and effect).
From this point the second stage of the action — its
" growth " — progresses to that third stage which is
called its " height " or " climax." All that has preceded the
attainment of this constitutes that half of the drama — usually
its much larger half — which Aristotle terms the beats, or tying
of the knot. The varieties in the treatment of the growth or
second stage of the action are infinite; it is here that the greatest

Umwth.

Height or

climax.

freedom is manifestly permissible; that in the Indian drama
the personages make long journeys across the stage; and that,
with the help of their under-plots, the masters of the modern
tragic and the comic drama — notably those unequalled weavers
of intrigues, the Spaniards — are able most fully to exercise their
inventive faculties. If the growth is too rapid, the climax will
fail of its effect; if it is too slow, the interest will be exhausted
before the greatest demand upon it has been made — a fault to
which comedy is specially liable; if it is involved or inverted, a
vague uncertainty will take the place of an eager or agreeable
suspense, the action will seem to halt, or a fall will begin pre-
maturely. In the contrivance of the " climax " itself lies one
of the chief tests of the dramatist's art; for while
the transactions of real life often fail to reach any
climax at all, that of a dramatic action should present
itself as self-evident. In the middle of everything, says the Greek
poet, lies the strength; and this strongest or highest point it is
the task of the dramatist to make manifest. Much here depends
upon the niceties of constructive instinct; much (as in all parts
of the action) upon a thorough dramatic transformation of the
subject. The historical drama at this point presents peculiar
difficulties, of which the example of Henry VIII. may be cited
as an illustration.

From the climax, or height, the action proceeds through its
" fall " to its " close," which in a drama with an unhappy
ending we still call its " catastrophe," while to termina- Fa]1

tions in general we apply the term denouement. This
latter name would, however, more properly be applied in the
sense in which Aristotle employs its Greek equivalent Xixrts —
the untying of the knot — to the whole of the second part of the
action, from the climax downwards. In the management of
the climax, everything depends upon producing the effect; in
the fall, everything depends upon not marring it. This may
be ensured by a rapid advance to the close; but neither does
every action admit of such treatment, nor is it in accordance
with the character of those which are of a more subtle or com-
plicated kind. With the latter, therefore, the " fall " is often
a revolution or " return," i.e. in Aristotle's phrase a change into
the reverse of what is expected from the circumstances
of the action (irtpiTrertia) — as in Coriolanus, where the
Roman story lends itself so admirably to dramatic demands.
In any case, the art of the dramatist is in this part of his work
called upon for the surest exercise of its tact and skill. The
effect of the climax was to concentrate the interest; the fall
must therefore, above all, avoid dissipating it. The use of
episodes is not even now excluded; but, even where serving
the purpose of relief, they must now be such as help to keep alive
the interest, previously raised to its highest pitch. This may be
effected by the raising of obstacles between the height of the
action and its expected consequences; in tragedy by the sugges-
tion of a seemingly possible recovery or escape from them (as
in the wonderfully powerful construction of the latter part of
Macbeth) ; in comedy, or wherever the interest of the action is
less intense, by the gradual removal of incidental difficulties.
In all kinds of the drama " discovery " will remain, as it was
in the judgment of Aristotle, a most effective expedient; but it
should be a discovery prepared by that method of treatment
which in its consummate master, Sophocles, has been termed
his " irony." Nowhere should the close or catastrophe be other
than a consequence of the action itself. Sudden
revulsions from the conditions of the action — such as a°se or
are supplied with the aid of the dens ex machina, or tnahe
the revising officer of the emperor of China,or the nabob
returned from India, or a virulent malaria — condemn themselves
as unsatisfactory makeshifts. However sudden, and even in
manner of accomplishment surprising, may be the catastrophe,
it should, like every other part of the action, be in organic con-
nexion with the whole preceding action. The sudden suicides
which terminate so many tragedies, and the unmerited paternal
blessings which close an equal number of comedies, should be
something more than a " way out of it," or a signal for the fall
of the curtain. A catastrophe may conveniently, and even (as in

478

DRAMA

[CHARACTER

Faust) with powerful effect, be left to the imagination; but to
substitute for it a deliberate blank is to leave the action incom-
plete, and the drama a fragment ending with a — possibly interest-
ing— confession of incompetence.

The action of a drama, besides being one and complete in itself,
ought likewise to be probable. The probability or necessity (in
the Aristotelian sense of the terms) required of a drama
abtin of *s not tnat °^ actual or historical experience — it is a
action. conditional probability, or in other words an internal
consistency between the course of the action and the
conditions under which the dramatist has chosen to carry it on.
As to the former, he is fettered by no restrictions save those
which he imposes upon himself, whether or not in deference to
the usages of certain accepted species of dramatic composition.
Ghosts seldom appear in real life or in dramas of real life; but
the introduction of supernatural agency is neither enjoined
nor prohibited by any general dramatic law. The use of such
expedients is as open to the dramatic as to any other poet; the
judiciousness of his use of them depends upon the effect which,
consistently with the general conduct of his action, they will
exercise upon the spectator, whom other circumstances may or
may not predispose to their acceptance. The Ghost in Hamlet
belongs to the action of the play; the Ghost in the Persae is not
intrinsically less probable, but seems a less immediate product of
the surrounding1 atmosphere. Dramatic probability has, how-
ever, a far deeper meaning than this. . The Eumenides is prob-
able, with all its mysterious commingling of cults, and so is
Macbeth, with all its barbarous witchcraft. The proceedings
of the leathered builders of Cloudcuckootown in the Birds of
Aristophanes are as true to dramatic probability as are the pranks
of Oberon's fairies in Midsummer Night's Dream. In other
words, it is in the harmony between the action and the characters,
and in the consistency of the characters with themselves, in the
appropriateness of both to the atmosphere in which they have
their being, that this dramatic probability lies. The dramatist
has to represent characters affected by the progress of an action
in a particular way, and contributing to it in a particular way,
because, if consistent with themselves, they must be so affected,
and must so act.

Upon the invention and conduct of his characters the dramatist
must therefore expend a great proportion — even a preponderance
— of his labour. His treatment of them will, in at least as high
a degree as his choice of subject, conception of action,
and method of construction, determine the effect which
his work produces. And while there are aspects of the
dramatic art under which its earlier phases already exhibit an
unsurpassed degree of perfection, there is none under which its
i advance is more notable than this. Many causes have
na contributed to this result; the chief is to be sought in
la this the multiplication of the opportunities for mankind's
respect study of man. The theories of the Indian critics on the
subject of dramatic character are little more than an elaborate
scaffolding. Aristotle's remarks on the subject are scanty; nor
indeed is the strength of the dramatic literature from whose
examples he abstracted his maxims to be sought in the fulness
or variety of its characterization. This relative deficiency was
beyond doubt largely caused by the outward conditions of the
Greek theatre — the remoteness of actor from spectator, and the
consequent necessity for the use of masks, and for the raising, and
consequent conventionalizing, of the tones of the voice. Later
Greek and Roman comedy, unable or unwilling to resist the force
of habit, limited their range of characters to an accepted gallery
of types. Nor is it easy to ignore the fact that the influence
of these classical examples, combined with that of national
tendencies of mind and temperament, have all along inclined the
dramatists of the Romance nations to attach less importance to
characterization of a closer and more varied kind than to interest
of action and effectiveness of construction. The Italian and the
Spanish drama more especially, and the French during a great
part of its history, have in general shown a disposition to present
their characters, as it were, ready made — whether in the case of
tragic heroes and heroines, or in that of comic types, often

moulded, as in the commedia dell' arte " and beyond," according
to a long-lived system of local or national selection. These types,
expanded, heightened and modified, are recognizable in some of
the triumphs of comic characterization achieved by the Germanic
drama, and by its master, Shakespeare, above all; but this fact
must not obscure one of more importance than itself. In the
matter of comic as well as of serious characterization — in the
individualizing of characters and in evolving them as it were out
of the progress of the action — the modern drama has not only
advanced, but in a sense revolutionized, the dramatic art, as
inherited from its ancient masters.

Yet, however the method and scope of characterization may
vary under the influence of different historical epochs and
different tendencies or tastes of races or nations, the
laws of this branch of the dramatic art remain based oji *«9u'*We»
the same essential requirements. What interests us in character.
a man or woman in real life, or in the impressions we
form of historical personages, is that which seems to us to
give them individuality. A dramatic character must therefore,
whatever its part in the action, be sufficiently marked by features
of its own to interest the imagination; with these features its
subsequent conduct must be consistent, and to them its partici-
pation in the action must correspond. In order to achieve such a
result, the dramatist must have, in the first instance, distinctly
conceived the character, however it may have been suggested to
him. His task is, not to paint a copy of some contemporary or
" historical " personage, but to conceive a particular kind of
man, acting under the operation of particular circumstances. This
conception, growing and modifying itself with the progress of the
action, also invented by the dramatist, will determine the totality
of the character which he creates. The likeness which the result
bears to an actual or historical personage may very probably,
from secondary points of view, affect the immediate stage success
of the creation; upon its dramatic result this likeness can
have no influence whatever. In a wider sense than that in which
Shakespeare denied the charge that Falstaff was Oldcastle, it
should be possible to say of every dramatic character which it is
sought to identify with an actual personage, " This is not the
man." The mirror of the drama is not a photographic apparatus ;
and not even the most conscientious combination of science and
art can bring back even a " phase " of the real Napoleon.

Distinctiveness, as the primary requisite in dramatic char-
acterization, is to be demanded in the case of all personages
introduced into a dramatic action, but not in all cases
in an equal degree. Schiller, in adding to the dramatis
personae of his Fiesco superscriptions of their chief
characteristics, labels Sacco as " an ordinary person," and this, no
doubt, suffices for Sacco. But with the great masters of character-
ization a few touches, of which the true actor's art knows how
to avail itself, distinguish even their lesser characters from one
another; and every man is in his humour down to the " third
citizen." Elaboration is necessarily reserved for characters who
are the more important contributors to the action, and the fulness
of elaboration for its heroes. Many expedients may lend their aid
to the higher degrees of distinctiveness. Much is gained by a
significant introduction of hero or heroine — thus Antigone is
dragged in by the watchman, Gloucester enters alone upon the
scene, Volpone is discovered in adoration of his golden saint.
Nothing marks character more clearly than the use of contrast —
as of Othello with lago, of Ottavio with Max Piccolomini, of
Joseph with Charles Surface. Nor is direct antithesis the only
effective kind of contrast; Cassius is a foil to Brutus, and
Leonora to her namesake the Princess. But, besides impressing
the imagination as a conception distinct in itself, each character
must maintain a consistency between its conduct in the
action and the features it has established as its own.
This consistency does not imply uniformity; for, as
Aristotle observes, there are characters which, to be represented
with uniformity, must be presented as uniformly un-uniform.
Of such consistently complex characters the great critic cites
no instances, nor indeed are they of frequent occurrence in Greek
tragedy; in the modern drama Hamlet is their unrivalled

Self-coa-
slstency.

VARIETIES]

DRAMA

479

exemplar; and Weislingen in Goethe's Gotz, and Alceste in the
Misanthrope, may be mentioned as other illustrations in dramas
differing widely from one another. The list might be enlarged
almost indefinitely from the gallery of female characters, in view
of the greater pliability and more habitual dependence of the
nature of women. It should be added that those dramatic
literatures which freely admit of a mixture of the serious with
the comic element thereby enormously increase the opportunities
of varied characterization. The difficulty of the task at the same
time enhances the effect resulting from its satisfactory accom-
plishment; and, if the conception of a character is found to meet
a variety of tests resembling that which life has at hand for every
man, its naturalness, as we term it, becomes more obvious to
the imagination. " Naturalness " is only another word for what
Aristotle terms " propriety "; the artificial rules by which
usage has at times sought to define particular species of character
are in their origin only a convenience of the theatre, though
they have largely helped to conventionalize drama tic characteriza-
tion. Lastly, a character should be directly effective with regard
Effective to ^ dramatic action in which it takes part — that is to
ness- say, the influence it exerts upon the progress of the

action should correspond to its distinctive features;
the conduct of the play should seem to spring from the nature of
its characters. In other words, no characterization can be
effective which is not what may be called economical, i.e. which
does not strictly limit itself to suiting the purposes of the action.
Even the minor characters should not idly intervene; while the
chief characters should predominate over, or determine, the
course of the action, its entire conception should harmonize with
their distinctive features. It is only a Prometheus whom the gods
bind fast to a rock, only a Juliet who will venture into a living
death for her Romeo. Thus, in a sense, chance is excluded from
dramatic action, or rather, like every other element in it, bends
to the dramatic idea.

In view of this predominance of character over action, we
may appropriately use such expressions as a tragedy of love or
jealousy or ambition, or a comedy of character. For such
collocations merely indicate that plays so described have proved
(or were intended to prove) specially impressive by the concep-
tion or execution of their chief character or characters.

The term " manners " (as employed in a narrower sense than
the Aristotelian fjdri) applies to that which colours both action
Manners &n^ characters, but does not determine the essence of

either. As exhibiting human agents under certain con-
ditions of time and place, and of the various relations of life, the
action of a drama, together with the characters engaged in it,
and the incidents and circumstances belonging to it, must more
or less adapt itself to the external conditions assumed. From
the assumption of some such conditions not even those dramatic
species which indulge in the most sovereign licence, such as Old
Attic comedy, or burlesque in general, can wholly emancipate
themselves; and even supernatural or fantastic characters
and actions must suit themselves to some sort of antecedents.
But it depends altogether on the measure in which the nature of
an action and the development of its characters are effected by
considerations of time and place, or of temporary social systems
and the transitory distinctions incidental to them, whether the
imitation of a particular kind of manners becomes a significant
Their element in a particular play. The Hindu caste-system
relative is an antecedent of every Hindu drama, and the peculiar

organization of Chinese society of nearly every Chinese

play with which we are acquainted. Greek tragedy
itself, though treating subjects derived from no historic age,
had established a standard of manners from which in its decline
it did not depart with impunity. Again, the imitation of manners
of a particular age or country may or may not be of moment in
a play. In some dramas, and in some species of drama, time
and place are so purely imaginary and so much a matter of in-
difference that the adoption of a purely conventional standard
of manners, or at least the exclusion of any definitely fixed
standard, is here desirable. The ducal reign of Theseus at
Athens (if its period be ascertainable) does not date A Midsummer

Night's Dream; nor do the coasts of Bohemia in The Winter's Tale
localize the manners of the customers of Autolycus. Where, on
the other hand, as more especially in the historic drama, or in that
kind of comedy which directs its shafts against the ridiculous
vices of a particular age or country, significance attaches to
the degree in which the manners represented resemble what is
more or less known, the dramatist will do well to be careful in
his colouring. How admirably is the French court specialized
in Henry V.; how completely are we transplanted among the
burghers of Brussels in the opening scenes of Egmont; what a
portraiture of a clique we have in the Prtcieuses ridicules of
Moliere; what a reproduction of a class in the pot-house
politicians of Holberg ! And how minutely have modern
dramatists found it necessary to study the more fascinating
aspects of la vie parisienne, in order to convey to the curious
at home and abroad a conviction of the verisimilitude of their
pictures ! Yet, even in such instances, the dramatist will only
use what suits his dramatic purpose; he will select, not transfer
in mass, historic features, and discriminate in his use of modern
instances. The details of historic fidelity, and the lesser shades
distinguishing the varieties of social usage, will be introduced
by him at his choice, or left to be supplied by the actor. Where
the reproduction of manners becomes the primary purpose of a
play, its effect can only be of an inferior kind; and a drama
purely of manners is a contradiction in terms.

No complete system of dramatic species can be abstracted
from any one dramatic literature. They are often the result of
particular antecedents, and their growth is often
affected by peculiar conditions. Different nations or
ages use the same names and may preserve some of the
same rules for species which in other respects their usage may
have materially modified from that of their neighbours or
predecessors. The very question of the use of measured or
pedestrian speech as fit for different kinds of drama, and therefore
distinctive of them, cannot be profitably discussed except in
reference to particular literatures. In the Chinese drama the
most solemn themes are treated in the same form — an admixture
of verse and prose — which not so very long since was character-
istic of that airiest of Western dramatic species, the French
vaudeville. Who would undertake to define, except in the
applications which have been given to the words in successive
generations, such terms as " tragi-comedy," orindeed as "drama"
(drame) itself ? Yet this uncertainty does not imply that all is
confusion in the terminology as to the species of the drama. In
so far as they are distinguishable according to the effects which
their actions, or those which the preponderating parts of '.heir
actions, produce, these species may primarily be ranged in
accordance with the broad difference established by Aristotle
between tragedy and comedy. " Tragic " and " comic " effects
differ in regard to the emotions of the mind which they excite;
and a drama is tragic or comic according as such effects
are produced by it. The strong or serious emotions are
alone capable of exercising upon us that influence
which, employing a bold but marvellously happy figure, Aristotle
termed purification, and which a Greek comedian, after a more
matter-of-fact fashion, thus expressed:

" For whensoe'er a man observes his fellow
Bear wrongs more grievous than himself has known,
More easily he bears his own misfortunes."

That is to say, the petty troubles of self which disturb without
elevating the mind are driven out by the sympathetic participa-
tion in greater griefs, which raises while it excites the mind
employed upon contemplating them. It is to these emotions —
which are and can be no others than pity and terror — that actions
which we call tragic appeal. Naif as we may think Aristotle in
desiderating for such actions a complicated rather than a simple
plot, he obviously means that in form as well as in design they
should reveal their relative importance. Those actions which we
term comic address themselves to the sense of the ridiculous, and
their themes are those vices and moral infirmities the repre-
sentation of which is capable of touching the springs of laughter.
Where, accordingly, a drama confines itself to effects of the

480

DRAMA

[INDIAN

'

former class, it may be called a pure " tragedy "; when to those
of the latter, a pure " comedy." In dramas where the effects are
mixed the nature of the main action and of the main characters
(as determined by their distinctive features) alone enables us to
classify such plays as serious or humorous dramas — or as
" tragic " or " comic," if we choose to preserve the terms. But
the classification admits of a variety of transitions, from " pure "
tragedy to " mixed, " from " mixed tragedy " to " mixed
comedy," and thence to " pure comedy," with the more freely
licensed " farce " and " burlesque," the time-honoured inversion
of the relations of dramatic method and purpose. This system of
distinction has no concern with the mere question of the termina-
tion of the play, according to which Philostratus and other
authorities have sought to distinguish tragic from comic dramas.
The serious drama which ends happily (the German Schauspiel) is
not a species co-ordinate with tragedy and comedy, but at the
most a subordinate variety of the former. Other distinctions may
be almost infinitely multiplied, according to the point of view
adopted for the classification.

The historical sketch of the drama attempted in the following
pages will best serve to indicate the successive growth of national
dramatic species, many of which, by asserting their influence in
other countries and ages than those which gave birth to them,
have acquired a more than national vitality.

The art of acting, whose history forms an organic though a
distinct part of that of the drama, necessarily possesses a theory
and a technical system of its own. But into these it is
impossible here to enter. One claim, however, should
be vindicated for the art of acting, viz. that, though it is
a dependent art, and most signally so in its highest forms, yet its
true exercise implies (however much the term may have been
abused) a creative process. The conception of a character is
determined by antecedents not of the actor's own making; and
the term originality can be applied to it only in a relative sense.
Study and reflection enable him, with the aid of experience and of
the intuition which genius bestows, but which experience may in
a high degree supply, to interpret, to combine, and to supplement
given materials. But in the transformation of the conception
into the represented character the actor's functions are really
creative; for here he becomes the character by means which
belong to his art alone. The distinctiveness which he gives to the
character by making the principal features recognized by him
in it its groundwork — the consistency which he maintains in it
between groundwork and details — the appropriateness which he
preserves in it to the course of the action and the part borne in it
by the character — all these are of his own making, though
suggested by the conception derived by him from his
materials. As to the means at his disposal, they are
essentially of two kinds only; but not all forms of the drama
have admitted of the use of both, or of both in the same com-
pleteness. All acting includes the use of gesture, or, as it has been
Gesture more comprehensively termed, of bodily eloquence.
From various points of view its laws regulate the actor's
bearing, walk and movements of face and limbs. They teach
what is aesthetically permitted and what is aesthetically pleasing.
They deduce from observation what is appropriate to the ex-
pression of particular affections of the mind and of their combina-
tions, of emotions and passions, of physical and mental conditions
— joy and grief, health and sickness, waking, sleeping and
dreaming, madness, collapse and death — of particular ages of life
and temperaments, as well as of the distinctive characteristics of
race, nationality or class. While under certain con-
ditions— as in the masked drama — -the use of bodily
movement as one of the means of expression has at times been
partially restricted, there have been, or are, forms of the drama
which have altogether excluded the use of speech (such as
pantomime), or have restricted the manner of its employment
(such as opera). In the spoken drama the laws of rhetoric
regulate the actor's use of speech, but under conditions of a
special nature. Like the orator, he has to follow the laws of
pronunciation, modulation, accent and rhythm (the last in
certain kinds of prose as well as in such forms of verse as he may

be called upon to reproduce). But he has also to give his atten-
tion to the special laws of dramatic delivery, which vary in
soliloquy and dialogue, and in such narrative or lyrical passages
as may occur in his part.

