ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA VOL. vai •jft THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768—1771. SECOND ten 1777—1784. THIRD eighteen 1788—1797. FOURTH twenty 1801 — 1810. FIFTH twenty 1815—1817. SIXTH twenty 1823—1824. SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1842. EIGHTH twenty-two 1853—1860. NINTH twenty-five 1875—1889. TENTH ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. ELEVENTH „ published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE All rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME VIM DEMIJOHN to EDWARD Cambridge, England: at the University Press New York, 35 West 3 2nd Street 1910 AE-5 Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company INITIALS USED IN VOLUME VIII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. Ca. ARTHUR CAYLEY, LL.D., F.R.S. f Determinant. See the biographical article: CAYLEY, ARTHUR. \ A. E. G.* REV. ALFRED ERNEST GARVIE, M.A., D.D. Principal of New College, Hampstead. Member of the Board of Theology and Board of Philosophy, London University. Formerly Professor of Philosophy, -j Devil. Theism, Comparative Religion, and Christian Ethics in Hackney and New Colleges, London. Author of Studies in the Inner Life of Jesus; The Christian Certainty; &c. [ A. E. S. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.L.S. Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer of Christ's College, Cambridge. University Reader Desmoscoleeida' in Zoology. President of the Association of Economic Biologists. Formerly < Z? University Lecturer on the Advanced Morphology of the Invertebrata. Author of Hcniuroiflea. Zoology of the Invertebrata. Editor of the Pitt Press Natural Science Manuals; &c. [ A. Fi. PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTE FILON. f n_ , p,^,j. / •„ See the biographical article : FILON, P. M. A. \ Drama' French (m A. P. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.Soc. [ Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford. Professor of English History in the University I Edward VI of London. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-1901.] Author of England under the Protector Somerset ; Life of Thomas Cranmer ; &c. I A. G. MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908). f H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgale;\ Deportation. Secrets of the Prison House ; &c. [_ A. G. D. ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, C.M.G., M.A., Lrrr.D., F.R.Hisi.S. f Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of Canada. I Dorion. Author of The Cradle of New France; &c. Joint Editor of Documents relating to] the Constitutional History of Canada. [ A. H. J. G. ABEL HENDY TONES GREENIDGE, M.A., D.LiTT. (d. 1905). Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Hertford College, Oxford, and of St John's College, Oxford. Author of Infamia in Roman Law; Handbook of Greek Con- \ Dictator. stitutwnal History; Roman Public Life; History of Rome. Joint Editor of Sources of Roman History, 133-70 B.C. A. H. S. REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, D.LITT., L.L.D., D.D. f Echatana See the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H. \ A. J. L. ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX. f Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Formerly Editor of the Rio -\ Ecuador (in part). News, Rio de Janeiro. A. J. P. ALEXANDER J. PHILIP. f «._. hniBJES MARY CLERKE. f _. . _ See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. Y Dick' Tnomas; Donati. A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. r Diver; Dodo (in part) ; See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. ^ Dove; Duck; Eagle. 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. v 1977 vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES A. R. C. ALEXANDER Ross CLARKE, C.B., F.R.S. f Colonel, R.E. Royal Medal of Royal Society, 1887. In charge of Trigonometrical •{ Earth, Figure of the (in part). Operations of the Ordnance Survey, 1854-1881. A. S. Wo. ARTHUR SMITH WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S. f Keeper of Geology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Secretary of the ) DiplodOCUS. Geological Society, London. A. Wa. ARTHUR WAUGH, M.A. New College, Oxford. Newdigate Prize, 1888. Managing Director of Chapman & J De Tabley. Hall, Ltd. Author of Gordon in Africa; Alfred, Lord Tennyson. Editor of I Johnson's Lives of the Poets; editions of Dickens, Tennyson, Arnold, Lamb; &c. I. A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. f Derby, Earls of (in part). Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. \ A, W. R. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. f Pni«inp TnHcrp nf thp ^imrpmp Pniirt nf Opvlnn KHitnr nf F,nrvr.lnbrtj>din. nf Ike J.n.ins < A. W. W. Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws \ Easement. of England. ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LL.D., D.Lirr. /Drama. See the' biographical article: WARD, A. W. \ C. A. G. CHRISTIAN CARL AUGUST GOSCH, M.Sc. J Denmark: Geography and Commander of the Danebrog. Knight of St Anna. Formerly Attach^ to theH e , • .•' <•• ., ,\ Danish Legation, London. Author of Denmark and Germany since 1815. I »*««»« W» Pa1 C. Ch. CHARLES CHREE, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. f Superintendent, Kew Observatory. Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. J v .«. „, President of Physical Society of London. Watt Medallist, Institute of Civil] *-artH Currents. Engineers, 1905. C. C. H. CHARLES CAESAR HAWKINS, M.A., M.I.E.E. f _ Author of The Dynamo. \ Dynamo. C. E.* CHARLES EVERITT, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. J Density Distillation. Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford. \ C. F. A. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. f Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal •{ Dutch Wars: Military. Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. I C. H. Rd. CHARLES HERCULES READ, LL.D. Keeper of British and Medieval Antiquities, British Museum. President of the") Drinking Vessels. Society of Antiquaries of London. Author of Antiquities from Benin ; &c. I C. H. T.* CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, A.M., LL.D. f Ecelesiastes See the biographical article: TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL. \ C. L. K. CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S., F.S.A. . J Derby, 1st Earl of; Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor of 1 Edward IV Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London. C. PL CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D. is L. f Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of J Ebroin. Etude sur le rkgne de Robert le Pieux; Le duch6 merovingien d' Alsace el la legende de\ Sainte-Odile. I C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HisT.S. r Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow Diaz de Novaes* of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. -< nicuil Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. L C. S. P.* REV. CHARLES STANLEY PHILLIPS. f Edmund Ironside; King's College, Cambridge. Gladstone Memorial Prize, 1904. L Edward the Confessor. C. W. W. SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907). c Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com- J niarhatr (;„ A/r.rt mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1836-1894. Director-General] L"arDeiir ^n pan). of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; Life of Lord Clive; &c. D. B. Ma. DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. r Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. Author J Dervish; of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory;] Divan. Selection from Ibn Khaldum ; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam ; &c. L D. C. T. DAVID CROAL THOMSON. r Formerly Editor of the Art Journal. Author of The Brothers Maris; The Barbizon \ Diaz, N. V. School of Painters ; Life of " Phiz " ; Life of Bewick ; &c. D. G. H. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. r Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Derna; Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naukratis, 1899^ Didymi; and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Druses (in part) Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. L D. H. DAVID HANNAY. it-icti \7irA.r^r»ncn1 at- Rarrplnna AiitTir»r nf *\ltnvt WVc/rt^^r /i/ Jfsi+tfiJ J Dutch Wars: Naval. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal \ Dudley» Sir Navy, 1217-1688; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. [ Dutch War D. Mn. REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A. Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Director of the London -\ Duff, Alexander. Missionary Society, INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES VII E. A. T. E. Br. E. C. B. E. C. B.* E. C. K. E. C. Q. E. Es. £• £• A* E.G. E. Gr. E. I. C. E. J. D. E.K. Ed. M. E. Ma. E. M. T. E. O'M. E. Pr. P. A. B. F. E. B. F. G. M. B. MRS (ETHEL) ALEC TWEEDIE. Author of Porfirio Diaz ; Mexico as I saw it ; &c. ERNEST BARKER, M.A. Fellow of, and Lecturer in Modern History at, St John's College, Oxford. Formerly - Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895. RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., D.LITT. (Dublin). Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. EDWARD CRESSWELL BASER, M.A. (d. 1910). Formerly Senior Surgeon, Brighton and Sussex Throat and Ear Hospital. Prize-, man and William Brown Scholar, St George's Hospital, London. Author of numerous papers on Diseases of the Ear, Nose and Throat. EDWARD CAMERON KIRK, D.Sc. Dean of the Dental Faculty and Professor of Dental Pathology, Therapeutics and . Materia Medica, University of Pennsylvania. Editor of The American Text-Book of Operative Dentistry. EDMUND CROSBY QUIGGIN, M.A. Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge; Lecturer in Modern Languages' and Monro Lecturer in Celtic. EDMOND ESMONIN. ERNEST E. AUSTEN. Assistant in Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. - EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. See the biographical article : GOSSE, EDMUND. ERNEST A. GARDNER, M.A. See the biographical article : GARDNER, PERCY. EDWARD IRVING CARLYLE, M.A., F.R.HiST.S. Fellow, Lecturer in Modern History, and Tutor of Lincoln College, Oxford. . Formerly Fellow of Merton College. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1895-1901. Diaz, Porfirio. Diet. Dominic, Saint; Dominicans. Ear: Diseases. Dentistry. Druidism. Desmarets. Diptera. Denmark: Literature; Descriptive Poetry; Dialogue; Diary; Didactic Poetry; Dithyrambic Poetry; Donne; Drachmann; Drayton, Michael; I Dutch Literature; Edda. ! Dodona. Dost Mahommed Khan. EDWARD JOSEPH DENT, M.A., MUS.BAC. Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. and Works. Author of A . Scarlatti: his Life \ Durante, Francesco. EDMUND KNECHT, PH.D., M.SC.TECH. (Manchester), F.I.C. Professor of Technological Chemistry, Manchester University. Head of Chemical Department, Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. Examiner in Dyeing, -| Dyeing. City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of A Manual of Dyeing; &c. Editor of Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists. EDUARD MEYER, D.LITT. (Oxon.), LL.D., PH.D. Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte I Diodotus. des Alterthums; Forschungen zur alien Geschichte; Geschichte des alien Agyptens;\ Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme ; &c. I EDWARD MANSON. r Barrister-at-Law. Joint Editor of Journal of Comparative Legislation; Author of"! Directors. Law of Trading Companies ; Practical Guide to Company Law ; &c. {. SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON, G.C.B., I.S.O., D.C.L., Lrrr.D., LL.D. Director and Principal Librarian, British Museum, 1898-1909. Sandars Reader in Bibliography, Cambridge, 1895-1896. Hon. Fellow of University College, Oxford. Correspondent of the Institute of France and of the Royal Prussian J Diplomatic. Academy of Sciences. Author of Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography. Editor of Chronicon Angliae. Joint Editor of publications of the Palaeographical Society, the New Palaeographical Society, and of the Facsimile of the Laurentian Sophocles. J Diatomaceae (in part). r Eca de Queiroz. REV. EUGENE HENRY O'MEARA, M.A Vicar of Tallaght, County Dublin. EDGAR PRESTAGE. Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Com- mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. L FRANCIS ARTHUR BATHER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. f Assistant Keeper of Geology, British Museum. Rolleston Prizeman, Oxford, 1892.] Echinoderma. Author of " Echinoderma " in A Treatise on Zoology; Triassic Echinoderms of\ Bakony; &c. I FRANK EVERS BEDDARD, M.A., F.R.S. f Prosector of the Zoological Society, London. Formerly Lecturer in Biology at J Earth-worm. Guy's Hospital. Naturalist to " Challenger " Expedition Commission, 1882-1884. 1 Author of Text-Book of Zoogeography; Animal Colouration; &c. I FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. | East Anglia. viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on Diaphragm; Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. •< Ductless Glands* Formerly Examiner in the Universities of Cambridge, Aberdeen, London and £-- Birmingham ; and Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. F. G. P.* FRANK GEORGE POPE. J Diazo Lecturer on Chemistry, East London College (University of London). "^ F. J. H. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. f Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Monographs on " Roman History, especially Roman Britain, &c. L F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. f Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, J Dendera; Oxford. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeological Reports of the | Edfu. Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial German Archaeological [Institute. L F. R. H. FREDERICK ROBERT HELMERT, PH.D., D.ING. /Knrtii IK™ «f tt» /• Professor of Geodesy, University of Berlin. \ W F. R. M. FRANCIS RICHARD MAUNSELL, C.M.G. c Lieutenant-Colonel. Military Vice-Consul, Sivas, Trebizond, Van (Kurdistan), J Diarbekr (*n ^a,rf\ 1897-1898. Military Attache, British Embassy, Constantinople, 1901-1905. 1 ' part). Author of Central Kurdistan ; &c. L F. S. FRANCIS STORR, M.A. f D , Editor of the Journal of Education, London. Officier d'Academie, Paris \ F. T. M. SIR FRANK THOMAS MARZIALS, K.C.B. f rjumas. m Formerly Accountant General of the Army. Editor of the " Great Writers " Series. \ F. V. T. FREDERICK VINCENT THEOBALD, M.A. f Vice-Principal and Zoologist, S.E. Agricultural College, Wye, Kent (University of J BI... ._,„ ,,_.t _ . London). Grand Medallist of the Societe Nationale d'Acclimatation de France. 1 t'co lc Entomology. Author of The Insect and other Allied Pests of Orchard, Bush and Hothouse Fruits ; &c. L F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. -j Earthquake (in part). President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. I F. W. W. FREDERIC W. WHYTE. f Author of Actors of the Century; &c. Translator of Filon's English Stage; Schil-H Du Maurier, G. ling's With Flashlight and Rifle; &c. L G. A. B. GEORGE A. BOULENGER, F.R.S., D.Sc., PH.D. I" In charge of the collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British -! Dory. Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. L G. Be. GERTRUDE MARGARET LOTHIAN BELL. f nmcoc / * A/, A Author of The Desert and the Sown ; &c. \ ul G. B. M. C. GEORGE BARNARD MILBANK COORE. f -eM11(,««nn. ATW,;^,/,* c,,^«, Assistant Secretary, Board of Education, London. \ Education. Natwnal Systems. G. C. W. GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, LITT.D. f Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures; Life of Richard J Downman; Cosway, R.A . ; George Engleheart ; Portrait Drawings ; &c. Editor of new edition ] Dumont, Francois, of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. I G. F. B. G. F. BARWICK. (" Assistant Keeper of Printed Books and Superintendent of Reading Room, British i Dhuleep Singh. Museum. L G. G. S. GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. f Douglas Gavin- Professor of English Literature, Queen's University of Belfast: Author of The •{ _ ' ,,,..,. Days of James IV.; The Transition Period ; Specimens of Middle Scots ; &c. [ Dul»Dar, William. G. H. Br. GEORGE HARTLEY BRYAN, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. f Professor of Pure and Applied Mathematics, University College of North Wales. J Diffusion. Formerly Fellow of Peterhouse, Cambridge. President of Mathematical Association, | 1907. G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.Sc. f" Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: -I Dragon-fly (in part), their Structure and Life. G. S. W.* GEORGE STEPHEN WEST, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. f Professor of Botany, University of Birmingham. Associate of Royal College of •} Diatomaceae (in part). Science, London. Author of Treatise on British Fresh-water Algae; &c. H. A. Mi. HENRY ALEXANDER MIERS, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. r Principal of the University of London. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Formerly Waynflete Professor of Mineralogy, Oxford. President of Mineralogical -J Diamond. Society since 1904. Editor of the Mineralogical Magazine, 1891-1900. Author of Mineralogy; &c. L H. B. Wo. HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S. (" Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England and Wales, -j Desmarest, N. President, Geologists' Association, 1893-1894. Wollaston Medallist, 1908. , Devonshire, Earls and Dukes H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. of; Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition-^ Dufferin and Ava 1st of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the loth edition. Marau«SS* Edward VII H. De. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J. f Bollandist. Joint Author of the Acta Sanctorum. \ Denis, Saint. H F. Ba. HENRY FREDERICK BAKER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. r Fellow and Lecturer of St John's College, Cambridge. Cayley Lecturer in Mathe- J Differential Equation. ma tics in the University. Author of Abel's Theory and the Allied Theory; &c. H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, M.A., F.R.S., PH.D. f Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge, -j Dodo (in part). Author of Amphibia and Reptiles (Cambridge Natural History). L H. G. HUGH GODFRAY, M.A. Sometime Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Author of an Elementary •{ Dial and Dialling. Treatise on the Lunar Theory; A Treatise on Astronomy. [_ H. H. T. HERBERT HALL TURNER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. r Savilian Professor of Astronomy, Oxford University. Fellow of New College. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Chief Assistant at the Royal I jp-ii-,. f A -*1 Observatory, Greenwich. Correspondent, Institut de France. President, Royal | '"'UP5* l*» pan). Astronomical Society, 1903-1904. Author of Modern Astronomy; Astronomical Discovery. H. Lb. HORACE LAMB, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. f Professor of Mathematics, University of Manchester. Formerly Fellow and J Assistant Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Member of Council of Royal "j Dynamics. Society, 1894-1896. Royal Medallist, 1902. President of London Mathematical Society, 1902-1904. Author of Hydrodynamics; &c. H. N. D. HENRY NEWTON DICKSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.R.G.S. [ Professor of Geography at University College, Reading. Formerly Vice-President, J Qeser* Royal Meteorological Society. Lecturer in Physical Geography, Oxford. Author 1 of Meteorology ; Elements of Weather and Climate ; &c. H. 0. T. HENRY OSBORN TAYLOR, LL.B. (Columbia). f _ Author of The Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages ; Ancient Ideals ; &c. \ Dionysius AreopagltiCUS. H. St. HENRY STURT, M.A. Author of Idola T H. S. S. HAROLD SPENCER SCOTT, M.A. l~ Author of Idola Theatri ; The Idea of a Free Church ; and Personal Idealism. \ f New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. 1 Dower. H. Ti. HENRY TIEDEMANN. f London Editor of the Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant. Ex-President of the Foreign -j Dozy. Press Association. H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. f - . ,. «,.,..«._„ Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, 1 "" 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. [Edmund, Saint. H. W. H. HOPE W. HOGG, M.A. f -,. Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Manchester. \ I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. f Dujjes Leopold • Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. President, J nill an ' ture; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages. I Duran. J. A.* JOHN AITKEN, LL.D., F.R.S. r Investigator of Atmospheric Dust. Inventor of instruments for counting the dust particles in the atmosphere. Author of papers on Dust Fogs and Clouds; Hazing -{ Dust. Effects of Atmospheric Dust; Cyclones and Anticyclones; &c., in publications of Royal Society. J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. f Devonian System ; Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. \ Drift. J. A. P.* REV. JAMES ALEXANDER PATERSON, M.A., D.D. r Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, New College, Edinburgh. Author of The Period of the Judges; Book of Leviticus, in" Temple" Bible; Book o}\ Deuteronomy. Numbers, in "Polychrome" Bible; &c. Translator of Schultz's Old Testament Theology. J. C. M. JAMES CLERK MAXWELL, D.C.L., F.R.S. / _. See the biographical article: MAXWELL, JAMES CLERK. "^ Ulasram. J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HisT.S. r Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Deus, Joao de ; Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. 4 Don Juan ; Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of Frhpp-arav v Fi7a Dreams- 0. J. R. H. OSBERT JOHN RADCLIFFE HOWARTH, M.A. f Denmark: Geography and Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1901. Assistant Secretary of the"! Statistics (in part) British Association. L Dnieper (in part) ; Dniester nnnrn«pT«f *h Don Cossacks, Territory of the (tn part); Dvina (in part); Echmiadzin (in part). P. C. M. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, F.R.S., M.A., D.Sc., LL.D. f Secretary to the Zoological Society cf London. University Demonstrator in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891..) Dog (in part) Lecturer on Biology at Charing Cross Hospital, 1892-1894; at London Hospital, I 1894. Examiner in Biology to the Royal College of Physicians, 1892-1896, 1901- 1903. Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903. f Derby, 7th Earl of; P. C. Y. PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE M.A. I Digby Slr Everard; Magdalen College, Oxford. j Digby> sir P. Gi. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT. D. Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J R Reader in Comparative Philology. Late Secretary of the Cambridge Philological 1 Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology ; &c. P. G. K. PAUL GEORGE KONODY. f Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of The Artist. 1 Donatello. Author of Ths Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c. I R. LORD RAYLEIGH. See the biographical article : RAYLEIGH, 3RD BARON. R. A. S. M. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. f St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explora- J Diptych, tion Fund. R. C. J. SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB., LITT.D., D.C.L. f n«n - »h See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD C. \UM ies< R. D. M. R. D. MlLNER. f lit.*.*-.. /• • A Formerly Assistant, U.S. Department of Agriculture. \ uie s Vn Part)- R. H. D.* ROBERT HENRY DAVIS. f Managing Director, Siebe, Gorman & Co., Ltd., Submarine Engineers, London. -| Divers and Diving Apparatus. Author of A Diving Manual; &c. R. I. P. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. • f Earwig. Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. \ R. J. RICHARD JORDAN. f Drau!,hts (in *n.rt\ Draughts Champion of Scotland, 1896, and of the world, 1896 seq. \ " R. J. H. RONALD JOHN McNEiLL, M.A. f Driving- Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's •{ r>,,_i,n <,.* r.,,.1 „; Gazette, London. I Durham, 1st Earl of. xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. r niniro. nolnhln- Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J „ Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; The Deer of] Dormouse; Dugong; all Lands ; &c. L Duiker; Edentata. R. Ma. REV. ROBERT MACKINTOSH, D.D. f Professor of Christian Ethics and Apologetics, Lancashire Independent College. „ Lecturer on the Philosophy of Religion, University of Manchester. Author of Christ and the Jewish Law ; &c. 1. R. M'L. ROBERT M'LACHLAN, F.R.S. | _ ,. Editor of the Entomologists' Monthly Magazine. \ "ragon-ny (in part). R. N. B. ROBERT -NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). f Denmark: Medieval and Assistant Librarian, British Museum 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the Modern History Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, -\ n ff _. 1613 to 1725 ; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1460 u*»ewny; IMUgosz; to 1796; &c. I Dolgoruki; Dozsa. R. P. S. R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. r Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past- I Dome; Door; President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, -j Doorway; London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's Earlv Enplfch Pprinri History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. S. A. C. STANLEY ARTHUR COOK. /• Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonyille and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and j Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Council of Royal Asiatic Society, 1904- -j Edom. 1905. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses and Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c. ISCSeTthe biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, IST EARL OF. | Du VerSier de Hauranne. St H. LORD ST HELIER (SIR FRANCIS HENRY JEUNE), P.C., K.C.B., G.C.B. (1843-1905). I" President of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court oH Divorce. Justice, 1892-1905. Honorary Fellow of Hertford College, Oxford. L S. C. SIDNEY COLVIN, LL.D. f Dttrer. See the biographical article : COLVIN, S. \ S. D. H. S. D. HOPKINSON. -I Dividend. S. K. STEN KONOW, Pn.D. f Prof esspr of Indian Philology in the University of Christiania. Officier del' Academic I Franchise. Author of Stamavidhana brdhmana; The Karpuramanjan; volumes •{ Dravidian. ori Tibeto-Burman languages; Munda and Dravidian; " Marathi Bhil " in The Linguistic Survey of India. S. N. SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D. / Eclipse (in part); See the biographical article : NEWCOMB, SIMON. I Ecliptic. T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT., F.S.A. Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Corresponding Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ -j Eboli. Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1897. Author of The Classical Topo- graphy of the Roman Campagna ; &c. T. A. I. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin. T. F. T. THOMAS FREDERICK TOUT, M.A. f Professor of Medieval and Modern History in the University of Manchester. I Edward L, II., III.; Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford. Author of Edward I. ; The Empire ] Edward The Black Prince. and Papacy ; &c. T. K. C. REV. THOMAS KELLY CHEYNE, M.A., D.D. J~ _ . See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K. \ Baen- T. L. H. SIR THOMAS LITTLE HEATH, K.C.B., D.Sc. f Assistant Secretary to the Treasury. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- I nionhantos bridge. Author of Diophantos of Alexandria; Editor of The Thirteen Books of\ Euclid's Elements; &c. T. M. F. THOMAS McCALL FALLOW, M.A., F.S.A. f Formerly Editor of the Antiquary. Author of Memorials of Old Yorkshire ; -j Easter. Cathedral Churches of Ireland ; &c. [ T. Se. THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges Dickens; (University of London). Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of 4 nostoievskv Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson; Joint Author of The Bookman History of English Literature ; &c. T. W. R. D. T. W. RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D. Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester. Professor of Pali and Buddhist Devadatta- Literature, University College, London, 1882-1904. President of the Pali Text J "~v **' Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal Asiatic DnammapSla. Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the Buddhists; Early Buddhism; Buddhist India; Dialogues of the Buddha; &c. I INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Xlll V.T. W. A. W. A. B. C. VLADIMIR TCHERTKOFF. Editor of The Free Age Press. Literary Representative of Leo Tolstoy. Author of -| DoukhobOFS. Christian Martyrdom in Russia ; &c. WILLIAM ARCHER. See the biographical article Archer, William. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. (Bern). , Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's Dolomites, The; College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of < Dornbirn; the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in Durance; History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889; &c. I Ebel J G •j Drama (Recent English). f Digne; W. A. P. W. A. S. H. W. B. W. E. B. WALTER ALISON M.A. f Diplomacy; Dispensation; Donation nf "OI LHOn °l W. E. D. W. P. Sh. W. F. W. W. G. P. P. W. Hy. W. H.* W. H. Ma. W. L. G. W. M. W. IVl* K. W. N. S. Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c. WILLIAM ALBERT SAMUEL HEWINS, M.A. Secretary of the Tariff Commission. Formerly Director of the London School of Economics. Teacher of Modern Economic History in the University of London, 1902-1903. Tooke Professor of Economic Science and Statistics at King's' College, London, 1897-1903. Author of Imperialism and its Probable Effect on the Commercial Policy of the United Kingdom ; &c. WALTER BAXENDALE. Kennel Editor of the Field. REV. WILLIAM EMERY BARNES, M.A., D.D. Hulsean Professor of Divinity, Cambridge. Fellow and Hon. Chaplain of Peter- house, Cambridge. Examining Chaplain to the_Bishop of London. Joinl Editor of Journal of Theological Studies, 1899-1901. Formerly Leclurer in Hebrew, - Clare College, and Leclurer in Hebrew and Divinily, Peterhouse. Author of The Canonical and Uncanonical Gospels', The Peshitta Text of Chronicles; The Psalms in the Peshitta Version ; Genuineness of Isaiah ; &c. WILLIAM ERNEST DALBY, M.A., M.lNST.C.E., M.I.M.E., A.M.lNSx.N.A. Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering al the City and Guilds of London Institute Central Technical College, South Kensington. Formerly University -\ Dynamometer. Demonstrator in the Engineering Department, Cambridge. Author of The Balanc- ing of Engines ; Valves and Valve Gear Mechanism ;&c. WILLIAM FLEETWOOD SHEPPARD, M.A. Senior Examiner to the Board of Education. Cambridge. Senior Wrangler, 1884. Dragon; Duke; I Eastern Question, The. Economics. Dog (in part). Ecclesiasticus. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, -I Differences, Calculus of. WALTER FRANCIS WILLCOX, LL.B., PH.D. [ Chief Statistician, United States Census Bureau. Professor of Social Science and Statistics, Cornell University. Member of the American Social Science Association J Divorce: United States. and Secretary of the American Economical Association. [Author of The Divorce Problem: A Study in Statistics; Social Statistics of the United States; &c. SIR WALTER GEORGE FRANK PHILLIMORE, BART., D.C.L., LL.D. f Judge of the King's Bench Division. President of International Law Association, 1905. Author of Book of Church Law. Editor of 2nd editi9n of Phillimore's } Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction. Ecclesiastical Law; yd edition of vol. iv. of Phillimore's International Law; &c. [ WILLIAM HENRY. r Founder and Chief Secretary to the Royal Life Saying Society. Associate of the Order of St John of Jerusalem. Joint Author of Swimming, (Badminton Library) ; " &c. Drowning and Life Saving. WALTER HUNTER, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., F.G.S. Consulting Engineer for Waterworks to Crown Agents for the Colonies. Member of Council of Institute of Civil Engineers. Silver Medallist, Royal Society of Arts. \ Originator of Staines Scheme of Storage Reservoirs. Has reported on Waterworks at Accra, Secconder and Lagos; also on Rand Water Supply. WILLIAM HENRY MAXWELL, A.M.I.C.E. f Borough and Waterworks Engineer, Tunbridge Wells. Formerly President of Institute of Sanitary Engineers, London. Author of Refuse Destructors; &c. " Joint Editor of Encyclopaedia of Municipal and Sanitary Engineering. WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A. Professorial Queen'ss University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly Beit Lecturer in anil ,. Hydraulic Engineering. Destructors. rrotessor at yueen s university, Kingston, Canada, hormerly Beit Lecturer in I n«w.i«e«M. ict Colonial History at Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy Council, Colonial 1 uorcne •» lsl series; Canadian Constitutional Development (in collaboration). L WILLIAM MINTO, M.A. See the biographical article: MINTO, WILLIAM. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL. Dry den (in part). ("Dole!; Domenichino; t Dyce, William; Eastlake. WILLIAM NAPIER SHAW, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. f" Director of the Meteorological Office. Reader in Meteorology in the University of London. President of Permanent International Meteorological Committee. I Member of Meteorological Council, 1897-1905. Hon. Fellow of Emmanuel College, 1 Cambridge. Senior Tutor, 1890-1899. Joint Author of Text Book of Practical Physics; &c. XIV INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES W. 0. A. W. R. E. H. W. R. L. W. S. J. W. W. W. W. R.* WILBUR OLIN ATWATER, PH.D. (1844-1907). Formerly Professor of Chemistry, Wesleyan University, U.S.A. Special Agent of H Dietetics (in part). the United States Department of Agriculture in charge of Nutrition Investigations. L WILLIAM RICHARD EATON HODGKINSON, PH.D., F.R.S. I" Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ordnance College, Woolwich. Formerly J Professor of Chemistry andlPhysics, R.M.A., Woolwich. Part author of Valentin- 1 Hodgkinson's Prqctical Chemistry ; &c. I W. R. LETHABY, F.S.A. Principal of the Central School of Arts and Crafts under the London County Council. Author of Architecture, Mysticism and Myth; &c. WILLIAM STANLEY JEVONS, LL.D. See the biographical article: JEVONS, WILLIAM STANLEY. WILLIAM WALLACE. See the biographical article: WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897). Design. : De Morgan. 1 Descartes. WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC.THEOL. / n , c , . Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. \ uon' &ynoa OI- PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Democratic Party. Democritus. Derbyshire. Desmoulins. Detroit. Devonshire. De Witt, John. Diabetes. Diamond Necklace. Dice. Dictionary. Didache. Dietary. Dietrich of Bern. Digitalis. Dijon. Dionysius. Diphtheria. Distress. Dittersdorf, Karl D. von. Divining-rod. Dockyards. Doge. Dominoes. Donatists. Donegal. Dorset, Earls, Marquesses and Dukes of. Dorsetshire. Douglas: Family. Dover. Down. Dragoman. Drainage of Land. Drake, Sir Francis. Dresden. Dropsy. Drummond of Hawthornden. Drunkenness. Dualism. Dublin. Dunbar. Dundee, Viscount. Dundee: City. Dundonald. Duns Scotus. Durban. Durham. Dutch East India Company. Dutch West India Company. Dwarf. Dyaks. Dysentery. Dyspepsia. Earth. Eastern Bengal and Assam, East India Company. Ebionites. Ecarte". Ecclesiastical Law. Eclecticism. Edgeworth. Edinburgh. Edinburghshire. ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME VIII DEMIJOHN, a glass bottle or jar with a large round body and narrow neck, encased in wicker-work and provided with handles. The word is also used of an earthenware jar, similarly covered with wicker. The capacity of a demijohn varies from two to twelve gallons, but the common size contains five gallons. According to the New English Dictionary the word is an adapta- tion of a French Dame Jeanne, or Dame Jane, an application of a personal name to an object which is not uncommon; cf. the use of " Toby " for a particular form of jug and the many uses of the name " Jack." DEMISE, an Anglo-French legal term (from the Fr. demettre, Lat. dimiltere, to send away) for a transfer of an estate, especially by lease. The word has an operative effect in a lease implying a covenant for " quiet enjoyment " (see LANDLORD AND TENANT). The phrase " demise of the crown " is used in English law to signify the immediate transfer of the sovereignty, with all its attributes and prerogatives, to the successor without any inter- regnum in accordance with the maxim " the king never dies." At common law the death of the sovereign eo facto dissolved parliament, but this was abolished by the Representation of the People Act 1867, §51. Similarly the common law doctrine that all offices held under the crown determined at its demise has been negatived by the Demise of the Crown Act 1901. "Demise" is thus often used loosely for death or decease. DEMIURGE (Gr. d-rjfuovpyos, from Sixties, of or for the people, and epyov, work), a handicraftsman or artisan. In Homer the word has a wide application, including not only hand-workers but even heralds and physicians. In Attica the demiurgi formed one of the three classes (with the Eupatridae and the geomori, georgi or agroeci) into which the early population was divided (cf . Arist. Ath. Pol. xiii. 2). They represented either a class of the whole population, or, according to Busolt, a commercial nobility (see EUPATRIDAE). In the sense of " worker for the people " the word was used throughout the Peloponnese, with the excep- tion of Sparta, and in many parts of Greece, for a higher magistrate. The demiurgi among other officials represent Elis and Mantineia at the treaty of peace between Athens, Argos, Elis andMantineiain42OB.c. (Thuc. v. 47). In the Achaean League (q.v.) the name is given to ten elective officers who presided over the assembly, and Corinth sent " Epidemiurgi " every year to Potidaea, officials who apparently answered to the Spartan harmosts. In Plato dijfuovpybs is the name given to the " creator of the world " (Timaeus, 40) and the word was so adopted by the Gnostics (see GNOSTICISM). DEMMIN, a town of Germany, kingdom of Prussia, on the navigable river Peene (which in the immediate neighbourhood receives the Trebel and the Tollense), 72 m. W.N.W. of Stettin, on the Berlin-Stralsund railway. Pop. (1905) 12,541. It has manufactures of textiles, besides breweries, distilleries and tanneries, and an active trade in corn and timber, vm — i The town is of Slavonian origin and of considerable antiquity, and was a place of importance in the time of Charlemagne. It was besieged by a German army in 1 148, and captured by Henry the Lion in 1164. In the Thirty Years' War Demmin was the object of frequent conflicts, and even after the peace of West- phalia was taken and retaken in the contest between the electoral prince and the Swedes. It passed to Prussia in 1720, and its fortifications were dismantled in 1759. In 1807 several engage- ments took place in the vicinity between the French and Russians. DEMOCHARES (c. 355-275 B.C.), nephew of Demosthenes, Athenian orator and stateman, was one of the few distinguished Athenians in the period of decline. He is first heard of in 322, when he spoke in vain against the surrender of Demosthenes and the other anti-Macedonian orators demanded by Antipater. During the next fifteen years he probably lived in exile. On the restoration of the democracy by Demetrius Poliorcetes in 307 he occupied a prominent position, but was banished in 303 for having ridiculed the decree of Stratocles, which contained a fulsome eulogy of Demetrius. He was recalled in 298, and during the next four years l fortified and equipped the city with provisions and ammunition. In 296 (or 295) he was again banished for having concluded an alliance with the Boeotians, and did not return until 287 (or 286). In 280 he induced the Athenians to erect a public monument in honour of his uncle with a suitable inscription. After his death (some five years later) the son of Demochares proposed and obtained a decree (Plutarch, Vitae decent oratomm,p. 851) that a statue should be erected in his honour, containing a record of his public services, which seem to have consisted in a reduction of public expenses, a more prudent management of the state finances (after his return in 287) and successful begging missions to the rulers of Egypt and Macedonia. Although a friend of the Stoic Zeno, Demochares regarded all other philosophers as the enemies of freedom, and in 306 supported the proposal of one Sophocles, advocating their expulsion from Attica. According to Cicero (Brutus, 83) Demo- chares was the author of a history of his own times, written in an oratorical rather than a historical style. As a speaker he was noted for his freedom of language (Parrhesiastes, Seneca, De ira, iii. 23) . He was violently attacked by Timaeus, but found a strenuous defender in Polybius (xii. 13). See also Plutarch, Demosthenes, 30, Demetrius, 24, Vitae decem oralorum, p. 847; J. G. Droysen's essay on Demochares in Zeil- schriftfiir die Altertumswissenschaft (1836), Nos. 20, 21. DEMOCRACY (Gr. SrifioKparia, from Sij/uos, the people, ije. the commons, and KP&.TOS, rule), in political science, that form of government in which the people rules itself, either directly, as in the small city-states of Greece, or through representatives. According to Aristotle, democracy is the perverted form of the 1 For the " four years' war " and the chronological questions in- volved, see C. W. Muller, Frag. Hist. Graec. ii. 445. DEMOCRATIC PARTY third form of government, which he called TroXireta, " polity " or " constitutional government," the rule of the majority of the free and equal citizens, as opposed to monarchy and aristocracy, the rule respectively of an individual and of a minority consist- ing of the best citizens (see GOVERNMENT and ARISTOCRACY). Aristotle's restriction of " democracy " to bad popular govern- ment, i.e. mob-rule, or, as it has sometimes been called, " ochlocracy " (oxAos, mob), was due to the fact that the Athenian democracy had in his day degenerated far below the ideals of the 5th century, when it reached its zenith under Pericles. Since Aristotle's day the word has resumed its natural meaning, but democracy in modern times is a very different thing from what it was in its best days in Greece and Rome. The Greek states were what are known as " city-states," the characteristic of which was that all the citizens could assemble together in the city at regular intervals for legislative and other purposes. This sovereign assembly of the people was known at Athens as the Ecclesia (q.v.), at Sparta as the Apella (q.v.), at Rome variously as the Comitia Centuriata or the Concilium Plebis (see COMITIA). Of representative government in the modern sense there is practically no trace in Athenian history, though certain of the magistrates (see STRATEGUS) had a quasi-representative char- acter. Direct democracy is impossible except in small states. In the second place the qualification for citizenship was rigorous; thus Pericles restricted citizenship to those who were the sons of an Athenian father, himself a citizen, and an Athenian mother (e£ &ndiv iurroiv) . This system excluded not only all the slaves, who were more numerous than the free population, but also resident aliens, subject allies, and those Athenians whose descent did not satisfy this criterion (T<$ yivei /ii) Kadapoi). The Athenian democracy, which was typical in ancient Greece, was a highly exclusive form of government. With the growth of empire and nation states this narrow parochial type of democracy became impossible. The population became too large and the distance too great for regular assemblies of qualified citizens. The rigid distinction of citizens and non- citizens was progressively more difficult to maintain, and new criteria of citizenship came into force. The first difficulty has been met by various forms of representative government. The second problem has been solved in various ways in different countries; moderate democracies have adopted a low property qualification, while extreme democracy is based on the exten- sion of citizenship to all adult persons with or without dis- tinction of sex. The essence of modern representative govern- ment is that the people does not govern itself, but periodically elects those who shall govern on its behalf (see GOVERNMENT; REPRESENTATION) . DEMOCRATIC PARTY, originally DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PARTY, the oldest of existing political parties in the United States. Its origin lay in the principles of local self-government and repugnance to social and political aristocracy established as cardinal tenets of American colonial democracy, which by the War of Independence, which was essentially a democratic move- ment, became the basis of the political institutions of the nation. The evils of lax government, both central and state, under the Confederation caused, however, a marked anti-democratic reaction, and this united with the temperamental conservatism of the framers of the constitution of 1787 hi the shaping of that conservative instrument. The influences and interests for and against its adoption took form in the groupings of Federalists and Anti-Federalists, and these, after the creation of the new government, became respectively, in underlying principles, and, to a large extent, in personnel, the Federalist party (q.v.) and the Democratic-Republican party.1 The latter, organized by Thomas Jefferson in opposition to the Federalists dominated by Alexander Hamilton, was a real party by 1 792. The great service of attaching to the constitution a democratic bill of rights be- longs to the Anti-Federalists or Democratic-Republican party, although this was then amorphous. The Democratic-Republican party gained full control of the government, save the judiciary, 1 The orefix " Democratic " was not used by Jefferson; it became established, however, and official. in 1801, and controlled it continuously thereafter until 1825. No political " platforms " were then known, but the writings of Jefferson, who dominated his party throughout this period, take the place of such. His inaugural address of 1801 is a famous statement of democratic principles, which to-day are taken for granted only because, through the party organized by him to secure their success, they became universally accepted as the ideal of American institutions. In all the colonies, says John Adams, " a court and a country party had always contended "; Jefferson's followers believed sincerely that the Federalists were a new court party, and monarchist. Hence they called themselves " Republicans " as against monarchists, — standing also, incident- ally, for states' rights against the centralization that monarchy (or any approach to it) implied; and " Democrats " as against aristocrats, — standing for the " common rights of Englishmen," the " rights of man," the levelling of social ranks and the widen- ing of political privileges. In the early years of its history — and during the period of the French Revolution and afterwards — the Republicans sympathized with the French as against the British, the Federalists with the British as against the French. Devotion to abstract principles of democracy and liberty, and in practical politics a strict construction of the constitution, in order to prevent an aggrandizement of national power at the expense of the states (which were nearer popular control) or the citizens, have been permanent characteristics of the Democratic party as contrasted with its principal opponents; but neither these nor any other distinctions have been continuously or consistently true throughout its long course.2 After 1801 the commercial and manufacturing nationalistic3 elements of the Federalist party,being now dependent on Jefferson for protection, gradually went over to the Republicans, especially after the War of 1812; moreover, administration of government naturally developed in Republican ranks a group of broad-constructionists. These groups fused, and became an independent party.4 They called themselves National Republicans, while the Jacksonian Republicans soon came to be known simply as Democrats.6 Immediately afterward followed the tremendous victory of the Jacksonians in 1828, — a great advance in radical democracy over the victory of 1800. In the interval the Federalist party had disappeared, and practically the entire country, embracing Jeffersonian democracy, had passed through the school of the Republican party. It had established the power of the " people " in the sense of that word in present-day American politics. Bills of rights in every state constitution protected the citizen; some state judges were already elective; very soon the people came to nominate their presidential candidates in national conven- tions, and draft their party platforms through their conven- tion representatives.* After the National Republican scission the Democratic party, weakened thereby in its nationalistic tendencies, and deprived of the leadership of Jackson, fell quickly under the control of its Southern adherents and became virtually sectional in its objects. Its states' rights doctrine was turned to the defence of slavery. In thus opposing anti-slavery sentiment — inconsistently, alike as regarded the " rights of man " and constitutional construction, with its original and permanent 2 Under the rubric of " strict construction " fall the greatest struggles in the party's history: those over the United States Bank, over tariffs — for protection or for " revenue "only — over "internal improvements," over issues of administrative economy in pro- viding for the " general welfare," &c. The course of the party has frequently been inconsistent, and its doctrines have shown, absolutely considered, progressive latitudinarianism. 8 " Nationalistic " is used here and below, not in the sense of a general nationalistic spirit, such as that of Jackson, but to indicate the centralizing tendency of a broad construction of constitutional powers in behalf of commerce and manufactures. 4 Standing for protective tariffs, internal improvements, &c. 5 It should be borne in mind, however, that the Democratic party of Jackson was not strictly identical with the Democratic- Republican party of Jefferson, — and some writers date back the origin of the present Democratic party only to 1828-1829. 8 The Democratic national convention of 1832 was preceded by an Anti-Masonic convention of 1830 and by the National-Republican convention of 1831 ; but the Democratic platform of 1840 was the first of its kind. DEMOCRITUS principles — it lost morale and power. As a result of the contest over Kansas it became fatally divided, and in 1860 put forward two presidential tickets: one representing the doctrine of Jefferson Davis that the constitution recognized slave-property, and therefore the national government must protect slavery in the territories; the other representing Douglas's doctrine that the inhabitants of a territory might virtually exclude slavery by " unfriendly legislation." The combined popular votes for the two tickets exceeded that cast by the new, anti-slavery Republican party (the second of the name) for Lincoln; but the election was lost. During the ensuing Civil War such members of the party as did not become War Democrats antagonized the Lincoln administration, and in 1864 made the great blunder of pronounc- ing the war " a failure." Owing to Republican errors in recon- struction and the scandals of President Grant's administration, the party gradually regained its strength and morale, until, having largely subordinated Southern questions to economic issues, it cast for Tilden for president in 1876 a popular vote greater than that obtained by the Republican candidate, Hayes, and gained control of the House of Representatives. The Electoral Commission, however, made Hayes president, and the quiet acceptance of this decision by the Democratic party did it considerable credit. Since 1877 the Southern states have been almost solidly Democratic; but, except on the negro question, such unanimity among Southern whites has been, naturally, factitious; and by no means an unmixed good for the party. Apart from the " Solid South," the period after 1875 is characterized by two other party difficulties. The first was the attempt from 1878 to 1896 to "straddle" the silver issue;1 the second, an attempt after 1896 to harmonize general elements of conservatism and radicalism within the party. In 1896 the South and West gained control of the organization, and the national campaigns of 1896 and 1900 were fought and lost mainly on the issue of " free silver," which, however, was abandoned before 1904. After 1898 " imperialism," to which the Democrats were hostile, became another issue. Finally, after 1896, there became very apparent in the party a tendency to attract the radical elements of society in the general re-alignment of parties taking place on industrial-social issues; the Democratic party apparently attracting, in this readjustment, the " radicals " and the " masses " as in the time of Jefferson and Jackson. In this process, in the years 1896-1900, it took over many of the principles and absorbed, in large part, the members of the radical third- party of the " Populists," only to be confronted thereupon by the growing strength of Socialism, challenging it to a farther radical widening of its programme. From 1860 to 1908 it elected but a single president (Grover Cleveland, 1885-1889 and 1893-1897) .2 All American parties accepted long ago in theory " Jeffersonian democracy "; but the Democratic party has been " the political champion of those elements of the [American] democracy which are most democratic. It stands nearest the people."3 It may be noted that the Jeffersonian Republicans did not attempt to democratize the constitution itself. The choice of a president was soon popularized, however, in effect; and the popular election of United States senators is to-day a definite Demo- cratic tenet.4 BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For an exposition of the party's principles see Thomas Jefferson, Writings, ed. by P. L. Ford (10 vols., New York, 1892-1899); J. P. Foley (ed.), The Jeffersonian Cyclopaedia (New York, 1900) ; and especially the Campaign Text-Books of more recent 1 The attitude of the Republican party was no less inconsistent and evasive. 1 It controlled the House of Representatives from 1874 to 1894 except in 1880-1882 and 1888-1890; but except for a time in Cleveland^ second term, there were never simultaneously a Democratic president and a Democratic majority in Congress. 1 Professor A. D. Morse in International Monthly, October 1000. He adds, " It^has done more to Americanize the foreigner than all other parties." (It is predominant in the great cities of the country.) 4 In connexion with the prevalent popular tendency to regard the president as a people's tribune, it may be noted that a strong pre- sidential veto is, historically, peculiarly a Democratic contribution, owing to the history of Jackson's (compare Cleveland's) adminis- tration. times, usually issued by the national Democratic committee in alternate years, and M. Carey, The Democratic Speaker's Hand- book (Cincinnati, 1868). For a hostile criticism of the party, see W. D.Jones, Mirror of Modern Democracy; History cf the Democratic Party from 1825 to /S<5i(New York, 1864) ; Jonathan Norcross,History of Democracy Considered as a Party-Name and a Political Organisa- tion (New York, 1883); J. H. Patton, The Democratic Party: Its Political History and Influence (New York, 1884). Favourable treatises are R. H. Gillet, Democracy in the United States (New York, 1868); and George Fitch, Political Facts: an Historical Text-Book of the Democratic and Other Parties (Baltimore, 1884). See also, for general political history, Thomas H. Benton, Thirty Years' View (2 vols., New York, 1854-1856, and later editions) ; James G. Elaine, Twenty Years of Congress (2 vols., Norwich, Conn., 1884-1893); S. S. Cox, Three Decades of Federal Legislation (Providence, 1885); S. P. Orth, Five American Politicians: a Study in the Evolution of American Politics (Cleveland, 1906), containing sketches of four Democratic leaders — Burr, De Witt Clinton.Van Buren and Douglas; {. Maoy, Party Organization and Machinery (New York, 1904); . H. Hopkins, History of Political Parties in the United States (New York, 1900); E. S. Stanwood, History of the Presidency (last ed., Boston, 1904); I. P. Gordy, History of Political Parties, \. (New York, 1900); H. J. Ford, Rise and Growth of American Politics (New York, 1898) ; Alexander Johnston, History of American Politics (New York, 1900, and later editions); C. E. Merriam, A History of American Political Theories (New York, 1903), containing chapters on the Jeffersonian and the Jacksonian Democracy; and James A. Woodburn, Political Parties and Partv Problems in the United States (New York, 1903). DEMOCRITUS, probably the greatest of the Greek physical philosophers, was a native of Abdera in Thrace, or as some say — probably wrongly — of Miletus (Diog. Laert. ix. 34). Our knowledge of his life is based almost entirely on tradition of an untrustworthy kind. He seems to have been born about 470 or 460 B.C., and was, therefore, an older contemporary of Socrates. He inherited a considerable property, which enabled him to travel widely in the East in search of information. In Egypt he settled for seven years, during which he studied the mathe- matical and physical systems of the ancient schools. The extent to which he was influenced by the Magi and the Eastern astrologists is a matter of pure conjecture. He returned from his travels impoverished; one tradition says that he received 500 talents from his fellow-citizens, and that a public funeral was decreed him. Another tradition states that he was regarded as insane by the Abderitans, and that Hippocrates was summoned to cure him. Diodorus Siculus tells us that he died at the age of ninety; others make him as much as twenty years older. His works, according to Diogenes Laertius, numbered seventy- two, and were characterized by a purity of style which com- pares favourably with that of Plato. The absurd epithet, the " laughing philosopher," applied to him by some unknown and very superficial thinker, may possibly have contributed in some measure to the fact that his importance was for centuries overlooked. It is interesting, however, to notice that Bacon (De Principiis) assigns to him his true place in the history of thought, and points out that both in his own day and later " in the times of Roman learning " he was spoken of in terms of the highest praise. In the variety of his knowledge, and in the importance of his influence on both Greek and modern speculation he was the Aristotle of the sth century, while the sanity of his metaphysical theory has led many to regard him as the equal, if not the superior, of Plato. His views may be treated under the following heads: — i. The Atoms and Cosmology (adopted in part at least from the doctrines of Leucippus, though the relations between the two are hopelessly obscure). While agreeing with the Eleatics as to the eternal sameness of Being (nothing can arise out of nothing; nothing can be reduced to nothing), Democritus followed the physicists in denying its oneness and immobility. Movement and plurality being necessary to explain the pheno- mena of the universe and impossible without space (not-Being), he asserted that the latter had an equal right with Being to be considered existent. Being is the Full (irMjoes, plenum) ; not-Being is the Void (Kev6v, vacuum) , the infinite space in which moved tire infinite number of atoms into which the single Being of the Eleatics was broken up. These atoms are eternal and invisible; absolutely small, so small that their size cannot be DEMOGEOT— DEMOGRAPHY diminished (hence the name OTOJUOS, " indivisible "); absolutely full and incompressible, they are without pores and entirely fill the space they occupy; homogeneous, differing only in figure (as A from N), arrangement (as AN from NA), position (as N is Z on its side), magnitude (and consequently in weight, although some authorities dispute this). But while the atoms thus differ in quantity, their differences of quality are only apparent, due to the impressions caused on our senses by different configurations and combinations of atoms. A thing is only hot or cold, sweet or bitter, hard or soft by convention (vonqi); the only things that exist in reality (erej;) are the atoms and the void. Locke's distinction between primary and secondary qualities is here anticipated. Thus, the atoms of water and iron are the same, but those of the former, being smooth and round, and therefore unable to hook on to one another, roll over and over like small globes, whereas the atoms of iron, being rough, jagged and uneven, cling together and form a solid body. Since all phenomena are composed of the same eternal atoms (just as a tragedy and a comedy contain the same letters) it may be said that nothing comes into being or perishes in the absolute sense of the words (cf. the modern "indestructibility of matter " and " conservation of energy ") , although the compounds of the atoms are liable to increase and decrease, appearance and disappearance — in other words, to birth and death. As the atoms are eternal and uncaused, so is motion; it has its origin in a preceding motion, and so on ad infinitum. For the Love and Hate of Empedocles and the Nous (Intelligence) of Anaxagoras, Demo- critus substituted fixed and necessary laws (not chance; that is a misrepresentation due chiefly to Cicero). Everything can be explained by a purely mechanical (but not fortuitous) system, in which there is no room for the idea of a providence or an intelligent cause working with a view to an end. The origin of the universe was explained as follows. An infinite number of atoms was carried downwards through infinite space. The larger (and heavier), falling with greater velocity, overtook and collided with the smaller (and lighter), which were thereby forced upwards. This caused various lateral and contrary movements, resulting in a whirling movement (Sivrf) resembling the rotation of Anaxagoras, whereby similar atoms were brought together (as in the winnowing of grain) and united to form larger bodies and worlds. Atoms and void being infinite in number and extent, and motion having always existed, there must always have been an infinite number of worlds, all consisting of similar atoms, in various stages of growth and decay. 2. The Soul. — Democritus devoted considerable attention to the structure of the human body, the noblest portion of which he considered to be the soul, which everywhere pervades it, a psychic atom being intercalated between two corporeal atoms. Although, in accordance with his principles, Democritus was bound to regard the soul as material (composed of round, smooth, specially mobile atoms, identified with the fire-atoms floating in the air), he admitted a distinction between it and the body, and is even said to have looked upon it as something divine. These all-pervading soul atoms exercise different functions in different organs; the head is the seat of reason, the heart of anger, the liver of desire. Life is maintained by the inhalation of fresh atoms to replace those lost by exhalation, and when respiration, and consequently the supply of atoms, ceases, the result is death. It follows that the soul perishes with, and in the same sense as, the body. 3. Perception. — Sensations are the changes produced in the soul by external impressions, and are the result of contact, since every action of one body (and all representations are corporeal phenomena) upon another is of the nature of a shock. Certain emanations (awoltpoai, biropfroiai) or images (elScoXa), consisting of subtle atoms, thrown off from the surface of an object, penetrate the body through the pores. On the principle that like acts upon like, the particular senses are only affected by that which resembles them. We see by means of the eye alone, and hear by means of the ear alone, these organs being best adapted to receive the images or sound currents. The organs are thus merely conduits or passages through which the atoms pour into the soul. The eye, for example, is damp and porous, and the act of seeing consists in the reflection of the image (Sei/ctXoc) mirrored on the smooth moist surface of the pupil. To the interposition of air is due the fact that all visual images are to some extent blurred. At the same time Democritus distinguished between obscure (axoTtfj) cognition, resting on sensation alone, and genuine (yvT\tu>, to write), the science which deals with the statistics of health and DEMOIVRE— DEMONOLOGY disease, of the physical, intellectual, physiological and economical aspects of births, marriages and mortality. The first to employ the word was Achille Guillard in his tUments de statistique humaine ou demographic comparee (1855), but the meaning which he attached to it was merely that of the science which treats of the condition, general movement and progress of population in civilized countries, i.e. little more than what is comprised in the ordinary vital statistics, gleaned from census and registra- tion reports. The word has come to have a much wider meaning and may now be defined as that branch of statistics which deals with the life-conditions of peoples. DEMOIVRE, ABRAHAM (1667-1754), English mathematician of French extraction, was born at Vitry, in Champagne, on the 26th of May 1667. He belonged to a French Protestant family, and was compelled to take refuge in England at the revocation of the edict of Nantes, in 1685. Having laid the foundation of his mathematical studies in France, he prosecuted them further in London, where he read public lectures on natural philosophy for his support. The Principia mathematical of Sir Isaac Newton, which chance threw in his way, caused him to prosecute his studies with vigour, and he soon became distinguished among first-rate mathematicians. He was among the intimate personal friends of Newton, and his eminence and abilities secured his admission into the Royal Society of London in 1697, and after- wards into the Academies of Berlin and Paris. His merit was so well known and acknowledged by the Royal Society that they judged him a fit person to decide the famous contest between Newton and G. W. Leibnitz (see INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS). The life of Demoivre was quiet and uneventful. His old age was spent in obscure poverty, his friends and associates having nearly all passed away before him. He died at London, on the 27th of November 1754. The Philosophical Transactions contain several of his papers. He also published some excellent works, such as Miscellanea analytica de seriebus et quadraturis (1730), in 4to. This contained some elegant and valuable improvements on then existing methods, which have themselves, however, long been superseded. But he has been more generally known by his Doctrine of Chances, or Method of Calculating the Probabilities of Events at Play. This work was first printed in 1618, in 4to, and dedicated to Sir Isaac Newton. It was reprinted in 1738, with great alterations and improvements; and a third edition was afterwards published with additions in 1756. He also published a Treatise on Annuities (1725), which has passed through several revised and corrected editions. See C. Hutton, Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary (1815). For Demoivre' s Theorem see TRIGONOMETRY: Analytical. DEMONETIZATION, a term employed in monetary science in two different senses, (a) The depriving or divesting of a metal of its standard monetary value. From 1663 to 1717 silver was the standard of value in England and gold coins passed at their market value. The debasement and underrating of the silver coinage insensibly brought about the demonetization of silver in England as a standard of value and the substitution of gold. During the latter half of the igth century, the tremendous depreciation of silver, owing to its continually increasing pro- duction, and consequently the impossibility of preserving any ratio of stability between it and gold, led to the abandonment or demonetization of the metal as a standard and to its use merely as token money, (b) The withdrawal of coin from circulation, as, for example, in England that of all pre- Victorian gold coins under the provisions of the Coinage Act 1889, and the royal proclama- tion of the 22nd of November 1890. DEMONOLOGY (Aatjuwc, demon, genius, spirit), the branch of the science of religions which relates to superhuman beings which are not gods. It deals both with benevolent beings which have no circle of worshippers or so limited a circle as to be below the rank of gods, and with malevolent beings of all kinds. It may be noted that the original sense of " demon " was a benevolent being; but in English the name now connotes malevolence; in German it has a neutral sense, e.g. Korndamonen. Demons, when they are regarded as spirits, may belong to either of the classes of spirits recognized by primitive animism (s) for the law courts, sometimes speaking himself. Biographers have delighted to relate how painfully Demosthenes made him- self a tolerable speaker, — how, with pebbles in his mouth, he tried his lungs against the waves, how he declaimed as he ran up hill, how he shut himself up in a cell, having first guarded himself against a longing for the haunts of men by shaving one side of his head, how he wrote out Thucydides eight times, how he was derided by the Assembly and encouraged by a judicious actor who met him moping about the Peiraeus. He certainly seems to have been the reverse of athletic (the stalwart Aeschines upbraids him with never having been a sportsman), and he probably had some sort of defect or impediment in his speech as a boy. Perhaps the most interesting fact about his work for the law courts is that he seems to have continued it, in some measure, through the most exciting parts of his great political career. The speech for Phormio belongs to the same year as the plea for Megalopolis. The speech against Boeotus " Concerning the Name " comes between the First Philippic and the First Olynthiac. The speech against Pantaenetus comes between the speech " On the Peace " and the Second Philippic. 1 See Jebb's Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeos, vol. ii. p. 267 f. The political career of Demosthenes, from his first direct contact with public affairs in 355 B.C. to his death in 322, has an essential unity. It is the assertion, in successive forms adapted to successive moments, of unchanging Pollacal principles. Externally, it is divided into the chap- "eec^"' ter which precedes and the chapter which follows Chaeronea. But its inner meaning, the secret of its indomitable vigour, the law which harmonizes its apparent contrasts, cannot be understood unless it is regarded as a whole. Still less can it be appreciated in all its large wisdom and sustained self-mastery if it is viewed merely as a duel between the ablest champion and the craftiest enemy of Greek freedom. The time indeed came when Demosthenes and Philip stood face to face as representative antagonists in a mortal conflict. But, for Demosthenes, the special peril represented by Philip, the peril of subjugation to Macedon, was merely a disastrous accident. Philip happened to become the most prominent and most formidable type of a danger which was already threatening Greece before his baleful star arose. As Demosthenes said to the Athenians, if the Macedonian had not existed, they would have made another Philip lor themselves. Until Athens recovered something of its old spirit, there must ever be a great standing danger, not for Athens only, but for Greece, — the danger that sooner or later, in some shape, from some quarter — no man could foretell the hour, the manner or the source — barbarian violence would break up the gracious and undefiled tradition of separate Hellenic life. What was the true relation of Athens to Greece ? The answer which he gave to this question is the key to the life of Demosthenes. Athens, so Demosthenes held, was the natural head of Greece. Not, however, as an empress holding subject or subordinate cities in a dependence more or less compulsory. Rather as that city which most nobly expressed the noblest attributes of Greek political existence, and which, by her pre- eminent gifts both of intellect and of moral insight, was primarily responsible, everywhere and always, for the maintenance of those attributes in their integrity. Wherever the cry of the oppressed goes up from Greek against Greek, it was the voice of Athens which should first remind the oppressor that Hellene differed from barbarian in postponing the use of force to the persuasions of equal law. Wherever a barbarian hand offered wrong to any city of the Hellenic sisterhood, it was the arm of Athens which should first be stretched forth in the holy strength of Apollo the Averter. Wherever among her own children the ancient loyalty was yielding to love of pleasure or of base gain, there, above all, it was the duty of Athens to see that the central hearth of Hellas was kept pure. Athens must never again seek " empire " in the sense which became odious under the influence of Cleon and Hyperbolus, — when, to use the image of Aristophanes, the allies were as Babylonian slaves grinding in the Athenian mill. Athens must never permit, if she could help it, the re-establishment of such a domination as Sparta exercised in Greece from the battle of Aegospotami to the battle of Leuctra. Athens must aim at leading a free confederacy, of which the members should be bound to her by their own truest interests. Athens must seek to deserve the confidence of all Greeks alike. Such, in the belief of Demosthenes, was the part which Athens must perform if Greece was to be safe. But reforms must be effected before Athens could be capable of such a part. The evils to be cured were different phases of one malady. Athens had long been suffering from the profound decay of public spirit. Since the early years of the Peloponnesian War, the separation of Athenian society from the state had been growing more and more marked. The old type of the eminent citizen, who was at once statesman and general, had become almost extinct. Politics were now managed by a small circle .of politicians. Wars were conducted by professional soldiers whose troops were chiefly mercenaries, and who were usually regarded by the politicians either as instruments or as enemies. The mass of the citizens took no active interest in public affairs. But, ^^ though indifferent to principles, they had quickly sensi- tive partialities for men, and it was necessary to keep them in good humour. Pericles had introduced the practice of giving a DEMOSTHENES ii small bounty from the treasury to the poorer citizens, for the pur- pose of enabling them to attend the theatre at the great festivals, — in other words, for the purpose of bringing them under the concentrated influence of the best Attic culture. A provision eminently wise for the age of Pericles easily became a mischief when the once honourable name of " demagogue " began to mean a flatterer of the mob. Before the end of the Pelopon- nesian War the festival-money (theoricon) was abolished. A few years after the restoration of the democracy it was again intro- duced. But until 354 B.C. it had never been more than a gratuity, of which the payment depended on the treasury having a surplus. In 354 B.C. Eubulus became steward of the treasury. He was an able man, with a special talent for finance, free from all taint of personal corruption, and sincerely solicitous for the honour of Athens, but enslaved to popularity, and without principles of policy. His first measure was to make the festival-money a permanent item in the budget. Thenceforth this bounty was in reality very much what Demades afterwards called it, — the cement (xoXXa) of the democracy. Years before the danger from Macedon was urgent, Demos- thenes had begun the work of his life, — the effort to lift the spirit Forensic °^ Athens, to revive the old civic loyalty, to rouse the speeches city into taking that place and performing that part la public which her own welfare as well as the safety of Greece causes, prescribed. His formally political speeches must never be considered apart from his forensic speeches in public causes. The Athenian procedure against the proposer of an unconstitu- tional law — i.e. of a law incompatible with existing laws — had a direct tendency to make the law court, in such cases, a political arena. The same tendency was indirectly exerted by the tolerance of Athenian juries (in the absence of a presiding expert like a judge) for irrelevant matter, since it was usually easy for a speaker to make capital out of the adversary's political ante- cedents. But the forensic speeches of Demosthenes for public causes are not only political in this general sense. They are documents, as indispensable as the Olynthiacs or Philippics, for his own political career. Only by taking them along with the formally political speeches, and regarding the whole as one unbroken series, can we see clearly the full scope of the task which he set before him, — a task in which his long resistance to Philip was only the most dramatic incident, and in which his real achievement is not to be measured by the event of Chaeronea. A forensic speech, composed for a public cause, opens the political career of Demosthenes with a protest against a signal abuse. In 355 B.C., at the age of twenty-nine, he wrote the speech " Against Androtion." This combats on legal grounds a proposal that the out-going senate should receive the honour of a golden crown. In its larger aspect, it is a denunciation of the corrupt system which that senate represented, and especially of the manner in which the treasury had been administered by Aristophon. In 354 B.C. Demosthenes composed and spoke the oration " Against Leptines," who had effected a slender saving for the state by the expedient of revoking those hereditary exemptions from taxation which had at various times been conferred in recognition of distinguished merit. The descendants of Harmodius and Aristogeiton alone had been excepted from the operation of the law. This was the first time that the voice of Demosthenes himself had been heard on the public concerns of Athens, and the utterance was a worthy prelude to the career of a statesman. He answers the advocates of the retrenchment by pointing out that the public interest will not ultimately be served by a wholesale violation of the public faith. In the same year he delivered his first strictly political speech, " On the Navy Boards " (Symmories). The Athenians, irritated by the support which Artaxerxes had lately given to the revolt of their allies, and excited by rumours of his hostile preparations, were feverishly eager for a war with Persia. Demosthenes urges that such an enterprise would at present be useless; that it would fail to unite Greece; that the energies of the city should be reserved for a real emergency; but that, before the city can successfully cope with any war, there must be a better organization of resources, and, first of all, a reform of the navy, which he outlines with character- istic lucidity and precision. Two years later (352 B.C.) he is found dealing with a more definite question of foreign policy. Sparta, favoured by the depression of Thebes in the Phocian War, was threatening Megalopolis. Both Sparta and Megalopolis sent embassies to Athens. Demosthenes supported Megalopolis. The ruin of Megalopolis would mean, he argued, the return of Spartan domination in the Peloponnesus. Athenians must not favour the tyranny of any one city. They must respect the rights of all the cities, and thus promote unity based on mutual confidence. In the same year Demosthenes wrote the speech " Against Timocrates," to be spoken by the same Diodorus who had before prosecuted Androtion, and who now combated an attempt to screen Androtion and others from the penalties of embezzlement. The speech " Against Aristocrates," also of 352 B.C., reproves that foreign policy of feeble makeshifts which was now popular at Athens. The Athenian tenure of the Thracian Chersonese partly depended for its security on the good-will of the Thracian prince Cersobleptes. Charidemus, a soldier of fortune who had already played Athens false, was now the brother-in-law and the favourite of Cersobleptes. Aristocrates proposed that the person of Charidemus should be invested with a special sanctity, by the enactment that whoever attempted his life should be an outlaw from all dominions of Athens. Demosthenes points out that such adulation is as futile as it is fulsome. Athens can secure the permanence of her foreign possessions only in one way — by being strong enough to hold them. Thus, between 355 and 352, Demosthenes had laid down the main lines of his policy. Domestic administration must be purified. Statesmen must be made to feel that they are responsible to the state, They must not be allowed to anticipate judgment on their deserts by voting each other golden crowns. They must not think to screen mis- appropriation of public money by getting partisans to pass new laws about state-debtors. Foreign policy must be guided by a larger and more provident conception of Athenian interests. When public excitement demands a foreign war, Athens must not rush into it without asking whether it is necessary, whether it will have Greek support, and whether she herself is ready for it. When a strong Greek city threatens a weak one, and seeks to purchase Athenian connivance with the bribe of a border-town, Athens must remember that duty and prudence alike command her to respect the independence of all Greeks. When it is pro- posed, by way of insurance on Athenian possessions abroad, to flatter the favourite of a doubtful ally, Athens must remember that such devices will not avail a power which has no army except on paper, and no ships fit to leave their moorings. But the time had gone by when Athenians could have tranquil leisure for domestic reform. A danger, calling for prompt action, had at last come very near. For six years Athens had been at war with Philip on account of his seizure of Amphipolis. Meanwhile he had destroyed Potidaea Philip. and founded Philippi. On the Thracian coasts he had become master of Abdera and Maronea. On the Thessalian coast he had acquired Methone. In a second invasion of Thessaly, he had overthrown the Phocians under Onomarchus, and had advanced to Thermopylae, to find the gates of Greece closed against him by an Athenian force. He had then marched to Heraeon on the Propontis, and had dictated a peace to Cersobleptes. He had formed an alliance with Cardia, Perinthus and Byzantium. Lastly, he had begun to show designs on the great Confederacy of Olynthus, the more warlike Miletus of the North. The First Philippic of Demosthenes was spoken in 351 B.C. The Third Philippic — the latest of the extant political speeches — was spoken in 341 B.C. Between these he delivered eight political orations, of which seven are directly concerned with Philip. The whole series falls into two great divisions. The first division comprises those speeches which were spoken against Philip while he was still a foreign power threatening Greece from without. Such are the First Philippic and the three orations for Olynthus. The second division comprises the speeches 12 DEMOSTHENES spoken against Philip when, by admission to the Amphictyonic Council, he had now won his way within the circle of the Greek states, and when the issue was no longer between Greece and Macedonia, but between the Greek and Macedonian parties in Greece. Such are the speech " On the Peace," the speech " On the Embassy," the speech " On the Chersonese," the Second and Third Philippics. The First Philippic, spoken early in 351 B.C., was no sudden note of alarm drawing attention to an unnoticed peril. On the contrary, the Assembly was weary of the subject. For PAfl/ fc, s*x Xears tne war w*tn Philip had been a theme of barren talk. Demosthenes urges that it is time to do some- thing, and to do it with a plan. Athens fighting Philip has fared, he says, like an amateur boxer opposed to a skilled pugilist. The helpless hands have only followed blows which a trained eye should have taught them to parry. An Athenian force must be stationed in the north, at Lemnos or Thasos. Of 2000 infantry and 200 cavalry at least one quarter must be Athenian citizens capable of directing the mercenaries. Later in the same year Demosthenes did another service to the cause of national freedom. Rhodes, severed by its own act from the Athenian Confederacy, had since 355 been virtually subject to Mausolus, prince (Svvaarrp) of Caria, himself a tributary of Persia. Mausolus died in 351, and was succeeded by his widow Artemisia. The democratic party in Rhodes now appealed to Athens for help in throwing off the Carian yoke. Demosthenes supported their application in his speech " For the Rhodians." No act of his life was a truer proof of statesmanship. He failed. But at least he had once more warned Athens that the cause of political freedom was everywhere her own, and that, wherever that cause was forsaken, there a new danger was created both for Athens and for Greece. Next year (350) an Athenian force under Phocion was sent to Euboea, in support of Plutarchus, tyrant of Eretria, against the faction of Cleitarchus. Demosthenes protested against spending strength, needed for greater objects, on the local quarrels of a despot. Phocion won a victory at Tamynae. But the " inglorious and costly war " entailed an outlay of more than £12,000 on the ransom of captives alone, and ended in the total destruction of Athenian influence through- out Euboea. That island was now left an open field for the intrigues of Philip. Worst of all, the party of Eubulus not only defeated a proposal, arising from this campaign, for applying the festival-money to the war-fund, but actually carried a law making it high treason to renew the proposal. The degree to which political enmity was exasperated by the Euboean War may be judged from the incident of Midias, an adherent of Eubulus, and a type of opulent rowdyism. Demosthenes was choragus of his tribe, and was wearing the robe of that sacred office at the great festival in the theatre of Dionysus, when Midias struck him on the face. The affair was eventually compromised. The speech " Against Midias " written by Demosthenes for the trial (in 349) was neither spoken nor completed, and remains, as few will regret, a sketch. It was now three years since, in 352, the Olynthians had sent an embassy to Athens, and had made peace with their only sure ally. In 350 a second Olynthian embassy had sought and obtained Athenian help. The hour of Olynthus had indeed come. In 349 Philip opened war against the Chalcidic towns of the Olynthian League. The First and Second Olynthiacs of Demosthenes were spoken in that year in support of sending one force to defend Olynthus and another to attack Philip. " Better now than later," is the thought of the First Olynthiac: The Second argues that Philip's strength is overrated. The Third — spoken in 348 — carries us into the midst of action.1 It deals with practical details. The festival-fund must be used for the war. The citizens must serve in person. 