The totality of the effect produced by the actor will in some
degree depend upon other aids, among which those of a purely
external kind are unlikely to be lost sight of. But the _ .
significance of costume (q.v.) in the actor, like that of
decoration and scenery (see THEATRE) in an action, is a wholly
relative one, and is to a large measure determined by the claims
which custom enables the theatre to make, or forbids its making,
upon the imagination of the spectators. The actor's real achieve-
ment lies in the transformation which the artist himself effects;
nor is there any art more sovereign in the use it can make of its
means, or so happy in the directness of the results it can accom-
plish by them.

2. INDIAN DRAMA

The origin of the Indian drama may unhesitatingly be de-
scribed as purely native. The Mahommedans, when they
overran India, brought no drama with them; the Persians,
the Arabs and the Egyptians were without a national theatre.
It would be absurd to suppose the Indian drama to have owed
anything to the Chinese or its offshoots. On the other hand,
there is no real evidence for assuming any influence of Greek
examples upon the Indian drama at any stage of its progress.
Finally, it had passed into its decline before the dramatic
literature of modern Europe had sprung into being.

The Hindu writers ascribe the invention of dramatic enter-
tainments to an inspired sage Bharata, or to the communications
made to him by the god Brahma himself concerning _..
an art gathered from the Vedas. As the word Bharata
signifies an actor, we have clearly here a mere personification
of the invention of the drama. Three kinds of entertainments,
of which the natya (defined as a dance combined with gesticula-
tion and speech) comes nearest to the drama, were said to have
been exhibited before the gods by the spirits and nymphs of
Indra's heaven, and to these the god Siva added two new styles
of dancing.

The origin of the Indian drama was thus unmistakably
religious. Dramatic elements first showed themselves in certain
of the hymns of the Rig Veda, which took the form of dialogues
between divine personages, and in one of which is to be found the
germ of Kalidasa's famous Vikrama and Ureasi. These hymns
were combined with the dances in the festivals of the gods, which
soon assumed a more or less conventional form. Thus, from
the union of dance and song, to which were afterwards added
narrative recitation, and first sung, then spoken, dialogue, was
gradually evolved the acted drama. Such scenes and stories
from the mythology of Vishnu are still occasionally enacted by
pantomime or spoken dialogue in India (jatras of the Bengalis;
rasas of the Western Provinces); and the most ancient Indian
play was said to have treated an episode from the history of that
deity — the choice of him as a consort by Laxmi— a favourite
kind of subject in the Indian drama. The tradition connecting
its earliest themes with the native mythology of Vishnu agrees
with that ascribing the origin of a particular kind of dramatic
performance — the sangita — to Krishna and the shepherdesses.
The author's later poem, the GUagomnda, has been conjectured
to be suggestive of the earliest species of Hindu dramas. But,
while the epic poetry of the Hindus gradually approached the
dramatic in the way of dialogue, their drama developed itself
independently out of the union of the lyric and the epic forms.
Their dramatic poetry arose later than their epos, whose great
works, the Mahabhdrata and the Ramayana, had themselves been
long preceded by the hymnody of the Vedas — just as the Greek
drama followed upon the Homeric poems and these had been
preceded by the early hymns.

There seems, indeed, no reason for dating the beginnings of
the regular Indian drama farther back than the 5th century A.D.,
though it is probable that the earliest extant Sanskrit play, the
delightful, and in some respects incomparable, Mrichchhakatlka

INDIAN)

DRAMA

481

(The Toy Cart), was considerably earlier in date than the works of
Kalidasa. Indeed, of his predecessors in dramatic composition
very little is known, and even the contemporaries who com-
peted with him as dramatists are mere names. Thus, by the
time the Indian drama produced almost the earliest specimens
with which we are acquainted, it had already reached its zenith;
and it was therefore looked upon as having sprung into being
as a perfect art. We know it only in its glory, in its decline,
and in its decay.

The history of Indian dramatic literature may be roughly
divided into the following periods.

I. To the nth Century A.D. — This period virtually belongs to the
pre-Mahommedan age of Indian history; but already to that
second division of it in which Buddhism had become
F>*ltod a P°wer^u^ factor in the social as well as in the moral
(classical, and intellectual life of the land. It is the classical
period 'of the Hindu drama, and includes the works
of its two indisputably greatest masters. The earliest extant
Sanskrit play is the pathetic Mrichchhakatikd (The Toy Cart),
which has been dated back as far as the close of the and century
A.D. It is attributed (as is not uncommon with Indian plays)
to a royal author, named Sudraka; but it was more probably
written by his court poet, whose name has been concluded to have
been Dandin. It may be described as a comedy of middle-class
life, treating of the courtship and marriage of a ruined Brahman
and a wealthy and large-hearted courtesan.

Kalidasa, the brightest of the " nine gems " of genius in whom
the Indian drama gloried, lived at the court of Ujjain, though
whether in the earlier half of the 6th century A.D., or in the 3rd
century, or at a yet earlier date, remains an unsettled question.
He is the author of Sakuntala — the work which, in the translation
by Sir William Jones (1789), first revealed to the Western
world of letters the existence of an Indian drama, since repro-
duced in innumerable versions in many tongues. This heroic
comedy, in seven acts, takes its plot from the first book of the
Mahdbharata. It is a dramatic love-idyll of surpassing beauty,
and one of the masterpieces of the poetic literature of the world.
Another drama by Kalidasa, Vikrama and Urvdsi (The Hero and
the Nymph), though unequal as a whole to Sakuntala, contains
one act of incomparable loveliness; and its enduring effect upon
Indian dramatic literature is shown by the imitations of it in
later plays. (It was translated into English in 1827 by H. H.
Wilson.) To Kalidasa has likewise been attributed a third play,
Malavika and Agnimitra; but it is possible that this con-
ventional comedy, though held to be of ancient date, was com-
posed by a different poet of the same name.

To Harsadeva, king of northern India, are ascribed three
extant plays, which were more probably composed by some poet
in his pay. One of these, Nagananda (Joy of the Serpents), which
begins as an erotic play, but passes into a most impressive
exemplification of the supreme virtue of self-sacrifice, is notable
as the only Buddhist drama which has been preserved, though
others are known to have existed and to have been represented.

The palm of pre-eminence is disputed with Kalidasa by the
great dramatic poet Babhavuti (called Crikafitha, or he in whose
throat is fortune), who flourished in the earlier part of the 8th
century. While he is considered more artificial in language
than his rival, and in general more bound by rules, he can hardly
be deemed his inferior in dramatic genius. Of his three extant
plays, M ahdvara-Charitra and U tiara- Rama-Charitra are heroic
dramas concerned with the adventures of Rama (the seventh
incarnation of Vishnu); the third, the powerful melodrama,
in ten acts, of Malati and Madhava, has love for its theme, and
has been called (perhaps with more aptitude than usually belongs
to such comparisons) the Romeo and Juliet of the Hindus. It is
considered by their critical authorities the best example of the
Prakarana, or drama of domestic life. Babhavuti's plays, as
is indicated by the fact that no jester appears in them, are devoid
of the element of humour.

The plays of Rajasekhara, who lived about the end of the
9th century, deal, like those of Harsadeva, with harem and
court life. One of them, Karpura Manjuri (Camphor Cluster),
vm — 16

is stated to be the only example of the saltaka or minor heroic
comedy, written entirely in Prakrit.

In this period may probably also be included Visakhadatta's
interesting drama of political intrigue, Mudrd-Rakshasa (The
Signet of the Minister), in which Chandragupta (Sandracottus)
appears as the founder of a dynasty. In subject, therefore,
this production, which is one of the few known Indian historical
dramas, goes back to the period following on the invasion of India
by Alexander the Great; but the date of composition is probably
at least as late as A.D. 1000. The plot of the play turns on the
gaining-over of the prime minister of the ancien regime.

Among the remaining chief works of this period is the Veni-
Samhara (Binding of the Braid) by Narayana Bhatta. Though
described as a play in which both pathos and horror are ex-
aggerated— its subject is an outrage resembling that which
Dunstan is said to have inflicted on Elgiva — it is stated to
have been always a favourite, as written in exact accordance with
dramatic rules. Perhaps the Candakansika by Ksemlsvara should
also be included, which deals with the working of a curse pro-
nounced by an aged priest upon a king who had innocently
offended him.

II. The Period of Decline. — This may be reckoned from about
the nth to about the i4th century of the Christian era, the
beginning roughly coinciding with that of a continuous

series of Mahommedan invasions of India. Hanuman- Se^f</
Nalaka, or " the great Nataka " (for this irregular (decline).
play, the work of several hands, surpasses all other
Indian dramas in length, extending over no fewer than fourteen
acts), dates from the loth or nth century. Its story is taken
from the Rama-cycle, and a prominent character in it is the
mythical monkey-chief King Hanuman, to whom, indeed,
tradition ascribed the original authorship of the play. Kfishna-
micra's " theosophic mystery," as it has been called, — though it
rather resembles some of the moralities, — Prabodha-Chandrodaya
( The Rise of the Moon of Insight, i.e. the victory of true doctrine
over error), is ascribed by one authority to the middle of the nth
century, by another to about the end of the I2th. The famous
Ratnavali (The Necklace), a court-comedy of love and intrigue,
with a half-Terentian plot, seems also to date from the earlier
half of the period. %

The remaining plays of which it has been possible to conjecture
the dates range in the time of their composition from the end of the
nth to the I4th century. Of this period, as compared with the
first, the general characteristics seem to be an undue preponderance
of narrative and description, and an affected and over-elaborated
style. As a striking instance of this class is mentioned a play on
the adventures of Rama, the Anargha-Rdghava, which in spite, or
by reason, of the commonplace character of its sentiments, the
extravagance of its diction, and the obscurity of its mythology, is
stated to enjoy a higher reputation with the pundits of the present
age than the masterpieces of Kalidasa and Babhavuti. To the
close of this period, the i4th century, has likewise (but without
any pretension to certainty) been ascribed the only Tamil drama
of which we possess an English version. Arichandra ( The Martyr
of Truth) exemplifies — with a strange likeness in the contrivance
of its plot to the Book of Job and Faust — by the trials of a
heroically enduring king the force of the maxim " Better die
than lie."

III. Period of Decay. — Isolated plays remain from centuries
later than the i4th; but these, which chiefly turn on the legends
of Krishna (the last incarnation of Vishnu), may be
regarded as a mere aftergrowth, and exhibit the Indian

drama in its decay. Indeed, the latest of them,
Chitra- Yajna, which was composed about the beginning
of the ipth century, and still serves as a model for Bengali
dramatic performances, is imperfect in its dialogue, which (after
the fashion of Italian improvised comedy) it is left to the actors to
supplement. Besides these there are farces or farcical entertain-
ments, more or less indelicate, of uncertain dates.

The number of plays which have descended to us from so vast
an expanse of time is still comparatively small. But though, in
1827, Wilson doubted whether all the plays to be found, and

482

DRAMA

[INDIAN

Critical
literature.

those mentioned by Hindu writers on the drama, amounted to
many more than sixty, M. Schuyler's bibliography (1906)
enumerates over five hundred Sanskrit plays. To these have to
be added the plays in Tamil, stated to be about a hundred in
number, and to have been composed by poets who enjoyed the
patronage of the Pandian kings of Madura, and some in other
vernaculars.

There certainly is among the Hindus no dearth of dramatic
theory. The sage Bharata, the reputed inventor of dramatic
entertainments, was likewise revered as the father of
dramatic criticism — a combination of functions to
which the latter days of the English theatre might
perhaps furnish an occasional parallel. The commentators
(possibly under the influence of inspiration rather than as a strict
matter of memory) constantly cite his sutras, or aphorisms.
(From sutra, thread, was named the sutra-dhdra, thread-holder,
carpenter, a term applied to the architect and general manager of
sacrificial solemnities, then to the director of theatrical perform-
ances.) By the nth century, when the drama was already
approaching its decline, dramatic criticism had reached an
advanced point; and the Dasa-Rupaka (of which the text belongs
to that age) distinctly defines the ten several kinds of dramatic
composition. Other critical works followed at later dates,
exhibiting a rage for subdivision unsurpassed by the efforts of
Western theorists, ancient or modern; the misfortune is that
there should not be examples remaining (if they ever existed) to
illustrate all the branches of so elaborate a dramatic system.

" What," inquires the manager of an actor in the induction to
one of the most famous of Indian plays, " are those qualities
Exclusive- wh'ch t^6 virtuous, the wise, the venerable, the learned
ness of the and the Brahmans require in a drama? " " Profound
Indian exposition of the various passions," is the reply,
drama. « pieasmg interchange of mutual affection, loftiness of
character, delicate expression of desire, a surprising story and
elegant language." " Then," says the manager (for the Indian
dramatists, though not, like Ben Jonson, wont to " rail " the
public " into approbation," are unaffected by mauvaise honte),
" I recollect one." And he proceeds to state that " Babhavuti
has given us a drama composed by him, replete with all qualities,
to which indeed this sentence is applicable : ' How little do they
know who speak of us with censure! This entertainment is not
for them. Possibly some one exists, or will exist, of similar tastes
with myself; for time is boundless, and the world is wide ! ' :
This disregard of popularity, springing from a consciousness of
lofty aims, accounts for much that is characteristic of the higher
class of Indian plays. It explains both their relative paucity
and their extraordinary length, renders intelligible the chief
peculiarity in their diction, and furnishes the key to their most
striking ethical as well as literary qualities. Connected in their
origin with religious worship, they were only performed on
solemn occasions, chiefly of a public nature, and more especially
at seasons sacred to some divinity. Thus, though they might
in some instances be reproduced, they were always written with a
view to one particular solemn representation. Again, the greater
part of every one of the plays of Northern India is written in
Sanskrit, which ceased to be a popular language by 300 B.C., but
continued the classical and learned, and at the same time the
sacred and court form of speech of the Brahmans. Sanskrit is
spoken by the heroes and principal personages of the plays,
while the female and inferior characters use varieties, more or
less refined, of the Prakrit languages (as a rule not more than
three, that which is employed in the songs of the women being
the poetic dialect of the most common Prakrit language, the
SaurasenI). Hence, part at least of each play cannot have been
understood by the large majority of the audience, except in so
far as their general acquaintance with the legends or stories
treated enabled them to follow the course of the action. Every
audience thus contained an inner audience, which could alone feel
the full effect of the drama. It is, then, easy to see why the
Hindu critics should make demands upon the art, into which only
highly-trained and refined intellects were capable of entering, or
called upon to enter. The general public could not be expected

to appreciate the sentiments expressed in a drama, and thus
(according to the process prescribed by Hindu theory) to receive
instruction by means of amusement. These sentiments are
termed rasas (tastes or flavours), and said to spring from the
bhdiias (conditions of mind and body) . A variety of subdivisions
is added; but the santa rasa is logically enough excluded from
dramatic composition, inasmuch as it implies absolute quiescence.

The Hindu critics know of no distinction directly corresponding
to that between tragedy and comedy, still less of any determined
by the nature of the close of a play. For, in accordance
with the child-like element of their character, the
Hindus dislike an unhappy ending to any story, and a
positive rule accordingly prohibits a fatal conclusion in their
dramas. The general term for all dramatic compositions is
riipaka (from rupa, form), those of an inferior class being distin-
guished as uparupakas. Of the various subdivisions of the
rupaka, in a more limited sense, the nataka, or play proper.
represents the most perfect kind. Its subject should always be
celebrated and important — it is virtually either heroism or love,
and most frequently the latter — and the hero should be a demigod
or divinity (such as Rama in Babhavuti's heroic plays) or a king
(such as the hero of Sdkuntald). But although the carrier
dramatists took their plots from the sacred writings or Puranas,
they held themselves at liberty to vary the incidents — a licence
from which the later poets abstained. Thus, in accordance,
perhaps, with the respective developments in the religious life of
the two peoples, the Hindu drama in this respect reversed the
progressive practice of the Greek. The prakaranas agree in all
essentials with the ndtdkas except that they are less elevated;
their stories are mere fictions, taken from actual life in a respect-
able class of society.1 ^ Among the species of the uparupaka may
be mentioned the trotaka, in which the personages are partly
human, partly divine, and of which a famous example remains.2
Of the bhana, a monologue in one act, one literary example is
extant — a curious picture of manners in which the speaker
describes the different persons he meets at a spring festival in the
streets of Kolahalapur.3 The satire of the farcical prahasanas is
usually directed against the hypocrisy of ascetics and Brahmans,
and the sensuality of the wealthy and powerful. These trifles
represent the lower extreme of the dramatic scale, to which, of
course, the principles that follow only partially apply.

Unity of action is strictly enjoined by Hindu theory, though
not invariably observed in practice. Episodical or prolix
interruptions are forbidden; but, in order to facilitate
the connexion, the story of the play is sometimes ..
carried on by narratives spoken by actors or " inter-
preters," something after the fashionof the Chorus in Henry V .,
or of Gower in Pericles. " Unity of time " is liberally, if rather
arbitrarily, understood by the later critical authorities as limiting
the duration of the action to a single year; but even this is
exceeded in more than one classical play.4 The single acts are
to confine the events occurring in them to "one course of the sun,"
and usually do so. " Unity of place " is unknown to the Hindu
drama, by reason of the absence of scenery; for the plays were
performed in the open courts of palaces, perhaps at times in large
halls set apart for public entertainments, or in the open air.
Hence change of scene is usually indicated in the texts; and we
find6 the characters making long journeys on the stage, under the
eyes of spectators not trained to demand " real " mileage.

With the solemn character of the higher kind of dramatic
performances accord the rules and prohibitions defining what
may be called the proprieties of the Indian drama. It
has been already seen that all plays must have a happy pHetiei.
ending. Furthermore, not only should death never be
inflicted coram populo, but the various operations of biting,
scratching, kissing, eating, sleeping, the bath, and the marriage
ceremony should never take place on the stage. Yet such rules
are made to be occasionally broken. It is true that the mild
humour of the vidushaka is restricted to his " gesticulating

1 e.g. Mrichchhakafika ; MalaK and Madhava.

2 Vikrama and Urvasi. 3 Safada-Tilaka.

4 Sakuntala; Uttara-Rama-Charitra. 5 Arichandra, act iv.

INDIAN]

DRAMA

483

Construc-
tion.

eating " instead of perpetrating the obnoxious act.1 The charm-
ing love-scene in the Sakuntala (at least in the earlier recension of
the play) breaks off just as the hero is about to act the part of
the bee to the honey of the heroine's lips.2 But later writers are
less squeamish, or less refined. In two dramas ' the heroine is
dragged on the stage by her braid of hair; and this outrage is
in both instances the motive of the action. In a third,4 sleeping
and the marriage ceremony occur in the course of the represen-
tation.

The dramatic construction of the Indian plays presents no
very striking peculiarities. They open with a benediction
(nandi), spoken by the manager (supposed to be a
highly accomplished person), and followed by " some
account " of the author, and an introductory scene
between the manager and one of the actors, which is more or less
skilfully connected by the introduction of one of the characters
with the opening of the play itself. This is divided into acts
(ankas) and scenes; of the former a nataka should have not
fewer than 5, or more than 10; 7 appears a common number;
" the great nataka " reaches 14. Thus the length of the higher
class of Indian plays is considerable — about that of an Aeschylean
trilogy; but not more than a single play was ever performed
on the same occasion. Comic plays are restricted to two acts
(here called sandhis). In theory the scheme of an Indian drama
corresponds very closely to the general outline of dramatic
construction given above; it is a characteristic merit that the
business is rarely concluded before the last act. The
Scenes ana pjece cioseS) as ft began, with a benediction or prayer.
Within this framework room is found for situations as
ingeniously devised and highly wrought as those in any modern
Western play. What could be more pitiful than the scene in
Sakuntala, where the true wife appears before her husband,
whose remembrance of her is fatally overclouded by a charm;
what more terrific than that in Malati and Madhaiia, where the
lover rescues his beloved from the horrors of the charnel field?
Recognition — especially between parents and children — fre-
quently gives rise to scenes of a pathos which Euripides has not
surpassed.5 The ingenious device of a " play within the play "
(so familiar to the English drama) is employed with the utmost
success by Babhavuti.6 On the other hand, miraculous meta-
morphosis 7 and, in a later play,8 vulgar magic lend their aid
to the progress of the action. With scenes of strong effectiveness
contrast others of the most delicate poetic grace — such as the
indescribably lovely little episode of the two damsels of the god
of love helping one another to pluck the red and green bud from
the mango tree; or of gentle domestic pathos — such as that of
the courtesan listening to the prattle of her lover's child, one
of the prettiest scenes of a kind rarely kept free from affectation
in the modern drama. For the denouement in the narrower sense
of the term the Indian dramatists largely resort to the expedient
of the deus ex machina, often in a sufficiently literal sense.9

Every species of drama having its appropriate kind of hero or
heroine, theory here again amuses itself with an infinitude of
subdivisions. Among the heroines, of whom not less
than three hundred and eighty-four types are said
to be distinguished, are to be noticed the courtesans, whose
social position to some extent resembles that of the Greek
hetaerae, and association with whom does not seem in practice,
however it may be in theory, to be regarded as a disgrace even
to Brahmans.10 In general, the Indian drama indicates relations
between the sexes subject to peculiar restraints of usage, but
freer than those which Mahommedan example seems to have
introduced into higher Indian society. The male characters are
frequently drawn with skill, and sometimes with genuine force.
Prince Samsthanaka u is a type of selfishness born in the purple
worthy to rank beside figures of the modern drama, of which

1 Nagananda, act i. * Act iii. ; cf. Nagananda, act iii.

1 Veni-Samhdra; Prachanda-Panddva.

4 Viddha-Salabhanjika.

* Sakuntala; Utlara-Rama-Charitra. 6 Ib. act vii.