1 It is generally agreed that the Third Olynthiac is the latest ; but the question of the order of the First and Second has been much discussed. See Grote (History of Greece, chap. 88, appendix), who prefers the arrangement ii. i. iii., and Blass, Die attische Beredsamkeit, iii. p. 319. Euboean War. Olyn- thiacs. A few months later, Olynthus and the thirty-two towns of the confederacy were swept from the earth. Men could walk over their sites, Demosthenes said seven years afterwards, without knowing that such cities had existed. It was now certain that Philip could not be stopped outside of Greece. The question was, What point within Greece shall he be allowed to reach? Eubulus and his party, with that versatility which is the privilege of political vagueness, now began to call for a congress of the allies to consider the common danger. They found a brilliant interpreter in Aeschines, who, after having been a tragic actor and a clerk to the assembly, had entered political life with the advantages of a splendid gift for eloquence, a fine presence, a happy address, a ready wit and a facile conscience. While his opponents had thus suddenly become warlike, Demosthenes had become pacific. He saw that Athens must have time to collect strength. Nothing could be gained, meanwhile, by going on with the war. Macedonian sympathizers at Athens, of whom Philocrates was the chief, also favoured peace. Eleven envoys, including Philocrates, Aeschines, and Demosthenes, were sent to Philip in February 346 B.C. After a debate at Athens, peace was concluded with Philip in April. Philip on the one Peace hand, Athens and her allies on the other, were to keep between what they respectively held at the time when the peace phll'P aad was ratified. But here the Athenians made a fatal error. Philip was bent on keeping the door of Greece open. Demosthenes was bent on shutting it against him. Philip was now at war with the people of Halus in Thessaly. Thebes had for ten years been at war with Phocis. Here were two distinct chances for Philip's armed intervention in Greece. But if the Kalians and the Phocians were included in the peace, Philip could not bear arms against them without violating the peace. Accordingly Philip insisted that they should not be included. Demosthenes insisted they should be included. They were not included. The result followed speedily. The same envoys were sent a second time to Philip at the end of April 346 for the purpose of receiving his oaths in ratification of the peace. It was late in June before he returned from Thrace to Pella — thus gaining, under the terms, all the towns that he had taken mean- while. He next took the envoys with him through Thessaly to Thermopylae. There — at the invitation of Thessalians and Thebans — he intervened in the Phocian War. Phalaecus surrendered. Phocis was crushed. Philip took its place in the Amphictyonic Council, and was thus p£%Jfaa established as a Greek power in the very centre, at the war. sacred hearth, of Greece. The right of precedence in consultation of the oracle (irponavrdo.) was transferred from Athens to Philip. While indignant Athenians were clamouring for the revocation of the peace, Demosthenes upheld it in his speech " On the Peace " in September. It ought never to have been made on such terms, he said. But, having been made, it had better be kept. " If we went to war now, where should we find allies? And after losing Oropus, Amphipolis, Cardia, Chios, Cos, Rhodes, Byzantium, shall we fight about the shadow of Delphi?" During the eight years between the peace of Philocrates and the battle of Chaeronea, the authority of Demosthenes steadily grew, until it became first predominant and then paramount. He had, indeed, a melancholy advantage. Each year his argument was more and more cogently enforced by the logic of facts. In 344 he visited the Peloponnesus for the purpose of counteracting Macedonian intrigue. Mistrust, he told the Peloponnesian cities, is the safeguard of free communities against tyrants. Philip lodged a formal complaint at Athens. Here, as elsewhere, the future master of Greece reminds us of Napoleon on the eve of the first empire. He has the same imperturbable and persuasive effrontery in protesting that he is doing one thing at the moment when his energies are concentrated on doing the opposite. Demosthenes replied in the Second Philippic. " If," he said, " Philip is the friend of Greece, we are doing wrong. If he is the enemy of Greece, we are doing right. Which is he? I hold him to be our enemy, because everything that he has hitherto done has benefited himself and hurt us." The prosecution of Aeschines for malversation on the Second Philippic. DEMOSTHENES Third Philippic. embassy (commonly known as De falsa legalione), which was brought to an issue in the following year, marks the moral strength of the position now held by Demosthenes. When the gravity of the charge and the complexity of the evidence are considered, the acquittal of Aeschines by a narrow majority must be deemed his condemnation. The speech " On the Affairs of the Chersonese " and the Third Philippic were the crowning efforts of Demosthenes. Spoken in the same year, 341 B.C., and within a short space of each other, they must be taken together. The speech " On the Affairs of the Chersonese " regards the situation chiefly from an Athenian point of view. " If the peace means," argues Demosthenes, " that Philip can seize with impunity one Athenian possession after another, but that Athenians shall not on their peril touch aught that belongs to Philip, where is the line to be drawn? We shall go to war, I am told, when it is necessary. If the necessity has not come yet, when will it come? " The Third Philippic surveys a wider horizon. It ascends from the Athenian to the Hellenic view. Philip has annihilated Olynthus and the Chalcidic towns. He has ruined Pbocis. He has frightened Thebes. He has divided Thessaly. Euboea and the Pelo- ponnesus are his. His power stretches from the Adriatic to the Hellespont. Where shall be the end? Athens is the last hope of Greece. And, in this final crisis, Demosthenes was the embodied energy of Athens. It was Demosthenes who went to Byzantium, brought the estranged city back to the Athenian alliance, and snatched it from the hands of Philip. It was Demosthenes who, when Philip had already seized Elatea, hurried to Thebes, who by his passionate appeal gained one last chance, the only possible chance, for Greek freedom, who broke down the barrier of an inveterate jealousy, who brought Thebans to fight beside Athenians, and who thus won at the eleventh hour a victory for the spirit of loyal union which took away at least one bitterness from the unspeakable calamity of Chaeronea. But the work of Demosthenes was not closed by the ruin of his cause. During the last sixteen years of his life (338-322) he rendered services to Athens not less important, and 'activity? perhaps more difficult, than those which he had rendered before. He was now, as a matter of course, foremost in the public affairs of Athens. In January 337, at the annual winter Festival of the Dead in the Outer Ceramicus, he spoke the funeral oration over those who had fallen at Chaeronea. He was member of a commission for strengthening the fortifica- tions of the city (reixorotos). He administered the festival-fund. During a dearth which visited Athens between 330 and 326 he was charged with the organization of public relief. In 324 he was chief (Apxt0€wpos) of the sacred embassy to Olympia. Already, in 336, Ctesiphon had proposed that Demosthenes should receive a golden crown from the state, and that his extraordinary merits should be proclaimed in the theatre at the Great Dionysia. The proposal was adopted by the senate as a bill (irpoftovKevna) ; but it must be passed by the Assembly before it could become an act (^(^wrpta). To prevent this, Aeschines gave notice, in 336, that he intended to proceed against Ctesiphon for having proposed an unconstitutional measure. For six years Aeschines avoided action on this notice. At last, in 330, the patriotic party felt strong enough to force him to an issue. Aeschines spoke the speech " Against Ctesiphon," an attack on the whole public life of Demosthenes. Demosthenes gained an overwhelming victory for himself and for the honour of Athens in the most finished, the most splendid and the most pathetic work of ancient eloquence — the immortal oration " On the Crown." In the winter of 325-324 Harpalus, the receiver-general of Alexander in Asia, fled to Greece, taking with him 8000 mercen- aries, and treasure equivalent to about a million and Harpalus. a quarter sterling. On the motion of Demosthenes he was warned from the harbours of Attica. Having left his troops and part of his treasure at Taenarum, he again present'ed himself at the Peiraeus, and was now admitted. He spoke fervently of the opportunity which offered itself to those who loved the freedom of Greece. All Asia would rise with Athens to throw off the hated yoke. Fiery patriots like Hypereides were in raptures. For zeal which could be bought Harpalus had other persuasions. But Demosthenes stood firm. War with Alexander would, he saw, be madness. It could have but one result, — some indefinitely worse doom for Athens. Antipater and Olympias presently demanded the surrender of Harpalus. Demosthenes opposed this. But he reconciled the dignity with the loyalty of Athens by carrying a decree that Harpalus should be arrested, and that his treasure should be deposited in the Parthenon, to be held in trust for Alexander. Harpalus escaped from prison. The amount of the treasure, which Harpalus had stated as 700 talents, proved to be no more than 350. Demosthenes proposed that the Areopagus should inquire what had become of the other 350. Six months, spent in party intrigues, passed before the Areo- pagus gave hi their report (dwo^cuns). The report inculpated nine persons. Demosthenes headed the list of the accused. Hypereides was among the ten public prosecutors. Demos- thenes was condemned, fined fifty talents, and, in default of payment, imprisoned. After a few days he escaped from prison to Aegina, and thence to Troezen. Two things in this obscure affair are beyond reasonable doubt. First, that Demosthenes was not bribed by Harpalus. The hatred of the Macedonian party towards Demosthenes, and the fury of those vehement patriots who cried out that he had betrayed their best oppor- tunity, combined to procure his condemnation, with the help, probably, of some appearances which were against him. Secondly, it can hardly be questioned that, by withstanding the hot-headed patriots at this juncture, Demosthenes did heroic service to Athens. Next year (323 B.C.) Alexander died. Then the voice of Demos- thenes, calling Greece to arms, rang out like a trumpet. Early in August 322 the battle of Crannon decided the Lamian War against Greece. Antipater demanded, as the condition on which he would refrain from besieging war. Athens, the surrender of the leading patriots. De- mades moved the decree of the Assembly by which Demosthenes, Hypereides, and some others were condemned to death as traitors. On the 2oth of Boedromion (September 16) Demos- 322, a Macedonian garrison occupied Munychia. It thenes was a day of solemn and happy memories, a day con~ devoted, in the celebration of the Great Mysteries, to sacred joy, — the day on which the glad procession of the Initiated returned from Eleusis to Athens. It happened, however, to have another association, more significant than any ironical contrast for the present purpose of Antipater. It was the day on which, thirteen years before, Alexander had punished the rebellion of Thebes with annihilation. The condemned men had fled to Aegina. Parting there from Hypereides and the rest, Demosthenes went on to Calauria, a small island off the coast of Argolis. In Calauria there was an ancient temple of Poseidon, once a centre of Minyan and Ionian worship, and surrounded with a peculiar sanctity as having been, from time immemorial, an inviolable refuge for the pursued. Here Demosthenes sought asylum. Archias of Thurii, a man who, like Aeschines, had begun life as a tragic actor, and who was now in the pay of Antipater, soon traced the fugitive, landed in Calauria, and appeared before the temple of Poseidon with a body of Thracian spearmen. Plutarch's picturesque narrative bears the marks of artistic elaboration. Demosthenes had dreamed the night before that he and Archias were competing for a prize as tragic actors; the house applauded Demosthenes; but his chorus was shabbily equipped, and Archias gained the prize. Archias was not the man to stick at sacrilege. In Aegina, Hypereides and the others had been taken from the shrine of Aeacus. But he hesitated to violate an asylum so peculiarly sacred as the Calaurian temple. Standing before its open door, with his Thracian soldiers around him, he endeavoured to prevail on Demosthenes to quit the holy precinct. Antipater would be certain to pardon him. Demos- thenes sat silent, with his eyes fixed on the ground. At last, as the emissary persisted in his bland persuasions, he looked up and said, — " Archias, you never moved me by your acting, and you demned. DEMOSTHENES will not move me now by your promises." Archias lost his temper, and began to threaten. " Now," rejoined Demosthenes, " you speak like a real Macedonian oracle; before you were acting. Wait a moment, then, till 1 write to my friends." With these words, Demosthenes withdrew into the inner part of the temple, — still visible, however, from the entrance. He took out a roll of paper, as if he were going to write, put the pen to his mouth, and bit it, as was his habit in composing. Then he threw his head back, and drew his cloak over it. The Thracian spearmen, who were watching him from the door, began to gibe at his cowardice. _ .. Archias went in to him, encouraged him to rise, repeated his old arguments, talked to him of reconcilia- tion with Antipater. By this time Demosthenes felt that the poison which he had sucked from the pen was beginning to work. He drew the cloak from his face, and looked steadily at Archias. " Now you can play the part of Creon in the tragedy as soon as you like," he said, " and cast forth my body unburied. But I, O gracious Poseidon, quit thy temple while I yet live; Antipater and his Macedonians have done what they could to pollute it." He moved towards the door, calling to them to support his tottering steps. He had just passed the altar of the god, when he fell, and with a groan gave up the ghost (October 322 B.C.). As a statesman, Demosthenes needs no epitaph but his own words in the speech " On the Crown," — / say that, if the event had been manifest to the whole world beforehand, not even then character. ou&ht Athens to have forsaken this course, if Athens had any regard for her glory, or for her past, or for the ages to come. The Persian soldier in Herodotus, following Xerxes to foreseen ruin, confides to his fellow-guest at the banquet that the bitterest pain which man can know is TroXXet poveovra nr/Stvos Kparktiv, — complete, but helpless, prescience. In the grasp of a more inexorable necessity, the champion of Greek freedom was borne onward to a more tremendous catastrophe than that which strewed the waters of Salamis with Persian wrecks and the field of Plataea with Persian dead; but to him, at least, it was given to proclaim aloud the clear and sure foreboding that filled his soul, to do all that true heart and free hand could do for his cause, and, though not to save, yet to encourage, to console and to ennoble. As the inspiration of his life was larger and higher than the mere courage of resistance, so his merit must be regarded as standing altogether outside and above the struggle with Macedon. The great purpose which he set before him was to revive the public spirit, to restore the political vigour, and to re-establish the Panhellenic influence of Athens, — never for her own advantage merely, but always in the interest of Greece. His glory is, that while he lived he helped Athens to live a higher life. Wherever the noblest expressions of her mind are honoured, wherever the large conceptions of Pericles command the admiration of states- men, wherever the architect and the sculptor love to dwell on the masterpieces of Ictinus and Pheidias, wherever the spell of ideal beauty or of lofty contemplation is exercised by the creations of Sophocles or of Plato, there it will be remembered that the spirit which wrought in all these would have passed sooner from among men, if it had not been recalled from a trance, which others were content to mistake for the last sleep, by the passionate breath of Demosthenes. The orator in whom artistic genius was united, more perfectly than in any other man, with moral enthusiasm and with intel- Orato lectual grasp, has held in the modern world the same rank which was accorded to him in the old; but he cannot enjoy the same appreciation. Macaulay's ridicule has rescued from oblivion the criticism which pronounced the eloquence of Chatham to be more ornate than that of Demos- thenes, and less diffuse than that of Cicero. Did the critic, asks Macaulay, ever hear any speaking that was less ornamented than that of Demosthenes, or more diffuse than that of Cicero? Yet the critic's remark was not so pointless as Macaulay thought it. Sincerity and intensity are, indeed, to the modern reader, the most obvious characteristics of Demosthenes. His style is, on the whole, singularly free from what we are accustomed to regard as rhetorical embellishment. Where the modern orator would employ a wealth of imagery, or elaborate a picture in exquisite detail, Demosthenes is content with a phrase or a word. Burke uses, in reference to Hyder Ali, the same image which Demosthenes uses in reference to Philip. " Compounding all the materials of fury, havoc, desolation, into one black cloud, he hung for a while on the declivity of the mountains. Whilst the authors of all these evils were idly and stupidly gazing on this menacing meteor, which darkened all their horizon, it suddenly burst, and poured down the whole of its contents upon the plains of the Carnatic." Demosthenes forbears to amplify. " The people gave their voice, and the danger which hung upon our borders went by like a cloud." To our modern feeling, the eloquence of Demosthenes exhibits everywhere a general stamp of earnest and simple strength. But it is well to remember the charge made against the style of Demosthenes by a contempo- rary Greek orator, and the defence offered by the best Greek critic of oratory. Aeschines reproached the diction of Demos- thenes with excess of elaboration and adornment (irepitpyia). Dionysius, in reply, admits that Demosthenes does at times depart from simplicity, — that his style is sometimes elaborately ornate and remote from the ordinary usage. But, he adds, Demosthenes adopts this manner where it is justified by the elevation of his theme. The remark may serve to remind us of our modern disadvantage for a full appreciation of Demosthenes. The old world felt, as we do, his moral and mental greatness, his fire, his self-devotion, his insight. But it felt also, as we can never feel, the versatile perfection of his skill. This it was that made Demosthenes unique to the ancients. The ardent patriot, the far-seeing statesman, were united in his person with the con- summate and unapproachable artist. Dionysius devoted two special treatises to Demosthenes, — one on his language and style (Xecrads TOJTOS) , the other on his treatment of subject-matter (irpaynariKos Torres). The latter is lost. The former is one of the best essays in literary criticism which antiquity has bequeathed to us. The idea which it works out is that Demos- thenes has perfected Greek prose by fusing in a glorious harmony the elements which had hitherto belonged to separate types. The austere dignity of Antiphon, the plain elegance of Lysias, the smooth and balanced finish of that middle or normal char- acter which is represented by Isocrates, have come together in Demosthenes. Nor is this all. In each species he excels the specialists. He surpasses the school of Antiphon in perspicuity, the school of Lysias in verve, the school of Isocrates in variety, in felicity, in symmetry, in pathos, in power. Demosthenes has at command all the discursive brilliancy which fascinates a festal audience. He has that power of concise and lucid narration, of terse reasoning, of persuasive appeal, which is required by the forensic speaker. His political eloquence can worthily image the majesty of the state, and enforce weighty counsels with lofty and impassioned fervour. A true artist, he grudged no labour which could make the least part of his work more perfect. Isocrates spent ten years on the Panegyricus. After Plato's death, a manuscript was found among his papers with the first eight words of the Republic arranged in several different orders. What wonder, then, asks the Greek critic, if the diligence of Demosthenes was no less incessant and minute? " To me," he says, " it seems far more natural that a man engaged in com- posing political discourses, imperishable memorials of his power, should neglect not even the smallest details, than that the veneration of painters and sculptors, who are darkly showing forth their manual tact and toil in a corruptible material, should exhaust the refinements of their art on the veins, on the feathers, on the down of the lip, and the like niceties." More than half of the sixty-one speeches extant under the name of Demosthenes are certainly or probably spurious. The results to which the preponderance of opinion leans are given works. in the following table. Those marked a were already rejected or doubted in antiquity; those marked m, first in modern times:1 1 The dates agree in the main with those given by A. D. Schafer in Demosthenes und seine Zeit (2nd ed., 1885-1887), and by F. Blass in Die attische Beredsamkeit (1887-1898), who regards thirty-three (or possibly thirty-five) of the speeches as genuine. DEMOSTHENES I. DELIBERATIVE SPEECHES. GENUINE. Or. 14. On the Navy Boards . . 354 B.C. Or. 1 6. For the People of Megalopolis . 352 „ Or. 4. First Philippic . 351 „ Or. 15. For the Rhodians . 351 „ Or. i. First Olynthiac . 349 Or. 2. Second Olynthiac . 349 Or. 3. Third Olynthiac . 348 Or. 5. On the Peace . 346 Or. 6. Second Philippic . 344 Or. 8. On the Affairs of the Chersonese 341 Or. 9. Third Philippic . . . 341 SPURIOUS. (a) Or. 7. On Halonnesus (by Hegesippus) . . 342 B.C. Rhetorical Forgeries. (a) Or. 17. On the Treaty with Alexander. (a) Or. 10. Fourth Philippic. (TO) Or. II. Answer to Philip's Letter.1 (m) Or. 12. Philip's Letter. (m) Or. 13. On the Assessment (oinrfu). II. FORENSIC SPEECHES. A. IN PUBLIC CAUSES. GENUINE. Or. 22. In (KOTA) Androtionem . 355 B.C. Or. 20. Contra (irp6s) Leptinem 354 „ Or. 24. In Timocratem . 352 ,, Or. 23. In Aristocratem . 352 „ Or. 21. In Midiam . . 349 „ Or. 19. On the Embassy . 343 • „ Or. 18. On the Crown . 330 „ SPURIOUS. (a) Or. 58. In Theocrinem ..... 339 B.C. (a) Or. 25, 26. In Aristogitona I. and II. (Rhetorical forgeries). B. IN PRIVATE CAUSES. GENUINE. Or. 27, 28. In Aphobum I. et II. . 364 B.C. (m) Or. 30, 31. Contra Onetora I. et II. . 362 „ Or. 41. Contra Spudiam . . . ? „ (m) Or. 55. Contra Calliclem . . ? Or. 54. In Cononem. . . . 356 ,, Or. 36. Pro Phormione . . . 352 ,, (m) Or. 39. Contra Boeotum de Nomine . 350 ,, Or. 37. Contra Pantaenetum . . 346-5 ,, (m) Or. 38. Contra Nausimachum et Diopithem ? SPURIOUS. (The first eight of the following are given by Schafer to Apollodorus.) . after (TO) Or. 52. Contra Callippum. (a) Or. 53. Contra Nicostratum . (a) Or. 49. Contra Timotheum . (TO) Or. 50. Contra Polyclem . (a) Or. 47. In Evergum et Mnesibulum (m) Or. 45, 46. In Stephanum I. et II. (a) Or. 59. In Neaeram . . 349[343~o, Blass] (TO) -Or. 51. OntheTrierarchicCrown(by Cephiso- dotus?) 369-8 B.C. 368 362 357 356 351 (TO) Or. 43. Contra Macartatum (TO) Or. 48. In Olympiodorum. (TO) Or. 44. Contra Leocharem. ,,_ 300-359 after 343 (a) Or. 35. Contra Lacritum .... 341 „ (a) Or. 42. Contra Phaenippum ... ? (m) Or. 32. Contra Zenothemin ... ? (TO) Or. 34. Contra Phormionem ... ? (TO) Or. 29. Contra Aphobum pro Phano (a) Or. 40. Contra Boeotum de Dote . . 347 „ (TO) Or. 57. Contra Eubulidem . . . 346-5 ,, (TO) Or. 33. Contra Apaturium . . ? (a) Or. 56. In Dionysodorum . not before 322-1 „ Or. 60 (imT&ios) and Or. 61 (4poiT«6s) are works of rhetor- icians. The six epistles are also forgeries; they were used by the composer of the twelve epistles which bear the name of Aeschines. The 56 irpoolfua, exordia or sketches for political speeches, are by various hands and of various dates.2 They are valuable as being compiled from Demosthenes himself, or from other classical models. The ancient fame of Demosthenes as an orator can be compared only with the fame of Homer as a poet. Cicero, with generous appreciation, recognizes Demosthenes as the standard of perfec- tion. Dionysius, the closest and most penetrating of his ancient critics, exhausts the language of admiration in showing how 1 Or. ii and 12 are probably both by Anaximenes of Lampsacus. 1 According to Blass, the second and third epistles and the exordia are genuine. Demosthenes united and elevated whatever had been best in earlier masters of the Greek idiom. Hermogenes, in his works on rhetoric, refers to Demosthenes as 6 p^rwp, the Literary orator. The writer of the treatise On Sublimity knows history of no heights loftier than those to which Demosthenes has risen. From his own younger contemporaries, Aristotle and Theophrastus, who founded their theory of rhetoric in large part on his practice, down to the latest Byzantines, the consent of theorists, orators, antiquarians, anthologists, lexico- graphers, offered the same unvarying homage to Demosthenes. His work busied commentators such as Xenon, Minucian, Basilicus, Aelius, Theon, Zosimus of Gaza. Arguments to his speeches were drawn up by rhetoricians so distinguished as Numenius and Libanius. Accomplished men of letters, such as Julius Vestinus and Aelius Dionysius, selected from his writings choice passages for declamation or perusal, of which fragments are incorporated in the miscellany of Photius and the lexicons of Harpocration, Pollux and Suidas. It might have been anticipated that the purity of a text so widely read and so renowned would, from the earliest times, have been guarded with jealous care. The works of the three great dramatists had been thus protected, about 340 B.C., by a standard Attic recension. But no such good fortune befell the works of Demosthenes. Alexandrian criticism was chiefly occupied with poetry. The titular works of Demosthenes were, indeed, registered, with those of the other orators, in the catalogues (PTJTOPIKOI irlvoxts) of Alexandria and Pergamum. But no thorough attempt was made to separate the authentic works from those spurious works which had even then become mingled with them. Philosophical schools which, like the Stoic, felt the ethical interest of Demos- thenes, cared little for his language. The rhetoricians who imitated or analysed his style cared little for the criticism of his text. Their treatment of it had, indeed, a direct tendency to falsify it. It was customary to indicate by marks those passages which were especially useful for study or imitation. It then became a rhetorical exercise to recast, adapt or interweave such passages. Sopater, the commentator on Hermogenes, wrote on /i€Ta/3oXai xoi utrairoiriffta T&V &t\iuxj8ivovs \upiuv, " adap- tations or transcripts of passages in Demosthenes." Such manipulation could not but lead to interpolations or confusions in the original text. Great, too, as was the attention bestowed on the thought, sentiment and style of Demosthenes, compara- tively little care was bestowed on his subject-matter. He was studied more on the moral and the formal side than on the real side. An incorrect substitution of one name for another, a reading which gave an impossible date, insertions of spurious laws or decrees, were points which few readers would stop to notice. Hence it resulted that, while Plato, Thucydides and Demos- thenes were the most universally popular of the classical prose- writers, the text of Demosthenes, the most widely used perhaps of all, was also the least pure. His more careful students at length made an effort to arrest the process of corruption. Editions of Demosthenes based on a critical recension, and called 'ArrLKiava (avriypatjia), came to be distinguished from the vulgates, or oynuSea ec&fcmJ. Among the extant manuscripts of Demosthenes — upwards of 170 in number — one is far superior, as a whole, to the rest. This is Parisinus S 2934, of the loth century. A com- parison of this MS. with the extracts of Aelius, Aristeides and Harpocration from the Third Philippic favours the view that it is derived from an 'AmKt.av6v, whereas the SrjjuajSets ec56 1675), was educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. He was summoned to the House of Lords as Baron Feilding in March 1629. After seeing military service in the Netherlands he was sent in 1634 by Charles I. as ambassador to Venice, where he remained for five years. When the Civil War broke out Feilding, unlike the other members of his family, ranged himself among the Parliamentarians, led a regiment of horse at Edgehill, and, having become earl of Denbigh in April 1643, was made com- mander-in-chief of the Parliamentary army in Warwickshire and the neighbouring counties, and lord-lieutenant of Warwickshire. During the year 1644 he was fairly active in the field, but in some quarters he was distrusted and he resigned his command after the passing of the self-denying ordinance in April 1645. At Uxbridge in 1645 Denbigh was one of the commissioners appointed to treat with the king, and he undertook a similar duty at Carisbrooke in 1647. Clarendon relates how at Uxbridge Denbigh declared privately that he regretted the position in which he found himself, and expressed his willingness to serve Charles I. He supported the army in its dispute with the parliament, but he would take no part in the trial of Charles I. Under the government of the commonwealth Denbigh was a member of the council of state, but his loyalty to his former associates grew lukewarm, and gradually he came to be regarded as a royalist. In 1664 the earl was created Baron St Liz. Although four times married he left no issue when he died on the 28th of November 1675. His titles devolved on his nephew WILLIAM FEILDING (1640- 1685), son and heir of his brother George (created Baron Feilding of Lecaghe, Viscount Callan and earl of Desmond), and the earldom of Desmond has been held by his descendants to the present day in conjunction with the earldom of Denbigh. DENBIGH (Dinbych), a municipal and (with Holt, Ruthin and Wrexham) contributory parliamentary borough, market town and county town of Denbighshire, N. Wales, on branches of the London & North Western and the Great Western railways. Pop. (1901) 6438. Denbigh Castle, surrounding the hill with a double wall, was built, in Edward I.'s reign, by Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, from whom the town received its first charter. The outer wall is nearly a mile round; over its main gateway is a niche with a figure representing, possibly, Edward I., but more probably, de Lacy. Here, in 1645, after the defeat of Rowton Moor, Charles I. found shelter, the castle long resisting the Parliamentarians, and being reduced to ruins by his successor. The chief buildings are the Carmelite Priory (ruins dating Derhaps from the i3th century); a Bluecoat school (1514); a :ree grammar school (1527); an orphan girl school (funds left by Thomas Howel to the Drapers' Co., in Henry VII. 's reign); the town hall (built in 1572 by Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, enlarged and restored in 1780); an unfinished church (begun Leicester); a market hall (with arcades or "rows," such as :hose of Chester or Yarmouth); and the old parish church of St Marcella. The streams near Denbigh are the Clwyd and Elwy. The inhabitants of Denbigh are chiefly occupied in he timber trade, butter-making, poultry-farming, bootmaking, :anning and quarrying (lime, slate and paving-stones). The jorough of Denbigh has a separate commission of the peace, but no separate court of quarter sessions. The town has long been known as a Welsh publishing centre, the vernacular newspaper, Barter, being edited and printed here. Near Denbigh, at Jodelwyddan, &c., coal is worked. The old British tower and castle were called Castell caled 'ryn yn Rhds, the " castle of the hard hill in Rh6s." Din in i8 DENBIGHSHIRE— DENDERA Dinbych means a fort. There is a goblin well at the castle. Historically, David (Dafydd), brother of the last Llewelyn, was here (act. Edward I.) perhaps on a foray; also Henry Lacy, who built the castle (aet. Edward I.), given to the Mortimers and to Leicester (under Edward III. and Elizabeth, respectively). DENBiaHSHIRE (Dinbych), a county of N. Wales, bounded N. by the Irish Sea, N.E. by Flint and Cheshire, S.E. by Flint and Shropshire, S. by Montgomery and Merioneth, and W. by Carnarvon. Area, 662 sq. m. On the N. coast, within the Denbighshire borders and between Old Colwyn and Llandulas, is a wedge of land included in Carnarvonshire, owing to a change in the course of the Conwy stream. (Thus, also, Llandudno is partly in the Bangor, and partly in the St Asaph, diocese.) The surface of Denbighshire is irregular, and physically diversified. In the N.W. are the bleak Hiraethog (" longing ") hills, sloping W. to the Conwy and E. to the Clwyd. In the N. are Colwyn and Abergele bays, on the S. the Yspytty (Lat. Hospitium) and Llangwm range, between Denbigh and Merioneth. From this watershed flow the Elwy, Aled, Clywedog, Merddwr and Alwen, tributaries of the Clwyd, Conwy and Dee (Dyfrdwy). Some of the valleys contrast agreeably with the bleak hills, e.g. those of the Clwyd and Elwy. The portion lying between Ruabon (Rhiwabon) hills and the Dee is agricultural and rich in minerals; the Berwyn to Offa's Dyke (Wdl Of a) is wild and barren, except the Tanat valley, Llansilin and Ceiriog. One feeder of the Tanat forms the Pistyll Rhaiadr (waterspout fall), another rises in Llyncaws (cheese pool) under Moel Sych (dry bare-hill), the highest point in the county. Aled and Alwen are both lakes and streams. Geology. — The geology of the county is full of interest, as it develops all the principal strata that intervenes between the Ordovician and the Triassic series. In the Ordovician district, which extends from the southern boundary to the Ceiriog, the Llandeilo formation of the eastern slopes of the Berwyn and the Bala beds of shelly sandstone are traversed east and west by bands of intrusive felspathic porphyry and ashes. The same formation occurs just within the county border at Cerrig-y-Druidion, Langum, Bettys-y- coed and in the Fairy Glen. Northwards from the Ceiriog to the limestone fringe at Llandrillo the Wenlock shale of the Silurian covers the entire mass of the Hiraethog and Clwydian hills, but verging on its western slopes into the Denbighshire grit, which may be traced southward in a continuous line from the mouth of the Conway as far as Llanddewi Ystrad Enni in Radnorshire, near Pentre-Voelas and Conway they are abundantly fossiliferous. On its eastern slope a narrow broken band of the Old Red, or what may be a conglomeratic basement bed of the Carboniferous Limestone series, crops up along the Vale of Clwyd and in Eglwyseg. Resting upon this the Carboniferous Limestone extends from Llanymynach, its extreme southern point, to the Cyrnybrain fault, and there forks into two divisions that terminate respectively in the Great Orme's Head and in Talargoch, and are separated from each other by the denuded shales of the Moel Famma range. In the Vale of Clwyd the jimestone underlies the New Red Sandstone, and in the eastern division it is itself overlaid by the Millstone Grit of Ruabon and Minera, and by a long reach of the Coal Measures which near Wrexham are 4j m. in breadth. Eastward of these a broad strip of the red marly beds succeeds, formerly considered to be Permian but now regarded as belonging to the Coal Measures, and yet again between this and the Dee the ground is occupied — as in the Vale of Clwyd — by the New Red rocks. As in the other northern counties of Wales, the whole of the lower ground is covered more or less thickly with glacial drift. On the western side of the Vale of Clwyd, at Cefn and Plas Heaton, the caves, which are a common feature in such limestone districts, have yielded the remains of the rhinoceros, mammoth, hippopotamus and other extinct mammals. Coal is mined from the Coal Measures, and from the limestone below, lead with silver and zinc ores have been obtained. Valuable fireclays and terra-cotta marls are also taken from the Coal Measures about Wrexham. The uplands being uncongenial for corn, ponies, sheep and black cattle are reared, for fattening in the Midlands of England and sale in London. Oats and turnips, rather than wheat, barley and potatoes, occupy the tilled land. The county is fairly wooded. There are several important farmers' clubs (the Denbighshire and Flintshire, the vale of Conway, the Cerrig y druidion, &c.). The London & North- Western railway (Holyhead line), with the Conway and Clwyd valleys branches, together with the lines connecting Denbigh with Ruabon (Rhiwabon), via Ruthin and Corwen, Wrexham with Connah's Quay (Great Central) and Rhosllanerchrhugog with Glyn Ceiriog (for the Great Western and Great Central railways) have opened up the county. Down the valley of Llangollen also runs the Holyhead road from London, well built and passing thro ugh fine scenery. At Nantglyn paving flags are raised, at Rhiwfelen (near Llangollen) slabs and slates, and good slates are also obtained at Glyn Ceiriog. There is plenty of limestone, with china stone at Brymbo. Cefn Rhiwabon yields sandstone (for hones) and millstone grit. Chirk, Ruabon and Brymbo have coal mines. The great Minera is the principal lead mine. There is much brick and pottery clay. The Ceiriog valley has a dynamite factory. Llangollen and Llansantffraid (St Bridgit's) have woollen manufactures. The area of the ancient county is 423,499 acres, with a popula- tion in 1901 of 129,942. The area of the administrative county is 426,084 acres. The chief towns are: Wrexham, a mining centre and N. Wales . military centre, with a fine church; Denbigh; Ruthin, where assizes are held (here are a grammar school, a warden and a 13th-century castle rebuilt); Llangollen and Llanrwst; and Holt, with an old ruined castle. The Denbigh district of parliamentary boroughs is formed of: Denbigh (pop. 6483), Holt (1059), Ruthin (2643), and Wrexham (14,966). The county has two parliamentary divisions. The urban districts are: Abergele and Pensarn (2083), Colwyn Bay and Colwyn (8689), Llangollen (3303), and Llanrwst (2645). Denbighshire is in the N. Wales circuit, assizes being held at Ruthin. Denbigh and Wrexham boroughs have separate commissions of the peace, but no separate quarter-session courts. The ancient county, which is in the diocese of St Asaph, contains seventy-five ecclesiastical parishes and districts and part of a parish. The county was formed, by an act of Henry VIII., out of the lordships of Denbigh, Ruthin (Rhuthyn), Rhos and Rhyfoniog, which are roughly the Perfeddwlad (midland) between Conway and Clwyd, and the lordships of Bromfield, Yale (Idl, open land) and Chirkland, the old possessions of Gruffydd ap Madoc, arglwydd (lord) of Dinas Bran. Cefn (Elwy Valley) limestone caves hold the prehistoric hippopotamus, elephant, rhinoceros, lion, hyena, bear, reindeer, &c.; Plas Heaton cave, the glutton; Pont Newydd, felstone tools and a polished stone axe (like that of Rhosdigre) ; Carnedd Tyddyn Bleiddian, " platycnemic (skeleton) men of Denbighshire " (like those of Perthi Chwareu). Clawdd Coch has traces of the Romans; so also Penygaer and Penbarras. Roman roads ran from Deva (Chester; to Segontium (Carnarvon) and from Deva to Mons Henri (Tomen y mur). To their period belong the inscribed Gwytherin and Pentrefoelas (near Bettws-y-coed) stones. The Valle Crucis " Eliseg's pillar " tells of Brochmael and tKe Cairlegion (Chester) struggle against ^Ethelfrith's invading Northumbrians, A.D. 613, while Offa's dike goes back to the Mercian advance. Near and parallel to Offa's is the shorter and mysterious Watt's dike. Chirk is the only Denbighshire castle comparatively untouched by time and still occupied. Ruthin has cloisters; Wrexham, the Brynffynnon " nunnery "; and at both are collegiate churches. Llanrwst, Gresford and Derwen boast rood lofts and screens; Whitchurch and Llanrwst, portrait brasses and monuments; Derwen, a churchyard cross; Gresford and Llanrhaiadr (Dyffryn Clwyd) , stained glass. Near Abergele, known for its sea baths, is the ogof (or cave), traditionally the refuge of Richard II. and the scene of his capture by Bolingbroke in 1399. See J. Williams, Denbigh (1856), and T. F. Tout, Welsh Shires. DENDERA, a village in Upper Egypt, situated in the angle of the great westward bend of the Nile opposite Kena. Here was the ancient city of Tentyra, capital of the Tentyrite nome, the sixth of Upper Egypt, and the principal seat of the worship of Hathor [Aphrodite] the cow-goddess of love and joy. The old Egyptian name of Tentyra was written Tn-t (Ant), but the pro- nunciation of it is unknown: in later days it was 'In-t-t-ntr-t, " ant of the goddess," pronounced Ni-tent6ri, whence Ttvrvpa, Tevrupis. The temple of Hathor was built in the ist century B.C., being begun under the later Ptolemies (Ptol. XIII.) and finished by Augustus, but much of the decoration is later. A great DENDROCOMETES— DENE-HOLES rectangular enclosure of crude bricks, measuring about 900 X 850 ft., contains the sacred buildings: it was entered by two stone gateways, in the north and the east sides, built by Domitian. Another smaller enclosure lies to the east with a gateway also of the Roman period. The plan of the temple may be supposed to have included a colonnaded court in front of the present facade, and pylon towers at the entrance; but these were never built, probably for lack of funds. The building, which is of sandstone, measures about 300 ft. from front to back, and consists of two oblong rectangles; the foremost, placed transversely to the other, is the great hypostyle hall or pronaos, the broadest and loftiest part of the temple, measuring 135 ft. in width, and comprising about one- third of the whole structure; the facade has six columns with heads of Hathor, and the ceiling is supported by eighteen great columns. The second rectangle contains a small hypostyle hall with six columns, and the sanctuary, with their subsidiary chambers. The sanctuary is surrounded by a corridor into which the chambers open: on the west side is an apartment forming a court and kiosk for the celebration of the feast of the New Year, the principal festival of Dendera. On the roof of the temple, reached by two staircases, are a pavilion and several chambers dedicated to the worship of Osiris. Inside and out, the whole of the temple is covered with scenes and inscriptions in crowded characters, of ceremonial and religious import; the decoration is even carried into a remarkable series of hidden passages and chambers or crypts made in the solid walls for the reception of its most valuable treasures. The architectural style is dignified and pleasing in design and proportions. The interior of the building has been completely cleared: from the outside, however, its imposing effect is quite lost, owing to the mounds of rubbish amongst which it is sunk. North-east of the entrance is a " Birth House " for the cult of the child Harsemteu, and behind the temple a small temple of Isis, dating from the reign of Augustus. The original foundation of the temple must date back to a remote time: the work of some of the early builders is in fact referred to in the inscriptions on the present structure. Petrie's excavation of the cemetery behind the temple enclosures revealed burials dating from the fourth dynasty onwards, the most important being mastables of the period from the sixth to the eleventh dynasties; many of these exhibited a peculiar degradation of the contemporary style of sculpture. The zodiacs of the temple of Dendera gave rise to a consider- able literature before their late origin was established by Champollion in 1822: one of them, from a chamber on the roof, was removed in 1820 to the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. Figures of the celebrated Cleopatra VI. occur amongst the sculptures on the exterior of the temple, but they are purely conventional, without a trace of portraiture. Horus of Edfu, the enemy of the crocodiles and hippopotami of Set, appears sometimes as the consort of Hathor of Dendera. The skill displayed by the Tentyrites in capturing the crocodile is referred to by Strabo and other Greek writers. Juvenal, in his seventeenth satire, takes as his text a religious riot between the Tentyrites and the neighbouring Ombites, in the course of which an unlucky Ombite was torn to pieces and devoured by the opposite party. The Ombos in question is not the distant Ombos south of Edfu, where the crocodile was worshipped; Petrie has shown that opposite Coptos, only about 15 m. from Tentyra, there was another Ombos, venerating the hippopotamus sacred to Set. See A. Mariette, Denderah (5 vols. atlas and text, 1869-1880); W. M. F. Petrie, Denderah (1900) ; Nagada and Dallas (1896). (F. LL. G.) DENDROCOMETES (so named by F. Stein), a genus of suctorian Infusoria, characterized by the repeatedly branched attached body; each of the lobes of the body gives off a few retractile tentacles. It is parasitic on the gills of the so-called freshwater shrimp Gammarus pulex. For its conjugation see Sydney H. HicksOn, in Quarterly Journ. of Microsc. Science, vol xlv. (1902), p. 325. DENE-HOLES, the name given to certain caves or excavations in England, which have been popularly supposed to be due to the Danes or some other of the early northern invaders of the country. The common spelling " Dane hole " is adduced as evidence of this, and individual names, such as Vortigern's Caves at Margate, and Canute's Gold Mine near Bexley, naturally follow the same theory. The word, however, is probably derived from the Anglo- Saxon den, a hole or valley. There are many underground excavations in the south of the country, also found to some extent in the midlands and the north, but true dene-holes are found chiefly in those parts of Kent and Essex along the lower banks of the Thames. With one exception there are no recorded specimens farther east than those of the Grays Thurrock district, situated in Hangman's Wood, on the north, and one near Rochester on the south side of the river. The general outline of the formation of these caves is invariably the same. The entrance is a vertical shaft some 3 ft. in diameter falling, on an average, to a depth of 60 ft. The depth is regulated, obviously, by the depth of the chalk from the surface, but, although chalk could have been obtained close at hand within a few feet, or even inches, from the surface, a depth of from 45 to 80 ft., or more, is a characteristic feature. It is believed that dene-holes were also excavated in sand, but as these would be of a perishable nature there are no available data of any value. The shaft, when the chalk is reached, widens out into a domed chamber with a roof of chalk some 3 ft. thick. The walls frequently contract somewhat as they near the floor. As a rule there is only one chamber, from 16 to 18 ft. in height, beneath each shaft. From this excessive height it has been inferred that the caves were not primarily intended for habitations or even hiding-places. In some cases the chamber is extended, the roof being supported by pillars of chalk left standing. A rare specimen of a twin-chamber was discovered at Gravesend. In this case the one entrance served for both caves, although a separate aperture connected them on the floor level. Where galleries are found connecting the chambers, forming a bewildering labyrinth, a careful scrutiny of the walls usually reveals evidence that they are the work of a people of a much later period than that of the chambers, or, as they become in these cases, the halls of the galleries. Isolated specimens have been discovered in various parts of Kent and Essex, but the most important groups have been found at Grays Thurrock, in the districts of Woolwich, Abbey V/ood and Bexley, and at Gravesend. Those at Bexley and Grays Thurrock are the most valuable still existing. It is generally found that the tool work on the root or ceiling is rougher than that on the walls, where an upright position could be maintained. Casts taken of some of the pick-holes near the roof show that, in all probability, they were made by bone or horn picks. And numerous bone picks have been discovered in Essex and Kent. These pick-holes are amongst the most valuable data for the study of dene-holes, and have assisted in fixing the date of their formation to pre-Roman times. Very few relics of antiquarian value have been discovered in any of the known dene-holes which have assisted in fixing the date or determining the uses of these prehistoric excavations. Pliny mentions pits sunk to a depth of a hundred feet, " where they branched out like the veins of mines." This has been used in support of the theory that dene-holes were wells sunk for the extraction of chalk; but no known dene-hole branches out in this way. Chretien de Troyes has a passage on underground caves in Britain which may have reference to dene-holes, and tradition of the I4th century treated the dene-holes of Grays as the fabled gold mines of Cunobeline (or Cymbeline) of the ist century. Vortigern's Caves at Margate are possibly dene-holes which have been adapted by later peoples to other purposes; and excellent examples of various pick-holes may be seen on different parts of the walls. Local tradition in some cases traces the use of these caves to the smugglers, and, when it is remembered that illicit traffic was common not only on the coast but in the Thames as far up the river as Barking Creek, the theory is at least tenable that these ready-made hiding-places, difficult of approach and dangerous to descend, were so utilized. 20 DENGUE— DENHAM There are three purposes for which dene-holes may have been originally excavated: (a) as hiding-places or dwellings, (b) draw- wells for the extraction of chalk for agricultural uses, and (c) store- houses for grain . For several reasons it is unlikely that they were used as habitations, although they may have been used occasion- ally as hiding-places. Other evidence has shown that it is equally improbable that they were used for the extraction of chalk. The chief reasons against this theory are that chalk could have been obtained outcropping close by, and that every trace of loose chalk has been removed from the vicinity of the holes, while known examples of chalk draw-wells do not descend to so great a depth. The discovery of a shallow dene-hole, about 14 ft. below the surface, at Stone negatives this theory still further. The last of the three possible uses for which these prehistoric excavations were designed is usually accepted as the most probable. Silos, or underground storehouses, are well known in the south of Europe and Morocco. It is supposed that the grain was stored in the ear and carefully protected from damp by straw. A curious smoothness of the roof of one of the chambers of the Gravesend twin-chamber dene-hole has been put forward as additional evidence in support of this theory. One other theory has been advanced, viz. that the excavations were made in order to get flints for implements, but this is quite impossible, as a careful examination of a few examples will show. Further reference may be made to Essex Dene-holes by T. V. Holmes and W. Cole; fo The Archaeological Journal (1882); the Transac- tions of the Essex Field Club; Archaeologia Cantiana, &c.; Dene- holes by F. W. Reader, in Old Essex, ed. A. C. Kelway (1908). (A.J.P.) DENGUE (pronounced deng-ga), an infectious fever occurring in warm climates. The symptoms are a sudden attack of fever, accompanied by rheumatic pains in the joints and muscles with severe headache and erythema. After a few days a crisis is reached and an interval of two or three days is followed by a slighter return of fever and pain and an eruption resembling measles, the most marked characteristic of the disease. The disease is rarely fatal, death occurring only in cases of extreme weakness caused by old age, infancy or other illness. Little is known of the aetiology of " dengue." The virus is probably similar to that of other exanthematous fevers and communicated by an intermediary culex. The disease is nearly always epidemic, though at intervals it appears to be pandemic and in certain districts almost endemic. The area over which the disease ranges may be stated generally to be between 32° 47' N. and 23° 23' S. Throughout this area " dengue " is constantly epidemic. The earliest epidemic of which anything is known occurred in 1779- 1780 in Egypt and the East Indies. The chief epidemics have been those of 1824-1826 in India, and in the West Indies and the southern states of North America, of 1870-1875, extending practically over the whole of the tropical portions of the East and reaching as far as China. In 1888 and 1889 a great outbreak spread along the shores of the Aegean and over nearly the whole of Asia Minor. Perhaps " dengue " is most nearly endemic in equatorial East Africa and in the West Indies. The word has usually been identified with the Spanish dengue, meaning stiff or prim behaviour, and adopted in the West Indies as a name suit- able to the curious cramped movements of a sufferer from the disease, similar to the name " dandy-fever " which was given to it by the negroes. According to the New English Dictionary (quoting Dr Christie in The Glasgow Medical Journal, September 1881), both " dengue " and " dandy " are corruptions of the Swahili word dinga or denga, meaning a sudden attack of cramp, the Swahili name for the disease being ka-dinga pepo. See Sir Patrick Manson, Tropical Diseases; a Manual of Diseases of Warm Climates (1903). DENHAM, DIXON (1786-1828), English traveller in West Central Africa, was born in London on the ist of January 1786. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School, and was articled to a solicitor, but joined the army in 1811. First in the 23rd Royal Welsh Fusiliers, and afterwards in the 54th foot, he served in the campaigns in Portugal, Spain, France and Belgium, and received the Waterloo medal. In 1821 he volunteered to join Dr Oudney and Hugh Clapperton (?.».), who had been sent by the British government via Tripoli to the central Sudan. He joined the expedition at Murzuk in Fezzan. Finding the promised escort not forthcoming, Denham, whose energy was boundless, started for England to complain of the " duplicity " of the pasha of Tripoli. The pasha, alarmed, sent messengers after him with promises to meet his demands. Denham, who had reached Marseilles, consented to return, the escort was forthcoming, and Murzuk was regained in November 1822. Thence the expedition made its way across the Sahara to Bornu, reached in February 1823. Here Denham, against the wish of Oudney and Clapperton, accompanied a slave-raiding expedition into the Mandara high- lands south of Bornu. The raiders were defeated, and Denham barely escaped with his life. When Oudney and Clapperton set out, December 1823, for the Hausa states, Denham remained behind. He explored the western, south and south-eastern shores of Lake Chad, and the lower courses of the rivers Waube, Logone and Shari. In August 1824, Clapperton having returned and Oudney being dead, Bornu was left on the return journey to Tripoli and England. In December 1826 Denham, promoted lieutenant-colonel, sailed for Sierra Leone as superintendent of liberated Africans. In 1828 he was appointed governor of Sierra Leone, but after administering the colony for five weeks died of fever at Freetown on the 8th of May 1828. See Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central Africa in the years 1822-1824 (London, 1826), the greater part of which is written by Denham ; The Story of Africa, vol. i. chap. xiii. (London, 1892), by Dr Robert Brown. DENHAM, SIR JOHN (1615-1669), English poet, only son of Sir John Denham (1550-1639), lord chief baron of the exchequer in Ireland, was born in Dublin in 1615. In 1617 his father became baron of the exchequer in England, and removed to London with his family. In Michaelmas term 1631 the future poet was entered as a gentleman commoner at Trinity College, Oxford. He removed in 1634 to Lincoln's Inn, where he was, says John Aubrey, a good student, but not suspected of being a wit. The reputation he had gained at Oxford of being the " dream- ingest young fellow " gave way to a scandalous reputation for gambling. In 1634 he married Ann Cotton, and seems to have lived with his father at Egham, Surrey. In 1636 he wrote his paraphrase of the second book of the Aeneid (published in 1656 as The Destruction of Troy, with an excellent verse essay on the art of translation). About the same time he wrote a prose tract against gambling, The Anatomy of Play (printed 1651), designed to assure his father of his repentance, but as soon as he came into his fortune he squandered it at play. It was a surprise to every- one when in 1642 he suddenly, as Edmund Waller said, " broke out like the Irish rebellion, three score thousand strong, when no one was aware, nor in the least expected it," by publishing The Sophy, a tragedy in five acts, the subject of which was drawn from Sir Thomas Herbert's travels. At the beginning of the Civil War Denham was high sheriff for Surrey, and was appointed governor of Farnham Castle. He showed no military ability, and speedily surrendered the castle to the parliament. He was sent as a prisoner to London, but was soon permitted to join the king at Oxford. In 1642 appeared Cooper's Hill, a poem describing the Thames scenery round his home at Egham. The first edition was anonymous: subsequent editions show numerous alterations, and the poem did not assume its final form until 1655. This famous piece, which was Pope's model for his Windsor Forest, was not new in theme or manner, but the praise which it received was well merited by its ease and grace. Moreover Denham expressed his commonplaces with great dignity and skill. He followed the taste of the time in his frequent use of antithesis and metaphor, but these devices seem to arise out of the matter, and are not of the nature of mere external ornament. At Oxford he wrote many squibs against the roundheads. One of the few serious pieces belonging to this period is the short poem " On the Earl of Stafford's Trial and Death." From this time Denham was much in Charles I.'s confidence. He was entrusted with the charge of forwarding letters to and from the king when he was in the custody of the parliament, a DENIA— DENIS, SAINT 21 duty which he discharged successfully with Abraham Cowley, but in 1648 he was suspected by the Parliamentary authorities, and thought it wiser to cross the Channel. He helped in the removal of the young duke of York to Holland, and for some time he served Queen Henrietta Maria in Paris, being entrusted by her with despatches for Holland. In 1650 he was sent to Poland in company with Lord Crofts to obtain money for Charles II. They succeeded in raising £10,000. After two years spent at the exiled court in Holland, Denham returned to London and being quite without resources, he was for some time the guest of the earl of Pembroke at Wilton. In 1655 an order was given that Denham should restrict himself to some place of residence to be selected by himself at a distance of not less than 20 m. from London; subsequently he obtained from the Protector a licence to live at Bury St Edmunds, and in 1658 a passport to travel abroad with the earl of Pembroke. At the Restoration Denham's services were rewarded by the office of surveyor-general of works. His qualifications as an architect were probably slight, but it is safe to regard as grossly exaggerated the accusations of incompetence and peculation made by Samuel Butler in his brutal " Panegyric upon Sir John Denham's Recovery from his Madness." He eventually secured the services of Christopher Wren as deputy- surveyor. In 1660 he was also made a knight of the Bath> In 1665 he married for the second time. His wife, Margaret, daughter of Sir William Brooke, was, according to the comte de Gramont, a beautiful girl of eighteen. She soon became known as the mistress of the duke of York, and the scandal, according to common report, shattered the poet's reason. While Denham was recovering, his wife died, poisoned, it was said, by a cup of chocolate. Some suspected the duchess of York of the crime, but the Comte de Gramont says that the general opinion was that Denham himself was guilty. No sign of poison, however, was found in the examination after Lady Denham's death. Denham survived her for two years, dying at his house near Whitehall in March 1669. He was buried on the 23rd in West- minster Abbey. In the last years of his life he wrote the bitter political satires on the shameful conduct of the Dutch War entitled " Directions to a Painter," and " Fresh Directions," continuing Edmund Waller's " Instructions to a Painter." The printer of these poems, with which were printed one by Andrew Marvell, was sentenced to stand in the pillory. In 1667 Denham wrote his beautiful elegy on Abraham Cowley. Denham's poems include, beside those already given, a verse paraphrase of Cicero's Cato major, and a metrical version of the Psalms. As a writer of didactic verse, he was perhaps too highly praised by his immediate successors. Dryden called Copper's Hill " the exact standard of good writing," and Pope in his Windsor Forest called him " majestic Denham. ' His collected poems with a dedicatory epistle to Charles II. appeared in 1668. Other editions followed, and they are reprinted in Chalmers' (1810) and other col- lections of the English poets. His political satires were printed with some of Rochester's and Marvell's in Bibliotheca curiosa, vol. i. (Edinburgh, 1885). D^NIA, a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of Alicante; on the Mediterranean Sea, at the head of a railway from Car- cagente. Pop. ( i goo) 1 2 ,43 1 . Denia occupies the seaward slopes of a hill surmounted by a ruined castle, and divided by a narrow valley on the south from the limestone ridge of Mongo (2500 ft.), which commands a magnificent view of the Balearic Islands and the Valencian coast. The older houses of Denia are characterized by their flat Moorish roofs (azoteas) and view-turrets (mir adores) , while fragments of the Moorish ramparts are also visible near the harbour; owing, however, to the rapid extension of local com- merce, many of the older quarters were modernized at the beginning of the 2oth century. Nails, and woollen, linen and esparto grass fabrics are manufactured here; and there is a brisk export trade in grapes, raisins and onions, mostly consigned to Great Britain or the United States. Baltic timber and British coal are largely imported. The harbour bay, which is well lighted and sheltered by a breakwater, contains only a small space of deep water, shut in by deposits of sand on three sides. In 1904 it accommodated 402 vessels of 175,000 tons; about half of which were small fishing craft, and coasters carrying agricultural produce to Spanish and African ports. Denia was colonized by Greek merchants from Emporiae (Ampurias in Catalonia), or Massilia (Marseilles), at a very early date; but its Greek name of Hemeroskopeion was soon super- seded by the Roman Dianium. In the ist century B.C., Sertorius made it the naval headquarters of his resistance to Rome; and, as its name implies, it was already famous for its temple of Diana, built in imitation of that at Ephesus. The site of this temple can be traced at the foot of the castle hill. D6nia was captured by the Moors in 713, and from 1031 to 1253 belonged successively to the Moorish kingdoms of Murcia and Valencia. According to an ancient but questionable tradition, its population rose at this period to 50,000, and its commerce proportionately increased. After the city was retaken by the Christians in 1253, its pros- perity dwindled away, and only began to revive in the igth century. During the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14), Denia was thrice besieged; and in 1813 the citadel was held for five months by the French against the allied British and Spanish forces, until the garrison was reduced to 100 men, and compelled to surrender, on honourable terms. DENIKER, JOSEPH (1852- ) French naturalist and anthropologist, was born of French parents at Astrakhan, Russia, on the 6th of March 1852. After receiving his education at the university and technical institute of St Petersburg, he adopted engineering as a profession, and in this capacity travelled ex- tensively in the petroleum districts of the Caucasus, in Central Europe, Italy and Dalmatia. Settling at Paris in 1876, he studied at the Sorbonne, where he took his degree in natural science. In 1888 he was appointed chief librarian of the Natural History Museum, Paris. Among his many valuable ethnological works mention may be made of Recherches anatomiques et embryo- logiques sur les singes anthropoides (1886); £lude sur les Kal- mouks (1883); Les Ghiliaks (1883); and Races et peuples de la lerre (1900). He became one of the chief editors of the Diction- naire de g&ographie uniiierselle, and published many papers in the anthropological and zoological journals of France. DENILIQUIN, a municipal town of Townsend county, New South Wales, Australia, 534 m. direct S.W. of Sydney, and 195 m. by rail N. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 2644. The business of the town is chiefly connected with the interests of the sheep and cattle farmers of the Riverina district, a plain country, in the main pastoral, but suited in some parts for cultivation. Deniliquin has a well-known public school. DENIM (an abbreviation of serge de Nimes), the name origin- ally given to a kind of serge. It is now applied to a stout twilled cloth made in various colours, usually of cotton, and used for ovcrnlls &c DENINA, CARLO GIOVANNI MARIA (1731-1813), Italian historian, was born at Revello, Piedmont, in 1731, and was educated at Saluzzo and Turin. In 1753 he was appointed to the chair of humanity at Pignerol, but he was soon compelled by the influence of the Jesuits to retire from it. In 1756 he graduated as doctor in theology, and began authorship with a theological treatise. Promoted to the professorship of humanity and rhetoric in the college of Turin, he published (1769-1772) his Delle re- voluzioni d'ltalia, the work on which his reputation is mainly founded. Collegiate honours accompanied the issue of its successive volumes, which, however, at the same time multiplied his foes and stimulated their hatred. In 1782, at Frederick the Great's invitation, he went to Berlin, where he remained for many years, in the course of which he published his Vie et regne de Frederic II (Berlin, 1788) and La Prusse litteraire sous Frederic II (3 vols., Berlin, 1790-1791). His Delle revoluzioni della Germania was published at Florence in 1804, in which year he went to Paris as the imperial librarian, on the invitation of Napoleon. At Paris he published in 1 805 his Tableau de la Haute Italie, et des Alpes qui I'entourent. He died there on the 5th of December 1813. DENIS (DiONYSius) , SAINT, first bishop of Paris, patron saint of France. According to Gregory of Tours (Hist. Franc, i. 30), he was sent into Gaul at the time of the .emperor Decius. He suffered martyrdom at the village of Catulliacus, the modern St Denis. His tomb was situated by the side of the Roman road, 22 DENIS, J. N. C. M.— DENIZLI where rose the priory of St-Denis-de-l'Estr€e, which existed until the i8th century. In the sth century the clergy of the diocese of Paris built a basilica over the tomb. About 625 Dagobert, son of Lothair II., founded in honour of St Denis, at some distance from the basilica, the monastery where the greater number of the kings of France have been buried. The festival of St Denis is celebrated on the gth of October. With his name are already associated in the Martyrologium Hieronymianum the priest Rusticus and the deacon Eleutherius. Other traditions — • of no value — are connected with the name of St Denis. A false interpretation of Gregory of Tours, apparently dating from 724, represented St Denis as having received his mission from Pope Clement, and as having suffered martyrdom under Domitian (81-96). Hilduin, abbot of St-Denis in the first half of the gth century, identified Denis of Paris with Denis (Dionysius) the Areopagite (mentioned in Acts xviii. 34), bishop of Athens (Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. iii.4. io,iv. 23.3), and naturally attributed to him the celebrated writings of the pseudo-Areopagite. St Denis is generally represented carrying his head in his hands. See Acta Sanctorum, Octobris, iv. 696-987; Bibliolheca hagio- graphica graeca, p. 37 (Brussels, 1895); Bibiiotheca hagiographica latina. No. 2171-2203 (Brussels, 1899); J. Havet, Les Origines de Saint-Denis, in his collected works, i. 191-246 (Paris, 1896) ; Cahier, Caracteristiques des saints, p. 761 (Paris, 1867). (H. DE.) DENIS, JOHANN NEPOMUK COSMAS MICHAEL (1720-1800), Austrian poet, was born at Scharding on the Inn, on the 27th of September 1729. He was brought up by the Jesuits, entered their order, and in 1759 was appointed professor in the Theresianum in Vienna, a Jesuit college. In 1784, after the suppression of the college, he was made second custodian of the court library, and seven years later became chief librarian. He died on the 2gth of September 1800. A warm admirer of Klopstock, he was one of the leading members of the group of so-called " bards "; and his original poetry, published under the title Die Lieder Sineds des Barden (1772), shows all the extrava- gances of the " bardic " movement. He is best remembered as the translator of Ossian (1768-1769; also published together with his own poems in 5 vols. as Ossians und Sineds Lieder, 1784). More important than either his original poetry or his translations were his efforts to familiarize the Austrians with the literature of North Germany; his Sammlung kurzerer Gedichle aus den neitern Dichtern Deutschlands, 3 vols. (1762-1766), was in this respect invaluable. He has also left a number of bibliographical compilations, Grundriss der Bibliographic und Bucherkunde (1774), Grundriss der Literaturgeschichte (1776), Einleitung in die Bucherkunde (1777) and Wiens Buchdruckergeschichle bis 1560 (1782). Ossians und Sineds Lieder have not been reprinted since 1791 ; but a selection of his poetry edited by R. Hamel will be found in vol. 48 (1884) of Kiirschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur. His Litera- rischer NacUass was published by J. F. von Retzer in 1802 (2 vols.). See P. von Hofmann-Wellenhof, Michael Denis (1881). DENISON, GEORGE ANTHONY (1805-1896), English church- man, brother of John Evelyn Denison (1800-1873; speaker of the House of Commons 1857-1872; Viscount Ossington), was born at Ossington, Notts, on the nth of December 1805, and educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford. In 1828 he was elected fellow of Oriel; and after a few years there as a tutor, during which he was ordained and acted as curate at Cuddesdon, he became rector of Broadwindsor, Dorset (1838). He became a prebendary of Sarum in 1841 and of Wells in 1849. In 1851 he was preferred to the valuable living of East Brent, Somerset, and in the same year was made archdeacon of Taunton. For many years Archdeacon Denison represented the extreme Hjgh Tory party not only in politics but in the Church, regarding all " progressive " movements in education or theology as abomination, and vehemently repudiating the " higher criticism " from the days of Essays and Reviews (1860) to those of Lux Mundi (1800). In 1853 he resigned his position as examining chaplain to the bishop of Bath and Wells owing to his pronounced eucharistic views. A suit on the complaint of a neighbouring clergyman ensued and after various complications Denison was condemned by the archbishops' court at Bath (1856); but on appeal the court of Arches and the privy council quashed this judgment on a technical plea. The result was to make Denison a keen champion of the ritualistic school. He edited The Church and State Review (1862-1865). Secular state education and the " conscience clause " were anathema to him. Until the end of his life he remained a protagonist in theological controversy and a keen fighter against latitudinarianism and liberalism; but the sharpest religious or political differences never broke his personal friendships and his Christian charity. Among other things for which he will be remembered was his origination of harvest festivals. He died on the 2ist of March 1896. DENISON, GEORGE TAYLOR (1839- ), Canadian soldier and publicist, was born in Toronto on the 3ist of August 1839. In 1861 he was called to the bar, and was from 1865-1867 a member of the city council. From the first he took a prominent part in the organization of the military forces of Canada, becom- ing a lieutenant-colonel in the active militia in 1866. He saw active service during the Fenian raid of 1866, and during the rebellion of 1885. Owing to his dissatisfaction with the conduct of the Conservative ministry during the Red River Rebellion in 1869-70, he abandoned that party, and in 1872 unsuccessfully contested Algoma in the Liberal interest. Thereafter he remained free from party ties. In 1877 he was appointed police magistrate of Toronto. Colonel Denison was one of the founders of the " Canada First " party, which did much to shape the national aspirations from 1870 to 1878, and was a consistent supporter of imperial federation and of preferential trade between Great Britain and her colonies. He became a member of the Royal Society of Canada, and was president of the section dealing with English history and literature. The best known of his military works is his History of Modern Cavalry (London, 1877), which was awarded first prize by the Russian government in an open competition and has been translated into German, Russian and Japanese. In 1900 he published his reminiscences under the title of Soldiering in Canada. DENISON, a city of Grayson county, Texas, U.S.A., about i\ m. from the S. bank of the Red river, about 70 m. N. of Dallas. Pop. (1890) 10,958; (1900) 11,807, of whom 2251 were negroes; (1910 census) 13,632. It is served by the Houston & Texas Central, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Texas & Pacific, and the St Louis & San Francisco ('Frisco System) railways, and is connected with Sherman, Texas, by an electric line. Denison is the seat of the Gate City business college (generally known as Harshaw Academy), and of St Xavier's academy (Roman Catholic). It is chiefly important as a railway centre, as a collecting and distributing point for the fruit, vegetables, hogs and poultry, and general farming products of the surrounding region, and as a wholesale and jobbing market for the upper Red river valley. It has railway repair shops, and among its manufactures are cotton-seed oil, cotton, machinery and foundry products, flour, wooden-ware, and dairy products. In 1905 its factory products were valued at $1,234,956, 47-0 % more than in 1900. Denison was settled by Northerners at the time of the construction of the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railway to this point in 1872, and was named in honour of George Denison (1822-1876), a director of the railway; it became a city in 1891, and in 1907 adopted the commission form of government. DENIZEN (derived through the Fr. from Lat. de intus, " from within," i.e. as opposed to "foreign"), an alien who obtains by letters patent (ex donatione regis) certain of the privileges of a British subject. He cannot be a member of the privy council or of parliament, or hold any civil or military office of trust, or take a grant of land from the crown. The Naturalization Act 1870 provides that nothing therein contained shall affect the grant of any letters of denization by the sovereign. DENIZLI (anc. Laodicea (q.v.) ad Lycuni), chief town of a sanjak of the Aidin vilayet of Asia Minor, altitude 1167 ft. Pop. about 17,000. It is beautifully situated at the foot of Baba Dagh (Mt. Salbacus), on a tributary of the Churuk Su (Lycus), and is connected by a branch line with the station of Gonjeli on the Smyrna-Dineir railway. It took the place of Laodicea when that town was deserted during the wars between the DENMAN— DENMARK Byzantines and Seljuk Turks, probably between 1158 and 1174. It had become a fine Moslem city in the I4th century, and was then called Ladik, being famous for the woven and embroidered products of its Greek inhabitants. The delightful gardens of Denizli have obtained for it the name of the "Damascus of Anatolia." DENMAN, THOMAS, IST BARON (1779-1854), English judge, was born in London, the son of a well-known physician, on the 23rd of July 1779. He was educated at Eton and St John's College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1800. Soon after leaving Cambridge he married; and in 1806 he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, and at once entered upon practice. His success was rapid, and in a few years he attained a position at the bar second only to that of Brougham and Scarlett (Lord Abinger). He distinguished himself by his eloquent defence of the Luddites; but his most brilliant appearance was as one of the counsel for Queen Caroline. His speech before the Lords was very powerful, and some competent judges even considered it not inferior to Brougham's. It contained one or two daring passages, which made the king his bitter enemy, and retarded his legal promotion. At the general election of 1818 he was returned M.P. for Wareham, and at once took his seat with the Whig opposition. In the following year he was returned for Nottingham, for which place he continued to sit till his elevation to the bench in 1832. His liberal principles had caused his exclusion from office till in 1822 he was appointed common Serjeant by the corporation of London. In 1830 he was made attorney-general under Lord Grey's administration. Two years later he was made lord chief justice of the King's Bench, and in 1834 he was raised to the peerage. As a judge he is most celebrated for his decision in the important privilege case of Stockdale v. Hansard (9 Ad. & El. I.; n Ad. & El. 253), but he was never ranked as a profound lawyer. In 1850 he resigned his chief justiceship and retired into private life. He died on the 26th of September 1854, his title continuing in the direct line. The HON. GEORGE DENMAN (1810-1896), his fourth son, was also a distinguished lawyer, and a judge of the Queen's Bench from 1872 till his death in 1896. See Memoir of Thomas, first Lord Denman, by Sir Joseph Arnould (2 vols., 1873) ; E. Manson, Builders of our Law (1904). DENMARK (Danmark), a small kingdom of Europe, occupying part of a peninsula and a group of islands dividing the Baltic and North Seas, in the middle latitudes of the eastern coast. The kingdom lies between 54° 33' and 57° 45' N. and between 8° 4' 54" and 12° 47' 25* E., exclusive of the island of Bornholm, which, as will be seen, is not to be included in the Danish archi- pelago. The peninsula is divided between Denmark and Germany (Schleswig-Holstein). The Danish portion is the northern and the greater, and is called Jutland (Dan. Jylland). Its northern part is actually insular, divided from the mainland by the Limf jord or Liimf jord, which communicates with the North Sea to the west and the Cattegat to the east, but this strait, though broad and possessing lacustrine characteristics to the west, has only very narrow entrances. The connexion with the North Sea dates from 1825. The Skagerrack bounds Jutland to the north and north-west. The Cattegat is divided from the Baltic by the Danish islands, between the east coast of the Cimbric peninsula in the neighbourhood of the German frontier and south-western Sweden. There is little variety in the surface of Denmark. It is uniformly low, the highest elevation in the whole country, the Himmelbjerg near Aarhus in eastern Jutland, being little more than 500 ft. above the sea. Denmark, however, is nowhere low in the sense in which Holland is; the country is pleasantly diversified, and rises a little at the coast even though it remains flat inland. The landscape of the islands and the south-eastern part of Jutland is rich in beech-woods, corn fields and meadows, and even the minute islets are green and fertile. In the western and northern districts of Jutland this condition gives place to a wide expanse of moorland, covered with heather, and ending towards the sea in low whitish-grey cliffs. There is a certain charm even about these monotonous tracts, and it cannot be said that Denmark is wanting hi natural beauty of a quiet order. Lakes, though small, are numerous; the largest are the Arreso and the Esromso in Zealand, and the chain of lakes in the Himmelbjerg region, which are drained by the largest river hi Denmark, the Gudenaa, which, however, has a course not exceeding 80 m. Many of the meres, overhung with thick beech- woods, are extremely beautiful. The coasts are generally low and sandy; the whole western shore of Jutland is a succession of sand ridges and shallow lagoons, very dangerous to shipping. In many places the sea has encroached; even in the igth century entire villages were destroyed, but during the last twenty years of the century systematic efforts were made to secure the coast by groynes and embankments. A belt of sand dunes, from 500 yds. to 7 m. wide, stretches along the whole of this coast for about 200 m. Skagen, or the Skaw, a long, low, sandy point, stretches far into the northern sea, dividing the Skagerrack from the Cattegat. On the western side the coast is bolder and less inhospitable; there are several excellent havens, especially on the islands. The coast is nowhere, however, very high, except at one or two points hi Jutland, and at the eastern extremity of Moen, where limestone cliffs occur. Continental Denmark is confined wholly to Jutland, the geographical description of which is given under that heading. Out of the total area of the kingdom, 14,829 sq. m., Jutland, including the small islands adjacent to it, covers 9753 sq. m., and the insular part of the kingdom (including Bornholm), 5076 sq. m. The islands may be divided into two groups, consisting of the two principal islands Fiinen and Zealand, and the lesser islands attendant on each. Fiinen (Dan. Fyen), in form roughly an oval with an axis from S.E. to N.W. of 53 m., is separated from Jutland by a channel not half a mile wide hi the north, but averaging 10 m. between the island and the Schleswig coast, and known as the Little Belt. Fiinen, geologically a part of southern Jutland, has similar characteristics, a smiling landscape of fertile meadows, the typical beech-forests clothing the low hills and the presence of numerous erratic blocks, are the superficial signs of likeness. Several islands, none of great extent, lie off the west coast of Fiinen in the Little Belt; off the south, how- ever, an archipelago is enclosed by the long narrow islands of Aero (16 m. in length) and Langeland (32 m.), including in a triangular area of shallow sea the islands of Taasinge, Avernako, Dreio, Turo and others. These aie generally fertile and well cultivated. Aeroskjobing and Rudkjobing, on Aero and Langeland respectively, are considerable ports. On Langeland is the great castle of Tranekjaer, whose record dates from the i3th century. The chief towns of Fiinen itself are all coastal. Odense is the principal town, lying close to a great inlet behind the peninsula of Hindsholm on the north-east, known as Odense Fjord. Nyborg on the east is the port for the steam-ferry to Korsor hi Zealand; Svendborg picturesquely overlooks the southern archipelago; Faaborg on the south-west lies on a fjord of the same name; Assens, on the west, a port for the crossing of the Little Belt into Schleswig, still shows traces of the fortifications which were stormed by John of Ranzau in 1535; Middelfart is a seaside resort near the narrowest reach of the Little Belt; Bogense is a small port on the north coast. All these towns are served by railways radiating from Odense. The strait crossed by the Nyborg- Korsor ferry is the Great Belt which divides the Fiinen from the Zealand group, and is con- tinued south by the Langelands Belt, which washes the straight eastern shore of that island, and north by the Samso Belt, named from an island 15 m. in length, with several large villages, which lies somewhat apart from the main archipelago. Zealand, or Sealand (Dan. Sjaelland), measuring 82 m. N. to S. by 68 E. to W. (extremes), with its fantastic coast-line indented by fjords and projecting into long spits or promontories, may be considered as the nucleus of the kingdom, inasmuch as it contains the capital, Copenhagen, and such important towns as Roskilde, Slagelse, Korsor, Naestved and Elsinore (Helsingor). Its topography is described in detail under ZEALAND. Its attendant islands lie mainly to the south and are parts of itself, only separated by geologically recent troughs. The eastern DENMARK [GEOGRAPHY coast of Moen is rocky and bold. It is recorded that this island formed three separate isles in noo, and the village of Borre, now 2 m. inland, was the object of an attack by a fleet from Liibeck in 1510. On Falster is the port of Nykjobing, and from Gjedser, the extreme southern point of Denmark, communication is maintained with Warnemiinde in Germany (29 m.). From Nykjobing a bridge nearly one-third of a mile long crosses to Laaland, at the west of which is the port of Nakskov; the other towns are the county town of Maribo with its fine church of the I4th century, Saxkjobing and Rodby. The island of Bornholm lies 86 m. E. of the nearest point of the archipelago, and as it belongs geologically to Sweden (from which it is distant only 22 m.) must be considered to be physically an appendage rather than an internal part of the kingdom of Denmark. Geology. — The surface in Denmark is almost everywhere formed by the so-called Boulder Clay and what the Danish geologists call the Boulder Sand. The former, as is well known, owes its origin to the action of ice on the mountains of Norway in the Glacial period. It is unstratified; but by the action of water on it, stratified deposits have been formed, some of clay, containing remains of arctic animals, some, and very extensive ones, of sand and gravel. This boulder sand forms almost every- where the highest hills, and besides, in the central part of Jutland, a wide expanse of heath and moorland apparently level, but really sloping gently towards the west. The deposits of the boulder formation rest generally on limestone of the Cretaceous period, which in many places comes near the surface and forms cliffs on the sea-coast. Much of the Danish chalk, including the well- known limestone of Faxe, belongs to the highest or " Danian " subdivision of the Cretaceous period. In the south-western parts a succession of strata, described as the Brown Coal or Lignite formations, intervenes between the chalk and the boulder clay; its name is derived from the deposits of lignite which occur in it. It is only on the island of Bornholm that older formations come to light. This island agrees in geological structure with the southern part of Sweden, and forms, in fact, the southernmost portion of the Scandinavian system. There the boulder clay lies immediately on the primitive rock, except in the south-western corner of the island, where a series of strata appear belonging to the Cambrian, Silurian, Jurassic and Cretaceous formations, the true Coal formation, &c., being absent. Some parts of Denmark are supposed to have been finally raised out of the sea towards the close of the Cretaceous period; but as a whole the country did not appear above the water till about the close of the Glacial period. The upheaval of the country, a movement common to a large part of the Scandinavian peninsula, still continues, though slowly, north-east of a line drawn in a south-easterly direction from Nissumfjord on the west coast of Jutland, across the island of Fyen, a little south of the town of Nyborg. Ancient sea- beaches, marked by accumulations of seaweed, rolled stones, &c., have been noticed as much as 20 ft. above the present level. But the upheaval does not seem to affect all parts equally. Even in historic times it has vastly changed the aspect and configuration of the country. Climate, Flora, Fauna. — The climate of Denmark does not differ materially from that of Great Britain in the same latitude; but whilst the summer is a little warmer, the winter is colder, so that most of the evergreens which adorn an English garden in the winter cannot be grown in the open in Denmark. During thirty years the annual mean temperature varied from 43-88° F. to 46-22° in different years and different localities, the mean average for the whole country being 45-14°. The islands have, upon the whole, a somewhat warmer climate than Jutland. The mean temperatures of the four coldest months, December to March, are 33-26°, 31-64°, 31-82°, and 33-98° respectively, or for the whole winter 32-7°; that of the summer, June to August, 59-2°, but considerable irregularities occur. Frost occurs on an average on twenty days in each of the four winter months, but only on two days in either October or May. A fringe of ice generally lines the greater part of the Danish coasts on the eastern side for some time during the winter, and both the Sound and the Great Belt are at times impassable on account of ice. In some winters the latter is sufficiently firm and level to admit of sledges passing between Copenhagen and Malmo. The annual rainfall varies between 21-58 in. and 27-87 in. in different years and different localities. It is highest on the west coast of Jutland; while the small island of Anholt in the Cattegat has an annual rainfall of only 15-78 in. More than half the rainfall occurs from July to November, the wettest month being September, with an average of 2-95 in.; the driest month is April, with an average of 1-14 in. Thunderstorms are frequent in the summer. South-westerly winds prevail from January to March, and from September to the end of the year. In April the east wind, which is particularly searching, is predominant, while westerly winds prevail from May to August. In the district of Aalborg, in the north of Jutland, a cold and dry N.W. wind called skai prevails in May and June, and is exceedingly destructive to vegetation; while along the west coast of the peninsula similar effects are produced by a salt mist, which carries its influence from 15 to 30 m. inland. The flora of Denmark presents greater variety than might be anticipated in a country of such simple physical structure. The ordinary forms of the north of Europe grow freely in the mild air and protected soil of the islands and the eastern coast; while on the heaths and along the sandhills on the Atlantic side there flourish a number of distinctive species. The Danish forest is almost exclusively made up of beech, a tree which thrives better in Denmark than in any other country of Europe. The oak and ash are now rare, though in ancient times both were abundant in the Danish islands. The elm is also scarce. The almost universal predominance of the beech is by no means of ancient origin, for in the first half of the I7th century the oak was still the characteristic Danish tree. No conifer grows in Denmark except under careful cultivation, which, however, is largely practised in Jutland (S!ra' X3th and Part of tke ^th century, the struggle raged between the Danish kings and the Schleswig dukes; and of six monarchs no fewer than three died violent deaths. Superadded to these troubles was a prolonged struggle for supremacy between the popes and the crown, and, still more serious, the beginning of a breach between the kings and nobles, which had important constitutional consequences. The prevalent disorder had led to general lawlessness, in consequence of which the royal authority had been widely extended; and a strong opposition gradually arose which protested against the abuses of this authority. In 1282 the nobles extorted from King Eric Clipping the first Haandfoestning, or charter, which recognized the Danehof, or national assembly, as a regular branch of the administration and gave guarantees against further usurpations. Christopher II. (1319-1331) was constrained to grant another charter considerably reducing the prerogative, increasing the privileges of the upper classes, and at the same time reducing the burden of taxation. But aristocratic licence proved as mischiev- ous as royal incompetence; and on the death of Christopher II. the whole kingdom was on the verge of dissolution. Eastern Denmark was in the hands of one magnate; another magnate held Jutland and Fiinen in pawn; the dukes of Schleswig were practically independent of the Danish crown; the Scandian pro- vinces had (1332) surrendered themselves to Sweden. It was reserved for another Valdemar (Valdemar IV., q.v.) to reunite and weld together the scattered members of his heritage. vaide- His long reign (1340-1375) resulted in the re-establish- mariv., ment of Denmark as the great Baltic power. It is al&> a very interesting period of her social and constitutional development. This great ruler, who had to fight, year after year, against foreign and domestic foes, could, nevertheless, always find time to promote the internal prosperity of his much afflicted country. For the dissolution of Denmark, during the long anarchy, had been internal as well as external. The whole social fabric had been convulsed and transformed. The monarchy had been undermined. The privileged orders had aggrandized themselves at the expense of the community. The yeoman class had sunk into semi-serfdom. In a word, the natural cohesion of the Danish nation had been loosened and there was no security for law and justice. To make an end of this universal lawlessness Valdemar IV. was obliged, in the first place, to re-establish the royal authority by providing the crown with a regular and certain income. This he did by recovering the alienated royal demesnes in every direction, and from henceforth the annual landgilde, or rent, paid by the royal tenants, became the monarch's principal source of revenue. Throughout his reign Valdemar laboured incessantly to acquire as much land as possible. Moreover, the old distinction between the king's private estate and crown property henceforth ceases; all such property was henceforth regarded as the hereditary possession of the Danish crown. The national army was also re-established on its ancient footing. Not only were the magnates sharply reminded that they held their lands on military tenure, but the towns were also made to contribute both men and ships, and peasant levies, especially archers, were recruited from every parish. Everywhere indeed Valdemar intervened personally. The smallest detail was not beneath his notice. Thus he invented nets for catching wolves and built innumerable water-mills, " for he would not let the waters run into the sea before they had been of use to the community. ' ' Under such a ruler law and order were speedily re- established. The popular tribunals regained their authority, and a supreme court of justice, Del Kongelige Retterting, presided over by Valdemar himself, not only punished the unruly and guarded the prerogatives of the crown, but also protected the weak and defenceless from the tyranny of the strong. Nor did Valdemar hesitate to meet his people hi public and periodically render an account of his stewardship. He voluntarily resorted to the old practice of summoning national assemblies, the so-called Danehof. At the first of these assemblies held at Nyborg, Midsummer Day 1314, the bishops and councillors solemnly promised that the commonalty should enjoy all the ancient rights and privileges conceded to them by Valdemar II., and the wise provision that the Danehof should meet annually considerably strengthened its authority. The keystone to the whole constitutional system was " King Valdemar's Charter " issued in May 1360 at the Rigsmode, or parliament, held at Kalundborg in May 1360. This charter was practically an act of national pacification, the provisions of which king and people together undertook to enforce for the benefit of the commonweal. The work of Valdemar was completed and consolidated by his illustrious daughter Margaret (1375-1412), whose crowning achievement was the Union of Kalmar (1397), whereby she sought to combine the three northern kingdoms Tl" v"ioa into a single state dominated by Denmark. In any ^^*tmar< case Denmark was bound to be the only gainer by the Union. Her population was double that of the two other kingdoms combined, and neither Margaret nor her successors observed the stipulations that each country should retain its own laws and customs and be ruled by natives only. In both Norway and Sweden, therefore, the Union was highly unpopular. The Norwegian aristocracy was too weak, however, seriously to endanger the Union at any time, but Sweden was, from the first, decidedly hostile to Margaret's whole policy. Nevertheless during her lifetime the system worked fairly well; but her pupil and successor, Eric of Pomerania, was unequal to the burden of empire and embroiled himself both with his neighbours and his subjects. The Hanseatic League, whose political ascendancy had been shaken by the Union, enraged by Eric's efforts to bring in the Dutch as commercial rivals, as well as by the establish- ment of the Sound tolls, materially assisted the Holsteiners in their twenty-five years' war with Denmark (1410-35), and Eric VII. himself was finally deposed (1439) in favour of his nephew, Christopher of Bavaria. The deposition of Eric marks another turning-point in Danish history. It was the act not of the people but of the Rigsrood (Senate), which had inherited the authority of the drouth Ot ancient Danehof and, after the death of Margaret, the power grew steadily in power at the expense of the crown. ofihe As the government grew more and more aristocratic, the position of the peasantry steadily deteriorated. It is under Christopher that we first hear, for instance, of the Vornedskab, or patriarchal control of the landlords over their tenants, a system which degenerated into rank slavery. In Jutland, too, after the repression, in 1441, of a peasant rising, something very like serfdom was introduced. On the death of Christopher III. without heirs, in 1448, the Rigsraad elected his distant cousin, Count Christian of Oldenburg, king; but Sweden preferred Karl Knutsson (Charles " VIII."), while Norway finally combined with Den- Break-up mark, at the conference of Halmstad, in a double election which practically terminated the Union, though an agreement was come to that the survivor of the two kings should reign over all three kingdoms. Norway, subse- quently, threw in her lot definitively with Denmark. Dissensions resulting in interminable civil wars had, even before the Union, exhausted the resources of the poorest of the three northern realms; and her ruin was completed by the ravages of the Black HISTORY] DENMARK Death, which wiped out two-thirds of her population. Unfortu- nately, too, for Norway's independence, the native gentry had gradually died out, and were succeeded by immigrant Danish fortune-hunters; native burgesses there were none, and the peasantry were mostly thralls; so that, excepting the clergy, there was no patriotic class to stand up for the national liberties. Far otherwise was it in the wealthier kingdom of Sweden. Here the clergy and part of the nobility were favourable to the Union; but the vast majority of the people hated it as a foreign usurpa- tion. Matters were still further complicated by the continual interference of the Hanseatic League; and Christian I. (1448- 1481) and Hans (1481-1513), whose chief merit it is to have founded the Danish fleet, were, during the greater part of their reigns, only nominally kings of Sweden. Hans also received in fief the territory of Dietmarsch from the emperor, but, in attempting to subdue the hardy Dietmarschers, suffered a crushing defeat in which the national banner called " Danebrog " fell into the enemy's hands ( 1 500) . Moreover, this defeat led to a successful rebellion in Sweden, and a long and ruinous war with Lubeck, terminated by the peace of Malmo, 1512. It was during this war that a strong Danish fleet dominated the Baltic for the first time since the age of the Valdemars. On the succession of Hans's son, Christian II. (1513-1523), Margaret's splendid dream of a Scandinavian empire seemed, finally, about to be realized. The young king, a man //**««" °^ character and genius, had wide views and original 1523. ideas. Elected king of Denmark and Norway, he suc- ceeded in subduing Sweden by force of arms; but he spoiled everything at the culmination of his triumph by the hideous crime and blunder known as the Stockholm massacre, which converted the politically divergent Swedish nation into the irreconcilable foe of the unional government (see CHRISTIAN II.). Christian's contempt of nationality in Sweden is the more remarkable as in Denmark proper he sided with the people against the aristocracy, to his own undoing in that age of privilege and prejudice. His intentions, as exhibited to his famous Landelove (National Code), were progressive and enlightened to an eminent degree; so much so, indeed, that they mystified the people as much as they alienated the patricians; but his actions were often of revolting brutality, and his whole career was vitiated by an incurable double-mindedness which provoked general distrust. Yet there is no doubt that Christian II. was a true patriot, whose ideal it was to weld the three northern kingdoms into a powerful state, independent of all foreign influences, especially of German influence as manifested in the commercial tyranny of the Hansa League. His utter failure was due, partly to the vices of an undisciplined temperament, and partly to the extraordinary difficulties of the most inscrutable period of European history, when the shrewdest heads were at fault and irreparable blunders belonged to the order of the day. That period was the period of the Reformation, which profoundly affected the politics of Scandinavia. Christian II. had always subordinated religion to politics, and was Papist or Lutheran according to circumstances. But, though he treated the Church more like a foe than a friend and was constantly at war with the Curia, he retained the Catholic form of church worship and never seems to have questioned the papal supremacy. On the flight of Christian II. and the election of his uncle, Frederick I. (1523- Frederkk X533)> tne Church resumed her jurisdiction and every- I.,1523- thing was placed on the old footing. The newly 1533. The elected and still insecure German king at first remained ao'a""*' neutral; but in tne autumn of 1525 the current of Lutheranism began to run so strongly in Denmark as to threaten to whirl away every opposing obstacle. This novel and disturbing phenomenon was mainly due to the zeal and eloquence of the ex-monk Hans Tausen and his associates, or disciples, Peder Plad and Sadolin; and, in the autumn of 1526, Tausen was appointed one of the royal chaplains. The three ensuing years were especially favourable for the Reformation, as during that time the king had unlooked-for opportunities for filling the vacant episcopal sees with men after his own heart, and at heart he was a Lutheran. The reformation movement in Denmark was further promoted by Schleswig-Holstein influence. Frederick's eldest son Duke Christian had, since 1527, resided at Haderslev, where he collected round him Lutheran teachers from Germany, and made his court the centre of the propaganda of the new doctrine. On the other hand, the Odense Recess of the 20th of August 1527, which put both confessions on a footing of equality, remained unrepealed; and so long as it remained in force, the spiritual jurisdiction of the bishops, and, consequently, their authority over the " free preachers " (whose ambition convulsed all the important towns of Denmark and aimed at forcibly expelling the Catholic priests from their churches) remained valid, to the great vexation of the reformers. The inevitable ecclesiastical crisis was still further postponed by the superior stress of two urgent political events — Christian II. 's invasion of Norway (1531) and the outbreak, in 1533, of " Grevens fejde," or " The Count's War " (1534-36), no the count in question being Christopher of Oldenburg, Count'* great-nephew of King Christian I., whom Lubeck and War, her allies, on the death of Frederick I., raised up lj?3~ against Frederick's son Christian III. The Catholic party and the lower orders generally took the part of Count Christopher, who acted throughout as the nominee of the captive Christian II., while the Protestant party, aided by the Holstein dukes and Gustavus Vasa of Sweden, sided with Christian III. The war ended with the capture of Copenhagen by the forces of Christian III., on the 2pth of July 1536, and the triumph of so devoted a Lutheran sealed the fate of the Roman Catholic Church in Denmark, though even now it was necessary for the victorious king to proceed against the bishops and their friends by a coup d'itat, engineered by his German generals the Rantzaus. The Recess of 1536 enacted that the bishops should forfeit their temporal and spiritual authority, and that all their property should be transferred to the crown for the good of the common- wealth. In the following year a Church ordinance, based upon the canons of Luther, Melanchthon and Bugenhagen, was drawn up, submitted to Luther for his approval, and promulgated on the 2nd of September 1537. On the same day seven " super- intendents," including Tausen and Sadolin, all of whom had worked zealously for the cause of the Reformation, were consecrated in place of the dethroned bishops. The position of the superintendents and of the reformed church generally was consolidated by the Articles of Ribe in 1542, and the constitution of the Danish church has practically continued the same to the present day. But Catholicism could not wholly or immediately be dislodged by the teaching of Luther. It had struck deep roots into the habits and feelings of the people, and traces of its survival were distinguishable a whole century after the triumph of the Reformation. Catholicism lingered longest in the cathedral chapters. Here were to be found men of ability proof against the eloquence of Hans Tausen or Peder Plad and quite capable of controverting their theories — men like Povl Helgesen, for instance, indisputably the greatest Danish theologian of his day, a scholar whose voice was drowned amidst the clash of conflicting creeds. Though the Reformation at first did comparatively little for education,1 and the whole spiritual life of Denmark was poor and feeble in consequence for at least a generation after- wards, the change of religion was of undeniable, if the K*_° temporary, benefit to the state from the political formation. point of view. The enormous increase of the royal revenue consequent upon the confiscation of the property of the Church could not fail to increase the financial stability of the monarchy. In particular the suppression of the monasteries benefited the crown in two ways. The old church had, indeed, frequently rendered the state considerable financial aid, but such voluntary assistance was, from the nature of the case, casual and arbitrary. Now, however, the state derived a fixed and certain revenue from the confiscated lands; and the possession 1 It is true the university was established on the 9th of September 1537. but its influence was of very gradual growth and small at first. DENMARK [HISTORY of immense landed property at the same time enabled the crown advantageously to conduct the administration. The gross revenue of the state is estimated to have risen threefold. Before the Reformation the annual revenue from land averaged 400,000 bushels of corn; after the confiscations of Church property it averaged 1,200,000 bushels. The possession of a full purse materially assisted the Danish government in its domestic administration, which was indeed epoch-making. It enabled Christian III. to pay off his German mercenaries immediately after the religious coup d'etat of 1536. It enabled him to prosecute shipbuilding with such energy that, by. 1550, the royal fleet numbered at least thirty vessels, which were largely employed as a maritime police in the pirate-haunted Baltic and North Seas. It enabled him to create and remunerate adequately a capable official class, which proved its efficiency under the strictest supervision, and ultimately produced a whole series of great statesmen and admirals like Johan Friis, Peder Oxe, Herluf Trolle and Peder Skram. It is not too much to say that the increased revenue derived from the appropriation of Church property, intelligently applied, gave Denmark the hegemony of the North during the latter Part of Christian III.'s reign, the whole reign of of Frederick II. and the first twenty-five years of the Denmark, reign of Christian IV., a period embracing, roughly speaking, eighty years ( 1 544- 1626). Within this period Denmark was indisputably the leading Scandinavian power. While Sweden, even after the advent of Gustavus Vasa, was still of but small account in Europe, Denmark easily held her own in Germany and elsewhere, even against Charles V., and was important enough, in 1553, to mediate a peace between the emperor and Saxony. Twice during this period Denmark and Sweden measured their strength in the open field, on the first occasion in the " Scandinavian Seven Years' War" (1562-70), on the second in the " Kalmar War" (1611-13), and on both occasions Denmark prevailed, though the temporary advantage she gained was more than neutralized by the intense feeling of hostility which the unnatural wars, between the two kindred peoples of Scandinavia, left behind them. Still, the fact remains that, for a time, Denmark was one of the great powers of Europe. Frederick II., in his later years (1571-1588), aspired to the dominion of all the seas which washed the Scandinavian coasts, and before he died he was able to enforce the rule that all foreign ships should strike their topsails to Danish men-of-war as a token of his right to rule the northern seas. Favourable political circumstances also contributed to this general acknowledgment of Denmark's maritime greatness. The power of the Hansa had gone; the Dutch were enfeebled by their contest with Spain; England's sea-power was yet in the making; Spain, still the greatest of the maritime nations, was exhausting her resources in the vain effort to conquer the Dutch. Yet more even than to felicitous circumstances, Denmark owed her short-lived greatness to the great statesmen and administrators whom Frederick II. succeeded in gathering about him. Never before, since the age of Margaret, had Denmark been so well governed, never before had she possessed so many political celebrities nobly emulous for the common good. Frederick II. was succeeded by his son Christian IV. (April 4, 1588), who attained his majority on the i7th of August 1596, at Denmark ^e age of nineteen. The realm which Christian IV. was at the ac- to govern had undergone great changes within the last cession of two generations. Towards the south the boundaries of ^v^isss ^e Danish state remained unchanged. Levensaa and the Eider still separated Denmark from the Empire. Schleswig was recognized as a Danish fief, in contradistinc- tion to Holstein, which owed vassalage to the Empire. The " kingdom " stretched as far as Kolding and Skedborg, where the " duchy " began; and this duchy since its amalgamation with Holstein by means of a common Landtag, and especially since the union of the dual duchy with the kingdom on almost equal terms in 1533, was, in most respects, a semi-independent state. Denmark, moreover, like Europe in general, was, politic- ally, on the threshold of a transitional period. During the whole course of the i6th century the monarchical form of government was in every large country, with the single exception of Poland, rising on the ruins of feudalism. The great powers of the late i6th and early ryth centuries were to be the strong, highly centralized, hereditary monarchies, like France, Spain and Sweden. There seemed to be no reason why Denmark also should not become a powerful state under the guidance of a powerful monarchy, especially as the sister state of Sweden was developing into a great power under apparently identical conditions. Yet, while Sweden was surely ripening into the dominating power of northern Europe, Denmark had as surely entered upon a period of uninterrupted and apparently incurable decline. What was the cause of this anomaly ? Something of course must be allowed for the superior and altogether extraordinary genius of the great princes of the house of Vasa; yet the causes of the decline of Denmark lay far deeper than this. They may roughly be summed up under two heads: the inherent weakness of an elective monarchy, and the absence of that public spirit which is based on the intimate alliance of ruler and ruled. Whilst Gustavus Vasa had leaned upon the Swedish peasantry, in other words upon the bulk of the Swedish nation, which was and continued to be an integral part of the Swedish body-politic, Christian III. on his accession had crushed the middle and lower classes in Denmark and reduced them to political insignificance. Yet it was not the king who benefited by this blunder. The Danish monarchy since the days of Margaret had continued to be purely elective; and a purely elective monarchy at that stage of the political development of Europe was a mischievous anomaly. It signified in the first place that the crown was not the highest power in the state, but was subject to the aristocratic Rigsraad, or council of state. The Rigsraad was the permanent owner of the realm and the crown-lands; the king was only their temporary administrator. If the king died before the election of his successor, the Rigsraad stepped into the king's place. Moreover, an elective monarchy implied that, at every fresh succession, the king was liable to be bound by a new Haandfaestning, or charter. The election itself might, and did, become a mere formality; but the condition precedent of election, the acceptance of the charter, invariably limiting the royal authority, remained a reality. This period of aristocratic rule, which dates practically from the accession of Frederick I. (1523), and lasted for nearly a century and a half, is known in Danish history as Adelsvaelde, or rule of the nobles. Again, the king was the ruler of the realm, but over a very large portion of it he had but a slight control. The crown-lands and most of the towns were under his immediate jurisdiction, but by the side of the crown-lands lay the estates of the nobility, which already comprised about one-half of the superficial area of Denmark, and were in many respects independent of the central government both as regards taxation and administration. In a word, the monarchy had to share its dominion with the nobility; and the Danish nobility in the i6th century was one of the most exclusive and selfish aristocracies in Europe, and already far advanced in decadence. Hermetically sealing itself from any intrusion from below, it deteriorated by close and constant inter- marriage; and it was already, both morally and intellectually, below the level of the rest of the nation. Yet this very aristo- cracy, whose claim to consideration was based not upon its own achievements but upon the length of its pedigrees, insisted upon an amplification of its privileges which endangered the economical and political interests of the state and the nation. The time was close at hand when a Danish magnate was to demonstrate that he preferred the utter ruin of his country to any abatement of his own personal dignity. All below the king and the nobility were generally classified together as " subjects." Of these lower orders the clergy stood first in the social scale. As a spiritual estate, indeed, it had ceased to exist at the Reformation, though still represented in the Rigsdag or diet. Since then too it had become quite detached from the nobility, which ostentatiously despised the teaching profession. The clergy recruited themselves therefore from the class next below them, and looked more and more to the HISTORY] DENMARK 33 crown for help and protection as they drew apart from the gentry, who, moreover, as dispensers of patronage, lost no opportunity of appropriating church lands and cutting down tithes. The burgesses had not yet recovered from the disaster of " Grevens fejde"; but while the towns had become more dependent on the central power, they had at the same time been released from their former vexatious subjection to the local mag- nates, and could make their voices heard in the Rigsdag, where they were still, though inadequately, represented. Within the Estate of Burgesses itself, too, a levelling process had begun. The old municipal patriciate, which used to form the connecting link between the bourgeoisie and the nobility, had disappeared, and a feeling of common civic fellowship had taken its place. All this tended to enlarge the political views of the burgesses, and was not without its influence on the future. Yet, after all, the prospects of the burgesses depended mainly on economic con- ditions; and in this respect there was a decided improvement, due to the increasing importance of money and commerce all over Europe, especially as the steady decline of the Hanse towns immediately benefited the trade of Denmark-Norway; Norway by this time being completely merged in the Danish state, and ruled from Copenhagen. There can, indeed, be no doubt that the Danish and Norwegian merchants at the end of the i6th century flourished exceedingly, despite the intrusion and competition of the Dutch and the dangers to neutral shipping arising from the frequent wars between England, Spain and the Netherlands. At the bottom of the social ladder lay the peasants, whose condition had decidedly deteriorated. Only in one respect had they benefited by the peculiar conditions of the i6th century: the rise in the price of corn without any corresponding rise in the land-tax must have largely increased their material prosperity. Yet the number of peasant-proprietors had diminished, while the obligations of the peasantry generally had increased; and, still worse, their obligations were vexatiously indefinite, varying from year to year and even from month to month. They weighed especially heavily on the so-called Ugedasmaend, who were forced to work two or three days a week in the demesne lands. This increase of villenage morally depressed the peasantry, and widened still further the breach between the yeomanry and the gentry. Politically its consequences were disastrous. While in Sweden the free and energetic peasant was a salutary power in the state, which he served with both mind and plough, the Danish peasant was sinking to the level of a bondman. While the Swedish peasants were well represented in the Swedish Riksdag, whose proceedings they sometimes dominated, the Danish peasantry had no political rights or privileges what- ever. Such then, briefly, was the condition of things in Denmark when, in 1 588, Christian IV. ascended the throne. Where so much was necessarily uncertain and fluctuating, there was iv S1S88- room f°r an almost infinite variety of development. 1648. Much depended on the character and personality of the young prince who had now taken into his hands the reins of government, and for half a century was to guide the destinies of the nation. In the beginning of his reign the hand of the young monarch, who was nothing if not energetic, made itself felt in every direction. The harbours of Copenhagen, Elsinore and other towns were enlarged; many decaying towns were abolished and many new ones built under more promising conditions, including Christiania, which was founded in August 1624, on the ruins of the ancient city of Oslo. Various attempts were also made to improve trade and industry by abolishing the still remaining privileges of the Hanseatic towns, by promoting a wholesale immigration of skilful and well-to-do Dutch traders and handicraftsmen into Denmark under most favourable conditions, by opening up the rich fisheries of the Arctic seas, and by establishing joint-stock chartered companies both in the East and the West Indies. Copenhagen especially benefited by Christian IV.'s commercial policy. He enlarged and embellished it, and provided it with new harbours and fortifications; in short, did his best to make it the worthy capital of a great empire. But it was in the foreign policy of the government that the royal influence was most perceptible. Unlike Sweden, Denmark had remained outside the great religious-political movements which were the outcome of the Catholic reaction; and the peculiarity of her position made her rather hostile than friendly to the other Protestant states. The possession of the Sound enabled her to close the Baltic against the Western pcwers; the possession of Norway carried along with it the control of the rich fisheries which were Danish monopolies, and therefore a source of irrita- tion to England and Holland. Denmark, moreover, was above all things a Scandinavian power. While the territorial expansion of Sweden in the near future was a matter of necessity, Denmark had not only attained, but even exceeded, her natural limits. Aggrandizement southwards, at the expense of the German empire, was becoming every year more difficult; and in every other direction she had nothing more to gain. Nay, more, Denmark's possession of the Scanian provinces deprived Sweden of her proper geographical frontiers. Clearly it was Denmark's wisest policy to seek a close alliance with Sweden in their common interests, and after the conclusion of the " Kalmar War " the two countries did remain at peace for the next thirty-one years. But the antagonistic interests of the two countries in Germany during the Thirty Years' War precipitated a fourth contest between them (1643-45), in which Denmark would have been utterly ruined but for the heroism of King Christian IV. and his command of the sea during the crisis of the struggle. Even so, by the peace of Bromsebro (February 8, 1645) Denmark surrendered the islands of Oesel and Gotland /osseg „/ and the provinces of Jemteland and Herjedal (in territory. Norway) definitively, and Halland for thirty years. The freedom from the Sound tolls was by the same treaty also extended to Sweden's Baltic provinces. The peace of Bromsebro was the first of the long series of treaties, extending down to our own days, which mark the progressive shrinkage of Danish territory into an irreducible minimum. Sweden's appropriation of Danish soil had begun, and at the same time Denmark's power of resisting the encroach- ments of Sweden was correspondingly reduced. The Danish national debt, too, had risen enormously, while the sources of future income and consequent recuperation had diminished or disappeared. The Sound tolls, for instance, in consequence of the treaties of Bromsebro and Kristianopel (by the latter treaty very considerable concessions were made to the Dutch) had sunk from 400,000 to 140,000 rix-dollars. The political influence of the crown, moreover, had inevitably been weakened, and the conduct of foreign affairs passed from the hands of the king into the hands of the Rigsraad. On the accession of Frederick III. (1648-1670) moreover, the already IIL> ' > diminished royal prerogative was still further curtailed 1670. by the Haandfaestning, or charter, which he was compelled to sign. Fear and hatred of Sweden, and the never abandoned hope of recovering the lost provinces, animated king and people alike; but it was Denmark's crowning misfortune that she possessed at this difficult crisis no statesman of the first rank, no one even approximately comparable with such com- petitors as Charles X. of Sweden or the " Great Elector " Frederick William of Brandenburg. From the very beginning of his reign Frederick III. was resolved upon a rupture at the first convenient opportunity, while the nation was, if possible, even more bellicose than the king. The apparently insuperable difficulties of Sweden in Poland was the feather that turned the scale; on the ist of June 1657, Frederick III. signed the manifesto justifying a war which was never formally declared and brought Denmark to the very verge of ruin. The extraordinary details of this dramatic struggle will be found elsewhere (see FREDERICK III., king of Denmark, and CHARLES X., king of Sweden) ; suffice it to say that by the peace of Roskilde (February 26, 1658), Denmark consented to cede the three Scanian provinces, the island of Bornholm and less. the Norwegian provinces of Baahus and Trondhjem; to renounce all anti-Swedish alliances and to exempt all Swedish 5 34 DENMARK [HISTORY llshed, 1660. vessels, even when carrying foreign goods, from all tolls. These terrible losses were somewhat retrieved by the subsequent treaty of Copenhagen (May 27, 1660) concluded by the Swedish regency with Frederick III. after the failure of Charles X.'s second war against Denmark, a failure chiefly owing to the heroic defence of the Danish capital (1658-60). By this treaty Treaty of Sweden gave back the province of Trondhjem and the Copeo- isle of Bornholm and released Denmark from the most hagea, onerous of the obligations of the treaty of Roskilde. In fact the peace of Copenhagen came as a welcome break in an interminable series of disasters and humiliations. Anyhow, it confirmed the independence of the Danish state. On the other hand, if Denmark had emerged from the war with her honour and dignity unimpaired, she had at the same time tacitly surrendered the dominion of the North to her Scandi- navian rival. But the war just terminated had important political conse- quences, which were to culminate in one of the most curious and Hereditary interesting revolutions of modern history. In the first monarchy place, it marks the termination of the Adelsvaelde, or estab- rule of the nobility. By their cowardice, incapacity, egotism and treachery during the crisis of the struggle, the Danish aristocracy had justly forfeited the respect of every other class of the community, and emerged from the war hopelessly discredited. On the other hand, Copenhagen, proudly conscious of her intrinsic importance and of her inestim- able services to the country, whom she had saved from annihilation by her constancy, now openly claimed to have a voice in public affairs. Still higher had risen the influence of the crown. The courage and resource displayed by Frederick III. in the extremity of the national danger had won for " the least expansive of monarchs " an extraordinary popularity. On the loth of September 1660, the Rigsdug, which was to repair the ravages of the war and provide for the future, was opened with great ceremony in the Riddersaal of the castle of Copenhagen. The first bill laid before the Estates by the government was to impose an excise tax on the principal articles of consumption, together with subsidiary taxes on cattle, poultry, &c., in return for which the abolition of all the old direct taxes was promised. The nobility at first claimed exemption from taxation altogether, while the clergy and burgesses insisted upon an absolute equality of taxation. There were sharp encounters between the presidents of the contending orders, but the position of the Lower Estates was considerably prejudiced by the dissen- sions of its various sections. Thus the privileges of the bishops and of Copenhagen profoundly irritated the lower clergy and the unprivileged towns, and made a cordial understanding impossible, till Hans Svane, bishop of Copenhagen, and Hans Nansen the burgomaster, who now openly came forward as the leader of the reform movement, proposed that the privileges which divided the non-noble Estates should be abolished. In accordance with this proposal, the two Lower Estates, on the i6th of September, subscribed a memorandum addressed to the Rigsraad, declaring their willingness to renounce their privileges, provided the nobility did the same; which was tantamount to a declaration that the whole of the clergy and burgesses had made common cause against the nobility. The opposition so formed took the name of the " Conjoined Estates." The presentation of the memorial provoked an outburst of indignation. But the nobility soon perceived the necessity of complete surrender. On the 30th of September the First Estate abandoned its former standpoint and renounced its privileges, with one unimportant reservation. The struggle now seemed to be ended, and the financial question having also been settled, the king, had he been so minded, might have dismissed the Estates. But the still more important question of reform was now raised. On the I7th of September the burgesses introduced a bill proposing a new constitution, which was to include local self-government in the towns, the abolition of serfdom, and the formation of a national army. It fell to the ground for want of adequate support; but another proposition, the fruit of secret discussion between the king and his confederates, which placed all fiefs under the control of the crown as regards taxation, and provided for selling and letting them to the highest bidder, was accepted by the Estate of burgesses. The significance of this ordinance lay in the fact that it shattered the privileged position of the nobility, by abolishing the exclusive right to the possession of fiefs. What happened next is not quite clear. Our sources fail us, and we are at the mercy of doubtful rumours and more or less unreliable anecdotes. We have a vision of in trigues, mysterious conferences, threats and bribery, dimly discernible through a shifting mirage of tradition. The first glint of light is a letter, dated the 23rd of September, from Frederick III. to Svane and Nansen, authorizing them to communicate the arrangements already made to reliable men, and act quickly, as " if the others gain time they may possibly gain more." The first step was to make sure of the city train- bands: of the garrison of Copenhagen the king had no doubt. The headquarters of the conspirators was the bishop's palace near Vor Frue church, between which and the court messages were passing continually, and where the document to be adopted by the Conjoined Estates took its final shape. On the 8th of October the two burgomasters, Hans Nansen and Kristoffer Hansen, proposed that the realm of Denmark should be made over to the king as a hereditary kingdom, without prejudice to theprivilegesof the Estates ; whereupon they proceeded to Brewer's Hall, and informed the Estate of burgesses there assembled of what had been done. A fiery oration from Nansen dissolved some feeble opposition; and simultaneously Bishop Svane carried the clergy along with him. The so-called " Instrument," now signed by the Lower Estates, offered the realm to the king and his house as a hereditary monarchy, by way of thank-offering mainly for his courageous deliverance of the kingdom during the war; and the Rigsraad and the nobility were urged to notify the resolution to the king, and desire him to maintain each Estate in its due privileges, and to give a written counter- assurance that the revolution now to be effected was for the sole benefit of the state. Events now moved forward rapidly. On the loth of October a deputation from the clergy and burgesses proceeded to the Council House where the Rigsraad were de- liberating, to demand an answer to their propositions. After a tumultuous scene, the aristocratic Raad rejected the " Instru- ment " altogether, whereupon the deputies of the commons pro- ceeded to the palace and were graciously received by the king, who promised them an answer next day. The same afternoon the guards in the streets and on the ramparts were doubled; on the following morning the gates of the city were closed, powder and bullets were distributed among the city train-bands, who were bidden to be in readiness when the alarm bell called them, and cavalry was massed on the environs of the city. The same afternoon the king sent a message to the Rigsraad urging them to declare their views quickly, as he could no longer hold himself responsible for what might happen. After a feeble attempt at a compromise the Raad gave way. On the I3th of October it signed a declaration to the effect that it associated itself still with the Lower Estates in the making over of the kingdom, as a hereditary monarchy, to his majesty and his heirs male and female. The same day the king received the official communi- cation of this declaration and the congratulation of the burgo- masters. Thus the ancient constitution was transformed; and Denmark became a monarchy hereditary in Frederick III. and his posterity. But although hereditary sovereignty had been introduced, the laws of the land had not been abolished. The monarch was specifically now a sovereign over-lord, but he had not been absolved from his obligations towards his subjects. Hereditary sovereignty per se was not held to signify unlimited dominion, still less absolutism. On the contrary, the magnificent gift of the Danish nation to Frederick III. wa? made under express conditions. The " Instrument " drawn up by the Lower Estates implied the retention of all their rights; and the king, in accepting the gift of a hereditary crown, did not repudi- ate the implied inviolability of the privileges of the donors. HISTORY] DENMARK 35 Unfortunately everything had been left so vague, that it was an easy matter for ultra-royalists like Svane and Nansen to ignore the privileges of the Estates, and even the Estates themselves. On the 1 4th of October a committee was summoned to the palace to organize the new government. The discussion turned mainly upon two points, (i) whether a new oath of homage should be taken to the king, and (2) what was to be done with the Haandfaestning or royal charter. The first point was speedily decided in the affirmative, and, as to the second, it was ultimately decided that the king should be released from his oath and the charter returned to him ; but a rider was added suggesting that he should, at the same time, promulgate a Recess providing for his own and his people's welfare. Thus Frederick III. was not left absolutely his own master; for the provision regarding a Recess, or new constitution, showed plainly enough that such a constitution was expected, and, once granted, would of course have limited the royal power. It now only remained to execute the resolutions of the com- mittee. On the 1 7th of October the charter, which the king had sworn to observe twelve years before, was solemnly handed back to him at the palace, Frederick III. thereupon promising to rule as a Christian king to the satisfaction of all the Estates of the realm. On the following clay the king, seated on the topmost step of a lofty tribune surmounted by a baldaquin, erected in the midst of the principal square of Copenhagen, received the public homage of his subjects of all ranks, in the presence of an immense concourse, on which occasion he again promised to rule " as a Christian hereditary king and gracious master," and, " as soon as possible, to prepare and set up " such a constitution as should secure to his subjects a Christian and indulgent sway. The ceremony concluded with a grand banquet at the palace. After dinner the queen and the clergy withdrew; but the king remained. An incident now occurred which made a strong impression on all present. With a brimming beaker in his hand, Frederick III. went up to Hans Nansen, drank with him and drew him aside. They communed together in a low voice for some time, till the burgomaster, succumbing to the influence of his potations, fumbled his way to his carriage with the assistance of some of his civic colleagues. Whether Nansen, intoxicated by wine and the royal favour, consented on this occasion to sacrifice the privileges of his order and his city, it is impossible to say; but it is significant that, from henceforth, we hear no more of the Recess which the more liberal of the leaders of the lower orders had hoped for when they released Frederick III. from the obligations of the charter. We can follow pretty plainly the stages of the progress from a limited to an absolute monarchy. By an act dated the icth Establish- °^ JanuarY 1661, entitled " Instrument, or pragmatic meat of sanction," of the king's hereditary right to the king- absolute doms of Denmark and Norway, it was declared that all the prerogatives of majesty.'and " all regalia as an absolute sovereign lord," had been made over to the king. Yet, even after the issue of the " Instrument," there was nothing, strictly speaking, to prevent Frederick III. from voluntarily conceding to his subjects some share in the administration. Unfortunately the king was bent upon still further emphasizing the plenitude of his power. At Copenhagen his advisers were busy framing drafts of a Lex Regia Perpetua ; and the one which finally won the royal favour was the famous Kongelov, or " King's Law." This document was in every way unique. In the first place it is remarkable for its literary excellence. Compared with the barbarous macaronic jargon of the contemporary official language it shines forth as a masterpiece of pure, pithy and original Danish. Still more remarkable are the tone and tenor of this royal law. The Kongelov has the highly dubious honour of being the one written law in the civilized world which fearlessly carries out absolutism to the last consequences. The monarchy is de- clared to owe its origin to the surrender of the supreme authority by the Estates to the king. The maintenance of the indivisi- bility of the realm and of the Christian faith according to the Augsburg Confession, and the observance of the Kongelov itself, are now the sole obligations binding upon the king. The supreme spiritual authority also is now claimed; and it is expressly stated that it becomes none to crown him ; the moment he ascends the throne, crown and sceptre belong to him of right. Moreover, par. 26 declares guilty of llse-majestt whomsoever shall in any way usurp or infringe the king's absolute authority. In the following reign the ultra-royalists went further still. In their eyes the king was not merely autocratic, but sacrosanct. Thus before the anointing of Christian V. on the 7th of June 1671, a ceremony by way of symbolizing the new autocrat's humble submission to the Almighty, the officiating bishop of Zealand delivered an oration in which he declared that the king was God's immediate creation, His vicegerent on earth, and that it was the bounden duty of all good subjects to serve and honour the celestial majesty as represented by the king's terrestrial majesty. The Kongelov is dated and subscribed the I4th of November 1665, but was kept a profound secret, only two initiated persons knowing of its existence until after the death of Frederick III., one of them being Kristoffer Gabel, the king's chief intermediary during the revolution, and the other the author and custodian of the Kongelov, Secretary Peder Schumacher, better known as Griffenfeldt. It is significant that both these confidential agents were plebeians. The revolution of 1660 was certainly beneficial to Norway. With the disappearance of the Rigsraad, which, as representing the Danish crown, had hitherto exercised sovereignty Effa^ of over both kingdoms, Norway ceased to be a subject the revoiu- principality. The sovereign hereditary king stood in tloa of exactly the same relations to both kingdoms; and 1660' thus, constitutionally, Norway was placed on an equality with Denmark, united with but not subordinate to it. It is clear that the majority of the Norwegian people hoped that the revolution would give them an administration independent of the Danish government; but these expectations were not realised. Till the cessation of the Union in 1814, Copenhagen continued to be the headquarters of the Norwegian administra- tion; both kingdoms had common departments of state; and the common chancery continued to be called the Danish chancery. On the other hand the condition of Norway was now greatly improved. In January 1661 a land commission was appointed to investigate the financial and economical conditions of the kingdoms; the fiefs were transformed into counties; the nobles were deprived of their immunity from taxation; and in July 1662 the Norwegian towns received special privileges, including the monopoly of the lucrative timber trade. The Enevaelde, or absolute monarchy, also distinctly benefited the whole Danish state by materially increasing its reserve of native talent. Its immediate consequence was to throw open every state appointment to the middle classes; and the middle classes of that period, with very few exceptions, monopolized the intellect and the energy of the nation. New blood of the best quality nourished and stimulated the whole body politic. Ex- pansion and progress were the watchwords at home, and abroad it seemed as if Denmark were about to regain her former position as a great power. This was especially the case during the brief but brilliant administration of Chancellor Griffenfeldt. Then, if ever, Denmark had the chance of playing once more a leading part in inter- national politics. But Griffenfeldt's difficulties, always serious, were increased by the instability of the European situation, depending as it did on the ambition of Louis XIV. Resolved to conquer the Netherlands, the French king proceeded, first of all, to isolate her by dissolving the Triple Alliance. (See SWEDEN and GRIFFENFELDT.) In April 1672 a treaty was concluded between France and Sweden, on condition that France should not include Denmark in her system of alliances without the consent of Sweden. This treaty showed that Sweden weighed more in the French balances than Denmark. In June 1672 a French army invaded the Netherlands; whereupon the elector of Brandenburg contracted an alliance with the emperor Leopold, to which Denmark was invited to accede; almost simultaneously DENMARK [HISTORY the States-General began to negotiate for a renewal of the recently expired Dano-Dutch alliance. In these circumstances it was as difficult for Denmark to remain neutral as it was dangerous for her to make a choice. a'liance with France would subordinate her to Denmark in the Sweden ; an alliance with the Netnerlands would expose Great her to an attack from Sweden. The Franco-Swedish wZr"1"' alliance left Griffenfeldt no choice but to accede to the opposite league, for he saw at once that the ruin of the Netherlands would disturb the balance of power in the north by giving an undue preponderance to England and Sweden. But Denmark's experience of Dutch promises in the past was not reassuring; so, while negotiating at the Hague for a renewal of the Dutch alliance, he at the same time felt his way at Stockholm towards a commercial treaty with Sweden. His Swedish mission proved abortive, but, as he had anticipated, it effectually acceler- ated the negotiations at the Hague, and frightened the Dutch into unwonted liberality. In May 1673 a treaty of alliance was signed by the ambassador of the States-General at Copenhagen, whereby the Netherlands pledged themselves to pay Denmark large subsidies in return for the services of 10,000 men and twenty warships, which were to be held in readiness in case the United Provinces were attacked by another enemy besides France. Thus, very dexterously, Griffenfeldt had succeeded in gaining his subsidies without sacrificing his neutrality. His next move was to attempt to detach Sweden from France; but, Sweden showing not the slightest inclination for a rapproche- ment, Denmark was compelled to accede to the anti-French league, which she did by the treaty of Copenhagen, of January 1674, thereby engaging to place an army of 20,000 in the field when required; but here again Griffenfeldt safeguarded himself to some extent by stipulating that this provision was not to be operative till the allies were attacked by a fresh enemy. When, in December 1674, a Swedish army invaded Prussian Pomerania, Denmark was bound to intervene as a belligerent, but Griffen- feldt endeavoured to postpone this intervention as long as possible; and Sweden's anxiety to avoid hostilities with her southern neighbour materially assisted him to postpone the evil day. He only wanted to gain time, and he gained it. To the last he endeavoured to avoid a rupture with France even if he broke with Sweden; but he could not restrain for ever the foolish impetuosity of his own sovereign, Christian V., and his fall in the beginning of 1676 not only, as he had foreseen, involved Denmark in an unprofitable war, but, as his friend and disciple, Jens Juel, well observed, relegated her henceforth to the humiliat- ing position of an international catspaw. Thus at the peace of Fontainebleau (September 2, 1679) Denmark, which had borne the brunt of the struggle in the Baltic, was compelled by the inexorable French king to make full restitution to Sweden, the treaty between the two northern powers being signed at Lund on the 26th of September. Freely had she spent her blood and her treasure, only to emerge from the five years' contest exhausted and empty-handed. By the peace of Fontainebleau Denmark had been sacrificed to the interests of France and Sweden; forty-one years later she was sacrificed to the interests of Hanover and Prussia by the peace of Copenhagen (1720), which ended the Northern War so far as the German powers were concerned. But it would not have terminated advantageously for them at all, had not the powerful and highly efficient Danish fleet effectually prevented the Swedish government from succouring its distressed German provinces, and finally swept the Swedish fleets out of the northern waters. Yet all the compensation Denmark received for her inestimable services during a whole decade was 600,000 rix- dollars! The bishoprics of Bremen and Verden, the province of Farther Pomerania and the isle of Riigen which her armies had actually conquered, and which had been guaranteed to her by a whole catena of treaties, went partly to the upstart electorate of Hanover and partly to the upstart kingdom of Prussia, both of which states had been of no political importance whatever at the beginning of the war of spoliation by which they were, ultimately, to profit so largely and so cheaply. The last ten years of the reign of Christian V.'s successor, Frederick IV. (1690-1730), were devoted to the nursing and development of the resources of the country, which had suffered only less severely than Sweden from the effects of the Great Northern War. The court, seriously pious, did much for education. A wise economy also contri- buted to reduce the national debt within manageable limits, and in the welfare of the peasantry Frederick IV. took a deep interest. In 1722 serfdom was abolished in the case of all peasants in the royal estates born after his accession. The first act of Frederick's successor, Christian VI. (1730-1746), was to abolish the national militia, which had been an intoler- able burden upon the peasantry; yet the more pressing agrarian difficulties were not thereby surmounted, chrlstlaa as had been hoped. The price of corn continued ij46?3°~ to fall; the migration of the peasantry assumed alarming proportions; and at last, " to preserve the land " as well as to increase the defensive capacity of the country, the national militia was re-established by the decree of the 4th of February 1733, which at the same time bound to the soil all peasants between the age of nine and forty. Reactionary as the measure was it enabled the agricultural interest, on which the prosperity of Denmark mainly depended, to tide over one of the most dangerous crises in its history; but certainly the position of the Danish peasantry was never worse than during the reign of the religious and benevolent Christian VI. Under the peaceful reign of Christian's son and successor, Frederick V. (1746-1766), still more was done for commerce, industry and agriculture. To promote Denmark's carrying trade, treaties were made with the Barbary States, Genoa and Naples; and the East Indian Trading Company flourished exceedingly. On the other hand the condition of the peasantry was even worse under Frederick V. than it had been under Christian VI., the Stavns- baand, or regulation which bound all males to the soil, being made operative from the age of four. Yet signs of a coming amelioration were not wanting. The theory of the physiocrats now found powerful advocates in Denmark; and after 1755, when the press censorship was abolished so far as regarded political economy and agriculture, a thorough discussion of the whole agrarian question became possible. A commission appointed in 1757 worked zealously for the repeal of many agricultural abuses; and several great landed proprietors introduced heredi- tary leaseholds, and abolished the servile tenure. Foreign affairs during the reigns of Frederick V. and Christian VI. were left in the capable hands of J. H. E. Bernstorff, who aimed at steering clear of all foreign complications and preserving inviolable the neutrality of Denmark. This he succeeded in doing, in spite of the Seven Years' War and of the difficulties attending the thorny Gottorp question in which Sweden and Russia were equally interested. The same policy was victori- ously pursued by his nephew and pupil Andreas Bernstorff, an even greater man than the elder Bernstorff, who controlled the foreign policy of Denmark from 1773 to 1778, and again from 1784 till his death in 1797. The period of the younger Bernstorff synchronizes with the greater part of the long reign of Christian VII. (1766-1808), one of the most eventful periods of modern Danish history. The king himself was indeed a semi-idiot, scarce responsible for his actions, yet his was the era of such striking personalities as the brilliant charlatan Struensee, the great philanthropist and reformer C. D. F. Reventlow, the ultra-conservative Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, whose mission it was to repair'the damage done by Struensee, and that generation of alert and progressive spirits which surrounded the young crown prince Frederick, whose first act, on taking his seat in the council of state, at the age of sixteen, on the 4th of April 1784, was to dismiss Guldberg. A fresh and fruitful period of reform now began, lasting till nearly the end of the century, and interrupted only by the brief but costly war with Sweden in 1788. The emancipation of the peasantry was now the burning question of the day, and the whole matter was thoroughly ventilated. Bernstorff and the HISTORY] DENMARK 37 crown prince were the most zealous advocates of the peasantry in the council of state; but the honour of bringing the whole peasant question within the range of practical politics un- doubtedly belongs to C. D. F. Reventlow (.rd Storm (1749-1794), were associates and mainly fellow- students at Copenhagen, where they introduced a style peculiar to themselves, and distinct from that of the true Danes. Their lyrics celebrated the mountains and rivers of the magnificent country they had left; and, while introducing images and scenery unfamiliar to the inhabitants of monotonous Denmark, they enriched the language with new words and phrases. This group of writers is now claimed by the Norwegians as the founders of a Norwegian literature; but their true place is certainly among the Danes, to whom they primarily appealed. They added 1 His collected works were edited by Fr. Barford (Copenhagen, 5th ed., 1879). _2Wessel's Digte (3rd ed., 1895) are edited by J. Levin, with a biographical introduction. 3 A biography by his friend, K. L. Rahbek, is prefixed to a selection of his poetry (6 vols., 1824-1829). nothing to the development of the drama, except in the person of N. K. Bredal (1733-1778), who became director of the Royal Danish Theatre, and the writer of some mediocre plays. To the same period belong a few prose writers of eminence. Werner Abrahamson (1744-1812) was the first aesthetic critic Denmark produced. Johan Clemens Tode (1736-1806) was eminent in many branches of science, but especially as a medical writer. Ove Mailing (1746-1829) was an untiring collector of historical data, which he annotated in a lively style. Two historians of more definite claim on our attention are Peter Frederik Suhm (1728-1798), whose History of Denmark (n vols., Copenhagen, 1782-1812,) contains a mass of original material, and Ove Guldberg (1731-1808). In theology Christian Bastholm (1740-1819) and Nicolai Edinger Balle (1744-1816), bishop of Zealand, a Norwegian by birth, demand a reference. But the only really great prose-writer of the period was the Norwegian, Niels Treschow (1751-1833), whose philosophical works are composed in an admirably lucid style, and are distinguished for their depth and originality. The poetical revival sank in the next generation to a more mechanical level. The number of writers of some talent was very great, but genius was wanting. Two intimate friends, Jonas Rein (1760-1821) and Jens Zetlitz (1761-1821), attempted, with indifferent success, to continue the tradition of the Norwegian group. Thomas Thaarup (1740-1821) was a fluent and eloquent writer of occasional poems, and of homely dramatic idylls. The early death of Ole Samsoe (1759-1796) prevented the develop- ment of a dramatic talent that gave rare promise. But while poetry languished, prose, for the first time, began to flourish in Denmark. Knud Lyne Rahbek (1760-1830) was a pleasing novelist, a dramatist of some merit, a pathetic elegist, and a witty song-writer; he was also a man full of the literary instinct, and through a long life he never ceased to busy himself with editing the works of the older poets, and spreading among the people a knowledge of Danish literature through his magazine, Minerva, edited in conjunction with C. H. Pram. Peter Andreas Heiberg (1758-1841) was a political and aesthetic critic of note. Hewas exiled from Denmark in company with another sympathizer with the principles of the French Revolution, Malte Conrad Brunn (1775-1826), who settled in Paris, and attained a world-wide reputation as a geographer. O. C. Olufsen (1764-1827) was a writer on geography, zoology and political economy. Rasmus Nyerup (1759-1829) expended an immense energy in the compila- tion of admirable works on the history of language and literature. From 1 7 78 to his death he exercised a great power in the statistical and critical departments of letters. The best historian of this period, however, was Engelstoft (1774-1850), and the most brilliant theologian Bishop Mynster (1775-1854). In the annals of modern science Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851) is a name universally honoured. He explained his inventions and described his discoveries in language so lucid and so characteristic that he claims an honoured place in the literature of the country of whose culture, in other branches, he is one of the most distinguished ornaments. On the threshold of the romantic movement occurs the name of Jens Baggesen (q.v.; 1764-1826), a man of great genius, whose work was entirely independent of the influences around him. Jens Baggesen is the greatest comic poet that Denmark has produced; and as a satirist and witty lyrist he has no rival among the Danes. In his hands the difficulties of the language disappear; he performs with the utmost ease extraordinary tours de force of style. His astonishing talents were wasted on trifling themes and in a fruitless resistance to the modern spirit in literature. Romanticism. — With the beginning of the I9th century the new light in philosophy and poetry, which radiated from Germany through all parts of Europe, found its way into Denmark also. In scarcely any country was the result so rapid or so brilliant. There arose in Denmark a school of poets who created for them- selves a reputation in all parts of Europe, and would have done honour to any nation or any age. The splendid cultivation of metrical art threw other branches into the shade; and the epoch DENMARK [LITERATURE of which we are about to speak is eminent above all for mastery over verse. The swallow who heralded the summer was a German by birth, Adolph Wilhelm Schack von Staffeldt1 (1769- 1826), who came over to Copenhagen from Pomerania, and prepared the way for the new movement. Since Ewald no one had written Danish lyrical verse so exquisitely as Schack von Staffeldt, and the depth and scientific precision of his thought won him a title which he has preserved, of being the first philo- sophic poet of Denmark. The writings of this man are the deepest and most serious which Denmark had produced, and at his best he yields to no one in choice and skilful use of expression. This sweet song of Schack von Staffeldt's, however, was early silenced by the louder choir that one by one broke into music around him. It was Adam Gottlob Ohlenschlager (q.ii.; 1779- 1850), the greatest poet of Denmark, who was to bring about the new romantic movement. In 1802 he happened to meet the young Norwegian Henrik Steffens (1773-1845), who had just returned from a scientific tour in Germany, full of the doctrines of Schelling. Under the immediate direction of Steffens, Ohlenschlager began an entirely new poetic style, and destroyed all his earlier verses. A new epoch in the language began, and the rapidity and matchless facility of the new poetry was the wonder of Steffens himself. The old Scandinavian mythology lived in the hands of Ohlenschlager exactly as the classical Greek religion was born again in Keats. He aroused in his people the slumbering sense of their Scandinavian nationality. The retirement of Ohlenschlager comparatively early in life, left the way open for the development of his younger con- temporaries, among whom several had genius little inferior to his own. Steen Steensen Blicher (1782-1848) was a Jutlander, and preserved all through life the characteristics of his sterile and sombre fatherland. After a struggling youth of great poverty, he published, in 1807-1809, a translation of Ossian; in 1814 a volume of lyrical poems; and in 1817 he attracted considerable attention by his descriptive poem of The Tour in Jutland. His real genius, however, did not lie in the direction of verse; and his first signal success was with a story, A Village Sexton's Diary, in 1824, which was rapidly followed by other tales, descriptive of village life in Jutland, for the next twelve years. These were collected in five volumes (1833-1836). His masterpiece is a collec- tion of short stories, called The Spinning Room. He also produced many national lyrics of great beauty. But it was Blicher's use of patois which delighted his countrymen with a sense of freshness and strength. They felt as though they heard Danish for the first time spoken in its fulness. The poet Aarestrup (in 1 848) declared that Blicher had raised the Danish language to the dignity of Icelandic. Blicher is a stern realist, in many points akin to Crabbe, and takes a singular position among the romantic idealists of the period, being like them, however, in the love of precise and choice language, and hatred of the mere common- places of imaginative writing.2 Nikolai Frederik Severin Grundtvig (q.v.; 1783-1872), like Ohlenschlager, learned the principles of the German romanticism from the lips of Steffens. He adopted the idea of introducing the Old Scandinavian element into art, and even into life, still more earnestly than the older poet. Bernhard Severin Ingemann (q.v.; 1789-1862) contributed to Danish literature historical romances in the style of Sir Walter Scott. Johannes Carsten Hauch (q.v.; 1790-1872) first distinguished himself as a disciple of Ohlenschlager, and fought under him in the strife against the old school and Baggesen. But the master misunderstood the disciple; and the harsh repulse of Ohlenschlager silenced Hauch for many years. He possessed, however, a strong and fluent genius, which eventually made itself heard in a multitude of volumes, poems, dramas and novels. All that Hauch wrote is marked by great qualities, and by distinction; he had a native bias towards the mystical, which, however, he learned to keep in abeyance. 1 See F. L. Liebenberg, Schack Staff eldts samlede Digte (2 vols., Copenhagen, 1843), and Samlinger til Schack Staff eldts Levnet (4 vols., 1846-1851). * Blicher's Tales were edited by P. Hansen (3 vols., Copenhagen, 1871), and his Poems in 1870. Johan Ludvig Heiberg (q.v.; 1791-1860) was a critic who ruled the world of Danish taste for many years. His mother, the Baroness Gyllembourg-Ehrensvard (q.v.; 1773-1856), wrote a large number of anonymous novels. Her knowledge of life, her sparkling wit and her almost faultless style, make these short stories masterpieces of their kind. Christian Hviid Bredahl (1784-1860) produced six volumes of Dramatic Scenes3 (1810-1833) which, in spite of their many brilliant qualities, were little appreciated at the time. Bredahl gave up literature in despair to become a peasant farmer, and died in poverty. Ludvig Adolf Bodtcher (1793-1874) wrote a single volume of lyrical poems, which he gradually enlarged in succeeding editions. He was a consummate artist in verse, and his impressions are given with the most delicate exactitude of phrase, and in a very fine strain of imagination. He was a quietist and an epicurean, and the closest parallel to Horner in the literature of the North. Most of Bodtcher's poems deal with Italian life, which he learned to know thoroughly during a long residence in Rome. He was secretary to Thorwaldsen for a considerable time. Christian Winther (q.v.; 1796-1876) made the island of Zealand his loving study, and that province of Denmark belongs to him no less thoroughly than the Cumberland lakes belong to Wordsworth. Between the latter poet and Winther there was much resemblance. He was, without compeer, the greatest pastoral lyrist of Denmark. His exquisite strains, in which pure imagination is blended with most accurate and realistic descrip- tions of scenery and rural life, have an extraordinary charm not easily described. The youngest of the great poets born during the last twenty years of the i8th century was Henrik Hertz (q.v.; 1797-1870). As a satirist and comic poet he followed Baggesen, and hi all branches of the poetic art stood a little aside out of the main current of romanticism. He introduced into the Danish literature of his time inestimable elements of lucidity and purity. In his best pieces Hertz is the most modern and most cosmopolitan of the Danish writers of his time. It is noticeable that all the great poets of the romantic period lived to an advanced age. Their prolonged literary activity — for some of them, like Grundtvig, were busy to the last — had a slightly damping influence on their younger contemporaries, but certain names in the next generation have special prominence. Hans Christian Andersen (q.v.; 1805-1875) was the greatest of modern fabulists. In 1835 there appeared the first collection of his Fairy Tales, and won him a world-wide reputation. Almost every year from this time forward until near his death he published about Christmas time one or two of these unique stories, so delicate in their humour and pathos, and so masterly in their simplicity. Carl Christian Bagger (1807-1846) published volumes in 1834 and 1836 which gave promise of a great future, — a promise broken by his early death. Frederik Paludan-Muller (q.v.; 1809-1876) developed, as a poet, a magnificent career, which contrasted in its abundance with his solitary and silent life as a man. His mythological or pastoral dramas, his great satiric epos of Adam Homo (1841-1848), his comedies, his lyrics, and above all his noble philosophic tragedy of Kalanus, prove the immense breadth of his compass, and the inexhaustible riches of his imagination. C. L. Emil Aarestrup (1800-1856) published in 1838 a volume of vivid erotic poetry, but its quality was only appreciated after his death. Edvard Lembcke (1815-1897) made himself famous as the admirable translator of Shakespeare, but the incidents of 1864 produced from him some volumes of direct and manly patriotic verse. The poets completely ruled the literature of Denmark during this period. There were, however, eminent men in other depart- ments of letters, and especially in philology. Rasmus Christian Rask (1787-1832) was one of the most original and gifted linguists of his age. His grammars of Old Frisian, Icelandic and Anglo- Saxon were unapproached in his own time, and are still admirable. Niels Matthias Petersen (1791-1862), a disciple of Rask, was the author of an admirable History of Denmark in the Heathen * Edited (3 vols., and ed., 1855, Copenhagen) by F. L. Liebenberg. LITERATURE] DENMARK 43 Antiquity, and the translator of many of the sagas. Martin Frederik Arendt (1773-1823), the botanist and archaeologist, did much for the study of old Scandinavian records. Christian Molbech (1783-1857) was a laborious lexicographer, author of the first good Danish dictionary, published in 1833. In Joachim Frederik Schouw ( 1 789-185 2) , Denmark produced a very eminent botanist, author of an exhaustive Geography of Plants. In later years he threw himself with zeal into politics. His botanical researches were carried on by Frederik Liebmann (1813-1856). The most famous zoologist contemporary with these men was Salomon Dreier (1813-1842). The romanticists found their philosopher in a most remarkable man, Soren Aaby Kierkegaard (1813-1855), one of the most subtle thinkers of Scandinavia, and the author of some brilliant philosophical and polemical works. A learned philosophical writer, not to be compared, however, for genius or originality to Kierkegaard, was Frederik Christian Sibbern (1785-1872). He wrote a dissertation On Poetry and Art (3 vols., 1853-1869) and The Contentsjtf a MS. from the Year 2133 (3 vols., 1858-1872). Among novelists who were not also poets was Andreas Nikolai de Saint-Aubain (1798-1865), who, under the pseudonym of Carl Bernhard, wrote a series of charming romances. Mention must also be made of two dramatists, Peter Thun Feorsom (i777-i8i7),who produced an excellent translation of Shakespeare (1807-1816), and Thomas Overskou (1798-1873), author of a long series of successful comedies, and of a history of the Danish theatre (5 vols., Copenhagen, 1854-1864). Other writers whose names connect the age of romanticism with a later period were Meyer Aron Goldschmidt (1819-1887), author of novels and tales; Herman Frederik Ewald (1821-1908), who wrote a long series of historical novels; Jens Christian Hostrup (1818-1892), a writer of exquisite comedies; and the miscellaneous writer Erik Bogh (1822-1899). In zoology, J. J. S. Steenstrup (1813-1898); in philology, J. N. Madvig (1804-1886) and his disciple V. Thomsen (b. 1842); in anti- quarianism, C. J. Thomsen (1788-1865) and J. J. Asmussen Worsaae (1821-1885); and in philosophy, Rasmus Nielsen (1809-1884) and Hans Brochner (1820-1875), deserve mention. The development of imaginative literature in Denmark became very closely defined during the latter half of the igth century. The romantic movement culminated in several poets of great eminence, whose deaths prepared the way for a new school. In 1874 Bodtcher passed away, in 1875 Hans Christian Andersen, in the last week of 1876 Winther, and the greatest of all, Frederik Paludan-Miiller. The field was therefore left open to the successors of those idealists, and in 1877 the reaction began to be felt. The eminent critic, Dr Georg Brandes (q.v.), had long foreseen the decline of pure romanticism, and had advocated a more objective and more exact treatment of literary phenomena. Accordingly, as soon as all the great planets had disappeared, a new constellation was perceived to have risen, and all the stars in it had been lighted by the enthusiasm of Brandes. The new writers were what he called Naturalists, and their sympathies were with the latest forms of exotic, but particularly of French literature. Among these fresh forces three immediately took place as leaders — Jacobsen, Drachmann and Schandorph. In J. P. Jacobsen (q.v.; 1847-1885) Denmark was now taught to welcome the greatest artist in prose which she has ever pos- sessed; his romance of Marie Grubbe led off the new school "with a production of unexampled beauty. But Jacobsen died young, and the work was really carried out by his two companions. Holger Drachmann (q.v.; 1846-1908) began life as a marine painter; and a first little volume of poems, which he published in 1872, attracted slight attention. In 1877 he came forward again with one volume of verse, another of fiction, a third of travel; in each he displayed great vigour and freshness of touch, and he rose at one leap to the highest position among men of promise. Drach- mann retained his place, without rival, as the leading imaginative writer in Denmark. For many years he made the aspects of life at sea his particular theme, and he contrived to rouse the patriotic enthusiasm of the Danish public as it had never been roused before. His various and unceasing productiveness, his freshness and vigour, and the inexhaustible richness of his lyric versatility, early brought Drachmann to the front and kept him there. Meanwhile prose imaginative literature was ably sup- ported by Sophus Schandorph (1836-1901), who had been entirely out of sympathy with the idealists, and had taken no step while that school was in the ascendant. In 1876, in his fortieth year, he was encouraged by the change in taste to publish a volume of realistic stories, Country Life, and in 1878 a novel, Without a Centre. He has some relation with Guy de Maupassant as a close analyst of modern types of character, but he has more humour. He has been compared with such Dutch painters of low life as Teniers. His talent reached its height in the novel called Little Folk (1880), a most admirable study of lower middle-class life in Copenhagen. He was for a while, without doubt, the leading living novelist, and he went on producing works of great force, in which, however, a certain motonony is apparent. The three leaders had meanwhile been joined by certain younger men who took a prominent position. Among these Karl Gjellerup and Erik Skram were the earliest. Gjellerup (b. 1857), whose first works of importance date from 1878, was long uncertain as to the direction of his powers; he was poet, novelist, moralist and biologist in one; at length he settled down into line with the new realistic school, and produced in 1882 a satirical novel of manners which had a great success, The Disciple of the Teutons. Erik Skram (b. 1847) had in 1879 written a solitary novel, Gertrude Coldbjornsen, which created a sensation, and was hailed by Brandes as ex- actly representing the " naturalism " which he desired to see encouraged; but Skram has written little else of importance. Other writers of reputation in the naturalistic school were Edvard Brandes (b. 1847), and Herman Bang (b. 1858). Peter Nansen (b. 1861) has come into wide notoriety as the author, in particularly beautiful Danish, of a series of stories of a pronouncedly sexual type, among which Maria (1894) has been the most successful. Meanwhile, several of the elder generation, unaffected by the movement of realism, continued to please the public. Three lyrical poets, H. V. Kaalund (1818-1885), Carl Ploug (1813-1894) and Christian Richardt (1831-1892), of very great talent, were not yet silent, and among the veteran novelists were still active H. F. Ewald and Thomas Lange (1829-1887). Ewald's son Carl (1856-1908) achieved a great name as a novelist, but did his most characteristic work in a series of books for children, in which he used the fairy tale, in the manner of Hans Andersen, as a vehicle for satire and a theory of morals. During the whole of this period the most popular writer of Denmark was J. C. C. Brosboll (1816-1900), who wrote, under the pseudonym Cant Etlar, a vast number of tales. Another popular novelist was Vilhelm Bergsoe (b. 1835), author of In the Sabine Mountains (1871), and other romances. Sophus Bauditz(b. 1850) persevered in composing novels which attain a wide general popularity. Mention must be made also of the dramatist Christian Molbech (1821-1888). Between 1885 and 1892 there was a transitional period in Danish literature. Up to that time all the leaders had been united in accepting the naturalistic formula, which was combined with an individualist and a radical tendency. In 1885, however, Drachmann, already the recognized first poet of the country, threw off his allegiance to Brandes, denounced the exotic|tradition, declared himself a Conservative, and took up a national and patriotic attitude. He was joined a little later by Gjellerup, while Schandorph remained stanchly by the side of Brandes. The camp was thus divided. New writers began to make their appearance, and, while some of these were stanch to Brandes, others were inclined to hold rather with Drachmann. Of the authors who came forward during this period of transition, the strongest novelist proved to be Hendrik Pontoppidan (b. 1857). In some of his books he reminds the reader of Turgeniev. Pontoppidan published in 1 898 the first volume of a great novel entitled Lykke- Per, the biography of a typical Jutlander named Per Sidenius, a work to be completed in eight volumes. From 1893 to 1909 no great features of a fresh kind revealed themselves. The Danish public, grown tired of realism, and satiated with pathological phenomena, returned to a fresh study of their own national 44 DENNERY— DENNIS characteristics. The cultivation of verse, which was greatly dis- couraged in the eighties, returned. Drachmann was supported by excellent younger poets of his school. J. J. Jorgensen (b. 1866), a Catholic decadent, was very prolific. Otto C. Fonss (b. 1853) published seven little volumes of graceful lyrical poems in praise of gardens and of farm-life. Andreas Dolleris (b. 1850), of Vejle, showed himself an occasional poet of merit. Alfred Ipsen (b. 1852) must also be mentioned as a poet and critic. Valdemar Rb'rdam, whose The Danish Tongue was the lyrical success of 1901, may also be named. Some attempts were made to transplant the theories of the symbolists to Denmark, but without signal success. On the other hand, something of a revival of naturalism is to be observed in the powerful studies of low life admirably written by Karl Larsen (b. 1860). The drama has long flourished in Denmark. The principal theatres are liberally open to fresh dramatic talent of every kind, and the great fondness of the Danes for this form of entertain- ment gives unusual scope for experiments in halls or private theatres; nothing is too eccentric to hope to obtain somewhere a fair hearing. Drachmann produced with very great success several romantic dramas founded on the national legends. Most of the novelists and poets already mentioned also essayed the stage, and to those names should be added these of Einar Christiansen (b. 1861), Ernst von der Recke (b. 1848), Oskar Benzon (b. 1856) and Gustav Wied (b. 1838). In theology no names were as eminent as in the preceding generation, in which such writers as H. N. Clausen (1793-1877), and still more Hans Lassen Martensen (1808-1884), lifted the prestige of Danish divinity to a high point. But in history the Danes have been very active. Karl Ferdinand Allen (181 1-1871) began a comprehensive history of the Scandinavian kingdoms (5 vols., 1864-1872). Jens Peter Trap (1810-1885) concluded his great statistical account of Denmark in 1879. The i6th century was made the subject of the investigations of Troels Lund (?.».). About 1880 several of the younger historians formed the plan of combining to investigate and publish the sources of Danish history; in this the indefatigable Johannes Steenstrup (b. 1844) was prominent. The domestic history of the country began, about 1885, to occupy the attention of Edvard Holm (b. 1833), O. Nielsen and the veteran P. Frederik Barfod (1811-1896). The naval histories of G. Liitken attracted much notice. Besides the names already mentioned, A. D. J6rgensen (1840-1897), J. Fredericia (b. 1849), Christian Erslev (b. 1852) and Vilhelm Mollerup have all distinguished them- selves in the excellent school of Danish historians. In 1896 an elaborate composite history of Denmark was undertaken by some leading historians (pub. 1897-1905). In philosophy nothing has recently been published of the highest value. Martensen's Jakob Bohme (1881) belongs to an earlier period. H. Hoffding (b. 1843) has been the most prominent contributor to psychology. His Problems of Philosophy and his Philosophy of Religion were translated into English in 1906. Alfred Lehmann (b. 1858) has, since 1896, attracted a great deal of attention by his sceptical investigation of psychical phenomena. F. Ronning has written on the history of thought in Denmark. In the criticism of art, Julius Lange (1838-1896), and later Karl Madsen, have done excellent service. In literary criticism Dr Georg Brandes is notable for the long period during which he remained pre- dominant. His was a steady and stimulating presence, ever pointing to the best in art and thought, and his influence on his age was greater than that of any other Dane. AUTHORITIES. — R. Nyerup, Den danske Digtekunsts Historie (1800-1808), and Almindeligt Literaturlexikon (1818-1820); N. M. Petersen, Literaturhistorie (2nd ed., 1867-1871, 5 vols.); Oyerskpu, Den danske Skueplads (1854-1866, 5 vols.), with a continuation (2 vols., 1873-1876) by E Collin; Chr. Bruun, Bibliotheca Danica (3 vols., 1872-1896) ; Bricka, Dansk biografisk Lexikon (1887-1901) ; J. Paludan, Danmarks Literatur i Middelalderen (Copenhagen, 1896) ; P. Hansen, Illustreret Dansk Literaturhistorie (3 vols., 1901-1902); F. W. Horn, History of the Scandinavian North from the most ancient times to the present (English translation by Rasmus B. Anderson (Chicago, 1 884), with bibliographical appendix by Thorwald Solberg) ; Ph. Schweitzer, Geschichte der Skandinavischen Litteratur (3 pts., Leipzig, 1886-1889), forming vol. viii. of the Geschichte der Welt- litteratur. See also Brandes, Kritiker og Portraiter (1870); Brandes, Danske Dilgere (1877); Marie Herzfeld, Die Skandinavische Litteratur und ihre Tendenzen (Berlin and Leipzig, 1898) ; Hjalmar Hjorth Boyesen, Essays on Scandinavian Literature (London, 1895); Edmund Gosse, Studies in the Literature of Northern Europe (newed., London, 1883); Vilhelm Andersen, Litteraturbilleder (Copenhagen, 1903); A. P. J. Schener, Kortfattet Indledning til Romantikkus Periode i Danmarks Litteratur (Copenhagen, 1894). (E. G.) DENNERY, or D'ENNERY, ADOLPHE (1811-1899), French dramatist and novelist, whose real surname was PHILIPPE, was born in Paris on the I7th of June 1811. He obtained his first success in collaboration with Charles Desnoyer in Emile, ou le fils d'un pair de France (1831), a drama which was the first of a series of some two hundred pieces written alone or in collaboration with other dramatists.' Among the best of them may be mentioned Gaspard Hauser (1838) with Anicet Bourgeois; Les Bohemiens de Paris (1842) with Eugene Grange; with Mallian, Marie-Jeanne, ou la femme du peuple (1845), in which Madame Dorval obtained a great success; La Case d'Oncle Tom (1853); Les Deux Orphelines (1875), perhaps his best piece, with Eugene Cormon. He wrote the libretto^for Gounod's Tribut de Zamora (1881); with Louis Gallet and Edouard Blan he composed the book of Massenet's Cid (1885); and, again in collaboration with Eugene Cormon, the books of Auber's operas, Le Premier Jour de bonheur (1868) and Reve d' amour (1869). He prepared for the stage Balzac's posthumous comedy Mercadet ou le faiseur, presented at the Gymnase theatre in 1851. Reversing the usual order of procedure, Dennery adapted some of his plays to the form of novels. He died in Paris in 1899. DENNEWITZ, a village of Germany, in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, near Juterbog, 40 m. S.W. from Berlin. It is memorable as the scene of a decisive battle on the 6th of September 1813, in which Marshal Ney, with an army of 58,000 French, Saxons and Poles, was defeated with great loss by 50,000 Prussians under Generals Billow (afterwards Count Billow of Dennewitz) and Tauentzien. The site of the battle is marked by an iron obelisk. DENNIS, JOHN (1657-1734), English critic and dramatist, the son of a saddler, was born in London in 1657. He was educated at Harrow School and Caius College, Cambridge, where he took his B.A. degree in 1679. In the next year he was fined and dis- missed from his college for having wounded a fellow-student with a sword. He was, however, received at Trinity Hall, where he took his M.A. degree in 1683. After travelling in France and Italy, he settled in London, where he became acquainted with Dryden, Wycherley and others; and being made temporarily independent by inheriting a small fortune, he devoted himself to literature. The duke of Marlborough procured him a place as one of the queen's waiters in the customs with a salary of £ 1 20 a year. This he afterwards disposed of for a small sum, retaining, at the suggestion of Lord Halifax, a yearly charge upon it for a long term of years. Neither the poems nor the plays of Dennis are of any account, although one of his tragedies, a violent attack on the French in harmony with popular prejudice, entitled Liberty Asserted, was produced with great success at Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1704. His sense of his own importance approached mania, and he is said to have desired the duke of Marlborough to have a special clause inserted in the treaty of Utrecht to secure him from French vengeance. Marlborough pointed out that although he had been a still greater enemy of the French nation, he had no fear for his own security. This tale and others of a similar nature may well be exaggerations prompted by his enemies, but the infirmities of character and temper indicated in them were real. Dennis is best