7 Vikrama and Urvasi, act iv. • RatndvaR.

9 Vikrama and Urvasi: Arichandra; Nagananda.

10 Mfichchhakalika. » Mfichchhakalikd.

Characters.

Actors.

this has at times naturally been a favourite class of character;
elsewhere,12 the intrigues of ministers are not more fully exposed
than their characters and principles of action are judiciously
discriminated. Among the lesser personages common in the
Indian drama, two are worth noticing, as corresponding, though
by no means precisely, to familiar types of other dramatic
literatures. These are the viid, the accomplished but dependent
companion (both of men and women), and the vidushaka, the
humble associate (not servant) of the prince, and the buffoon
of the action.13 Strangely enough, he is always a Brahman, or
the pupil of a Brahman- — perhaps a survival from a purely popular
phase of the drama. His humour is to be ever intent on the
pleasures of a quiet life, and on that of eating in particular;
his jokes are generally devoid of both harm and point.

Thus, clothing itself in a diction always ornate and tropical,
in which (as Riickert has happily expressed it) the prose is the
warp and the verse the weft, where (as Goethe says)
words become allusions, allusions similes, and similes
metaphors, the Indian drama essentially depended upon its
literary qualities, and upon the familiar sanctity of its favourite
themes for such effects as it was able to produce. Of scenic
apparatus it knew but little. The plays were usually performed
in the hall of a palace; the simple devices by which exits and
entrances were facilitated it is unnecessary to describe,
and on the contrivances employed for securing such
" properties " as were required (above all, the cars of costume.
the gods and of their emissaries),14 it is useless to
speculate. Propriety of costume, on the other hand, seems always
to have been observed, agreeably both to the peculiarities of the
Indian drama and to the habits of the Indian people.

The ministers of an art practised under such conditions could
not but be regarded with respect, and spared the contempt or
worse, which, except among one other great civilized
people, the Greeks, has everywhere, at one period or
another, been the actor's lot. Companies of actors seem to have
been common in India at an early date, and the inductions show
the players to have been regarded as respectable members of
society. In later, if not in earlier, times individual actors
enjoyed a widespread reputation — " all the world " is acquainted
with the talents of Kalaha-Kandala.15 The managers or directors,
as already stated, were usually gifted and highly-cultured
Brahmans. Female parts were in general, though not invariably,
represented by females. One would like to know whether such
was the case in a piece 16 where— after the fashion of more than
one Western play — a crafty minister passes off his daughter as a
boy, on which assumption she is all but married to a person of
her own sex.

The Indian drama would, if only for purposes of comparison, be
invaluable to the student of this branch of literature. But from
the point of view of purely literary excellence it holds its Summ
own against all except the very foremost dramas of the
world. It is, indeed, a mere phrase to call Kalidasa the Indian
Shakespeare — a title which, moreover, if intended as anything
more than a synonym for poetic pre-eminence, might fairly be
disputed in favour of Babhavuti; while it would be absolutely
misleading to place a dramatic literature, which, like the Indian,
is the mere quintessence of the culture of a caste, by the side of
one which represents the fullest development of the artistic
consciousness of such a people as the Hellenes. The Indian
drama cannot be described as national in the broadest and highest
sense of the word; it is, in short, the drama of a literary class,
though as such it exhibits many of the noblest and most refined,
as well as of the most characteristic, features of Hindu religion
and civilization. The ethics of the Indian drama are of a lofty
character, but they are those of a scholastic system of religious
philosophy, self-conscious of its completeness. To the power of
Fate is occasionally ascribed a supremacy, to which gods as well
as mortals must bow;17 but, if man's present life is merely a

12 Mudra-Rakshasa. » Sakuntala; Nagananda.

14 Sakuntala, acts vi. and vii ; Malati and Madhava, act v.

15 Induction to Anargha-Raghava.

l« Viddha-Salabhanjika. " Vikrama and Urvasi.

DRAMA

[CHINESE

phase in the cycle of his destinies, the highest of moral efforts at
the same time points to the summit of possibilities, and self-
sacrifice is the supreme condition both of individual perfection
and of the progress of the world. Such conceptions as these
seem at once to enfold and to overshadow the moral life of the
Indian drama. The affections and passions forming part of self
it delineates with a fidelity to nature which no art can afford to
neglect; on the other hand, the freedom of the picture is re-
stricted by conditions which to us are unfamiliar and at times
seem intolerable, but which it was impossible for the Indian
poet's imagination to ignore. The sheer self-absorption of
ambition or love appears inconceivable by the minds of any of
these poets; and their social philosophy is always based on the
system of caste. On the other hand, they are masters of many of
the truest forms of pathos, above all of that which blends with
resignation. In humour of a delicate kind they are by no means
deficient; to its lower forms they are generally strangers, even in
productions of a professedly comic intention. Of wit, Indian
dramatic literature — though a play on words is as the breath
of its nostrils — furnishes hardly any examples intelligible to
Western minds.

The distinctive excellence of the Indian drama is to be sought

in the poetic robe which envelops it as flowers overspread the

bosom of the earth in the season of spring. In its

^t,ry^1 nobler productions, at least, it is never untrue to its

the Indian ,

drama. half religious, half rural origin; it weaves the wreaths
of idyllic fancies in an unbroken chain, adding to its
favourite and familiar blossoms ever fresh beauties from an
inexhaustible garden. Nor is it unequal to depicting the grander
aspects of nature in her mighty forests and on the shores of the
ocean. A close familiarity with its native literature can here
alone follow its diction through a ceaseless flow of phrase and
figure, listen with understanding to the hum of the bee as it hangs
over the lotus, and contemplate with Sakuntala's pious sympathy
the creeper as it winds round the mango tree. But the poetic
beauty of the Indian drama reveals itself in the mysterious
charm of its outline, if not in its full glow, even to the untrained;
nor should the study of it — for which the materials seem con-
tinually on the increase — be left aside by any lover of
literature.

3. CHINESE DRAMA

Like the Indian drama, the Chinese arose from the union of the
arts of dance and song. To the ballets and pantomimes out of
which it developed itself, and which have continued to flourish
by the side of its more advanced forms, the Chinese ascribe a
primitive antiquity of origin; many of them originally had a
symbolical reference to such subjects as the harvest, and war and
peace. A very ancient pantomime is said to have symbolized the
conquest of China by Wu-Wang; others were of a humbler, and
often of a very obscure, character. To their music the Chinese
likewise attribute a great antiquity of origin.

There are traditions which carry back the characters of the
Chinese drama to the i8th century before the Christian era.
Others declare the Emperor Wan-Te (fl. about A.D. 580) to have
invented the drama; but this honour is more usually given to
the emperor Yuen-Tsung (A.D. 720), who is likewise remembered
as a radical musical reformer. Pantomimes henceforth fell into
disrepute; and the history of the Chinese drama from this date is
divided, with an accuracy we cannot profess to control, into four
distinct periods. Each of these periods, we are told, has a style,
and each style a name of its own; but these names, such as
" Diversions of the Woods in Flower," have little or no meaning
for us; and it would therefore be useless to cite them.

The first period is that of the dramas composed under the
T'ang dynasty, from A.D. 720 to 907. These pieces, called
Tchhouen-Khi, were limited to the representation of extra-
ordinary events, and were therefore, in design at least, a species
of heroic drama. The ensuing times of civil war interrupted the
" pleasures of peace and prosperity " (a Chinese phrase for
dramatic performances) — which, however, revived.

The second period is that of the Tsung Dynasty, from 960 to

1119. The plays of this period are called Hi-Khio, and presented
what became a standing peculiarity of the Chinese classical
drama, viz. that in them figures a principal personage ««*•
who sings.

The third and best-known age of the Chinese drama was under
the Kin and Yuen dynasties, from 1125 to 1367. The plays of
this period are called Yuen-Pen and Tsa-Ki; the latter seem to
have resembled the Hi-Khio, and to have treated very various
subjects. The Yuen-Pen are the plays from which our literary
knowledge of the Chinese drama is mainly derived; the short
pieces called Yen-Kia were in the same style, but briefer. The
list of dramatic authors under the Yuen dynasty, the most
important period in Chinese literary annals, which covered the
years 1260 to 1368, is tolerably extensive, comprising 85, among
whom four are designated as courtesans; the number of plays
composed by these and by anonymous authors is reckoned at
not less than 564. In 1735 the Jesuit missionary Joseph Henry
Premare first revealed to Europe the existence of the tragedy
Tchao-Chi-Cu-Eul (The Little Orphan of the House of Tchao),
which was founded upon an earlier piece treating of the fortunes of
an heir to the imperial throne, who was preserved in a mysterious
box like another Cypselus or Moses. Voltaire seized the theme of
the earlier play for a rhetorical tragedy, L'Orphelin de la Chine, in
which he coolly professes it was his intention " to paint the
manners of the Chinese and the Tartars." The later play, which
is something less elevated in the rank of its characters, and very
decidedly less refined in treatment, was afterwards retranslated
by Stanislas Julien; and to the labours of this scholar, of Sir
J. F. D^vis (1795-1890) and of Antoine Bazin (1799-1863), we
owe a series of translated Chinese dramas, among which there can
be no hesitation whatever in designating the master-piece.

The justly famous Pi-Pa-Ki ( The Story of the Lute) belongs to a
period rather later than that of the Yuen plays, having been
composed towards the close of the I4th century by
Kao-Tong-Kia, and reproduced in 1404, under the Ming
dynasty, fwith the alterations of Mao-Tseu, a commentator of
learning and taste. Pi-Pa-Ki, which as a domestic drama of
sentiment possesses very high merit, long enjoyed a quite
exceptional popularity in China; it was repeatedly republished
with laudatory prefaces, and so late as the i8th century was
regarded as a monument of morality, and as the master-piece of
the Chinese theatre. It would seem to have remained without
any worthy competitors; for, although it had been originally
designed to produce a reaction against the immorality of the
drama then in fashion, especially of Wang-Chi-Fou's celebrated
Si-Siang-Ki ( The Story of the Western Pavilion) , yet the fourth
period of the Chinese drama, under the Ming dynasty, from
1368 to 1644, exhibited no improvement. " What "
(says the preface to the 1704 edition of Pi-Pa-Ki)
" do you find there ? Farcical dialogue, a mass of
scenes in which one fancies one hears the hubbub of the streets
or the ignoble language of the highways, the extravagances of
demons and spirits, in addition to love-intrigues repugnant
to delicacy of manners." Nor would it appear that the Chinese
theatre has ever recovered from its decay.

In theory, no drama could be more consistently elevated in
purpose and in tone than the Chinese. Every play, we learn,
should have both a moral and a meaning. A virtuous _.
aim is imposed upon Chinese dramatists by an article „/ alms]
of the penal code of the empire; and those who write
immoral plays are to expect after death a purgatory which will
last so long as these plays continue to be performed. In practice,
however, the Chinese drama falls far short of its ideal; indeed,
according to the native critic already cited, among ten thousand
playwrights not one is to be found intent upon perfecting the
education of mankind by means of precepts and examples.

The Chinese are, like the Hindus, unacquainted with the dis-
tinction between tragedy and comedy; they classify their plays
according to subjects in twelve categories. It may be /totoll.
doubted whether what seems the highest of these is frama?'
actually such; for the religious element in the Chinese
drama is often sheer buffoonery. Moreover, Chinese religious

CHINESE]

DRAMA

485

life, as reflected in the drama, seems one in which creed elbows
creed, and superstitions are welcome whatever their origin.
Of all religious traditions and doctrines, however, those of
Buddhism (which had reached China long before the known
beginnings of its drama) are the most prominent; thus, the
theme of absolute self-sacrifice is treated in one play,1 that of
entire absorption in the religious life in another.2 The historical
fia^ drama is not unknown to the Chinese; and although
a law prohibits the bringing on the stage of " emperors,
empresses, and the famous princes, ministers, and generals of
former ages," no such restriction is observed in practice. In
Han-Kong-Tseu (The Sorrows of Han), for instance, which treats
a national historic legend strangely recalling in parts the story
of Esther and the myth of the daughter of Erechtheus, the
Domestic. emPeror Yuen-Ti (the representative, to be sure, of
a fallen dynasty) plays a part, and a sufficiently sorry
one. By far the greater number, however, of the Chinese plays
accessible in translations belong to the domestic species, and
to that subspecies which may be called the criminal drama.
Their favourite virtue is piety, of a formal3 or a practical4 kind
to parents or parents-in-law; their favourite interest lies in the
discovery of long-hidden guilt, and in the vindication of per-
secuted innocence.5 In the choice and elaboration of such
subjects they leave little to be desired by the most ardent
devotees of the literature of agony. Besides this description of
plays, we have at least one love-comedy pure and simple — a
piece of a nature not " tolerably mild," but ineffably harmless.6
Free in its choice of themes, the Chinese drama is likewise
remarkably unrestricted in its range of characters. Chinese
society, it is well known, is not based, like Indian,
characters. uPon the principle of caste; rank is in China deter-
mined by office, and this again depends on the results
of examination. These familiar facts are constantly brought
home to the reader of Chinese plays. The Tchoang-Yuen, or
senior classman on the list of licentiates, is the flower of Chinese
society, and the hero of many a drama;7 and it is a proud boast
that for years " one's ancestors have held high posts, which they
owed to their literary successes." 8 On the other hand, a person
who has failed in his military examination, becomes, as if by a
natural transition, a man-eating monster.9 But of mere class
the Chinese drama is no respecter, painting with noteworthy
freedom the virtues and the vices of nearly every phase of society.
The same liberty is taken with regard to the female sex; it is
clear that in earlier times there were few vexatious restrictions
in Chinese life upon the social intercourse between men and
women. The variety of female characters in the Chinese drama
is great, ranging from the heroine who sacrifices herself for the
sake of an empire10 to the well-brought-up young lady who avers
that " woman came into the world to be obedient, to unravel
skeins of silk, and to work with her needle " u — from the chamber-
maid who contrives the most gently sentimental of rendezvous,12
to the reckless courtesan who, like another Millwood, upbraids
the partner of her guilt on his suing for mercy, and bids him
die with her in hopes of a reunion after death.13 In marriage the
first or legitimate wife is distinguished from the second, who is
at times a ci-devant courtesan, and towards whom the feelings of
the former vary between bitter jealousy u and sisterly kindness.15
The conduct of the plays exhibits much ingenuity, and an
aversion from restrictions of time and place; in fact, the nature
of the plot constantly covers a long series of years, and spans
wide intervals of local distance. The plays are divided into acts
and scenes — the former being usually four in number, at times

1 The Self-Sacrifice of Tchao-Li.

2 Lai-Seng-Tchai (The Debt to be Paid in the Next World).
1 Lao-Seng-Eul. * Pi-Pa-Ki.

*The Circle of Chalk (Hoei-Lan-Ki) ; The Tunic Matched; The
Revenge of Teou-Ngo.

' Tchao-Mei-Hiang (The Intrigues of a Chambermaid).

7 Tchao-Mei-Hiang; Ho-Han-Chan; Pi-Pa-Ki.

8 Hoei-Lan-Ki, Prol. sc. i. • Tchao-Li.

10 Han-Kong-Tseu. " Pi-Pa-Ki, sc. 2.

n Tchao-Mei-Hiang.

13 He-Lang-Tan, act iv. ; cf. Hoei-Lan-Ki, act iv.

14 Hoei-Lan-Ki. » Pi-Pa-Ki.

with an induction or narrative prologue spoken by some of the
characters (Sie-Tsen). Favourite plays were, however, allowed
to extend to great length; the Pi-Pa-Ki is divided construe-
into 24 sections, and in another recension apparently tioa and
comprised 42. " I do not wish," says the manager conduct ot
in the prologue, " that this performance should last p
too long; finish it to-day, but cut out nothing " — whence it
appears that the performance of some plays occupied more than
a single day. The rule was always observed that a separate act
should be given up to the denouement; while, according to a
theory of which it is not always easy to trace the operation, the
perfection of construction was sought in the dualism or contrast
of scene and scene, just as the perfection of diction was placed
in the parallelism or antithesis of phrase and phrase. Being
subject to no restrictions as to what might, or might not, be
represented on the stage, the conduct of the plots allowed of the
introduction of almost every variety of incidents. Death takes
place, in sight of the audience, by starvation,16 by drowning,17
by poison,18 by execution;19 flogging and torture are inflicted
on the stage;20 wonders are wrought;21 and magic is brought
into play;22 the ghost of an innocently-executed daughter calls
upon her father to revenge her foul murder, and assists in person
at the subsequent judicial enquiry.23 Certain peculiarities in the
conduct of the business are due to the usages of society rather
than to dramaturgic laws. Marriages are generally managed —
at least in the higher spheres of society — by ladies professionally
employed as matrimonial agents.24 The happy resolution of the
nodus of the action is usually brought about by the direct inter-
position of superior official authority26 — a tribute to the paternal
system of government, which is the characteristic Chinese
variety of the deus ex machina. This naturally tends to the
favourite close of a glorification of the emperor,26 resembling
that of Louis XIV. at the end of Tartufe, or in spirit, at all events,
those of the virgin queen in more than one Elizabethan play.
It should be added that the characters save the necessity for a
bill of the play by persistently announcing and re-announcing
their names and genealogies, and the necessity for a book by
frequently recapitulating the previous course of the plot.

One peculiarity of the Chinese drama remains to be noticed.
The chief character of a play represents the author as well as the
personage; he or she is hero or heroine and chorus in TbepHn-
one. This is brought about by the hero's (or heroine's) cipaiper-
singing the poetical passages, or those containing sf>nage
maxims of wisdom and morality, or reminiscences and ""*" slags-
examples drawn from legend or history. Arising out of the
dialogue, these passages at the same time diversify it, and give
to it such elevation and brilliancy as it can boast. The singing
character must be the principal personage in the action, but
may be taken from any class of society. If this personage dies
in the course of the play, another sings in his place. From the
mention of this distinctive feature of the Chinese drama
it will be obvious how unfair it would be to judge of diction.
any of its productions, without a due appreciation of
the lyric passages, which do not appear to be altogether restricted
to the singing of the principal personage, for other characters
frequently " recite verses." In these lyrical or didactic passages
are to be sought those flowers of diction which, as Julien has
shown, consist partly in the use of a metaphorical phraseology
of infinite nicety in its variations — such as a long series of phrases
compounded with the word signifying jet and expressing severally
the ideas of rarity, distinction, beauty, &c., or as others derived
from the names of colours, birds, beasts, precious metals, ele-
ments, constellations, &c., or alluding to favourite legends or
anecdotes. These features constitute the literary element par
excellence of Chinese dramatic composition. At the same time,
though it is impossible for the untrained reader to be alive to

16 Pi-Pa-Ki, sc. 15.

18 Hoei-Lan-Ki, act i.

20 Hoei-Lan-Ki, act ii.

22 Pi-Pa-Ki, sc. 18.

24 Tchao-Mei-Hiang; Pi-Pa-Ki.

* Ho-Han-Chan.

17 Ho-Han-Chan, act ii.
a Teou-Ngo-Yuen, act iii.
21 Teou-Ngo- Yuen, act iii.
28 Teou-Ngo- Yuen, act. iv.
26 Hoei-Lan-Ki.

DRAMA

[JAPANESE

the charms of so unfamiliar a phraseology, it may be questioned
whether even in its diction the Chinese drama can claim to be
regarded as really poetic. It may abound in poetic ornament;
it is not, like the Indian, bathed in poetry.

On the other hand, the merits of this dramatic literature are
by no means restricted to ingenuity of construction and variety
Merits of of character — merits, in themselves important, which
the no candid criticism will deny to it. Its master-piece

Chinese js nO(; onjy truly pathetic in the conception and the
drama. majn situations of its action, but includes scenes of
singular grace and delicacy of treatment — such as that where
the remarried husband of the deserted heroine in vain essays
in the presence of his second wife to sing to his new lute, now
that he has cast aside the old.1 In the last act of a tragedy
appealing at once to patriotism and to pity, there is true imagina-
tive power in the picture of the emperor, when aware of the
departure, but not of the death, of his beloved, sitting in solitude
broken only by the ominous shriek of the wild-fowl.2 Nor is the
Chinese drama devoid of humour. The lively abigail who has to
persuade her mistress into confessing herself in love by arguing
(almost like Beatrice) that " humanity bids us love men ";3
the corrupt judge (a common type in the Chinese plays) who
falls on his knees before the prosecuting parties to a suit as before
"the father and mother who give him sustenance,"4 may serve
as examples; and in Pi-Pa-Ki there is a scene of admirable
burlesque on the still more characteristic theme of the humours
of a competitive examination.5 If such illustrations could not
easily be multiplied, they are at least worth citing in order to
deprecate a perfunctory criticism on the qualities of a dramatic
literature as to which our materials for judgment are still
scanty.

While in the north of China houses are temporarily set apart
for dramatic performances, in the south these are usually con-

fined to theatres erected in the streets (Hi- That).