remembered as a critic, and Isaac D 'Israeli, who took a by no means favourable view of Dennis, said that some of his criticisms attain classical rank. The earlier ones, which have nothing of the rancour that afterwards gained him the nickname of " Furius," are the best. They are Remarks . . . (1696), on Blackmore's epic of Prince Arthur; Letters upon Several Occasions written by and between Mr Dryden, Mr Wycherley, Mr Moyle, Mr Gangrene and Mr Dennis, published by Mr Dennis (1696); two pamphlets in reply to Jeremy Collier's Short View; The Advancement and Reformation of DENOMINATION— DENOTATION 45 Modern Poetry (1701), perhaps his most important work ; The Grounds of Criticism in Poetry (i 704), in which he argued that the ancients owed their superiority over the moderns in poetry to their religious attitude; an Essay upon Publick Spirit . . . (1711), in which he inveighs against luxury, and servile imitation of foreign fashions and customs; and Essay on the Genius and Writings of Shakespeare in three Letters (1712). Dennis had been offended by a humorous quotation made from his works by Addison, and published in 1713 Remarks upon Colo. Much of this criticism was acute and sensible, and it is quoted at considerable length by Johnson in his Life of Addison, but there is no doubt that Dennis was actuated by personal jealousy of Addison's success. Pope replied in The Narrative of Dr Robert N orris, concerning the strange and deplorable frenzy of John Dennis . . . (1713). This pamphlet was full of personal abuse, exposing Dennis's foibles, but offering no defence of Cato. Addison repudiated any connivance in this attack, and in- directly notified Dennis that when he did answer his objections, it would be without personalities. Pope had already assailed Dennis in 1711 in the Essay on Criticism, as Appius. Dennis retorted by Reflections, Critical and Satirical . . . , a scurrilous production in which he taunted Pope with his deformity, saying among other things that he was " as stupid and as venomous as a hunch-backed toad." He also wrote in 1717 Remarks upon Mr Pope's Translation of Homer . . . and A True Character of Mr Pope. He accordingly figures in the Dunciad, and in a scathing note in the edition of 1729 (bk. i. i. 106) Pope quotes his more outrageous attacks, and adds an insulting epigram attributed to Richard Savage, but now generally ascribed to Pope. More pamphlets followed, but Dennis's day was over. He outlived his annuity from the customs, and his last years were spent in great poverty. Bishop Atterbury sent him money, and he received a small sum annually from Sir Robert Walpole. A benefit performance was organized at the Haymarket (December 18, 1733) on his behalf. Pope wrote for the occasion an ill-natured prologue which Gibber recited. Dennis died within three weeks of this performance, on the 6th of January 1734. His other works include several plays, for one of which, Appius and Virginia (1709), he invented a new kind of thunder. He wrote a curious Essay on the Operas after the Italian Manner (1706), main- taining that opera was the outgrowth of effeminate manners, and should, as such, be suppressed. His Works were published in 1702, Select Works ... (2 vols.) in 1718, and Miscellaneous Tracts, the first volume only of which appeared, in 1727. For accounts of Dennis see Gibber's Lives of the Poets, vol. iv. ; Isaac D'Israeli's essays on Pope and Addison in the Quarrels of Authors, and " On the Influence of a Bad Temper in Criticism " in Calamities of Authors; and numerous references in Pope's Works. DENOMINATION (Lat. denominare, to give a specific name to), the giving of a specific name to anything, hence the name or designation of a person or thing, and more particularly of a class of persons or things; thus, in arithmetic, it is applied to a unit in a system of weights and measures, currency or numbers. The most general use of " denomination " is for a body of persons holding specific opinions and having a common name, especially with reference to the religious opinions of such a body. More particularly the word is used of the various " sects " into which members of a common religious faith may be divided. The term " denominationalism " is thus given to the principle of emphasiz- ing the distinctions, rather than the common ground, in the faith held by different bodies professing one sort of religious belief. This use is particularly applied to that system of religious education which lays stress on the principle that children belonging to a particular religious sect should be publicly taught in the tenets of their belief by members belonging to it and under the general control of the ministers of the denomination. DENON, DOMINIQUE VIVANT, BARON DE (1747-1825), French artist and archaeologist, was born at Chalon-sur-Saone on the 4th of January 1747. He was sent to Paris to study law, but he showed a decided preference for art and literature, and soon gave up his profession. In his twenty-third year he pro- duced a comedy, Le Bon Pere, which obtained a succes d'estime, as he had already won a position in society by his agreeable manners and exceptional conversational powers. He became a favourite of Louis XV., who entrusted him with the collection and arrange- ment of a cabinet of medals and antique gems for Madame de Pompadour, and subsequently appointed him attache to the French embassy at St Petersburg. On the accession of Louis XVI. Denon was transferred to Sweden; but he returned, after a brief interval, to Paris with the ambassador M. de Vergennes, who had been appointed foreign minister. In 1775 Denon was sent on a special mission to Switzerland, and took the oppor- tunity of visiting Voltaire at Ferney. He made a portrait of the philosopher, which was engraved and published on his return to Paris. His next diplomatic appointment was to Naples, where he spent seven years, first as secretary to the embassy and after- wards as charge d'affaires. He devoted this period to a careful study of the monuments of ancient art, collecting many specimens and making drawings of others. He also perfected himself in etching and mezzotinto engraving. The death of his patron, M. de Vergennes, in 1787, led to his recall, and the rest of his life was given mainly to artistic pursuits. On his return to Paris he was admitted a member of the Academy of Painting. After a brief interval he returned to Italy, living chiefly at Venice. He also visited Florence and Bologna, and afterwards went to Switzerland. While there he heard that his property had been confiscated, and his name placed on the list of the proscribed, and with characteristic courage he resolved at once to return to Paris. His situation was critical, but he was spared, thanks to the friendship of the painter David, who obtained for him a com- mission to furnish designs for republican costumes. When the Revolution was over, Denon was one of the band of eminent men who frequented the house of Madame de Beauharnais. Here he met Bonaparte, to whose fortunes he wisely attached himself. At Bonaparte's invitation he joined the expedition to Egypt, and thus found the opportunity of gathering the materials for his most important literary and artistic work. He accompanied General Desaix to Upper Egypt, and made numerous sketches of the monuments of ancient art, sometimes under the very fire of the enemy. The results were published in his Voyage dans la basse el la haute Egypte (2 vols. fol., with 141 plates, Paris, 1802), a work which crowned his reputation both as an archaeologist and as an artist. In 1804 he was appointed by Napoleon to the important office of director-general of museums, which he filled until the restoration in 1815, when he had to retire. He was a devoted friend of Napoleon, whom he accompanied in his ex- peditions to Austria, Spain and Poland, taking sketches with his wonted fearlessness on the various battlefields, and advising the conqueror in his choice of spoils of art from the various cities pillaged. After his retirement he began an illustrated history of ancient and modern art, in which he had the co-operation of several skilful engravers. He died at Paris on the 27th of April 1825, leaving the work unfinished. It was published posthu- mously, with an explanatory text by Amaury Duval, under the title Monuments des arts du dessin chez les peuples tant anciens que modernes, recueillis par Vivant Denon (4 vols. fol., Paris, 1829) . Denon was the author of a novel, Point de lendemain (1777), of which further editions were printed in 1812, 1876 and 1879. See J. Renouvier, Histoire de I'art pendant la Revolution; A. de la Fizeliere, L'CEuvre originate de Vivant-Denon (2 vols., Paris, 1872- 1873); Roger Portallis, Les Dessinateurs d' illustrations au XVIII' siecle; D. H. Beraldi, Les Craveurs d' illustrations au XVIII" siecle. DENOTATION (from Lat. denotare, to mark out, specify), in logic, a technical term used strictly as the correlative of Con- notation, to describe one of the two functions of a concrete term. The concrete term " connotes " attributes and " denotes " all the individuals which, as possessing these attributes, constitute the genus or species described by the term. Thus " cricketer " denotes the individuals who play cricket, and connotes the qualities or characteristics by which these individuals are marked. In this sense, in which it was first used by J. S. Mill, Denotation is equivalent to Extension, and Connotation to Intension. It is clear that when the given term is qualified by a limiting adjective the Denotation or Extension diminishes, while the Connotation or Intension increases; e.g. a generic term like "flower" has a larger Extension, and a smaller Intension than " rose ": " rose " 46 DENS— DENSITY than " moss-rose." In more general language Denotation is used loosely for that which is meant or indicated by a word, phrase, sentence or even an action. Thus a proper name or even an abstract term is said to have Denotation. (See CONNOTATION.) DENS, PETER (1690-1775), Belgian Roman Catholic theo- logian, was born at Boom near Antwerp. Most of his life was spent in the archiepiscopal college of Malines, where he was for twelve years reader in theology and for forty president. His great work was the Theologia moralis el dogmatica, a compendium in catechetical form of Roman Catholic doctrine and ethics which has been much used as a students' text-book. Dens died on the isth of February 1775. DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick), in physics, the mass or quantity of matter contained in unit volume of any substance: this is the absolute density; the term relative density or specific gravity denotes the ratio of the mass of a certain volume of a substance to the mass of the same volume of some standard substance. Since the weights used in conjunction with a balance are really standard masses, the word " weight " may be substituted for the word " mass " in the preceding definitions; and we may symbolically express the relations thus: — If M be the weight of substance occupying a volume V, then the absolute density A = M/V; and if m, mi be the weights of the substance and of the standard substance which occupy the same volume, the relative density or specific gravity S = m\m\, or more generally if tm\ be the weight of a volume v of the substance, and mi the weight of a volume i\ of the standard, then S = rrm\lm\v. In the numerical expression of absolute densities it is necessary to specify the units of mass and volume employed; while in the case of relative densities, it is only necessary to specify the standard substance, since the result is a mere number. Absolute densities are generally stated in the C.G.S. system, i.e. as grammes per cubic centimetre. In commerce, however, other expressions are met with, as, for example, " pounds per cubic foot " (used for woods, metals, &c.), " pounds per gallon," &c. The standard substances employed to determine relative densities are: water for liquids and solids, and hydrogen or atmospheric air for gases; oxygen (as 16) is sometimes used in this last case. Other standards of reference may be used in special connexions; for example, the Earth is the usual unit for expressing the relative density of the other members of the solar system. Reference should be made to the article GRAVITATION for an account of the methods employed to determine the " mean density of the earth." In expressing the absolute or relative density of any substance, it is necessary to specify the conditions for which the relation holds: in the case of gases, the temperature and pressure of the experimental gas (and of the standard, in the case of relative density) ; and in the case of solids and liquids, the temperature. The reason for this is readily seen; if a mass M of any gas occupies a volume V at a temperature T (on the absolute scale) and a pressure P, then its absolute density under these conditions is A = M/V; if now the temperature and pressure be changed to Ti and PI, the volume Vi under these conditions is VPT/PiTi, and the absolute density is MPiT/VPTi. It is customary to re- duce gases to the so-called " normal temperature and pressure," abbreviated to N.T.P., which is o° C. and 760 mm. The relative densities of gases are usually expressed in terms of the standard gas under the same conditions. The density gives very important information as to the molecular weight, since by the law of Avogadro it is seen that the relative density is the ratio of the molecular weights of the experimental and standard gases. In the case of liquids and solids, comparison with water at 4° C., the temperature of the maximum density of water; at o° C., the zero of the Centigrade scale and the freezing- point of water; at 15° and 18°, ordinary room-temperatures; and at 25°, the temperature at which a thermostat may be conveniently maintained, are common in laboratory practice. The temperature of the experimental substance may or may not be the temperature of the standard. In such cases a bracketed fraction is appended to the specific gravity, of which the numer- ator and denominator are respectively the temperatures of the M substance and of the standard; thus 1-093 (°e/4°) means that the ratio of the weight of a definite volume of a substance at o° to the weight of the same volume of water 4° is 1-093. It may be noted that if comparison be made with water at 4°, the relative density is the same as the absolute density, since the unit of mass in the C.G.S. system is the weight of a cubic centimetre of water at this temperature. In British units, especially in connexion with the statement of relative densities of alcoholic liquors for Inland Revenue purposes, comparison is made with water at 62° F. (16-6 C.); a reason for this is that the gallon of water is defined by statute as weighing 10 Ib at 62° F., and hence the densities so expressed admit of the ready conversion of volumes to weights. Thus if d be the relative density, then lod represents the weight of a gallon in Ib. The brewer has gone a step further in simplifying his expressions by multiplying the density by 1000, and speaking of the difference between the density so expressed and 1000 as " degrees of gravity " (see BEER). PRACTICAL DETERMINATION OF DENSITIES The methods for determining densities may be divided into two groups according as hydrostatic principles are employed or not. In the group where the principles of hydrostatics are not employed the method consists in determining the weight and volume of a certain quantity of the substance, or the weights of equal volumes of the substance and of the standard. In the case of solids we may determine the volume in some cases by direct measurement — this gives at the best a very rough and ready value ; a better method is to immerse the body in a fluid (in which it must sink and be insoluble) contained in a graduated glass, and to deduce its volume from the height to which the liquid rises. The weight may be directly determined by the balance. The ratio " weight to volume " is the absolute density. The separate determination of the volume and mass of such substances as gunpowder, cotton-wool, soluble sub- stances, &c., supplies the only means of determining their densities. The stereometer of Say, which was greatly improved by Regnault and further modified by Kopp, permits an accurate determination of the volume of a given mass of any such substance. In its simplest form the instrument consists of a glass tube PC (fig. l), of uniform bore, terminating in a cup PE, the mouth of which can be rendered air- tight by the plate of glass E. The substance whose volume is to be determined is placed in the cup PE, and the tube PC is immersed in the vessel of mercury D, until the mercury reaches the mark P. The plate E is then placed on the cup, and the tube PC raised until the surface of the mercury in the tube stands at M, that in the vessel D being at C, and the height MC is measured. Let k denote this height, and let PM be denoted by /. Let u represent the volume of air in the cup before the body was inserted, v the volume of the body, a the area of the horizontal FiG. t. — Say's section of the tube PC, and h the height of the Stereometer. mercurial barometer. Then, by Boyle's law (u—v+al) (h—k) = (u—v)h, and therefore v — u—al(h—k)/k. The volume u may be determined by repeating the experiment when only air is in the cup. In this case t>=o, and the equation becomes (u+al1) (h — kl) = uh, whence u=al1(h — k1)/kl. Substituting this value in the expression for v , the volume of the body inserted in the cup becomes known. The chief errors to which the stereometer is liable are (l) variation of temperature and atmospheric pressure during the experiment, and (2) the presence of moisture which dis- turbs Boyle's law. The method of weighing equal volumes is particularly applicable to the determination of the relative densities of liquids. It consists in weighing a glass vessel (i) empty, (2) filled with the liquid, (3) filled with the standard substance. Calling the weight of the empty vessel w, when filled with the liquid W, and when filled with the standard substance Wi , it is obvious that W — to, and Wi — w, are the weights of equal volumes of the liquid and standard, and hence the relative density is (W— a>)/(Wi— w). Many forms of vessels have been devised. The com moner type of " specific gravity bottle " consists of a thin glass bottle (fig. 2) of a capacity varying from 10 to 100 cc., , fitted with an accurately ground stopper, which is vertically perforated by a fine hole. The bottle is carefully cleansed by washing with soda, hydrochloric acid and distilled water, and then dried by heating in an air bath or by blow- ing in warm air. It is allowed to cool and then weighed. FIG. 2. The bottle is then filled with distilled water, and brought to a definite temperature by immersion in a thermostat, and the stopper inserted. It is removed from the thermostat, and carefully DENSITY 47 XJ FIG. 3. wiped. After cooling it is weighed. The bottle is again cleaned and dried, and the operations repeated with the liquid under examina- tion instead of water. Numerous modifications of this bottle are in use. For volatile liquids, a flask provided with a long neck which carries a graduation and is fitted with a well-ground stopper is recommended. The bringing of the liquid to the mark is effected by removing the excess by means of a capillary. In many forms a thermometer forms part of the apparatus. Another type of vessel, named the Sprengel tube or pycnometer (Gr. jrwcvAs, dense), is shown in fig. 3. It consists of a cylindrical tube of a capacity ranging from 10 to 50 cc., provided at the upper end with a thick-walled capillary bent as shown on the left of the figure. From the bottom there leads " another fine tube, bent upwards, and then at right angles so as to be at the same level as the capillary branch. This tube bears a graduation. A loop of plati- num wire passed under these tubes serves to suspend the vessel from the balance arm. The manner of cleansing, &c., is the same as in the ordinary form. The vessel is filled by placing the capillary in a vessel containing the liquid and gently aspirating. Care must be taken that no air bubbles are enclosed. The liquid is adjusted to the mark by withdrawing any excess from the capillary end by a strip of bibulous paper or by a capillary tube. Many variations of this apparatus are in use; in one of the commonest there are two cylindrical chambers, joined at the bottom, and each provided at the top with fine tubes bent at right angles ; sometimes the inlet and outlet tubes are provided with caps. The specific gravity bottle may be used to determine the relative density of a solid which is available in small fragments, and is insoluble in the standard liquid. The method involves three operations: — (i) weighing the solid in air (W), (2) weighing the specific gravity bottle full of liquid (Wi), (3) weighing the bottle containing the solid and filled up with liquid (W2). It is readily seen that W+Wi-W2 is the weight of the liquid displaced by the solid, and therefore is the weight of an equal volume of liquid; hence the relative density is W/fW+Wi-Wa). The determination of the absolute densities of gases can only be effected with any high degree of accuracy by a development of this method. As originated by Regnault, it consisted in filling a large glass globe with the gas by alternately exhausting with an air-pump and admitting the pure and dry gas. The flask was then brought to o° by immersion in melting ice, the pressure of the gas taken, and the stop-cock closed. The flask is removed from the ice, allowed to attain the1 temperature of the room,«and then weighed. The flask is now partially exhausted, transferred to the cooling bath, and after standing the pressure of the residual gas is taken by a manometer. The flask is again brought to room-temperature, and re-weighed. The difference in the weights corresponds to the volume of gas at a pressure equal to the difference of the recorded pressures. The volume of the flask is determined by weighing empty and filled with water. This method has been refined by many experimenters, among whom we may notice Morley and Lord Rayleigh. Morley determined the densities of hydrogen and oxygen in the course of his classical investigation of the composition of water. The method differed from Regnault's inasmuch as the flask was exhausted to an almost complete vacuum, a performance rendered possible by the high efficiency of the modern air-pump. The actual experiment necessi- tates the most elaborate precautions, for which reference must be made to Morley's original papers in the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge (1895), or to M. Travers, The Study of Gases. Lord Rayleigh has made many investigations of the absolute densities of gases, one of which, namely on atmospheric and artificial nitrogen, undertaken in conjunction with Sir William Ramsay, culminated in the discovery of argon (g.ti.). He pointed put in 1888 (Proc. Roy. Soc. 43, p. 361) an important correction which had been overlooked by previous experimenters with Regnault's method, viz. the change in volume of the experimental globe duetoshrinkage under diminished pressure; this may be experimentally determined and amounts to between 0-04 and 0-16 % of the volume of the globe. Related to the determination of the density of a gas is the deter- mination of the density of a vapour, i.e. matter which at ordinary temperatures exists as a solid or liquid. This subject owes its importance in modern chemistry to the fact that the vapour density, when hydrogen is taken as the standard, gives perfectly definite information as to the molecular condition of the compound, since twice the vapour density equals the molecular weight of the compound. Many methods have been devised. In historical order we may briefly enumerate the following: — in 1811, Gay-Lussac volatilized a weighed quantity of liquid, which must be readily volatile, by letting it rise up a short tube containing mercury and standing inverted in a vessel holding the same metal. This method was developed by Hofmann in 1868, who replaced the short tube of Gay-Lussac by an ordinary barometer tube, thus effecting the volatilization in a Torricellian vacuum. In 1826 Dumas devised a method suitable for substances of high boiling-point ; this consisted in its essential point in vaporizing the substance in a flask made of suitable material, sealing it when full of vapour, and weighing. This method is very tedious in detail. H. Sainte-Claire Deville and L. Tropst made it available for specially high temperatures by employing porcelain vessels, sealing them with the oxyhydrogen blow-pipe, and maintaining a constant temperature by a vapour bath of mercury (350°), sulphur (440°), cadmium (860°) and zinc (1040°). In 1878 Victor Meyer devised his air-expulsion method. Before discussing the methods now used in detail, a summary of the conclusions reached by Victor Meyer in his classical investiga- tions in this field as to the applicability of the different methods will be given: (1) For substances which do not boil higher than 260° and have vapours stable for 30° above the boiling-point and which do not react on mercury, use Victor Meyer's "mercury expulsion method." (2) For substances boiling between 260° and 420°, and which do not react on metals, use Meyer's " Wood's alloy expulsion method." (3) For substances boiling at higher temperatures, or for any substance which reacts on mercury, Meyer's " air expulsion method ' must be used. It is to be noted, however, that this method is applicable to substances of any boiling-point (see below). (4) For substances which can be vaporized only under diminished pressure, several methods may be used, (a) Hofmann's is the best if the substance volatilizes at below 310°, and does not react on mercury; otherwise (b) Demuth and Meyer's, Eykman's, Schall's, or other methods may be used. i. Meyer's " Mercury Expulsion " Method. — A small quantity of the substance is weighed into a tube, of the form shown in fig. 4, which has a capacity of about 35 cc., provided with a capillary tube at the top, and a bent tube about 6 mm. in diameter at the bottom. The vessel is completely filled with mercury, the capillary sealed, and the vessel weighed. The vessel is then lowered into a jacket containing vapour at a known temperature which is sufficient to volatilize the substance. Mercury is expelled, and when this expulsion ceases, the vessel is removed, allowed to cool, and weighed. It is necessary to determine the pressure exerted on the vapour by the mercury in the narrow limb; this is effected by opening the capillary and inclining the tube until the mercury just reaches the top of the narrow tube; the difference between FIG. 4. the height of the mercury in the wide tube and the top of the narrow tube represents the pressure due to the mercury column, and this must be added to the barometric pressure in order to deduce the total pressure on the vapour. The result is calculated by means of the formula : n W( i +q<)X 7,980,000 in which W = weight of substance taken; / = temperature of vapour bath; 0 = 0-00366 = temperature coefficient of gases; p = baro- metric pressure; p\ — height of mercury column in vessel; s = vapour tension of mercury at t° ; m = weight of mercury contained in the vessel; mi = weight of mercury left in vessel after heating; (S = coefficient of expansion of glass = -0000303 ; y = coefficient of expansion of mercury =0-00018 (0-00019 above 240°) (see Ber. 1877, 10, p. 2068; 1886, 19, p. 1862). 2. Meyer's Wood's Alloy Expulsion Method. — This method is a modification of the one just described. The alloy used is composed of 15 parts of bismuth, 8 of lead, 4 of tin and 3 of cadmium; it melts at 70°, and can be experimented with as readily as mercury. The cylindrical vessel is replaced by a globular one, and the pressure on the vapour due to the column of alloy in the side tube is readily reduced to millimetres of mercury since the specific gravity of the alloy at the temperature of boiling sulphur, 444° (at which the apparatus is most frequently used), is two-thirds of that of mercury (see Ber. 1876, 9, p. 1220). 3. Meyer's Air Expulsion Method. — The simplicity, moderate accuracy, and adaptability of this method to every class of substance which can be vaporized entitles it to rank as one of the most potent methods in analytical chemistry; its invention is indissolubly connected with the name of Victor M eyer, being termed " Meyer's method " to the exclusion of his other original methods. It consists in determining the air expelled from a vessel by the vapour of a given quantity of the substance. The apparatus is shown in fig. 5. A long tube (a) terminates at the bottom in a cylindrical chamber of about 100-150 cc. capacity. The top is fitted with a rubber stopper, or in some forms with a stop-cock, while a little way down there is a bent delivery tube (b). To use the apparatus, the long tube is placed in a vapour bath (c) of the requisite temperature, and after the air within the tube is in equilibrium, the delivery tube is placed beneath the surface of the water in a pneumatic trough, the rubber stopper pushed home, and observation made as to FIG. 5. whether any more air is being expelled. If this be not so, a graduated tube (d) is filled with water, and inverted over the delivery tube. The rubber stopper is removed and the experimental substance introduced, and the stopper quickly replaced to the same extent as before. Bubbles are quickly disengaged and collect in the 48 DENSITY graduated tube. Solids may be directly admitted to the tube from a weighing bottle, while liquids are conveniently introduced by means of small stoppered bottles, or, in the case of exceptionally volatile liquids, by means of a bulb blown on a piece of thin capillary tube, the tube being sealed during the weighing operation, and the capillary broken just before transference to the ap- paratus. To prevent the bottom of the apparatus being knocked out by the impact of the substance, a layer of sand, asbestos or sometimes mercury is placed in the tube. To complete the experi- ment, the graduated tube containing the expelled air is brought to a constant and determinate temperature and pressure, and this volume is the volume which the given weight of the substance would occupy if it were a gas under the same temperature and pressure. The vapour density is calculated by the following formula : — _ W(l + aQ X 587,780 in which W = weight of substance taken, V = volume of air expelled, a — 1/273 = -003665, t and p = temperature and pressure at which expelled air is measured, and s = vapour pressure of water at t°. By varying the material of the bulb, this apparatus is rendered available for exceptionally high temperatures. Vapour baths of iron are used in connexion with boiling anthracene (335°), anthraquinone e^ (368°),sulphur(444°),phosphoruspentasulphide(5i8°); molten lead may also be used. For higher tempera- tures the bulb of the vapour density tube is made of porcelain or platinum, and is heated in a gas furnace. (40) Hofmann's Method. — Both the modus operandi and apparatus employed in this method particularly recommend its use for substances which do not react on mercury and which boil in a vacuum at below 310°. The apparatus (fig. 6) consists of a barometer tube, containing mercury and standing in a bath of the same metal, surrounded by a vapour jacket. The vapour is circulated through the jacket, and the height of the mercury read by a cathetometer or otherwise. The sub- stance is weighed into a small stoppered bottle, which is then placed beneath the mouth of the barometer tube. It ascends the tube, the substance is rapidly volatilized, and the mercury column is depressed ; this depression is read off. It is necessary to know the volume of the tube above the second level ; this may most efficiently be determined by calibrating the tube prior to its use. Sir T. E. Thorpe employed a barometer tube 96 cm. long, and determined the volume from the closed end for a distance of about 35 mm. by weighing in mercury ; below this mark it was calibrated in the ordinary way so that a scale reading gave the volume at once. The calculation is effected by the following formulae: — 1-0036650 FIG. 6. 0-0012934 XVXB *,__ lit ',+* 1+0-00018/1 \i +0-00018/2 1+0-00018* in which w = weight of substance taken; / = temperature of vapour jacket ; V = volume of vapour at / ; h = height of barometer reduced to o°; /; =temperature of air; hi = height of mercury column below vapour jacket; fe = temperature of mercury column not heated by vapour; hi = height of mercury column within vapour jacket; s = vapour tension of mercury at /°. The vapour tension of mercury need not be taken into account when water is used in the jacket. (46) Demuth and Meyer's Method. — The principle of this method is as follows: — In the ordinary air expulsion method, the vapour always mixes to some extent with the air in the tube, and this in- volves a reduction of the pressure of the vapour. It is obvious that this reduction may be increased by accelerating the diffusion of the vapour. This may be accomplished by using a vessel with a some- what wide bottom, and inserting the substance so that it may be volatilized very rapidly, as, for example, in tubes of Wood's alloy, _ and by filling the tube with hydrogen. (For further details see Ber. 23, p. 311.) We may here notice a modification of Meyer's r-*, process in which the increase of pressure due to the *• •* volatilization of the substance, and not the volume of the expelled air, is measured. This method has been developed by J. S. Lumsden (Jcurn. Chem. Soc. 1903, 83, p. 342), whose apparatus is shown diagrammatically in fig. 7. The vaporizing bulb A has fused about it a jacket B, provided with a condenser c. Two side tubes are fused on to the neck of A : the lower one leads to a mercury mano- meter M, and to the air by means of a cock C ; the upper tube is provided with a rubber stopper through which a glass rod passes — this rod serves FlG. 7. to support the tube containing the substance to be experimented upon, and so avoids the objection to the practice of withdrawing the stopper of the tube, dropping the substance in, and reinserting the stopper. To use the apparatus, a liquid of suitable boiling-point is placed in the jacket and brought to the boiling-point. All parts of the apparatus are open to the air, and the mercury in the manometer is adjusted so as to come to a fixed mark a. The substance is now placed on the support already mentioned, and the apparatus closed to the air by inserting the cork at D and turning the cock C. By turning or withdrawing the support the substance enters the bulb; and! during its vapori- zation the free limb of the manometer is raised so as to maintain the mercury at a. When the volatilization is quite complete, the level is accurately adjusted, and the difference of the levels of the mercury gives the pressure exerted by the vapour. To calculate the result it is necessary to know the capacity of the apparatus to the mark a, and the temperature of the jacket. Methods depending on the Principles of Hydrostatics. — Hydro- statical principles can be applied to density determinations in four typical ways: (l) depending upon the fact that the heights of liquid columns supported by the same pressure vary inversely as the densities of the liquids ; (2) depending upon the fact that a body which sinks in a liquid loses a weight equal to the weight of liquid which it displaces; (3) depending on the fact that a body remains sus- pended, neither floating nor sinking, in a liquid of exactly the same density; (4) depending on the fact that a floating body is immersed to such an extent that the weight of the fluid displaced equals the weight of the body. 1. The method of balancing columns is of limited use. Two forms are recognized. In one, applicable only to liquids which do not mix, the two liquids are poured into the limbs of a U tube. The heights of the columns above the surface of junction of the liquids are in- versely proportional to the densities of the liquids. In the second form, named after Robert Hare (1781-1858), professor of chemistry at the university of Pennsylvania, the liquids are drawn or aspirated up vertical tubes which have their lower ends placed in reservoirs containing the different liquids, and their upper ends connected to a common tube which is in communication with an aspirator for decreasing the pressure within the vertical tubes. The heights to which the liquids rise, measured in each case by the distance between the surfaces in the reservoirs and in the tubes, are inversely pro- portional to the densities. 2. The method of " hydrostatic weighing " is one of the most important. The principle may be thus stated : the solid is weighed in air, and then in water. If W be the weight in air, and Wi the weight in water, then Wi is always less than W, the difference W-W, representing the weight of the water displaced, i.e. the weight of a volume of water equal to that of the solid. Hence W/(W-Wi) is the relative density or specific gravity of the body. The principle is readily adapted to the determination of the relative densities of two liquids, for it is obvious that if W be the weight of a solid body in air, Wi and W2 its weights when immersed in the liquids, then W-Wi and W-Wz are the weights of equal volumes of the liquids, and therefore the relative density is the quotient (W-Wi)/(W-Ws). The determination in the case of solids lighter than water is effected by the introduction of a sinker i.e. a body which when affixed to the light solid causes it to sink. I" W be the weight of the experimental solid in air, w the weight of the sinker in water, and Wi the weight of the solid plus sinker in water, then the relative density is given by W/(W+w-Wi). In practice the solid or plummet is suspended from the balance arm by a fibre — silk, platinum, &c. — and carefully weighed. A small stool is then placed over the balance pan, and on this is placed a beaker of distilled water so that the solid is totally immersed. Some balances are provided with a " specific gravity pan," i.e. a pan with short suspending arms, provided with a hook at the bottom to which the fibre may be attached ; when this is so, the stool is unnecessary. Any air bubbles are removed from the surface of the body by brushing with a camel-hair brush; if the solid be of a porous nature it is desirable to boil it for some time in water, thus expelling the air from its interstices. The weighing is conducted in the usual way by vibrations, except when the weight be small ; it is then advisable to bring the pointer to zero, an opera- tion rendered necessary by the damping due to the adhesion of water to the fibre. The temperature and pressure of the air and water must also be taken. There are several corrections of the formula A = W/(W-Wi) necessary to the accurate expression of the density. Here we can only summarize the points of the investigation. It may be assumed that the weighing is made with brass weights in air at /° and p mm. pressure. To determine the true weight in vacua at o°, account must be taken of the different buoyancies, or losses of true weight, due to the different volumes of the solids and weights. Similarly in the case of the weighing in water, account must be taken of the buoyancy of the weights, and also, if absolute densities be required, of the density of water at the temperature of the experiment. In a form of great accuracy the absolute density A(o°/4°) is given by A(o°/4°) = (poW-5Wi)/(W-Wi), in which W is the weight of the body in air at t° and p mm. pressure, Wi the weight in water, atmospheric conditions remaining very nearly the same ; p is the density of the water in which the body is weighed, a is (l+o/°) in which a is the coefficient of cubical expansion of the body, and S is the density of the air at t°, p mm. Less accurate formulae are A = p W/(W-Wi), the factor involving the density of the air, and the coefficient of the expansion of the solid being disregarded, and A = W/(W-Wi), in which the density of water is taken as unity. Reference may be made to J. Wade and R. W. Merriman, Journ. Chem. Soc. 1909, 95, p. 2174. DENTATUS 49 FIG. 8. The determination of the density of a liquid by weighing a plummet in air, and in the standard and experimental liquids, has been put into a very convenient laboratory form by means of the apparatus known as a Westphal balance ' (fig. 8). It consists of a steel- yard mounted on a fulcrum; one arm carries at its extrem- ity a heavy bob and pointer, the latter moving along a scale affixed to the stand and serv- ing to indicate when the beam is in its standard position. The other arm is graduated in ten divisions and carries riders — bent pieces of wire of determined weights — and at its extremity a hook from which the glass plummet is suspended. To complete the apparatus there is a glass jar which serves to hold the liquid experimented with. The apparatus is so designed that when the plummet is suspended in air, the index of the beam is at the zero of the scale; if this be not so, then it is adjusted by a levelling screw. The plummet is now placed in distilled water at 15°, and the beam brought to equilibrium by means of a rider, which we shall call I, hung on a hook; other riders are provided, ^th and ji0th respec- tively of I. To determine the density of any liquid it is only neces- sary to suspend the plummet in the liquid, and to bring the beam to its normal position by means of the riders; the relative density is read off directly from the riders. 3. Methods depending on the free suspension of the solid in a liquid of the same density have been especially studied by Retgers and Gossner in view of their applicability to density determinations of crystals. Two typical forms are in use; in one a liquid is pre- pared in which the crystal freely swims, the density of the liquid being ascertained by the pycnometer or other methods; in the other a liquid of variable density, the so-called " diffusion column," is prepared, and observation is made of the level at which the particle comes to rest. The first type is in commonest use; since both necessitate the use of dense liquids, a summary of the media of most value, with their essential properties, will be given. Acetylene tetrabromide, C2H2Br<, which is very conveniently prepared by passing acetylene into cooled bromine, has a density of 3-001 at 6° C. It is highly convenient, since it is colourless, odourless, very stable and easily mobile. It may be diluted with benzene or toluene. Methylene iodide, CH2I2, has a density of 3-33, and may be diluted with benzene. Introduced by Brauns in 1886, it was recommended by Retgers. Its advantages rest on its high density and mobility; its main disadvantages are its liability to decomposition, the originally colourless liquid becoming dark owing to the separation of iodine, and its high coefficient of expansion. Its density may be raised to 3-65 by dissolving iodoform and iodine in it. Thoulct s solution, an aqueous solution of potassium and mercuric iodides (potassium iodo-mercurate), introduced by Thoulet and subsequently investigated by V. Goldschmidt, has a density of 3-196 at 22-9°. It is almost colourless and has a small coefficient of expansion; its hygroscopic properties, its viscous character, and its action on the skin, however, militate against its use. A. Duboin (Compt. rend., 1905, p. 141) has investigated the solutions of mercuric iodide in other alkaline iodides; sodium iodo-mercurate solution has a density of 3-46 at 26°, and gives with an excess of water a dense precipitate of mercuric iodide, which dissolves without decomposition in alcohol; lithium iodo-mercurate solution has a density of 3-28 at 25-6°; and ammonium iodo-mercurate solution a density of 2-98 at 26°. Rohrbach's solution, an aqueous solution of barium and mercuric iodides, jntroduced by Carl Rohrbach, has a density of 3-588. Klein's solution, an aqueous solution of cadmium borotungstate, 2Cd(OH)2-B2O3-9WCVi6H2O, introduced by D. Klein, has a density up to 3-28. The salt melts in its water of crystallization at 75°, and the liquid thus obtained goes up to a density of 3-6. Silver -thallium nitrate^, TIAg(NO3)2, introduced by Retgers, melts at 75° to form a clear liquid of density 4-8; it may be diluted with water. The method of using these liquids is in all cases the same; a particle is dropped in; if it floats a diluent is added and the mixture well stirred. This is continued until the particle freely swims, and then the density of the mixture is determined by the ordinary methods (see MINERALOGY). In_the "diffusion column" method, a liquid column uniformly varying in density from about 3-3 to I is prepared by pouring a little methylene iodide into a long test tube and adding five times as much benzene. The tube is tightly corked to prevent evaporation, and allowed to stand for some hours. The density of the column at any level is determined by means of the areometrical beads proposed by Alexander Wilson (1714-1786), professor of astronomy at Glasgow University. These are hollow glass beads of variable density; they may be prepared by melting off pieces of very thin capillary tubing, and determining the density in each case by the method just previously described. To use the column, the experimental fragment is introduced, when it takes up a definite position. By successive trials two beads, of known density, say dt, d,, are obtained, one of which floats above, and the other below, the test crystal; the distances separating the beads from the crystal are determined by means of a scale placed behind the tube. If the bead of density d\ be at the distance I, above the crystal, and that of d, at ^ below, it is obvious that if the density of the column varies uniformly, then the density of the test crystal is (dJ/2+a. It was, however, principally applied by the Greeks to the absolute monarchs of the eastern empires with which they came in contact; and it is in this sense that the word, like its equivalent " tyrant," is in current usage for an absolute sovereign whose rule is not restricted by any constitution. In the Roman empire of the East " despot " was early used as a title of honour or address of the emperor, and was given by Alexius I. (1081-1 118) to the sons, brothers and sons-in-law of the emperor (Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ed. Bury, vol. vi. 80). It does not seem that the title was confined to the heir-apparent by Alexius II. (see Selden, Titles of Honour, part ii. chap. i. s. vi.). Later still it was adopted by the vassal princes of the empire. This gave rise to the name " despotats " as applied to these tributary states, which survived the break-up of the empire in the independent " despotats " of Epirus, Cyprus, Trebizond, &c. Under Ottoman rule the title was preserved by the despots of Servia and of the Morea, &c. The early use of the term as a title of address for ecclesiastical dignitaries survives in its use in the Greek Church as the formal mode of addressing a bishop. DBS PRES, JOSQUIN (c. 1445-1521), also called DEPRES or DESPREZ, and by a latinized form of his name, JODOCUS PRATENSIS or A PRATO, French musical composer, was born, probably in Conde in the Hennegau, about 1445. He was a pupil of Ockenheim, and himself one of the most learned musicians of his time. In spite of his great fame, the accounts of his life are vague and the dates contradictory. Fetis contributed greatly towards elucidating the doubtful points in his Biographic universelle. In his early youth Josquin seems to have been a member of the choir of the collegiate church at St Quentin; when his voice changed he went (about 1455) to Ockenheim to take lessons in counterpoint; afterwards he again lived at his birth- place for some years, till Pope Sixtus IV. invited him to Rome to teach his art to the musicians of Italy, where musical know- ledge at that time was at a low ebb. In Rome Des Pres lived till the death of his protector (1484), and it was there that many of his works were written. His reputation grew rapidly, and he was considered by his contemporaries to be the greatest master of his age. Luther, who was a good judge, is credited with the saying that " other musicians do with notes what they can, Josquin what he likes. " The composer's journey to Rome marks in a manner the transference of the art from its Gallo-Belgian birthplace to Italy, which for the next two centuries remained the centre of the musical world. To Des Pres and his pupils Arcadelt, Mouton and others, much that is characteristic in modern music owes its rise, particularly in their influence upon Italian developments under Palestrina. After leaving Rome Des Pres went for a time to Ferrara, where the duke Hercules I. offered him a home; but before long he accepted an invitation of King Louis XII. of France to become the chief singer of the royal chapel. According to another account, he was for a time at least in the service of the emperor Maximilian I. The date of his death has by some writers been placed as early as 1501. But this is sufficiently disproved by the fact of one of his finest compositions, A Dirge (Deploration) for Five Voices, being written to commemorate the death of his master Ockenheim, which took place after 1512. The real date of Josquin's decease has since been settled as the 27th of August 1521. He was at that time a canon of the cathedral of Conde (see Victor Delzant's Sepultures de Flandre, No. 118). The most complete list of his compositions — consisting of masses, motets, psalms and other pieces of sacred music — will be found in Fetis. The largest collection of his MS. works, containing no less than twenty masses, is in the possession of the papal chapel in Rome. In his lifetime Des Pres was honoured as an eminent composer, and the musicians of the i6th century are loud in his praise. During the ' i?th and i8th centuries his value was ignored, nor does his work appear in the collections 'of Martini and Paolucci. Burney was the first to recover him from oblivion, and Forkel continued the task of rehabilitation. Ambros furnishes the most exhaustive account of his achievements. An admirable account of Josquin's art, from the rare point of view of a modern critic who knows how to allow for modern difficulties, will be found in the article " Josquin," in Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, new ed. vol. ii. The Repertoire des chanteurs de St Gervais contains an excellent modern edition of Josquin's Miserere. DESPRES, SUZANNE (1875- ), French actress, was born at Verdun, and trained at the Paris Conservatoire, where in 1897 she obtained the first prize for comedy, and the second for tragedy. She then became associated with, and subsequently married, Aurelien Lugne-Poe (b. 1870), the actor-manager, who had founded a new school of modern drama, L'fEuvre, and she had a brilliant success in several plays produced by him. In succeeding years she played at the Gymnase and at the Porte Saint-Martin, and in 1902 made her debut at the Comedie Franchise, appearing in Phedre and other important parts. DESRUES, ANTOINE FRANCOIS (1744-1777), French poisoner, was born at Chartres in 1744, of humble parents. He went to Paris to seek his fortune, and started in business as a grocer. He was known as a man of great piety and devotion, and his business was reputed to be a flourishing one, but when, in 1773, h<» gave up his shop, his finances, owing to personal extravagance, were in a deplorable condition. Nevertheless he entered into negotiations with a Madame de la Mothe for the purchase from her of a country estate, and, when the time came for the payment of the purchase money, invited her to stay with him in Paris pending the transfer. While she was still his guest, he poisoned first her and then her son, a youth of sixteen. Then, having forged a receipt for the purchase money, he endeavoured to obtain possession of the property. But by this time the dis- appearance of Madame de la Mothe and her son had aroused suspicion. Desrues was arrested, the bodies of his victims were discovered, and the crime was brought home to him. He was tried, found guilty and condemned to be torn asunder alive and burned. The sentence was carried out (1777), Desrues repeating hypocritical protestations of his innocence to the last. The whole affair created a great sensation at the time, and as late as 1828 a dramatic version of it was performed in Paris. DESSAIX, JOSEPH MARIE, COUNT (1764-1834), French general, was born at Thonon in Savoy on the 24th of September 1764. He studied medicine, took his degree at Turin, and then went to Paris, where in 1789 he joined the National Guard. In 1791 he tried without success to raise an emeute in Savoy, in 1792 he organized the " Legion of the Allobroges," and in the follow- . ing years he served at the siege of Toulon, in the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees, and in the Army of Italy. He was captured at Rivoli, but was soon exchanged. In the spring of 1 798 Dessaix was elected a member of the Council of Five Hundred. He was one of the few in that body who opposed the coup d'etat of the i8th Brumaire (November 9, 1799). In 1803 he was promoted general of brigade, and soon afterwards commander of the Legion of Honour. He distinguished himself greatly at the battle of Wagram (1809), and was about this time promoted general of division and named grand officer of the Legion of Honour, and in 1810 was made a count. He took part in the expedition to Russia, and was twice wounded. For several months he was commandant of Berlin, and afterwards delivered the department of Mont Blanc from the Austrians. After the first restoration Dessaix held a command under the Bourbons. He nevertheless joined Napoleon in the Hundred Days, and in 1816 he was imprisoned for five months. The rest of his life was spent in retirement. He died on the 26th of October 1834. See Le General Dessaix, sa vie politique et militaire, by his nephew Joseph Dessaix (Paris, 1879). DESSAU, a town of Germany, capital of the duchy of Anhalt, on the left bank of the Mulde, 2 m. from its confluence with the DESSEWFFY— DESTRUCTORS Elbe, 67 m. S.W. from Berlin and at the junction of lines to Cothen and Zerbst. Pop. (1905) 55,134- Apart from the old quarter lying on the Mulde, the town is well built, is surrounded by pleasant gardens and contains many handsome streets and spacious squares. Among the latter is the Grosse Markt with a statue of Prince Leopold I. of Anhalt-Dessau, " the old Dessauer." Of the six churches, the Schlosskirche, adorned with paintings by Lucas Cranach, in one of which (" The Last Supper ") are portraits of several reformers, is the most interesting. The ducal palace, standing in extensive grounds, contains a collection of historical curiosities and a gallery of pictures, which includes works by Cimabue, Lippi,Rubens,Titian and Van Dyck. Among other buildings are the town hall (built 1899-1900), the palace of the hereditary prince, the theatre, the administration offices, the law courts, the Amalienstift, with a picture gallery, several high-grade schools, a library of 30,000 volumes and an excellently appointed hospital. There are monuments to the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn (born here in 1729), to the poet Wilhelm Miiller, father of Professor Max Miiller, also a native of the place, to the emperor William I., and an obelisk commemorating the war of 1870-71. The industries of Dessau include the pro- duction of sugar, which is the chief manufacture, woollen, linen and cotton goods, carpets, hats, leather, tobacco and musical instruments. There is also a considerable trade hi corn and garden produce. In the environs are the ducal villas of Georgium and Luisium, the gardens of which, as well as those of the neighbouring town of Worlitz, are much admired. Dessau was probably founded by Albert the Bear; it had attained civic rights as early as 1213. It first began to grow into importance at the close of the I7th century, in consequence of the religious emancipation of the Jews in 1686, and of the Lutherans in 1697. See Wiirdig, Chronik der Stadt Dessau (Dessau, 1876). DESSEWFFY, AUREL, COUNT (1808-1842), Hungarian journalist and politician, eldest son of Count J6zsef Dessewffy and Eleonora Sztaray,was born at Nagy-Mihaly,countyZemplen, Hungary. Carefully educated at his father's house, he was accustomed to the best society of his day. While still a child he could declaim most of the Iliad in Greek without a book, and read and quoted Tacitus with enthusiasm. Under the noble influence of Ferencz Kazinczy he became acquainted with the chief masterpieces of European literature in their original tongues. He was particularly fond of the English, and one of his early idols was Jeremy Bentham. He regularly accompanied his father to the diets of which he was a member, followed the course of the debates, of which he kept a journal, and made the acquaint- ance of the great Szechenyi, who encouraged his aspirations. On leaving college, he entered the royal aulic chancellery, and in 1832 was appointed secretary of the royal stadtholder at Buda. The same year he turned his attention to politics and was regarded as one of the most promising young orators of the day, especially during the sessions of the diet of 1832-1836, when he had the courage to oppose Kossuth. At the Pressburg diet in 1840 Dessewffy was already the leading orator of the more enlightened and progressive Conservatives, but incurred great unpopularity for not going far enough, with the result that he was twice defeated at the polls. But his reputation in court circles was increasing; he was appointed a member of the com- mittee for the reform of the criminal law in 1840; and, the same year with a letter of recommendation from Metternich in his pocket, visited England and France, Holland and Belgium, made the acquaintance of Thiers and Heine in Paris, and returned home with an immense and precious store of practical information. He at once proceeded to put fresh life into the despondent and irresolute Conservative party, and the Magyar aristocracy, by gallantly combating in the Vtfdg the opinions of Kossuth's paper, the Pesti Hirlap. But the multiplicity of his labours was too much for his feeble physique, and he died on the gth of February 1842, at the very time when his talents seemed most indispensable. See Aus den Papieren des Graf en Aurel Dessewffy (Pest, 1843) ; Memorial Wreath to Count Aurel Dessewffy (Hung.), (Budapest, 1 857) ; Collected Works of Count Dessewffy, with a Biography (Hung.) , (Budapest, 1887). (R. N. B.) DESSOIR, LUDWIG (1810-1874), German actor, whose name was originally Leopold Dessauer, was born on the isth of December 1810 at Posen, the son of a Jewish tradesman. He made his first appearance on the stage there in 1824 in a small part. After some experience at the theatre in Posen and on tour, he was engaged at Leipzig from 1834 to 1836. Then he was attached to the municipal theatre of Breslau, and in 1837 appeared at Prague, Briinn, Vienna and Budapest, where he accepted an engagement which lasted until 1839. He succeeded Karl Devrient at Karlsruhe, and went in 1847 to Berlin, where he acted Othello and Hamlet with such extraordinary success that he received a permanent engagement at the Hof-theater. From 1849 to 1872, when he retired on a pension, he played no parts, frequently on tour, and in 1853 acting in London. He died on the 3oth of December 1874 in Berlin. Dessoir was twice married ; his first wife, Theresa, a popular actress (1810-1866), was separated from him a year after marriage; his second wife went mad on the death of her child. By his first wife Dessoir had one son, the actor Ferdinand Dessoir (1836-1892). In spite of certain physical disabilities Ludwig Dessoir's genius raised him to the first rank of actors, especially as interpreter of Shakespeare's characters. G. H. Lewes placed Dessoir's Othello above that of Kean, and the Athenaeum preferred him in this part to Brooks or Macready. DESTOUCHES, PHILIPPE (1680-1754), French dramatist, whose real name was Nericault, was born at Tours in April 1680. When he was nineteen years of age he became secretary to M. de Puysieux, the French ambassador in Switzerland. In 1716 he was attached to the French embassy in London, where he remained for six years under the abbe Dubois. He contracted with a Lancashire lady, Dorothea Johnston, a marriage which was not avowed for some years. He drew a picture later of his own domestic circumstances in Le Philosophe marie (1726). On his return to France (1723) he was elected to the Academy, and in 1727 he acquired considerable estates, the possession of which conferred the privileges of nobility. He spent his later years at his chateau of Fortoiseau near Melun, dying on the 4th of July 1754. His early comedies were: Le Curieux Impertinent (1710), L'Ingral (iii2),L'Irresolu (1713) and Le Medisant (1715). The best of these is L'lrresolu, in which Dorante, after hesitating throughout the play between Julie and Celimene, marries Julie, but concludes the play with the reflection: — " J'aurais mieux fait, je crois, d'epouser Celimene." After eleven years of diplomatic service Destouches returned to the stage with the Philosophe marie (1727), followed in 1732 by his masterpiece Le Glorieux, a picture of the struggle then beginning between the old nobility and the wealthy parvenus who found their opportunity in the poverty of France. Destouches wished to revive the comedy of character as understood by Moliere, but he thought it desirable that the moral should be directly expressed. This moralizing tendency spoilt his later comedies. Among them may be mentioned: Le Tambour nocturne (1736), La Force du naturel (1750) and Le Dissipateur (1736). His works were issued in collected form in 1755, 1757, '811 and, in a limited edition (6 vols.), 1822. DESTRUCTORS. The name destructors is applied by English municipal engineers to furnaces, or combinations of furnaces, commonly called " garbage furnaces " in the United States, con- structed for the purpose of disposing by burning of town refuse, which is a heterogeneous mass of material, including, besides general household and ash-bin refuse, small quantities of garden refuse, trade refuse, market refuse and often street sweepings. The mere disposal of this material is not, however, by any means the only consideration in dealing with it upon the destructor system. For many years past scientific experts, municipal engineers and public authorities have been directing careful attention to the utilization of refuse as fuel for steam production, and such progress in this direction has been made that in many towns its calorific value is now being utilized daily for motive- power purposes. On the other hand, that proper degree of caution which is obtained only by actual experience must be DESTRUCTORS exercised in the application of refuse fuel to steam-raising. When its value as a low-class fuel was first recognized, the idea was disseminated that the refuse of a given population was of itself sufficient to develop the necessary steam-power for supply- ing that population with the electric light. The economical importance of a combined destructor and electric undertaking of this character naturally presented a somewhat fascinating stimulus to public authorities, and possibly had much to do with the development both of the adoption of the principle of dealing with refuse by fire, and of lighting towns by electricity. However true this phase of the question may be as the statement of a theoretical scientific fact, experience so far does not show it to be a basis upon which engineers may venture to calculate, although, as will be seen later, under certain circumstances of equalized load, which must be considered upon their merits in each case, a well-designed destructor plant can be made to perform valuable commercial service to an electric or other power-using undertaking. Further, when a system, thermal or otherwise, for the storage of energy can be introduced and applied in a trustworthy and economical manner, the degree of advantage to be derived from the utilization of the waste heat from destructors will be materially enhanced. The composition of house refuse, which must obviously affect its calorific value, varies considerably in different localities, Compost- according to the condition, habits and pursuits of the tion and people. Towns situated in coal-producing districts quantity invariably yield a refuse richer in unconsumed carbon ise' than those remote therefrom. It is also often found that the refuse from different parts of the same town varies considerably — that from the poorest quarters frequently proving of greater calorific value than that from those parts occupied by the rich and middle classes. This has been attributed to the more extravagant habits of the working classes in neglecting to sift the ashes from their fires before disposing of them in the ash-bin. In Bermondsey, for example, the refuse has been found to possess an unusually high calorific value, and this experience is confirmed in other parts of the metropolis. Average refuse consists of breeze (cinder and ashes), coal and coke, fine dust, vegetable and animal matters, straw, shavings, cardboard, bottles, tins, iron, bones, broken crockery and other matters in very variable pro- portions according to the character of the district from which it is collected. In London the quantity of house refuse amounts approximately to i j million tons per annum, which is equivalent to from 4 cwt. to 5 cwt. per head per annum, or to from 200 to 250 tons per 1000 of the population per annum. Statistics, however, vary widely in different districts. In the vicinity of the metropolis the amount varies from 2-5 cwt. per head per annum at Ley ton to 3-5 cwt. at Hornsey, and to as much as 7 cwt. at Ealing. In the north of England the total house refuse collected, exclusive of street sweepings, amounts on the average to 8 cwt. per head per annum. Speaking generally, throughout the country an amount of from 5 cwt. to 10 cwt. per head per annum should be allowed for. A cubic yard of ordinary house refuse weighs from i2j to 15 cwt. Shop refuse is lighter, frequently containing a large pro- portion of paper, straw and other light wastes. It sometimes weighs as little as 75 cwt. per cubic yard. A load, by which refuse is often estimated, varies in weight from 15 cwt. to 15 tons. The question how a town's refuse shall be disposed of must be considered both from a commercial and a sanitary point of view. Refuse Various methods have been practised. Sometimes the disposal, household ashes, &c., are mixed with pail excreta, or with sludge from a sewage farm, or with lime, and disposed of for agricultural purposes, and sometimes they are conveyed in carts or by canal to outlying and country districts, where they are shot on waste ground or used to fill up hollows and raise the level of marshland. Such plans are economical when suitable outlets are available. To take the refuse out to sea in hopper barges and sink it in deep water is usually expensive and frequently unsatisfactory. At Bermondsey, for instance, the cost of barging is about 2s. gd. a ton, while the material may be destroyed by fire at a cost of from icd. to is. a ton, exclusive of interest and sinking fund on the cost of the works. In other cases, as at Chelsea and various dust contractors' yards, the refuse is sorted and its ingredients are sold; the fine dust may be utilized in connexion with manure manufactories, the pots and pans employed in forming the foundations of roads, and the cinders and vegetable refuse burnt to generate steam. In the Arnold system, carried out in Philadelphia and other American towns, the refuse is sterilized by steam under pressure, the grease and fertilizing substances being extracted at the same time; while in other systems, such as those of Weil and Porno, and of Defosse, distillation in closed vessels is practised. But the destructor system, in which the refuse is burned to an innocuous clinker in specially constructed furnaces, is that which must finally be resorted to, especially in districts which have become well built up and thickly populated. Various types of furnaces and apparatus have from time to time been designed, and the subject has been one of much experiment and many failures. The principal towns in England which took the lead in the adoption of the refuse destructor system were Manchester, Birming- tors. ham, Leeds, Heckmondwike, Warrington, Blackburn, Bradford, Bury, Bolton, Hull, Nottingham, Salford, Ealing and London. Ordinary furnaces, built mostly by dust contractors, began to come into use in London and in the north of England in the second half of the igt h century, but they were not scientific- ally adapted to the purpose, and necessitated the admixture of coal or other fuel with the refuse to ensure its cremation. The Manchester corporation erected a furnace of this description about the year 1873, and Messrs Mead & Co. made an unsatis- factory attempt in 1870 to burn house refuse in closed furnaces at Paddington. In 1876 Alfred Fryer erected his destructor at Manchester, and several other towns adopted this furnace shortly afterwards. Other furnaces were from time to time brought before the public, among which may be mentioned those of Pearce and Lupton, Pickard, Healey, Thwaite, Young, Wilkinson, Burton, Hardie, Jacobs and Odgen. In addition to these the " Beehive " and the " Nelson " destructors became well known. The former was introduced by Stafford and Pearson FIG. i. — Fryer's Destructor. of Burnley, and one was erected in 1884 in the parish yard at Richmond, Surrey, but the results being unsatisfactory, it was closed during the following year. The " Nelson " furnace, patented in 1885 by Messrs Richmond and Birtwistle, was erected at Nelson-in-Marsden, Lancashire, but being very costly in working was abandoned. The principal types of destructors now in use are those of Fryer, Whiley, Horsfall, Warner, Meldrum, Beaman and Deas, Heenan and Froude, and the " Sterling " destructor erected by Messrs Hughes and Stirling. The general arrangement of the destructor patented ' by Alfred Fryer in 1876 is illustrated in fig. i. An installation upon this principle consists of a number of furnaces or cells, usu- fryer's ally arranged in pairs back to back, and enclosed in a rectangular block of brickwork having a flat top, upon which the house refuse is tipped from the carts. 1 Patent No. 3125 (1876). io6 DESTRUCTORS A large main flue, which also forms the dust chamber, is placed underneath the furnace hearths. The Fryer furnace ordinarily burns from 4 to 6 tons of refuse per cell per 24 hours. It will be observed that the outlets for the products of combustion are placed at the back near the refuse feed opening, an arrangement which is imperfect in design, inasmuch as while a charge of refuse is burning upon the furnace bars the charge which is to follow lies on the dead hearth near the outlet flue. Here it undergoes drying and partial decomposition, giving off offensive empyreumatic vapours which pass into the flue without being exposed to sufficient heat to render them entirely FIG. 2. — Horsfall's improved Destructor. inoffensive. The serious nuisances thus produced in some instances led to the introduction of a second furnace, or " cremator," patented by C. Jones of Ealing in 1885, which was placed in the main flue leading to the chimney-shaft, for the purpose of resolving the organic matters present in the vapour, but the greatly increased cost of burning due to this device led to its abandonment in many cases. This type of cell was largely used during the early period of the history of destructors, but has to a considerable extent given place to furnaces of more modern design. A furnace * patented in 1891 by Mr Henry Whiley, superintendent of the scavenging department of the Manchester corporation, is f automatic in its action and was designed primarily with a alley s. v;ew jo saving labour — the cells being fed, stoked and clinkered automatically. There is no drying hearth, and the refuse carts tip direct into a shoot or hopper at the back which conducts the material directly on to movable eccentric grate bars. These auto- matically traverse the material forward into the furnace, and finally push it against a flap-door which opens and allows it to fall out. This apparatus is adapted for dealing with screened rather than unscreened refuse, since it suffers from the objection that the motion of the bars tends to allow fine particles to drop through unburnt. Some difficulty has been experienced from the refuse sticking in the Tipping plat form FIG. 3. — Meldrum's Destructor at Darwen. hopper, and exception may also be taken to the continual flapping of the door when the clinker passes out, as cold air is thereby admitted into the furnace. As in the Fryer cell, the outlet for the products of combustion into the main flue is close to the point where the crude refuse is fed into the furnace, and the escape of unburnt vapours is thus facilitated. Forced draught is applied by means of a Roots blower. The Manchester corporation has 28 cells of this type in use, and the approximate amount of refuse burnt per cell per 24 hours is from 6 to 8 tons at a cost per ton for labour of 3-47 pence. Horsfall's destructor5 (fig. 2) is a high-temperature furnace of modern type which has been adopted largely in Great Britain and on the continent of Europe. In it some of the general features Hors fairs. of the pryer ceu are retained, but the details differ con- siderably from those of the furnaces already described. Important points in the design are the arrangement of the flues and flue outlets for the products of combustion,. and the introduction of a blast duct through which air is forced into a closed ash-pit. The feeding-hole is situated at the back of and above the furnace, while the flue opening for the emission of the gaseous products is placed at the front of the furnace over the dead plate; thus the gases distilled from the raw refuse are caused to pass on their way to the main flue over the hottest part of the furnace and through the flue opening in the red- hot reverberatory arch. The steam jet, which plays an important part in the Horsfall furnace, forces air into the closed ash-pit at a pressure of about f to I in. of water, and in this way a temperature varying from 1500° to 2000° F., as tested by a thermo-electric pyrometer, is maintained in the main flue. In a battery of cells the gases from each are delivered into one main flue, so that a uniform temperature is maintained therein sufficiently high to prevent noxious vapours from reaching the chimney. The cells being charged and clinkered in rotation, when the fire in one is green, in the others it is at its hottest, and the products of combustion do not reach the boiler surfaces until after they have been mixed in the main flue. The cast iron boxes which are provided at the sides of the furnaces, and through which the blast air is conveyed on its way to the grate, prevent the adhesion of clinker to the side walls of the cells, and very materially preserve the brickwork, which otherwise becomes damaged by the tools used to remove the clinker. The wide clinkering doors are suspended by counterbalance weights and open vertically. The rate of working of these cells varies from 8 tons per cell per 24 hours at Oldham to 10 tons per cell at Bradford, where the furnaces are of a later type. The cost of labour in stoking and clinkering is about 6d. per ton of the refuse treated at Bradford, and gd. per ton at Oldham, where the rate of wages is higher. Well-constructed and properly- worked plants of this type should give rise to no nuisance, and may be located in populous neighbourhoods without danger to the public health or comfort. Installations were put down at Fulham (1901), Hammerton Street, Bradford (1900), West Hartlepool (1904), and other places, and the surplus power generated is employed in the pro- duction of electric energy. Warner's destructor,3 known as the " Perfectus," is, in general arrangement, similar to Fryer's, but differs in being provided with special charging hoppers, dampers in flues, dust-catching arrangements, rocking grate bars and other improvements. "arae The refuse is tipped into feeding-hoppers, consisting of rectangular cast iron boxes over which plates are placed to prevent the escape of smoke and fumes. At the lower portion of the feeding-hopper is a flap-door working on an axis and controlled by an iron lever from the tipping platform. When refuse is to be fed into the furnace the lever is thrown over, the contents of the hopper drop on to the sloping firebrick hearth beneath, and the door is at once closed again. The door should be kept open as short a time as possible in order to prevent the admission of cold air into the furnace at the back end, since this leads to the lowering of the temperature of the cells and main flue, and also to paper and other light refuse being carried into the flues and chim- ney. The flues of each furnace are provided with dampers, which are closed during the process of clinkering in order to keep up the heat. The cells are each 5 ft. wide and 1 1 ft. deep, the rearmost portion consisting of a firebrick drying hearth, and the front of rocking grate bars upon which the combus- tion takes place. The crown of each cell is formed of a rever- beratory firebrick arch having openings for the emission of the products of combustion. The flap dampers which are fitted to these openings are operated by horizontal spindles passing through the brickwork to the 1 Patent No. 8271 (1891). Patents No. 8999 (1887) ; No. 14,709 (1888) ; No. 22,531 (1891). front of the cell, where they are provided with levers or handles; thus each cell can be worked independently of the others. With the view of increasing the steam-raising capabilities of the furnace, forced draught is sometimes applied and a tubular boiler is placed close to the cells. The amount of refuse consumed varies from 5 tons to 8 tons per cell per 24 hours. At Hornsey, where 12 cells of this type are in use, the cost of labour for burning the refuse is 9jd. per ton. The Meldurm " Simplex " destructor (fig. 3), a type of furnace which yields good steam-raising results, is in successful operation at Rochdale, Hereford, Darwen, Nelson, Plumstead and „ . . , Woolwich, at each of which towns the production of steam is an important consideration. Cells have also been laid down at Burton, Hunstanton, Blackburn and Shipley, and more recently at Burnley, Cleckheaton, Lancaster, Nelson, Sheernessand Weymouth. In general arrangement the destructor differs considerably from 3 Patent No. 18,719 (1888). DESTRUCTORS 107 those previously described. The grates are placed side by side without separation except by dead plates, but, in order to localize the forced draught, the ash-pit is divided into parts corresponding with the different grate areas. Each ash-pit is closed air-tight by a cast iron plate, and is provided with an air-tight door for removing the fine ash. Two patent Meldrum steam-jet blowers are provided for each furnace, supplying any required pressure of blast up to 6 in. water column, though that usually employed does not exceed 1 1 in. The furnaces are designed for hand-feeding from the front, but hopper-feeding can be applied if desirable. The products of combustion either pass away from the back of each fire-grate into a common flue leading to boilers and the chimney-shaft, or are con- veyed sideways over the various grates and a common fire-bridge to the boilers or chimney. The heat in the gases, after passing the boilers, is still further utilized to heat the air supplied to the furnaces, the gases being passed through an air heater or continuous regenerator consisting of a number of cast iron pipes from which the air is delivered through the Meldrum " blowers at a temperature of about 300° F. That a high percentage (15 to 18 %) of CO2 isobtained in the furnaces proves a small excess of free oxygen, and no doubt explains the high fuel efficiency obtained by this type of destructor. High-pressure boilers of ample capacity are provided for the accumu- lation during periods of light load of a reserve of steam, the storage being obtained by utilizing the difference between the highest and lowest water-levels and the difference between the maximum and working steam-pressure. Patent locking fire-bars, to prevent lifting when clinkering, are used in the furnace and have a good life. At Rochdale the Meldrum furnaces consume from 53lb to 66 lb of refuse per square foot of grate area per hour, as compared with 22-4 lb per square foot in a low-temperature destructor burning 6 tons per cell per 24 hours with a grate area of 25 sq.ft. The evaporative efficiency of the Rochdale furnaces varies from 1-39 lb to 1-87 ft of water (actual) per I lb of refuse burned, and an average steam-pressure of about 114 lb per square inch is maintained. The cost of labour and Fig. 4. — Beaman and Deas Destructor at Leyton. supervision amounts to lod. per ton of refuse dealt with. A Lancashire boiler (22 ft. by 6 ft. 6 in.) at the Sewage Outfall Works, Hereford, evaporates with refuse fuel 2980 lb of water per hour, equal to 149 indicated horse-power. About 54 ft of refuse are burnt per square foot of grate area per hour with an evaporation of 1-82 ft of water per pound of refuse. The Beaman and Deas destructor1 (fig. 4) has attracted much attention from public authorities, and successful installations are in operation at Warrington, Dewsbury, Leyton, Canterbury, Llandudno, Colne, Streatham, Rptherhithe, ia* Wimbledon, Bolton and elsewhere. Its essential features include a level-fire grate with ordinary type bars, a high-temperature combustion chamber at the back of the cells, a closed ash-pit with forced draught, provision for the admission of a secondary air-supply at the fire-bridge, and a firebrick hearth sloping at an angle of about 52°. From the refuse storage platform the material is fed into a hopper mouth about 18 in. square, and slides down the firebrick hearth, supported by T-irons, to the grate bars, over which it is raked and spread with the assistance of long rods manipulated through clinkering doors placed at the sides of the cells. A secondary door in the rear of the cell facilitates the operation. The fire-bars, spaced only fa in. apart, are of the ordinary stationary type. Vertically, under the fire-bridge, is an air-conduit, from the top of which lead air blast pipes 12 in. in diameter discharging into a hermetically closed ash-pit under the grate area. The air is supplied from fans (Schiele's patent) at a pressure of from i| to 2 in. of water, and is con- trolled by means of baffle valves worked by handles on either side of the furnace, conveniently placed for the attendant. The forced draught tends to keep the bars cool and lessen wear and tear. The fumes from the charge drying on the hearth pass through the fire and over the red-hot fire-bridge, which is perforated longitudinally with air-passages connected with a small flue leading from a grated opening on the face of the brickwork outside ; in this way an auxiliary supply of heated oxygen is fed into the combustion chamber. This 1 Patents No. 15,598 (1893) and 23,712 (1893); also Beaman and Deas Sludge Furnace, Patent No. 13,029 (1894). chamber, in which a temperature approaching 2000° F. is attained, is fitted with large iron doors, sliding with balance weights, which allow the introduction of infected articles, bad meat, &c., and also give access for the periodical removal of fine ash f om the flues. The high temperatures attained are utilized by install 'ng one boiler, preferably of the Babcock & Wilcox water-tube type, for each pair of cells, so that the gases, on their way from the combustion chamber to the main flue, pass three times between the boiler tubes. A secondary furnace is provided under the boiler for raising steam by coal, if required, when the cells are out of use. The grate area of each cell is 25 sq. ft., and the consumption varies from 16 up to 20 tons of refuse per cell per 24 hours. In a 24-hours' test made by the super- intendent of the cleansing department, Leeds, at the Warrington installation, the quantity of water evaporated per pound of refuse was 1-14 ft, the average temperature in the combustion chamber 2000° F. by copper-wire test, and the average air pressure with forced draught 2} in. (water-gauge). At Leyton, which has a population of over 100,000, an 8-cell plant of this type is successfully dealing with house refuse and filter press cakes of sewage sludge from the sewage disposal works adjoining, and even with material of this low calorific value the total steam-power produced is considerable. Each cell burns about 16 tons of the mixture in 24 hours and develops about 35 indicated horse-power continuously, at an average steam- pressure in the boilers of 105 ft. The cost of labour at Leyton for burning the mixed refuse is about is. 7d. per ton; at Llandudno, where four cells were laid down, in connexion with the electric-light station in 1898, it is is. 3Jd., and at Warrington 9jd. per ton of refuse consumed. Combustion is complete, and the destructor may be installed in populous districts without nuisance to the inhabitants. Further patents (Wilkie's improvements) have been obtained by Meldrum Brothers (Manchester) in connexion with this destructor. The Heenan furnaces are in operation at Farnworth, Gloucester, Barrow-in-Furness, Northampton, Mansfield, Wakefield, Blackburn, Levenshulme, Kings Norton, Worthing, Birmingham and «. other places, and are now dealing with over 1200 tons of refuse per day. The general arrangement of this destructor some- what resembles that of the Meldrum type. The cells intercommuni- cate, and the mechanical mixture of the gases arising from the furnace grates of the various cells is sought by the introduction of a special design of reverberatpry arch overlying the grates. The standard arrangement of this destructor embodies all modern arrangements for high-temperature refuse destruction and steam- power generation. Destructors of the " Sterling " type, combined with electric- power generating stations, are installed at Hackney (1901), Bermondsey (1902) and Frederiksberg (1903) — the first- „, rf. named plant being probably the most powerful com- bined destructor and electricity station yet erected. In these modern stations the recognized requirements of an up-to-date refuse- destruction plant have been well considered and good calorific results are also obtained. In addition to the above-described destructors, other forms have been introduced from time to time, but adopted to a less degree; amongst these may be mentioned Baker's destructor, Willshear's, Hanson's Utilizer, Mason's Gasifier, the Bennett-Phythian, Cracknell's (Melbourne, Victoria), Coltman's (Loughborough), Willoughby's, and Healey's improved destructors. On the continent of Europe systems for the treatment of refuse have also been devised. Among these may be mentioned those of M. Defosse and M. Helouis. The former has endeavoured to burn the refuse in large quantities by using a forced draught and only washing the smoke.2 Helouis has extended the operation by using the heat from the combustion of the refuse for drying and distilling the material which is brought gradu- ally on to the grate. Boulnois and Brodie's improved charging tank is a labour-saving apparatus consisting of a wrought iron truck, 5 ft. wide by 3 ft. deep, and of sufficient length to hold not less than 12 hours' Destructor supply for the two cells which it serves. The truck, fcces. which moves along a pair of rails across the top of the sorfcs. destructor, may be worked by one man. It is divided into compartments holding a charge of refuse in each, and is provided with a pair of doors in the bottom, opening downwards, which are supported by a series of small wheels running on a central rail. A special feeding opening in the reverberatpry arch of the cell of the width of the truck, situated over the drying hearth, is formed by a firebrick arch fitted into a frame capable of being moved backwards and forwards by means of a lever. The charging truck, when empty, is brought under the tipping platform, and the carts tip directly into it. When one of the cells has to be fed, the truck is moved along, so that one of the divisions is immediately over the feeding opening, and the wheel holding up the bottom doors rests upon the central rail, which is continued over the movable covering arch. Then the movable arch is rolled back, the doors are released, and the contents are discharged into the cell, so that no handling of the refuse is required from tipping to feeding. This apparatus is in operation at Liverpool, Shoreditch, Cambridge and elsewhere. Various forms of patent movable fire-bars have been employed 2 Compte Rendu des Travaux de la SocM6 des IngSnieurs Cimls de France, folio 775 (June 1897). io8 DESTRUCTORS in destructor furnaces. Among these may be mentioned Settle's,1 Vicar's,2 Riddle's rocking bars,' Horsfall's self-feeding apparatus,4 and Healey's movable bars; * but complicated movable arrangements are not to be recommended, and experience greatly favours the use of a simple stationary type of fire-bar. A dust-catching apparatus has been designed and erected at Edinburgh, by the Horsfall Furnace Syndicate, in order to over- come difficulties in regard to the escape of flue dust, &c., from the destructor chimney. Externally, it appears a large circular block of brickwork, 18 ft. in diameter and 13 ft. 7 in. high, connected with the main flue, and situated between the destructor cells and the boiler. Internally it consists of a spiral flue traversing the entire circumference and winding upwards to the top of the chamber. There is an interior well or chamber 6 ft. diameter by 12 ft. high, having a domed top, and communicating with the outer spiral flue by four ports at the top of the chamber. Dust traps, baffle walls Other accessory plant in use at most modern destructor stations includes machinery for the removal, crushing and various means of utilization of the residual clinker, stoking tools, air heaters or regenerators for the production of hot-air blast to the furnaces, superheaters and thermal storage arrangements for equalizing the output of power from the station during the 24-hours' day. The general arrangement of a battery of refuse cells at a destructor station is illustrated by fig. 5. The cells are arranged either side by side, with a common main flue in the rear, or back to back with the main flue placed in the w°rkiag centre and leading to a tall chimney-shaft. The heated gases on leaving the cells pass through the combustion chamber into the main flue, and thence go forward to the boilers, where their heat is absorbed and utilized. Forced draught, or ol de- structors. ••••/•>. if*,— ipf.