Thus scenic decorations of any importance must always
costume, have been out of question in the Chinese theatre. The

costumes, on the other hand, are described as magnifi-
cent; they are traditionally those worn before the I7th century,
in accordance with the historical colouring of most of the plays.
Actors. The actor's profession is not a respectable one in China,

the managers being in the habit of buying children of
slaves and bringing them up as slaves of their own. Women
may not appear on the stage, since the emperor K'ien-Lung
admitted an actress among his concubines; female parts are
therefore played by lads, occasionally by eunuchs.

4. JAPANESE DRAMA

The Japanese drama, as all evidence seems to agree in showing,
still remains what in substance it has always been — an amuse-
ment passionately loved by the lower orders, but hardly dignified
by literature deserving the name. Apart from its native elements
of music, dance and song, and legendary or historical narrative
and pantomime, it is clearly to be regarded as a Chinese im-
portation; nor has it in its more advanced forms apparently
even attempted to emancipate itself from the reproduction of the
conventional Chinese types. As early as the close of the 6th
century Hada Kawatsu, a man of Chinese extraction, but born
in Japan, is said to have been ordered to arrange entertainments
for the benefit of the country, and to have written as many as
thirty-three plays. The Japanese, however, ascribe the origin
of their drama to the introduction of the dance called Sambaso
as a charm against a volcanic depression of the earth which
occurred in 805; and this dance appears still to be used as a
prelude to theatrical exhibitions. In 1108 lived a woman called
Iso no Zenji, who is looked upon as " the mother of the Japanese
drama." But her performances seem to have been confined to
dancing or posturing in male attire (otokomai); and the intro-

1 Pi-Pa-Ki, sc. 14. 2 Han-Kong-Tseu.

* Tchao-Mei-Hiang, act ii.

4 Teou-Ngo- Yuen, act ii. ; cf . Hoei-Lan-Ki.

8 Pi-Pa-Ki, sc. 5.

duction of the drama proper is universally attributed to Sarnwaka
Kanzaburo, who in 1624 opened the first theatre (sibaia) at
Yeddo. Not long afterwards (1651) the playhouses were re-
moved to their present site in the capital; and both here and in
the provincial towns, especially of the north, the drama has since
continued to flourish. Persons of rank were formerly never seen
at these theatres; but actors were occasionally engaged to play
in private at the houses of the nobles, who appear themselves to
have taken part in performances of a species of opera affected by
them, always treating patriotic legends and called no. The
mikado has a court theatre.

The subjects of the serious popular plays are mainly mytho-
logical— the acts of the great spirit Day-Sin, the incarnation of
Brahma, and similar themes — or historical, treating
of the doings of the early dynasties. In these the
names of the personages are changed. An example of
the latter class is to be found in the joruri, or musical romance,
in which the universally popular tale of Chiushingura ( The Loyal
League) has been amplified and adapted for theatrical representa-
tion. This famous narrative of the feudal fidelity of the forty-
seven ronins, who about the year 1699 revenged their chief's
judicial suicide upon the arrogant official to whom it was due,
is stirring rather than touching in its incidents, and contains much
bloodshed, together with a tea-house scene which suffices as a
specimen of the Japanese comedy of manners. One of the books
of this dramatic romance consists of a metrical description,
mainly in dialogue, of a journey which (after the fashion of Indian
plays) has to be carried out on the stage. The performance of
one of these quasi-historical dramas sometimes lasts over several
days; they are produced with much pomp of costume; but the
acting is very realistic, and hari-kari is performed, almost " to
the life." Besides these tragic plays (in which, however, comic
intermezzos are often inserted) the Japanese have middle-class
domestic dramas of a very realistic kind. The language of these,
unlike that of Chinese comedy, is often gross and scurrilous,
but intrigues against married women are rigidly excluded.
Fairy and demon operas and ballets, and farces and intermezzos,
form an easy transition to the interludes of tumblers and jugglers.
As a specimen of nearly every class of play is required to make up
a Japanese theatrical entertainment, which lasts from sunrise to
sunset, and as the lower houses appropriate and mutilate the
plays of the higher, it is clear that the status of the Japanese
theatre cannot be regarded as at ah1 high. In respect, however,
of its movable scenery and properties, it is in advance of its
Chinese prototype. The performers are, except in the ballet,
males only; and the comic acting is said to be excellent of its
kind. Though the leading actors enjoy great popularity and
very respectable salaries, the class is held in contempt, and the
companies were formerly recruited from the lowest sources.
The disabilities under which they lay have, however, been
removed; a Dramatic Reform Association has been organized
by a number of noblemen and scholars, and a theatre on European
lines built (see JAPAN).

5. PERSIAN AND OTHER ASIATIC, POLYNESIAN AND PERUVIAN-
DRAMA

Such dramatic examples of the drama as may be discoverable
in Siam will probably have to be regarded as belonging to a
branch of the Indian drama. The drama of the Malay
populations of Java and the neighbouring island of
Sumatra also resembles the Indian, to which it may have owed
what development it has reached. The Javanese, as we learn,
distinguish among the lyrics sung on occasions of
popular significance the panton, a short simile or fable, su/nafr-a
and the tcharita, a more advanced species, taking the &c.
form of dialogue and sung or recited by actors proper.
From the tcharita the Javanese drama, which in its higher forms
treats the stories of gods and kings, appears to have been derived.
As in the Indian drama, the functions of the director or manager
are of great importance; as in the Greek, the performers wear
masks, here made of wood. The comic drama is often represented
in both Java and Sumatra by parties of strollers consisting of

PERSIAN]

DRAMA

487

Persian.

The
teazles.

two men and a woman — a troop sufficient for a wide variety of
plot.

Among other more highly civilized Asiatic peoples, the traces
of the dramatic art are either few or late. The originally Aryan
Persians exhibit no trace of the drama in their ample
earlier literature. But in its later national development
the two species, widely different from one another, of the religious
drama or mystery and of the popular comedy or farce have made
their appearance — the former in a growth of singular interest.

Of the Persian teazles (lamentations or complaints) the subjects
are invariably derived from religious history, and more or less
directly connected with the " martyrdoms " of the
house of Ali. The performance of these episodes or
scenes takes place during the first ten days of the month
of Muharram, when the adherents of the great Shi'ite sect all
over Persia and Mahommedan India commemorate the deaths of
the Prophet and his daughter Fatima, the mother of Ali, the
martyrdoms of Ah' himself, shamefully murdered in the sanctuary,
and of his unoffending son Hasan, done to death by his miserable
guilty Deianira of a wife, and lastly the never-to-be-forgotten
sacrifice of Hasan's brother, the heroic Hosain, on the bloody
field of Kerbela (A.D. 680). With the establishment in Persia,
early in the i6th century, of the Safawid (Sufi) dynasty by the
Shi'ites, the cult of the martyrs Hasan and Hosain secured the
official sanction which it has since retained. Thus the perform-
ance of these tiazies, and the defraying of the equipment of them,
are regarded as religious, and in a theological sense meritorious,
acts; and the plays are frequently provided by the court or by
other wealthy persons, by way of pleasing the people or securing
divine favour. The plays are performed, usually by natives of
Isfahan, in courtyards of mosques, palaces, inns, &c., and in the
country in temporary structures erected for the purpose.

It would seem that, no farther back than the beginning of the
i gth century, the teazles were still only songs or elegies in honour
of the martyrs, occasionally chanted by persons actually repre-
senting them. Just, however, as Greek tragedy was formed by a
gradual detachment of the dialogue from the choric song of which
it was originally only a secondary outgrowth, and by its gradually
becoming the substance of the drama, so the Miracle Play of
Hasan and Hosain, as we may call it, has now come to be a
continuous succession of dramatic scenes. Of these fifty-two
have, thanks to the labours of Alexander Chodzko and Sir Lewis
Pelly, been actually taken down in writing, and thirty-seven
published in translations; and it is clear that there is no limit
to the extension of the treatment, as is shown by such a teazie
as the Marriage of Kassem, dealing with the unfortunate Hosain's
unfortunate son.1 The performance is usually opened by a
prologue delivered by the rouzekhan, a personage of semi-priestly
character claiming descent from the Prophet, who edifies and
excites the audience by a pathetic recitation of legends and
vehement admonitions in prose or verse concerning the subject
of the action. But the custom seems to have arisen of specially
prefacing the drama proper by a kind of induction which illus-
trates the cause or effect of the sacred story — as for instance
that of Amir Timur (Tamerlane), who appears as lamenting and
avenging the death of Hosain; or the episode of Joseph's be-
trayal by his brethren, as prefiguring the cruelty shown to Ali
and his sons. At the climax of the action proper Hosain prays
to be granted at the day of judgment the key of the treasure of
intercession; and the final scene shows the fulfilment of his
prayer, which opens paradise to those who have helped the holy
martyr, or who have so much as shed a single tear for him.
It will thus be seen that not only is this complex and elaborate
production unapproached in its length and in its patient develop-
ment of a long sequence of momentous events by any chronicle
history or religious drama, but that it embodies together with
the passionately cherished traditions of a great religious com-
munity the expression of a long-lived resentment of foreign
invasion — and is thus a kind of Oberammergau play and
complaint of the Nibelungs in one.

1 Translated by Comte de Gobineau, in his Religions et philosophies
dans I'Asie centrale (Paris, 1865).

The other kind of Persian drama is the tf mocha ( = spectacle),
a kind of comedy or farce, sometimes called teglid (disguising),
performed by wandering minstrels or joculatores called
loutys, who travel about accompanied by their baya-
deres, and amuse such spectators as they find by their
improvised entertainments, which seem to be on much the same
level as English " interludes." A favourite and ancient variety
of the species is the karaguez or puppet-play, of which the
protagonist is called kelchel pehlivan (the bald hero).

The modern Persian drama seems to have admitted Western
influences, as in the case of such comedies as The Pleaders of the
Court, and, avowedly, Monsieur Jourdan and Musla'li Shah,
of whom the former steals away the wits of young Persia by his
pictures of the delights of Paris.

There is no necessity for any reference here to the civilization
or to the literature of the Hebrews, or to those of other Semitic
peoples, with whom the drama is either entirely
wanting, or only appears as a quite occasional and
exotic growth. Dramatic elements are apparent in
two of the books of the Hebrew scripture — the Book of Ruth and
the Book of Job, of which latter the author of Everyman, and
Goethe in his Faust, made so impressive a use.

From Polynesia and aboriginal America we also have isolated
traces of drama. Among these are the performances, accom-
panied by dancing and intermixed with recitation and
singing, of the South Sea Islanders, first described by
Captain Cook, and reintroduced to the notice of students Peru[
of comparative mythology by W. Wyatt Gill. Of the
so-called Inca drama of the Peruvians, the unique relic, Apu
Ollantay, said to have been written down in the Quichua tongue
from native dictation by Spanish priests shortly after the conquest
of Peru, has been partly translated by Sir Clements Markham,
and has been rendered into German verse. It appears to be an
historic play of the heroic type, combining stirring incidents with
a pathos finding expression in at least one lyric of some sweetness
— the lament of the lost Collyar. With it may be contrasted the
ferocious Aztek dramatic ballet, Rabinal-Achi (translated by
Brasseur de Bourbourg), of which the text seems rather a suc-
cession of warlike harangues than an attempt at dramatic treat-
ment of character. But these are mere isolated curiosities.

6. DRAMATIC ELEMENTS IN EGYPTIAN CULTURE
The civilization and religious ideas of the Egyptians so vitally
influenced the people of whose drama we are about to speak that
a reference to them cannot be altogether omitted. The influence
of Egyptian upon Greek civilization has probably been over-
estimated by Herodotus; but while it will never be clearly
known how much the Greeks owed to the Egyptians in divers
branches of knowledge, it is certain that the former confessed
themselves the scholars of Egypt in the cardinal doctrine of its
natural theology. The doctrine of the immortality of the soul
there found its most solemn expression in mysterious recitations
connected with the rites of sepulture, and treating of the migra-
tion of the soul from its earthly to its eternal abode. These
solemnities, whose transition into the Hellenic mysteries has
usually been attributed to the agency of the Thracian worship of
Dionysus, undoubtedly contained a dramatic element, upon the
extent of which it is, however, useless to speculate. The ideas
to which they sought to give utterance centred in that of Osiris,
the vivifying power or universal soul of nature, whom Herodotus
simply identifies with the Dionysus of the Greeks. The same
deity was likewise honoured by processions among the rural
Egyptian population, which, according to the same authority, in
nearly all respects except the absence of choruses resembled
the Greek phallic processions in honour of the wine-god.

That the Egyptians looked upon music as an important science
seems fully established; it was diligently studied by their priests,
though not, as among the Greeks, forming a part of general
education, and in the sacred rites of their gods they as a rule
permitted the use of flute and harp, as well as of vocal music.
Dancing was as an art confined to professional persons ; but though
the higher orders abstained from its practice, the lower indulged

488

DRAMA

[GREEK

in it on festive occasions, when a tendency to pantomime
naturally asserted itself, and licence and wanton buffoonery
prevailed, as in the early rustic festivals of the Greek and Italian
peoples. Of a dance of armed men, on the other hand, there
seems no satisfactory trace in the representations of the Egyptian
monuments.

7. GREEK DRAMA

Whatever elements the Greek drama may, in the sources from
which it sprang, have owed to Egyptian, or Phrygian, or other

Asiatic influences, its development was independent

an(l self-sustained. Not only in its beginnings, but

so long as the stage existed in Greece, the drama was
in intimate connexion with the national religion. This is the most
signal feature of its history, and one which cannot in the same
degree or to the same extent be ascribed to the drama of any
other people, ancient or modern. Not only did both the great
branches of the Greek drama alike originate in the usages of
religious worship, but they never lost their formal union with it,
though one of them (comedy) in its later growth abandoned all
direct reference to its origin. Hellenic polytheism was at once so
active and so fluid or flexible in its anthropomorphic formations,
that no other religious system has ever with the same conquering
force assimilated to itself foreign elements, or with equal vivacity
and variety developed its own. Thus, the worship of Dionysus,
introduced into Greece by the Phoenicians as that of the tauri-
form sun-god whom his worshippers adored with loud cries
(whence Bacchus or lacchus), and the god of generation (whence
his phallic emblem) and production, was brought into connexion
with the Dorian religion of the sun-god Apollo. Apollo and
his sister, again, corresponded to the Pelasgian and Achaean
divinities of sun and moon, whom the Phoenician Dionysus
and Demeter superseded, or with whose worship theirs was
blended. Dionysus, whose rites were specifically conducted
with reference to his attributes as the wine-god, was attended
by deified representations of his original worshippers, who wore
the skin of the goat sacrificed to him. These were the satyrs.
Out of the connected worships of Dionysus, Bacchus, Apollo
and Demeter sprang the beginnings of the Greek drama.

"Both tragedy and comedy," says Aristotle, "originated in
a rude and unpremeditated manner — the first from the leaders
of the dithyramb, and the second from those who led off the
phallic songs." This diversity of origin, and the distinction
jealously maintained down to the latest times between the two
branches of the dramatic art, even where they might seem to
come into actual contact with one another, necessitate a separate
statement as to the origin and history of either.

The custom of offering thanks to the gods by hymns and
dances in the places of public resort was first practised by the

Greeks in the Dorian states, whose whole system of
tragedy. ^e was organized on a military basis. Hence the

dances of the Dorians originally taught or imitated
the movements of soldiers, and their hymns were warlike chants.
Such were the beginnings of the chorus, and of its songs (called
paeans, from an epithet of Apollo), accompanied first by the
phorminx and then by the flute. A step in advance was taken
when the poet with his trained singers and dancers, like the Indian
siitra-dhdra, performed these religious functions as the representa-
tive of the population. From the Doric paean at a very early
period several styles of choral dancing formed themselves,
to which the three styles of dance in scenic productions — the
tragic, the comic and the satyric — are stated afterwards to have
corresponded. But none of these could have led to a literary
growth. This was due to the introduction among the Dorians

of the dithyramb (from 5?o$, descended from Zeus, and
ramb. Bpiapfios, the Latin triumphus) , originally a song of

revellers, probably led by a flute-player and accom-
panied by the music of other Eastern instruments, in which
it was customary in Crete to celebrate the birth of Bacchus
(the doubly-born) and possibly also his later adventures. The
leader of the band (coryphaeus') may be supposed to have at
times assumed the character of the wine-god, whose worshippers

bore aloft the vineclad thyrsus. The dithyramb was reduced
to a definite form by the Lesbian Arion (fl. 610), who composed
regular poems, turned the moving band of worshippers into
a standing or " cyclic " chorus of attendants on Dionysus —
a chorus of satyrs, a tragic or goat chorus— invented a style
of music adapted to the character of the chorus, and called these
songs " tragedies " or " goat-songs. " Arion, whose goat-chorus
may perhaps have some connexion with an early Arcadian
worship of Pan, associated it permanently with Dionysus, and
thus became the inventor of " lyrical tragedy " — a transition
stage between the dithyramb and the regular drama.
His invention, or the chorus with which it dealt, was
established according to fixed rules by his contem-
porary Stesichorus. About the time when Arion introduced
these improvements into the Dorian city of Corinth, the (likewise
Dorian) families at Sicyon honoured the hero-king Adrastus by
tragic choruses. Hence the invention of tragedy was ascribed
by the Sicyonians to their poet Epigenes; but this step, signifi-
cant for the future history of the Greek drama, of employing the
Bacchic chorus for the celebration of other than Bacchic themes,
was soon annulled by the tyrant Cleisthenes.

The element which transformed lyrical tragedy into the
tragic drama was added by the lonians. The custom of the
recitation of poetry by wandering minstrels, called
rhapsodes (from ^d/35os, staff, or from pa.intu>, to piece sojeg ap~
together), first sprang up in the Ionia beyond the sea;
to such minstrels was due the spread of the Homeric poems
and of subsequent epic cycles. These recitations, with or without
musical accompaniment, soon included gnomic or didactic,
as well as epic, verse; if Homer was a rhapsode, so was the sen-
tentious or " moral " Hesiod. The popular effect of these recita-
tions was enormously increased by the metrical innovations of
Archilochus (from 708), who invented the trochee and the
iambus, the latter the arrowy metre which is the native form of
satirical invective — the species of composition in which Archi-
lochus excelled — though it was soon used for other purposes
also. The recitation of these iambics may already have nearly
approached to theatrical declamation. The rhapsodes were
welcome guests at popular festivals, where they exercised their
art in mutual emulation, or ultimately recited parts, perhaps
the whole, of longer poems. The recitation of a long epic may
thus have resembled theatrical dialogue; even more so must
the alternation of iambic poems, the form being frequently
an address in the second person. The rhapsode was in some
sense an actor; and when these recitations reached Attica,
they thus brought with them the germs of theatrical
dialogue.

The rhapsodes were actually introduced into Attica at a very
early period; the Iliad, we know, was chanted at the Brauronia,
a rural festival of Bacchus, whose worship had early invention
entered Attica, and was cherished among its rustic of the
population. Meanwhile the cyclic chorus of the t''axic
Dorians had found its way into Attica and Athens,
ever since the Athenians had recognized the authority of the great
centre of the Apolline religion at Delphi. From the second half
of the 6th century onwards the chorus of satyrs formed a leading
feature of the great festival of Dionysus at Athens. It therefore
only remained for the rhapsodic and the cyclic — in other words,
for the epic and the choral — elements to coalesce; and this must
have been brought about by a union of the two accompaniments
of religious worship in the festive rites of Bacchus, and by the
domestication of these rites in the ruling city. This occurred
in the time of Peisistratus, perhaps after his restoration in 554.
To Thespis (534), said to have been a contemporary of the tyrant
and a native of an Attic deme (Icaria) , the invention of tragedy
is accordingly ascribed. Whether his name be that of an actual
person or not, his claim to be regarded as the inventor of tragedy
is founded on the statement that he introduced an actor
(wrcxcprrifc, originally, " answerer "), doubtless, at first, gener-
ally the poet himself, who, instead of merely alternating his
recitations with the songs of the chorus, addressed his speech
to its leader — the coryphaeus— with whom he thus carried on a

GREEK]

DRAMA

489

species of " dialogue." Or, in other words, the leader of the
chorus (coryphaeus), instead of addressing himself to the chorus,
held converse with the actor. The chorus stood round its leader
in front of the Bacchic altar (thymele) ; the actor stood with the
coryphaeus, who had occupied a more elevated position in order
to be visible above his fellows, on a rude table, or possibly on a
cart, though the wagon of Thespis may be a fiction, due to a
confusion between his table and the wagon of Susarion. In any
case, we have here, with the beginnings of dialogue, the beginning
of the stage. It is a significant minor invention ascribed to
Thespis, that he disguised the actor's face first by means of a
pigment, afterwards by a mask. In the dialogue was treated
some myth relating to Bacchus, or to some other deity or hero.
Whether or not Thespis actually wrote tragedies (and there seems
no reason to doubt it), Phrynichus and one or two other poets
are mentioned as having carried on choral tragedy as set on
foot by him, and as having introduced improvements into its
still predominating lyrical element. The step which made
dramatic action possible, and with which the Greek drama thus
really began, was, as is distinctly stated by Aristotle, taken by
Aeschylus. He added a second actor; and, by reducing the
functions of the chorus, he further established the dialogue as the
principal part of tragedy. Sophocles afterwards added a third
actor, by which change the preponderance of the dialogue was
made complete. .