- ,<->-..*•» , ,f.>_.,rx It*---- f 'f •••• •..-$— •-*«•»' x-|l- • *H;4- • - •*•»*«»••%* *•— .-»-*...— ~n--H f,-~n; ~ i :n--« «"n i "V-» ir-TiTT nn-w •,-,•-. FIG. 5. — Leyton Destructor. Block Plan, and cleaning doors are also provided for the retention and subsequent weekly _ removal of the flue dust. The apparatus forms a large reservoir of heat maintained at a steady temperature of from 1500° to 1800° F., and is useful in keeping up steam in the boiler at an equable pressure for a long period. It requires no attention, and has proved successful for its purpose. Travelling cranes for transporting refuse and feeding cells are sometimes employed at destructor stations, as, for example, at Hamburg. Here the transportation of the refuse is effected by means of specially constructed water-tight iron wagons, containing detachable boxes provided with two double-flap doors at the top for loading, and one flap-door at the back for unloading. There are thirty-six_ furnaces of the Horsfall type placed in two ranks, each arranged in three blocks of six in the large furnace hall. An electric crane running above each rank lifts the boxes off the wagons and carries them to the feeding-hole of each well. Here the box is tipped up by an electric pulley and emptied on to the furnace platform. When the travelling crane is used, the carts (four-wheeled) bringing the refuse may be constructed so that the body of the carriage can be taken off the wheels, lifted up and tipped direct over the furnace as required, and returned again to its frame. The adoption of the travelling crane admits of the reduction in size of the main building, as less platform space for unloading refuse carts is required; the inclined road way_ may also be dispensed with. Where a destructor site will not admit of an inclined roadway and platform, the refuse may be discharged from the collecting carts into a lift, and thence elevated into the feeding-bins. 1 Patent No. 15,482 (1885). •Patents No. 1955 (1867) and No. 378 (1879). 1 Patent No. 4896 (1891). 4 Patent No. 20,207 (1892). 6 Patents No. 18,398 (1892) and No. 12,990 (1892). showing general arrangement of the Works. in many cases, hot blast, is supplied from fans through a conduit commanding the whole of the cells. An inclined roadway, of as easy gradient as circumstances will admit, is provided for the conveyance of the refuse to the tipping platform, from which it is fed through feed-holes into the furnaces. In the installation of a destructor, the choice of suitable plant and the general design of the works must be largely dependent upon local requirements, and should be entrusted to an engineer experienced in these matters. The following primary considerations, however, may be enumerated as materially affecting the design of such works: — (a) The plant must be simple, easily worked without stoppages, and without mechanical complications upon which stokers may lay the blame for bad results, (b) It must be strong, must withstand variations of temperature, must not be liable to get out of order, and should admit of being readily repaired, (c) It must be such as can be easily understood by stokers or firemen of average intelligence, so that the continuous working of the plant may not be disorganized by change of workmen, (d) A sufficiently high temperature must be attained in the cells to reduce the refuse to an entirely innocuous clinker, and all fumes or gases should pass either through an adjoining red-hot cell or through a chamber whose temperature is maintained by the ordinary working of the destructor itself at a degree sufficient to exclude the possibility of the escape of any unconsumed gases, vapours or particles. The temperature may vary between 1 500° a nd 2000°. (e) The plant must be so worked that while some of the cells are being recharged, others are at a glowing red heat, in order that a high temperature may be uniformly maintained. (/) The design of the furnaces must admit of clinkering and recharging being easily and quickly performed, the furnace doors being open for a minimum of time so as to obviate the inrush of cold air to lower the temperature DESTRUCTORS 109 in main flues, &c. (g) The chimney draught must he assisted with forced draught from fans or steam jet to a pressure of I J in. to 2 in. under grates by water-gauge, (h) Where a destructor is required to work without risk of nuisance to the neighbouring inhabitants, its efficiency as a refuse destructor plant must be primarily kept in view in designing the works, steam-raising being regarded as a secondary consideration. Boilers should not be placed immediately over a furnace so as to present a large cooling surface, whereby the temperature of the gases is reduced before the organic matter has been thoroughly burned. (») Where steam-power and a high fuel efficiency are desired a large percentage of CO2 should be sought in the furnaces with as little excess of air as possible, and the flue gases should be utilized in heating the air-supply to the grates, and the feed-water to the boilers, (j) Ample boiler capacity and hot-water storage feed-tanks should be included in the design where steam- power is required. As to the initial cost of the erection of refuse destructors, few trustworthy data can be given. The outlay necessarily depends, amongst other things, upon the difficulty of preparing the site, upon the nature of the foundations required, the height of the chimney-shaft, the length of the inclined or approach roadway, and the varying prices of labour and materials in different localities. As an example may be mentioned the case of Bristol, where, in 1892, the total cost of constructing a l6-cell Fryer de- structor was £11,418, of which £2909 was expended on foundations, and £1689 on the chimney-shaft; the cost of the destructor proper, buildings and approach road was therefore £6820, or about £426 per cell. The cost per ton of burning refuse in destructors depends mainly upon — (a) The price of labour in the locality, and the number of " shifts " or changes of workmen per day; (6) the type of furnace adopted; (c) the nature of the material to be consumed; (d) the interest on and repayment of capital outlay. The cost of burning ton for ton consumed, in high-temperature furnaces, including labour and repairs, is not greater than in slow-combustion destructors. The average cost of burning refuse at twenty-four different towns through- out England, exclusive of interest on the cost of the works, is is. I Jd. per ton burned ; the minimum cost is 6d. per ton at Bradford, and the maximum cost 2s. lod. per ton at Battersea. At Shoreditch the coSt per ton for the year ending on the 25th of March 1899, including labour, supervision, stores, repairs, &c. (but exclusive of interest on cost of works), was 2s. 6-9d. The quantity of refuse burned per cell per day of 24 hours varies from about 4 tons up to 20 tons. The ordinary low-temperature destructor, with 25 sq. ft. grate area, burns about 2olb of refuse per square foot of grate area per hour, or between 5 and 6 tons per cell per 24 hours. The Meldrum destructor furnaces at Rochdale burn as much as 66 Ib per square foot of grate area per hour, and the Beaman and Deas destructor at Llandudno 71-7 Ib per square foot per hour. The amount, however, always depends materially on the care observed in stoking, the nature of the material, the frequency of removal of clinker, and on the question whether the whole of the refuse passed into the furnace is thoroughly cremated. The amount of residue in the shape of clinker and fine ash varies from 22 to 37 % of the bulk dealt with. From 25 to 30% is a very usual amount. At Shoreditch, where the refuse consists Residues; of about g% of straw, paper, shavings, &c., the residue contains about 29% clinker, 2-7% fine ash, -5% flue dust, and -6% old tins, making a total residue of 32-8 %. As the residuum amounts to from one-fourth to one-third of the total bulk of the refuse dealt with, it is a question of the utmost importance that some profitable, or at least inexpensive, means should be devised for its regular disposal. Among other purposes, it has been used for bottoming for macadam- ized roads, for the manufacture of concrete, for making paving slabs, for forming suburban footpaths or cinder f ootwalks, and for the manu- facture of mortar. The last is a very general, and in many places profitable, mode of disposal. An entirely new outlet has also arisen for the disposal of good well-vitrified destructor clinker in connexion with the construction of bacteria beds for sewage disposal, and in many districts its value has, by this means, become greatly enhanced. Through defects in the design and management of many of the early destructors complaints of nuisance frequently arose, and these have, to some extent, brought destructor installations into disrepute. Although some of the older furnaces were decided offenders in this respect, that is by no means the case with the modern improved type of high-temperature furnace; and often, were it not for the great prominence in the landscape of a tall chimney-shaft, the existence of a refuse destructor in a neighbourhood would not be generally known to the inhabitants. A modern furnace, properly designed and worked, will give rise to no nuisance, and may be safely erected in the midst of a populous neighbourhood. To ensure the perfect crema- tion of the refuse and of the gases given off, forced draught is essential. _ This is supplied either as air draught delivered from a rorcea rapidly revolving fan, or as steam blast, as in the Horsfall steam jet or the Meldrum blower. With a forced blast less air is required to obtain complete combustion than by chimney draught. The forced draught grate requires little more than the quantity theoretically necessary, while with chimney draught more than double the theoretical amount of air must be supplied. With forced draught, too, a much higher temperature is attained, and if it is properly worked, little or no cold air will enter the furnaces during stoking operations. As far as possible a balance of pressure in the cells during clinkering should be maintained just sufficient to pre- vent an inrush of cold air through the flues. The forced draught pressure should not exceed 2 in. water-gauge. The efficiency of the combustion in the furnace is conveniently measured by the " Econometer," which registers continuously and automatically the proportion of COj passing away in the waste gases; the higher the percentage of CO2 the more efficient the furnace, provided there is no formation of CO, the presence of which would indicate incomplete combustion. The theoretical maximum of CO2 for refuse burning is about 20%; and, by maintaining an even clean fire, by admitting secondary air over the fire, and by regulating the dampers or the air- pressure m the ash-pit, an amount approximating to this percentage may be attained in a well-designed furnace if properly worked. If the proportion of free oxygen (i.e. excess of air) is large, more air is passed through the furnace than is required for complete combustion, and the heating of this excess is clearly a waste of heat. The position of the econometer in testing should be as near the furnace as possible, as there may be considerable air leakage through the brickwork of the flues. The air supply to modern furnaces is usually delivered hot, the inlet air being first passed through an air-heater the temperature of which is maintained by the waste gases in the main flue. The modern high-temperature destructor, to render the refuse and gases perfectly innocuous and harmless, is worked at a temperature varying from 1250° to 2000° F., and the maintenance of such temperatures has very naturally suggested the possi- bility of utilizing this heat-energy for the production of *"*'"«• steam-power. Experience shows that a considerable amount of energy may be derived from steam-raising destructor stations, amply justifying a reasonable increase of expenditure on plant and labour. The actual calorific value of the refuse material necessarily varies, but, as a general average, with suitably designed and properly managed plant, an evaporation of I Ib of water per pound of refuse burned is a result which may be readily attained, and affords a basis of calculation which engineers may safely adopt in practice. Many destructor steam-raising plants, however, give considerably higher results, evaporations approaching 2 Ib of water per pound of refuse being often met with under favourable conditions. From actual experience it may be accepted, therefore, that the calorific value of unscreened house refuse varies from I to 2 Ib of water evaporated per pound of refuse burned, the exact proportion depending upon the quality and condition of the material dealt with. Taking the evaporative power of coal at 10 ft of water per pound of coal, this gives for domestic house refuse a value of from t"o to i tnat °f coal ; or, with coal at 2os. per ton, refuse has a commercial value of from 2s. to 43. per ton. In London the quantity of house refuse amounts to about I \ million tons per annum, which is equivalent to from 4 cwt. to 5 cwt. per head per annum. If it be burned in furnaces giving an evaporation of I Ib of water per pound of refuse, it would yield a total power annually of about 138 million brake horse-power hours, and equivalent cost of coal at 2Os. per ton for this amount of power even when calculated upon the very low estimate of 2 ib * of coal per brake horse-power hour, works out at over £123,000. On the same basis, the refuse of a medium-sized town, with, say, a population of 70,000 yielding refuse at the rate of 5 cwt. per head per annum, would afford 112 indicated horse-power per ton burned, and the total indicated horse-power hours per annum would be 70,000X5 cwt. x j I2 = Ii960i000 J.H.P. hours annually. If this were applied to the production of electric energy, the electrical horse-power hours would be (with a dynamo efficiency of 90 %) 1.960.000X90 = Ii764iooo E.H.P. hours per annum; and the watt-hours per annum at the central station would be i ,764,000 X 746 = i ,31 5,944.000. Allowing for a loss of 10% in distribution, this would give 1,184,349,600 watt-hours available in lamps, or with 8-candle-power lamps taking 30 watts of current per lamp, we should have 1.184.349.600 watt-hours = 820 8< p lamp.hours ^ annum; that is, ^ 39.47 .3 — =563 8-c.p.' lamp-hours per annum per ' K 70,000 population -head of population. Taking the loss due to the storage which would be necessary at 20% on three-quarters of the total or 15% upon the whole, there would be 478 8-c.p. lamp-hours per annum per head of the population: i.e. if the power developed from the refuse were fully utilized, it would supply electric light at the rate of one 8-c.p. lamp per head of the population for about I J hours for every night of the year. In actual practice, when the electric.energy is for the purposes of lighting only, difficulty has been experienced in fully utilizing the thermal energy from a destructor plant owing to the want of adequate means of storage either of the thermal or of the electric energy. A destructor station usually yields a fairly definite amount of thermal energy uniformly throughout the 24 hours, while the consumption of electric-lighting current is extremely 1With medium-sized steam plants, a consumption of 4ft of coal per brake horse-power per" hour is a very usual performance. atltles. no DE TABLEY— DETAILLE irregular, the maximum demand being about four times the mean demand. The period during which the demand exceeds the mean is comparatively short, and does not exceed about 6 hours out of the 24, while for a portion of the time the demand may not exceed jVth of the maximum. This difficulty, at first regarded as somewhat grave, is substantially minimized by the provision of ample boiler capacity, or by the introduction of feed thermal storage vessels in which hot feed-water may be stored during the hours of light load (say 1 8 out of the 24), so that at the time of maximum load the boiler may be filled directly from these vessels, which work at the same pressure and temperature as the boiler. Further, the difficulty above mentioned will disappear entirely at stations where there is a fair day load which practically ceases at about the hour when the illuminating load comes on, thus equalizing the demand upon both destructor and electric plant throughout the 24 hours. This arises in cases where current is consumed during the day for motors, fans, lifts, electric tramways, and other like purposes, and, as the employ- ment of electric energy for these services is rapidly becoming general, no difficulty need be anticipated in the successful working of com- bined destructor and electric plants where these conditions prevail. The more uniform the electrical demand becomes, the more fully 1 may the power from a destructor station be utilized. In addition to combination with electric-lighting works, refuse destructors are now very commonly installed in conjunction with various other classes of power-using undertakings, including tram- ways, water-works, sewage-pumping, artificial slab-making and clinker-crushing works and others; and the increasingly large sums which are being yearly expended in combined undertakings of this character is perhaps the strongest evidence of the practical value of such combinations where these several classes of work must be carried on. For further information on the subject, reference should be made to William H. Maxwell, Removal and Disposal of Town Refuse, with an exhaustive treatment of Refuse Destructor Plants (London, 1899), with a special Supplement embodying later results (London, 1905). See also the Proceedings of the Incorporated Association of Municipal and County Engineers, vols. xiii. p. 216, xxii. p. 211, xxiv. p. 214 and xxv. p. 138; also the Proceedings of the Institution of Civti Engineers, vols. cxxii. p. 443, cxxiv. p. 469, cxxxi. p. 413, cxxxviii. p. 508, cxxix. p. 434, cxxx. pp. 213 and 347, cxxiii. pp. 369 and 498, cxxviii. p. 293 and cxxxv. p. 300. (W. H. MA.) DE TABLEY, JOHN BYRNE LEICESTER WARREN, 3RD BARON (1835-1895), English poet, eldest son of George Fleming Leicester (afterwards Warren) , 2nd Baron De Tabley, was born on the 26th of April 1835. HewaseducatedatEtonand Christ Church, Oxford, where he took his degree in 1856 with second classes in classics and in law and modern history. In the autumn of 1858 he went to Turkey as unpaid attache toLord Stratford de Redcliffe, and two years later was called to the bar. He became an officer in theCheshireYeomanry,andunsuccessfullycontestedMid-Cheshire in 1868 as a Liberal. After his father's second marriage in 1871 he removed to London, where he became a close friend of Tennyson for several years. From 1877 till his succession to the title in 1887 he was lost to his friends, assuming the life of a recluse. It was not till 1892 that he returned to London life, and enjoyed a sort of renaissance of reputation and friendship. During the later years of his life Lord De Tabley made many new friends, besides reopening old associations, and he almost seemed to be gathering around him a small literary company when his health broke, and he died on the 22nd of November 1895 at Ryde, in his sixty-first year. He was buried at Little Peover in Cheshire. Although his reputation will live almost exclusively as that of a poet, De Tabley was a man of many studious tastes. He was at one time an authority on numismatics; he wrote two novels; published A Guide to the Study of Book Plates (1880); and the fruit of his careful researches in botany was printed posthumously in his elaborate Flora of Cheshire (1899). Poetry, however, was his first and last passion, and to that he devoted the best energies of his life. De Tabley's first impulse towards poetry came from his friend George Fortescue, with whom he shared a close com- panionship during his Oxford days, and whom he lost, as Tennyson lost Hallam, within a few years of their taking their degrees. Fortescue was killed by faUing from the mast of Lord Drogheda's yacht in November 1859, and this gloomy event plunged De Tabley into deep depression. Between 1859 and 1862 De Tabley issued four little volumes of pseudonymous verse (by G. F. Preston), in the production of which he had been greatly stimu- lated by the sympathy of Fortescue. Once more he assumed a pseudonym— his Praeterila (1863) bearing the name of William Lancaster. In the next year he published Eclogues and Mono- dramas, followed in 1865 by Studies in Verse. These volumes all displayed technical grace and much natural beauty; but it was not till the publication of Philocteles in 1866 that De Tabley met with any wide recognition. Philoctetes bore the initials " M.A.," which, to the author's dismay, were interpreted as meaning Matthew Arnold. He at once disclosed his identity, and received the congratulations of his friends, among whom were Tennyson, Browning and Gladstone. In 1867 he published Orestes, in 1870 Rehearsals and in 1873 Searching the Net. These last two bore his own name, John Leicester Warren. He was somewhat disappointed by their lukewarm reception, and when in 1876 The Soldier of Fortune, a drama on which he had bestowed much careful labour, proved a complete failure, he retired altogether from the literary arena. It was not until 1893 that he was persuaded to return, and the immediate success in that year of his Poems, Dramatic and Lyrical, encouraged him to publish a second series in 1895, the year of his death. The genuine interest with which these volumes were welcomed did much to lighten the last years of a somewhat sombre and solitary life. His posthumous poems were collected in 1902. The characteristics of De Tabley's poetry are pre-eminently magnificence of style, derived from close study of Milton, sonority, dignity, weight and colour. His passion for detail was both a strength and a weak- ness: it lent a loving fidelity to his description of natural objects, but it sometimes involved him in a loss of simple effect from over-elaboration of treatment. He was always a student of the classic poets, and drew much of his inspiration directly from them. He was a true and a whole-hearted artist, who, as a brother poet well said, " still climbed the clear cold altitudes of song." His ambition was always for the heights, a region naturally ice-bound at periods, but always a country of clear atmosphere and bright, vivid outlines. See an excellent sketch by E. Gosse in his Critical Kit-Kats (1896). (A. WA.) DETAILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE EDOUARD (1848- ), French painter, was born in Paris on the sth of October 1848. After working as a pupil of Meissonier's, he first exhibited, in the Salon of 1867, a picture representing " A Corner of Meissonier's Studio." Military life was from the first a principal attraction to the young painter, and he gained his reputation by depicting the scenes of a soldier's life with every detail truthfully rendered. He exhibited " A Halt " (1868); " Soldiers at rest, during the Manoeuvres at the Camp of Saint Maur " (1869) ; " Engagement between Cossacks and the Imperial Guard, 1814 " (1870). The war of 1870-71 furnished him with a series of subjects which gained him repeated successes. Among his more important pictures may be named "The Conquerors" (1872); "The Retreat " (1873) ; " The Charge of the gth Regiment of Cuirassiers in the Village of Morsbronn, 6th August 1870" (1874); "The Marching Regiment, Paris, December 1874" (1875); "A Reconnaissance" (1876); "Hail to the Wounded!" (1877); " Bonaparte in Egypt V (1878); the " Inauguration of the New Opera House " — a water-colour; the " Defence of Champigny by Faron's Division " (1879). He also worked with Alphonse de Neuville on the panorama of Rezonville. In 1884 he exhibited at the Salon the " Evening at Rezonville," a panoramic study, and "The Dream" (1888), now in the Luxemburg. Detaille recorded other events in the military history of his country: the " Sortie of the Garrison of Huningue " (now in the Luxem- burg), the " Vincendon Brigade," and " Bizerte," reminiscences of the expedition to Tunis. After a visit to Russia, Detaille exhibited " The Cossacks of the Ataman " and " The Hereditary Grand Duke at the Head of the Hussars of the Guard." Other important works are: " Victims to Duty," " The Prince of Wales and the Duke of Connaught " and " Pasteur's Funeral." In his picture of" Chalons, gth October 1896," exhibited in the Salon, 1898, Detaille painted the emperor and empress of Russia at a review, with M. Felix Faure. Detaille became a member of the French Institute in 1898. See Marius Vachon, Detaille (Paris, 1898) ; Frederic Masson, Edouard Detaille and his work (Paris and London, 1891) ; J. Claretie, Peintres et sculfiteurs contemporains (Paris, 1876); G. Goetschy, Les Jeunes peintres militaires (Paris, 1878). DETAINER— DETERMINANT in DETAINER (from detain, Lat. detinere), in law, the act of keeping a person against his will, or the wrongful keeping of a person's goods, or other real or personal property. A writ of detainer was a form for the beginning of a personal action against a person already lodged within the walls of a prison; it was superseded by the Judgment Act 1838. DETERMINANT, in mathematics, a function which presents itself in the solution of a system of simple equations. i . Considering the equations ax -\-by -$-cz =d , a'x+b'y+c'z=d' , a"x+b"y+c"z=d", and proceeding to solve them by the so-called method of cross multiplication, we multiply the equations by factors selected in such a manner that upon adding the results the whole coefficient of y becomes = o, and the whole coefficient of z becomes = o; the factors in question are b'c" — b"c' , b"c— be", bc'—b'c (values which, as at once seen, have the desired property); we thus obtain an equation which contains on the left-hand side only a multiple of x, and on the right-hand side a constant term; the coefficient of x has the value a(b'c"-b"c')+a'(b"c-bc")+a'(bc'-b'c), and this function, represented in the form a , b , c a' ,b',c' a', b', c' is said to be a determinant; or, the number of elements being 32, it is called a determinant of the third order. It is to be noticed that the resulting equation is a , b , c \x — d ,b ,c a',b',c' d',b',c' a', b", c" I d", b", c' where the expression on the right-hand side is the like function with d, d', d" in place of a, a', a" respectively, and is of course also a determinant. Moreover, the functions b'c" — b'c', b'c— be", be' — b'c used in the process are themselves the determinants of the second order b',c' b'.c" b", c" I b ,c \ We have herein the suggestion of the rule for the derivation of the determinants of the orders i, 2, 3, 4, &c., each from the preceding one, viz. we have ' -am. +a "\b,c], \b',c'\ " ,c" ,d" \+a"\b",c",d"\-a"\b ,c ,d \, ",c",d"\ \b ,c ,d y>',c',d'\ ,c ,d \ W ,c' ,d' V>",c",d"\ and so on, the terms being all + for a determinant of an odd order, but alternately + and — for a determinant of an even order. 2. It is easy, by induction, to arrive at the general results: — A determinant of the order n is the sum of the 1.2.3. ..n pro- ducts which can be formed with n elements out of »2 elements arranged in the form of a square, no two of the n elements being in the same line or in the same column, and each such product having the coefficient ± unity. The products in question may be obtained by permuting in every possible manner the columns (or the lines) of the determin- ant, and then taking for the factors the « elements in the dexter diagonal. And we thence derive the rule for the signs, viz. con- sidering the primitive arrangement of the columns as positive, then an arrangement obtained therefrom by a single interchange (inversion, or derangement) of two columns is regarded as nega- tive; and so in general an arrangement is positive or negative according as it is derived from the primitive arrangement by an even or an odd number of interchanges. iThis implies the theorem that a given arrangement can be derived from the primitive arrangement only by an odd number, or else only by an even number of interchanges, — a theorem the verification of which may be easily obtained from the theorem (in fact a particular case of the general one), an arrangement can be derived from itself only by an even number of interchanges.] And this being so, each product has the sign belonging to the corresponding arrange- ment of the columns; in particular, a determinant contains with the sign + the product of the elements in its dexter diagonal. It is to be observed that the rule gives as many positive as negative arrangements, the number of each being = 1 1.2. ..n. The rule of signs may be expressed in a different form. Giving to the columns in the primitive arrangement the numbers i, 2, 3. . . n, to obtain the sign belonging to any other arrangement we take, as often as a lower number succeeds a higher one, the sign — , and, compounding together all these minus signs, obtain the proper sign, + or — as the case may be. Thus, for three columns, it appears by either rule that 123, 231, 312 are positive; 213, 321, 132 are negative; and the developed expression of the foregoing determinant of the third order is =ab'c'-ab*c'+a'b"c-a'bc"-a"bc'-a"b'c. 3. It further appears that a determinant is a linear function1 of the elements of each column thereof, and also a linear function of the elements of each line thereof; moreover, that the de- terminant retains the same value, only its sign being altered, when any two columns are interchanged, or when any two lines are interchanged; more generally, when the columns are permuted in any manner, or when the lines are permuted in any manner, the determinant retains its original value, with the sign + or — according as the new arrangement (considered as derived from the primitive arrangement) is positive or negative according to the foregoing rule of signs. It at once follows that, if two columns are identical, or if two lines are identical, the value of the determinant is = o. It may be added, that if the lines are converted into columns, and the columns into lines, in such a way as to leave the dexter diagonal unaltered, the value of the determinant is unaltered; the determinant is in this case said to be transposed. 4. By what precedes it appears that there exists a function of the «2 elements, linear as regards the terms of each column (or say, for shortness, linear as to each column), and such that only the sign is altered when any two columns are interchanged; these properties completely determine the function, except as to a common factor which may multiply all the terms. If, to get rid of this arbitrary common factor, we assume that the product of -the elements in the dexter diagonal has the coefficient -f- i, we have a complete definition of the determinant, and it is interesting to show how from these properties, assumed for the definition of the determinant, it at once appears that the determinant is a function serving for the solution of a system of linear equations. Observe that the properties show at once that if any column is = o (that is, if the elements in the column are each= o), then the determinant is = o; and further, that if any two columns are identical, then the determinant is = o. 5. Reverting to the system of linear equations written down at the beginning of this article, consider the determinant ax +by +cz —d , b , c a'x+b'y+c'z-dl,b',c' a'x+b'y+c'z-d", b", c" 1 it appears that this is =x\a , b , c \a', b',c' k, b", c' +y b ,b ,c b\b',c' b", b', c" +4 1 ". , b , c , •',b',c', •-", b", c', -M , b , c W,b',c' V", b", c" viz. the second and third terms ei =x\ a , b , c «', b',c' \ a", b', c" LCt vanishin d ,b ,c d',b',c' d', b", c' ?, it is But if the linear equations hold good, then the first column of the 1The expression, a linear function, is here used in its narrowest sense, a linear function without constant term; what is meant is that the determinant is in regard to the elements a, a', a", . . of any column or line thereof, a function of the form Aa+A'a'+A"a"+ .... without any term independent of a, a', a" . . . 112 DETERMINANT original determinant is = o, and therefore the determinant itself is = o; that is, the linear equations give a , b , c a',b',c' a", b", c" d ,b ,c d',b',c' d', b', c" which is the result obtained above. We might in a similar way find the values of y and z, but there is a more symmetrical process. Join to the original equations the new equation ax+fiy + 73 = 8; a like process shows that, the equations being satisfied, we have =o; a", b', c", d' or, as this may be written, -I a , b , c a', b',c' a', b", c" = or a , b , c , d a',b',c',d' a', b', c', d' which, considering 5 as standing herein for its value ax+fty+yz, is a consequence of the original equations only: we have thus an expression for ax+fty+yz, an arbitrary linear function of the unknown quantities x, y, z; and by comparing the coefficients of a, ft, 7 on the two sides respectively, we have the values of *, y, z; in fact, these quantities, each multiplied by a , b , c a',b',c' a', b", c* are in the first instance obtained in the forms a , b , c , d a'. b',c',d' a", b", c', d" a , b , c , d a',b',c''d' a", b', c", d" but these are b ,c A c , d , a b',c',d' b", c", d" c',d',a' c',d",a" a , b , c , d a' , b' , c' , d' a", b", c", d" d a ,b d' a', b' d' a", b" a ,b ,d a',b' d' a",b'd" or, what is the same thing, b ,c , d , c ,a , d b',c',d' c',a',d' b",c",d" c",a",d" respectively. 6. Multiplication of two Determinants of the same Order. — The theorem is obtained very easily from the last preceding definition of a determinant. It is most simply expressed thus — a. , b , C w a", 0 , y a', b', c' a', 0', -/' a-", b", c" If a t y, 7" (a , b , c ) (a',b',c')l (a", b', c') where the expression on the left side stands for a determinant, the terms of the first line being (a, b, c)(a, a', a"), that is, aa+fto'+ ca", (a, b, c)(ft, ft', ft"), that is, aft+bft'+cft", (a, b, c)(y,y',y"), thatisa7+&7'+c7"; and similarly the terms in the second and third lines are the life functions with (a1, b', c') and (a", b", c") respectively. There is an apparently arbitrary transposition of lines and columns; the result would hold good if on the left-hand side we had written (a, ft, 7), (a', ft', 7'), (a", ft", y"), or what is the same thing, if on the right-hand side we had transposed the second determinant; and either of these changes would, it might be thought, increase the elegance of the form, but, for a reason which need not be explained,1 the form actually adopted is the pre- ferable one. To indicate the method of proof, observe that the determinant on the left-hand side, qua linear function of its columns, may be 1 The reason is the connexion with the corresponding theorem for the multiplication of two matrices. broken up into a sum of (3" = ) 27 determinants, each of which is either of some such form as a , a , b a',a',b' a", a", b" where the term afty' is not a term of the Oj87-determinant, and its coefficient(as a determinant with two identical columns)vanishes; or else it is of a form such as a , b , c a',b',c' a", b", c" that is, every term which does not vanish contains as a factor the a&c-determinant last written down ; the sum of all other factors =^aft'y" is the a/fy-determinant of the formula; and the final result then is, that the determinant on the left-hand side is equal to the product on the right-hand side of the formula. 7. Decomposition of a Determinant into complementary Deter- minants.— Consider, for simplicity, a determinant of the fifth order, 5=2+3, and let the top two lines be a , b , c . d , e a', b', c', d', e' then, if we consider how these elements enter into the deter- minant, it is at once seen that they enter only through the determinants of the second order c/' j/ I , &c., which can be formed by selecting any two columns at pleasure. Moreover, representing the remaining three lines by a" , b" , c" , d" , e" a", b", c"', d", e" a", b", c", d", e" it is further seen that the factor which multiplies the determinant formed with any two columns of the first set is the determinant of the third order formed with the complementary three columns of the second set; and it thus appears that the determinant of the fifth order is a sum of all the products of the form \a,b \ a', b" c" ,d" , e" c",d",e" c"", d", e" the sign =*= being in each case such that the sign of the term ±ab'.c"d'"e"" obtained from the diagonal elements of the com- ponent determinants may be the actual sign of this term in the determinant of the fifth order; for the product written down the sign is obviously +. Observe that for a determinant of the »-th order, taking the decomposition to be i + (n— i), we fallback upon the equations given at the commencement, in order to show the genesis of a determinant. 8. Any determinant "/' 6/ formed out of the elements of ' the original determinant, by selecting the lines and columns at pleasure, is termed a minor of the original determinant; and when the number of lines and columns, or order of the deter- minant, is n—i, then such determinant is called a. first minor; the number of the first minors is = w2, the first minors, in fact, corre- sponding to the several elements of the determinant — that is, the coefficient therein of any term whatever is the corresponding first minor. The first minors, each divided by the determinant itself, form a system of elements inverse to the elements of the determinant. A determinant is symmetrical when every two elements symmetrically situated in regard to the dexter diagonal are equal to each other; if they are equal and opposite (that is, if the sum of the two elements be = o), this relation not extending to the diagonal elements themselves, which remain arbitrary, then the determinant is skew; but if the relation does extend to the diagonal terms (that is, if these are each = o), then the deter- minant is skew symmetrical; thus the determinants a, h, g h, b, f «, /- c o, v, — n — v, O, X It, — X, O are respectively symmetrical, skew and skew symmetrical: DETERMINISM— DETROIT The theory admits of very extensive algebraic developments, and applications in algebraical geometry and other parts of mathematics. Foi further developments of the theory of deter- minants see ALGEBRAIC FORMS. (A. CA.) 9. History. — These functions were originally known as " re- sultants," a name applied to them by Pierre Simon Laplace, but now replaced by the title " determinants," a name first applied to certain forms of them by Carl Friedrich Gauss. The germ of the theory of determinants is to be found in the writings of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1693), who incidentally discovered certain properties when reducing the eliminant of a system of linear equa- tions. Gabriel Cramer, in a note to his Analyse des lignes courbes algebriques (1750), gave the rule which establishes the sign of a product as plus or minus according as the number of displacements from the typical form has been even or odd. Determinants were also em- ployed by Etienne Bezout in 1764, but the first connected account of these functions was published in 1772 by Charles Auguste Vander- monde. Laplace developed a theorem of Vandermonde for the expansion of a determinant, and in 1773 Joseph Louis Lagrange, in his memoir on Pyramids, used determinants of the third order, and proved that the square of a determinant was also a determinant. Although he obtained results now identified with determinants, Lagrange did not discuss these functions systematically. In 1801 Gauss published his Disquisitiones arithmetical, which, although written in an obscure form, gave a new impetus to investigations on this and kindred subjects. To Gauss is due the establishment of the important theorem, that the product of two determinants both of the second and third orders is a determinant. The formulation of the general theory is due to Augustin Louis Cauchy, whose work was the forerunner of the brilliant discoveries made in the following decades by Hoene-Wronski and J. Binet in France, Carl Gustav Jacobi in Germany, and James Joseph Sylvester and Arthur Cayley in England. Jacobi's researches were published in Crelle's Journal (1826-1841). In these papers the subject was recast and enriched by new and important theorems, through which the name of Jacob! is indissolubly associated with this branch of science. The far- reaching discoveries of Sylvester and Cayley rank as one of the most important developments of pure mathematics. Numerous new fields were opened up, and have been diligently explored by many mathematicians. Skew-determinants were studied by Cayley; axisymmetric-determinants by Jacob!, V. A. Lebesque, Sylvester and O. Hesse, and centre-symmetric determinants by W. R. F. Scott and G. Zehfuss. Continuants have been discussed by Sylvester; alternants by Cauchy, Jacobi, N. Trudi, H. Nagelbach and G. Garbieri ; circulants by E. Catalan, W. Spottiswoode and J. W. L. Glaisher, and Wronskians by E. B. Christoffel and G. Frobenius. Determinants composed of binomial coefficients have been studied by V. von Zeipel ; the expression of definite integrals as determinants by A. Tissot and A. Enneper, and the expression of continued fractions as determinants by Jacobi, V. Nachreiner, S. Giinther and E. Fiirstenau. (See T. Muir, Theory of Determinants, 1906). DETERMINISM (Lat. determinare, to prescribe or limit), in ethics, the name given to the theory that all moral choice, so called, is the determined or necessary result of psychological and other conditions. It is opposed to the various doctrines of Free- Will, known as voluntarism, libertarianism, indeterminism, and is from the ethical standpoint more or less akin to necessitarianism and fatalism. There are various degrees of determinism. It may be held that every action is causally connected not only externally with the sum of the agent's environment, but also internally with his motives and impulses. In other words, if we could know exactly all these conditions, we should be able to forecast with mathematical certainty the course which the agent would pursue. In this theory the agent cannot be held responsible for his action in any sense. It is the extreme antithesis of Indeterminism or Indifferentism, the doctrine that a man is absolutely free to choose between alternative courses (the liberum arbitrium indijferentiat) . Since, however, the evidence of ordinary consciousness almost always goes to prove that the individual, especially in relation to future acts, regards himself as being free within certain limitations to make his own choice of alternatives, many determinists go so far as to admit that there may be in any action which is neither reflex nor determined by external causes solely an element of freedom. This view is corroborated by the phenomenon of remorse, in which the agent feels that he ought to, and could, have chosen a different course of action. These two kinds of determinism are sometimes distinguished as " hard " and " soft " determinism. The con- troversy between determinism and libertarianism hinges largely on the significance of the word " motive "; indeed in no other philosophical controversy has so much difficulty been caused by purely verbal disputation and ambiguity of expression. How far, and in what sense, can action which is determined by motives be said to be free? For a long time the advocates of free-will, in their eagerness to preserve moral responsibility, went so far as to deny all motives as influencing moral action. Such a contention, however, clearly defeats its own object by reducing all action to chance. On the other hand, the scientific doctrine of evolution has gone far towards obliterating the distinction between external and internal compulsion, e.g. motives, character and the like. In so far as man can be shown to be the product of, and a link in, a long chain of causal development, so far does it become impossible to regard him as self-determined. Even in his motives and his impulses, in his mental attitude towards outward surroundings, in his appetites and aversions, inherited tendency and environment have been found to play a very large part; indeed many thinkers hold that the whole of a man's development, mental as well as physical, is determined by external conditions. In the Bible the philosophical-religious problem is nowhere discussed, but Christian ethics as set forth in the New Testament assumes throughout the freedom of the human will. It has been argued by theologians that the doctrine of divine fore-knowledge, coupled with that of the divine origin of all things, necessarily implies that all human action was fore-ordained from the beginning of the world. Such an inference is, however, clearly at variance with the whole doctrine of sin, repentance and the atonement, as also with that of eternal reward and punishment, which postulates a real measure of human responsibility. For the history of the free-will controversy see the articles, WILL, PREDESTINATION (for the theological problems), ETHICS. DETINUE (O. Fr. delcnue, from detenir, to hold back), in law, an action whereby one who has an absolute or a special property in goods seeks to recover from another who is in actual possession and refuses to redeliver them. If the plaintiff succeeds in an action of detinue, the judgment is that he recover the chattel or, if it cannot be had, its value, which is assessed by the judge and jury, and also certain damages for detaining the same. An order for the restitution of the specific goods may be enforced by a special writ of execution, called a writ of delivery. (See CONTRACT; TROVER.) DETMOLD, a town of Germany, capital of the principality of Lippe-Detmold, beautifully situated on the east slope of the Teutoburger Wald, 25 m. S. of Minden, on the Herford-Alten- beken line of the Prussian state railways. Pop. (1905) 13,164. The residential chateau of the princes of Lippe-Detmold (1550), in the Renaissance style, is an imposing building, lying with its pretty gardens nearly in the centre of the town; whilst at the entrance to the large park on the south is the New Palace (1708-1718), enlarged in 1850, used as the dower-house. Detmold possesses a natural history museum theatre, high school, library, the house in which the poet Ferdinand Freiligrath (1810-1876) was born, and that in which the dramatist Christian Dietrich Grabbe (1801-1836), also a native, died. The leading industries are linen- weaving, tanning, brewing, horse-dealing and the quarrying of marble and gypsum. About 3 m. to the south-west of the town is the Grotenburg, with Ernst von Bandel's colossal statue of Hermann or Arminius, the leader of the Cherusci. Detmold (Thiatmelli) was in 783 the scene of a conflict between tke Saxons and the troops of Charlemagne. DETROIT, the largest city of Michigan, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Wayne county, on the Detroit river opposite Windsor, Canada, about 4 m. W. from the outlet of Lake St Clair and 18 m. above Lake Erie. Pop. (1880) 116,340; (1890) 205,876; (1900) 285,704, of whom 96,503 were foreign-born and 4111 were negroes; (1910 census) 465,766. Of the foreign- born in 1900, 32,027 were Germans and 10,703 were German Poles, 25,403 were English Canadians and 3541 French Canadians, 6347 were English and 6412 were Irish. Detroit is served by the Michigan Central, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Wabash, the Grand Trunk, the Pere Marquette, the Detroit & Toledo Shore Line, the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton and the Canadian Pacific railways. Two belt lines, one 2 m. to 3 m., and DETROIT the other 6 m. from the centre of the city, connect the factory districts with the main railway lines. Trains are ferried across the river to Windsor, and steamboats make daily trips to Cleveland, Wyandotte, Mount Clemens, Port Huron, to less important places between, and to several Canadian ports. Detroit is also the S. terminus for several lines to more remote lake ports, and electric lines extend from here to Port Huron, Flint, Pontiac, Jackson, Toledo and Grand Rapids. The city extended in 1907 over about 41 sq. m., an increase from 29 sq. m. in 1900 and 36 sq. m. in 1905. Its area in pro- portion to its population is much greater than that of most of the larger cities of the United States. Baltimore, for example, had in 1904 nearly 70% more inhabitants (estimated), while its area at that time was a little less and in 1907 was nearly one-quarter less than that of Detroit. The ground within the city limits as well as that for several miles farther back is quite level, but rises gradually from the river bank, which is only a few feet in height. The Detroit river, along which the city extends for about 10 m., is here % m. wide and 30 ft. to 40 ft. deep; its current is quite rapid; its water, a beautiful clear blue; at its mouth it has a width of about 10 m., and in the river there are a number of islands, which during the summer are popular resorts. The city has a 3 m. frontage on the river Rouge, an estuary of the Detroit, with a 16 ft. channel. Before the fire by which the city was destroyed in 1805, the streets were only 12 ft. wide and were unpaved and extremely dirty. But when the rebuilding began, several avenues from 100 ft. to 200 ft. wide were — through the influence of Augustus B. Woodward (c. 1775-1827), one of the territorial judges at the time and an admirer of the plan of the city of Washington — made to radiate from two central points. From a half circle called the Grand Circus there radiate avenues 1 20 ft. and 200 ft. wide. About J m. toward the river from this was established another focal point called the Campus Martius, 600 ft. long and 400 ft. wide, at which commence radiating or cross streets 80 ft. and 100 ft. wide. Running north from the river through the Campus Martius and the Grand Circus is Woodward Avenue, 1 20 ft. wide, dividing the present city, as it did the old town, into nearly equal parts. Parallel with the river is Jefferson Avenue, also 120 ft. wide. The first of these avenues is the principal retail street along its lower portion, and is a residence avenue for 4 m. beyond this. Jefferson is the principal wholesale street at the lower end, and a fine residence avenue E. of this. Many of the other residence streets are 80 ft. wide. The setting of shade trees was early encouraged, and large elms and maples abound. The intersections of the diagonal streets left a number of small, triangular parks, which, as well as the larger ones, are well shaded. The streets are paved mostly with asphalt and brick, though cedar and stone have been much used, and kreodone block to some extent. In few, if any, other American cities of equal size are the streets and avenues kept so clean. The Grand Boulevard, 1 50 ft. to 200 ft. in width and 1 2 m. in length, has been constructed around the city except along the river front. A very large proportion of the inhabitants of Detroit own their homes: there are no large congested tenement-house districts; and many streets in various parts of the city are faced with rows of low and humble cottages often having a garden plot in front. Of the public buildings the city hall (erected 1868-1871), overlooking the Campus Martius, is in Renaissance style, in three storeys; the flagstaff from the top of the tower reaches a height of 200 ft. On the four corners above the first section of the tower are four figures, each 14 ft. in height, to represent Justice, Industry, Art and Commerce, and on the same level with these is a clock weighing 7670 Ib — one of the largest in the world. In front of the building stands the Soldiers' and Sailors' monument, 60 ft. high, designed by Randolph Rogers (1825-1892) and unveiled in 1872. At each of the four comers in each of three sections rising one above the other are bronze eagles and figures representing the United States Infantry, Marine, Cavalry and Artillery, also Victory, Union, Emancipation and History; the figure by which the monument is surmounted was designed to symbolize Michigan. A larger and more massive and stately building than the city hall is the county court house, facing Cadillac Square, with a lofty tower surmounted by a gilded dome. The Federal building is a massive granite structure, finely decorated in the interior. Among the churches of greatest architectural beauty are the First Congregational, with a fine Byzantine interior, St John's Episcopal, the Woodward Avenue Baptist and the First Presbyterian, all on Woodward Avenue, and St. Anne's and Sacred Heart of Mary, both Roman Catholic. The municipal museum of art, in Jefferson Avenue, contains some unusually interesting Egyptian and Japanese collections, the Scripps' collection of old masters,other valuable paintings, and a small library: free lectures on art are given here through the winter. The public library had 228,500 volumes in 1908, includ- ing one of the best collections of state and town histories in the country. A large private collection, owned by C. M. Burton and relating principally to the history of Detroit, is also open to the public. The city is not rich in outdoor works of art. The principal ones are the Merrill fountain and the soldiers' monu- ment on the Campus Martius, and a statue of Mayor Pingree in West Grand Circus Park. The parks of Detroit are numerous and their total area is about 1 200 acres. By far the most attractive is Belle Isle, an island in the river at the E. end of the city, purchased in 1879 and having an area of more than 700 acres. The Grand Circus Park of 45 acres, with its trees, flowers and fountains, affords a pleasant resting place in the busiest quarter of the city. Six miles farther out on Woodward Avenue is Palmer Park of about 140 acres, given to the city in 1894 and named in honour of the donor. Clark Park (28 acres) is in the W. part of the city, and there are various smaller parks. The principal cemeteries are Elmwood (Protestant) and Mount Elliott (Catholic), which lie adjoining in the E. part of the city; Woodmere in the W. and Woodlawn in the N. part of the city. Charity and Education. — Among the charitable institutions are the general hospitals (Harper, Grace and St Mary's) ; the Detroit Emergency, the Children's Free and the United States Marine hospitals; St Luke's hospital, church home, and orphanage; the House of Providence (a maternity hospital and infant asylum); the Woman's hospital and foundling's home; the Home for convalescent children, &c. In 1894 the mayor, Hazen Senter Pingree (1842-1901), instituted the practice of preparing, through municipal aid and supervision, large tracts of vacant land in and about the city for the growing of potatoes and other vegetables and then, in conjunction with the board of poor commissioners, assigning it in small lots to families of the un- employed, and furnishing them with seed for planting. This plan served an admirable purpose through three years of industrial depression, and was copied in other cities; it was abandoned when, with the renewal of industrial activity, the necessity for it ceased. The leading penal institution of the city is the Detroit House of Correction, noted for its efficient reformatory work; the inmates are employed ten hours a day, chiefly in making furniture. The house of correction pays the city a profit of $35,000 to $40,000 a year. The educational institutions, in addition to those of the general public school system, include several parochial schools, schools of art and of music, and commercial colleges; Detroit College (Catholic), opened in 1877; the Detroit College of Medicine, opened in 1885; the Michigan College of Medicine and Surgery, opened in 1888; the Detroit College of law, founded in 1891, and a city normal school. Commerce. — Detroit's location gives to the city's shipping and shipbuilding interests a high importance. All the enormous traffic between the upper and lower lakes passes through the Detroit river. Ini9O7 thenumberof vessels recorded was 34, 149, with registered tonnage of 53,959,769, carrying 71,226,895 tons of freight, valued at $697,311,302. This includes vessels which delivered part or all of their cargo at Detroit. The largest item in the freights is iron ore on vessels bound down. The next is coal on vessels up bound. Grain and lumber are the next largest items. Detroit is a port of entry, and its foreign commerce, chiefly with Canada, is of growing importance. The city's exports increased from $11,325,807 in 1896 to $37,085,027 in DETROIT 1909. 1909. The imports were $3,153,609 in 1896 and $7,10x2,659 in As a manufacturing city, Detroit holds high rank. The total number of manufacturing establishments in 1890 was 1746, with a product for the year valued at $77,351,546; in 1900 there were 2847 establishments with a product for the year valued at $100,892,838, or an increase of 30-4 % in the decade. In 1900 the establishments under the factory system, omitting the hand trades and neighbourhood industries, numbered 1259 and pro- duced goods valued at $88,365,924; in 1904 establishments under the factory system numbered 1363 and the product had increased 45-7% to $128,761,658. In the district subsequently annexed the product in 1904 was about $12,000,000, making a total of $140,000,000. The output for 1906 was estimated at $180,000,000. The state factory inspectors in 1905 visited 1721 factories having 83,231 employees. In 1906 they inspected 1790 factories with 93,071 employees. Detroit is the leading city in the country in the manufacture of automobiles. In 1904 the value of its product was one-fifth that for the whole country. In 1906 the city had twenty automobile factories, with an out- put of 11,000 cars, valued at $12,000,000. Detroit is probably the largest manufacturer in the country of freight cars, stoves, pharmaceutical preparations, varnish, soda ash and similar alkaline products. Other important manufactures are ships, paints, foundry and machine shop products, brass goods, furniture, boots and shoes, clothing, matches, cigars, malt liquors and fur goods; and slaughtering and meat packing is an important industry. The Detroit Board of Commerce, organized in 1903, brought into one association the members of three former bodies, making a compact organization with civic as well as commercial aims. The board has brought into active co-operation nearly all the leading business men of the city and many of the professional men. Their united efforts have brought many new industries to the city, have improved industrial conditions, and have exerted a beneficial influence upon the municipal administration. Other business organizations are the Board of Trade, devoted to the grain trade and kindred lines, the Employers' Association, which seeks to maintain satisfactory relations between employer and employed, the Builders' & Traders' Exchange, and the Credit Men's Association. Administration. — Although the city received its first charter in 1806, and another in 181 5, the real power rested in the hands of the governor and judges of the territory until 1824; the charters of 1824 and 1827 centred the government in a council and made the list of elective officers long; the charter of 1827 was revised in 1857 and again in 1859 and the present charter dates from 1883. Under this charter only three administrative officers are elected, — the mayor, the city clerk and the city treasurer, — elections being biennial. The administration of the city depart- ments is largely in the hands of commissions. There is one commissioner each, appointed by the mayor, for the parks and boulevards, police and public works departments. The four members of the health board are nominated by the governor and confirmed by the state senate. The school board is an independent body, consisting of one elected member from each ward holding office for four years, but the mayor has the veto power over its proceedings as well as those of the common council. In each case a two-thirds vote overrules his veto. The other principal officers and commissions, appointed by the mayor and confirmed by the council, are controller, corporation counsel, board of three assessors, fire commission (four members), public lighting commission (six members), water commission (five members), poor commission (four members), and inspectors of the house of correction (four in number) . The members of the public library commission, six in number, are elected by the board of education. Itemized estimates of expenses for the next fiscal year are furnished by the different departments to the controller in February. He transmits them to the common council with his recommendations. The council has four weeks in which to consider them. It may reduce or increase the amounts asked, and may add new items. The budget then goes to the board of estimates, which has a month for its consideration. This body consists of two members elected from each ward and five elected at large. The mayor and heads of departments are advisory members, and may speak but not vote. The members of the board of estimates can hold no other office and they have no appointing power, the intention being to keep them as free as possible from all political motives and influences. They may reduce or cut out any estimates submitted, but cannot increase any or add new ones. No bonds can be issued without the assent of the board of estimates. The budget is apportioned among twelve committees which have almost invariably given close and conscientious examination to the actual needs of the departments. A reduction of $1,000,000 to $1,500,000, without impairing the service, has been a not unusual result of their deliberations. Prudent management under this system has placed the city in the highest rank financially. Its debt limit is 2 % on the assessed valuation, and even that low maximum is not often reached. The debt in 1907 was only about $5,500,000, a smaller per capita debt than that of any other city of over 100,000 inhabitants in the country; the assessed valuation was $330,000,000; the city tax, $14.70 on the thousand dollars of assessed valuation. Both the council and the estimators arc- hampered in their work by legislative interference. Nearly all the large salaries and many of those of the second grade are made mandatory by the legislature, which has also determined many affairs of £f purely administrative character. Detroit has made three experiments with municipal ownership. On account of inadequate and unsatisfactory service by a private company, the city bought the water-works as long ago as 1836. The works have been twice moved and enlargements have been made in advance of the needs of the city. In 1907 there were six engines in the works with a pumping capacity of 152,000,000 gallons daily. The daily average of water used during the pre- ceding year was 61,357,000 gallons. The water is pumped from Lake St Clair and js of exceptional purity. The city began its own public lighting in April 1895, having a large plant on the river near the centre of the city. It lights the streets and public buildings, but makes no provision for commercial business. The lighting is excellent, and the cost is probably less than could be obtained from a private company. The street lighting is done partly from pole and arm lights, but largely from steel towers from 100 ft. to 180 ft. in height, with strong reflected lights at the top. The city also owns two portable asphalt plants, and thus makes a saving in the cost of street repairing and resurfacing. With a view of effecting the reduction of street car fares to three cents, the state legislature in 1899 passed an act for purchasing or leasing the street railways of the city, but the Supreme Court pronounced this act unconstitutional on the ground that, as the constitution prohibited the state from engaging in a work of internal improvement, the state could not empower a munici- pality to do so. Certain test votes indicated an almost even division on the question of municipal ownership of the railways. History. — Detroit was founded in 1701 by Antoine Laumet de la Mothe Cadillac (c. 1661-1730), who had pointed out the importance of the place as a strategic point for determining the control of the fur trade and the possession of the North-west and had received assistance from the French government soon after Robert Livingston (1654-1725), the secretary of the Board of Indian Commissioners in New York, had urged the English government to establish a fort at the same place. Cadillac arrived on the 24th of July with about 100 followers. They at once built a palisade fort about 200 ft. square S. of what is now Jefferson Avenue and between Griswold and Shelby streets, and named it Fort Pontchartrain in honour of the French colonial minister. Indians at once came to the place in large numbers, but they soon complained of the high price of French goods; there was serious contention between Cadillac and the French Canadian Fur Company, to which a monopoly of the trade had been granted, as well as bitter rivalry between him and the Jesuits. After the several parties had begun to complain to the home government the monopoly of the fur trade was transferred to Cadillac and he was exhorted to cease quarrelling with the n6 DETTINGEN— DEUS, J. DE Jesuits. Although the inhabitants then increased to 200 or more, dissatisfaction with the paternal rule of the founder increased until 1710, when he was made governor of Louisiana. The year before, the soldiers had been withdrawn; by the second year after there was serious trouble with the Indians, and for several years following the population was greatly reduced and the post threatened with extinction. But in 1722, when the Mississippi country was opened, the population once more in- creased, and again in 1748, when the settlement of the Ohio Valley began, the governor-general of Canada offered special inducements to Frenchmen to settle at Detroit, with the result that the population was soon more than 1000 and the culti- vation of farms in the vicinity was begun. In 1760, however, the place was taken by the British under Colonel Robert Rogers and an English element was introduced into the population which up to this time had been almost exclusively French. Three years later, during the conspiracy of Pontiac, the fort first narrowly escaped capture and then suffered from a siege lasting from the 9th of May until the I2th of October. Under English rule it continued from this time on as a military post with its population usually reduced to less than 500. In 1778 a new fort was built and named Fort Lernault, and during the War of Independence the British sent forth from here several Indian expeditions to ravage the frontiers. With the ratification of the treaty which concluded that war the title to the post passed to the United States in 1783, but the post itself was not surrendered until the nth of January 1796, in accordance with Jay's Treaty of 1794. It was then named Fort Shelby; but in 1802 it was incorporated as a town and received its present name. In 1805 all except one or two buildings were destroyed by fire. General William Hull (1753-1825), a veteran of the War of American Independence, governor of Michigan territory in 1805-1812, as commander of the north-western army in 1812 occupied the city. Failing to hear immediately of the declaration of war between the United States and Great Britain, he was cut off from his supplies shipped by Lake Erie. He made from Detroit on the 1 2th of July an awkwardandfutile advance into Canada, which, if more vigorous, might have resulted in the capture of Maiden and the estab- lishment of American troops in Canada, and then retired to his fortifications. On the i6th of August 1812, without any resistance and without consulting his officers, he surrendered the city to General Brock, for reasons of humanity, and afterwards attempted to justify himself by criticism of the War Department in general and in particular of General Henry Dearborn's armistice with Prevost, which had not included in its terms Hull, whom Dearborn had been sent out to reinforce.1 After Perry's victory on the i4th of September on Lake Erie, Detroit on the zgth of September was again occupied by the forces of the United States. Its growth was rather slow until 1830, but since then its progress has been unimpeded. Detroit was the capital of Michigan from 1805 to 1847. AUTHORITIES. — Silas Farmer, The History of Detroit and Michigan (Detroit, 1884 and 1889), and " Detroit, the Queen City," in L. P. Powell's Historic Towns of the Western States (New York and London, 1901); D. F. Wilcox, " Municipal Government in Michigan and Ohio," in Columbia University Studies (New York, 1896); C. M. Burton, " Cadillac's Village or Detroit under Cadillac (Detroit, 1896) ; Francis Parkman, A Half Century of Conflict (Boston, 1897) ; and The Conspiracy of Pontiac (Boston, 1898) ; and the annual Reports of the Detroit Board of Commerce (1904 sqq.). DETTINGEN, a village of Germany in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Main, and on the Frankfort-on-Main-Aschaffenburg rail- way, 10 m. N.W. of Aschaffenburg. It is memorable as the scene of a decisive battle on the 27th of June 1743, when the English, Hanoverians and Austrians (the " Pragmatic army "), 42,000 men under the command of George II. of England, routed -the numerically superior French forces under the due de Noailles. It was in memory of this victory that Handel composed his Dettingen Te Deum. 1 Hull was tried at Albany in i8l4by court martial, General Dearborn presiding, was found guilty of treason, cowardice, neglect of duty and unofficerlike conduct, and was sentenced to be shot; the president remitted the sentence because of Hull's services in the Revolution. DEUCALION, in Greek legend, son of Prometheus, king of Phthia in Thessaly, husband of Pyrrha, and father of Hellen, the mythical ancestor of the Hellenic race. When Zeus had resolved to destroy all mankind by a flood, Deucalion constructed a boat or ark, in which, after drifting nine days and nights, he landed on Mount Parnassus (according to others, Othrys, Aetna or Athos) with his wife. Having offered sacrifice and inquired how to renew the human race, they were ordered to cast behind them the " bones of the great mother," that is, the stones from the hill- side. The stones thrown by Deucalion became men, those thrown by Pyrrha, women. See Apollodorus i. 7, 2; Ovid, Metam. i. 243-415; Apollonius Rhodius iii. 1085 ff. ; H. Usener, Die Sintflutsagen (1899). DEUCE (a corruption of the Fr. deux, two), a term applied to the " two " of any suit of cards, or of dice. It is also a term used in tennis when both sides have each scored three points in a game, or five games in a set; to win the game or set two points or games must then be won consecutively. The earliest instances in English of the use of the slang expression " the deuce," in exclamations and the like, date from the middle of the i7th century. The meaning was similar to that of " plague " or " mischief " in such phrases as " plague on you," " mischief take you " and the like. The use of the word as an euphemism for " the devil " is later. According to the New English Dictionary the most probable derivation is from a Low German das dans, i.e. the " deuce " in dice, the lowest and therefore the most unlucky throw. The personification, with a consequent change of gender, to der daus, came later. The word has also been identified with the name of a giant or goblin in Teutonic mythology. DEUS, JOAO DE (1830-1896), the greatest Portuguese poet of his generation, was born at San Bartholomeu de Messines in the province of Algarve on the 8th of March 1830. Matriculating in the faculty of law at the university of Coimbra, he did not proceed to his degree but settled in the city, dedicating himself wholly to the composition of verses, which circulated among professors and undergraduates in manuscript copies. In the volume of his art, as in the conduct of life, he practised a rigorous self-control. He printed nothing previous to 1855, and the first of his poems to appear in a separate form was La Lata, in 1860. In 1862 he left Coimbra for Beja, where he was appointed editor of 0 Bejense, the chief newspaper in the province of Alemtejo, and four years later he edited the Folha do Sul. As the pungent satirical verses entitled Eleifdes prove, he was not an ardent politician, and, though he was returned as Liberal deputy for the constituency of Silves in 1869, he acted independently of all political parties and promptly resigned his mandate. The renunciation implied in the act, which cut him off from all advancement, is in accord with nearly all that is known of his lofty character. In the year of his election as deputy, his friend Jose Antonio Garcia Blanco collected from local journals the series of poems., Flares do campo, which is supplemented by the Ramo de flores (1869). This is Joao de Deus's masterpiece. Pires de Marmalada (1869) is an improvisation of no great merit. The four theatrical pieces — Amemos o nosso proximo, Ser apresentado, Ensaio de Casamento, and A Viuva inconsolavel — are prose translations from Mery, cleverly done, but not worth the doing. Horacio e Lydia (1872), a translation from Ronsard, is a good example of artifice in manipulating that dangerously monotonous measure, the Portuguese couplet. As an indication of a strong spiritual reaction three prose fragments (1873) — Anna, Mae de Maria, A Virgem Maria and A Mulher do Levita de Ephrain — translated from Darboy's Femmes de la Bible, are full of signific- ance. The Folhas soltas (1876) is a collection of verse in the manner of Flores do campo, brilliantly effective and exquisitely refined. Within the next few years the writer turned his atten- tion to educational problems, and in his Cartilha maternal (1876) first expressed the conclusions to which his study of Pestalozzi and Frobel had led him. This patriotic, pedagogical apostolate was a misfortune for Portuguese literature; his educational mission absorbed Joao de Deus completely, and is responsible for numerous controversial letters, for a translation of Theodore- Henri Barrau's treatise, Des devoirs des enfants envers leurs DEUTERONOMY 117 parents, for a prosodic dictionary and for many other publications of no literary value. A copy of verses in Antonio Vieira's Grinalda de Maria (1877), the Loos a Virgem (1878) and the Proverbios de Salomao are evidence of a complete return to orthodoxy during the poet's last years. By a lamentable error of judgment some worthless pornographic verses entitled Cryptinas have been inserted in the completest edition of Joao de Deus's poems — Campo de Flares (Lisbon, 1893). He died at Lisbon on the i ith of January 1896, was accorded a public funeral and was buried in the National Pantheon, the Jeronymite church at Belem, where repose the remains of Camoens, Herculano and Garrett. His scattered minor prose writings and correspondence have been posthumously published by Dr TheophiJo Braga (Lisbon, 1898). Next to Camoens and perhaps Garrett, no Portuguese poet has been more widely read, more profoundly admired than Joao de Deus; yet no poet in any country has been more indifferent to public opinion and more deliberately careless of personal fame. He is not responsible for any single edition of his poems, which were put together by pious but ill-informed enthusiasts, who ascribed to him verses that he had not written; he kept no copies of his compositions, seldom troubled to write them himself, and was content for the most part to dictate them to others. He has no great intellectual force, no philosophic doctrine, is limited in theme as in outlook, is curiously uncertain in his touch, often marring a fine poem with a slovenly rhyme or with a misplaced accent; and, on the only occasion when he was induced to revise a set of proofs, his alterations were nearly all for the worse. And yet, though he never appealed to the patriotic spirit, though he wrote nothing at all comparable in force or majesty to the restrained splendour of Os Lusiadas, the popular instinct which links his name with that of his great predecessor is eminently just. For Camoens was his model; not the Camoens of the epic, but the Camoens of the lyrics and the sonnets, where the passion of tenderness finds its supreme utterance. Braga has noted five stages of development in Joao de Deus's artistic life — the imita- tive, the idyllic, the lyric, the pessimistic and the devout phases. Under each of these divisions is included much that is of extreme interest, especially to contemporaries who have passed through the same succession of emotional experience, and it is highly probable that Caturras and Caspar, pieces as witty as anything in Bocage but free from Bocage's coarse impiety, will always interest literary students. But it is as the singer of love that Joao de Deus will delight posterity as he delighted his own generation. The elegiac music of Rachel and of Marina, the melancholy of Adeus and of Remoinho, the tenderness and sincerity of Meu casto lirio, of Lagrima celeste, of Descalfa, and a score more songs are distinguished by the large, vital simplicity which withstands time. It is precisely in the quality of unstudied simplicity that Joao de Deus is incomparably strong. The temptations to a dis- play of virtuosity are almost irresistible for a Portuguese poet; he has the tradition of virtuosity in his blood, he has before him the example of all contemporaries, and he has at hand an in- strument of wonderful sonority and compass. Yet not once is Joao de Deus clamorous or rhetorical, not once does he indulge in idle ornament. His prevailing note is that of exquisite sweet- ness and of reverent purity; yet with all his caressing softness he is never sentimental, and, though he has not the strength for a long fight, emotion has seldom been set to more delicate music. Had he included among his other gifts the gift of selection, had he continued the poetic discipline of his youth instead of dedicating his powers to a task which, well as he performed it, might have been done no less well by a much lesser man, there is scarcely any height to which he might not have risen. See also Maxime Formont, Le Mouvement poetique conlemporain en Portugal (Lyon, 1892). (J. F.-K.) DEUTERONOMY, the name of one of the books of the Old Testament. This book was long the storm-centre of Pentateuchal criticism, orthodox scholars boldly asserting that any who questioned its Mosaic authorship reduced it to the level of a pious fraud. But Biblical facts have at last triumphed over tradition, and the non-Mosaic authorship of Deuteronomy is now a commonplace of criticism. It is still instructive, however, to note the successive phases through which scholarly opinion regarding the composition and ;date of his book has passed. In the 1 7th century. the characteristics which so clearly mark off Deuteronomy from the other four books of the Pentateuch were frankly recognized, but the most advanced critics of that age were inclined to pronounce it the earliest and most authentic of the five. In the beginning of the igth century de Wette startled the religious world by declaring that Deuteronomy, so far from being Mosaic, was not known till the time of Josiah. This theory he founded on 2 Kings xxii.; and ever since, this chapter has been one of the recognized foci of Biblical criticism. The only other single chapter of the Bible which is responsible for having brought about a somewhat similar revolution in critical opinion is Ezek. xliv. From this chapter, some seventy years after de Wette's discovery, Wellhausen with equal acumen inferred tnat Leviticus was not known to Ezekiel, the priest, and therefore could not have been in existence in his day; for had Leviticus been the recognized Law-book of his nation Ezekiel could not have represented as a degradation the very position which that Law-book described as a special honour conferred on the Levites by Yahweh himself. Hence Leviticus, so far from belonging to an earlier stratum of the Pentateuch than Deuteronomy, as de Wette thought, must belong to a much later stratum, and be at least exilic, if not post-exilic. The title " Deuteronomy " is due to a mistranslation by the Septuagint of the clause in chap. xvii. 18, rendered " and he shall write out for himself this Deuteronomy." The Hebrew really means " and he [the king] shall write out for himself a copy of this law," where there is not the slightest suggestion that the author intended to describe <: this law " delivered on the plains of Moab as a second code in contradistinction to the first code given on Sinai thirty-eight years earlier. Moreover the phrase " this law " is so ambiguous as to raise a much greater diffi- culty than that caused by the Greek mistranslation of the Hebrew word for " copy." How much does " this law " include? It was long supposed to mean the whole of our present Deuteronomy; indeed, it is on that supposition that the traditional view of the Mosaic authorship is based. But the context alone can determine the question; and that is often so ambiguous that a sure infer- ence is impossible. We may safely assert, however, that nowhere need " this law " mean the whole book. In fact, it invariably means very much less, and sometimes, as in xxvii. 3, 8, so little that it could all be engraved in large letters on a few plastered stones set up beside an altar. Deuteronomy is not the work of any single writer but the result of a long process of development. The fact that it is legislative as well as hortatory is enough to prove this, for most of the laws it contains are found elsewhere in the Pentateuch, sometimes in less developed, sometimes in more developed forms, a fact which is conclusive proof of prolonged historical develop- ment. According to the all-pervading law of evolution, the less complex form must have preceded the more complex. Still, the book does bear the stamp of one master-mind. Its style is as easily recognized as that of Deutero-Isaiah, being as remarkable for its copious diction as for its depths of moral and religious feeling. The original Deuteronomy, D, read to King Josiah, cannot have been so large as our present book, for not only could it be read at a single sitting, but it could be easily read twice in one day. On the day it was found, Shaphan first read it himself, and then went to the king and read it aloud to him. But perhaps the most conclusive proof of its brevity is that it was read publicly to the assembled people immediately before they, as well as their king, pledged themselves to obey it; and not a word is said as to the task of reading it aloud, so as to be heard by such a great multitude, being long or difficult. The legislative part of D consists of fifteen chapters (xii.-xxvi.), which, however, contain many later insertions. But the impression made upon Josiah by what he heard was far too deep to have been produced by the legislative part alone. The king must have listened to the curses as well as the blessings in chap, xxviii., and n8 DEUTERONOMY no doubt also to the exhortations in chaps, v.-xi. Hence we may conclude that the original book consisted of a central mass of religious, civil and social laws, preceded by a hortatory intro- duction and followed by an effective peroration. The book read to Josiah must therefore have comprised most of what is found in Deut. v.-xxvi., xxvii. 9, 10 and xxviii. But something like two centuries elapsed before the book reached its present form, for in the closing chapter, as well as elsewhere, e.g. i. 41-43 (where 1 the joining is not so deftly done as usual) and xxxii. 48-52, there are undoubted traces of the Priestly Code, P, which is generally acknowledged to be post-exilic. The following is an analysis of the main divisions of the book as we now have it. There are two introductions, the first i.-iv. 44, more historical than hortatory; the second v.-xi., more hortatory than historical. These may at first have been prefixed to separate editions of the legislative portion, but were eventu- ally combined. Then, before D was united to P, five appendices of very various dates and embracing poetry as well as prose, were added so as to give a fuller account of the last days of Moses and thus lead up to the narrative of his death with which the book closes, (i) Chap, xxvii., where the elders of Israel are introduced for the first time as acting along with Moses (xxvii. i) and then the priests, the Levites (xxvii. 9). Some of the curses refer to laws given not in D but in Lev. xxx., so that the date of this chapter must be later than Leviticus or at any rate than the laws codified in the Law of Holiness (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.). (2) The second appendix, chaps, xxix.-xxxi. 29, xxxii. 45-47, gives us the farewell address of Moses and is certainly later than D. Moses is represented as speaking not with any hope of preventing Israel's apostasy but because he knows that the people will eventually prove apostate (xxxi. 29), a point of view very different from D's. (3) The Song of Moses, chap, xxxii. That this didactic poem must have been written late in the nation's history, and not at its very beginning, is evident from v. 7: " Remember the days of old, Consider the years of many genera- tions." Such words cannot be interpreted so as to fit the lips of Moses. It must have been composed in a time of natural gloom and depression, after Yahweh's anger had been provoked by " a very froward generation," certainly not before the Assyrian Empire had loomed up against the political horizon, aggressive and menacing. Some critics bring the date down even to the time of Jeremiah and Ezekiel. (4) The Blessing of Moses, chap, xxxiii. The first line proves that this poem is not by D, who speaks invariably of Horeb, never of Sinai. The situation depicted is in striking contrast with that of the Song. Everything is bright because of promises fulfilled, and the future bids fair to be brighter still. Bruston maintains with reason that the Blessing, strictly so called, consists only of w. 6-25, and has been inserted in a Psalm celebrating the goodness of Jehovah to his people on their entrance into Canaan (vv. 1-5, 26-29). The special prominence given to Joseph (Ephraim and Manasseh) in w. 13-17 has led many critics to assign this poem to the time of the greatest warrior-king of Northern Israel, Jeroboam II. (5) The account of Moses' death, chap, xxxiv. This appendix, containing, as it does, manifest traces of P, proves that even Deuteronomy was not put into its present form until after the exile. From the many coincidences between D and the Book of the Covenant (Ex. xx.-xxiii.) it is clear that D was acquainted with E, the prophetic narrative of the Northern kingdom; but it is not quite clear whether D knew E as an independent work, or after its combination with J, the somewhat earlier prophetic narrative of the Southern kingdom, the combined form of which is now indicated by the symbol JE. Kittel certainly puts it too strongly when he asserts that D quotes always from E and never from J, for some of the passages alluded to in D may just as readily be ascribed to J as to E, cf. Deut. i. 7 and Gen. xv. 18; Deut. x. 14 and Ex. xxxiv. 1-4. Consequently D must have been written certainly after E and possibly after E was combined with J. In Amos, Hosea and Isaiah there are no traces of D's ideas, whereas in Jeremiah and Ezekiel their influence is everywhere manifest. Hence this school of thought arose between the age of Isaiah and that of Jeremiah; but how long D itself may have been in existence before it was read in 622 to Josiah cannot be determined with certainty. Many argue that D was written immediately before it was found and that, in fact, it was put into the temple for the purpose of being " found." This theory gives some plausibility to the charge that the book is a. pious fraud. But the narrative in 2 Kings xxii. warrants no such inference. The more natural explanation is that it was written not in the early years of Josiah's reign, and with the cognizance of the temple priests then in office, but some time during the long reign of Manasseh, probably when his policy was most reactionary and when he favoured the worship of the " host of heaven " and set up altars to strange gods in Jerusalem itself. This explains why the author did not publish his work immediately, but placed it where he hoped it would be safely preserved till opportunity should arise for its publication. One need not suppose that he actually foresaw how favourable that opportunity would prove, and that, as soon as discovered, his work would be promulgated as law by the king and willingly accepted by the people. The author believed that everything he wrote was in full accordance with the mind of Moses, and would contribute to the national weal of Yahweh's covenant people, and therefore he did not scruple to represent Moses as the speaker. It is not to be expected that modern scholars should be able to fix the exact year or even decade in which such a book was written. It is enough to determine with something like probability the century or half-century which best fits its historical data; and these appear to point to the reign of Manasseh. Between D and P there are no verbal parallels; but in the historical resumes JE is followed closely, whole clauses and even verses being copied practically verbatim. As Dr Driver points out in his careful analysis, there are only three facts in D which are not also found in JE, viz. the number of the spies, the number of souls that went down into Egypt with Jacob, and the ark being made of acacia wood. But even these may have been in J or E originally, and left out when JE was combined with P. Steuernagel divides the legal as well as the hortatory parts of D between two authors, one of whom uses the 2nd person plural when addressing Israel, and the other the 2nd person singular; but as a similar alternation is constantly found in writings universally acknowledged to be by the same author, this clue seems anything but trustworthy, depending as it does on the presence or absence of a single Hebrew letter, and resulting, as it frequently does, in the division of verses which otherwise seem to be from the same pen (cf. xx. 2). The inference as to diversity of authorship is much more conclusive when difference of stand- point can be proved, cf. v. 3, xi. 2 ff. with viii. 2. The first two passages represent Moses as addressing the generation that was alive at Horeb, whereas the last represents him as speaking to those who were about to pass over Jordan a full generation later; and it may well be that the one author may, in the historical and hortatory parts, have preferred the 2nd plural and the other the 2nd singular; without the further inference being justified that every law in which the 2nd singular is used must be assigned to the latter, and every law in which the 2nd plural occurs must be due to the former. The law of the Single Sanctuary, one of D's outstanding characteristics, is, for him, an innovation, but an innovation towards which events had long been tending. 