If the origin of Greek comedy is simpler in its nature than
that of Greek tragedy, the beginnings of its progress are involved
in more obscurity. Its association with religious wor-
ship was not initial; its foundations lay in popular
mirth, though religious festivals, and those of the
vintage god in particular, must from the first have been the
most obvious occasions for its exhibition. It is said to have been
" invented " by Susarion, a native of Doric Megaris, whose in-
habitants were famed for their coarse humour, which they
communicated to their own and other Dorian colonies in Sicily,
to this day the home of vivacious mimic dialogue. In the rural
Bacchic vintage festivals bands of jolly companions Ooojuos,
properly a revel continued after supper) went about in carts or
afoot, carrying the phallic emblem, and indulging in the ribald
licence of wanton mirth. From the song sung in these processions
or at the Bacchic feasts, which combined the praise of the god
with gross personal ridicule, and was called comus in a secondary
sense, the Bacchic reveller taking part in it was called a comus-
singer or comoedus. These phallic processions, which were after-
wards held in most Greek cities, and in Athens seem to have early
included a" topical " speech as well as a choral song, determined
the character of Old Attic comedy, whose most prominent feature
was an absolute licence of personal vilification.

Thus independent of one another in their origin, Greek tragedy
and comedy never actually coalesced. The "satyr-drama,"
though in some sense it partook of the nature of both,
was *n i^s origin as in its history connected with
tragedy alone, whose origin it directly recalled.
Pratinas of Philus, a contemporary of Aeschylus in his earlier
days, is said to have restored the tragic chorus to the satyrs;
i.e. he first produced dramas in which, though they were the same
in form and theme as the tragedies, the choric dances were
different and entirely carried on by satyrs. The tragic poets,
while never writing comedies, henceforth also composed satyr-
dramas; but neither tragedies nor satyr-dramas were ever
written by the comic poets, and it was in conjunction with
tragedies only that the satyr-dramas were performed. The
theory of the Platonic Socrates, that the same man ought to be
the best tragic and the best comic poet, was among the Greeks
never exemplified in practice. The so-called " hilaro-
comedy. tragedy " or " tragi-comedy " of later writers, perhaps
in some of its features in a measure anticipated by
Euripides,1 in form nowise differed from tragedy; it merely
contained a comic element in its characters, and invariably had
a happy ending. It is an instructive fact that the serious and
sentimental element in the comedy of Menander and his con-
1 Alcestis; Orestes.

drama?

temporaries did far more to destroy the essential difference
between the two great branches of the Greek dramatic art.

Periods of Greek Tragedy. — The history of Greek — which to all
intents and purposes remained Attic — tragedy divides itself into
three periods.

I. The Period before Aeschylus (535-499). — From this we have
but a few names of authors and plays — those of the former being
(besides Thespis) Choerilus, Phrynichus and Pratinas, all of whom
lived to contend with Aeschylus for the tragic prize. To each of
them certain innovations are ascribed — for instance the intro-
duction of female characters to Phrynichus. He is best re-
membered by the overpowering effect said to have been created
by his Capture of Miletus, in which the chorus consisted of the
wives of the Phoenician sailors in the service of the Great King.

II. The Classical Period of Attic Tragedy — that of Aeschylus,
Sophocles and Euripides, and their contemporaries (499-405).
To this belong all the really important phases in the progress
of Greek tragedy, which severally connect themselves with the
names of its three great masters. They may be regarded as the
representatives of successive generations of Attic history and
life, though of course in these, as in the progress of their art itself,
there is an unbroken continuity.

Aeschylus (525-456) had not only fought both at Marathon
and at Salamis against those Persians whose rout he celebrated
with patriotic price, 2 but he had been trained in the Aeschylus.
Eleusinian mysteries, and strenuously asserted the
value of the institution most intimately associated with the
primitive political traditions of the past — the Areopagus.3
He had been born in the generation after Solon, to whose maxims
he fondly clung; and it was the Dorian development of Hellenic
life and the philosophical system based upon it with which his
religious and moral convictions were imbued. Thus even upon
the generation which succeeded him, and to which the powerful
simplicity of his dramatic and poetic diction seemed strange, the
ethical loftiness of his conceptions and the sublimity of his
dramatic imagination fell like the note of a mightier age. To
us nothing is more striking than the conciliatory tendencies of
his conservative mind, and the progressive nature of what may
have seemed to his later contemporaries antiquated ideals.

Sophocles (495-405) was the associate of Pericles, and an
upholder of his authority, rather than a consistent pupil of his
political principles; but his manhood, and perhaps Sophocles
the maturity of his genius, coincided with the great
days when he could stand, like his mighty friend and the com-
munity they both so gloriously represented, on the sunny
heights of achievement. Serenely pious as well as nobly
patriotic, he nevertheless treats the myths of the national
religion in the spirit of a conscious artist, contrasting with lofty
irony the struggles of humanity with the irresistible march of
its destinies. Perhaps he, too, was one of the initiated; and the
note of personal responsibility which is the mystic's inner
religion is recognizable in his view of lif e.4 The art of Sophocles
may in its perfection be said to typify the greatest epoch in the
life of Athens — an epoch conscious of unequalled achievements,
but neither wholly unconscious of the brief endurance which was
its destiny.

Euripides (480-406), as is the fate of genius of a more complex
kind, has been more variously and antithetically judged than

Euripides.

either of his great fellow-tragedians. His art has
been described as devoid of the idealism of theirs,
his genius as rhetorical rather than poetical, his morality as that
of a sophistical wit. On the other hand, he has been recognized
not only as the most tragic of the Attic tragedians and the
most pathetic of ancient poets, but also as the most humane in
his social philosophy and the most various in his psychological
insight. At least, though far removed from the more naif age
of the national life, he is, both in patriotic spirit and in his
choice of themes, genuinely Attic; and if he was " haunted on
the stage by the daemon of Socrates," he was, like Socrates
himself, the representative of an age which was a seed-
time as well as a season of decay. His technical innovations
* Persae. * Eumenides. 'Antigone; Oedipus Rex.

49°

DRAMA

[GREEK

corresponded to his literary characteristics; but neither in the
treatment of the chorus, nor in his management of the beginning
and the ending of a tragedy, did he introduce any radical change.
To Euripides the general progress of dramatic literature never-
theless owes more than to any other ancient poet. Tragedy
followed in his footsteps in Greece and at Rome. Comedy owed
him something in the later phases of the very Aristophanes
who mocked him, and more in the human philosophy expressed
in the sentiments of Menander; and, when the modern drama
came to engraft the ancient upon its own crude growth, his was
directly or indirectly the most powerful influence in the establish-
ment of a living connexion between them.

The incontestable pre-eminence of the three great tragic
poets was in -course of time acknowledged at Athens by the
The great usaSe allowing no tragedies but theirs to be performed
tragic more than once, and by the prescription that one
masters play of theirs should be performed at each Dionysia,
and their as weii as by the law of Lycurgus (c. 330) which
C°ora™es obliSed the actors to use, in the case of works of the
great masters, authentic copies preserved in the
public archives. Yet it is possible that the exclusiveness of
these tributes is not entirely justifiable; and not all the tragic
poets contemporary with the great writers were among the
myriad of younglings derided by Aristophanes. Of those who
attained to celebrity Ion of Chios (d. before 419) seems to have
followed earlier traditions of style than Euripides; Agathon,
who survived the latter, on the other hand, introduced certain
innovations of a transnormal kind both into the substance and
the form of dramatic composition.1

III. Of the third period of Greek tragedy the concluding
limit cannot be precisely fixed. Down to the days of Alexander
The sue- t'le Great, Athens had remained the chief home of
cessorsol tragedy. Though tragedies must have begun to be
thegreat acted at the Syracusan and Macedonian courts, since
masters at Aeschylus, Euripides and Agathon had sojourned
Athens. there— though the practice of producing plays at the
Dionysia before the allies of Athens must have led to their
holding similar exhibitions at home — yet before the death of
Alexander we meet with no instance of a tragic poet writing
or of a tragedy written outside Athens. An exception should
indeed be made in favour of the tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse,
who (like Critias in his earlier days at Athens) was " addicted
to " tragic composition. Not all the tragedians of this period,
however, were Athenians born; though the names of Euphorion,
the son of Aeschylus, lophon, the son of Sophocles, and Euripides
and Sophocles, the nephew and the grandson respectively of
their great namesakes, illustrate the descent of the tragic art
as an hereditary family possession. Chaeremon (fl. 380) already
exhibits tragedy on the road to certain decay, for we learn that
his plays were written for reading.

Soon after the death of Alexander theatres are found spread
over the whole Hellenic world of Europe and Asia — a result to
which the practice of the conqueror and his father
of celebrating their victories by scenic performances
had doubtless contributed. Alexandria having now
become a literary centre with which even Athens was in some
respects unable to compete, while the latter still remained the
home of comedy, the tragic poets flocked to the capital of the
Ptolemies; and here, in the canon of Greek poets drawn up by
command of Ptolemy Philadelphus (283-247), Alexander the
Aetolian undertook the list of tragedies, while Lycophron was
charged with the comedies. But Lycophron himself was in-
cluded in all the versions of the list of the seven tragic poets
famed as the " Pleias " who still wrote in the style of the Attic
masters and followed the rules observed by them. Tragedy
and the dramatic art continued to be favoured by the later
Ptolemies; and about 100 B.C. we meet with the curious
phenomenon of a Jewish poet, Ezechiel, composing Greek
tragedies, of one of which (the Exodus from Egypt) fragments
have come down to us. Tragedy, with the satyr-drama and
comedy, survived in Alexandria beyond the days of Cicero and

1 Anthos.

Varro; nor was their doom finally sealed till the emperor
Caracalla abolished theatrical performances in the Egyptian
capital in A.D. 217.

Thus Greek tragedy is virtually only another name for Attic;
nor was any departure from the lines laid down fhe
by its three great masters made in most respects by tragedy of
the Roman imitators of these poets and of their sue- thegreat
cessors. masters.

Tragedy was defined by Plato as an imitation of the noblest
life. Its proper themes — the deeds and sufferings of heroes —
were familiar to audiences intimately acquainted
with the mythology of the national religion. To such Subjects
themes Greek tragedy almost wholly confined itself ;
and in later days there were numerous books which
discussed these myths of the tragedians. They only very
exceptionally treated historic themes, though one great national
calamity,2 and a yet greater national victory,3 and in later
times a few other historical subjects,4 were brought upon the
stage. Such veiled historical allusions as critical ingenuity has
sought not only in passages but in the entire themes of other
Attic tragedies 5 cannot, of course, even if accepted as such,
stamp the plays in which they occur as historic dramas. No
doubt Attic tragedy, though after a different and more decorous
fashion, shared the tendency of her comic sister to introduce
allusions to contemporary events and persons; and the in-
dulgence of this tendency was facilitated by the revision (SicurKevfj)
to which the works of the great poets were subjected by them,
or by those who produced their works after them.' So far as
we know, the subjects of the tragedies before Aeschylus were
derived from the epos; and it was a famous saying of this poet
that his dramas were " but dry scraps from the great banquets
of Homer " — an expression which may be understood as includ-
ing the poems which belong to the so-called Homeric cycles.
Sophocles, Euripides and their successors likewise resorted to
the Trojan, and also to the Heraclean and the Thesean myths,
and to Attic legend in general, as well as to Theban, to which
already Aeschylus had had recourse, and to the side or subsidiary
myths connected with these several groups. These substantially
remained to the last the themes 'of Greek tragedy, the Trojan
myths always retaining so prominent a place that Lucian could
jest on the universality of their dominion. Purely invented
subjects were occasionally treated by the later tragedians; of
this innovation Agathon was the originator.7

Thespis is said to have introduced the use of a " prologue "
and a " rhesis " (speech) — the former being probably the opening
speech recited by the coryphaeus, the latter the dialogue
between him and the actor. It was a natural result
of the introduction of the second actor that a second
rhesis should likewise be added; and this tripartite division
would be the earliest form of the trilogy, — three sections of the
same myth forming the beginning, middle and end of a single
drama, marked off from one another by the choral The
songs. From this Aeschylus proceeded to the treat- Aeschy-
ment of these several portions of a myth in three fcaj>
separate plays, connected together by their subject trilogy.
and by being performed in sequence on a single occasion. This
is the Aeschylean trilogy, of which we have only one extant
example, the Oresteia — as to which critics may differ whether
Aeschylus adhered in it to his principle that the strength should

2 Phrynichus, Capture of Miletus.

* Id., Phpenissae; Aeschylus, Persae (Persae-trilogy ?).

* Moschion, Themistodes; Theodectes, Mausolus; Lycophron,
Marathonii; Cassandrei; Socii; Philiscus, Themistodes.

6 Aeschylus, Septem c. Thebas', Prometheus Vinctus', Danais-
trilogy; Sophocles, Antigone; Oedipus Coloneus; Euripides, Medea.

6 Quite distinct from this revision was the practice against which
the law of Lycurgus was directed, of " cobbling and heeling " the
dramas of the great masters by alterations of a kind familiar enough
to the students of Shakespeare as improved by Colley Gibber and
other experts. The later tragedians also appear to have occasionally
transposed long speeches or episodes from one tragedy into another
— a device largely followed by the Roman dramatists, and called
contamination by Latin writers.
''Anthos (The Flower).

Construc-
tion.

GREEK]

DRAMA

491

lie in the middle — in other words, that the interest should centre
in the second play. In any case, the symmetry of the trilogy
was destroyed by the practice of performing after it a
jo e ' satyr-drama, probably as a rule, if not always, con-
nected in subject with the trilogy, which thus became
a tetralogy, though this term, unlike the other, seems to be a
purely technical expression invented by the learned.1 Sophocles,
a more conscious and probably a more self-critical artist than
Aeschylus, may be assumed from the first to have elaborated
his tragedies with greater care; and to this, as well as to his
innovation of the third actor, which materially added to the
fulness of the action, we may attribute his introduction of the
custom of contending for the prize with single plays. It does not
follow that he never produced connected trilogies, though we
have no example of such by him or any later author; on the
other hand, there is no proof that either he or any of his successors
ever departed from the Aeschylean rule of producing three
tragedies, followed by a satyr-drama, on the same day. This
remained the third and last stage in the history of the con-
struction of Attic tragedy. The tendency of its
I"*" action towards complication was a natural progress,
actions. an(l is emphatically approved by Aristotle. This
complication, in which Euripides excelled, led to his
use of prologues, in which one of the characters opens the play
by an exposition of the circumstances under which its action
begins. This practice, though ridiculed by Aristophanes, was
too convenient not to be adopted by the successors of Euripides,
and Menander transferred it to comedy. As the dialogue in-
creased in importance, so the dramatic significance of the chorus
diminished. While in Aeschylus it mostly, and in Sophocles
occasionally, takes part in the action, its songs could not but
more and more approach the character of lyrical intermezzos',
and this they openly assumed when Agathon began the practice
of inserting choral songs (embolima) which had nothing to do
with the action of the play. In the general contrivance of their
actions it was only natural that, as compared with Aeschylus,
Sophocles and Euripides should exhibit an advance in both
freedom and ingenuity; but the palm, due to a treatment at
once piously adhering to the substance of the ancient legends
and original in an effective dramatic treatment of them, must
be given to Sophocles. Euripides was, moreover, less skilful in
untying complicated actions than in weaving them; hence his
frequent resort 2 to the expedient of the deus ex machina, which
Sophocles employs only in his latest play.3

The' other distinctions to be drawn between the dramatic
qualities of the three great tragic masters must be mainly based
upon a critical estimate of the individual genius of
each. In the characters of their tragedies, Aeschylus
and Sophocles avoided those lapses of dignity with
which from one point of view Euripides has been charged by
Aristophanes and other critics, but which, from another, connect
themselves with his humanity. If his men and women are less
heroic and statuesque, they are more like men and women.
Aristotle objected to the later tragedians that, compared with
the great masters, they were deficient in the drawing of character
— by which he meant the lofty drawing of lofty character. In
diction, the transition is even more manifest from the
" helmeted phrases " of Aeschylus, who had Milton's
love of long words and sonorous proper names, to the play of
Euripides' " smooth and diligent tongue "; but to a sustained
style even he remained essentially true, and it was reserved for
his successors to introduce into tragedy the " low speech " — i.e.
the conversational language — of comedy. Upon the whole,
however, the Euripidean diction seems to have remained the
standard of later tragedy, the flowery style of speech introduced
by Agathon finding no permanent favour.

1 One satyr-drama only is preserved to us, the Cyclops of Euripides,
a dramatic version of the Homeric tale of the visit of Odysseus to
Polyphemus. Lycophron, by using the satyr-drama (in his Mene-
demus) as a vehicle of personal ridicule applied it to a purpose
resembling that of Old Attic Comedy.

* Ion; Supplices; Iphigenia in Tauris; Electro,; Helena;
Hippolytus; A ndr attache. * Philoctetes.

Charac-
ters.

Diction.

Finally, Aeschylus is said to have made certain reforms in
tragic costume of which the object is self-evident — to have
improved the mask, and to have invented the cothurnus impr0ve-
or buskin, upon which the actor was raised to loftier meats la
stature. Euripides was not afraid of rags and tatters ; <**tumc,
but the sarcasms of Aristophanes on this head seem
feeble to those who are aware that they would apply to King
Lear as well as to Telephus.

Periods of Greek Comedy. — The history of Greek comedy is
likewise that of an essentially Attic growth, although Sicilian
comedy was earlier in date than her Attic sister or descendant.
The former is represented by Epicharmus (fl. 500), and by the
names of one or two other poets. It probably had a chorus, and,
dealing as it did in a mixture of philosophical discourse, anti-
thetical rhetoric and wild buffoonery, necessarily varied in style.
His comedies were the earliest examples of the class distinguished
as motoriae from the statariae and the mixtae by their greater
freedom and turbulence of movement. Though in some respects
Sicilian comedy seems to have resembled the Middle rathet
than the Old Attic comedy, its subjects sometimes, like those
of the latter, coincided with the myths of tragedy, of which they
were doubtless parodies. The so-called " mimes " of Sophron
(fl. 430) were dramatic scenes from Sicilian everyday life, in-
tended, not for the stage, but for recitation, and classed as
" male " and "female " according to the sex of the characters.

Attic comedy is usually divided into three periods or species.

I. Old comedy, which dated from the complete establishment
of democracy by Pericles, though a comedy directed against
Themistocles is mentioned. The Megarean farcical
entertainments had long spread in the rural districts comedy.
of Attica, and were now introduced into the city,where
from about 460 onwards the " comus " became a matter of
public concern. Cratinus (c. 450-422) and Crates (c. 449-425)
first moulded these beginnings into the forms of Attic art. The
final victory of Pericles and the democratic party may be reckoned
from the ostracism of Thucydides (444) ; and so eagerly was the
season of freedom employed by the comic poets that already
four years afterwards a law— which, however, remained only a
short time in force — limited their licence. Cratinus,4 an exceed-
ingly bold and broad satirist, apparently of conservative
tendencies, was followed by Eupolis (440-after 415), every one
of whose plays appears to have attacked some individual,6 by
Phrynichus, Plato and others; but the representative of old
comedy in its fullest development is Aristophanes (c. 444-c. 380),
a comic poet of unique and unsurpassed genius. Dignified by
the acquisition of a chorus (more numerous — twenty-four to
twelve or afterwards fifteen — though of a less costly kind than
the tragic) of masked actors, and of scenery and
machinery, as well as by a corresponding literary Phaae"s
elaboration and elegance of style, Old Attic comedy
nevertheless remained true both to its origin and to the purposes
of its introduction into the free imperial city. Its special season
was at the festival of the Lenaea, when the Athenians could
enjoy the fun against one another without espying strangers;
but it was also performed -at the Great Dionysia. It borrowed
much from tragedy, but it retained the phallic abandonment
of the old rural festivals, the licence of word and gesture, and the
audacious directness of personal invective. These characteristics
are not features peculiar to Aristophanes. He was twitted by
some of the older comic poets with having degenerated from the
full freedom of the art by a tendency to refinement, and he
took credit to himself for having superseded the time-honoured
cancan and the stale practical joking of his predecessors by a
nobler kind of mirth. But in daring, as he likewise boasted, he
had no peer; and the shafts of his wit, though dipped in wine-
lees and at times feathered from very obscene fowl, flew at high
game.6 He has been accused of seeking to degrade what he ought
to have recognized as good7; and it has been shown with com-
plete success that he is not to be taken as an impartial or accurate

4 Archilochi; Pytine (The Bottle}.

6 Maricas (Cleon) ; Baptae (Alcibiades) ; Lacones (Cimon).

• Knights. ' Clouds.

492

DRAMA

[GREEK

authority on Athenian history. ' But partisan as he was, he was
also a genuine patriot; and his very political sympathies —
which were conservative, like those of the comic poets in general,
not only because it was the old families upon whom the
expense of the choregia in the main devolved — were such as have
often stimulated the most effective political satire. Of the
conservative quality of reverence he was, however, altogether
devoid; and his love for Athens was that of the most free-spoken
of sons. Flexible even in his religious notions, he was, in this
as in other respects, ready to be educated by his times; and,
like a true comic poet, he could be witty at the expense even of
his friends, and, it might almost be said, of himself. In wealth
of fancy * and in beauty of lyric melody, he has few peers among
the great poets of all times.

The distinctive feature of Old, as compared with Middle
comedy, is the parabasis, the speech in which the chorus, moving

towards and facing the audience, addressed it in the
basis*' ' name °f the poet, often abandoning all reference to the

action of the play. The loss of the parabasis was
involved in the loss of the chorus, of which comedy was deprived
in consequence of the general reduction of expenditure upon the
comic drama, culminating in the law of the personally aggrieved
dithyrambic poet Cinesias (396) .2 But with the downfall of the
independence of Athenian public life, the ground had been cut
from under the feet of its most characteristic representative.
Already in 414, in the anxious time after the sailing of the Sicilian
expedition, the law of Syracosius had prohibited the comic
poets from making direct reference to current events; but the
Birds had taken their flight above the range of all regulations.
The catastrophe of the city (405) was preceded by the temporary
overthrow of the democracy (411), and was followed by the
establishment of an oligarchical " tyranny " under Spartan
protection; and, when liberty was restored (404), the citizens
for a time addressed themselves to their new life in a soberer
spirit, and continued (or passed) the law prohibiting the introduc-
tion by name of any individual as one of the personages of a play.
The change to which comedy had to accommodate itself was one
which cannot be denned by precise dates, yet it was not the less
inevitable in its progress and results. Comedy, in her struggle
for existence, now chiefly devoted herself to literary and social
themes, such as the criticism of tragic poets,3 and the literary
craze of women's rights,4 and the transiti'on to Middle comedy
accomplished itself. Of the later plays of Aristophanes, three6
are without a parabasis, and in the last of those preserved to us
which properly belongs to Middle comedy 6 the chorus is quite
insignificant.

II. Middle comedy, whose period extends over the remaining
years of Athenian freedom (from about 400 to 338), thus differed

in substance as well as in form from its predecessor. It
kiddie *s represented by the names of thirty-seven writers
comedy. (more than double the number of poets attributed to

Old comedy), among whom Eubulus, Antiphanes and
Alexis are stated to have been pre-eminently fertile and successful.
It was a comedy of manners as well as character, although its
ridicule of particular classes of men tended to the creation of
standing types, such as soldiers, parasites, courtesans, revellers,
and — a favourite figure already drawn by Aristophanes ' — the
self-conceited cook. . In style it necessarily inclined to become
more easy and conversational and to substitute insinuation for
invective; while in that branch which was devoted to the parody-
ing of tragic myths its purpose may have been to criticize, but
its effect must have been to degrade. This species of the comic
art had found favour at Athens already before the close of the
great civil War; its inventor was the Thasian Hegemon, whose
Gigantomachia was amusing the Athenians on the day when the
news arrived of the Sicilian disaster.

i Birds.

1 Strattis, The Choricide (against Cinesias).

•Aristophanes, Frogs; Phrynichus, Musae; Tragoedi.

* Aristophanes, Ecclesiazusae.

6 Lysistrata; Thesmophoriazusae; Plutus II.

6 Plutus. ' Aeolosicon.

III. New comedy, which is dated from the establishment of
the Macedonian supremacy (338) , is merely a further development
of Middle, from which indeed it was not distinguished
till the time of Hadrian. If its favourite types were
more numerous, including the captain (of mercenaries)
— the original of a long line of comic favourites — the cunning
slave, &c., they were probably also more conventional. New
comedy appears to have first constituted love intrigues the main
subject of dramatic actions. The most famous of the sixty-four
writers said to have belonged to this period of comedy were
Philemon (fl. from 330), Menander (342-329) and his contem-
porary Diphilus. Of these authors we know something
from fragments, but more from their Latin adapters
Plautus and Terence. As comedians of character, aader.
they were limited by a range of types which left little
room for originality of treatment; in the construction of their
plots they were skilful rather than varied. In style, as well as
to some extent in construction, Menander seems to have taken
Euripides as his model, infusing into his comedy an element of
moral and sentimental reflection, which refined if it did not
enliven it.

New comedy, and with it Greek comedy proper, is regarded as
having come to an end with Posidippus (fl. c. 280). Other
comic writers of a later date are, however, mentioned,
among them Rhinthon of Tarentum (fl. c. 300), whose
mixed compositions have been called by various names,
among them by that of " phlyacographies " (from phlyax, idle
chatter). He was succeeded by Sopater, Sotades and others;
but the dramatic element in these often obscene, but not perhaps
altogether frivolous, travesties is not always clearly ascertainable.
It is certain that Greek comedy gradually ceased to be pro-
ductive; and though even in its original form it long continued
to be acted in imperial Rome, these are phases of its history
which may here be passed by.

The religious origin of the Attic drama impresses itself upon
all its most peculiar features. Theatrical performances were
held at Athens only at fixed seasons in the early part „ „ -

rl i-ni.i*.iri jKCSUltS Of

of the year — at the Bacchic festivals of the country religious
Dionysia (vintage), the Lenaea (wine-press), probably
at the Anthesteria, and above all, at the Great Dionysia,
or the Dionysia par excellence, at the end of March
and beginning of April, when in her most glorious age Athens
was crowded with visitors from the islands and cities of her
federal empire. As a part of religious worship, the performances
took place in a sacred locality — the Lenaeum on the south-
eastern declivity of the Acropolis, where the first wine-press
(lenos) was said to have been set up, and where now an altar of
Bacchus (thymele) formed the centre of the theatre. For the
same reason the exhibitions claimed the attendance of the whole
population, and room was therefore provided on a grand scale —
according to the Platonic Socrates, for " more than 30,000 "
spectators (see THEATRE). The performances lasted all day,
or were at least, in accordance with their festive character,
extended to as great a length as possible. To their religious
origin is likewise to be attributed the fact that they were treated
as a matter of state concern. The expenses of the chorus, which
in theory represented the people at large, were defrayed on behalf
of the state by the liturgies (public services) of wealthy citizens,
chosen in turn by the tribes to be choragi (leaders, i.e. providers
of the chorus), the duty of training being, of course, deputed by
them to professional persons (chorodidascali). Publicly appointed
and sworn judges decided between the merits of the dramas
produced in competition with one another; the successful poet,
performers and choragus were crowned with ivy, and the last-
named was allowed at his own expense to consecrate a tripod
in memory of his victory in the neighbourhood of the sacred
Bacchic enclosure. Such a monument — one of the most graceful
relics of ancient Athens — still stands in the place where it was
erected, and recalls to posterity the victory of Lysicrates,
achieved in the same year as that of Alexander on the Granicus.
The dramatic exhibitions being a matter of religion and state,
the entrance money (theoricum), which had be -in introduced to

ROMAN]

DRAMA

493

prevent overcrowding, was from the time of Pericles provided out
of the public treasury. The whole populatiom had a right to its
Bacchic holiday; neither women, nor boys, nor slaves were
excluded from theatrical spectacles at Athens.

The religious character of dramatic performances at Athens,
and the circumstances under which they accordingly took place,

likewise determined their externals of costume and
Costume scenerv- The actor's dress was originally the festive
scenery. Dionysian attire, of which it always retained the gay

and variegated hues. The use of the mask, sur-
mounted, high over the forehead, by an ample wig, was due to
the actor's appearing in the open air and at a distance from most
of the spectators; the several species of mask were elaborated
with great care, and adapted to the different types of theatrical
character. The cothurnus, or thick-soled boot, which further
raised the height of the tragic actor (while the comedian wore
a thin-soled boot), was likewise a relic of Bacchic costume.
The scenery was, in the simplicity of its original conception,
suited to open-air performances; but in course of time the art
of scene-painting came to be highly cultivated, and movable
scenes were contrived, together with machinery of the ambitious
kind required by the Attic drama, whether for bringing gods
down from heaven, or for raising mortals aloft.

On a stage and among surroundings thus conventional, it
might seem as if little scope could have been left for the actor's

art. But, though the demands made upon the Attic

actor differed in kind even from those made upon his
Roman successor, and still more from those which the histrionic
art has to meet in modern times, they were not the less rigorous.
Mask and buskin might increase his stature, and the former might
at once lend the appropriate expression to his appearance and
the necessary resonance to his voice. But in declamation,
dialogue and lyric passage, in gesticulation and movement,
he had to avoid the least violation of the general harmony of the
performance. Yet it is clear that the refinements of by-play
must, from the nature of the case, have been impossible on the
Attic stage; the gesticulation must have been broad and
massive; the movement slow, and the grouping hard, in tragedy;
and the weighty sameness of the recitation must have had an
effect even more solemn and less varied than the half-chant
which still lingers on the modern stage. Not more than three
actors, as has been seen, appeared in any Attic tragedy. The
actors were provided by the poet; perhaps the performer of
the first parts (protagonist) was paid by the state. It was again
a result of the religious origin of Attic dramatic performances
and of the public importance attached to them, that the actor's
profession was held in high esteem. These artists were as a
matter of course free Athenian citizens, often the dramatists
themselves, and at times were employed in other branches of
the public service. In later days, when tragedy had migrated to
Alexandria, and when theatrical entertainments had spread over
all the Hellenic world, the art of acting seems to have reached
an unprecedented height, and to have taken an extraordinary
hold of the public mind. Synods, or companies, of Dionysian
artists abounded, who were in possession of various privileges,
and in one instance at least (at Pergamum) of rich endowments.
The most important of these was the Ionic company, established
first in Teos, and afterwards in Lebedos, near Colophon, which is
said to have lasted longer than many a famous state. We like-
wise hear of strolling companies performing in pariibus. Thus it
came to pass that the vitality of some of the masterpieces of
the Greek drama is without a parallel in theatrical history; while
Greek actors were undoubtedly among the principal and most
effective agents of the spread of literary culture through a great
part of the known world.

The theory and technical system of the drama exercised the
critical powers both of dramatists, such as Sophocles, and of the
Writers oa greatest among Greek philosophers. If Plato touched
the theory the subject incidentally, Aristotle has in his Poetics
°dnm* (after 334) included an exposition of it, which, mutilated

as it is, has formed the basis of all later systematic in-
quiries. The specialities of Greek tragic dramaturgy refer above

all to the chorus; its general laws are those of the regular drama
of all times. The theories of Aristotle and other earlier writers
were elaborated by the Alexandrians, many of whom doubtless
combined example with precept; they also devoted themselves
to commentaries on the old masters, such as those in which
Didymus (c. 30 B.C.) abundantly excelled, and collected a vast
amount of learning on dramatic composition in general, which
was doomed to perish, with so many other treasures, in the flames
kindled by religious fanaticism.

8. ROMAN DRAMA

In its most productive age, as well as in the times of its decline
and decay, the Roman drama exhibits the continued coexistence
of native forms by the side of those imported from Greece —
either kind being necessarily often subject to the influence of
the other. Italy (with Sicily) has ever been the native land of
acting and of scenic representation; and, though Roman
dramatic literature at its height is but a faint reflex of Greek
examples, there is perhaps no branch of Roman literary art
more congenial than this to the soil whence it sprang.

Quick observation and apt improvisation have always been
distinctive features in the Italian character. Thus in the rural
festivities of Italy there developed from a very early

period in lively intermixture the elements of the Of1*1" °f
/• • i j i • .. its native

dance, of jocular and abusive succession of song, forms.

speech and dialogue, and of an assumption of character
such as may be witnessed in any ordinary dialogue carried on
by southern Italians at the present day. Not less indigenous
was the invariable accompaniment of the music of the flute
(tibia). The occasions of these half obligatory, half impromptu
festivities were religious celebrations, public or private — among
the latter more especially weddings, which have in all ages been
provocative of demonstrative mirth. The so-called Fescennine
verses (from Fescennium in southern Etruria, and very possibly
connected with fascinum=phallos), which were afterwards con-
fined to weddings, and ultimately suggested an elaborate species
of artistic poetry, never merged into actual dramatic perform-
ances. In the saturae, on the other hand — a name saturae
originally suggested by the goatskins of the shepherds,
but from primitive times connected with the " fulness " of both
performers and performance — there seems from the first to have
been a dramatic element; they were probably comic songs or
stories recited with gesticulation and the invariable flute ac-
companiment. Introduced into the city, these entertainments
received a new impulse from the performa.nces of the Etruscan
players (ludiones) who had been brought inCo Rome when scenic
games (ludi scenici) were introduced there in 364 B.C. for purposes
of religious propitiation. These (h)istriones, as they jstriones
were called at Rome (islri had been their native name),
who have had the privilege of transmitting their appellation to
the entire histrionic art and its professors, were at first only
dancers and pantomimists in a city where their speech was exotic.
But their performances encouraged and developed those of other
players and mountebanks, so that after the establishment of the
regular drama at Rome on the Greek model, the saturae came to
be performed as farcical after-pieces (exodia), until they gave
way to other species. Among these the mimi were at Rome
probably coeval in their beginnings with the stage
itself, where those who performed them were after-
wards known under the same name, possibly in the place of an
older appellation (planipedes, bare-footed, representatives of
slaves and humble folk) . These loose farces, after being probably
at first performed independently, were then played as after-
pieces, till in the imperial period, when they reasserted their
predominance, they were again produced independently. At
the close of the republican period the mimus found its way into
literature, through D. Laberius, C. Matius and Publilius Syrus,
and was assimilated in both form and subjects to other varieties
of the comic drama — preserving, however, as its distinctive
feature, a preponderance of the mimic or gesticulatory element.
Together with the pantomimus (see below) the mimus continued
to prevail in the days of the Empire, having transferred its

Miml.

494

DRAMA

[ROMAN

original grossness to its treatment of mythological subjects,
with which it dealt in accordance with the demands of a " lubrique
and adulterate age." As a matter of course, the mimus freely
borrowed from other species, among which, so far as they were

of native Italian origin, the A tellane fables (from Atella

in Campania) call for special mention. Very probably
of Oscan origin, they began with delineations of the life of small
towns, in which dramatic and other satire has never ceased to
find a favourite subject. The principal personages in these living
sketches gradually assumed a fixed and conventional character,
which they retained even when, after the final overthrow of
Campanian independence (210), the Alellanae had been trans-
planted to Rome. Here the heavy father or husband (pappus),
the ass-eared glutton (maccus), the full-cheeked, voracious
chatterbox (bucco), and the wily sharper (dorsenus) became
accepted comic types, and, with others of a smiliar kind, were
handed down, to reappear in the modern Italian drama. In
these characters lay the essence of the Atellanae: their plots
were extremely simple; the dialogue (perhaps interspersed with
songs in the Saturnian metre) was left to the performers to
improvise. In course of time these plays assumed a literary
form, being elaborated as after-pieces by Lucius Pomponius of
Bononia, Novius and other authors; but under the Empire
they were gradually absorbed in the pantomimes.

The regular, as distinct from the popular, Roman drama,
on the other hand, was of foreign (i.e. Greek) origin; and its
origin at early history, at all events, attaches itself to more or
the regular less fixed dates. It begins with the year 240 B.C.,
Roman when at the ludi Romani, held with unusual splendour
drama. after the first Punic War, its victorious conclusion
was, in accordance with Macedonian precedent, celebrated by
the first production of a tragedy and a comedy on the Roman
stage. The author of both, who appeared in person as an actor,
was Livius Andronicus (b. 278 or earlier), a native of the Greek
city of Tarentum, where the Dionysiac festivals enjoyed high
popularity. His models were, in tragedy, the later Greek
tragedians and their revisions of the three great Attic masters;
in comedy, we may feel sure, Menander and his school. Greek
examples continued to dominate the regular Roman drama
during the whole of its course, even when it resorted to native
themes.

The main features of Roman tragedy admit of no doubt,
although our conclusions respecting its earlier progress are only

derived from analogy, from scattered notices, especially
woman °' °^ ^ t^t^es °f plavs> and from such fragments — mostly
tragedy. very brief — as have come down to us. Of the known

titles of the tragedies of Livius Andronicus, six belong
to the Trojan cycle, and this preference consistently maintained
itself among the tragedians of the " Trojugenae " ; next in
popularity seem to have been the myths of the house of Tantalus,
of the Pelopidae and of the Argonauts. The distinctions drawn
by later Roman writers between the styles of the tragic poets
of the republican period must in general be taken on trust. The
Campanian Cn. Naevius (fl. from 236) wrote comedies as well as
tragedies, so that the rigorous separation observed among the
Greeks in the cultivation of the two dramatic species was at first
neglected at Rome. His realistic tendency, displayed in that
fondness for political allusions which brought upon him the
vengeance of a noble family (the Metelli) incapable of under-
standing a joke of this description, might perhaps under more
favourable circumstances have led him more fully to develop a
Praetexta. new traSic species invented by him. But the fabula

praelexta or praetextata (from the purple-bordered
robe worn by higher magistrates) was not destined to become
the means of emancipating the Roman serious drama from the
control of Greek examples. In design, it was national tragedy
on historic subjects of patriotic interest— which the Greeks had
treated only in isolated instances; and one might at first sight
marvel why, after Naevius and his successors had produced
skilful examples of the species, it should have failed to over-
shadow and outlast in popularity a tragedy telling the oft-told
foreign tales of Thebes and Mycenae, or even the pseudo-ancestral

story of Troy. But it should not be forgotten to how great an
extent so-called early Roman history consisted of the traditions
of the gentes, and how little the party-life of later republican Rome
lent itself to a dramatic treatment likely to be acceptable both
to the nobility and to the multitude. As for the emperors, the
last licence they would have permitted to the theatre was a free
popular treatment of the national history ; if Augustus prohibited
the publication of a tragedy by his adoptive father on the subject
of Oedipus, it was improbable that he or his successors should
have sanctioned the performance of plays dealing with the
earthly fortunes of Divus Julius himself, or with the story of
Marius, or that of the Gracchi, or any of the other tragic themes
of later republican or imperial history. The historic drama at
Rome thus had no opportunity for a vigorous life, even could
tragedy have severed its main course from the Greek literature
of which it has been well called a " free-hand copy." The
praetextae of which we know chiefly treat — possibly here and
there helped to form ' — legends of a hoary antiquity, or celebrate
battles chronicled in family or public records2; and in the end
the species died a natural death.3

Q. Ennius (239-168), the favourite poet of the great families,
was qualified by his Tarentine education, which taught the Oscan
youth the Greek as well as the Latin tongue (so that
he boasted " three souls "), to become the literary f"^*s
exponent of the Hellenizing tendencies of his age of successors.
Roman society. Nearly half of the extant names of
his tragedies belong to the Trojan cycle; and Euripides was
clearly his favourite source and model. M. Pacuvius (b. c. 229),
like Ennius subject from his youth up to the influences of Greek
civilization, and the first Roman dramatist who devoted himself
exclusively to the tragic drama, was the least fertile of the chief
Roman tragedians, but was regarded by the ancients as indisput-
ably superior to Ennius. He again was generally (though not
uniformly) held to have been surpassed by L. Accius (b. 170), a
learned scholar and prolific dramatist, of whose plays 50 titles
and a very large number of fragments have been preserved.
The plays of the last-named three poets maintained themselves
on the stage till the close of the republic ; and Accius was quoted
by the emperor Tiberius.4 Of the other tragic writers of the
republic several were dilettanti — such as the great orator and
eminent politician C. Julius Strabo; the cultivated officer
Q. Tullius Cicero, who made an attempt, disapproved by his
illustrious brother, to introduce the satyr-drama into the Roman
theatre; L. Cornelius Balbus, a Caesarean partisan; and finally
C. Julius Caesar himself.

Tragedy continued to be cultivated under the earlier emperors;
and one author, the famous and ill-fated L. Annaeus Seneca
(4 B.C.-A.D. 65), left behind him a series of works
which were to exercise a paramount influence upon the
beginnings of modern tragedy. In accordance with the character
of their author's prose-work, they exhibit a strong predominance
of the rhetorical element, and an artificiality of style far removed
from that of the poets Sophocles and Euripides, from whom
Seneca derived his themes. Yet he is interesting, not only by
these devices and by a " sensational " choice of themes, but also
by a quickness of treatment which we may call " modem," a
quality not easily resisted in a dramatist. The metrification of
his plays is very strict, and they were doubtless intended for
recitation, whether or not also designed for the stage. A few
tragic poets are mentioned after Seneca, till about the reign of
Domitian (81-96) the list comes to an end. The close of Roman
tragic literature is obscurer than its beginning; and, while there
are traces of tragic performances at Rome as late as even the
6th century, we are ignorant how long the works of the old

'Naevius, Lupus (The Wolf); Romulus; Ennius, Sabinae (The
Sabine Women) ; Accius, Brutus.

2 Naevius, Clastidium (Marcellust) ; Ennius, Ambracia; Pacuvius,
Paulus; Accius, Aeneadae (Decius?).

3 Balbus's Her (The Mission), an isolated play on an episode of the
Pharsalian campaign, seems to have been composed for the mere
private delectation of its author and hero. Octavia, a late praetexta
ascribed to Seneca, was certainly not written by him.

4 " Oderint dum metuant " (Atreus).

Seneca,

ROMAN]

DRAMA

495

masters of Roman tragedy maintained themselves on the
stage.