2 Kings xxiii. 9 shows that even the zeal of Josiah could not carry out the instructions laid down in D xviii. 6-8. Josiah's acceptance of D made it the first canonical book of scripture. Thus the religion of Judah became henceforward a religion which enabled its adherents to learn from a book exactly what was required of them. D requires the destruction not only of the high places and the idols, but of the Asheras (wooden posts) and the Mazzebas (stone pillars) often set up beside the altar of Jehovah (xvi. 21). These reforms made too heavy demands upon the people, as was proved by the reaction which set in at Josiah's death. Indeed the country people would look on the destruction of the high places with their Asheras and Mazzebas as sacrilege and would consider Josiah's death in battle as a divine punishment for his DEUTSCH— DEUX-SEVRES 119 sacrilegious deeds. On the other hand, the destruction of Jerusalem and the exile of the people would appear to those who had obeyed D's instructions as a well-merited punishment for national apostasy. Moreover, D regarded religion as of the utmost moment to each individual Israelite; and it is certainly not by accident that the declaration of the individual's duty towards God immediately follows the emphatic intimation to Israel of Yahweh's unity. " Hear, O Israel, Yahweh is our God, Yahweh is one: and thou shall love Yahweh thy God with all thine heart and with all thy soul and with all thy strength " (vi. 4, 5). In estimating the religious value of Deuteronomy it should never be forgotten that upon this passage the greatest eulogy ever pronounced on any scripture was pronounced by Christ himself, when he said " on these words hang all the law and the prophets," and it is also well to remember that when tempted in the wilderness he repelled each suggestion of the Tempter by a quotation from Deuteronomy. Nevertheless even such a writer as D could not escape the influence of the age and atmosphere in which he lived; and despite the spirit of love which breathes so strongly throughout the book, especially for the poor, the widow and the fatherless, the stranger and the homeless Levite (xxiv. 10-22), and the humanity shown towards both beasts and birds (xxii. i, 4, 6 f., xxv. 4), there are elements in D which go far to explain the intense exclusiveness and the religious intolerance characteristic of Judaism. Should a man's son or friend dear to him as his own soul seek to tempt him from the faith of his fathers, D's pitiless order to that man is " Thou shall surely kill. him; thine hand shall be first upon him to put him lo dealh." From Ihis single instance we see nol only how far mankind has travelled along the path of religious toleration since Deuteronomy was wrillen, bul also how very far the criticism implied in Christ's melhod of deah'ng wilh whal " was said to them of old time " may be legilimately carried. (J- A. P.*) DEUTSCH, IMMANUEL OSCAR MENAHEM (1829-1873), German orienlal scholar, was born on the 28th of October 1829, at Neisse in Prussian Silesia, of Jewish extraction. On reaching his sixteenlh year he began his sludies at the university of Berlin, paying special allenlion to theology and the Talmud. He also mastered ihe English language and sludied English lileralure. In 1855 Deulsch was appointed assislanl in Ihe library of Ihe British Museum. He worked intensely on the Talmud and conlribuled no less lhan 100 papers to Chambers' s Encyclopaedia, in addition to essays in Kitlo's and Smith's Biblical Dictionaries, and articles in periodicals. In October 1867 his article on " The Talmud," published in the Quarterly Renew, made him known. Il was translated into French, German, Russian, Swedish, Dutch and Danish. He died al Alexandria on the I2th of May 1873. His Literary Remains, edited by Lady Strangford, were published in 1874, consisting ot nineteen papers on such subjects as " The Talmud," " Islam," " Semitic Culture," " Egypt, Ancient and Modern," " Semitic Languages," " The Targums," " The Samaritan Pentateuch," and " Arabic Poetry." DEUTSCHKRONE, a town of Germany, kingdom of Prussia, between the two lakes of Arens and Radau, 15 rn. N.W. of Schneidemiihl, a railway junction 60 m. north of Posen. Pop. (1905) 7282. Il is the seal of Ihe public offices for Ihe dislricl, possesses an Evangelical and a Roman Calholic church, a synagogue, and a gymnasium established in the old Jesuil college, and has manufaclures of machinery, woollens, dies, brandy and beer. DEUTZ (anc. Divitio), formerly an independenl town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, on the right bank of the Rhine, opposite to Cologne, wilh which il has been incorpor- ated since 1888. It contains Ihe church of Si Heribert, buill in Ihe i7lh cenlury, cavalry barracks, artillery magazines, and gas, porcelain, machine and carriage faclories. Ic has a handsome railway slalion on Ihe banks of the Rhine, negotiating Ihe local Iraffic wilh Elberfeld and Konigswinler. The forlificalions of Ihe lown form parl of Ihe defences of Cologne. To the easl is the manufacturing suburb of Kalk. The old castle in Deutz was in 1002 made a Benedictine monastery by Heribert, archbishop of Cologne. Permission to fortify ihe lown was in 1 230 granted lo Ihe citizens by the arch- bishop of Cologne, between whom and Ihe counls of Berg it was in 1240 divided. Il was burnl in 1376, 1445 and 1583; and in 1678, afler Ihe peace of Nijmwegen, Ihe fortifications were dismantled; rebuilt in 1816, they were again razed in 1888. DEUX-SEVRES, an inland department of western France, formed in 1 790 mainly of Ihe Ihree districts of Poilou, Thouarsais, Gatine and Niorlais, added lo a small portion of Sainlonge and a still smaller portion of Aunis. Area, 2337 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 339,466. It is bounded N. by Maine-et-Loire, E. by Vienne, S.E. by Charente, S. by Charente-Inferieure and W. by Vendee. The department takes its name from two rivers — the Sevre of Niort which Iraverses the southern portion, and the Sevre of Nanles (an affluenl of Ihe Loire) which drains Ihe north-west. There are three regions — the Gatine, occupying the north and centre of the departmenl, the Plaine in Ihe soulh and the Marais, — distinguished by Iheir geological character and their general physical appearance. The Gatine, formed of primitive rocks (granite and schists), is the continuation of the " Bocage " of Vendee and Maine-et-Loire. Ils surface is irregular and covered wilh hedges and clumps of wood or forests. The systematic application of lime has much improved Ihe soil, which is nalurally poor. The Plaine, resting on oolite limestone, is treeless bul fertile. The Marais, a low-lying dislrict in the extreme soulh- wesl, consisls of alluvial clays which also are extremely pro- ductive when properly drained. The highesl points, several of which exceed 700 f I., are found in a line of hills which begins in ihe cenlre of the departmenl, lo Ihe soulh of Parthenay, and stretches north-west into the neighbouring departmenl of Vendee. It divides Ihe region drained by Ihe Sevre Nanlaise and the Thouet (both affluenls of Ihe Loire) in Ihe north from the basins of the Sevre Niortaise and the Charente in Ihe south. The climate is mild, the annual lemperalure al Niort being 54° Fahr., and the rainfall nearly 25 in. The winters are colder in the Gatine, Ihe summers warmer in Ihe Plaine. Three-quarters of the entire area of Deux-Sevres, which is primarily an agricullural deparlment, consisls of arable land. Wheal and oals are Ihe main cereals. Polaloes and mangold- wurzels are the chief root-crops. Niort is a centre for the growing of vegetables (onions, asparagus, artichokes, &c.) and of angelica. Considerable quantities of beetrool are raised lo supply the distilleries of Melle. Colza, hemp, rape and flax are also culti- vated. Vineyards are numerous in the neighbourhood of Bressuire in the north, and of Niort and Melle in the south. The deparlmenl is well known for the Parthenay breed of caltle and the Poitou breed of horses; and Ihe mules reared in Ihe soulhern arrondissemenls are much soughl afler bolh in France and in Spain. The system of co-operative dairying is practised in some localities. The apple-trees of Ihe Gatine and ihe walnul-lrees of Ihe Plaine bring a good relurn. Coal is mined, and Ihe deparl- menl produces building-slone and lime. A leading induslry is themanufactureof textiles (serges, druggets, linen, handkerchiefs, flannels, swan-skins and knilled goods). Tanning and lealher- dressing are carried on at Niorl and olher places, and gloves are made al Niorl. Wool and collon spinning, hat and shoe making, distilling, brewing, flour-milling and oil-refining are also main industries. The deparlmenl exports cattle and sheep to Paris and Poitiers; also cereals, oils, wines, vegetables and ils induslrial producls. The Sevre Niorlaise and ils Iribulary Ihe Mignon furnish 19 m. of navigable waterway. The department is served by the Ouesl- Etat railway. Il contains a large proportion of Proleslanls, especially in Ihe soulh-easl. The four arrondissemenls are Niorl, Bressuire, Melle and Parthenay; the cantons number 31, and the communes 356. Deux-Sevres is part of the region of the IX. army corps, and of the diocese and the academic (educational circumscription) of Poitiers, where also is its courl of appeal. Niorl (ihe capital), Bressuire, Melle, Parthenay, St Maixent, Thouars and Oiron are Ihe principal places in Ihe deparlment. Several olher towns contain fealures of inlerest. Among these 120 DEVA— DEVENTER are Airvault, where there is a church of the i2th and i4th centuries which once belonged to the abbey of St Pierre, and an ancient bridge built by the monks; Celles-sur-Belle, where there is an old church rebuilt by Louis XI., and again in the i7th century; and St Jouin-de-Marnes, with a fine Romanesque church with Gothic restoration, which belonged to one of the most ancient abbeys of Gaul. DEVA (Sanskrit " heavenly "), in Hindu and Buddhist mythology, spirits of the light and air, and minor deities generally beneficent. In Persian mythology, however, the word is used for evil spirits or demons. According to Zoroaster the devas were created by Ahriman. DEVA (mod. Chester), a Roman legionary fortress in Britain on the Dee. It was occupied by Roman troops about A.D. 48 and held probably till the end of the Roman dominion. Its garrison was the Legio XX. Valeria Victrix, with which another legion (II. Adjutrix) was associated for a few years, about A.D. 75-85. It never developed, like many Roman legionary fortresses, into a town, but remained military throughout. Parts of its north and east walls (from Morgan's Mount to Peppergate) and numerous inscriptions remain to indicate its character and area. See F. J. Haverfield, Catalogue of the Grosvenor Museum, Chester (Chester, 1900), Introduction. DEVADATTA, the son of Suklodana, who was younger brother to the father of the Buddha (Mahavastu, iii. 76). Both he and his brother Ananda, who were considerably younger than the Buddha, joined the brotherhood in the twentieth year of the Buddha's ministry. Four other cousins of theirs, chiefs of the Sakiya clan, and a barber named Upali, were admitted to the order at the same time; and at their own request the barber was admitted first, so that as their senior in the order he should take precedence of them ( Vinaya Texts, iii. 228). All the others continued loyal disciples, but Devadatta, fifteen years afterwards, having gained over the crown prince of Magadha, Ajalasallu, to his side, made a formal proposition, at the meeting of the order, that the Buddha should retire, and hand over the leadership to him, Devadatta (Vinaya Texts, iii. 238; Jataka, i. 142). This proposal was rejected, and Devadatta is said in the tradition to have successfully instigated the prince to the execution of his aged father and to have made three abortive attempts to bring about the death of the Buddha (Vinaya Texts, iii. 241-250; Jataka, vi. 131), shortly afterwards, relying upon the feeling of the people in favour of asceticism, he brought forward four propositions for ascetic rules to be imposed on the order. These being refused, he appealed to the people, started an order of his own, and gained over 500 of the Buddha's community to join in the secession. We hear nothing further about the success or otherwise of the new order, but it may possibly be referred to under the name of the Gotamakas, in the Anguttara (see Dialogues of the Buddha 1.222), for Devadatta 's family name was Gotama. But his community was certainly still in existence in the 4th century A.D., for it is especially mentioned by Fa Hien, the Chinese pilgrim (Legge's translation, p. 62). And it possibly lasted till the 7th century, for Hsiian Tsang mentions that in a monastery in Bengal the monks then followed a certain regulation of Devadatta's (T. Walters, On Yuan Chwang, ii. 191). There is no mention in the canon as to how or when Devadatta died'; but the commentary on the Jataka, written in the 5th century A.D., has preserved a tradition that he was swallowed up by the earth near Savatthi, when on his way to ask pardon of the Buddha (Jataka, iv. 158). The spot where this occurred was shown to both the pilgrims just mentioned (Fa Hien, loc. cit. p. 60; and T. Walters, On Yuan Chwang, i. 390). It is a striking example of Ihe way in which such legends grow, that it is only the latest of these aulhorities, Hsiian Tsang, who says that, though ostensibly approaching the Buddha with a view lo reconcilialion, Devadalta had concealed poison in his nail with the object of murdering the Buddha. AUTHORITIES. — Vinaya Texts, translated by Rhys Davids and H. Oldenberg (3 vols., Oxford, 1881-1885); The Jataka, edited by V. Fausboll (7 vols., London, 1877-1897); T. Walters, On Yuan Chwang (ed. Rhys Davids and Bushel!, 2 vols., London, 1904-1905) ; Fa Hian, translated by J. Legge (Oxford, 1886); Mahavastu (ed. Tenant, 3 vols., Paris, 1882-1897). (T. W. R. D.) DEVAPRAYAG (DEOpRAYAG).a village in Tehri Slale of the United Provinces, India. It is situaled at the spot where the rivers Alaknanda and Bhagirathi unile and form the Ganges, and as one of the five sacred confluences in Ihe hills is a great place of pilgrimage for devout Hindus. Devaprayag stands at an elevation of 2265 ft. on the side of a hill which rises above it 800 ft. On a terrace in Ihe upper part of the village is the temple of Raghunath, built of huge uncemenled stones, pyramidical in form and capped by a while cupola. DEVEKS, CHARLES (1820-1891), American lawyer and jurist, was born in Charleslown, Massachusells, on Ihe 4lh of April 1820. He gradualed al Harvard College in 1838, and al Ihe Harvard law school in 1840, and was admilled lo Ihe bar in Franklin counly, Mass., where he praclised from 1841 to 1849. In the year 1848 he was a Whig member of the stale senale, and from 1849 to 1853 was Uniled Slates marshal for Massachuselts, in which capacity he was called upon in 1851 to remand the fugilive slave, Thomas Sims, to slavery. This he felt constrained lo do, much againsl his personal desire; and subsequenlly he altempted in vain to purchase Sims's freedom, and many years later appointed him to a position in the deparlmenl of juslice at Washington. Devens praclised law al Worcesler from 1853 unlil 1 86 1, and Ihroughoul Ihe Civil War served in Ihe Federal army, becoming colonel of volunteers in July 1861 and brigadier- general of volunteers in April 1862. At the batlle of Ball's Bluff (1861) he was severely wounded; he was again wounded al Fair Oaks (1862) .and al Chancellorsville (1863), where he com- manded a division. He later dislinguished himself at Cold Harbor, and commanded a division in Granl's final campaign in Virginia (1864-65), his Iroops being Ihe firsl to occupy Richmond after its fall. Breveled major-general in 1865, he remained in Ihe army for a year as commander of the military district of Charleston, Soulh Carolina. He was a judge of the Massachusetls superior court from 1867 to 1873, and was an associate juslice of the supreme court of Ihe state from 1873 to 1877, and again from 1881 lo 1891. From 1877 to 1881 he was attorney-general of the United States in the cabinet of President Hayes. He died at Boston, Mass., on the 7th of January 1891. See his Orations and Addresses, with a memoir by John Codman Ropes (Boston, 1891). DEVENTER, a town in the province of Overysel, Holland, on Ihe righl bank of Ihe Ysel, al Ihe confluence of the Schipbeek, and a junction slation 10 m. N. of Zutphen by rail. It is also connected by steam Iramway S.E. wilh Brokulo. Pop. (1900) 26,212. Devenler is a neal and prosperous town silualed in the midst of pretlily wooded environs, and conlaining many curious old buildings. There are Ihree churches of special interest: the Groote Kerk (St Lebuinus), which dates from 1334, and occupies Ihe sile of an older slruclure of which the nlh-cenlury crypl remains; Ihe Roman Calholic Broederkerk, or Brolhers' Church, conlaining among ils relics three ancient gospels said lo have been written by St Lebuinus (Lebwin), Ihe English apostle of Ihe Frisians and Weslphalians (d. c. 773); and the Bergkerk, dedicated in 1 206, which has two late Romanesque lowers. The lown hall (1693) conlains a remarkable painling of Ihe town council by Terburg. In Ihe fine square called Ihe Brink is the old weigh-house, nowaschool (gymnasium), builtiu I528,wilhalarge exlernal staircase (1644). The gymnasium is descended from the Latin school of which Ihe celebrated Alexander Hegius was masler in Ihe Ihird quarler of Ihe i5lh cenlury, when Ihe young Erasmus was senl lo it, and al which Adrian Floreizoon, after- wards Pope Adrian VI., is said to have been a pupil about the same time. Anolher famous educalional inslilulion was the " Alhenaeum " or high school, founded in 1630, al which Henri Renery (d. 1639) laughl philosophy, while Johann Friedrich Gronov (Gronovius) (1611-1671) laughl rhetoric and history in Ihe middle of the same century. The " Alhenaeum " disap- pered in 1876. In modern limes Deventer possessed a famous teacher in Dr Burgersdyk (d. 1900), the Dutch translator of Shakespeare. The lown library, also called Ihe library of tnt DE VERB— DEVIL 121 Athenaeum, includes many MSS. and incunabula, and a 13th- century copy of Reynard the Fox. The archives of the town are of considerable value. Besides a considerable agricultural trade, Deventer has important iron foundries and carpet factories (the royal manufactory of Smyrna carpets being especially famous) ; while cotton-printing, rope-making and the weaving of woollens and silks are also carried on. A public official is appointed to supervise the proper making of a form of gingerbread known as " Deventer Koek," which has a reputation throughout Holland. In the church of Bathmen, a village 5 m. E. of Deventer, some 14th-century frescoes were discovered in 1870. In the I4th century Deventer was the centre of the famous religious and educational movement associated with the name of Gerhard Groot (q.v.), who was a native of the town (see BROTHERS or COMMON LIFE). DE VERB, AUBREY THOMAS (1814-1002), Irish poet and critic, was born at Curragh Chase, Co. Limerick, on the loth of January 1814, being the third son of Sir Aubrey de Vere Hunt (1788-1846). In 1832 his father dropped the final name by royal licence. Sir Aubrey was himself a poet. Wordsworth called his sonnets the " most perfect of the age." These and his drama, Mary Tudor, were published by his son in 1875 and 1884. Aubrey de Vere was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and in his twenty-eighth year published The Waldenses, which he followed up in the next year by The Search after Proserpine. Thence- forward he was continually engaged, till his death on the 2oth of January 1902, in the production of poetry and criticism. His best-known works are: in verse, The Sisters (1861); The Infant Bridal (1864); Irish Odes (1869); Legends of St Patrick (1872); and Legends of the Saxon Saints (1879); and in prose, Essays chiefly on Poetry (1887); and Essays chiefly Literary and Ethical (1889). He also wrote a picturesque volume of travel-sketches, and two dramas in verse, Alexander the Great (1874); and St Thomas of Canterbury (1876); both of which, though they contain fine passages, suffer from diffuseness and a lack of dramatic spirit. The characteristics of Aubrey de Vere's poetry are " high seriousness " and a fine religious enthusiasm. His research in questions of faith led him to the Roman Church; and in many of his poems, notably in the volume of sonnets called St Peter's Chains (1888), he made rich additions to devotional verse. He was a disciple of Wordsworth, whose calm meditative serenity he often echoed with great felicity; and his affection for Greek poetry, truly felt and understood, gave dignity and weight to his own versions of mythological idylls. But perhaps he will be chiefly remembered for the impulse which he gave to the study of Celtic legend and literature. In this direction he has had many followers, who have sometimes assumed the appearance of pioneers; but after Matthew Arnold's fine lecture on " Celtic Literature," nothing perhaps did more to help the Celtic revival than Aubrey de Vere's tender insight into the Irish character, and his stirring reproductions of the early Irish epic poetry. A volume of Selections from his poems was edited in 1894 (New York and London) by G. E. Woodberry. DEVICE, a scheme, plan, simple mechanical contrivance; also a pattern or design, particularly an heraldic design or emblem, often combined with a motto or legend. " Device " and its doublet " devise " come from the two Old French forms devis and devise of the Latin divisa, things divided, from dividere, to separate, used in the sense of to arrange, set out, apportion. " Devise," as a substantive, is now only used as a legal term for a disposition of property by will, by a modern convention restricted to a disposition of real property, the term " bequest " being used of personalty (see WILL). This use is directly due to the Medieval Latin meaning of dividere = testamenlo disponere. In its verbal form, " devise " is used not only in the legal sense, but also in the sense of to plan, arrange, scheme. DEVIL (Gr. &a/3o\os, "slanderer," from SiatfdXW, to slander), the generic name for a spirit of evil, especially the supreme spirit of evil, the foe of God and man. The word is used, for minor evil spirits in much the same sense as " demon." From the various characteristics associated with this idea, the term has come to be applied by analogy in many different senses. From the idea of evil as degraded, contemptible and doomed to failure, the term is applied to persons in evil plight, or of slight considera- tion. In English legal phraseology " devil " and " devilling " are used of barristers who act as substitutes for others. Any remuneration which the legal " devil " may receive is purely a matter of private arrangement between them. In the chancery division such remuneration is generally in the proportion of one half of the fee which the client pays; " in the king's bench division remuneration for ' devilling ' of briefs or assisting in drafting and opinions is not common " (see Annual Practice, 1907, p. 717). In a similar sense an author may have his materials collected and arranged by a literary hack or " devil." The term " printer's devil " for the errand boy in a printing office probably combines this idea with that of his being black with ink. The common notions of the devil as black, ill-favoured, malicious, destructive and the like, have occasioned the application of the term to certain animals (the Tasmanian devil, the devil-fish, the coot), to mechanical contrivances (for tearing up cloth or separat- ing wool), to pungent, highly seasoned dishes, broiled or fried. In this article we are concerned with the primary sense of the word, as used in mythology and religion. The primitive philosophy of animism involves the ascription of all phenomena to personal agencies. As phenomena are good or evil, produce pleasure or pain, cause weal or woe, a distinction in the character of these agencies is gradually recognized; the agents of good become gods, those of evil, demons. A tendency towards the simplification and organization of the evil as of the good forces, leads towards belief in outstanding leaders among the forces of evil. When the divine is most completely conceived as unity, the demonic is also so conceived; and over against God stands Satan, or the devil. Although it is in connexion with Hebrew and Christian mono- theism that this belief in the devil has been most fully developed, yet there are approaches to the doctrine in other religions. In Babylonian mythology " the old serpent goddess ' the lady Nina ' was transformed into the embodiment of all that was hostile to the powers of heaven " (Sayce's Hibbert Lectures, p. 283) , and was confounded with the dragon Tiamat, " a terrible monster, reap- pearing in the Old Testament writings as Rahab and Leviathan, the principle of chaos, the enemy of God and man " (Tennant's The Fall and Original Sin, p. 43), and according to Gunkel (Schopfung und Chaos, p. 383) " the original of the ' old serpent ' of Rev. xii. 9." In Egyptian mythology the serpent Apap with an army of monsters strives daily to arrest the course of the boat of the luminous gods. While the Greek mythology described the Titans as " enchained once for all in their dark dungeons " yet Prometheus' threat remained to disturb the tranquillity of the Olympian Zeus. In the German mythology the army of darkness is led by Hel, the personification of twilight, sunk to the goddess who enchains the dead and terrifies the living, and Loki, originally the god of fire, but afterwards " looked upon as the father of the evil powers, who strips the goddess of earth of her adornments, who robs Thor of his fertilizing hammer, and causes the death of Balder the beneficent sun." In Hindu mythology the Maruts, Indra, Agni and Vishnu wage war with the serpent Ahi to deliver the celestial cows or spouses, the waters held captive in the caverns of the clouds. In the Trimurti, Brahma (the impersonal) is manifested as Brahma (the personal creator), Vishnu (the preserver), and Siva (the destroyer). In Siva is perpetuated the belief in the god of Vedic times Rudra, who is represented as " the wild hunter who storms over the earth with his bands, and lays low with arrows the men who displease him " (Chantepie de la Saussaye's Religionsgeschichte, 2nd ed., vol. ii. p. 25). The evil character of Siva is reflected in his wife, who as Kali (the black) is the wild and cruel goddess of destruction and death. The opposition of good and evil is most fully carried out in Zoroastrianism. Opposed to Ormuzd, the author of all good, is Ahriman, the source of all evil; and the opposition runs through the whole universe (D'Alviella's Hibbert Lectures, pp. 158-164). The conception of Satan (Heb. v&t, the adversary, Gr. ~2o.TO.vas, or "Zarav, 2 Cor. xii. 7) belongs to the post -exilic period of Hebrew development, and probably shows traces of the 122 DEVIL influence of Persian on Jewish thought, but it has also its roots in much older beliefs. An " evil spirit " possesses Saul (i Sam. xvi. 14), but it is " from the Lord." The same agency produces discord between Abimelech and the Shechcmites (Judges ix. 23). " A lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets " as Yah\veh's messenger entices Ahab to his doom (i Kings xxii. 22). Growing human corruption is traced to the fleshy union of angels and women (Gen. vi. 1-4). But generally evil, whether as misfortune or as sin, is assigned to divine causality (i Sara, xviii. 10; 2 Sam. xxiv. i; i Kings xxii. 20: Isa. vi. 10, Ixiii. 17). After the Exile there is a tendency to protect the divine transcendence by the introduction of mediating angelic agency, and to separate all evil from God by ascribing its origin to Satan, the enemy of God and man. In the prophecy of Zechariah (iii. 1-2) he stands as the adversary of Joshua, the high priest, and is rebuked by Yahweh for desiring that Jerusalem should be further punished. In the book of Job he presents himself before the Lord among the sons of God (ii. i), yet he is represented both as accuser and tempter. He disbelieves in Job's integrity, and desires him to be so tried that he may fall into sin. While, according to 2 Sam. xxiv. i, God himself tests David in regard to the numbering of the people, according to i Chron. xxi, i it is Satan who tempts him. The development of the conception continued in later Judaism, which was probably more strongly influenced by Persian dualism. It is doubtful, however, whether the Asmodeus (q.v.) of the book of Tobit is the same as the Aeshma Daewa of the Bundahesh. He is the evil spirit who slew the seven husbands of Sara (iii. 8), and the name probably means "Destroyer." In the book of Enoch Satan is represented as the ruler of a rival kingdom of evil, but here are also mentioned Satans, who are distinguished from the fallen angels and who have a threefold function, to tempt, to accuse and to punish. Satan possesses the ungodly (Ecclesi- asticus xxi. 27), is identified with the serpent of Gen. iii. (Wisdom ii. 24), and is probably also represented by Asmodeus, to whom lustful qualities are assigned (Tobit vi. 14) ; Gen. iii. is probably referred to in Psalms of Solomon xvii. 49, " a serpent speaking with the words of transgressors, words of deceit to pervert wisdom." The Book of the Secrets of Enoch not only identifies Satan with the Serpent, but also describes his revolt against God, and expulsion from heaven. In the Jewish Targums Sammael, " the highest angel that stands before God's throne, caused the serpent to seduce the woman "; he coalesces with Satan, and has inferior Satans as his servants. The birth of Cain is ascribed to a union of Satan with Eve. As accuser affecting man's standing before God he is greatly feared. This doctrine, stripped of much of its grossness, is reproduced in the New Testament. Satan is the 5id/3oXos (Matt. xiii. 39; John xiii. 2; Eph. iv. 27; Heb. ii. 14; Rev. ii. 10), slanderer or accuser, the irapaf wv (Matt. iv. 3; iThess. iii. 5), the tempter, the iroJTjpos (Matt. v. 37; John xvii. 15; Eph. vi. 16), the evil one, and the k\&pte (Matt. xiii. 39), the enemy. He is apparently identified with Beelzebub (or Beelzebul) in Matt. xii. 26, 27. Jesus appears to recognize the existence of demons belonging to a kingdom of evil under the leadership of Satan " the prince of demons " (Matt. xii. 24, 26, 27), whose works in demonic posses- sions it is his function to destroy (Mark i. 34, iii. 1 1, vi. 7 ; Luke x. 17-20). But he himself conquers Satan in resisting his tempta- tions (Matt. iv. i-n). Simon is warned against him, and Judas yields to him as tempter (Luke xxii. 31; John xiii. 27). Jesus's cures are represented as a triumph over Satan (Luke x. 18). This Jewish doctrine is found in Paul's letters also. Satan rules over a world of evil, supernatural agencies, whose dwelling is in the lower heavens (Eph. vi. 12): hence he is the "prince of the power of the air " (ii. 2). He is the tempter (i Thess. iii. 5; i Cor. vii. 5), the destroyer (x. 10), to whom the offender is to be handed over for bodily destruction (v. 5), identified with the serpent (Rom. xvi. 20; 2 Cor. xi. 3), and probably with Beliar or Belial (vi. 15); and the surrender of man to him brought death into the world (Rom. v. 17). Paul's own " stake in the flesh " is Satan's messenger (2 Cor. xii. 7). According to Hebrews Satan's power over death Jesus destroys by dying (ii. 14). Revela- tion describes the war in heaven between God with his angels and Satan or the dragon, the " old serpent," the deceiver of the whole world (xii. 9), with his hosts of darkness. After the over- throw of the Beast and the kings of the earth, Satan is imprisoned in the bottomless pit a thousand years (xx. 2\. Again loosed to deceive the nations, he is finally cast into the lake of fire and brimstone (xx. 10; cf. Enoch liv. 5, 6; 2 Peter ii. 4). In John's Gospel and Epistles Satan is opposed to Christ. Sinner and murderer from the beginning (i John iii. 8) and liar by nature (John viii. 44), he enslaves men to sin (viii. 34), causes death (verse 44), rules the present world (xiv. 30), but has no power over Christ or those who are his (xiv. 30, xvi. n; i John v. 18). He will be destroyed by Christ with all his works. (John xvi. 33; i John iii. 8). In the common faith of the Gentile churches after the Apostolic Age " the present dominion of evil demons, or of one evil demon, was just as generally presupposed as man's need of redemption, which was regarded as a result of that dominion. The tenacity of this belief may be explained among other things by the living impression of the polytheism that surrounded the communities on every side. By means of this assumption too, humanity seemed to be unburdened, and the presupposed capacity for redemption could, therefore, be justified in its widest range " (Harnack's History of Dogma, i. p. 181). While Christ's First Advent delivered believers from Satan's bondage, his overthrow would be completed only by the Second Advent. The Gnostics held that " the present world sprang from a fall of man, or from an undertaking hostile to God, and is, therefore, the product of an evil or intermediate being " (p. 257). Some taught that while the future had been assigned by God to Christ, the devil had received the present age (p. 309). The fathers traced all doctrines not held by the Catholic Church to the devil, and the virtues of heretics were regarded as an instance of the devil transforming himself into an angel of light (ii. 91). Irenaeus ascribes Satan's fall to " pride and arrogance and envy of God's creation "; and traces man's deliverance from Satan to Christ's victory in re- sisting his temptations; but also, guided by certain Pauline passages, represents the death of Christ " as a ransom paid to the ' apostasy ' for men who had fallen into captivity " (ii. 290). He does not admit that Satan has any lawful claim on man, or that God practised a deceit on him, as later fathers taught. This theory of the atonement was formulated by Origen. " By his successful temptation the devil acquired a right over men. God offered Christ's soul for that of men. But the devil was duped, as Christ overcame both him and death " (p. 367). It' was held by Gregory of Nyssa, Ambrose, who uses the phrase pia fraus, Augustine, Leo I., and Gregory I., who expresses it in its worst form. " The humanity of Christ was the bait; the fish, the devil, snapped at it, and was left hanging on the invisible hook, Christ's divinity" (iii. 307). In Athanasius the relation of the work of Christ to Satan retires into the background, Gregory of Nazianzus and John of Damascus felt scruples about this view. It is expressly repudiated by Anselm and Abelard. Peter the Lombard asserted it, disregarding these objections. Bernard represents man's bondage to Satan " as righteously permitted as a just retribution for sin," he being " the executioner of the divine justice." ^Another theory of Origen 's found less accept- ance. The devil, as a being resulting from God's will, cannot always remain a devil. The possibility of his redemption, however, was in the sth century branded as a heresy. Persian dualism was brought into contact with Christian thought in the doctrine of Mani; and it is permissible to believe that the gloomy views of Augustine regarding man's condition are due in some measure to this influence. Mani taught that Satan with his demons, sprung from the kingdom of darkness, attacked the realm of light, the earth, defeated man sent against him by the God of light, but was overthrown by the God of light, who then delivered the primeval man (iii. 324). " During the middle ages," says Tulloch, " the belief in the devil was absorbing — saints conceived themselves and others to be in constant conflict with him." This superstition, perhaps at its strongest in the I3th to the i sth century, passed into Protestantism. Luther DEVIZES 123 was always conscious of the presence and opposition of Satan. " As I found he was about to begin again," says Luther, " I gathered together my books, and got into bed. Another time in the night I heard him above my cell walking on the cloister, but as I knew it was the devil I paid no attention to him and went to sleep." He held that this world will pass away with its pleasures, as there can be no real improvement in it, for the devil continues in it to ply his daring and seductive devices (vii. 191). I. A. Dorner (Christian Doctrine, iii. p. 93) sums up Protestant doctrine as follows: — " He is brought into relation with natural sinfulness, and the impulse to evil thoughts and deeds is ascribed to him. The dominion of evil over men is also represented as a slavery to Satan, and this as punishment. He has his full power in the extra-Christian world. But his power is broken by Christ, and by his word victory over him is to be won. The power of creating anything is also denied the devil, and only the power of corrupting substances is conceded to him. But it is only at the Last Judg- ment that his power is wholly annihilated; he is himself delivered up to eternal punishment." This belief in the devil was specially strong in Scotland among both clergy and laity in the I7th century. " The devil was always and literally at hand," says Buckle, " he was haunting them, speaking to them, and tempting them. Go where they would he was there." In more recent times a great variety of opinions has been expressed on this subject. J. S. Semler denied the reality of demonic possession, and held that Christ in his language accom- modated himself to the views of the sick whom he was seeking to cure. Kant regarded the devil as a personification of the radical evil in man. Daub in his Jitdas Ishcarioth argued that a finite evil presupposes an absolute evil, and the absolute evil as real must be in a person. Schelling regarded the devil as, not a person, but a real principle, a spirit let loose by the freedom of man. Schleiermacher was an uncompromising opponent of the common belief. " The problem remains to seek evil rather in self than in Satan, Satan only showing the limits of our self- knowledge." Dorner has formulated a theory which explains the development of the conception of Satan in the Holy Scriptures as in correspondence with an evolution in the character of Satan. " Satan appears in Scripture under four leading char- acters:— first as the tempter of freedom, who desires to bring to decision, secondly as the accuser, who by virtue of the law retorts criminality on man; thirdly as the instrument of the Divine, which brings evil and death upon men; fourthly and lastly he is described, especially in the New Testament, as the enemy of God and man." He supposes " a change in Satan in the course of the history of the divine revelation, in conflict with which he came step by step to be a sworn enemy of God and man, especially in the New Testament times, in which, on the other hand, his power is broken at the root by Christ." He argues that " the world-order, being in process as a moral order, permits breaches everywhere into which Satan can obtain entrance " (pp. 99, 102). H. L. Martensen gives even freer rein to speculation. " The evil principle," he says, " has in itself no personality, but attains a progressively universal personality in its kingdom; it has no individual personality, save only in individual creatures, who in an especial manner make themselves its organs; but among these is one creature in whom the principle is so hypostasized that he has become the centre and head of the kingdom of evil " (Dogmatics, p. 199). A. Ritschl gives no place in his construc- tive doctrine to the belief in the devil; but recognizes that the mutual action of individual sinners on one another constitutes a kingdom of sin, opposed to the Kingdom of God (A. E. Garvie, The Ritschlian Theology, p. 304) . Kaftan affirms that a " doctrine about Satan can as little be established as about angels, as faith can say nothing about it, and nothing is gained by it for the dogmatic explanation of evil. This whole province must be left to the immediate world-view of the pious. The idea of Satan will on account of the Scriptures not disappear from it, and it would be arrogant to wish to set it aside. Only let everyone keep the thought that Satan also stands under the commission of the Almighty God, and that no one must suppose that by leading back his sins to a Satanic temptation he can get rid of his own guilt. To transgress these limits is to assail faith " (Dogmatik, p. 348). In the book entitled Evil and Evolution there is " an attempt to turn the light of modern science on to the ancient mystery of evil." The author contends that the existence of evil is best explained by assuming that God is confronted with Satan, who in the process of evolution interferes with the divine designs, an interference which the instability of such an evolving process makes not incredible. Satan is, however, held to be a creature who has by abuse of his freedom been estranged from, and opposed to his Creator, and who at last will be conquered by moralmeans. W. M. Alexander in his book on demonic possession maintains that " the confession of Jesus as the Messiah or Son of God is the classical criterion of genuine demonic possession " (p. 150), and argues that as " the Incarnation indicated the establishment of the kingdom of heaven upon earth," there took place " a counter movement among the powers of darkness," of which " genuine demonic possession was one of the manifesta- tions " (p. 249). Interesting as these speculations are, it may be confidently affirmed that belief in Satan is not now generally regarded as an essential article of the Christian faith, nor is it found to be an indispensable element of Christian experience. On the one hand science has so explained many of the processes of outer nature and of the inner life of man as to leave no room for Satanic agency. On the other hand the modern view of the inspiration of the Scriptures does not necessitate the acceptance of the doctrine of the Scriptures on this subject as finally and absolutely authori- tative. The teaching of Jesus even in this matter may be ac- counted for as either an accommodation to the views of those with whom he was dealing, or more probably as a proof of the limitation of knowledge which was a necessary condition of the Incarnation, for it cannot be contended that as revealer of God and redeemer of men it was imperative that he should either correct or confirm men's beliefs in this respect. The possibility of the existence of evil spirits, organized under one leader Satan to tempt man and oppose God, cannot be denied; the sufficiency of the evidence for such evil agency may, however, be doubted ; the necessity of any such belief for Christian thought and life cannot, therefore, be affirmed. (See also DEMONOLOGY; POSSESSION.) (A. E. G.*) DEVIZES, a market town and municipal borough in the Devizes parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 86 m. W. by S. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 6532. Its castle was built on a tongue of land flanked by two deep ravines, and behind this the tov/n grew up in a semicircle on a stretch of bare and exposed tableland. Its main streets, in which a few ancient timbered houses are left, radiate from the market place, where stands a Gothic cross, the gift of Lord Sidmouth in 1814. The Kennet and Avon Canal skirts the town on the N., passing over the high ground through a chain of thirty- nine locks. St John's church, one of the most interesting in Wiltshire, is cruciform, with a massive central tower, based upon two round and two pointed arches. It was originally Norman of the 1 2th century, arid the chancel arch and low vaulted chancel, in this style, are very fine. In the interior several ancient monuments of the Suttons and Heathcotes are preserved, besides some beautiful carved stone work, and two rich ceilings of oak over the chapels. St Mary's, a smaller church, is partly Norman, but was rebuilt in the i5th and again in the igth cen- tury. Its lofty clerestoried nave has an elaborately carved timber roof, and the south porch, though repaired in 1612, preserves its Norman mouldings. The woollen industries of Devizes have lost their prosperity; but there is a large grain trade, with engineering works, breweries, and manufactures of silk, snuff, tobacco and agricultural implements. The town is governed by a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors. Area, 906 acres. Devizes (Dimsis, la Devise, De Vies) does not appear in any historical document prior to the reign of Henry I., when the construction of a castle of exceptional magnificence by Roger, bishop of Salisbury, at once constituted the town an important political centre, and led to its speedy development. After the 124 DEVOLUTION, WAR OF— DEVONIAN SYSTEM disgrace of Roger in 1139 the castle was seized by the Crown; in the i4th century it formed part of the dowry of the queens of England, and figured prominently in history until its capture and demolition by Cromwell in the Civil War of the lyth century. Devizes became a borough by prescription, and the first charter from Matilda, confirmed by successive later sovereigns, merely grants exemption from certain tolls and the enjoyment of un- disturbed peace. Edward III. added a clause conferring on the town the liberties of Marlborough, and Richard II. instituted a coroner. A gild merchant was granted by Edward I., Edward II. and Edward III., and in 1614 was divided into the three companies of drapers, mercers and leathersellers. The present governing charters were issued by James I. and Charles I., the latter being little more than a confirmation of the former, which instituted a common council consisting of a mayor, a town clerk and thirty-six capital burgesses. These charters were surrendered to Charles II. , and a new one was conferred by James II., but abandoned three years later in favour of the original grant. Devizes returned two members to parliament from 1295, until deprived of one member by the Representation of the People Act of 1867, and of the other by the Redistribution Act of 1 885. The woollen manufacture was the staple industry of the town from the reign of Edward III. until the middle of the i8th century, when complaints as to the decay of trade began to be prevalent. In the reign of Elizabeth the market was held on Monday, and there were two annual fairs at the feasts of the Purification of the Virgin and the Decollation of John the Baptist. The market was transferred to Thursday in the next reign, and the fairs in the i8th century had become seven in number. See Victoria County History, Wiltshire; History of Devizes (Devizes, 1859). DEVOLUTION, WAR OF (1667-68), the name applied to the war which arose out of Louis XIV. 's claims to certain Spanish territories in right of his wife Maria Theresa, upon whom the ownership was alleged to have " devolved." (See, for the military operations, DUTCH WARS.) The war was ended by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668. DEVON, EARLS OF. From the family of De Redvers (De Ripuariis; Riviers), who had been earls of Devon from about noo, this title passed to Hugh de Courtenay (c. 1275-1340), the representative of a prominent family in the county (see Gibbon's " digression " in chap. Ixi. of the Decline and Fall, ed. Bury), but was subsequently forfeited by Thomas Courtenay (1432-1462), a Lancastrian who was beheaded after the battle of Towton. It was revived in 1485 in favour of Edward Courtenay (d. 1509), whose son Sir William (d. 1511) married Catherine, daughter of Edward IV. Too great proximity to the throne led to his attainder, but his son Henry (c. 1498-1539) was restored in blood in 1517 as earl of Devon, and in 1525 was created marquess of Exeter; his second wife was a daughter of William Blount, 4th Lord Mountjoy. The title again suffered forfeiture on Henry's execution, but in 1553 it was recreated for his son Edward (1526-1556). At the latter's death it became dormant in the Courtenay family, till in 1831 a claim by a collateral branch was allowed by the House of Lords, and the earldom of Devon was restored to the peerage, still being held by the head of the Courtenays. The earlier earls of Devon were referred to occasionally as earls of Devonshire, but the former variant has prevailed, and the latter is now solely used for the earldom and dukedom held by the Cavendishes (see DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND DUKES OF, and also the article COURTENAY). DEVONIAN SYSTEM, in geology, the name applied to series of stratified fossiliferous and igneous rocks that were formed during the Devonian period, that is, in the interval of time between the close of the Silurian period and the beginning of the Carboniferous; it includes the marine Devonian and an estuarine Old Red Sandstone series of strata. The name " Devonian " was introduced in 1829 by Sir R. Murchison and A. Sedgwick to describe the older rocks of Cornwall and Devon which W. Lonsdale had shown, from an examination of the fossils, to be intermediate between the Silurian and Carboniferous. The same two workers also carried on further researches upon the same rocks of the European continent, where already several others, F. Roemer, H. E. Beyrich, &c., were endeavouring to elucidate the succession of strata in this portion of the " Transition Series." The labours of these earlier workers, including in addition to those already mentioned, the brothers F. and G. von Sandberger, A. Dumont, J. Gosselet, E. J. A. d'Archiac, E. P. de Verneuil and H. von Distribution of Devonian Rocks J Areas in which the Earlier Devonian Jlocka an found I Additional areas In which Mia. Devonian flocks en found J Devon/an Rocks absent or unknown — Suggested limits of Land & Sea In Earlier Devonian time — - Modifications introduced about the middle of Devonian time . — .-.jattr Modifications Dechen, although somewhat modified by later students, formed the foundation upon which the modern classification of the Devonian rocks is based. Stratigraphy of the Devonian Fades. Notwithstanding the fact that it was in Devonshire and Cornwall that the Devonian rocks were first distinguished, it is in central Europe that the succession of strata is most clearly made out, and here, too, their geological position was first indicated by the founders of the system, Sedgwick and Murchison. Continental Europe. — Devonian rocks occupy a large area in the centre of Europe, extending from the Ardennes through the south of Belgium across Rhenish Prussia to Darmstadt. They are best known from the picturesque gorges which have been cut through them by the Rhine below Bingen and by the Moselle below Treves. They reappear from under younger formations in Brittany, in the Harz and Thuringia, and are exposed in Franconia, Saxony, Silesia, North Moravia and eastern Galicia. The principal subdivisions of the system in the more typical areas are indicated in Table I. This threefold subdivision, with a central mass of calcareous strata, is traceable westwards through Belgium (where the Calcaire de Givet represents the Stringocephalus limestone of the Eifel) and eastwards into the Harz. The rocks reappear with local petrographical modifications, but with a remarkable persistence of general palaeonto- logical characters, in Eastern Thuringia, Franconia, Saxony, Silesia, the north of Moravia and East Galicia. Devonian rocks have been detected among the crumpled rocks of the Styrian Alps by means of the evidence of abundant corals, cephalopods, gasteropods, lamelli- branchs and other organic remains. Perhaps in other tracts of the Alps, as well as in the Carpathian range, similar shales, limestones and dolomites, though as yet unfossiliferous, but containing ores of silver, lead, mercury, zinc, cobalt and other metals, may be referable to the Devonian system. In the centre of Europe, therefore, the Devonian rocks consist of a vast thickness of dark-grey sandy and shaly rocks, with occasional seams of limestone, and in particular with one thick central calcareous zone. These rocks are characterized in the lower zones by numerous broad-winged spirifers and by peculiar trilobites (Phacops, Homa- lonotus, &c.) which, though generically like those of the Silurian system, are specifically distinct. The central calcareous zone abounds in corals and crinoids as well as in numerous brachiopods. In the highest bands a profusion of coiled cephalopods (Clymenia) occurs in some of the limestones, while the shales are crowded with a small but characteristic ostracod crustacean (Cypridina). Here and there traces of fishes have been found, more especially in the Eifel, but seldom in such a state of preservation as to warrant their being assigned to any definite place in the zoological scale. Subsequently, however, E. Beyrich has described from Gerplstein in the Eifel an undoubted species of Pterichthys, which, as it cannot be certainly identified with any known form, he names P. Rhenanus. A Coccosteus has been described by F. A. Roemer from the Harz, and still later one has been cited from Bicken near Herborn by V. Koenen; but, as Beyrich points out, there may be some doubt as to whether the latter is not a Pterichthys. A Ctenacanlhus, seemingly undistinguish- able from the C. Bohemicus of Barrande's Etage G, has also been DEVONIAN SYSTEM 125 obtained from the Lower Devonian " Nereitenschichten " of Thuringia. The characteristic Holoptychius nobilissimus has been detected in the Psammite de Condroz, which in Belgium forms a characteristic sandy portion of the Upper Devonian rocks. These are interesting facts, as helping to link the Devonian and Old Red Sandstone types together. But they are as yet too few and unsupported to warrant any large deduction as to the correlations between these types. It is in the north-east of Europe that the Devonian and Old Red Sandstone appear to be united into one system, where the limestones and marine organisms of the one are interstratified with the fish- bearing sandstones and shales of the other. In Russia, as was of the Silurian rocks on which they rest, for they are found gradually to overlap Upper and Lower Silurian formations. The chief interest of the Russian rocks of this age lies in the fact, first signalized by Murchison and his associates, that they unite within themselves the characters of the Devonian and the Old Red Sandstone types. In some districts they consist largely of lime- stones, in others of red sandstones and marls. In the former they present molluscs and other marine organisms of known Devonian species; in the latter they afford remains of fishes, some of which are specifically identical with those of the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland. The distribution of these two palaeontological types in Russia is traced by Murchison to the lithological characters of the TABLE I. Stages. Ardennes. Rhineland. Brittany and Normandy. Bohemia. Harz. Famennien (Clymenia beds). Limestone of Etrceungt Psammites of Condroz (sandy series). Slates of Famenne (shaly series). Cypridina slates. Pon sandstone (Sauerland). Crumbly limestone (Kramen- zelkalk) with Clymenia. Neheim slates in Sauerland, and diabases, tuffs, &c., in Dillmulde, &c. Slates of Rostellec. Cypridina slates. t Clymenia limestone and limestone of Altenau. Frasnien (Intumes- cens beds) Slates of Matagne. Limestones, marls and shale of Frasne, and red marble of Flan- ders. Adorf limestone of Waldeck and shales with Goniatites (Eifel and Aix) = Budes- heimer shales. Marls, limestone and dolomite with Rhynchonella cuboides (Flinz in part). Iberg limestone of Dillmulde. Limestone of Cop- Choux and green slates of Travuliors. Iberg limestone and Winterberg lime- stone ; also Adorf limestone and shales (Budesheim). Givetien (Stringo- cephalus beds). Limestone of Givet. Stringocephalus limestone, ironstone of Brilon and Lahnmulde. Jpper Lenne shales, crinoidal limestone of Eifel, red sand- stones of Aix. Tuffs and diabases of Brilon and Lahnmulde. Red conglomerate of Aix. Limestones of Cha- lonnes, Montjean and I'Ecoch&re. H2 (of Barrande) dark plant- bearing shales. a. Stringocephalus shales with Flaser and Knollenkalk. Wissenbach slates. Eif61ien (Calceola beds). Calceola slates and limestones of Couvin. Greywacke with Spir- ifer cultrijugatus. Calceola beds, Wissenbach slates, Lower Lenne beds, Giintroder limestone and clay slate of Lahnmulde, Dillmulde, Wildungen, Grie- fenstein limestone, Bailers- bach limestone. Slates of Porsguen, greywacke of Fret. G3 Cephalopod limestone. Gi Tentaculite limestone. GI Knollenkalk and mottled Mnenian lime- stone. Calceola beds. Nereite slates, slates of Wieda and lime- stones of Hasselfeld. Coblentzien. Greywacke of Hierges. Shales and conglomer- ate of Burnot with quartzite, of Bierl6 and red siates of Vireux, greywacke of Vireux, greywacke of Montigny, sand- stone of Anor. Upper Coblentz slates. Red sandstone of Eifel, Cob- lentz quartzite, lower Cob- lentz slates. Hunsriick and Siegener grey- wacke and slates. Taunus quartzite and grey- wacke. Limestones of Er- bray, Brulon, Vird and N6hou, grey- wacke of Faou, sandstone of Ga- hard. F2 of Barrande. White Konje- prus limestone with Hercyn- ian fauna. • Haupt quartzite (of Lessen) = Rammels- berg slates, Schalker slates = Kahleberg sandstone. Hercynian slates and limestones. Geclinnien. Slates of St Hubert and Fooz, slates of Mon- drepuits, arkose of Weismes, conglomer- ate of Fepin. Slates of G6dinne. Slates and quartzites of Plougastel. a Q B Q1 o shown in the great work Russia and the Ural Mountains by M urchison, De Verneuil and Keyserling, rocks intermediate between the Upper Silurian and Carboniferous Limestone formations cover an extent of surface larger than the British Islands. This wide development arises not from the thickness but from the undisturbed horizontal character of the strata. Like the Silurian formations described else- where, they remain to this day nearly as flat and unaltered as they were originally laid down. Judged by mere vertical depth, they present but a meagre representative of the massive Devonian grey- wacke and limestone of Germany, or of the Old Red Sandstone of Britain. Yet vast though the area is over which they form the surface rock, it is probably only a small portion of their total extent ; for they are found turned up from under the newer formations along the flank of the Ural chain. It would thus seem that they spread continuously across the whole breadth of Russia in Europe. Though almost everywhere undisturbed, they afford evidence of some terrestrial oscillation between the time of their formation and that rocks, and consequent original diversities of physical conditions, rather than to differences of age. Indeed cases occur where in the same band of rock Devonian shells and Old Red Sandstone fishes lie commingled. In the belt of the formation which extends south- wards from Archangel and the White Sea, the strata consist of sands and marls, and contain only fish remains. Traced through the Baltic provinces, they are found to pass into red and green marls, clays, thin limestones and sandstones, with beds of gypsum. In some of the calcareous bands such fossils occur as Orthis striatula, Spiriferina prisca, Leptaena productoides, Spirifercalcaratus, Spirorbis omphaloides and Orthoceras subfusiforme. In the higher beds Holoptychius and other well-known fishes of the Old Red Sandstone occur. Followed still farther to the south, as far as the watershed between Orel and Voronezh, the Devonian rocks lose their red colour and sandy character, and become thin-bedded yellow lime- stones, and dolomites with soft green and blue marls. Traces of salt deposits are indicated by occasional saline springs. It is evident 126 DEVONIAN SYSTEM that the geographical conditions of the Russian area during the Devonian period must have closely resembled those of the Rhine basin and central England during the Triassic period. The Russian Devonian rocks have been classified in Table II. There is an unquestionable passage of the uppermost Devonian rocks of Russia into the base of the Carboniferous system. The Lower Devonian of the Harz contains a fauna which is very different from that of the Rhenish region; to this facies the name The fossil evidence clearly shows the close agreement of the Rhenish and south Devonshire areas. In north Devonshire the Devonian rocks pass upward without break into the Culm. North America. — In North America the Devonian rocks are extensively developed; they have been studied most closely in the New York region, where they are classified according to Table IV. The classification below is not capable of application over the states generally and further details are required from many of the TABLE II. LOWER. MIDDLE. UPPER. I * \ r * \ "" -* North-West Russia. Central Russia. Petchoraland. Ural Region. Red sandstone (Old Limestones with Spir- Red). ifer Verneuili and Sp. Archiaci. Limestones with Area oreliana. Limestones with Sp. Verneuili and Sp. Archiaci. Domanik slates and limestones with Sp. Verneuili. Cypridina slates, Cly- menia limestones (Fa- mennien). Limestones with Gephy- oceras intumescens and Rhynchonella cuboides (Frasnien). Dolomites and limestones with Spirifer Anossofi. Lower sandstone Marl with Spirifer Anossofi and corals. (Old Red). Limestones and slates with Sp. Anossofi (Giv- 6tien). Limestones and slates with Pentamerus basch- kiricus (Eifelien). Absent. Limestones and slates of the Yuresan and Ufa rivers, slate and quartz- ite, marble of Byelaya and of Bogoslovsk, phyllitic schists and quartzite. " Hercynian " has been applied, and the correlation of the strata has been a source of prolonged discussion among continental geologists. A similar fauna appears in Lower Devonian of Bohemia, in Brittany (limestone of Erbray) and in the Urals. The Upper Devonian of the Harz passes up into the Culm. In the eastern Thuringian Fichtelgebirge the upper division is represented by Clymenia limestone and Cypridina slates with Adorf limestone, diabase and Planschwitzer tuff in the lower part. The middle division has diabases and tuffs at the top with Tentaculite and Nereite shales and limestones below. The upper part of the Lower Devonian, the sandy shale of Steinach, rests unconformably upon Silurian rocks. In the Carnic Alps are coral reef limestones, the equivalents of the Iberg limestone, which attain an enormous thickness; these are underlain by coral limestones with fossils similar to those of the Konjeprus limestone of Bohemia; below these are shales and nodular limestones with goniatites. The Devonian rocks of Poland are sandy in the lower, and more calcareous in the upper parts. They are of interest because while the upper portions agree closely with the Rhenish facies, from the top of the Coblentzien upwards, in the sandy beds near the base Old Red Sandstone fishes (Coccosteus, &c.) are found. In France Devonian rocks are found well developed in Brittany, as indicated in the table, also in Normandy and Maine; in the Boulonnais district only the middle and upper divisions are known. In south France in the neighbourhood of Cabrieres, about Montpellier and in the Montagne Noire, all three divisions are found in a highly calcareous condition. Devonian rocks are recognized, though frequently much meta- morphosed, on both the northern and southern flanks of the Pyrenees; while on the Spanish peninsula they are extensively developed. In Asturias they are no less than 3280 ft. thick, all three divisions and most of the central European subdivisions are present. In general, the Lower Devonian fossils of Spain bear a marked resemblance to those of Brittany. Asia. — From the Ural Mountains eastward, Devonian rocks have been traced from point to point right across Asia. In the Altai Mountains they are represented by limestones of Coblentzien age with a fauna possessing Hercynian features. The same features are observed in the Devonian of the Kougnetsk basin, and in Turkestan. Well-developed quartzites with slates and diabases are found south of Yarkand and Khotan. Middle and Upper Devonian strata are widespread in China. Upper Devonian rocks are recorded from Persia, and from the Hindu Kush on the right bank of the Chitral river. England. — In England the original Devonian rocks are developed in Devon and Cornwall and west Somerset. In north Devonshire these rocks consist of sandstones, grits and slates, while in south Devon there are, in addition, thick beds of massive limestone, and intercalations of lavas and tuffs. The interpretation of the strati- graphy in this region is a difficult matter, partly on account of the absence of good exposures with fossils, and partly through the disturbed condition of the rocks. The system has been subdivided as shown in Table III. regions where Devonian rocks have been recognized, but every- where the broad threefold division seems to obtain. In Maryland the following arrangement has been adopted — (i) Helderberg = Coeymans; (2) Oriskany; (3) Romney = Erian; (4) Jennings = Genesee and Portage; (5) Hampshire = Catskill in part. In the TABLE III. LOWER. MIDDLE. UPPER. [ • North Devon and West Somerset. South Devon. Pilton group. Grits, slates and thin limestones. Baggy group. Sandstones and slates. Pickwell Down group. Dark slates and grits. Morte slates (?). Ashburton slates. Livaton slates. Red and green Entomis slates (Famennien). Red and grey slates with tuffs. Chudleigh goniatite limestone Petherwyn beds (Frasnien). Ilfracombe slates with len- ticles of limestone. Combe Martin grits and slates. Torquay and Plymouth lime- stones and Ashprington volcanic series. (Giv6tien and Eife'lien.) Slates and limestones of Hope's Nose. Hangman grits and slates. Lynton group, grits and cal- careous slates. Foreland grits and slates. Looe beds (Cornwall). Meadfoot, Cockington and Warberry series of slates and greywackes. (Coblent- zien and G&linnien.) interior the Helderbergian is missing and the system commences with (i) Oriskany, (2) Onondaga, (3) Hamilton, (4) Portage (and Genesee), (5) Chemung. The Helderbergian series is mainly confined to the eastern part of the continent; there is a northern development in Maine, and in Canada (Gasp6, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Montreal); an Appalachian belt, and a lower Mississippian region. The series as a whole is mainly calcareous (2000 ft. in Gasp6), and thins out towards the west. The fauna has Hercynian affinities. The Oriskany formation consists largely of coarse sandstones; it is thin in New York, but in Maryland and Virginia it is several hundred feet thick. It is more widespread than the underlying Helderbergian. The Lower Devonian appears to be thick in northern Maine and in Gasp6, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, but neither the palaeon- tology nor the stratigraphy has been completely worked out. DEVONIAN SYSTEM 127 In the Middle Devonian the thin clastic deposits at the base, Esopus and Schoharie grits, have not been differentiated west of the Appalachian region ; but the Onondaga limestones are much more extensive. The Brian series is often described as the Hamilton series outside the New York district, where the Marcellus shales are grouped together with the Hamilton shales, and numerous local subdivisions are included, as in Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee. The rocks are mostly shales or slates, but limestones predominate in the western development. In Pennsylvania the Hamilton series is from 1500 ft. to 5000 ft. thick, but in the more calcareous western extension it is much thinner. The Marcellus shales are bituminous in places. The Senecan series is composed of shallow- water deposits; the Tully limestone, a local bed in New York, thins out in places into a layer of pyrites which contains a remarkable dwarfed fauna. The bituminous Genesee shales are thickest in Pennsylvania (300 ft.) ; 25 ft. on Lake Erie. The shales and sandstones of the Portage formation reach 1000 ft. to 1400 ft. in western New York. In the Chautauquan series the Chemung formation is not always clearly separable from the Portage beds, it is a sandstone and conglomerate TABLE IV. Probable Groups. Formations. European Equivalent. Chautauquan. Chemung beds with Catskill Famennien. f as a local fades. «• f Portage beds (Naples, Ithaca EH and Oneonla shales as local 51 Senecan. 1 facies). D 1 Genesee shales. ^ I Tully limestone. Frasnien. sf Erian. ( Hamilton shale. Marcellus shale. Giv6tien. \\ f Onondaga (Corniferous) sl s Ulsterian. limestone. Schoharie grit. Eifdlien. i I Esopus grit (Caudagalligrit). . r Oriskanian. Oriskany sandstone. Coblentzien. »\ f Kingston beds. H SI Helderbergian 1 Becraft limestone. New Scotland beds. G6dinnien. J I I Coeymans limestone. formation which reaches its maximum thickness (8000 ft.) in Pennsylvania, but thins rapidly towards the west. In the Catskill region the Upper Devonian has an Old Red facies — red shales and sandstones with a freshwater and brackish fauna. Although the correlation of the strata has only advanced a short distance, there is no doubt as to the presence of undifferentiated Devonian rocks in many parts of th» continent. In the Great Plains this system appears to be absent, but it is represented in Colorado, Utah, Nevada, Wyoming, Montana, California and Arizona ; Devon- ian rocks occur between the Sierras and the Rocky Mountains, in the Arbuckle Mountains of Oklahoma and in Texas. In the western interior limestones predominate; 6000 ft. of limestone are found at Eureka, Nevada, beneath 2000 ft. of shale. On the Pacific coast metamorphism of the rocks is common, and lava-flows and tuffs occur in them. In Canada, besides the occurrences previously mentioned in the eastern region, Devonian strata are found in considerable force along the course of the Mackenzie river and the Canadian Rockies, whence they stretch out into Alaska. It is probable, however, that much that is now classed as Devonian in Canada will prove on fossil evidence to be Carboniferous. South America, Africa, Australia, &fc. — In South America the Devonian is well developed; in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Peru and the Falkland Islands, the palaeontological horizon is about the junction of the Lower and Middle divisions, and the fauna has affinities with the Hamilton shales of North America. Nearly allied to the South American Devonian is that of South Africa, where they are represented by the Bokkeveld beds in the Cape system. In Australia we find Lower Devonian consisting of coarse littoral deposits with volcanic rocks; and a Middle division with coral limestones in Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland ; an Upper division has also been observed. In New Zealand the Devonian is well exposed in the Reefton mining field ; and it has been suggested that much of the highly metamorphosed rock may belong to this system. Stratigraphy of the Old Red Sandstone Facies. The Old Red Sandstone of Britain, according to Sir Archibald Geikie, " consists of two subdivisions, the lower of which passes down conformably into the Upper Silurian deposits, the upper shading off in the same manner into the base of the Carboniferous system, while they are separated from each other by an unconformability." The Old Red strata appear to have been deposited in a number of elongated lakes or lagoons, approximately parallel to one another, with a general alignment in a N.E.-S.W. direction. To these areas of deposit Sir A. Geikie has assigned convenient distinctive names. In Scotland the two divisions of the system are sharply separated by a pronounced unconformability which is probably indicative of a prolonged interval of erosion. In the central valley between the base of the Highlands and the southern uplands lay " Lake Caledonia." Here the lower division is made up of some 20,000 ft. of shallow-water deposits, reddish-brown, yellow and grey sand- stones and conglomerates, with occasional " cornstones, and thin limestones. The grey flagstones with shales are almost confined to Forfarshire, and are known as the " Arbroath flags." Interbedded volcanic rocks, andesites, dacites, diabases, with agglomerates and tuffs constitute an important feature, and attain a thickness of 6000 ft. in the Pentland and Ochil hills. A line of old volcanic vents may be traced in a direction roughly parallel to the trend of the great central valley. On the northern side of the Highlands was ' Lake Orcadie," presumably much larger than the foregoing lake, though its boundaries are not determmable. It lay over Moray Firth and the east of Ross and Sutherland, and extended from Caithness to the Orkney Islands and S. Shetlands. It may even have stretched across to Norway, where similar rocks are found in Sognefjord and Dalsfjord, and may have had communications with some parts of northern Russia. Very characteristic of this area are the Caithness flags, dark grey and bituminous, which, with the red sandstones and conglomerates at their base, probably attain a thickness of 16,000 ft. The somewhat peculiar fauna of this series led Murchison to class the flags as Middle Devonian. In the Shetland Islands contempo- raneous volcanic rocks have been observed. Over the west of Argyll- shire lay " Lake Lprne " ; here the volcanic rocks predominate, they are intercalated with shallow-water deposits. A similar set of rocks occupy the Cheviot district. The upper division of the Old Red Sandstone is represented in Shropshire and South Wales by a great series of red rocks, shales, sandstones and marls, some 10,000 ft. thick. They contain few fossils, and no break has yet been found in the series. In Scotland this series was deposited in basins which correspond only partially with those of the earlier period. They are well developed in central Scotland over the lowlands bordering the Moray Firth. Inter- bedded lavas and tuffs are found in the island of Hoy. An interesting feature of this series is the occurrence of great crowds of fossil fishes in some localities, notably at Dura Den in Fife. In the north of England this series rests unconformably upon the Lower Old Red and the Silurian. Flanking the Silurian high ground of Cumberland and Westmor- land, and also in the Lammermuir hills and in Flint and Anglesey, a brecciated conglomerate, presenting many of the characters of a glacial deposit in places, has often been classed with the Old Red Sandstone, but in parts, at least, it is more likely to belong to the base of the Carboniferous system. In Ireland the lower division appears to be represented by the Dingle beds and Glengariff grits, while the Kerry rocks and the Kiltorcan beds of Cork are the equivalents of the upper division. Rocks of Old Red type, both lower and upper, are found in Spitzbergen and in Bear Island. In New Brunswick and Nova Scotia the Old Red facies is extensively developed. The Gasp6 sandstones have been estimated at 7036 ft. thick. _ In parts of western Russia Old Red Sandstone fossils are found in beds intercalated with others containing marine fauna of the Devonian facies. Devonian and Old Red Sandstone Faunas. The two types of sediment formed during this period — the marine Devonian and the lagoonal Old Red Sandstone — representing as they do two different but essentially contemporaneous phases of physical condition, are occupied by two strikingly dissimilar faunas. Doubt- less at all times there were regions of the earth that were marked off no less clearly from the normal marine conditions of which we have records; but this period is the earliest in which these variations of environment are made obvious. In some respects the faunal break between the older Silurian below and the younger Carboniferous above is not strongly marked; and in certain areas a very close relationship can be shown to exist between the older Devonian and the former, and the younger Devonian and the latter. Nevertheless, taken as a whole, the life of this period bears a distinct stamp of individuality. The two most prominent features of the Devonian seas are pre- sented by corals and brachiopods. The corals were abundant individually and varied in form ; and they are so distinctive of the period that no Devonian species has yet been found either in the Silurian or in the Carboniferous. They built reefs, as in the present day, and contributed to the formation of limestone masses in Devonshire, on the continent of Europe and in North America. Rugose and tabulate forms prevailed; among the former the cyathophyllids ' (Cyathophyllum) were important, Phillipsastraea, Zaphrentis, Acervularia and the curious Calceola (sanaalina), an pperculate genus which has given palaeontologists much trouble in its diagnosis, for it has been regarded as a pelecypod (hippurite) and 128 DEVONIAN SYSTEM a brachiopod. The tabulate corals were represented by Favosites, Michelinia, Pleurodictyum, Fistulipora, Pachypora and others. Heliolites and Plasmopora represent the alcyonarians. Stromato- poroids were important reef builders. A well-known fossil is Receptaculites, a genus to which it has been difficult to assign a definite place; it has been thought to be a sponge, it may be a calcareous alga, or a curious representative of the foraminifera. In the Devonian period the brachiopods reached the climax of their development : they compose three-quarters of the known fauna, and more than noo species have been described. Changes were taking place from the beginning of the period in the relative importance of genera; several Silurian forms dropped out, and new types were coming in. A noticeable feature was the development of broad-winged shells in the genus Spirifer. other spiriferids were Ambocoelia, Uncites, Verneuilia. Orthids and pentamerids were waning in importance, while the productids (Productella, Chonetes, Strophalosia) were increasing. The stroph- omenids were still flourishing, represented by the genera Leptaena, Stropfaodonta, Kayserella, and others. The ancient Lingula, along with Crania and Orbiculoidea, occur among the inarticulate forms. Another long-lived and wide-ranging species is A try pa reticularis. The athyrids were very numerous(Athyns, Retzia, Merista, Meristella, Kayserina, &c.) ; and the rhynchonellids were well represented by Pugnax, Hypothyris, and several other genera. The important group of terebratulids appears in this system; amongst them Stringocephalus is an eminently characteristic Devonian brachiopod ; others are Dielasma, CryptoneUa, Rensselaeria and Oriskania. The pelecypod molluscs were represented by Pterinea, abundant in the lower members along with other large-winged forms, and by CuculleUa, Buchiola and Curtonotus in the upper members of the system. Other genera are Actinodesma, Cardipta, Nucula, Megalodon, Aviculopecten, &c. Gasteropods were becoming more important, but the simple capulid forms prevailed: Platyceras (Capulus), Strapar- ottus, Pleurotomaria, Murchisonia, Macrocheilina, Euomphalus. Among the pteropods, Tentaculites was very abundant in some quarters; others were Conularia and Styliolina. In the Devonian period the cephalopods began to make a distinct advance in numbers, and in development. The goniatites appear with the genera Anarcestes, Agoniatites, Tornoceras, Bactrites and others; and in the upper strata the clymenoids, forerunners of the later ammonoids, began to take definite shape. While several new nautiloids (Homa- loceras, Ryticeras, &c.) made their appearance several cf the older genera still lived on (Orthocetas, Potenoceras, Actinoceras). Crinoids were very abundant in some parts of the Devonian sea, though they were relatively scarce in others; they include the genera Melocrinus, Haplocrinus, Cupressocrinus, Calceocrinus and Eleuthrocrinus. The cystideans were falling off (Protr.ocystis, Tiaracrinus), but blastoids were in the ascendant (Nucleocrinus, Cadaster, &c.). Both brittle-stars, Ophiura, Palaeophiura, Eugaster, and true starfishes, Palaeasler, Aspidosoma, were present, as well as urchins (Lepidocentras). When we turn to the crustaceans we have to deal with two distinct assemblages, one purely marine, trilobitic, the other mainly lacustrine or lagoonal with a eurypteridian fades. The trilobites had already begun to decline in importance, and as happens not infrequently with degenerating races of beasts and men, they began to develop strange eccentricities of ornamentation in some of their genera. A number of Silurian genera lived on into the Devonian period, and some gradually developed into new and distinctive forms; such were Proetus, Harpes, Cheirurus, Bronteus and others. Distinct species of Phacops mark the Lower and Upper Devonian respectively, while the genus Dalmania (Odontochile) was represented by species with an almost world-wide range. The Ostracpd Entomis (Cypridina) was extremely abundant in places — Cypridinen-Schiefer — while the true Cypridina was also present along with Beyrichia, Leperditia, &c. The Phyllocarids, Echinocaris, Eleuthrocaris, Tropidocaris, are common in the United States. It is in the Old Red Sandstone that the eurypterids are best preserved; foremost among these was Pterygotus; P. anglicus has been found in Scotland with a length of nearly 6 ft. ; Eurypttrus, Slimonia, Stylonurus were other genera. Insects appear well developed, including both orthopterous and neuropterous forms, in the New Brunswick rocks. Mr Scudder believed he had obtained a specimen of Orthoptera in which a stridulating organ was present. A species of Ephemera, allied to the modern may-fly, had a spread of wing extending to 5 in. In the Scottish Old Red Sandstone myriapods, Kampecaris andArchidesmus, have been described ; they are somewhat simpler than more recent forms, each segment being separate, and supplied with only one pair of walking legs. Spiders and scorpions also lived upon the land. The great number of fish remains in the Devonian and Old Red strata, coupled with the truly remarkable characters possessed by some of the forms, has caused the period to be described as the "age of fishes." As in the case of the crustaceans, referred to above,we find one assemblage more or less peculiar to the freshwater orbrackish conditions of the Old Red, and another characteristic of the marine Devonian ; on the whole the former is the richer in variety, but there seems little doubt that quite a number of genera were capable of living in either environment, whatever may have been the real condition of the Old Red waters. Foremost in interest are the curious ostracoderms, a remarkable group of creatures possessing many of the characteristics of fishes, but more probably belonging to a distinct class of organisms, which appears to link the vertebrates with the arthropods. They had come into existence late in Silurian times ; but it is in the Old Red strata that their remains are most fully preserved. They were abundant in the fresh or brackish waters of Scotland, England, Wales, Russia and Canada, and are represented by such forms as Pteraspis, Cephalaspis, Cyathaspis, Tremataspis, Bothriolepis and Pterichthys. In the lower members of the Old Red series Dipterus, and in the upper members Phaneropleuron, represented the dipnoid lung-fishes; and it is of extreme interest to note that a few of these curious forms still survive in the African Protopterus, the Australian Ceratodus and the South American Lepidosiren, — all freshwater fishes. Distantly related to the lung-fishes were the singular arthrodirans, a group possessing the unusual faculty of moving the head in a vertical plane. These comprise the wide-ranging Coccosteus with Homosleus and Dinichthys, the largest fish of the period. The latter probably reached 20 ft. in length; it was armed with exceedingly powerful jaws provided with turtle-like beaks. Sharks were fairly prominent depizens of the sea ; some were armed with cutting teeth, others with crushing dental plates ; and although they were on the whole marine fishes, they were evidently able to live in fresher waters, like some of their modern representatives, for their remains, mostly teeth and large dermal spines, are found both in the Devonian and Old Red rocks. Mesacanthus, Diplacanthus, Climatius, Cheiracanthus are characteristic genera. The crossopterygians, ganoids with a scaly lobe in the centre of the fins, were represented by Holoptychius and Glypwpomus in the Upper Old Red, and by such genera asDiplopterus, Osteolepis, Gyroptychius in the lower division. The Polypterus of the Nile and Calamoichthys of South Africa are the modern exemplars of this group. Cheirolepis, found in the Old Red of Scotland and Canada, is the only Devonian representative of the actinopterygian fishes. The cyclostome fishes have, so far, been discovered only in Scotland, in the tiny Palaeospondylus. Amphibian remains have been found in the Devonian of Belgium ; and footprints supposed to belong to a creature of the same class (Thinopus antiquus) have been described by Professor Marsh from the Chemung formation of Pennsylvania. Plant Life. — In the lacustrine deposits of the Old Red Sandstone we find the earliest well-defined assemblage of terrestrial plants. In some regions so abundant are the vegetable remains that in places they form thin seams of veritable coal. These plants evidently flourished around the shores of the lakes and lagoons in which their remains were buried along with the other forms of life. Lycopods and ferns were the predominant types; and it is important to notice that both groups were already highly developed. The ferns include the genera Sphenopteris, Megalopteris, Archaeopteris, Neuropteris. Among the Lycopods are Lycopodites, Psilophyton, Lepidodendron. Modern horsetails are represented by Calamocladus, Asterocalamites, Anmdaria. Of great interest are the genera Cordaites, Araucari- oxylon, &c., which were synthetic types, uniting in some degree the Coniferae and the Cycadofilicales. With the exception of obscure markings, aquatic plants are not so well represented as might have been expected; Parka, a common fossil, has been regarded' as a water plant with a creeping stem and two kinds of sporangia in sessile sporocarps. Physical Conditions, &c. — Perhaps the most striking fact that is brought out by a study of the Devonian rocks and their fossils is the gradual transgression of the sea over the land, which took place quietly in every quarter of the globe shortly after the beginning of the period. While in most places the Lower Devonian sediments succeed the Silurian formations in a perfectly conformable manner, the Middle and Upper divisions, on account of this encroachment of the sea, rest unconformably upon the older rocks, the Lower division being unrepresented. This is true over the greater part of South America, so far as our limited knowledge goes, in much of the western side of North America, in western Russia, in Thuringia and other parts of central Europe. Of the distribution of land and sea and the position of the coast lines in Devonian times we can state nothing with precision. The known deposits all point to shallow waters of epicontinental seas; no abyssal formations have been recognized. E. Kayser has pointed out the probability of a Eurasian sea province extending through Europe towards the east, across north and central Asia towards Manitoba in Canada, and an American sea province embracing the United States, South America and South Africa. At the same time there existed a great North Atlantic land area caused partly by the uplift of the Caledonian range just before the beginning of the period, which stretched across north Europe to eastern Canada; on the fringe of this land the Old Red Sandstone was formed. In the European area C. Barrois has indicated the existence of three zones of deposition: (i) A northern, Old Red, region, DEVONPORT 129 including Great Britain, Scandinavia, European Russia and Spitzbergen; here the land was close at hand; great brackish lagoons prevailed, which communicated more or less directly with the open sea. In European Russia, during its general advance, the sea occasionally gained access to wide areas, only to be driven off again, during pauses in the relative subsidence of the land, when the continued terrigenous sedimentation once more established the lagoonal conditions. These alternating phases were frequently repeated. (2) A middle region, covering Devonshire and Cornwall, the Ardennes, the northern part of the lower Rhenish mountains, and the upper Harz to the Polish Mittelgebirge; here we find evidence of a shallow sea, clastic deposits and a sublittoral fauna. (3) A southern region reaching from Brittany to the south of the Rhenish mountains, lower Harz, Thuringia and Bohemia; here was a deeper sea with a more pelagic fauna. It must be borne in mind that the above- mentioned regions are intended to refer to the time when the extension of the Devonian sea was near its maximum. In the case of North America it has been shown that in early and middle Devonian time more or less distinct faunas invaded the continent from five different centres, viz. the Helderberg, the Oriskany, the Onondaga, the southern Hamilton and the north-western Hamilton; these reached the interior approxi- mately in the order given. Towards the close of the period, when the various local faunas had mingled one with another and a more generalized life assemblage had been evolved, we find many forms with a very wide range, indicating great uniformity of conditions. Thus we find identical species of brachiopods inhabiting the Devonian seas of England, France, Belgium, Germany, Russia, southern Asia and China; such are, Hypothyris (Rhynchonella) cuboides, Spirifer disjunctus and others. The fauna of the Calceola shales can be traced from western Europe to Armenia and Siberia; the Stringoceplwlus limestones are represented in Belgium, England, the Urals and Canada; and the (Gephyroceras) inlumescens shales are found in western Europe and in Manitoba. • The Devonian period was one of comparative quietude; no violent crustal movements seem to have taken place, and while some changes of level occurred towards its close in Great Britain, Bohemia and Russia, generally the passage from Devonian to Carboniferous conditions was quite gradual. In later periods these rocks have suffered considerable movement and meta- morphism, as in the Harz, Devonshire and Cornwall, and in the Belgian coalfields, where they have frequently been thrust over the younger Carboniferous rocks. Volcanic activity was fairly widespread, particularly during the middle portion of the period. In the Old Red rocks of Scotland there is a great thickness (6000 ft.) of igneous rocks, including diabases and andesitic lavas with agglomerates and tuffs. In Devonshire diabases and tuffs are found in the middle division. In west central Europe volcanic rocks are found at many horizons, the most common rocks are diabases and diabase tuffs, schalstein. Felsitic lavas and tuffs occur in the Middle Devonian of Australia. Contemporaneous igneous rocks are generally absent in the American Devonian, but in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick there appear to be some. There is little evidence as to the climate of this period, but it is interesting to observe that local glacial conditions may have existed in places, as is suggested by the coarse conglomerate with striated boulders in the upper Old Red of Scotland. On the other hand, the prevalence of reef-building corals points to moderately warm temperatures in the Middle Devonian seas. The economic products of Devonian rocks are of some import- ance: in many of the metamorphosed regions veins of tin, lead, copper, iron are exploited, as in Cornwall, Devon, the Harz; in New Zealand, gold veins occur. Anthracite of Devonian age is found in China and a little coal in Germany, while the Upper Devonian is the chief source of oil and gas of western Pennsylvania and south-western New York. In Ontario the middle division is oil-bearing. Black phosphates are worked in central Tennessee, and in England the marls of the " Old Red " are employed for brick-making, vni. — 5 REFERENCES.— The literature of the Devonian rocks and fossils is very extensive; important papers have been contributed by the following geologists: J. Barrande, C. Barrois, F. Beclard, E. W. Benecke, L. Beushausen, A. Champernowne, J. M. Clarke, Sir J. W. Dawson, A. Denckmann, J. S. Diller, E. Dupont, F. Freeh, J.Fournet, Sir A. Geikie, G. Gurich, R. Hoernes, E. Kayser, C. and M. Koch, A. von Koenen, Hugh Miller, D. P. Oehlert, C. S. Prosser, P. de Rouville, C. Schuchert, T. Tschernyschew, E. O. Ulrich, W. A. E. Ussher, P. N. Wenjukoff, G. F. Whidbprne, J. T. Whiteaves and H. S. Williams. Sedgwick and Murchison's original description appeared in the Trans. Geol. Spc. (2nd series, vol. v., 1839). Good general accounts will be found in Sir A. Geikie's Text-Book of Geology (vol. ii., 4th ed., 1903), in E. Kayser's Lehrbuch der Geologic (vol. ii., 2nd ed., 1902), and, for North America, in Chamberlin and Salisbury's Geology (vol. ii., 1906). See the Index to the Geological Magazine (1864-1903), and insubsequent annual volumes ; Geological Literature added to the Geological Society's Library (London), annually since 1893; and the Neues Jahrbuch fur Min., Geologic und Paldontologie (Stuttgart, 2 annual volumes). The U.S. Geological Survey publishes at intervals a Bibliography and Index of North American Geology, &fc. , and this (e.g. Bulletin 301, — the Bibliog. and Index for 1901-1905) contains numerous references for the Devonian system in North America. (J. A. H.) DEVONPORT, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Devonshire, England, contiguous to East Stonehouse and. Plymouth, the seat of one of the royal dockyards, and an im- portant naval and military station. Pop. (1901) 70,437. It is situated immediately above the N.W. angle of Plymouth Sound, occupying a triangular peninsula formed by Stonehouse Pool on the E. and the Hamoaze on the W. It is served by the Great Western and the London & South Western railways. The town proper was formerly enclosed by a line of ramparts and a ditch excavated out of the limestone, but these are in great part demolished. Adjoining Devonport are East Stonehouse (an urban district, pop. 15,111), Stoke and Morice Town, the two last being suburbs of Devonport. The town hall, erected in 1821-1822 partly after the design of the Parthenon, is distinguished by a Doric portico; while near it are the public library, in Egyptian style, and a conspicuous Doric column built of Devonshire granite. This monument, which is 100 ft. high, was raised in commemoration of the naming of the town in 1824. Other institutions are the Naval Engineering College, Keyham (1880); the municipal technical schools, opened in 1899, the majority of the students being connected with the dockyard; the naval barracks, Keyham (1885); the Raglan barracks and the naval and military hospitals. On Mount Wise, which was formerly defended by a battery (now a naval signalling station), stands the military residence, or Government House, occupied by the commander of the Plymouth Coast Defences; and near at hand is the principal naval residence, the naval commander-in- chief 's house. The prospect from Mount Wise over the Hamoaze to Mount Edgecumbe on the opposite shore is one of the finest in the south of England. The most noteworthy feature of Devon- port, however, is the royal dockyard, originally established by William III. in 1689 and until 1824 known as Plymouth Dock. It is situated within the old town boundary and contains four docks. To this in 1853 was added Keyham steamyard, situated higher up the Hamoaze beyond the old boundary and connected with the Devonport yard by a tunnel. In 1896 further extensions were begun at the Keyham yard, which became known as Devonport North yard. Before these were begun the yard comprised two basins, the northern one being 9 acres and the southern 7 acres in area, and three docks, having floor-lengths of 295> 347 and 4J3 ft-i together with iron and brass foundries, machinery shops, engineer students' shop, &c. The new ex-' tensions, opened by the Prince of Wales on the 2ist of February 1907, cover a total area of 118 acres lying to the northward in front of the Naval Barracks, and involved the reclamation of 77 acres of mudflats lying below high- water mark. The scheme presented three leading features — a tidal basin, a group of three graving docks with entrance lock, and a large enclosed basin with a coaling dep6t at the north end. The tidal basin, close to the old Keyham north basin, is 740 ft. long with a mean width of 590 ft., and has an area of 10 acres, the depth being 32 ft. at low water of spring tides. It affords access to two graving docks, one with a floor-length of 745 ft. and 20^ ft. of water over the sill, and 130 DEVONPORT— DEVONSHIRE, DUKES OF the other with a length of 741 ft. and 32 ft. of water over the sill. Each of these can be subdivided by means of an intermediate caisson, and (when unoccupied) may serve as an entrance to the closed basin. The lock which leads from the tidal to the closed basin is 730 ft. long, and if necessary can be used as a dock. The closed basin, out of which opens a third graving dock, 660 ft. long, measures 1550 ft. by jooo ft. and has an area of 355 acres, with a depth of 32 ft. at low- water springs; it has a direct entrance from the Hamoaze, closed by a caisson. The founda- tions of the walls are carried down to the rock, which in some places lies covered with mud 100 ft. or more below coping level. Compressed air is used to work the sliding caissons which close the entrances of the docks and closed basin. A ropery at Devonport produces half the hempen ropes used in the navy. By the Reform Act of 1832 Devonport was erected into a parliamentary borough including East Stonehouse and returning two members. The ground on which it stands is for the most part the property of the St Aubyn family (Barons St Levan), whose steward holds a court leet and a court baron annually. The town is governed by a mayor, sixteen aldermen and forty- eight councillors. Area, 3044 acres. DEVONPORT, EAST and WEST, a town of Devon county, Tasmania, situated on both sides of the mouth of the river Mersey, 193 m. by rail N.W. of Hobart. Pop. (1901), East Devonport, 673, West Devonport, 2101. There is regular com- munication from this port to Melbourne and Sydney, and it ranks as the third port in Tasmania. ' A celebrated regatta is held on the Mersey annually on New Year's day. DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The Devonshire title, now in the Cavendish family, had previously been held by Charles Blount (1563-1606), 8th Lord Mountjoy, great-grandson of the 4th Lord Mountjoy (d. 1534), the pupil of Erasmus; he was created earl of Devonshire in 1603 for his services in Ireland, where he became famous in subduing the rebellion between 1600 and 1603; but the title became extinct at his death. In the Cavendish line the ist earl of Devonshire was William (d. 1626), second son of Sir William Cavendish (* M FIG. i >° y. Grass the dew-point are represented by horizontal distances and their variations with height by the curved lines of the diagram. The line marked o is the ground level itself, a rather indefinite quantity when the surface is grass. The whole vertical distance represented is from 4 ft. above ground to i ft. below ground, and the special phenomena which we are consider- ing take place in the layer which represents the rapid transition be- tween the temperature of the ground 3 in. below the surface and that of the air a few inches above ground. The point of interest is to determine where the dew-point curve and dry-bulb curve will cut. If they cut above the surface, mist will result; if they cut at the surface, dew will be formed. Below the surface, it may be assumed that the air is saturated with moisture and any difference in temperature of the dew-point is accompanied by distillation. It may be remarked, by the way, that such distillation between soil layers of different temperatures must be productive of the transference of large quantities of water between different levels in the soil either upward or downward according to the time of year. These diagrams illustrate the importance of the warmth and moisture of the ground in the phenomena which have been con- sidered. From the surface there is a continual loss of heat going on by radiation and a continual supply of warmth and moisture from below. But while the heat can escape, the moisture cannot. Thus the dry-bulb line is deflected to the left as it approaches the surface, the dew-point line to the right. Thus the effect of the moisture of the ground is to cause the lines to approach. In the case of grass, fig. 2, the deviation of the dry-bulb line to the left to form a sharp minimum of temperature at the surface is well shown. The dew-point line is also shown diverted to the left to the same point as the dry-bulb; but that could only happen if there were so copious a condensation from the atmosphere as actually to make the air drier at the surface than up above. In diagram i, for soil, the effect on air temperature and moisture is shown; the two lines converge to cut at the surface where a dew deposit will be formed. Along the underground line there must be a gradual creeping of heat and moisture towards the surface by distillation, the more rapid the greater the temperature gradient. The amount of dew deposited is considerable, and, in tropical countries, is sometimes sufficiently heavy to be collected by gutters and spouts, but it is not generally regarded as a large percentage of the total rainfall. Loesche estimates the amount of dew for a single night on the Loango coast at 3 mm., but the estimate seems a high one. Measurements go to show that the depth of water corresponding with the aggregate annual deposit of dew is i in. to 1-5 in. near London (G. Dines), 1-2 in. at Munich (Wollny), 0-3 in. at Montpellier (Crova), 1-6 in. at Tenbury, Worcestershire (Badgley). With the question of the amount of water collected as dew, that of the maintenance of " dew ponds " is intimately associated. The name is given to certain isolated ponds on the upper levels of the chalk downs of the south of England and elsewhere. Some of these ponds are very ancient, as the title of a work on Neolithic Dewponds by A. J. and G. Hubbard indicates. Their name seems to imply the hypothesis that they depend upon dew and not entirely upon rain for their maintenance as a source of water supply for cattle, for which they are used. The question has been discussed a good deal, but not settled; the balance of evidence seems to be against the view that dew deposits make any important contribution to the supply of water. The construction of dew ponds is, however, still practised on traditional lines, and it is said that a new dew pond has first to be filled artificially. DEWAN— D'EWES 137 It does not come into existence by the gradual accumulation of water in an impervious basin. AUTHORITIES. — For Dew, see the two essays by Dr Charles Wells (London, 1818), also " An Essay on Dew," edited by Casella (London, 1866), Longmans', with additions by Strachan; Melloni, Pogg. Ann. Ixxi. pp. 416, 424 and Ixxiii. p. 467; Jamin, " Comple- ments 4 la theone de la ros6e," Journal de physique, viii. p. 41 ; J. Aitken, on " Dew," Trans. Roy. Soc. of Edinburgh, xxxiii., part i. 2, and " Nature," vol. xxxiii. p. 256; C. Tomlinson, " Remarks on a new Theory of Dew," Phil. Mag. (1886), 5th series, vol. 21, p. 483 and vol. 22, p. 270; Russell, Nature, vol. 47, p. 210; also Met. Zeit. (1893), p. 390; Hpmen, Bodenphysikalische und meteoro- logische Beobachtungen (Berlin, 1894), iii. ; Taubildung, p. 88, &c. ; Rubenson, " Die Temperatur- und Feuchtigkeitsverhaltnisse in den unteren Luftschichten bei der Taubildung," Met. Zeit. xi. (1876), p. 65 ; H. E. Hamberg, " Temperature et humidite de 1'air £ differ- entes hauteurs a Upsal," Soc. R. des sciences d'Upsal (1876) ; review in Met. Zeit. xii. (1877), p. 105. For Dew Ponds, see Stephen Hales, Statical Essays, vol. i., experi- ment xix., pp. 52-57 (2nd ed., London, 1731) ; Gilbert White, Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne, letter xxix. (London, 1789) ; Dr C. Wells, An Essay on Dew (London, 1818, 1821 and 1866) ; Rev. J. C. Clutterbuck, " Prize Essay on Water Supply," Journ. Roy. Agric. Soc., 2nd series, vol. i. pp. 271-287 (1865); Field and Symons, " Evaporation from the Surface of Water," Brit.Assoc. Rep. (1869), sect., pp. 25, 26; J. Lucas, " Hydrogeology : One of the Develop- ments of Modern Practical Geology, Trans. Inst. Surveyors, vol. ix. pp. 153-232 (1877); H. P. Slade, "A Short Practical Treatise on Dew Ponds" (London, 1877); Clement Reid, "The Natural History of Isolated Ponds," Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists' Society, vol. v. pp. 272-286 (1892); Professor G. S. Brady, On the Nature and Origin of Freshwater Faunas (1899) ; Professor L. C. M jail, " Dew Ponds," Reports of the British Association (Bradford Meeting, 1900), pp. 579-585; A. J. and G. Hubbard, " Neolithic Dewponds and Cattle-Ways " (London, 1904, 1907). (W. N. S.) DEWAN or DIWAN, an Oriental term for finance minister. The word is derived from the Arabian diwan, and is commonly used in India to denote a minister of the Mogul government, or in modern days the prime minister of a native state. It was in the former sense that the grant of the dewanny to the East India Company in 1765 became the foundation of the British empire in India. DEWAR, SIR JAMES (1842- ), British chemist and physicist, was born at Kincardine-on-Forth, Scotland, on the zoth of September 1842. He was educated at Dollar Academy and Edinburgh University, being at the latter first a pupil, and afterwards the assistant, of Lord Playfair, then professor of chemistry; he also studied under Kekule at Ghent. In 1875 he was elected Jacksonian professor of natural experimental philosophy at Cambridge, becoming a fellow of Peterhouse, and in 1877 he succeeded Dr J. H. Gladstone as Fullerian professor of chemistry in the Royal Institution, London. He was president of the Chemical Society in 1897, and of the British Association in 1902, served on the Balfour Commission on London Water Supply (1893-1894), and as a member of the Committee on Explosives (1888-1891) invented cordite jointly with Sir Frederick Abel. His scientific work covers a wide field. Of his earlier papers, some deal with questions of organic chemistry, others with Graham's hydrogenium and its physical constants, others with high temperatures, e.g. the temperature of the sun and of the electric spark, others again with electro-photometry and the chemistry of the electric arc. With Professor J. G. M'Kendrick, of Glasgow, he investigated the physiological action of light, and examined the changes which take place in the electrical condition of the retina under its influence. With Professor G. D. Liveing, one of his colleagues at Cambridge, he began in 1878 a long series of spectroscopic observations, the later of which were devoted to the spectroscopic examination of various gaseous constituents separated from atmospheric air by the aid of low temperatures; and he was joined by Professor J. A. Fleming, of University College, London, in the investigation of the electrical behaviour of substances cooled to very low temperatures. His name is most widely known in connexion with his work on the liquefaction of the so-called permanent gases and his researches at temperatures approaching the zero of absolute temperature. His interest in this branch of inquiry dates back at least as far as 1874, when he discussed the " Latent Heat of Liquid Gases " before the British Association. In 1878 he devoted a Friday evening lecture at the Royal Institution to the then recent work of L. P. Cailletet and R. P. Pictet, and exhibited for the first time in Great Britain the working of the Cailletet apparatus. • Six years later, in the same place, he described the researches of Z. F. Wroblewski and K. S. Olszewski, and illustrated for the first time in public the liquefaction of oxygen and air, by means of apparatus specially designed for optical projection so that the actions taking place might be visible to the audience. Soon afterwards he constructed a machine from which the liquefied gas could be drawn off through a valve for use as a cooling agent, and he showed its employment for this purpose in connexion with some researches on meteorites ; about the same time he also obtained oxygen in the solid state. By 1891 he had designed and erected at the Royal Institution an apparatus which yielded liquid oxygen by the pint, and towards the end of that year he showed that both liquid oxygen and liquid ozone are strongly attracted by a magnet. About 1892 the idea occurred to him of using vacuum-jacketed vessels for the storage of liquid gases, and so efficient did this device prove in preventing the influx of external heat that it is found possible not only to preserve the liquids for comparatively long periods, but also to keep them so free from ebullition that examination of their optical properties becomes possible. He next experimented with a high- pressure hydrogen jet by which low temperatures were realized through the Thomson- Joule effect, and the successful results thus obtained led him to build at the Royal Institution the large refrigerating machine by which in 1898 hydrogen was for the first time collected in the liquid state, its solidification following in 1809. Later he investigated the gas-absorbing powers of charcoal when cooled to low temperatures, and applied them to the production of high vacua and to gas analysis (see LIQUID GASES). The Royal Society in 1894 bestowed the Rumford medal upon him for his work in the production of low tempera- tures, and in 1899 he became the first recipient of the Hodgkins gold medal of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, for his contributions to our knowledge of the nature and properties of atmospheric air. In 1904 he was the first British subject to receive the Lavoisier medal of the French Academy of Sciences, and in 1906 he was the first to be awarded the Matteucci medal of the Italian Society of Sciences. He was knighted in 1904, and in 1908 he was awarded the Albert medal of the Society of Arts. DEWAS, two native states of India, in the Malwa Political Charge of Central India, founded in the first half of the i8th century by two brothers, Punwar Mahrattas, who came into Malwa with the peshwa, Baji Rao, in 1728. Their descendants are known as the senior and junior branches of the family, and since 1841 each has ruled his own portion as a separate state, though the lands belonging to each are so intimately entangled, that even in Dewas, the capital town, the two sides of the main street are under different administrations and have different arrangements for water supply and lighting. The senior branch has an area of 446 sq. m. and a population of 62,312, while the area of the junior branch is 440 sq. m. and its population 54,904. DEWBERRY, Rubus caesius, a trailing plant, allied to the bramble, of the natural order Rosaceae. It is common in woods, hedges and the borders of fields in England and other countries of Europe. The leaves have three leaflets, are hairy beneath, and of a dusky green; the flowers which appear in June and July are white, or pale rose-coloured. The fruit is large, and closely embraced by the calyx, and consists of a few drupules, which are black, with a glaucous bloom; it has an agreeable acid taste. DEW-CLAW, the rudimentary toes, two in number, or the "false hoof" of the deer, sometimes also called the "nails." In dogs the dew-claw is the rudimentary toe or hallux (corre- sponding to the big toe in man) hanging loosely attached to the skin, low down on the hinder part of the leg. The origin of the word is unknown, but it has been fancifully suggested that, while the other toes touch the ground in walking, the dew-claw merely brushes the dew from the grass. D'EWES, SIR SIMONDS, Bart. (1602- t6so), English anti- quarian, eldest son of Paul D'Ewes of Milden, Suffolk, and of DE WET— DE WETTE Cecilia, daughter and heir of Richard Simonds, of Coaxdon or Coxden, Dorsetshire, was born on the i8th of December 1602, and educated at the grammar school of Bury St Edmunds, and at St John's College, Cambridge. He had been admitted to the Middle Temple in 1611, and was called to the bar in 1623, when he immediately began his collections of material and his studies in history and antiquities. In 1626 he married Anne, daughter and heir of Sir William Clopton, of Luton's Hall in Suffolk, through whom he obtained a large addition to his already considerable fortune. On the 6th of December he was knighted. He took an active part as a strong Puritan and member of the moderate party in the opposition to the king's arbitrary govern- ment in the Long Parliament of 1640, in which he sat as member for Sudbury. On the isth of July he was created a baronet by the king, but nevertheless adhered to the parliamentary party when war broke out, and in 1643 took the Covenant. He was one of the members expelled by Pride's Purge in 1648, and died on the i8th of April 1650. He had married secondly Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Henry Willoughby, Bart., of Risley in Derbyshire, by whom he had a son, who succeeded to his estates and title, the latter becoming extinct on the failure of male issue in 1731. D'Ewes appears to have projected a work of very ambitious scope, no less than the whole history of England based on original documents. But though excelling as a collector of materials, and as a laborious, conscientious and accurate transcriber, he had little power of generalization or construction, and died without publishing anything except an uninteresting tract, The Primitive Practice for Preserving Truth (1645), and some speeches. His Journals of all the Parliaments during the Reign of Queen Elizabeth, however, a valuable work, was published in 1682. His large collections, including transcripts from ancient records, many of the originals of which are now dispersed or destroyed, are in the Harleian collection in the British Museum. His unprinted Diaries from 1621-1624 and from 1643-1647, the latter valuable for the notes of proceedings in parliament, are often the only authority for incidents and speeches during that period, and are amusing from the glimpses the diarist affords of his own character, his good estimation of himself and his little jealousies; some are in a cipher and some in Latin. Extracts from his Autobiography and Correspondence from the MSS. in the British Museum were published by J. O. Halliwell- Phillips in 1845, by Hearne in the appendix to his Historic, vitae et regni Ricardi II. (1729), and in the Bibliotheca topographica Britan- nica, No. xv. vol. vi. (1783); and from a Diary of later date, College Life in the Time of James I. (1851). His Diaries have been extensively drawn upon by Forster, Gardiner, and by Sanford in his Studies of the Great Rebellion. Some of his speeches have been reprinted in the Harleian Miscellany and in the Somers Tracts. DE WET, CHRISTIAN (1854- ), Boer general and poli- tician, was born on the 7th of October 1854 at Leeuwkop, Smithfield district (Orange Free State), and later resided at Dewetsdorp. He served in the first Anglo-Boer War of 1880-81 as a field cornet, and from 1881 to 1896 he lived on his farm, becoming in 1897 member of the Volksraad. He took part in the earlier battles of the Boer War of 1899 in Natal as a commandant and later, as a general, he went to serve under Cronje in the west. His first successful action was the surprise of Sanna's Post near Bloemfontein, which was followed by the victory of Reddersburg a little later. Thenceforward he came to be regarded more and more as the most formidable leader of the Boers in their guerrilla warfare. Sometimes severely handled by the British, sometimes escaping only by the narrowest margin of safety from the columns which attempted to surround him, and falling upon and annihilat- ing isolated British posts, De Wet continued to the end of the war his successful career, striking heavily where he could do so and skilfully evading every attempt to bring him to bay. He took an active part in the peace negotiations of 1902, and at the conclusion of the war he visited Europe with the other Boer generals. While in England the generals sought, unavailingly, a modification of the terms of peace concluded at Pretoria. De Wet wrote an account of his campaigns, an English version of which appeared in November 1902 under the title Three Years' War. In November, 1907 he was elected a member of the first parliament of the Orange River Colony and was appointed minister of agriculture. In 1908-9 he was a delegate to the Closer Union Convention. DE WETTE, WILHELM MARTIN LEBERECHT (1780-1849), German theologian, was born on the I2th of January 1780, at Ulla, near Weimar, where his father was pastor. He was sent to the gymnasium at Weimar, then at the height of its literary glory. Here he was much influenced by intercourse with Johann Gottfried Herder, who frequently examined at the school. In 1799 he entered on his theological studies at Jena, his principal teachers being J. J. Griesbach and H. E. G. Pauius, from the latter of whom he derived his tendency to free critical inquiry. Both in methods and in results, however, he occupied an almost solitary position among German theologians. Having taken his doctor's degree, he became privat-docent at Jena; in 1807 professor of theology at Heidelberg, where he came under the influence of J. F. Fries (1773-1843); and in 1810 was transferred to a similar chair in the newly founded university of Berlin, where he enjoyed the friendship of Schleiermacher. He was, however, dismissed from Berlin in 1819 on account of his having written a letter of consolation to the mother of Karl Ludwig Sand, the murderer of Kotzebue. A petition in his favour presented by the senate of the university was unsuccessful, and a decree was issued not only depriving him of the chair, but banishing him from the Prussian kingdom. He retired for a time to Weimar, where he occupied his leisure in the preparation of his edition of Luther, and in writing the romance Theodor oder die Weihe des Ziveiflers (Berlin, 1822), in which he describes the education of an evan- gelical pastor. During this period he made his first essay in preaching, and proved himself to be possessed of very popular gifts. But in 1822 he accepted the chair of theology in the university of Basel, which had been reorganized four years before. Though his appointment had been strongly opposed by the orthodox party, De Wette soon won for himself great influence both in the university and among the people generally. He was admitted a citizen, and became rector of the university, which owed to him much of its recovered strength, particularly in the theological faculty. He died on the i6th of June 1849. De Wette has been described by Julius Wellhausen as " the epoch-making opener of the historical criticism of the Penta- teuch." He prepared the way for the Supplement-theory. But he also made valuable contributions to other branches of theology. He had, moreover, considerable poetic faculty, and wrote a drama in three acts, entitled Die Entsagung (Berlin, 1823). He had an intelligent interest in art, and studied ecclesiastical music and architecture. As a Biblical critic he is sometimes classed with the destructive school, but, as Otto Pfleiderer says (Development of Theology, p. 102), he " occupied as free a position as the Rationalists with regard to the literal authority of the creeds of the church, but that he sought to give their due value to the religious feelings, which the Rationalists had not done, and, with a more unfettered mind towards history, to maintain the con- nexion of the present life of the church with the past." His works are marked by exegetical skill, unusual power of condensation and uniform fairness. Accordingly they possess value which is little affected by the progress of criticism. The most important of his works are: — Beitrage zur Einleitung in das Alte Testament (2 vols., 1806-1807); Kommentar uber die Psalmen (1811), which has passed through several editions, and is still regarded as of high authority ; Lehrbuch der hebraisch-jiidischen Archdologie (1814); Uber Religion und Theologie (1815); a work of great importance as showing its author's general theological position ; Lehrbuch der christlichen Dogmatik (1813-1816); Lehrbuch der historisch-kritischen Einleitung in die Bibel (1817); Christliche Sittenlehre (1819-1821); Einleitung in das Neue Testament (1826); Religion, ihr Wesen, ihre Erscheinungsform, und ihr Einfluss auf das Leben (1827); Das Wesen des christlichen Glaubens (1846); and Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Neuen Testament (1836- 1848). De Wette also edited Luther's works (5 vols., 1825-1828). See K. R. Hagenbach in Herzog's Realencyklopiidie; G. C. F. Lucke's W. M. L. De Wette, zur freundschaftlicher Erinnerung (1850) ; and D. SchenkePs W. M. L. De Wette und die Bedeutung seiner Theologie fur unsere Ze.it (1849). Rudolf Stahelin, De Wette nach seiner theol. Wirksamkeit und Bedeutung (1880) ; F. Lichtenberger, History of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century (1889) ; Otto Pfleiderer, Development of Theology (1890), pp. 97 ft.; T. K. Cheyne, Founders of the Old Testament Criticism, pp. 31 ff. DEWEY— DE WINTER 139 DEWEY, DAVIS RICH (1858- ), American economist and statistician, was born at Burlington, Vermont, U.S.A., on the 7th of April 1858. He was educated at the university of Vermont and at Johns Hopkins University, and afterwards became professor of economics and statistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He was chairman of the state board on the question of the unemployed (1895), member of the Massachusetts com- mission on public, charitable and reformatory interests (1897), special expert agent on wages for the 12th census, and member of a state commission (1904) on industrial relations. He wrote an excellent Syllabus on Political History since 1815 (1887), a Financial History of the U.S. ( 1 902) , and National Problems ( 1 907 ) . DEWEY, GEORGE (1837- ), American naval officer, was born at Montpelier, Vermont, on the 26th of December 1837. He studied at Norwich University, then at Norwich, Vermont, and graduated at the United States Naval Academy in 1858. He was commissioned lieutenant in April 1861, and in the Civil War served on the steamsloop " Mississippi " (1861-1863) during Farragut's passage of the forts below New Orleans in April 1862, and at Port Hudson in March 1863; took part in the fighting below Donaldsonville, Louisiana, in July 1863; and in 1864-1865 served on the steam-gunboat " Agawam " with the North Atlantic blockading squadron and took part in the attacks on Fort Fisher in December 1864 and January 1865. In March 1865 he became a lieutenant-commander. He was with the European squadron in 1866-1867; was an instructor in the United States Naval Academy in 1868-1869; was in command of the " Nar- ragansett " in 1870-1871 and 1872-1875, being commissioned commander in 1872; was light-house inspector in 1876-1877; and was secretary of the light-house board in 1877-1882. In 1884 he became a captain; in 1889-1893 was chief of the bureau of equipment and recruiting; in 1893-1895 was a member of the light-house board; and in 1895-1897 was president of the board of inspection and survey, being promoted to the rank of com- modore in February 1896. In November 1897 he was assigned, at his own request, to sea service, and sent to Asiatic waters. In April 1898, while with his fleet at Hong Kong, he was notified by cable that war had begun between the United States and Spain, and was ordered to " capture or destroy the Spanish fleet " then in Philippine waters. On the ist of May he overwhelmingly defeated the Spanish fleet under Admiral Montojo in Manila Bay, a victory won without the loss of a man on the American ships (see SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR). Congress, in a joint resolution, tendered its thanks to Commodore Dewey, and to the officers and men under his command, and authorized " the secretary of the navy to present a sword of honor to Commodore George Dewey, and cause to be struck bronze medals commemorating the battle of Manila Bay, and to distribute such medals to the officers and men of the ships of the Asiatic squadron of the United States." He was promoted rear-admiral on the loth of May 1898. On the 1 8th of August his squadron assisted in the capture of the city of Manila. After remaining in the Philippines under orders from his government to maintain control, Dewey received the rank of admiral (March 3, 1899) — that title, formerly borne only by Farragut and Porter, having been revived by act of Congress (March 2, 1899), — and returned home, arriving in New York City, where, on the 3rd of October 1899, he received a great ovation. He was a member (1899) of the Schurman Philippine Commission, and in 1899 and 1900 was spoken of as a possible Democratic candidate for the presidency. He acted as president of the Schley court of inquiry in 1901, and submitted a minority report on a few details. DEWEY, MELVIL (1851- ), American librarian, was born at Adams Center, New York, on the loth of December 1851. He graduated in 1874 at Amherst College, where he was assistant librarian from 1874 to 1877. In 1877 he removed to Boston, where he founded and became editor of The Library Journal, which became an influential factor in the development of libraries in America, and in the reform of their administration. He was also one of the founders of the American Library Associa- tion, of which he was secretary from 1876 to 1891, and president in 1891 and 1893. In 1883 he became librarian of Columbia College, and in the following year founded there the School of Library Economy, the first institution for the instruction of librarians ever organized. This school, which was very successful, was removed to Albany in 1890, where it was re-established as the State Library School under his direction; from 1888 to 1906 he was director of the New York State Library and from 1888 to 1900 was secretary of the University of the State of New York, completely reorganizing the state library, which he made one of the most efficient in America, and establishing the system of state travelling libraries and picture collections. His " Decimal System of Classification " for library cataloguing, first proposed in 1876, is extensively used. DEWING, THOMAS WILMER (1851- ), American figure painter, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 4th of May 1851. He was a pupil of Jules Lefebvre in Paris from 1876 to 1879; was elected a full member of the National Academy of Design in 1888; was a member of the society of Ten American Painters, New York; and received medals at the Paris Exhibition (1889), at Chicago (1893), at Buffalo (1901) and at St Louis (1904). His decorative genre pictures are notable for delicacy and finish. Among his portraits are those of Mrs Stanford White and of his own wife. Mrs Dewing (b, 1855), nee Maria Oakey, a figure and flower painter, was a pupil of John La Farge in New York, and of Couture in Paris. DE WINT, PETER (1784-1849), English landscape painter, of Dutch extraction, son of an English physician, was born at Stone, Staffordshire, on the 2ist of January 1784. He studied art in London, and in 1809 entered the Academy schools. In 1812 he became a member of the Society of Painters in Water- colours, where he exhibited largely for many years, as well as at the Academy. He married in 1810 the sister of William Hilton, R.A. He died in London on the 30th of January 1849. DeWint's life was devoted to art; he painted admirably in oils, and he ranks as one of the chief English water-colourists. A number of his pictures are in the National Gallery and the Victoria and Albert Museum. DE WINTER, JAN WILLEM (1750-1812), Dutch admiral, was born at Kampen, and in 1761 entered the naval service at the age of twelve years. He distinguished himself by his zeal and courage, and at the revolution of 1787 he had reached the rank of lieutenant. The overthrow of the " patriot " party forced him to fly for his safety to France. Here he threw himself heart and soul into the cause of the Revolution, and took part under Dumouriez and Pichegru in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793, and was soon promoted to the rank of brigadier-general. When Pichegru in 1795 overran Holland, De Winter returned with the French army to his native country. The states-general now uti- lized the experience he had gained as a naval officer by giving him the post of adjunct-general for the reorganization of the Dutch navy. In 1796 he was appointed vice-admiral and commander- in-chief of the fleet. He spared no efforts to strengthen it and improve its condition, and on the nth of October 1797 he ventured upon an encounter off Camperdown with the British fleet under Admiral Duncan. After an obstinate struggle the Dutch were defeated, and De Winter himself was taken prisoner. He remained in England until December, when he was liberated by exchange. His conduct in the battle of Camperdown was declared by a court-martial to have nobly maintained the honour of the Dutch flag. From 1798 to 1802 De Winter filled the post of ambassador to the French republic, and was then once more appointed com- mander of the fleet. He was sent with a strong squadron to the Mediterranean to repress the Tripoli piracies, and negotiated a treaty of peace with the Tripolitan government. He enjoyed the confidence of Louis Bonaparte, when king of Holland, and, after the incorporation of the Netherlands in the French empire, in an equal degree of the emperor Napoleon. By the former he was created marshal and count of Huessen, and given the command of the armed forces both by sea and land. Napoleon gave him the grand cross of the Legion of Honour and appointed him inspector- general of the northern coasts, and in 1811 he placed him at the head of the fleet he had collected at the Texel. Soon afterwards 140 DE WITT— DEWLAP De Winter was seized with illness and compelled to betake himself to Paris, where he died on the 2nd of June 1812. He had a splendid public funeral and was buried in the Pantheon. His heart was enclosed in an urn and placed in the Nicolaas Kerk at Kampen. DE WITT, CORNELIUS (1623-1672), brother of John de Witt (q.v.), was born at Dort in 1623. In 1650 he became burgo- master of Dort and member of the states of Holland and West Friesland. He was afterwards appointed to the important post of ruwaard or governor of the land of Putten and bailiff of Beierland. He associated himself closely with his greater brother, the grand pensionary, and supported him throughout his career with great ability and vigour. In 1667 he was the deputy chosen by the states of Holland to accompany Admiral de Ruyter in his famous expedition to Chatham. Cornelius de Witt on this occasion distinguished himself greatly by his coolness and intrepidity. He again accompanied De Ruyter in 1672 and took an honourable part in the great naval fight at Sole Bay against the united English and French fleets. Compelled by illness to leave the fleet, he found on his return to Dort that the Orange party were in the ascendant, and he and his brother were the objects of popular suspicion and hatred. An account of his imprisonment, trial and death, is given below. DE WITT, JOHN (1625-1672), Dutch statesman, was born at Dort, on the 24th of September 1625. He was a member of one of the old burgher-regent families of his native town. His father, Jacob de Witt, was six times burgomaster of Dort, and for many years sat as a representative of the town in the states of Holland. He was a strenuous adherent of the repubh'can or oligarchical states-right party in opposition to the princes of the house of Orange, who represented the federal principle and had the support of the masses of the people. John was educated at Leiden, and early displayed remarkable talents, more especially in mathe- matics and jurisprudence. In 1645 he and his elder brother Cornelius visited France, Italy, Switzerland and England, and on his return he took up his residence at the Hague, as an advocate. In 1650 he was appointed pensionary of Dort, an office which made him the leader and spokesman of the town's deputation in the state of Holland. In this same year the states of Holland found themselves engaged in a struggle for provincial supremacy, on the question of the disbanding of troops, with the youthful prince of Orange, William II. William, with the support of the states-general and the army, seized five of the leaders of the states-right party and imprisoned them in Loevestein castle; among these was Jacob de Witt. The sudden death of William, at the moment when he had crushed opposition, led to a reaction. He left only a posthumous child, afterwards William III. of Orange, and the principles advocated by Jacob de Witt triumphed, and the authority of the states of Holland became predominant in the repubh'c. At this time of constitutional crisis such were the eloquence, sagacity and business talents exhibited by the youthful pensionary of Dort that on the 23rd of July 1653 he was appointed to the office of grand pensionary (Raadpensionaris) of Holland at the age of twenty-eight. He was re-elected in 1658, 1663 and 1668, and held office until his death in 1672. During this period of nineteen years the general conduct of public affairs and administration, and especially of foreign affairs, such was the confidence inspired by his talents and industry, was largely placed in his hands. He found in 1653 his country brought to the brink of ruin through the war with England, which had been caused by the keen commercial rivalry of the two maritime states. The Dutch were unprepared, and suffered severely through the loss of their carrying trade, and De Witt resolved to bring about peace as soon as possible. The first demands of Cromwell were impossible, for they aimed at the absorption of the two republics into a single state, but at last in the autumn of 1654 peace was concluded, by which the Dutch made large concessions and agreed to the striking of the flag to English ships in the narrow seas. The treaty included a secret article, which the states-general refused to entertain, but which De Witt succeeded in inducing the states of Holland to accept, by which the provinces of Holland pledged themselves not to elect a stadtholder or a captain-general of the union. This Act of Seclusion, as it was called, was aimed at the young prince of Orange, whose close relationship to the Stuarts made him an object of suspicion to the Protector. De Witt was personally favourable to this exclusion of William III. from his ancestral dignities, but there is no truth in the suggestion that he prompted the action of Cromwell in this matter. The policy of De Witt after the peace of 1654 was eminently successful. He restored the finances of the state, and extended its commercial supremacy in the East Indies. In 1658-59 he sustained Denmark against Sweden, and in 1662 concluded an advantageous peace with Portugal. The accession of Charles II. to the English throne led to the rescinding of the Act of Seclusion; nevertheless De Witt steadily refused to allow the prince of Orange to be appointed stadtholder or captain-general. This led to ill-will between the English and Dutch governments, and to a renewal of the old grievances about maritime and commercial rights, and war broke out in 1665. The zeal, industry and courage displayed by the grand pensionary during the course of this fiercely contested naval struggle could scarcely have been surpassed. He himself on more than one occasion went to sea with the fleet, and inspired all with whom he came in contact by the example he set of calmness in danger, energy in action and inflexible strength of will. It was due to his exertions as an organizer and a diplomatist quite as much as to the brilliant seamanship of Admiral de Ruyter, that the terms of the treaty of peace signed at Breda (July 31, 1667), on the principle of uti possidetis, were so honourable to the United Provinces. A still greater triumph of diplomatic skill was the conclusion of the Triple Alliance (January 17, 1668) between the Dutch Republic, England and Sweden, which checked the attempt of Louis XIV. to take possession of the Spanish Netherlands in the name of his wife, the infanta Maria Theresa. The check, however, was but temporary, and the French king only bided his time to take vengeance for the rebuff he had suffered. Meanwhile William III. was growing to manhood, and his numerous adherents throughout the country spared no efforts to undermine the authority of De Witt, and secure for the young prince of Orange the dignities and authority of his ancestors. In 1672 Louis XIV. suddenly declared war, and invaded the United Provinces at the head of a splendid army. Practically no resistance was possible. The unanimous voice of the people called William III. to the head of affairs, and there were violent demonstrations against John de Witt. His brother Cornelius was (July 24) arrested on a charge of conspiring against the prince. On the 4th of August John de Witt resigned the post of grand pensionary that he had held so long and with such distinction. Cornelius was put to the torture, and on the igth of August he was sentenced to deprivation of his offices and banish- ment. He was confined in the Gevangenpoort, and his brother came to visit him in the prison. A vast crowd on hearing this collected outside, and finally burst into the prison, seized the two brothers and literally tore them to pieces. Their mangled remains were hung up by the feet to a lamp-post. Thus perished, by the savage act of an infuriated mob, one of the greatest statesmen of his age. John de Witt married Wendela Bicker, daughter of an influ- ential burgomaster of Amsterdam, in 1655, by whom he had two sons and three daughters. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — J. Geddes, History of the Administration of John de Witt, (vol. i. only, London, 1879); A. Lefevre-Pontalis, Jean de Witt, grand pensionnaire de Hollande (2 vols. , Paris, 1 884) ; P. Simons, Johan de Witt en zijn tijd (3 vols., Amsterdam, 1832-1842); W. C. Knottenbelt, Geschiedenis der Staatkunde van J. de Witt (Amsterdam, 1862); J. de Witt, Brieven . . . gewisselt tusschen den Heer Johan de Witt . . . ende de gevolgmaghtigden v. d. staedt d. Vereen. Neder- landen so in Vranckryck, Engelandt, Sweden, Denemarken, Poolen, enz. 1652-69 (6 vols., The Hague, 1723-1725); Brieven . . . 1650- 1657 (1658) eerste deel bewerkt den R. Fruin uitgegeven d., C. W. Kernkamp (Amsterdam, 1906). DEWLAP (from the O.E. Iceppa, a lappet, or hanging fold; the first syllable is of doubtful origin and the popular explana- tion that the word means " the fold which brushes the dew " is not borne out, according to the New English Dictionary, by the DEWSBURY— DHAMMAPALA 141 equivalent words such as the Danish doglaeb, in Scandinavian languages), the loose fold of skin hanging from the neck of cattle, also applied to similar folds in the necks of other animals and fowls, as the dog, turkey, &c. The American practice of branding cattle by making a cut in the neck is known as a " dewlap brand." The skin of the neck in human beings often becomes pendulous with age, and is sometimes referred to humorously by the same name. DEWSBURY, a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on the river Calder, 8 m. S.S.W. of Leeds, on the Great Northern, London & North-Western, and Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1901) 28,060. The parish church of All Saints was for the most part rebuilt in the latter half of the i8th century; the portions still preserved of the original structure are mainly Early English. The chief industries are the making of blankets, carpets, druggets and worsted yarn ; and there are iron foundries and machinery works. Coal is worked in the neighbourhood. The parliamentary borough includes the adjacent municipal borough of Batley, and returns one member. The municipal borough, incorporated in 1862, is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 1471 acres. Paulinus, first archbishop of York, about the year 627 preached in the district of Dewsbury, where Edwin, king of Northumbria, whom he converted to Christianity, had a royal mansion. At Kirklees, in the parish, are remains of a Cistercian convent of the i2th century, in an extensive park, where tradition relates that Robin Hood died and was buried. DEXIPPUS, PUBLIUS HERENNIUS (c. A.D. 210-273), Greek historian, statesman and general, was an hereditary priest of the Eleusinian family of the Kerykes, and held the offices of archon basileus and eponymus in Athens. When the Heruli overran Greece and captured Athens (269), Dexippus showed great personal courage and revived the spirit of patriotism among his degenerate fellow-countrymen. A statue was set up in his honour, the base of which, with an inscription recording his services, has been preserved (Corpus Inscrr. Alticarum, iii. No. 716). It is remarkable that the inscription is silent as to his military achievements. Photius (cod. 82) mentions three historical works by Dexippus, of which considerable fragments remain: (i) Ta per' 'AMt-avSpov, an epitome of a similarly named work by Arrian; (2) SKuSucd, a history of the wars of Rome with the Goths (or Scythians) in the 3rd century; (3) Xpwuo) iaropia, a chronological history from the earliest times to the emperor Claudius Gothicus (270), frequently referred to by the writers of the Augustan history. The work was continued by Eunapius of Sardis down to 404. Photius speaks very highly of the style of Dexippus, whom he places on a level with Thucydides, an opinion by no means confirmed by the fragments (C. W. Muller, F.H.G. iii. 666-687). DEXTER, HENRY MARTYN (1821-1890), American clergy- man and author, was born in Plympton, Massachusetts, on the I3th of August 1821. He graduated at Yale in 1840 and at the Andover Theological Seminary in 1844; was pastor of a Congregational church in Manchester, New Hampshire, in 1844-1849, and of the Berkeley Street Congregational church, Boston, in 1849-1867; was an editor of the Congregalionalist in 1851-1866, of the Congregational Quarterly in 1859-1866, and of the Congregationalist, with which the Recorder was merged, from 1867 until his death in New Bedford, Mass., on the i3th of November 1890. He was an authority on the history of Congregationalism and was lecturer on that subject at the Andover Theological Seminary in 1877-1879 ; he left his fine library on the Puritans in America to Yale University. Among his works are: Congregationalism, What it is, Whence it is, How it works, Why it is better than any other Form of Church Government, and its consequent Demands (1865), The Church Polity of the Puritans the Polity of the New Testament (1870), As to Roger Williams and His " Banishment" from the Massa- chusetts Colony (1876), Congregationalism of the Last Three Hundred Years, as seen in its Literature (1880), his most important work, A Handbook of Congregationalism (1880), The True Story of John Smyth, the "Se-Baptisl " (1881), Common Sense as to Woman Suffrage (1885), and many reprints of pamphlets bearing on early church history in New England, especially Baptist controversies. His The England and Holland of the Pilgrims was completed by his son, Morton Dexter (b. 1846), and published in 1905. DEXTER, TIMOTHY (1747-1806), American merchant, re- markable for his eccen tricities, was born at Maiden , Massachu setts , on the 22nd of February 1747. He acquired considerable wealth by buying up quantities of the depreciated continental currency, which was ultimately redeemed by the Federal government at par. He assumed the title of Lord Dexter and built extraordinary houses at Newburyport, Mass., and Chester, New Hampshire. He maintained a poet laureate and collected inferior pictures, besides erecting in one of his gardens some forty colossal statues carved in wood to represent famous men. A statue of him- self was included in the collection, and had for an inscription " I am the first in the East, the first in the West, and the greatest philosopher in the Western World." He wrote a book entitled Pickle for the Knowing Ones. It was wholly without punctuation marks, and as this aroused comment, he published a second edition, at the end of which was a page displaying nothing but commas and stops, from which the readers were invited to " peper and solt it as they plese." He beat his wife for not weeping enough at the rehearsal of his funeral, which he himself carried out in a very elaborate manner. He died at Newburyport on the 26th of October 1806. DEXTRINE (BRITISH GUM, STARCH GUM, LEIOCOME), (C«HtoO|)*, a substance produced from starch by the action of dilute acids, or by roasting it at a temperature between 170° and 240° C. It is manufactured by spraying starch with 2 % nitric acid, drying in air, and then heating to about 110°. Different modifications are known, e.g. amylodextrine, erythrodextrine and achroodextrine. Its name has reference to its powerful dextro- rotatory action on polarized light. Pure dextrine is an insipid, odourless, white substance; commercial dextrine is sometimes yellowish, and contains burnt or unchanged starch. It dissolves in water and dilute alcohol; by strong alcohol it is precipitated from its solutions as the hydrated compound, C6H10O5-H2O. Diastase converts it eventually into maltose, CuHstOu; and by boiling with dilute acids (sulphuric, hydrochloric, acetic) it is transformed into dextrose, or ordinary glucose, CeH^Oe. It does not ferment in contact with yeast, and does not reduce Fehling's solution. If heated with strong nitric acid it gives oxalic, and not mucic acid. Dextrine much resembles gum arabic, for which it is generally substituted. It is employed for sizing paper, for stiffening cotton goods, and for thickening colours in calico printing, also in the making of lozenges, adhesive stamps and labels, and surgical bandages. See Otto Lueger, Lexikon der gesamten Technik. DEY (an adaptation of the Turk, ddi, a maternal uncle), an honorary title formerly bestowed by the Turks on elderly men, and appropriated by the janissaries as the designation of their commanding officers. In Algeria the deys of the janissaries became in the I7th century rulers of that country (see ALGERIA: History). From the middle of the i6th century to the end of the 1 7th century the ruler of Tunisia was also called dey, a title frequently used during the same period by the sovereigns of Tripoli. DHAMMAPALA, the name of one of the early disciples of the Buddha, and therefore constantly chosen as their name in religion by Buddhist novices on their entering the brotherhood. The most famous of the Bhikshus so named was the great commentator who lived in the latter half of the sth century A.D. at the Badara Tittha Vihara, near the east coast of India, just a little south of where Madras now stands. It is to him we owe the commentaries on seven of the shorter canonical books, consisting almost entirely of verses, and also the commentary on the Netti, perhaps the oldest Pali work outside the canon. Extracts from the latter work, and the whole of three out of the seven others, have been published by the Pali Text Society. These works show great learning, exegetical skill and sound judgment. But as Dhammapala confines himself rigidly either to questions of 142 DHANIS— DHARAMPUR the meaning of words, or to discussions of the ethical import of his texts, very little can be gathered from his writings of value for the social history of his time. For the right interpretation of the difficult texts on which he comments, they are indispensable. Though in all probability a Tamil by birth, he declares, in the opening lines of those of his works that have been edited, that he followed the tradition of the Great Minster at Anuradhapura in Ceylon, and the works themselves confirm this in every respect. Hsiian Tsang, the famous Chinese pilgrim, tells a quaint story of a Dhammapala of Kanchipura (the modern Konjevaram). He was a son of a high official, and betrothed to a daughter of the king, but escaped on the eve of the wedding feast, entered the order, and attained to reverence and distinction. It is most likely that this story, whether legendary or not (and Hsiian Tsang heard the story at Kanchipura nearly two centuries after the date of Dhammapala), referred to this author. But it may also refer, as Hsiian Tsang refers it, to another author of the same name. Other unpublished works, besides those mentioned above, have been ascribed to Dhammapala, but it is very doubtful whether they are really by him. AUTHORITIES. — T.Watters, On Yuan Chwang (ed. Rhys Davidsand Bushell, London, 1905), ii. 169, 228; Edmund Hardy in Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenldndischen Gesellschaft (1898), pp. 97 foil.; Netti (ed. E. Hardy, London, Pali Text Society, 1902), especially the Introduction, passim', Then Gathd Commentary, Peta Vctthu Commentary, and Vimdna Vatthu Commentary, all three published by the Pali Text Society. (T. W. R. D.) DHANIS, FRANCIS, BARON (1861-1909), Belgian adminis- trator, was born in London in 1861 and passed the first fourteen years of his life at Greenock, where he received his early educa- tion. He was the son of a Belgian merchant and of an Irish lady named Maher. The name Dhanis is supposed to be a varia- tion of D'Anvers. Having completed his education at the Ecole Militaire he entered the Belgian army, joining the regiment of grenadiers, in which he rose to the rank of major. As soon as he reached the rank of lieutenant he volunteered for service on the Congo, and in 1887 he went out for a first term. He did so well in founding new stations north of the Congo that, when the government decided to put an end to the Arab domination on the Upper Congo, he was selected to command the chief expedition sent against the slave dealers. The campaign began in April 1892, and it was not brought to a successful conclusion till January 1894. The story of this war has been told in detail by Dr Sydney Hinde, who took part in it, in his book The Fall of the Congo Arabs. The principal achievements of the campaign were the captures in succession of the three Arab strongholds at Nyangwe, Kassongo and Kabambari. For his services Dhanis was raised to the rank of baron, and in 1895 was made vice- governor of the Congo State. In 1896 he took command of an expedition to the Upper Nile. His troops, largely composed of the Batetela tribes who had only been recently enlisted, and who had been irritated by the execution of some of their chiefs for indulging their cannibal proclivities, mutinied and murdered many of their white officers. Dhanis found himself confronted with a more formidable adversary than even the Arabs in these well-armed and half-disciplined mercenaries. During two years (1897-1898) he was constantly engaged in a life-and- death struggle with them. Eventually he succeeded in breaking up the several bands formed out of his mutinous soldiers. Although the incidents of the Batetela operations were less striking than those of the Arab war, many students of both think that the Belgian leader displayed the greater ability and fortitude in bringing them to a successful issue. In 1899 Baron Dhanis returned to Belgium with the honorary rank of vice governor-general. He died on the i4th of November 1909. DHAR, a native state of India, in the Bhopawar agency, Central India. It includes many Rajput and Bhil feudatories, and has an area of 1775 sq. m. The raja is a Punwar Mahratta. The founder of the present ruling family was Anand Rao Punwar, a descendant of the great Paramara clan of Rajputs who from the gth to the i3th century, when they were driven out by the Mahommedans, had ruled over Malwa from their capital at Dhar. In 1742 Anand Rao received Dhar as a fief from Baji Rao, the peshwa, the victory of the Mahrattas thus restoring the sovereign power to the family whkh seven centuries before had been expelled from this very city and country. Towards the close of the 1 8th and in the early part of the igth century, the state was subject to a series of spoliations by Sindia and Hoikar, and was only preserved from destruction by the talents and courage of the adoptive mother of the fifth raja. By a treaty of 1819 Dhar passed under British protection, and bound itself to act in sub- ordinate co-operation. The state was confiscated for rebellion in 1857, but in 1860 was restored to Raja Anand Rao Punwar, then a minor, with the exception of the detached district of Bairusia, which was granted to the begum of Bhopal. Anand Rao, who received the personal title Maharaja and the K.C.S.I. in 1877, died in 1898, and was succeeded by Udaji Rao Punwar. In 1901 the population was 142,115. The state includes the ruins of Mandu, or Mandogarh, the Mahommedan capital of Malwa. The TOWN OF DHAR is 33 m. W. of Mhow, 908 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1901) 17,792. It is picturesquely situated among lakes and trees surrounded by barren hills, and possesses, besides its old walls, many interesting buildings, Hindu and Mahommedan, some of them containing records of a great historical importance. The Lat Masjid, or Pillar Mosque, was built by Dilawar Khan in 1405 out of the remains of Jain temples. It derives its name from an iron pillar, supposed to have been originally set up at the beginning of the i3th century in commemoration of a victory, and bearing a later inscription recording the seven days' visit to the town of the emperor Akbar in 1598. The pillar, which was 43 ft. high, is now overthrown and broken. The Kamal Maula is an enclosure containing four tombs, the most notable being that of Shaikh Kamal Maulvi (Kamal-ud-din), a follower of the famous 13th-century Mussulman saint Nizam-ud-din Auliya.1 The mosque known as Raja Bhoj's school was built out of Hindu remains in the I4th or i$th century: its name is derived from the slabs, covered with inscriptions giving rules of Sanskrit grammar, with which it is paved. On a small hill to the north of the town stands the fort, a conspicuous pile of red sandstone, said to have been built by Mahommed ben Tughlak of Delhi in the 1 4th century. It contains the palace of the raja. Of modern institutions may be mentioned the high school, public library, hospital, and the chapel, school and hospital of the Canadian Presbyterian mission. There is also a government opium depot for the payment of duty, the town being a considerable centre for the trade in opium as well as in grain. The town, the name of which is usually derived from Dhara Nagari (the city of sword blades), is of great antiquity, and was made the capital of the Paramara chiefs of Malwa by Vairisinha II., who trans- ferred his headquarters hither from Ujjain at the close of the 9th century. During the rule of the Paramara dynasty Dhar was famous throughout India as a centre of culture and learning; but, after suffering various vicissitudes, it was finally conquered by the Mussulmans at the beginning of the lAthcentury. At the close of the century Dilawar Khan, the builder of the Lat Masjid, who had been appointed governor in 1399, practically established his independence, his son Hoshang Shah being the first Mahommedan king of Malwa. Under this dynasty Dhar was second in importance to the capital Mandu. Subsequently, in the time of Akbar, Dhar fell under the dominion of the Moguls, in whose hands it remained till 1730, when it was conquered by the Mahrattas. See Imperial Gazetteer of India (Oxford, 1908). DHARAMPUR, a native state of India, in the Surat political agency division of Bombay, with an area of 704 sq. m. The population in 1901 was 100,430, being a decrease of 17% during the decade ; the estimated gross revenue is £25,412 ; and the tribute £600. Its chief is a Sesodia Rajput. The state has been surveyed for land revenue on the Bombay system. It contains one town, Dharampur (pop. in 1901, 63,449), and 272 villages. Only a small part of the state, the climate of which is very unhealthy, Is capable of cultivation ; the rest is covered with rocky hills, forest and brushwood. 1 Nizam-ud-din, whose beautiful marble tomb is at Indarpat near Delhi, was, according to some authorities, an assassin of the secret society of Khorasan. By some modern authorities he is supposed to have been the founder of Thuggism, the Thugs having a special reverence for his memory. DHARMSALA— DHOW DHARMSALA, a hill-station and sanatorium of the Punjab, India, situated on a spur of the Dhaola Dhar, 16 m. N.E. of Kangra town, at an elevation of some 6000 ft. Pop. (1901) 6971. The scenery of Dharmsala is of peculiar grandeur. The spur on which it stands is thickly wooded with oak and other trees; behind it the pine-clad slopes of the mountain tower towards the jagged peaks of the higher range, snow-clad for half the year; while below stretches the luxuriant cultivation of the Kangra valley. In 1855 Dharmsala was made the headquarters of the Kangra district of the Punjab in place of Kangra, and became the centre of a European settlement and cantonment, largely occupied by Gurkha regiments. The station was destroyed by the earth- quake of April 1905, in which 1625 persons, including 25 Europeans and 112 of the Gurkha garrison, perished (Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1908). DHARWAR, a town and district of British India, in the southern division of Bombay. The town has a station on the Southern Mahratta railway. The population in 1901 was 31,279. It has several ginning factories and a cotton-mill; two high schools, one maintained by the Government and the other by the Basel German Mission. The DISTRICT or DHARWAR has an area of 4602 sq. m. In the north and north-east are great plains of black .soil, favourable to cotton-growing; in the south and west are successive ranges of low hills, with flat fertile valleys between them. The whole district lies high and has no large rivers. In 1901 the population was 1,113,298, showing an increase of 6% in the decade. The most influential classes of the community are Brahmans and Lingayats. The Lingayats number 436,968, or 46% of the Hindu population; they worship the symbol of Siva, and males and females both carry this emblem about their person, in a silver case. The principal crops are millets, pulse and cotton. The centres of the cotton trade are Hubli and Gadag, junctions on the Southern Mahratta railway, which traverses the district in several directions. The early history of the territory comprised within the district of Dharwar has been to a certain extent reconstructed from the inscription slabs and memorial stones which abound there. From these it is clear that the country fell in turn under the sway of the various dynasties that ruled in the Deccan, memorials of the Chalukyan dynasty, whether temples or inscriptions, being especially abundant. In the I4th century the district was first overrun by the Mahommedans, after which it was annexed to the newly established Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, an official of which named Dhar Rao, according to local tradition, built the fort at Dharwar town in 1403. After the defeat of the king of Vijayanagar at Talikot (1565), Dharwar was for a few years practically independent under its Hindu governor; but in 1573 the fort was captured by the sultan of Bijapur, and Dharwar was annexed to his dominions. In 1685 the fort was taken by the emperor Aurangzeb, and Dharwar, on the break-up of the Mogul empire, fell under the sway of the peshwa of Poona. In 1764 the province was overrun by Hyder Ali of Mysore, who in 1778 captured the fort of Dharwar. This was retaken in 1791 by the Mahrattas. On the final overthrow of the peshwa in 1817, Dharwar was incorporated with the territory of the East India Company. DHOLPUR, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, with an area of 1155 sq. m. It is a crop-producing country, without any special manufactures. All along the bank of the river Chambal the country is deeply intersected by ravines; low ranges of hills in the western portion of the state supply inexhaustible quarries of fine-grained and easily-worked red sandstone. In 1901 the population of Dholpur was 270,973, showing a decrease of 3 % in the decade. The estimated revenue is £83,000. The state is crossed by the Indian Midland railway from Jhansi to Agra. In recent years it has suffered severely from drought. In 1896-1897 the expenditure on famine relief amounted to £8190. The town of Dholpur is 34 m. S. of Agra by rail. Pop. (1901) 19,310. The present town, which dates from the i6th century, stands somewhat to the north of the site of the older Hindu town built, it is supposed, in the nth century by the Tonwar Rajput Raja Dholan (or Dhawal) Deo, and named after him Dholdera OT Dhawalpuri. Among the objects of interest in the town may be mentioned the fortified sarai built in the reign of Akbar, within which is the fine tomb of Sadik Mahommed Khan (d. 1595), one of his generals. The town, from its position on the railway, is growing in importance as a centre of trade. Little is known of the early history of the country forming the state of Dholpur. Local tradition affirms that it was ruled by the Tonwar Rajputs, who had their seat at Delhi from the 8th to the 1 2th century. In 1450 it had a raja of its own; but in 1 501 the fort of Dholpur was taken by the Mahommedans under Sikandar Lodi and in 1504 was transferred to a Mussulman governor. In 1527, after a strenuous resistance, the fort was captured by Baber and with the surrounding country passed under the sway of the Moguls, being included by Akbar in the province of Agra. During the dissensions which followed the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, Raja Kalyan Singh Bhadauria obtained possession of Dholpur, and his family retained it till 1761, after which it was taken successively by the Jat raja, Suraj Mai of Bharatpur, by Mirza Najaf Khan in 1775, by Sindhia in 1782, and in 1803 by the British. It was restored to Sindhia by the treaty of Sarji Anjangaon, but in consequence of new arrangements was again occupied by the British. Finally, in 1806, the territories of Dholpur, Bari and Rajakhera were handed over to the maharaj rana Kirat Singh, ancestor of the present chiefs of Dholpur, in exchange for his state of Gohad, which was ceded to Sindhia. The maharaj rana of Dholpur belongs to the clan of Bamraolia Jats, who are believed to have formed a portion of the Indo- Scythian wave of invasion which swept over northern India about A.D. 100. An ancestor of the family appears to have held certain territories at Bamraoli near Agra c. 1195. His descendant in 1505, Singhan Deo, having distinguished himself in an expedi- tion against the freebooters of the Deccan, was rewarded by the sovereignty of the small territory of Gohad, with the title of rana. In 1779 the rana of Gohad joined the British forces against Sindhia, under a treaty which stipulated that, at the conclusion of peace between the English and Mahrattas, all the territories then in his possession should be guaranteed to him, and protected from invasion by Sindhia. This protection was subsequently withdrawn, the rana having been guilty of treachery, and in 1783 Sindhia succeeded in recapturing the fortress of Gwalior, and crushed his Jat opponent by seizing the whole of Gohad. In 1804, however, the family were restored to Gohad by the British government; but, owing to the opposition of Sindhia, the rana agreed in 1805 to exchange Gohad for his present territory of Dholpur, which was taken under British protection, the chief binding himself to act in subordinate co-operation with the para- mount power, and to refer all disputes with neighbouring princes to the British government. Kirat Singh, the first maharaj rana of Dholpur, was succeeded in 1836 by his son Bhagwant Singh, who showed great loyalty during the Mutiny of 1857, was created a K.C.S.I., and G.C.S.I. in 1869. He was succeeded in 1873 by his grandson Nihal Singh, who received the C.B. and frontier medal for services in the Tirah campaign. He died in 1901, and was succeeded by his eldest son Ram Singh (b. 1883). See Imperial Gazetteer of India (Oxford, 1908) and authorities there given. DHOW, the name given to a type of vessel used throughout the Arabian Sea. The language to which the word belongs is unknown. According to the New English Dictionary the place of origin may be the Persian Gulf, assuming that the word is identical with the lava mentioned by Athanasius Nikitin (India in the i^th Century, Hakluyt Society, 1858). Though the word is used generally of any craft along the East African coast, it is usually applied to the vessel of about 1 50 to 200 tons burden with a stem rising with a long slope from the water; dhows generally have one mast with a lateen sail, the yard being of enormous length. Much of the coasting trade of the Red Sea and Persian Gulf is carried on by these vessels. They were the regular vessels employed in the slave trade from the east coast of Africa. 144 DHRANGADRA— DIABASE OHRANGADRA, a native state of India, in the Gujarat division of Bombay, situated in the north of the peninsula of Kathiawar. Its area is 1156 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 70,880. The estimated gross revenue is £38,000 and the tribute £3000. A state railway on the metre gauge from Wadhwan to the town of Dhrangadra, a distance of 21 m., was opened for traffic in 1898. Some cotton is grown, although the soil is as a whole poor; the manufactures include salt, metal vessels and stone hand- mills. The chief town, Dhrangadra, has a population (1901) of 14,77°- The chief of Dhrangadra, who bears the title of Raj Sahib, with the predicate of His Highness, is head of the ancient clan of Jhala Rajputs, who are said to have entered Kathiawar from Sind in the 8th century. Raj Sahib Sir Mansinghji Ranmalsinghji (b. 1837), who succeeded his father in 1869, was distinguished for the enlightened character of his administration, especially in the matter of establishing schools and internal communications. He was created a K.C.S.I. in 1877. He died in 1900, and was succeeded by his grandson Ajitsinghji Jaswatsinghji (b. 1872). DHULEEP SINGH (1837-1893), maharaja of Lahore, was born in February 1837, and was proclaimed maharaja on the i8th of September 1843, under the regency of his mother the rani Jindan, a woman of great capacity and strong will, but extremely inimical to the British. He was acknowledged by Ranjit Singh and recognized by the British government. After six years of peace the Sikhs invaded British territory in 1845, but were defeated in four battles, and terms were imposed upon them at Lahore, the capital of the Punjab. Dhuleep Singh retained his territory, but it was administered to a great extent by the British government in his name. This arrangement increased the regent's dislike of the British, and a fresh outbreak occurred in 1848-49. In spite of the valour of the Sikhs, they were utterly routed at Gujarat, and in March 1849 Dhuleep Singh was deposed, a pension of £40,000 a year being granted to him and his dependants. He became a Christian and elected to live in England. On coming of age he made an arrangement with the British government by which his income was reduced to £25,000 in consideration of advances for the purchase of an estate, and he finally settled at Elvedon in Suffolk. While passing through Alexandria in 1864 he met Miss Bamba Miiller, the daughter of a German merchant who had married an Abyssinian. The maharaja had been interested in mission work by Sir John Login, and he met Miss Miiller at one of the missionary schools where she was teaching. She became his wife on the 7th of June 1864, and six children were the issue of the marriage. In the year after her death in 1890 the maharaja married at Paris, as his second wife, an English lady,' Miss Ada Douglas Wetherill, who survived him. The maharaja was passionately fond of sport, and his shooting parties were celebrated, while he himself became a persona grata in English society. The result, however, was financial difficulty, and in 1882 he appealed to the government for assistance, making, various claims based upon the alleged possession of private estates in the Punjab, and upon the surrender of the Koh-i-nor diamond to the British Crown. His demand was rejected, where- upon he started for India, after drawing up a proclamation to his former subjects. But as it was deemed inadvisable to allow him to visit the Punjab, he remained for some time as a guest at the residency at Aden, and was allowed to receive some of his relatives to witness his abjuration of Christianity, which actually took place within the residency itself. As the climate began to affect his health, the maharaja at length left Aden and returned to Europe. He stayed for some time in Russia, hoping that his claim against England would be taken up by the Russians; but when that expectation proved futile he proceeded to Paris, where he lived for the rest of his life on the pension allowed him by the Indian government. His death from an attack of apoplexy took place at Paris on the 22nd of October 1893. The maharaja's eldest son, Prince Victor Albert Jay Dhuleep Singh (b. 1866), was educated at Trinity and Downing Colleges, Cambridge. In 1888 he obtained a commission in the ist Royal Dragoon Guards. In 1898 he married Lady Anne Coventry, youngest daughter of the earl of Coventry. (G. F. B.) DHULIA, a town of British India, administrative headquarters of West Khandesh district in Bombay, on the right bank of the Panjhra river. Pop. (1901) 24,726. Considerable trade is done in cotton and oil-seeds, and weaving of cotton. A railway connects Dhulia with Chalisgaon, on the main line of the Great Indian Peninsula railway. DIABASE, in petrology, a rock which is a weathered form of dolerite. It was long widely accepted that the pre-Tertiary rocks of this group differed from their Tertiary and Recent representa- tives in certain essential respects, but this is now admitted to be untenable, and the differences are known to be merely the result of the longer exposure to decomposition, pressure and shearing, which the older rocks have experienced. Their olivine tends to become serpentinized; their augite changes to chlorite and uralite; their felspars are clouded by formation of zeolites, calcite, sericite and epidote. The rocks acquire a green colour (from the development of chlorite, uralite and epidote); hence the older name of " greenstones," which is now little used. Many of them become somewhat schistose from pressure (" greenstone-schists," meta-diabase, &c.). Although the original definition of the group can no longer be justified, thename is so well established in current usage that it can hardly be discarded. The terms diabase and dolerite are employed really to designate distinct facies of the same set of rocks. The minerals of diabase are the same as those of dolerite, viz. olivine, augite, and plagioclase felspar, with subordinate quantities of hornblende, biotite, iron oxides and apatite. There are olivine-diabases and diabases without olivine; quartz- diabases, analcite-diabases (or teschenites) and hornblende diabases (or proterobases). Hypersthene (or bronzite) is characteristic of another group. Many of them are ophitic, especially those which contain olivine, but others are intersertal, like the intersertal dolerites. The last include most quartz-diabases, hypersthene- diabases and the rocks which have been described as tholeites. Porphyritic structure appears in the diabase-porphyrites, some of which are highly vesicular and contain remains of an abundant fine-grained or partly glassy ground-mass (diabas-mandelstein, amygdaloidal diabase). The somewhat ill-defined spilites are re- garded by many as modifications of diabase-porphyrite. In the intersertal and porphyrite diabases, fresh or devitrified glassy base is not infrequent. It is especially conspicuous in some tholeites (hyalo-tholeites) and in weisselbergites. These rocks consist of augite and plagioclase, with little or no olivine, on a brown, vitreous, interstitial matrix. Devitrified forms of tachylyte (sor- dawilite, &c.) occur at the rapidly chilled margins of dolerite sills and dikes, and fine-grained spotted rocks with large spherulites of grey or greenish felspar, and branching growths of brownish-green augite (variolites). To nearly every variety in composition and structure presented by the diabases, a counterpart can be found among the Tertiary dolerites. In the older rocks, however, certain minerals are more common than in the newer. Hornblende, mostly of pale green colours and somewhat fibrous habit, is very frequent in diabase; it is in most cases secondary after pyroxene, and is then known as uralite ; often it forms pseudomorphs which retain the shape of the original augite. Where diabases have been crushed or sheared, hornblende readily develops at the expense of pyroxene, sometimes replacing it completely. In the later stages of alteration the amphibole becomes compact and well crystallized; the rocks consist of green horn- blende and plagioclase felspar, and are then generally known as epidiorites or amphibolites. At the same time a schistose structure is produced. But transition forms are very common, having more or less of the augite remaining, surrounded by newly formed horn- blende which at first is rather fibrous and tends to spread outwards through the surrounding felspar. Chlorite also is abundant both in sheared and unsheared diabases, and with it calcite may make its appearance, or the lime set free from the augite may combine with the titanium of the iron oxide and with silica to form incrustations or borders of sphene around the original crystals of ilmenite. Epidote is another secondary lime-bearing mineral which results from the decomposition of the soda lime felspars and the pyroxenes. Many diabases, especially those of the teschenite sub-group, are filled with zeolites. Diabases are exceedingly abundant among the older rocks of all parts of the globe. Popular names for them are " whinstone," " greenstone," " loadstone ' and " trap." They form excellent road- mending stones and are much quarried for this purpose, being tough, durable and resistant to wear, so long as they are not extremely decomposed. Many of them are to be preferred to the fresher dolerites as being less brittle. The'quality of the Cornish greenstones appears to have been distinctly improved by a smaller amount of recrystallization where they have been heated by contact with intrusive masses of granite. (J. S. F.) DIABETES DIABETES (from Gr. 8ia, through, and @alveu>, to pass), a constitutional disease characterized by a habitually excessive discharge of urine. Two forms of this complaint are described, viz. Diabetes Mellitus, or Glycosuria, where the urine is not only increased in quantity, but persistently contains a greater or less amount of sugar, and Diabetes Insipidus, or Polyuria, where the urine is simply increased in quantity, and contains no abnormal ingredient. This latter, however, must be distinguished from the polyuria due to chronic granular kidney, lardaceous disease of the kidney, and also occurring in certain cases of hysteria. Diabetes mellitus is the disease to which the term is most commonly applied, and is by far the more serious and important ailment. It is one of the diseases due to altered metabolism (see METABOLIC DISEASES) . It is markedly hereditary, much more prevalent in towns and especially modern city life than in more primitive rustic communities, and most common among the Jews. The excessive use of sugar as a food is usually considered one cause of the disease, and obesity is supposed to favour its occurrence, but many observers consider that the obesity so often met with among diabetics is due to the same cause as the disease itself. No age is exempt, but it occurs most commonly in the fifth decade of life. It attacks males twice as frequently as females, and fair more frequently than dark people. The symptoms are usually gradual in their onset, and the patient may suffer for a length of time before he thinksi it necessary to apply for medical aid. The first symptoms which attract attention are failure of strength, and emaciation, along with great thirst and an increased amount and frequent passage of urine. From the normal quantity of from 2 to 3 pints in the 24 hours it may be increased to 10, 20 or 30 pints, or even more. It is usually of pale colour, and of thicker consistence than normal urine, possesses a decidedly sweet taste, and is of high specific gravity (1030 to 1050). It frequently gives rise to considerable irritation of the urinary passages. By simple evaporation crystals of sugar may be obtained from diabetic urine, which also yields the characteristic chemical tests of sugar, while the amount of this substance can be accurately estimated by certain analytical processes. The quantity of sugar passed may vary from a few ounces to two or more pounds per diem, and it is found to be markedly increased after saccharine or starchy food has been taken. Sugar may also be found in the blood, saliva, tears, and in almost all the excretions of persons suffering from this disease. One of the most distressing symptoms is intense thirst, which the patient is constantly seeking to allay, the quantity of liquid consumed being in general enormous, and there is usually, but not invariably, a voracious appetite. The mouth is always parched, and a faint, sweetish odour may be evolved from the breath. The effect of the disease upon the general health is very marked, and the patient becomes more and more emaciated. He suffers from increasing muscular weakness, the temperature of his body is lowered, and the skin is dry and harsh. There is often a peculiar flush on the face, not limited to the malar eminences, but extending up to the roots of the hair. The teeth are loosened or decay, there is a tendency to bleeding from the gums, while dyspeptic symptoms, constipation and loss of sexual power are common accompaniments. There is in general great mental depression or irritability. Diabetes as a rule advances comparatively slowly except in the case of young persons, in whom its progress is apt to be rapid. The complications of the disease are many and serious. It may cause impaired vision by weakening the muscles of accommodation, or by lessening the sensitiveness of the retina to light. Also cataract is very common. Skin affections of all kinds may occur and prove very intractable. Boils, carbuncles, cellulitis and gangrene are all apt to occur as life advances, though gangrene is much more frequent in men than in women. Diabetics are especially liable to phthisis and pneumonia, and gangrene of the lungs may set in if the patient survives the crisis in the latter disease. Digestive troubles of all kinds, kidney diseases and heart failure due to fatty heart are all of common occurrence. Also patients seem curiously susceptible to the poison of enteric fever, though the attack usually runs a mild course. The sugar temporarily disappears during the fever. But the most serious complication of all is known as diabetic coma, which is very commonly the final cause of death. The onset is often insidious, but may be indicated by loss of appetite, a rapid fall in the quantity of both urine and sugar, and by either consti- pation or diarrhoea. More rarely there is most acute abdominal pain. At first the condition is rather that of collapse than true coma, though