It would obviously be an error to draw from the plays of
Seneca conclusions as to the method and style of the earlier
Character- writers. In general, however, no important changes
istics of seem to have occurred in the progress of Roman tragic
Roman composition. The later Greek plays remained, so far
as can be gathered, the models in treatment; and,
inasmuch as at Rome the several plays were performed singly,
there was every inducement to make their action as full and
complicated as possible. The dialogue-scenes (diverbia) appear
to have been largely interspersed with musical passages (cantica) ;
but the effect of the latter must have suffered from the barbarous
custom of having the songs sung by a boy, placed in front of the
flute-player (cantor), while the actor accompanied them with
gesticulations. The chorus (unlike the Greek) stood on the stage
itself and seems occasionally at least to have taken part in the
action. But the whole of the musical element can hardly have
attained to so full a development as among the Greeks. The
divisions of the action appear at first to have been three; from
the addition of prologue and epilogue may have arisen the
invention (probably due in tragedy to Varro) of the fixed number
of five acts. In style, such influence as the genius of Roman
literature could exercise must have been in the direction of the
rhetorical and the pathetic; a superfluity of energy on the one
hand, and a defect of poetic richness on the other, can hardly have
failed to characterize these, as they did all the other productions
of early Roman poetry.

In Roman comedy two different kinds — respectively called
palliata and togata from well-known names of dress— were dis-
tinguished,— the former treating Greek subjects and
Roman ° imitating Greek originals, the latter professing a native
comedy, character. The palliata sought its originals especially
in New Attic comedy; and its authors, as they
advanced in refinement of style, became more and more de-
pendent upon their models, and unwilling to gratify the coarser
Palliata. tastes of the public by local allusions or gross season-
ings. But that kind of comedy which shrinks from
the rude breath of popular applause usually has in the end to
give way to less squeamish rivals; and thus, after the species
had been cultivated for about a century (c. 250-1503.0.), palliatae
ceased to be composed except for the amusement of select circles,
though the works of the most successful authors, Plautus and
Terence, kept the stage even after the establishment of the
empire. Among the earlier writers of palliatae were the tragic
poets Andronicus, Naevius and Ennius, but they were alike
Plautus. surpassed by T. Maccius Plautus (254-184), nearly all
of whose comedies esteemed genuine by Varro — not
less than 20 in number — have been preserved, though twelve of
them were not known to the modern world before 1429. He
was exclusively a comic poet, and, though he borrowed his plots
from the Greeks — from Diphilus and Philemon apparently in
preference to the more refined Menander — there was in him a
genuinely national as well as a genuinely popular element.
Of the extent of his originality it is impossible to judge; probably
it lies in his elaboration of types of character and the comic turns
of his dialogue rather than in his plots. Modern comedy is
indebted to him in all these points; and, in consequence of
this fact, as well as of the attention his text has for linguistic
reasons received from scholarship both ancient and modern,
his merits have met with quite their full share of recognition.
Caecilius Statius (an Insubrian brought to Rome as a captive
c. 200) stands midway between Plautus and Terence, but no
Tennce. P'ays °f ms remain. P. Terentius Afer (c. 185-159)
was, as his cognomen implies, a native of Carthage, of
whose conqueror he enjoyed the patronage. His six extant
comedies seem to be tolerably close renderings of their Greek
originals, nearly all of which were plays of Menander. It was
the good fortune of the works of Terence to be preserved in an
exceptionally large number of MSS. in the monastic libraries
of the middle ages, and thus (as will be seen) to become a main
link between the ancient and the Christian drama. As a

Togatae.

dramatist he is distinguished by correctness of style rather than
by variety in his plots or vivacity in his characters; his chief
merit — and at the same time the quality which has rendered him
so suitable for modern imitation — is to be sought in the polite
ease of his dialogue. In general, the main features of the palliatae,
which were divided into five acts, are those of the New Comedy
of Athens, like which they had no chorus; for purposes of
explanation from author to audience the prologue sufficed;
the Roman versions were probably terser than their originals,
which they often altered by the process called contamination.

The togatae, in the wider sense of the term, included all
Roman plays of native origin — among the rest, the praetextae,
in contradistinction to which and to the transient
species of the trabeatae (from the dress of the knights)
the comedies dealing with the life of the lower classes were
afterwards called tabernariae (from taberna, a shop), a name
suited by some of their extant titles,1 while others point to
the treatment of provincial scenes.2 The togata, which was
necessarily more realistic than the palliata, and doubtless fresher
as well as coarser in tone, flourished in Roman literature between
170 and 80 B.C. In this species Titinius, all whose plays bear
Latin titles and were tabernariae, was succeeded by the more
refined L. Afranius, who, though still choosing natural subjects,
seems to have treated them in the spirit of Menander. His
plays continued to be performed under the empire, though with
an admixture of elements derived from that lower species, the
pantomime, to which they also were in the end to succumb.
The Romans likewise adopted the burlesque kind of comedy
called from its inventor Rhinthonica, and by other names (see
above). But with them, the general course of the drama, which
with the Greeks lost itself in the sand, could not fail to be merged
in to the flood.

The end of Roman dramatic literature was dilettantism and
criticism; the end of the Roman drama was spectacle and
show, buffoonery and sensual allurement. It was for
this that the theatre had passed through all its early
troubles, when the political puritanism of the old theatre.
school had upheld the martial games of the circus
against the enervating influence of the stage. In those days the
guardians of Roman virtue had sought to diminish the attractions
of the theatre by insisting upon its remaining as uncomfortable
as possible; but as was usual at Rome, the privileges of the upper
orders were at last extended to the population at large, though
a separation of classes continued to be characteristic of a Roman
audience. The first permanent theatre erected at Rome was that
of Cn. Pompeius (55 B.C.), which contained nearly 18,000 seats;
but even of this the portion allotted to the performers (scaena)
was of wood; nor was it till the reign of Tiberius (A.D. 22) that,
after being burnt down, the edifice was rebuilt in stone.

Though a species of amateur literary censorship, introduced
by Pompeius, became customary in the Augustan age, in general
the drama's laws at Rome were given by the drama's Acton.
patrons — in other words, the production of plays was
a matter of private speculation. The exhibitions were contracted
for with the officials charged with the superintendence of public
amusements (curatores ludorum); the actors were slaves trained
for the art, mostly natives of southern Italy or Greece. Many
of them rose to reputation and wealth, purchased their freedom,
and themselves became directors of companies; but, though
Sulla might make a knight of Roscius, and Caesar and his friends
defy ancient prejudice, the stigma of civil disability (infamia)
was not removed from the profession, which in the great days of
the Attic drama had been held in honour at Athens. But, on
the whole, the social treatment of actors was easy in the days of
the early empire; senators and knights actually appeared on the
stage; Nero sang on it; and a pantomimus was made praefectus
urbi by Elagabalus.

The actor's art was carried on at Rome under conditions
differing in other respects from those of the Greek theatre.

1 Augur; Cinerarius (The Crimper)', Fullonia (The Fuller's
Trade); Libertus (The Freedman); Tibicina (The Flute-Girl).
J Brundisinae ; Ferentinatis ; Setina.

496

DRAMA

[CLASSICAL

The Romans loved a full stage, and from the later period of the
republic liked to see it crowded with supernumeraries. This
accorded with their military instincts, and with the general
grossness of their tastes, which led them in the theatre as well
as in the circus to delight in spectacle and tumult, and to applaud
Pompeius when he furnished forth the return of Agamemnon in
the Clytaemnestra with a grand total of 600 heavily-laden mules.
On the other hand, the actors stood nearer to the spectators in
the Roman theatre than in the Greek, the stage (pulpitum) not
being separated from the first rows of the audience by an orchestra
occupied by the chorus; and this led in earlier times to the
absence of masks, diversely coloured wigs serving to distinguish
the age of the characters. Roscius, however, is said (because of
an obliquity of vision which disfigured his countenance) to have
introduced the use of masks; and the retrograde innovation,
though disapproved of, maintained itself. The tragic actors
wore the crepida, corresponding to the cothurnus, and a heavy
toga, which in the praetexta had the purple border giving its
name to the species. The conventional costumes of the various
kinds of comedy are likewise indicated by their names. The
comparative nearness of the actors to the spectators encouraged
the growth of that close criticism of acting which has always
been dear to an Italian public, and which in ancient days mani-
fested itself at Rome in all the ways familiar to modern audiences.
Where there is criticism, devices are apt to spring up for anticipat-
ing or directing it; and the evil institution of the claque is
modelled on Roman precedent, typified by the standing conclu-
sion " plaudite! " in the epilogues of the palliatae.

In fine, though the art of acting at Rome must have originally
formed itself on Greek example and precept, it was doubtless

elaborated with a care unknown to the greatest Attic
Rosdas artists. Its most famous representatives were Gallus,

called after his emancipation Q. Roscius Gallus (d. c.

62 B.C.), who, like the great " English Roscius,"
excelled equally in tragedy and comedy, and his younger con-
temporary Clodius Aesopus, a Greek by birth, likewise eminent
in both branches of his art, though in tragedy more particularly.
Both these great actors are said to have been constant hearers
of the great orator Hortensius; and Roscius wrote a treatise on
the relations between oratory and acting. In the influence of
oratory upon the drama are perhaps to be sought the chief
among the nobler features of Roman tragedy to which a native
origin may be fairly ascribed.

9. DOWNFALL OF THE CLASSICAL DRAMA

The ignoble end of the Roman — and with it of the ancient
classical — drama has been already foreshadowed. The elements
of dance and song, never integrally united with the dialogue
in Roman tragedy, were now altogether separated from it.
While it became customary simply to recite tragedies to the small
audiences who continued (or, as a matter of courtesy, affected) to
appreciate them, the paniomimus commended itself to the
heterogeneous multitudes of the Roman theatre and to an effete
upper class by confining the performance of the actor to
gesticulation and dancing, a chorus singing the accom-
panying text. The species was developed with extra-
ordinary success already under Augustus by Pylades and
Bathyllus; and so popular were these entertainments that
even eminent poets, such as Lucan (d. A.D. 65), wrote the librettos
for these fabulae salticae (ballets), of which the subjects were
generally mythological, only now and then historical, and chiefly
of an amorous kind. A single masked performer was able to
enchant admiring crowds by the art of gesticulation and move-
ment only. In what direction this art tended, when suiting itself
to the most abnormal demands of a recklessly sensual age, may
be gathered from the remark of one of the last pagan historians
of the empire, that the introduction of pantomimes was a sign
of the general moral decay of the world which began with the
Mima* beginning of the monarchy. Comedy more easily lost
itself in the cognate form of the mimus, which sur-
vived all other kinds of comic entertainments because of its
more audacious immorality and open obscenity. Women took

Paato-

mlmus.

part in these performances, by means of which, as late as the
6th century, a mima acquired a celebrity which ultimately
raised her to the imperial throne, and perhaps occasioned the
removal of a disability which would have rendered her marriage
with Justinian impossible.

Meanwhile, the regular drama had lingered on, enjoying in
all its forms imperial patronage in the days of the literary
revival under Hadrian (117-138); but the perennial The drama
taste for the spectacles of the amphitheatre, which snathe
was as strong at Byzantium as it was at Rome, and Christian
which reached its climax in the days of Constantine ct>UKtt-
the Great (306-337), under whom the reaction set in, determined
the downfall of the dramatic art. It was not absolutely extin-
guished even by the irruptions of the northern barbarians; but
a bitter adversary had by this time risen into power. The whole
authority of the Christian Church had, without usually caring to
distinguish between the nobler and the looser elements in the
drama, involved all its manifestations in a consistent condem-
nation (as in Tertullian's De spectaculis, 200 c.), comprehended
them all in an uncompromising anathema. When the faith of
that Church was acknowledged as the religion of the Roman
empire, the doom of the theatre was sealed. It died hard,
however, both in the capitals and in many of the provincial
centres of East and West alike. At Rome the last mention of
spectacula as still in existence seems to date from the sway of the
East-Goths under Theodoric and his successor, in the earlier
half of the 6th century. In the capital and provinces of the
Eastern empire the decline and fall of the stage cannot be
similarly traced; but its end is authoritatively assigned to the
period of Saracen invasions which began with the Omayyad
dynasty in the 7th century.

It cannot be pretended that the doom which thus slowly and
gradually overtook the Roman theatre was undeserved. The
remnants of the literary drama had long been overshadowed by
entertainments such as both earlier and later Roman emperors —
Domitian and Trajan as well as Galerius and Constantine — had
found themselves constrained to prohibit in the interests of public
morality and order, by the bloody spectacles of the amphitheatre
and by the maddening excitement of the circus. The art of
acting had sunk into pandering to the lewd or frivolous itch of
eye and ear; its professors had, in the words of a most judicious
modern historian, become " a danger to the peace of house-
holders, as well as to the peace of the streets "; and the theatre
had contributed its utmost to the demoralization of a world.
The attitude taken up by the Christian Church towards the
stage was in general as unavoidable as its particular expressions
were at times heated by fanaticism or distorted by ignorance.
Had she not visited with her condemnation a wilderness of decay,
she could not herself have become — what she little dreamt of
becoming — the nursing mother of the new birth of an art which
seemed incapable of regeneration.

Though already in the 4th century scenici had been excluded
from the benefit of Christian sacraments, and excommunication
had been extended to those who visited theatres instead
of churches on Sundays and holidays, while the clergy
were absolutely prohibited from entering a theatre,
and though similar enactments had followed at later
dates — yet the entertainments of the condemned profession had
never been entirely suppressed, and had even occasionally
received imperial patronage. The legislation on the subject
in the Codex Theodosianus (accepted by both empires in the
earlier part of the sth century) shows a measure of tolerance
indicating a conviction that the theatrical profession could not
be suppressed. Gradually, however, as they lost all footing in
the centres of civic We, the mimes and their fellows became a
wandering fraternity, who doubtless appeared at festivals
when their services were required, and vanished again into the
depths of the obscurity which has ever covered that mysterious
existence — the strollers' life. It was thus that these strange
intermediaries of civilization carried down such traditions as
survived of the acting drama of pagan antiquity into the
succeeding ages.

mimes.

MEDIEVAL]

DRAMA

497

10. MEDIEVAL DRAMA

While the scattered and persecuted strollers thus kept alive
something of the popularity, if not of the loftier traditions, of

. . their art, neither, on the other hand, was there an
tkaiand utter absence of written compositions to bridge the
monastic gap between ancient and modern dramatic literature.
literary jn the midst of the condemnation with which the
Christian Church visited the stage, its professors and
votaries, we find individual ecclesiastics resorting in their
writings to both the tragic and the comic form of the ancient
drama. These isolated productions, which include the Xptoros
ircurxuv (Passion of Christ) formerly attributed to St Gregory
Nazianzen, and theQuerolus, long fathered upon Plautus himself,
were doubtless mostly written for educational purposes —
whether Euripides and Lycophron, or Menander, Plautus and
Terence, served as the outward models. The same was probably

„ ... the design of the famous " comedies " of Hrosvitha, the
nrosvrtna. .... ***_•«.! • •*-< * i.

Benedictine nun of Gandersheim, in Eastphahan

Saxony, which associate themselves in the history of Christian
literature with the spiritual revival of the icth century in the
days of Otto the Great. While avowedly imitated in form from
the comedies of Terence, these religious exercises derive their
themes — martyrdoms,1 and miraculous or otherwise startling
conversions2 — from the legends of Christian saints. Thus,
from perhaps the gth to the I2th centuries, Germany and France,
and through the latter, by means of the Norman Conquest,
England, became acquainted with what may be called the literary
monastic drama. It was no doubt occasionally performed by
the children under the care of monks or nuns, or by the religious
themselves; an exhibition of the former kind was that of the
Play of St Katharine, acted at Dunstable about the year mo
in " copes " by the scholars of the Norman Geoffrey, afterwards
abbot of St Albans. Nothing is known concerning it except
the fact of its performance, which was certainly not regarded as
a novelty.

These efforts of the cloister came in time to blend themselves
with more popular forms of the early medieval drama. The
The toco- natural agents in the transmission of these popular
latores, forms werethoseffw'wes, whom, while therepresentatives
jongleurs, of more elaborate developments, the " pantomimes "
B in particular, had inevitably succumbed, the Roman
drama had left surviving it, unextinguished and unextinguishable.
Above all, it is necessary to point out how in the long interval
now in question — the " dark ages," which may, from the present
point of view, be reckoned from about the 6th to the nth century
— the Latin and the Teutonic elements of what may be broadly
designated as medieval " minstrelsy," more or less imperceptibly,
coalesced. The traditions of the disestabh'shed and disendowed
mimus combined with the " occupation " of the Teutonic scdp,
who as a professional personage does not occur in the earliest
Teutonic poetry, but on the other hand is very distinctly traceable
under this name or that of the " gleeman," in Anglo-Saxon
literature, before it fell under the control of the Christian Church.
Her influence and that of docile rulers, both in England and in
the far wider area of the Frank empire, gradually prevailed even
over the inherited goodwill which neither Alfred nor even Charles
the Great had denied to the composite growth in which mimus
and scdp alike had a share.

How far the joculatores — which in the early middle ages came
to be the name most widely given to these irresponsible trans-
mitters of a great artistic trust — kept ah've the usage of entertain-
ments more essentially dramatic than the minor varieties of
their performances, we cannot say. In different countries these
entertainers suited themselves to different tastes, and with the
rise of native literatures to different literary tendencies. The
literature of the troubadours of Provence, which communicated
itself to Spain and Italy, came only into isolated contact with the
beginnings of the religious drama; in northern France the
jongleurs, as the joculatores were now called, were confounded

1 Gallicanus, part ii. ; Sapienlia.

*Gallicanus, part i.; CaUimachus; Abraham; Paphnutius.

with the trouveres, who, to the accompaniment of vielle or harp,
sang the chansons de geste commemorative of deeds of war.
As appointed servants of particular households they were here,
and afterwards in England, called menestrels (from ministeriales)
or minstrels. Such a histrio or mimus (as he is called) was
Taillefer, who rode first into the fight at Hastings, singing his
songs of Roland and Charlemagne, and tossing his sword in the
air and catching it again. In England such accomplished
minstrels easily outshone the less versatile gleemen of pre-
Norman times, and one or two of them appeared as landholders
in Domesday Book, and many enjoyed the favour of the Norman,
Angevin and Plantagenet kings. But here, as elsewhere, the
humbler members of the craft spent their lives in strolling from
castle to convent, from village-green to city-street, and there
exhibiting their skill as dancers, tumblers, jugglers proper, and
as masquers and conductors of bears and other dumb contributors
to popular wonder and merriment. Their only chance of survival
finally came to lie in organization under the protection of powerful
nobles; but when, in the isth century hi England, companies of
players issued forth from towns and villages, the profession,
in so far as its members had not secured preference, saw itself
threatened with ruin.

In any attempt to explain the transmission of dramatic
elements from pagan to Christian times, and the influence
exercised by this transmission upon the beginnings of Survivals
the medieval drama, account should finally be taken *"d adapt-
of the pertinacious survival of popular festive rites and atl°™ ot
ceremonies. From the days of Gregory the Great, i.e. 'festive
from the end of the 6th century onwards, the Western ceremonies
Church tolerated and even attracted to her own *"*
festivals popular customs, significant of rejoicing, Us9ges'
which were in truth relics of heathen ritual. Such were the
Mithraic feast of the zsthof December, or the egg of Eostre-tide,
and a multitude of Celtic or Teutonic agricultural ceremonies.
These rites, originally symbolical of propitiation or of weather-
magic, were of a semi-dramatic nature — such as the dipping of
the neck of corn in water, sprinkling holy drops upon persons
or animals, processions of beasts or men in beast-masks, dressing
trees with flowers, and the like, but above all ceremonial dances,
often in disguise. The sword-dance, recorded by Tacitus, of
which an important feature was the symbolic threat of death to
a victim, endured (though it is rarely mentioned) to the later
middle ages. By this time it had attracted to itself a variety of
additional features, and of characters familiar as pace-eggers,
mummers, morris-dancers (probably of distinct origin), who
continually enlarged the scope of their performances, especially
as regarded their comic element. The dramatic " expulsion of
death," or winter, by the destruction of a lay-figure — common
through western Europe about the 8th century — seems con-
nected with a more elaborate rite, in which a disguised performer
(who perhaps originally represented summer) was slain and
afterwards revived (the Pfingstl, Jack in the Green, or Green
Knight). This representation, after acquiring a comic com-
plexion, was annexed by the character dancers, who about the
1 5th century took to adding still livelier incidents from songs
treating of popular heroes, such as St George and Robin Hood;
which latter found a place in the festivities of May Day with their
central figure, the May Queen. The earliest ceremonial obser-
vances of this sort were clearly connected with pastoral and
agricultural life; but the inhabitants of the towns also came
to have a share in them; and so, as will be seen later, did the
clergy. They were in particular responsible for the buffooneries
of the feast of fools (or asses), which enjoyed the greatest popu-
larity in France (though protests against it are on record from
the nth century onwards to the I7th), but was well known from
London to Constantinople. This riotous New Year's celebration
was probably derived from the ancient Kalend feasts, which
may have bequeathed to it both the hobby-horse and the lord,
or bishop, of misrule. In the i6th century the feast of fools was
combined with the elaborate festivities of courts and cities
during the twelveChristmasf east-days — theseasonwhen through-
out the previous two centuries the " mummers " especially

DRAMA

[MEDIEVAL

the mala

source of

the

medieval

religious

drama.

Tropes.

flourished, who in their disguisings and " viseres " began as
dancers gesticulating in dumb-show, but ultimately developed
into actors proper.

Thus the literary and the professional element, as well as that
of popular festive usages, had survived to become tributaries
to the main stream of the early Christian drama,
which had its direct source in the liturgy of the Church
itself. The service of the Mass contains in itself
dramatic elements, and combines with the reading
out of portions of Scripture by the priest — its " epical "
part — a " lyrical " part in the anthems and responses
of the congregation. At a very early period — certainly
already in the sth century — it was usual on special occasions to
increase the attractions of public worship by living pictures,
illustrating the Gospel narrative and accompanied by songs;
and thus a certain amount of action gradually introduced itself
into the service. The insertion, before or after sung portions
of the service, of tropes, originally one or more verses
of texts, usually serving as introits and in connexion
with the gospel of the day, and recited by the two halves of the
choir, naturally led to dialogue chanting; and this was frequently
accompanied by illustrative fragments of action, such as drawing
down the veil from before the altar.

This practice of interpolations in the offices of the church,
which is attested by texts from the gth century onwards (the
so-called " Winchester tropes " belong to the icth
and nth), progressed, till on the great festivals of the
church the epical part of the liturgy was systematically
connected with spectacular and in some measure
mimical adjuncts, the lyrical accompaniment being of course
retained. Thus the liturgical mystery — the earliest .form of the
Christian drama — was gradually called into existence.^ This had
certainly been accomplished as early as the loth century, when
on great ecclesiastical festivals it was customary for the priests
to perform in the churches these offices (as they were called).
The whole Easter story, from the burial to Emmaus, was thus
presented, the Maries and the angel adding their lyrical planctus;
while the surroundings of the Nativity — the Shepherds, the
Innocents, &c. — were linked with the Shepherds of Epiphany
by a recitation of "Prophets," including Vergil and the Sibyl.
Before long, from the nth century onwards, mysteries, as they
were called, were produced in France on scriptural subjects
unconnected with the great Church festivals — such as the Wise
and Foolish Virgins, Adam (with the fall of Lucifer), Daniel,
Lazarus, &c. Compositions on the last-named two themes
remain from the hand of one of the very earliest of medieval
play-writers, Hilarius, who may have been an Englishman,
and who certainly studied under Abelard. He also wrote a
" miracle " of St Nicholas, one of the most widely popular of
medieval saints. Into the pieces founded on the Scripture
narrative outside characters and incidents were occasionally
introduced, by way of diverting the audience.

These mysteries and miracles being as yet represented by the
clergy only, the language in which they were usually written is
Latin — in many varieties of verse with occasional
prose; but already in the nth century the further
st;eP was taken of composing these texts in the ver-
nacular — the earliest example being the mystery of the
Resurrection. In time a whole series of mysteries was joined
together; a process which was at first roughly and then more
elaborately pursued in France and elsewhere, and finally resulted
in the collective mystery — merely a scholars' term of course, but
one to which the principal examples of the English mystery-drama
correspond.

The productions of the medieval religious drama it is usual
technically to divide into three classes. The mysteries proper
M steries ^ea^ w^h scriptural events only, their purpose being
miracles, ' to set forth, with the aid of the prophetic or preparatory
and morals history of the Old Testament, and more especially of
iiistin. the fulfilling events of the New, the central mystery
guished. of tne Redemption of the world, as accomplished by
the Nativity, the Passion and the Resurrection. But in fact

The
m stery

these were not kept distinctly apart from the miracle-plays, or
miracles, which are strictly speaking concerned with the legends
of the saints of the church; and in England the name mysteries
was not in use. Of these species the miracles must more especi-
ally have been fed from the resources of the monastic literary
drama. Thirdly, the moralities, or moral-plays, teach and
illustrate the same truths — not, however, by direct representation
of scriptural or legendary events and personages, but allegoric-
ally, their characters being personified virtues or qualities. Of
the moralities the Norman trouveres had been the inventors;
and doubtless this innovation connects itself with the endeavour,
which in France had almost proved victorious by the end of the
i3th century, to emancipate dramatic performances from the
control of the church.

The attitude of the clergy towards the dramatic performances
which had arisen out of the elaboration of the services of the
church, but soon admitted elements from other sources, fhe clergy
was not, and could not be, uniform. As the plays grew and the
longer, their paraphernalia more extensive, and their religious
spectators more numerous, they began to be repre- <"-a/na'
sented outside as well as inside the churches, at first in the
churchyards, and the use of the Vulgar tongue came to be gradu-
ally preferred. A Beverley Resurrection play (i22oc.) and some
others are bilingual. Miracles were less dependent on this
connexion with the church services than mysteries proper;
and lay associations, gilds, and schools in particular, soon began
to act plays in honour of their patron saints in or near their own
halls. Lastly, as scenes and characters of a more or less trivial
description were admitted even into the plays acted or super-
intended by the clergy, as some of these characters came to be
depended on by the audiences for conventional extravagance or
fun, every new Herod seeking to out-Herod his predecessor, and
the devils and their chief asserting themselves as indispensable
favourites, the comic element in the religious drama increased;
and that drama itself, even where it remained associated with
the church, grew more and more profane. The endeavour to
sanctify the popular tastes to religious uses, which connects itself
with the institution of the great festival of Corpus Christi (1164,
confirmed 1311), when the symbol of the mystery of the Incarna-
tion was borne in solemn procession, led to the closer union
of the dramatic exhibitions (hence often called processus) with
this and other religious feasts; but it neither limited their range,
nor controlled their development.^

It is impossible to condense into a few sentences the extremely
varied history of the processes of transformation undergone by
the medieval drama in Europe during the two centuries progress
— from about 1200 to about 1400 — in which it ran
a course of its own, and during the succeeding period,
in which it was only partially affected by the influence
of the Renaissance. A few typical phenomena may,
however, be noted in the case of the drama of each of the several
chief countries of the West; where the vernacular successfully
supplanted Latin as the ordinary medium of dramatic speech,
where song was effectually ousted by recitation and dialogue,
and where finally, though the emancipation was on this head
nowhere absolute, the religious drama gave place to the secular.

In France, where dramatic performances had never fallen
entirely into the hands of the clergy, the progress was speediest
and most decided towards forms approaching those France.
of the modern drama. The earliest play in the French
tongue, however, the 12th-century Adam, supposed to have
been written by a Norman in England (as is a fragmentary
Resurrection of much the same date) , still reveals its connexion
with the liturgical drama. Jean Bodel of Arras' miracle-play
of St Nicolas (before 1 205) is already the production of a secular
author, probably designed for the edification of some civic con-
fraternity to which he belonged, and has some realistic features.
On the other hand, the Theophilus of Rutebeuf (d. c. 1280) treats
its Faust-like theme, with which we meet again in Low-German
dramatic literature two centuries later, in a rather lifeless form
but in a highly religious spirit, and belongs to the cycle of
miracles of the Virgin of which examples abound throughout

of the
medieval
drama In
Europe.

MEDIEVAL]

DRAMA

499

this period. Easter or Passion plays were fully established in
popular acceptance in Paris as well as in other towns of France
by the end of the I4th century; and in 1402 the Confrerie de
la Passion, who at first devoted themselves exclusively to the
performance of this species, obtained a royal privilege for the
purpose. These series of religious plays were both extensive
and elaborate; perhaps the most notable series (c. 1450) is that
by Arnoul Greban, who died as a canon of Le Mans, his native
town. Its revision, by Jean Michel, containing much illustrative
detail (first performed at Angers in 1486), was very popular.
Still more elaborate is the Rouen Christmas mystery of 1474,
and the celebrated Mysore du vieil testament, produced at
Abbeville in 1458, and performed at Paris in 1500. Most of the
Provencal Christmas and Passion plays date from the I4th
century, as well as a miracle of St Agnes. The miracles of saints
were popular in all parts of France, and the diversity of local
colouring naturally imparted to these productions contributed
materially to the growth of the early French drama. The
miracles of Ste Genevieve and St Denis came directly home to
the inhabitants of Paris, as that of St Martin to the citizens of
Tours; while the early victories of St Louis over the English
might claim a national significance for the dramatic celebration
of his deeds. The local saints of Provence were in their turn
honoured by miracles dating from the isth and i6th centuries.

It is less easy to trace the origins of the comic medieval drama
in France, connected as they are with an extraordinary variety
of associations for professional, pious and pleasurable purposes.
The ludi inhonesti in which the students of a Paris college
(Navarre) were in 1315 debarred from engaging cannot be proved
to have been dramatic performances; the earliest known secular
plays presented by university students in France were moralities,
performed in 1426 and 1431. These plays, depicting conflicts
between opposing influences — and at bottom the struggle between
good and evil in the human soul — become more frequent from
about this time onwards. Now it is (at Rennes in 1439) the
contention between Bien-amst and Mal-avise (who at the close
find themselves respectively in charge of Bonne-fin and Male-
fin); now, one between I'homme juste and I'homme mondain;
now, the contrasted story of Les Enfants de Maintenant, who,
however, is no abstraction, but an honest baker with a wife
called Mignotte. Political and social problems are likewise
treated; and. the Mystere du Candle de Bale — an historical
morality — dates back to 1432. But thought is taken even more
largely of the sufferings of the people than of the controversies
of the Church; and in 1507 we even meet with a hygienic or
abstinence morality (by N. de la Chesnaye) in which " Banquet "
enters into a conspiracy with " Apoplexy," " Epilepsy " and
the whole regiment of diseases.

Long before this development of an artificial species had been
consummated — from the beginning of the i4th century onwards
— the famous fraternity or professional union of the Basoche
(clerks of the Parlement and the Chatelet) had been entrusted
with the conduct of popular festivals at Paris, in which, as of
right, they took a prominent personal share; and from a date
unknown they had performed plays. But after the Confrerie de
la Passion had been allowed to monopolize the religious drama,
the basochiens had confined themselves to the presentment of
moralities and of farces (from Italian farsa, Latin farci'-a) , in
which political satire had as a matter of course when possible
found a place. A third association, calling themselves the
Enfans sans souci, had, apparently also early in the isth century,
acquired celebrity by their performances of short comic plays
called soties — in which, as it would seem, at first allegorical
figures ironically " played the fool," but which were probably
before long not very carefully kept distinct from the farces of
the Basoche, and were like these on occasion made to serve the
purposes of State or of Church. Other confraternities and
associations readily took a leaf out of the book of these devil-may-
care good-fellows, and interwove their religious and moral plays
with comic scenes and characters from actual life, thus becoming
more and more free and secular in their dramatic methods, and
unconsciously preparing the transition to the regular drama.

The earliest example of a serious secular play known to have
been written in the French tongue is the Esloire de Griseldis
(I393)> which is in the style of the miracles of the Virgin, but
is largely indebted to Petrarch. The Mystere du siege a '.'Orleans,
on the other hand, written about half a century later, in the epic
tediousness of its manner comes near to a chronicle history,
and interests us chiefly as the earliest of many efforts-'to
bring Joan of Arc on the stage. Jacques Milet's celebrated
mystery of the Destruction de Troye la grant (1452) seems to'have
been addressed to readers and not to hearers only. The begin-
nings of the French regular comic drama are again more difficult
to extract from the copious literature of farces and soties, which,
after mingling actual types with abstract and allegorical figures,
gradually came to exclude all but the concrete personages;
moreover, the large majority of these productions in their extant
form belong to a later period than that now under considera-
tion. But there is ample evidence that the most famous of all
medieval farces, the immortal Maistre Pierre Pathelin (other-
wise L'Avocat Pathelin), was written before 1470 and acted by
the basochiens; and we may conclude that this delightful story
of the biter bit, and the profession outwitted, typifies a multi-
tude of similar comic episodes of real life, dramatized for the
delectation of clerks, lawyers and students, and of all lovers
of laughter.

In the neighbouring Netherlands many Easter and Christmas
mysteries are noted from the middle of the i sth century, attesting
the enduring popularity of these religious plays; and
with them the celebrated series of the Seven Joys of JT*"
Maria — of which the first is the Annunciation and the lands.
seventh the Ascension. To about the same date belongs
the small group of the so-called abele spelen (as who should say
plays easily managed), chiefly on chivalrous themes. Though
allegorical figures are already to be found in the Netherlands
miracles of Mary, the species of the moralities was specially
cultivated during the great Burgundian period of this century
by the chambers or lodges of the Rederijkers (rhetoricians)- —
the well-known civic associations which devoted themselves to
the cultivation of learned poetry and took an active share in the
festivals that formed one of the most characteristic features of
the life of the Low Countries. Among these moralities was that
of Elckerlijk (printed 1495 and presumably by Peter Dorlandus),
which there is good reason for regarding as the original of one
of the finest of English moralities, Everyman.

In Italy the liturgical drama must have run its course as
elsewhere; but the traces of it are few, and confined to the
north-east. The collective mystery, so common in
other Western countries, is in Italian literature
represented by a single example only — a Passione di Gesu Cristo,
performed at Revello in Saluzzo in the isth century; though
there are some traces of other cyclic dramas of the kind. The
Italian religious plays, called figure when on Old, vangeli when on
New, Testament subjects, and differing from those of northern
Europe chiefly by the less degree of coarseness in their comic
characters, seem largely to have sprung out of the development
of the processional element in the festivals of the Church.
Besides such processions as that of the Three Kings at Epiphany
in Milan, there were the penitential processions and songs (laude) ,
which at Assist, Perugia and elsewhere already contained a
dramatic element; and at Siena, Florence and other centres
these again developed into the so-called (sacre) rappresentazioni,
which became the most usual name for this kind of entertainment.
Such a piece was the San Giovanni e San Paolo (1489) , by Lorenzo
the Magnificent — the prince who afterwards sought to reform
the Italian stage by paganizing it; another was the Santa
Teodora, by Luigi Pulci (d. 1487); San Giovanni Gualberto (of
Florence) treats the religious experience of a latter-day saint;
Rosana e Ulimento is a love-story with a Christian moral. Passion
plays were performed at Rome in the Coliseum by the Compagnia
del Gonf alone; but there is no evidence on this head before the
end of the isth century. In general, the spectacular magnificence
of Italian theatrical displays accorded with the growing pomp
of the processions both ecclesiastical and lay — called trionfi

Italy.

5°°

DRAMA

[EARLY ENGLISH

already in the days of Dante; while the religious drama gradu-
ally acquired an artificial character- and elaboration of form
assimilating it to the classical attempts, to be noted below,
which gave rise to the regular Italian drama. The poetry of the
Troubadours, which had come from Provence into Italy, here
frequently took a dramatic form, and may have suggested some
of his earlier poetic experiments to Petrarch.

It was a matter of course that remnants of the ancient popular
dramatic entertainments should have survived in particular
abundance on Italian soil. They were to be recognized in the
improvised farces performed at the courts, in the churches (farse
spiritual?), and among the people; the Roman carnival had
preserved its wagon-plays, and various links remained to connect
the modern comic drama of the Italians with the Atellanes and
mimes of their ancestors. But the more notable later comic
developments, which belong to the i6th century, will be more
appropriately noticed below. Moralities proper had not flourished
in Italy, where the love of the concrete has always been dominant
in popular taste; more numerous are examples of scenes, largely
mythological, in which the influence of the Renaissance is already
perceptible, of eclogues, and of allegorical festival-plays of
various sorts.

In Spain hardly a monument of the medieval religious drama
has been preserved. There is manuscript evidence of the nth
century attesting the early addition of dramatic
elements to the Easter office; and a Spanish fragment
of the Three Kings Epiphany play, dating from the i2th century,
is, like the French Adam, one of the very earliest examples of
the medieval drama in the vernacular. But that religious plays
were performed in Spain is clear from the permission granted
by Alphonso X. of Castile (d. 1 284) to the clergy to represent
them, while prohibiting the performance by them of juegos de
escarnio (mocking plays). The earliest Spanish plays which we
possess belong to the end of the isth or beginning of the i6th
century, and already show humanistic influence. In 1472 the
couplets of Mingo Revidgo (i.e. Domingo Vulgus, the common
people), and about the same time another dialogue by the same
author, offer examples of a sort resembling the Italian contrasti
(see below).

The German religious plays in the vernacular, the earliest of
which date from the I4th and isth centuries, and were produced
Qfna at Trier, Wolfenbuttel, Innsbruck, Vienna, Berlin, &c.,
laay' were of a simple kind; but in some of them, though
they were written by clerks, there are traces of the minstrels'
hands. The earliest complete Christmas play in German,
contained in a 14th-century St Gallen MS., has nothing in it to
suggest a Latin original. On the other hand, the play of The
Wise and the Foolish Virgins, in a Thuringian MS. thought to be
as early as 1328, a piece of remarkable dignity, was evidently
based on a Latin play. Other festivals besides Christmas were
celebrated by plays; but down to the Reformation Easter
enjoyed a preference. In the same century miracle-plays began
to be performed, in honour of St Catherine, St Dorothea and
other saints. But all these productions seem to belong to a
period when the drama was still under ecclesiastical control.
Gradually, as the liturgical drama returned to the simpler forms
from which it had so surprisingly expanded, and ultimately died
out, the religious plays performed outside the churches expanded
more freely; and the type of mystery associated with the name
of the Frankfort canon Baldemar von Peterweil communicated
itself, with other examples, to the receptive region of the south-
west. The Corpus Christi plays, or (as they were here called)
Frohnleichnamsspiele, are notable, since that of Innsbruck (1391)
is probably the earliest extant example of its class. The number
of non-scriptural religious plays in Germany, was much smaller
than that in France; but it may be noted that (in accordance
with a long-enduring popular notion) the theme of the last
judgment was common in Germany in the latter part of the
middle ages. Of this theme Antichrist may be regarded as an
episode, though in 1469 an Antichrist appears to have occupied
at Frankfort four days in its performance. The earlier (izth
century) Antichrist is a production quite unique of its kind;

this political protest breathes the Ghibelline spirit of the reign
(Frederick Barbarossa's) in which it was composed.

Though many of the early German plays contain an element
of the moralities, there were few representative German examples
of the species. The academical instinct, or some other influence,
kept the more elaborate productions on the whole apart from
the drolleries of the professional strollers (fahrende Lettte) , whose
Shrove-Tuesday plays (Fastnachtsspiele) and cognate productions
reproduced the practical fun of common life. Occasionally, no
doubt, as in the Liibeck Fastnachtsspiel of the Five Virtues,
the two species may have more or less closely approached to one
another. When, in the course of the isth century, Hans Rosen-
pliit, called Schnepperer — or Hans Schnepperer, called Rosenpliit
— the predecessor of Hans Sachs, first gave a more enduring form
to the popular Shrove-Tuesday plays, a connexion was already
establishing itself between the dramatic amusements of the
people and the literary efforts of the " master-singers " of the
towns. But, while the main productivity of the writers of
moralities and cognate productions — a species particularly suited
to German latitudes — falls into the periods of Renaissance and
Reformation, the religious drama proper survived far beyond
either in Catholic Germany, and, in fact, was not suppressed
in Bavaria and Tirol till the end of the i8th century.1

It may be added that the performance of miracle-plays is
traceable in Sweden in the latter half of the I4th century; and
that the German clerks and laymen who immigrated Sweden,
into the Carpathian lands,and into Galicia inparticular, Car-
in the later middle ages, brought with them their path/an
religious plays together with other elements of culture. laads> *c-
This fact is the more striking, inasmuch as, though Czech Easter
plays were performed about the end of the i4th century, we
hear of none among the Magyars, or among their neighbours of
the Eastern empire.

Coming now to the English religious drama, we find that from
its extant literature a fair general idea may be derived of the
character of these medieval productions. The miracle-
plays, miracles or plays (these being the terms used in J^'mar™
England) of which we hear in London in the i2th England.
century were probably written in Latin and acted by
ecclesiastics; but already in the following century mention is
made — in the way of prohibition — of plays acted by professional
players. (Isolated moralities of the I2th century, are not to be
regarded as popular productions.) In England as elsewhere, the
clergy either sought to retain their control over the religious
plays, which continued to be occasionally acted in churches
even after the Reformation, or else reprobated them with or
without qualifications. In Cornwall miracles in the
native Cymric dialect were performed at an early date;
but those which have been preserved are apparently plays.
copies of English (with the occasional use of French)
originals; they were represented, unlike the English plays, in
the open country, in extensive amphitheatres constructed for
the purpose — one of which, at St Just near Penzance, has
recently been restored.

The flourishing period of English miracle-plays begins with the
practice of their performance by trading-companies in the towns,
though these bodies were by no means possessed of ioca|We,
any special privileges for the purpose. Of this practice Ottt,e
Chester is said to have set the example (1268-1276); perform-
it was followed in the course of the i3th and i4th aaceof
centuries by many other towns, while in yet others m,i™le
traces of such performances are not to be found till the '
1 5th, or even the i6th. These towns with their neighbourhoods
include, starting from East Anglia, where the religious drama
was particularly at home, Wymondham, Norwich, Sleaford,
Lincoln, Leeds, Wakefield, Beverley, York, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
with a deviation across the border to Edinburgh and Aberdeen.
In the north-west they are found at Kendal, Lancaster, Preston,

1 The passion-play of Oberammergau, familiar in its present
artistic form to so many visitors, was instituted under special circum-
stances in the days of the Thirty Years' War (1634). Various reasons
account for its having been allowed to survive.

EARLY ENGLISH]

DRAMA

Chester; whence they may be supposed to have migrated to
Dublin. In the west they are noticeable at Shrewsbury, Wor-