later the patient is absolutely comatose. The patient suffers from a peculiar kind of dyspnoea, and the breath and skin have a sweet ethereal odour. The condition may last from twenty-four hours to three days, but is almost invariably the precursor of death. Diabetes is a very fatal form of disease, recovery being ex- ceedingly rare. Over 50% die of coma, another 25 % of phthisis or pneumonia, and the remainder of Bright's disease, cerebral haemorrhage, gangrene, &c. The most favourable cases are those in which the patient is advanced in years, those in which it is associated with obesity or gout, and where the social conditions are favourable. A few cures have been recorded in which the disease supervened after some acute illness. The unfavourable cases are those in which there is a family history of the disease and in which the patient is young. Nevertheless much may be done by appropriate treatment to mitigate the severity of the symptoms and to prolong life. There are two distinct lines of treatment, that of diet and that of drugs, but each must be modified and determined entirely by the idiosyncrasy of the patient, which varies in this condition between very wide limits. That of diet is of primary importance inasmuch as it has been proved beyond question that certain kinds of food have a powerful influence in aggravating the disease, more particularly those consisting largely of saccharine and starchy matter; and it may be stated generally that the various methods of treatment proposed aim at the elimination as far as possible of these constituents from the diet. Hence it is recom- mended that such articles as bread, potatoes and all farinaceous foods, turnips, carrots, parsnips and most fruits should be avoided; while animal food and soups, green vegetables, cream, cheese, eggs, butter, and tea and coffee without sugar, may be taken with advantage. As a substitute for ordinary bread, which most persons find it difficult to do without for any length of time, bran bread, gluten bread and almond biscuits. A patient must never pass suddenly from an ordinary to a carbohydrate- free diet. Any such sudden transition is extremely liable to bring on diabetic coma, and the change must be made quite gradually, one form of carbohydrate after another being taken out of the diet, whilst the effect on the quantity of sugar passed is being carefully noted meanwhile. The treatment may be begun by excluding potatoes, sugar and fruit, and only after several days is the bread to be replaced by some diabetic substi- tute. When the sugar excretion has been reduced to its lowest point, and maintained there for some time, a certain amount of carbohydrate may be cautiously allowed, the consequent effect on the glycosuria being estimated. The best diet can only be worked out experimentally for each individual patient. But in every case, if drowsiness or any symptom suggesting coma1 supervene, all restrictions must be withdrawn, and carbohydrate freely allowed. The question of alcohol is one which must be largely determined by the previous history of the patient, but a small quantity will help to make up the deficiencies of a diet poor in carbohydrate. Scotch and Irish whisky, and Hollands gin, are usually free from sugar, and some of the light Bordeaux wines contain very little. Fat is beneficial, and can be given as cream, fat of meat and cod-liver oil. Green vegetables are harmless, but the white stalks of cabbages and lettuces and also celery and endive yield sugar. Laevulose can be assimilated up to ij ozs. daily without increasing the glycosuria, and hence apples, cooked or raw, are allowable, as the sugar they contain is in this form. The question of milk is somewhat disputed; but it is usual to exclude it from the rigid diet, allowing a certain quantity when the diet is being extended. Thirst is relieved by anything that relieves the polyuria. But hypodermic injections of pilocarpine stimulate the flow of saliva, and thus relieve the dryness of the 146 DIABOLO— DIAGRAM mouth. Constipation appears to increase the thirst, and must always be carefully guarded against. The best remedies are the aperient mineral waters. Numerous medicinal substances have been employed in diabetes, but few of them are worthy of mention as possessed of any efficacy. Opium is often found of great service, its ad- ministration being followed by marked amelioration in all the symptoms. Morphia and codeia have a similar action. In the severest cases, however, these drugs appear to be of little or no use, and they certainly increase the constipation. Heroin hydro- chloride has been tried in their place, but this seems to have more power over slight than over severe cases. Salicylate of sodium and aspirin are both very beneficial, causing a diminution in the sugar excretion without counterbalancing bad effects. In diabetes insipidus there is constant thirst and an excessive flow of urine, which, however,is not found to contain any abnormal constituent. Its effects upon the system are often similar to those of diabetes mellitus, except that they are much less marked, the disease being in general very slow in its progress. In some cases the health appears to suffer very slightly. It is rarely a direct cause of death, but from its debilitating effects may predispose to serious and fatal complications. It is best treated by tonics and generous diet. Valerian has been found beneficial, the powdered root being given in 5-grain doses. DIABOLO, a game played with a sort of top in the shape of two cones joined at their apices, which is spun, thrown, and caught by means of a cord strung to two sticks. The idea of the game appears originally to have come from China, where a top (Kouen- gen), made of two hollow pierced cylinders of metal or wood, joined by a rod — and often of immense size, — was made by rotation to hum with a loud noise, and was used by pedlars to attract customers. From China it was introduced by missionaries to Europe; and a form of the game, known as " the devil on two sticks," appears to have been known in England towards the end of the i8th century, and Lord Macartney is credited with improvements in it. But its principal vogue was in France in 1812, where the top was called " le diable." Amusing old prints exist (see Fry's Magazine, March and December 1907), depicting examples of the popular craze in France at the time. The diable of those days resembled a globular wooden dumb-bell with a short waist, and the sonorous hum when spinning — the bruit du diable — was a pronounced feature. At intervals during the century occasional attempts to revive the game of spinning a top of this sort on a string were made, but it was not till 1906 that the sensation of 1812 began to be repeated. A French engineer, Gustave Phillipart, discovering some old implements of the game, had experimented for some time with new forms of top with a view to bringing it again into popularity; and having devised the double-cone shape, and added a miniature bicycle tire of rubber round the rims of the two ends of the double-cone, with other improvements, he named it " diabolo." The use of celluloid in preference to metal or wood as its material appears to have been due to a suggestion of Mr C. B. Fry, who was consulted by the inventor on the subject. The game of spinning, throwing and catching the diabolo was rapidly elaborated in various directions, both as an exercise of skill in doing tricks, and in " diabolo tennis " and other ways as an athletic pastime. From Paris, Ostend and the chief French seaside resorts, where it became popular in 1906, its vogue spread in 1907 so that in France and England it became the fashionable " rage " among both children and adults. The mechanics of the diabolo were worked out by Professor C. V. Boys in the Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), Nov. 1907. DIACONICON, in the Greek Church, the name given to a cham- ber on the south side of the central apse, where the sacred utensils, vessels, &c., of the church were kept. In the reign of Justin II. (565-574), owing to a change in the liturgy, the diaconicon and protheses were located in apses at the east end of the aisles. Before that time there was only one apse. In the churches in cen- tral Syria of slightly earlier date, the diaconicon is rectangular, the side apses at Kalat-Seman having been added at a later date. DIADOCHI (Gr. Siadixtatiai, to receive from another), i.e. " Successors," the name given to the Macedonian generals who fought for the empire of Alexander after his death in 323 B.C. The name includes Antigonus and his son Demetrius Poliorcetes, Antipater and his son Cassander, Seleucus, Ptolemy, Eumenes and Lysimachus. The kingdoms into which the Macedonian empire was divided under these rulers are known as Hellenistic. The chief were Asia Minor and Syria under the Seleucid Dynasty (q.v.), Egypt under the Ptolemies (q.v.), Macedonia under the successors of Antigonus Gonatas, Pergamum (q.v.) under the Attalid dynasty. Gradually these kingdoms were merged in the Roman empire. (See MACEDONIAN EMPIRE.) DIAGONAL ( Gr. 5ia, through^cocia, a corner) , in geometry, a line joining the intersections of two pairs of sides of a rectilinear figure. DIAGORAS, of Melos, surnamed the Atheist, poet and sophist, flourished in the second half of the 5th century B.C. Religious in his youth and a writer of hymns and dithyrambs, he became an atheist because a great wrong done to him was left unpunished by the gods. In consequence of his blasphemous speeches, and especially his criticism of the Mysteries, he was condemned to death at Athens, and a price set upon his head (Aristoph. Clouds, 830; Birds, 1073 and Schol.). He fled to Corinth, where he is said to have died. His work on the Mysteries was called 4>/>{ryioi \6yoi or 'AirmvpylgovTts, in which he probably attacked the Phrygian divinities. DIAGRAM (Gr. Sto/ypajujun, from 5<.a.ypatu>, to mark out by lines, a figure drawn in such a manner that the geometrical relations between the parts of the figure illustrate relations between other objects. They may be classed according to the manner in which they are intended to be used, and also according to the kind of analogy which we recognize between the diagram and the thing represented. The diagrams in mathematical treatises are intended to help the reader to follow the mathe- matical reasoning. The construction of the figure is defined in words so that even if no figure were drawn the reader could draw one for himself. The diagram is a good one if those features which form the subject of the proposition are clearly represented. Diagrams are also employed in an entirely different way — namely, for purposes of measurement. The plans and designs drawn by architects and engineers are used to determine the value of certain real magnitudes by measuring certain distances on the diagram. For such purposes it is essential that the drawing be as accurate as possible. We therefore class diagrams as diagrams of illustration, which merely suggest certain relations to the mind of the spectator, and diagrams drawn to scale, from which measurements are intended to be made. There are some dia- grams or schemes, however, in which the form of the parts is of no importance, provided their connexions are ,:>roperly shown. Of this kind are the diagrams of electrical connexions, and those belonging to that department of geometry which treats of the degrees of cyclosis, periphraxy, linkedness and knottedness. Diagrams purely Graphic and mixed Symbolic and Graphic. — Diagrams may also be classed either as purely graphical diagrams, in which no symbols are employed except letters or other marks to distinguish particular points of the diagrams, and mixed diagrams, in which certain magnitudes are represented, not by the magnitudes of parts of the diagram, but by symbols, such as numbers written on the diagram. Thus in a map the height of places above the level of the sea is often indicated by marking the number of feet above the sea at the corresponding places on the map. There is another method in which a line called a contour line is drawn through all the places in the map whose height above the sea is a certain number of feet, and the number of feet is written at some point or points of this line. By the use of a series of contour lines, the height of a great number of places can be indicated on a map by means of a small number of written symbols. Still this method is not a purely graphical method, but a partly symbolical method of expressing the third dimension of objects on a diagram in two dimensions. In order to express completely by a purely graphical method the relations of magnitudes involving more than two variables, we must use more than one diagram. Thus in the arts of con- struction we use plans and elevations and sections through different planes, to specify the form of objects having three DIAGRAM dimensions. In such systems of diagrams we have to indicate that a point in one diagram corresponds to a point in another diagram. This is generally done by marking the corresponding points in the different diagrams with the same letter. If the diagrams are drawn on the same piece of paper we may indicate corresponding points by drawing a line from one to the other, taking care that this line of correspondence is so drawn that it cannot be mistaken for a real line in either diagram. (See GEOMETRY: Descriptive.) In the stereoscope the two diagrams, by the combined use of which the form of bodies in three dimensions is recognized, are projections of the bodies taken from two points so near each other that, by viewing the two diagrams simultaneously, one with each eye, we identify the corresponding points intuitively. The method in which we simultaneously contemplate two figures, and recognize a correspondence between certain points in the one figure and certain points in the other, is one of the most poweiful and fertile methods hitherto known in science. Thus in pure geometry the theories of similar, reciprocal and inverse figures have led to many extensions of the science. It is sometimes spoken of as the method or principle of Duality. (See GEOMETRY Projective.) DIAGRAMS IN MECHANICS The study of the motion of a material system is much assisted by the use of a series of diagrams representing the configuration, dis- placement and acceleration of the parts of the system. Diagram of Configuration. — In considering a material system it is often convenient to suppose that we have a record of its position at any given instant in the form of a diagram of configuration. The position of any particle of the system is defined by drawing a straight line or vector from the origin, or point of reference, to the given particle. The position of the particle with respect to the origin is determined by the magnitude and direction of this vector. If in the diagram we draw from the origin (which need not be the same point of space as the origin for the material system) a vector equal and parallel to the vector which determines the position of the particle, the end of this vector will indicate the position of the particle in the diagram of configuration. If this is done for all the particles we shall have a system of points in the diagram of configuration, each of which corresponds to a particle of the material system, and the relative positions of any pair of these points will be the same as the relative positions of the material particles which correspond to them. We have hitherto spoken of two origins or points from which the vectors are supposed to be drawn — one for the material system, the other for the diagram. These points, however, and the vectors drawn from them, may now be omitted, so that we have on the one hand the material system and on the other a set of points, each point corresponding to a particle of the system, and the whole representing the configuration of the system at a given instant. This is called a diagram of configuration. Diagram of Displacement. — Let us next consider two diagrams of configuration of the same system, corresponding to two different instants. We call the first the initial configuration and the second the final configuration, and the passage from the one configuration to the other we call the displacement of the system. We do not at present consider the length of time during which the displacement was effected, nor the intermediate stages through which it passed, but only the final result — a change of configuration. To study this change we construct a diagram of displacement. Let A, B, C be the points -in the initial diagram of configuration, and A', B', C' be the corresponding points in the final diagram of configuration. From o, the origin of the diagram of displacement, draw a vector oa equal and parallel to AA', ob equal and parallel to BB', oc to CC', and so on. The points a, b, c, &c., will be such that the vector ab indicates the displacement of B relative to A, and so on. The diagram containing the points a, b, c, &c., is therefore called the diagram of displacement. In constructing the diagram of displacement we have hitherto assumed that we know the absolute displacements of the points of the system. For we are required to draw a line equal and parallel to AA', which we cannot dp unless we know the absolute final position of A, with respect to its initial position. In this diagram of displace- ment there is therefore, besides the points a, b, c, &c., an origin, o, which represents a point absolutely fixed in space. This is necessary because the two configurations do not exist at the same time ; and therefore to express their relative position we require to know a point which remains the same at the beginning and end of the time. But we may construct the diagram in another way which does not assume a knowledge of absolute displacement or of a point fixed in space. Assuming any point and calling it a, draw ak parallel and equal to BA in the initial configuration, and from k draw kb parallel and equal to A'B' in the final configuration. It is easy to see that the position of the point b relative to a will be the same by this construc- tion as by the former construction, only we must observe that in this second construction we use only vectors such as AB, A'B', which represent the relative position of points both of which exist simul- taneously, instead of vectors such as AA', BB', which express the position of a point at one instant relative to its position at a foriher instant, and which therefore cannot be determined by observation, because the two ends of the vector do not exist simultaneously. It appears therefore that the diagram of displacements, when drawn by the first construction, includes an origin o, which indicates that we have assumed a knowledge of absolute displacements. But no such point occurs in the second construction, because we use such vectors only as we can actually observe. Hence the diagram of displacements without an origin represents neither more nor less than all we can ever know about the dispjacement of the material system. Diagram of Velocity. — If the relative velocities of the points of the system are constant, then the diagram of displacement corresponding to an interval of a unit of time between the initial and the final configuration is called a diagram of relative velocity. If the relative velocities are not constant, we suppose another system in which the velocities are equal to the velocities of the given system at the given instant and continue constant for a unit of time. The diagram of displacements for this imaginary system is the required diagram of relative velocities of the actual system at the given instant. It is easy to see that the diagram gives the velocity of any one point relative to any other, but cannot give the absolute velocity of any of them. Diagram of Acceleration. — By the same process by which we formed the diagram of displacements .from the two diagrams of initial and final configuration, we may form a diagram of changes of relative velocity from the two diagrams of initial and final velocities. This diagram may be called that of total accelerations in a finite interval of time. And by the same process by which we deduced the diagram of velocities from that of displacements we may deduce the diagram of rates of acceleration from that of total acceleration. We have mentioned this system of diagrams in elementary kine- matics because they are found to be of use epsecially when we have to deal with material systems containing a great number of parts, as in the kinetic theory of gases. The diagram of configuration then appears as a region of space swarming with points representing molecules, and the only way in which we can investigate it is by considering the number of such points in unit of volume in different parts of that region, and calling this the density of the gas. In like manner the diagram of velocities appears as a region con- taining points equal in number but distributed in a different manner, and the number of points in any given portion of the region expresses the number of molecules whose velocities lie within given limits. We may speak of this as the velocity-density. Diagrams of Stress. — Graphical methods are peculiarly applicable to statical questions, because the state of the system is constant, so that we do not need to construct a series of diagrams corre- sponding to the successive states of the system. The most useful of these applications, collectively termed Graphic Statics, relates to the equilibrium of plane framed structures familiarly represented in bridges and roof-trusses. Two diagrams are used, one called the diagram of the frame and the other called the diagram of stress. The structure itself consists of a number of separable pieces or links jointed together at their extremities. In practice these joints have friction, or may be made purposely stiff, so that the force acting at the extremity of a piece may not pass exactly through the axis of the joint; but as it is unsafe to make the stability of the structure depend in any degree upon the stiffness of joints, we assume in our calculations that all the joints are perfectly smooth, and therefore that the force acting on the end of any link passes through the axis of the joint. The axes of the joints of the structure are represented by points in the diagram of the frame. The link which connects two joints in the actual structure may be of any shape, but in the diagram of the frame it is represented by a straight line joining the points repre- senting the two joints. If no force acts on the link except the two forces acting through the centres of the joints, these two forces must be equal and opposite, and their direction must coincide with the straight line joining the centres of the joints. If the force acting on either extremity of the link is directed towards the other extremity, the stress on the link is called pressure and the link is called a " strut." If it is directed away from the other extremity, the stress on the link is called tension and the link is called a " tie." In this case, there- fore, the only stress acting in a link is a pressure or a tension in the direction of the straight line which represents it in the diagram of the frame, and all tha,t we have to do is to find the magnitude of this stress. In the actual structure gravity acts on every part of the link, but in the diagram we substitute for the actual weight ot the different parts of the link two weights which have the same resultant acting at the extremities of the link. We may now treat the diagram of the frame as composed of links without weight, but loaded at each joint with a weight made up of portions of the weights of all the links which meet in that joint. If any link has more than two joints we may substitute for it in the diagram an imaginary stiff frame, consisting of links, each of which has only two joints. The diagram of the frame is now reduced to a system of points, certain pairs of which are joined by straight lines, and each point is in general acted on by a weight or other force acting between it and some point external to the system. To complete 148 DIAGRAM the diagram we may represent these external forces as links, that is to say, straight lines joining the points of the frame to points external to the frame. Thus each weight may be represented by a link joining the point of application of the weight with the centre of the earth. But we can always construct an imaginary frame having its joints in the lines of action of these external forces, and this frame, together with the real frame and the links representing external forces, which join points in the one frame to points in the other frame, make up together a complete self-strained system in equilibrium, consisting of points connected by links acting by pressure or tension. We may in this way reduce any real structure to the case of a system of points with attractive or repulsive forces acting between certain pairs of these points, and keeping them in equilibrium. The direction of each of these forces is sufficiently indicated by that of the line joining the points, so that we have only to determine its magnitude. We might do this by calculation, and then write down on each link the pressure or the tension which acts in it. We should in this way obtain a mixed diagram in which the stresses are represented graphically as regards direction and position, but symbolically as regards magnitude. But we know that a force may be represented in a purely graphical manner by a straight line in the direction of the force containing as many units of jength as there are units of force in the force. The end of this line is marked with an arrow head to show in which direction the force acts. According to this method each force is drawn in its proper position in the diagram of configuration of the frame. Such a diagram might be useful as a record of the result of calculation of the magnitude of the forces, but it would be of no use in enabling us to test the correctness of the calculation. But we have a graphical method of testing the equilibrium of any set of forces acting at a point. We draw in series a set of lines parallel and proportional to these forces. If these lines form a closed polygon the forces are in equilibrium. (See MECHANICS.) We might in this way form a series of polygons of forces, one for each joint of the frame. But in so doing we give up the principle of drawing the line represent- ing a force from the point of application of the force, for all the sides of the polygon cannot pass through the same point, as the forces do. We also represent every stress twice over, for it appears as a side of both the polygons corresponding to the two joints between which it acts. But if we can arrange the polygons in such a way that the sides of any two polygons which represent the same stress coincide with each other, we may form a diagram in which every stress is represented in direction and magnitude, though not in position, by a single line which is the common boundary of the two polygons which represent the joints at the extremities of the corresponding piece of the frame. We have thus obtained a pure diagram of stress in which no attempt is made to represent the configuration of the material system, and in which every force is not only represented in direction and magnitude by a straight line, but the equilibrium of the forces at any joint is manifest by inspection, for we have only to examine whether the corresponding polygon is closed or not. The relations between the diagram of the frame and the diagram of stress are as follows: — To every link in the frame corresponds a straight line in the diagram of stress which represents in magnitude and direction the stress acting in that link; and to every joint of the frame corresponds a closed polygon in the diagram, and the forces acting at that joint are represented by the sides of the polygon taken in a certain cyclical order, the cyclical order of the sides of the two adjacent polygons being such that their common side is traced in opposite directions in going round the two polygons. The direction in which any side of a polygon is traced is the direction of the force acting on that joint of the frame which corresponds to the polygon, and due to that link of the frame which corresponds to the side. This determines whether the stress of the link is a pressure or a tension. If we know whether the stress of any one link is a pressure or a tension, this determines the cyclical order of the sides of the two polygons corresponding to the ends of the links, and therefore the cyclical order of all the polygons, and the nature of the stress in every link of the frame. Reciprocal Diagrams. — When to every point of concourse of the lines in the diagram of stress corresponds a closed polygon in the skeleton of the frame, the two diagrams are said to be reciprocal. The first extensions of the method of diagrams of forces to other cases than that of the funicular polygon were given by Rankine in his Applied Mechanics (1857). The method was independently applied to a large number of cases by W. P. Taylor, a practical draughtsman in the office of J. B. Cochrane, and by Professor Clerk Maxwell in his lectures in King's College, London. In the Phil. Mag. for 1864 the latter pointed out the reciprocal properties of the two diagrams, and in a paper on " Reciprocal Figures. Frames and Diagrams of Forces," Trans. R.S. Edin. vol. xxvi., 1870, he showed the relation of the method to Airy's function of stress and to other mathematical methods. Professor Fleeming Jenkin has given a number of applications of the method to practice (Trans. R.S. Edin. vol. xxv.). L. Cremona (Le Figure reciproche nella statica grafica, 1872) deduced the construction of reciprocal figures from the theory of the two components of a wrench as developed by Mobius. Karl Culmann, in his Graphische Statik (isted. 1864-1866, 2nd ed. 1875), madepreat use of diagrams of forces, some of which, however, are not reciprocal. Maurice Levy in his Statique graphique (1874) has treated the whole subject in an elementary but copious manner, and R. H. Bow, in his The Economics of Construction in Relation to Framed Structures (1873), materially simplified the process of drawing a diagram of stress reciprocal to a given frame acted on by a system of equilibrating external forces. Instead of lettering the joints of the frame, as is usually done, or the links of the frame, as was the custom of Clerk Maxwell, Bow places a letter in each of the polygonal areas enclosed by the links of the frame, and also in each of the divisions of surrounding space as FlG. I. — Diagram of Configuration. separated by the lines of action of the external forces. When one link of the frame crosses another, the point of apparent intersection of the links is treated as if it were a real joint, and the stresses of each of the intersecting links are represented twice in the diagram of stress, as the opposite sides^of the parallelogram which corresponds to the point of intersection.* This method is followed in the lettering of the diagram of configura- tion (fig. i), and the diagram of stress (fig. 2) of the linkwork which Professor Sylvester has called a quadruplane. In fig. I the real joints are distinguished from the places where one link appears to cross another by the little circles O, P, Q, R, S, T, V. The four links RSTV form a " contraparallelogram " in which RS = TV and RV = ST. The triangles ROS, RPV, TQS are similar :o each other. A fourth triangle (TNV), not drawn in the figure, would complete the quadruplane. The four points O, P, N, Q form a parallelogram whose angle POQ is constant and equal to v — SOR. The product of the distances OP and OQ is constant. The linkwork may be fixed at O. If any figure is traced by P, Q will trace the FIG. 2. — Diagram of Stress. inverse figure, but turned round O through the constant angle POQ. In the diagram forces Pp, Qq are balanced by the force Co at the fixed point. The forces Pp and Qq are necessarily inversely as OP and OQ, and make equal angles with those lines. Every closed area formed by the links or the external forces in the diagram of configuration is marked by a letter which corresponds to a point of concourse of lines in the diagram of stress. The stress in the link which is the common boundary of two areas is represented in the diagram of stress by the line joining the points corresponding to those areas. When a link is divided into two or more parts by lines crossing it, the stress in each part is represented by a different line for each part, but as the stress is the same throughout the link these lines are all equal and parallel. Thus in the figure the stress in RV is represented by the four equal and parallel lines HI, FG, DE and AB. If two areas have no part of their boundary in common the letters corresponding to them in the diagram of stress are not joined by a straight line. If, however, a straight line were drawn between them, it would represent in direction and magnitude the resultant of all the stresses in the links which are cut by any line, straight or curved, joining the two areas. For instance the areas F ana C in fig. I have no common boundary, and the points F and C in fig. 2 are not joined by a straight line. But every path from the area F to the area C in fig. I passes through a series of other areas, and each passage from one area into a contiguous area corresponds to a line drawn in the diagram of stress. Hence the whole path from F DIAL 149 to C in fig. i corresponds to a path formed of lines in fig. 2 and extending from F to C, and the resultant of all the stresses in the links cut by the path is represented by FC in fig. 2. Many examples of stress diagrams are given in the article on bridges (q.v.). A utomatic Description of Diagrams. ' There are many other kinds of diagrams in which the two co-ordin- ates of a point in a plane are employed to indicate the simultaneous values of two related quantities. If a sheet of paper is made to move, say horizontally, with a constant known velocity, while a tracing point is made to move in a vertical straight line, the height varying as the value of any given physical quantity, the point will trace out a curve on the paper from which the value of that quantity at any given time may be determined. This principle is applied to the automatic registration of phenomena of all kinds, from those of meteorology and terrestrial magnetism to the velocity of cannon- shot, the vibrations of sounding bodies, the motions of animals, voluntary and involuntary, and the currents in electric telegraphs. In Watt's indicator for steam engines the paper does not move with a constant velocity, but its displacement is proportional to that of the piston of the engine, while that of the tracing point is proportional to the pressure of the steam. Hence the co-ordinates of a point of the curve traced on the diagram represent the volume and the pressure of the steam in the cylinder. The indicator-diagram not only supplies a record of the pressure of the steam at each stage of the stroke of the engine, but indicates the work done by the steam in each stroke by the area enclosed by the curve traced on the diagram. 0- C. M.) DIAL and DIALLING. Dialling, sometimes called gnomonics, is a branch of applied mathematics which treats of the construc- tion of sun-dials, that is, of those instruments, either fixed or portable, which determine the divisions of the day (Lat. dies) by the motion of the shadow of some object on which the sun's rays fall. It must have been one of the earliest applications of a knowledge of the apparent motion of the sun; though for a long time men would probably be satisfied with the division into morning and afternoon as marked by sun-rise, sun-set and the greatest elevation. History. — The earliest mention of a sun-dial is found in Isaiah xxxviii. 8: " Behold, I will bring again the shadow of the degrees which is gone down in the sun-dial of Ahaz ten degrees backward." The date of this would be about 700 years before the Christian era, but we know nothing of the character or con- struction of the instrument. The earliest of all sun-dials of which we have any certain knowledge was the hemicycle, or hemisphere, of the Chaldaean astronomer Berossus, who probably lived about 300 B.C. It consisted of a hollow hemisphere placed with its rim perfectly horizontal, and having a bead, or globule, fixed in any way at the centre. So long as the sun remained above the horizon the shadow of the bead would fall on the inside of the hemisphere, and the path of the shadow during the day would be approximately a circular arc. This arc, divided into twelve equal parts, determined twelve equal intervals of time for that day. Now, supposing this were done at the time of the solstices and equinoxes, and on as many intermediate days as might be considered sufficient, and then curve lines drawn through the corresponding points of division of the different arcs, the shadow of the bead falling on one of these curve lines would mark a division of time for that day, and thus we should have a sun-dial which would divide each period of daylight into twelve equal parts. These equal parts were called temporary hours; and, since the duration of daylight varies from day to day, the temporary hours of one day would differ from those of another ; but this inequality would probably be disregarded at that time, and especially in countries where the variation between the longest summer day and the shortest winter day is much less than in our climates. The dial of Berossus remained in use for centuries. The Arabians, as appears from the work of Albategnius, still followed the same construction about the year A.D. 900. Four of these dials have in modern times been found in Italy. One, discovered at Tivoli in 1746, is supposed to have belonged to Cicero, who, in one of his letters, says that he had sent a dial of this kind to his villa near Tusculum. The second and third were found in 1751 — one at Castel-Nuovo and the other at Rignano; and a fourth was found in 1762 at Pompeii. G. H. Martini in his Abhandlungen von den Sonnenuhren der Allen (Leipzig, 1777), says that thi: dial was made for the latitude of Memphis; it may therefore je the work of Egyptians, perhaps constructed in the school of Alexandria. Herodotus recorded, that the Greeks derived from the Baby- onians the use of the gnomon, but the great progress made by the Greeks in geometry enabled them in later times to construct dials of great complexity, some of which remain to us, and are jroof not only of extensive knowledge but also of great ingenuity. Ptolemy's Almagest treats of the construction of dials by means of his analemma, an instrument which solved a variety of astronomical problems. The constructions given by him were sufficient for regular dials, that is, horizontal dials, or vertical dials facing east, west, north or south, and these are the only ones tie treats of. It is certain, however, that the ancients were able to construct declining dials, as is shown by that most interesting monument of ancient gnomics — the Tower of the Winds at Athens. This is a regular octagon, on the faces of which the eight principal winds are represented, and over them eight different dials — four facing the cardinal points and the other four facing the intermediate directions. The date of the dials is long subse- quent to that of the tower; for Vitruvius, who describes the tower in the sixth chapter of his first book, says nothing about the dials, and as he has described all the dials known in his time, we must believe that the dials of the tower did not then exist. The hours are still the temporary hours or, as the Greeks called them, hectemoria. The first sun-dial erected at Rome was in the year 290 B.C., and this Papirius Cursor had taken from the Samnites. A dial which Valerius Messalla had brought from Catania, the latitude of which is five degrees less than that of Rome, was placed in the forum in the year 261 B.C. The first dial actually constructed at Rome was in the year 164 B.C., by order of Q. Marcius Philippus, but as no other Roman has written on gnomonics, this was perhaps the work of a foreign artist. If, too, we remember that the dial found at Pompeii was made for the latitude of Memphis, and consequently less adapted to its position than that of Catania to Rome, we may infer that mathematical knowledge was not cultivated in Italy. The Arabians were much more successful. They attached great importance to gnomonics, the principles of which they had learned from the Greeks, but they greatly simplified and diversified the Greek constructions. One of their writers, Abu'l Hassan, who lived about the beginning of the i3th century, taught them how to trace dials on cylindrical, conical and other surfaces. He even introduced equal or equinoctial hours, but the idea was not supported, and the temporary hours alone continued in use. Where or when the great and important step already conceived by Abu'l Hassan, and perhaps by others, of reckoning by equal hours was generally adopted cannot now be determined. The history of gnomonics from the i3th to the beginning of the 1 6th century is almost a blank, and during that time the change took place. We can see, however, that the change would neces- sarily follow the introduction of clocks and other mechanical methods of measuring time; for, however imperfect these were, the hours they marked would be of the same length in summer and in winter, and the discrepancy between these equal hours and the temporary hours of the sun-dial would soon be too important to be overlooked. Now, we know that a balance clock was put up in the palace of Charles V. of France about the year 1370, and we may reasonably suppose that the new sun-dials came into general use during the I4th and isth centuries. Among the earliest of the modern writers on gnomonics was Sebastian Minister (q.v.), who published his Horologiographia at Basel in 1531. He gives a number of correct rules, but with- out demonstrations. Among his inventions was a moon-dial,1 but this does not admit of much accuracy. During the I7th century dialling was discussed at great length by many writers on astronomy. Clavius devotes a quarto 1 In one of the courts of Queens' College, Cambridge, there is an elaborate sun-dial dating from the end of the 1 7th or beginning of the 1 8th century, and around it a series of numbers which make it available as a moon-dial when the moon's age is known. DIAL volume of 800 pages entirely to the subject. This was published in 1612, and may be considered to contain all that was known at that time. In the 1 8th century clocks and watches began to supersede sun-dials, and these have gradually fallen into disuse except as an additional ornament to a garden, or in remote country districts where the old dial on the church tower still serves as an occasional check on the modern clock by its side. The art of constructing dials may now be looked upon as little more than a mathematical recreation. General Principles. — The diurnal and the annual motions of the earth are the elementary astronomical facts on which dialling is founded. That the earth turns upon its axis uniformly from west to east in twenty-four hours, and that it is carried round the sun in one year at a nearly uniform rate, is the correct way of expressing these facts. But the effect will be precisely the same, and it will suit our purpose better, and make our explanations easier, if we adopt the ideas of the ancients, of which our senses furnish apparent confirma- tion, and assume the earth to be fixed. Then, the sun and stars revolve round the earth's axis uniformly from east to west once a day — the sun lagging a little behind the stars, making its day some four minutes longer — so that at the end of the year it finds itself again in the same place, having made a complete revolution of the heavens relatively to the stars from west to east. The fixed axis about which all these bodies revolve daily is a line through the earth's centre; but the radius of the earth is so small, compared with the enormous distance of the sun, that, if we draw a parallel axis through any point of the earth's surface, we may safely look on that as being the axis of the celestial motions. The error in the case of the sun would not, at its maximum, that is, at 6 A.M. and 6 P.M., exceed half a second of time, and at noon would vanish. An axis so drawn is in the plane of the meridian, and points to the pole, its elevation being equal to tl.<; latitude of the place. The diurnal motion of the stars is strictly uniform, and so would that of the sun be if the daily retardation of about four minutes, spoken of above, were always the same. But this is constantly alter- ing, so that the time, as measured by the sun's motion, and also consequently as measured by a sun-dial, does not move on at a strictly uniform pace. This irregularity, which is slight, would be of little consequence in the ordinary affairs of life, but clocks and watches being mechanical measures of time could not, except by extreme complication, be made to follow this irregularity, even if desirable. The clock is constructed to mark uniform time in such wise that the length of the clock day shall be the average of all the solar days in the year. Four times a year the clock and the sun-dial agree exactly; but the sun-dial, now going a little slower, now a little faster, will be sometimes behind, sometimes before the clock — the greatest accumu- lated difference being about sixteen minutes for a few days in November, but on the average much less. The four days on which the two agree are April 15, June 15, September I and December 24. Clock-time is called mean time, that marked by the sun-dial iscalled apparent time, and the difference between them is the equation of time. It is given in most calendars and almanacs, frequently under the heading ' clock slow," " clock fast." When the time by the sun- dial is known, the equation of time will at once enable us to obtain the corresponding clock-time, or vice versa. Atmospheric refraction introduces another error by altering the apparent position of the sun; but the effect is too small to need consideration in the construction of an instrument which, with the best workmanship, does not after all admit of very great accuracy. The general principles of dialling will now be readily understood. The probjem before us is the following : — A rod, or style, as it is called, being firmly fixed in a direction parallel to the earth's axis, we have to find how and where points or lines of reference must be traced on some fixed surface behind the style, so that when the shadow of the style falls on a certain one of these lines, we may know that at that moment it is solar noon,— that is, that the plane through the style and through the sun then coincides with the meridian; again, that when the shadow reaches the next line of reference, it is I o'clock by solar time, or, which comes to the same thing, that the above plane through the style and through the sun has just turned through the twenty-fourth part of a complete revolution ; and so on for_the subsequent hours, — the hours before noon being indicated in a similar manner. The style and the surface on which these lines are traced together constitute the dial. The position of an intended sun-dial having been selected — whether on church tower, south front of farmstead or garden wall — the surface must be prepared, if necessary, to receive the hour-lines. The chief, and in fact the only practical difficulty will be the accurate fixing of the style, for on its accuracy the value of the instru- ment depends. It must be in the meridian plane, and must make an angle with the horizon equal to the latitude of the place. The latter condition will offer no difficulty, but the exact determination of the meridian plane which passes through the point where the style is faxed to the surface is not so simple. At present we shall assume that the style has been fixed in its true position. The style itself will be usually a stout metal wire, and when we speak of the shadow cast by the style it must always be understood that the middle line of the thin band of shade is meant. The point where the style meets the dial is called the centre of the dial. It is the centre from which all the hour-lines radiate. The position of the XII o'clock line is the most important to determine accurately, since all the others are usually made to depend on this one. We cannot trace it correctly on the dial until the style has been itself accurately fixed in its proper place. When that is done the XII o'clock line will be found by the intersection of the dial surface with the vertical plane which contains the style; and the most simple way of drawing it on the dial will be by suspending a plummet from some point of the style whence it may hang freely, and waiting until the shadows of both style and plumb-line coincide on the dial. This single shadow will be the XII o'clock line. In one class of dials, namely, all the vertical ones, the XII o'clock line is simply the vertical line from the centre; it can, therefore, at once be traced on the dial face by using a fine plumb-line. The XII o'clock line being traced, the easiest and most accurate method of tracing the other hour-lines would, at the present day when good watches are common, be by marking where the shadow of the style falls when I, 2, 3, &c., hours have elapsed since noon, and the next morning by the same means the forenoon hour-lines could be traced ; and m the same manner the hours might be subdivided into halves and quarters, or even into minutes. But formerly, when watches did not exist, the tracing of the I, II, III, &c., o'clock lines was done by calculating the angle which each of these lines would make with the XI I o'clock line. Now, except in the simple cases of a horizontal dial or of a vertical dial facing a cardinal point, this would require long and intricate calculations, or elabo- rate geometrical constructions, implying considerable mathematical knowledge, but also introducing increased chances of error. The chief source of error would lie in the uncertainty of the data; for the position of the dial-plane would have to be found before the calcula- tions began,— that is, it would be necessary to know exactly by how many degrees it declined from the south towards the east or west, and by how many degrees it inclined from the vertical. The ancients, with the means at their disposal, could obtain these results only very roughly. Dials received different names according to their position : — Horizontal dials, when traced on a horizontal plane ; Vertical dials, when on a vertical plane facing one of the cardinal points ; Vertical declining dials, on a vertical plane not facing a cardinal point; Inclining dials, when traced on planes neither vertical nor hori- zontal (these were further distinguished as reclining when leaning backwards from an observer, proclining when leaning forwards) ; Equinoctial dials, when the plane is at right angles to the earth's axis, &c. &c. Dial Construction. — A very correct view of the problem of dial construction may be obtained as follows: — FIG. i. Conceive a transparent cylinder (fig. I) having an axis AB parallel to the axis of the earth. On the surface of the cynnder let equidistant generating lines be traced 15° apart, one of them XII . . .XII being in the meridian plane through AB, and the others I ... I, II ... II, &c., following in the order of the sun's motion. Then the shadow of the line AB will obviously fall on the line XII . . . XII at apparent noon, on the line I . . . I at one hour after noon, on II ... II at two hours after noon, and so on. If now the cylinder be cut by any plane MN representing the plane on which the dial is to be traced, the shadow of AB will be intercepted by this plane and fall on the lines AXII AI, All, &c. The construction of the dial consists in determining the angles made DIAL by AI, All, &c. with AXII ; the line AXII itself, being in the vertical plane through AB, may be supposed known. For the purposesof actual calculation, perhaps a transparent sphere will, with advantage, replace the cylinder, and we shall here apply it to calculate the angles made by the hour-line with the XII o'clock line in the two cases of a horizontal dial and of a vertical south dial. Horizontal Dial. — Let PEp (fig. 2), the axis of the supposed trans- parent sphere, be directed towards the north and south poles of the heavens. Draw the two great circles, HMA, QMa, the former FIG. 2. horizontal, the other perpendicular to the axis Pp, and therefore coinciding with the plane of the equator. Let EZ be vertical, then the circle QZP will be the meridian, and by its intersection A with the horizontal circle will determine the XII o'clock line EA. Next divide the equatorial circle QMa into 24 equal parts ab, be, cd, &c. . . . of 15° each, beginning from the meridian Pa, and through the various points of division and the poles draw the great circles Pbp, Pep, &c. . . . These will exactly correspond to the equidistant generating lines on the cylinder in the previous construction, and the shadow of the style will fall on these circles after successive intervals of i, 2, 3, &c., hours from noon. If they meet the horizontal circle in the points B, C, D, &c., then EB, EC, ED, &c will be the I, II, III, &c., hour-lines required; and the problem of the horizontal dial consists in calculating the angles which these lines make with the XII o'clock line EA, whose position is known. The spherical triangles PAB, PAC, &c., enable us to do this readily. They are all right-angled at A, the side PA is the latitude of the place, and the angles APB, APC, &c., are respectively 15", 30°, &c., then tan AB = tan 15° sin latitude, tan AC =tan 30° sin latitude, &c. &c. These determine the sides AB, AC, &c.,that is, the angles AEB, AEC, &c., required. The I o'clock hour-line EB must make an angle with the meridian EA of 11° 51' on a London dial, of 12° 31' at Edinburgh, of 11° 23' at Paris, 12° o' at Berlin, 9° 55' at New York and 9° 19' at San Francisco. In the same way may be found the angles made by the other hour-lines. The calculations of these angles must extend throughout one quadrant from noon to VI o'clock, but need not be carried further, because all the other hour-lines can at once be deduced from these. In the first place the dial is symmetrically divided by the meridian, and therefore two times equidistant from noon will have their hour- lines equidistant from the meridian ; thus the XI o'clock line and the I o'clock line must make the same angles with it, the X o'clock the same as the II o'clock, and so on. And next, the 24 great circles, which were drawn to determine these lines, are in reality only 12; for clearly the great circle which gives I o'clock after midnight, and that which gives I o'clock after noon, are one and the same, and so also for the other hours. Therefore the hour-lines between VI in the evening and VI the next morning are the prolongations of the remaining twelve. Let us now remove the imaginary sphere with all its circles, and retain only the style EP and the plane HMA with the lines traced on it, and we shall have the horizontal dial. On the longest day in London the sun rises a little before 4 o'clock, and sets a little after 8 o'clock; there is therefore no necessity for extending a London dial beyond those hours. At Edinburgh^ the limits wnl be a little longer, while at Hammerfest, which is within the Arctic circle, the whole circuit will be required. Instead of a wire style it is often more convenient to use a metal plate from one quarter to half an inch in thickness. This plate, which is sometimes in the form of a right-angled triangle, must have an acute angle equal to the latitude of the place, and, when properly fixed in a vertical position on the dial, its two faces must coincide with the meridian plane, and the sloping edges formed by the thick- ness of the plate must point to the pole and form two parallel styles. Since there are two styles, there must be two dials, or rather two half dials, because a little consideration will show that, owing to the thickness of the plate, these styles will only one at a time cast a shadow. Thus the eastern edge will give the shadow for all hours before 6 o'clock in the morning. From 6 o'clock until noon the western edge will be used. At noon it will change again to the eastern edge until 6 o'clock in the evening, and finally the western edge for the remaining hours of daylight. The centres of the two dials will be at the points where the styles meet the dial face; but, in drawing the hour-lines, we must be careful to draw only those lines for which the corre- sponding style is able to give a shadow as explained above. The dial will thus have the appearance of a single dial plate, and there will be no confusion (see fig. 3). The line of demarcation between the shadow and the light will be better defined than when a wire style is used ; but the indications by this double dial will always be one minute too fast in the morning and one minute too slow in the afternoon. This FIG. 3. is owing to the magnitude of the sun, whose angular breadth is half a degree. The well-defined shadows are given, not by the centre of the sun, as we should require them, but by the forward limb in the morning and by the backward one in the afternoon; and the sun takes just about a minute to advance through a space equal to its half-breadth. Dials of this description are frequently met with. The dial plate is of metal as well as the vertical piece upon it, and they may be purchased ready for placing on the pedestal, — the dial with all the hour-lines traced on it and the style plate firmly fastened in its proper position, if not even cast in the same piece with the dial plate. When placing it on the pedestal care must be taken that the dial be perfectly horizontal and accurately oriented. The levelling wilt be done with a spirit-level, and the orientation will be best effected either in the forenoon or in the afternoon, by turning the dial plate till the time given by the shadow (making the one minute correction mentioned above) agrees with a good watch whose error on solar time is known. It is, however, important to bear in mind that a dial, so built up beforehand, will have the angle at the base equal to the latitude of some selected place, such as London, and the hour-lines will be drawn in directions calculated for the same latitude. Such a dial can therefore not be used near Edinburgh or Glasgow, although it would, without appreciable error, be adapted to any place whose latitude did not differ more than 20 or 30 m. from that of London, and it would be safe to employ it in Essex, Kent or Wiltshire. If a series of such dials were constructed, differing by 30 m. in latitude, then an intending purchaser could select one adapted to a place whose latitude was within 15 m. of his own, and the error of time would never exceed a small fraction of a minute. The following table will enable us to check the accuracy of the hour-lines and of the angle of the style, — all angles on the dial being readily measured with an ordinary protractor. It extends from 50° lat. to 59^° lat., and therefore includes the whole of Great Britain and Ireland : — LAT. XI. A.M. I. P.M. X. A.M. II. P.M. IX. A.M. III. P.M. VIII. A.M. IIII. P.M. VII. A.M. V. P.M. VI. A. M. VI. P.M 50° o' 11° 36' 23° 51' 37° 27' 53° o' 70° 43' 90° o' 50 30 II 41 24 I 37 39 53 12 70 51 90 o 5i o II 46 24 10 37 51 53 23 7<> 59 90 o 5i 3° II 51 24 19 3» 3 53 35 71 6 90 o 52 o ii 55 24 28 38 14 53 46 71 13 90 o 52 3° 12 0 24 37 38 25 53 57 71 20 90 o 53 o 12 5 24 45 38 37 54 8 71 27 90 o 53 3° 12 9 24 54 38 48 54 19 71 34 90 o 54 o 12 14 25 2 38 58 54 29 71 40 90 o 54 3° 12 18 25 10 39 9 54 39 71 47 90 o 55 o 12 23 25 19 39 19 54 49 71 53 90 o 55 30 12 27 25 27 39 3° 54 59 71 59 90 o 56 o 12 31 25 35 39 4° 55 9 72 5 90 o 56 3° 12 36 25 43 39 5° 55 18 .72 ii 90 o 57 o 12 40 25 50 39 59 55 27 72 17 90 o 57 3° 12 44 25 58 40 9 55 36 72 22 90 o 58 o 12 48 26 5 40 18 55 45 72 28 90 o 58 30 12 52 26 13 40 27 55 54 72 33 90 o 59 o 12 56 26 20 40 36 56 2 72 39 90 o 59 30 13 o 26 27 45 45 56 II 72 44 90 o Vertical South Dial. — Let us take again our imaginary transparent sphere QZPA (fig. 4), whose axis PEp is parallel to the earth's axis. Let Z be the zenith, and, consequently, the great circle QZP the 152 DIAL meridian. Through E, the centre of the sphere, draw a vertical plane facing south. This wijl cut the sphere in the great circle ZMA, which, being vertical, will pass through the zenith, and, facing south, will be at right angles to the meridian. Let QMa be the equatorial circle, obtained by drawing a plane through E at right angles to the axis PEp. The lower portion Ep of the axis will be the style, the vertical line EA in the meridian plane will be the XII o'clock line, and the line EM, which is obviously horizontal, since M is the inter- section of two great circles ZM , QM , each at right angles to the vertical plane QZP, will be the VI o'clock line. Now, as in the previous problem, divide the equatorial circle into 24 equal arcs of 15° each, beginning at a, viz. ab, be, &c., — each quadrant aM, MQ, &c., con- taining 6, — then through each point of division and through the 7. FIG. 4. axis Pp draw a plane cutting the sphere in 24 equidistant great circles. As the sun revolves round the axis the shadow of the axis will suc- cessively fall on these circles at intervals of one hour, and if these circles cross the vertical circle ZMA in the points A, B, C, &c., the shadow of the lower portion Ep of the axis will fall on the lines EA, EB, EC, &c., which will therefore be the required hour-lines on the vertical dial, Ep being the style. There is no necessity for going beyond the VI o'clock hour-line on each side of noon ; for, in the winter months the sun sets earlier than 6 o'clock, and in the summer months it passes behind the plane of the dial before that time, and is no longer available. It remains to show how the angles AEB, AEC, &c., may be calcu- lated. The spherical triangles pAB, pAC, &c., will give us a simple rule. These triangles are all right-angled at A, the side pA, equal to ZP, is the co-latitude of the place, that is, the difference between the latitude and 90°; and the successive angles ApB, ApC, &c., are 15°, 30°, &c., respectively. Then tan AB = tan 15° sin co-latitude; or more simply, tan AB=tan 15° cos latitude, tan AC = tan 30° cos latitude, &c. &c. and the arcs AB, AC so found are the measure of the angles AEB, AEC, &c., required. In this case the angles diminish as the latitudes increase, the opposite result to that of the horizontal dial. Inclining, Reclining, &c., Dials. — We shall not enter into the calculation of these cases. Our imaginary sphere being, as before supposed, constructed with its centre at the centre of the dial, and all the hour-circles traced upon it, the intersection of these hour- circles with the plane of the dial will determine the hour-lines just as in the previous cases ; but the triangles will no longer be right-angled, and the simplicity of the calculation will be lost, the chances of error being greatly increased by the difficulty of drawing the dial plane in its true position on the sphere, since that true position will have to be found from observations which can be only roughly performed. In all these cases, and in cases where the dial surface is nota plane, and the hour-lines, consequently, are not straight lines, the only safe practical way is to mark rapidly on the dial a few points (one is sufficient when the dial face is plane) of the shadow at the moment when a good watch shows that the hour has arrived, and afterwards connect these points with the centre by a continuous line. Of course the style must have been accurately fixed in its true position before we begin. Equatorial Dial. — The name equatorial dial is given to one whose plane is at right angles to the style, and therefore parallel to the equator. It is the simplest of all dials. A circle (fig. 5) divided into 24 equal arcs is placed at right angles to the style, and hour divisions are marked upon it. Then if care be taken that the style point accurately to the pole, and that the noon division coincide with the meridian plane, the shadow of the style will fall on the other divisions, each at its proper time. The divisions must be marked FIG. on both sides of the dial, because the sun will shine on opposite sides in .the summer and in the winter months, changing at each equinox. To find the Meridian Plane. — We have, so far, assumed the meridian plane to be accurately known ; we shall proceed to describe some of the methods by which it may be found. The mariner's compass may be employed as a first rough approxi- mation. It is well known that the needle of the compass, when free to move horizontally, oscillates upon its pivot and settles in a direction termed the magnetic meridian. This does not coincide with the true north and south line, but the difference between them is generally known with tolerable accur- acy, and is called the variation of the compass. The variation differs widely at different parts of the surface of the earth, and is not stationary at any particular place, though the change is slow; and there is even a small daily oscillation which takes place about the mean position, but too small to need notice here (see MAGNETISM, TERRES- TRIAL). With all these elements of uncertainty, it is obvious that the compass can only give a rough approximation to the position of the meridian, but it will serve to fix the style so that only a small further alteration will be necessary when a more perfect determination has been made. A very simple practical method is the following : — Place a table (fig. 6), or other plane surface, in such a position that it may receive the sun's raysbothinthemorningandintheafternoon. Then carefully level the surface by means of a spirit-level. This must be done very accurately, and the table in that position made perfectly secure, so that there be no danger of its shifting during the day. Next, suspend a plummet SH from a point S, which must be rigidly fixed. The extremity H, where the plummet just meets the surface, should be somewhere near the middle of one end of the table. With H for centre, describe any number of concentric arcs of circles, AB, CD, EF.&c. A bead P, kept in its place by friction, is threaded on the plummet line at some convenient height above H. Everything being thus prepared, let us follow the shadow of the bead P as it moves along the surface of the table during the day. It will be found to describe a curve ACE . . . FOB, approaching the point H as the sun advances towards noon, and reced- ing from it afterwards. (The curve is a conic section — an hyperbola in these regions.) At the moment when it crosses the arc AB, mark the point A; AP is then the direction of the sun, and, as AH is horizontal, the angle PAH is the alti- tude of the sun. In the afternoon mark the point B where it crosses the same arc; then the angle PBH is the alti- tude. But the right- angled triangles PHA, PHB are obviously equal; and the sun has therefore the same alti- FIG. 6. tudes at those two instants, the one before, the other after noon. It follows that, if the sun has not changed its declination during the interval, the two positions will be symmetrically placed one on each side of the meridian. Therefore, drawing the chord AB, and bisecting it in M, HM will be the meridian line. Each of the other concentric arcs, CD, EF, &c., will furnish its meridian line. Of course these should all coincide, but if not, the mean of the positions thus found must be taken. The proviso mentioned above, that the sun has not changed its declination, is scarcely ever realized; but the change is slight, and may be neglected, except perhaps about the time of the equinoxes, at the end of March and at the end of September. Throughout the remainder of the year the change of decimation is so slow that we may safely neglect it. The most favourable times are at the end of June and at the end of December, when the sun's declination is almost stationary. If the line HM be produced both ways to the edges of the table, then the two points on the ground vertically below those on the edges may be found by a plummet, and, if permanent marks be made there, the meridian plane, which is the vertical plane passing through these two points, will have its position perfectly secured. DIAL To place the Style of a Dial in its True Position. — Before giving any other method of finding the meridian plane, we shall complete the construction of the dial, by showing how the style may now be accurately placed in its true position. The angle which the style makes with a hanging plumb-line, being the co-latitude of the place, is known, and the north and south direction is also roughly given by the mariner's compass. The style may therefore be already adjusted approximately — correctly, indeed, as to its inclination — but prob- ably requiring a little horizontal motion east or west. Suspend a fine plumb-line from some point of the style, then the style will be properly adjusted if, at the very instant of noon, its shadow falls exactly on the plumb-line, — or, which is the same thing, if both shadows coincide on the dial. This instant of noon will be given very simply, by the meridian plane, whose position we have secured by the two permanent marks on the ground. Stretch a cord from the one mark to the other. This will not generally be horizontal, but the cord will be wholly in the meridian plane, and that is the only necessary condition. Next, suspend a plummet over the mark which is nearer to the sun, and, when the shadow of the plumb-line falls on the stretched cord, it is noon. A signal from the observer there to the observer at the dial enables the latter to adjust the style as directed above. Other Methods of finding the Meridian Plane. — We have dwelt at some length on these practical operations because they are simple and tolerably accurate, and because they want neither watch, nor sextant, nor telescope — nothing more, in fact, than the careful observation of shadow lines. The Pole star, or Ursae Minoris, may also be employed for finding the meridian plane without other apparatus than plumb-lines. This star is now only about I ° 14' from the pole ; if therefore a plumb-line be suspended, at a few feet from the observer, and if he shift his position till the star is exactly hidden by the line, then the plane through his eye and the plumb-line will never be far from the meridian plane. Twice in the course of the twenty-four hours the planes would be strictly coincident. This would be when the star crosses the meridian above the pole, and again when it crosses it below. If we wished to employ the method of determining the meridian, the times of the stars crossing would have to be calculated from the data in the Nautical Almanac, and a watch would be necessary to know when the instant arrived. The watch need not, however, be very accurate, because the motion of the star is so slow that an error of ten minutes in the time would not give an error of one-eighth of a degree in the azimuth. The following accidental circumstance enables us to dispense with both calculation and watch. The right ascension of the star i; Ursae Majoris, that star in the tail of the Great Bear which is farthest from the " pointers," happens to differ by a little more than 12 hours from the right ascension of the Pole star. The great circle which joins the two stars passes therefore close to the pole. When the Pole star, at a distance of about I ° 14' from the pole, is crossing the meridian above the pole, the star ij Ursae Majoris, whose polar distance is about 40°, has not yet reached the meridian below the pole. When jj Ursae Majoris reaches the meridian, which will be within half an hour later, the Pole star will have left the meridian ; but its slow motion will have carried it only a very little distance away. Now at some instant between these two times — much nearer the latter than the former — -the great circle joining the two stars will be exactly vertical; and at this instant, which the observer determines by seeing that the plumb-line hides the two stars simultaneously, neither of the stars is strictly in the meridian ; but the deviation from it is so small that it may be neglected, and the plane through the eye and the plumb-line taken for meridian plane. In all these cases it will be convenient, instead of fixing the plane by means of the eye and one fixed plummet, to have a second plummet at a short distance in front of the eye ; this second plummet, being suspended so as to allow of lateral shifting, must be moved so as always to be between the eye and the fixed plummet. The meridian plane will be secured by placing two permanent marks on the ground, one under each plummet. This method, by means of the two stars, is only available for the upper transit of Polaris; for, at the lower transit, the other star i\ Ursae Majoris would pass close to or beyond the zenith, and the observation could not be made. Also the stars will not be visible when the upper transit takes place in the daytime, so that one-half of the year is lost to this method. Neither could it be employed in lower latitudes than 40° N., for there the star would be below the horizon at its lower transit; — we may even say not lower than 45° N., for the star must be at least 5° above the horizon before it becomes distinctly visible. There are other pairs of stars which could be similarly employed, but none so convenient as these two, on account of Polaris with its very slow motion being one of the pair. To place the Style in its True Position without previous Determination of the Meridian Plane. — The various methods given above for finding the meridian plane have for ultimate object the determination of the plane, not on its own account, but as an element for fixing the instant of noon, whereby the style may be properly placed. We shall dispense, therefore, with all this preliminary work if we determine noon by astronomical observation. For this we shall want a good watch, or pocket chronometer, and a sextant or other instru- ment for taking altitudes. The local time at any moment may be determined in a variety of ways by observation of the celestial bodies. The simplest and most practically useful methods will be found described and investigated in any work on astronomy. For our present purpose a single altitude of the sun taken in the forenoon will be most suitable. At some time in the morning, when the sun is high enough to be free from the mists and uncertain refractions of the horizon — but to ensure accuracy, while the rate of increase of the altitude is still tolerably rapid, and, therefore, not later than 10 o'clock — take an altitude of the sun, an assistant, at the same moment, marking the time shown by the watch. The altitude so observed being properly corrected for refraction, parallax, &c., will, together with the latitude of the place, and the sun's declination, taken from the Nautical Almanac, enable us to calculate the time. This will be the solar or apparent time, that is, the very time we require. Comparing the time so found with the time shown by the watch, we see at once by how much the watch is fast or slow of solar time; we know, therefore, exactly what time the watch must mark when solar noon arrives, and waiting for that instant we can fix the style in its proper position as explained before. We can dispense with the sextant and with all calculation and observation if, by means of the pocket chronometer, we bring the time from some observatory where the work is done ; and, allowing for the change of longitude, and also for the equation of time, if the time we have brought is clock time, we shall have the exact instant of solar noon as in the previous case. In former times the fancy of dialists seems to have run riot in devising elaborate surfaces on which the dial was to be traced. Some- times the shadow was received on a cone, sometimes on a cylinder, or on a sphere, or on a combination of these. A universal dial was constructed of a figure in the shape of a cross; another universal dial showed the hours by a globe and by several gnomons. These universal dials required adjusting before use, and for this a mariner's compass and a spirit-level were necessary. But it would be tedious and useless to enumerate the various forms designed, and, as a rule, the more complex the less accurate. Another class of useless dials consisted of those with variable centres. They were drawn on fixed horizontal planes, and each day the style had to be shifted to a new position. Instead of hour-lines they had hour-points ; and the style, instead of being parallel to the axis of the earth, might make any chosen angle with the horizon. There was no practical advantage in their use, but rather the reverse ; and they can only be considered as furnishing material for new mathematical problems. Portable Dials. — The dials so far described have been fixed dials, for even the fanciful ones to which reference was just now made were to be fixed before using. There were, however, other dials, made generally of a small size, so as to be carried in the pocket; and these, so long as the sun shone, roughly answered the purpose of a watch. The description of the portable dial has generally been mixed up with that of the fixed dial, as if it had been merely a special case, and the same principle had been the basis of both; whereas there are essential points of difference between them, besides those which are at once apparent. In the fixed dial the result depends on the uniform angular motion of the sun round the fixed style ; and a small error in the assumed position of the sun, whether due to the imperfection of the instru- ment, or to some small neglected correction, has only a trifling effect on the time. This is owing to the angular displacement of the sun being so rapid — a quarter of a degree every minute — that for the ordinary affairs of life greater accuracy is not required, as a displace- ment of a quarter of a degree, or at any rate of one degree, can be readily seen by nearly every person. But with a portable dial this is no longer the case. The uniform angular motion is not now avail- able, because we have no determined fixed plane to which we may refer it. In the new position, to which the observer has gone, the zenith is the only point of the heavens he can at once practically find ; and the basis for the determination of the time is the constantly but very irregularly varying zenith distance of the sun. At sea the observation of the altitude of a celestial body is the only method available for finding local time ; but the perfection which has been attained in the construction of the sextant enables the sailor to reckon on an accuracy of seconds. Certain precautions have, however, to be taken. The observations must not be made within a couple of hours of noon, on account of the slow rate of change at that time, nor too near the horizon, on account of the uncertain refractions there ; and the same restrictions must be observed in using a portable dial. _To compare roughly the accuracy of the fixed and the portable dials, let us take a mean position in Great Britain, say 54° lat., and a mean declination when the sun is in the equator. It will rise at 6 o'clock, and at noon have an altitude of 36°, — that is, the portable dial will indicate an average change of one-tenth of a degree in each minute, or two and a half times slower than the fixed dial. The vertical motion of the sun increases, however, nearer the horizon, but even there it will be only one-eighth of a degree each minute, or half the rate of the fixed dial, which goes on at nearly the same speed throughout the day. Portable dials are also much more restricted in the range of latitude 154 DIAL o ** 1 / for which they are available, and they should not be used more than 4 or 5 m. north or south of the place for which they were constructed. We shall briefly describe two portable dials which were in actual use. Dial on a Cylinder.— A hollow cylinder of metal (fig. 7), 4 or 5 in. high, and about an inch in diameter, has a lid which admits of toler- ably easy rotation. A hole in the lid receives the style shaped somewhat like a bayonet; and the straight part of the style, which, on account of the two bends, is lower than the lid, projects horizontally out from the cylinder to a distance of I or l% in. When not in use the style would be taken out and placed inside the cylinder. A horizontal circle is traced on the cylinder opposite the projecting style, and this circle is divided into 36 approximately equidistant intervals.1 These intervals represent spaces of time, and to each division is assigned a date, so that each month has three dates marked as follows: — January 10, 20, 31; February 10, 20, 28; March 10, 20, 31; April 10, 20, 30, and so on, — always the loth, the 2Oth, and the last day of each month « J FlG. 7. Through each point of division a vertical line parallel to the axis of the cylinder is drawn from top to bottom. Now it will be readily understood that if, upon one of these days, the lid be turned, so as to bring the style exactly opposite the date, and if the dial be then placed on a horizontal table so as to receive sunlight, and turned round bodily until the shadow of the style falls exactly on the vertical line below it, the shadow will terminate at some definite point of this line, the position of which point will depend on the length of the style — that is, the distance of its end from the surface of the cylinder — and on the altitude of the sun at that instant. Suppose that the observations are continued all day, the cylinder being very gradually turned so that the style may always face the sun, and suppose that marks are made on the vertical line to show the extremity of the shadow at each exact hour from sunrise to sunset — these times being taken from a good fixed sun-dial, — then it is obvious that the next year, on the same date, the sun's declination being about the same, and the observer in about the same latitude, the marks made the previous year will serve to tell the time all that day. What we have said above was merely to make the principle of the instrument clear, for it is evident that this mode of marking, which would require a whole year's sunshine and hourly observation, cannot be the method employed. The positions of the marks are, in fact, obtained by calculation. Corresponding to a given date, the declination of the sun is taken from the almanac, and this, together with the latitude of the place and the length of the style, will constitute the necessary data for computing the length of the shadow, that is, the distance of the mark below the style for each successive hour. We have assumed above that the declination of the sun is the same at the same date in different years. This is not quite correct, but, if the dates be taken for the second year after leap year, the results will be sufficiently approximate. When all the hour-marks have been placed opposite to their respective dates, then a continuous curve, joining the corresponding hour-points, will serve to find the time for a day intermediate to those set down, the lid being turned till the style occupy a proper position between the two divisions. The horizontality of the surface on which the instrument rests is a very necessary condition, especially in summer, when, the shadow of the style being long, the extreme end will shift rapidly for a small deviation from the vertical, and render the reading uncertain. The dial can also be used by holding it up by a small ring in the top of the lid, and probably the vertically is better ensured in that way. Portable Dial on a Card. — This neat and very ingenious dial is attributed by Ozanam to a Jesuit Father, De Saint Rigaud, and probably dates from the early part of the i?th century. Ozanam says that it was sometimes called the capuchin, from some fancied resemblance to a cowl thrown back. Construction. — Draw a straight line ACB parallel to the top of the 1 Strict equaKty is not necessary, as the observations made are on the vertical line through each division-point, without reference to the others. It is not even requisite that the divisions should go completely and exactly round the cylinder, although they were always so drawn, and both these conditions were insisted upon in the directions for the construction. card (fig. 8) and another DCE at right angles to it ; with C as centre, and any convenient radius CA, describe the semicircle AEB below the horizontal. Divide the whole arc AEB into 12 equal parts at the points r, s, t. &c., and through these points draw perpendiculars to the diameter ACB; these lines will be the hour-lines, viz. the line through r will be the XI . . . I line, the line through s the X ... II line, and so on ; the hour-line of noon will be the point A itself ; by subdivision of the small arcs Ar, rs, st, &c., we may draw the hour- lines corresponding to halves and quarters, but this only where it can be done without confusion. Draw ASD making with AC an angle equal to the latitude of the place, and let it meet EC in D, through which point draw FDG at right angles to AD. With centre A, and any convenient radius AS, describe an arc of circle RST, and graduate this arc by marking degree divisions on FIG. 8. it, extending from o° at S to 23$° on each side at R and T. Next determine the points on the straight line FDG where radii drawn from A to the degree divisions on the arc would cross it, and carefully mark these crossings. The divisions of RST are to correspond to the sun's declination, south declinations on RS and north declinations on ST. In the other hemisphere of the earth this would be reversed; the north declinations would be on the upper half. Now, taking a second year after leap year (because the declinations of that year are about the mean of each set of four years), find the days of the month when the sun has these different declinations, and place these dates, or so many of them as can be shown without confusion, opposite the corresponding marks on FDG. Draw the sun-line at the top of the card parallel to the line ACB ; and, near the extremity, to the right, draw any small figure intended to form, as it were, a door of which a b shall be the hinge. Care must be taken that this hinge is exactly at right angles to the sun-line. Make a fine open slit r. d right through the carr1 -\nd extending from the hinge to a short distance on the door, — the centre line of this slit coinciding accurately with the sun-line. Now, cut the door completely through the card ; except, of course, along the hinge, which, when the card is thick, should be partly cut through at the back, to facilitate the opening. Cut the card right through along the line FDG, and pass a thread carrying a little plummet W and a very small bead P ; the bead having sufficient friction with the thread to retain any position when acted on only by its own weight, but sliding easily along the thread when moved by the hand. At the back of the card the thread terminates in a knot to hinder it from being drawn through; or better, because giving more friction and a better hold, it passes through the centre of a small disk of card — a fraction of an inch in diameter — and, by a knot, is made fast at the back of the disk. To complete the construction, — with the centres F and G, and DIALECT 155 radii FA and GA, draw the two arcs AY and AZ which will limit the hour-lines; for in an observation the bead will always be found between them. The forenoon and afternoon hours may then be marked as indicated in the figure. The dial does not of itself discriminate between forenoon and afternoon; but extraneous circumstances, as, for instance, whether the sun is rising or falling, will settle that point, except when close to noon, where it will always be uncertain. To rectify the dial (usingthe old expression, which means to prepare the dial for an observation), — open the small door, by turning it about its hinge, till it stands well out in front. Next, set the thread in the line FG opposite the day of the month, and stretching it over the point A, slide the bead P along till it exactly coincide with A. To find the hour of the day, — hold the dial in a vertical position in such a way that its-plane may pass through the sun. The vertically is ensured by seeing that the bead rests against the card without pressing. Now gradually tilt the dial (without altering its vertical plane), until the central line of sunshine, passing through the open slit of the door, just falls along the sun-line. The hour-line against which the bead P then rests indicates the time. The sun-line drawn above has always, so far as we know, been used as a shadow-line. The upper edge of the rectangular door was the prolongation of the line, and, the door being opened, the dial was gradually tilted until the shadow cast by the upper edge exactly coincided with it. But this shadow tilts the card one-quarter of a degree more than the sun-line, because it is given by that portion of the sun which just appears above the edge, that is, by the upper limb of the sun, which is one-quarter of a degree higher than the centre. Now, even at some distance from noon, the sun will sometimes take a considerable time to rise one-quarter of a degree, and by so much time will the indication of the dial be in error. The central line of light which comes through the open slit will be free from this error, because it is given by light from the centre of the sun. The card-dial deserves to be looked upon as something more than a mere toy. Its ingenuity and scientific accuracy give it an educa- tional value which is not to be measured by the roughness of the results obtained. The theory of this instrument is as follows : — Let H (fig. 9) be the point of suspension of the plummet at the time of observation, so that the angle DAHis the north declination of the sun, — P, the bead, resting against the hour-line VX. Join CX, then the angle ACX is the hour- angle from noon given by the bead, and we have to prove that this hour-angle is the correct one corresponding to a north latitude DAC. a north declination DAH and an altitude equal to the angle which the sun-line, or its parallel AC, makes with the horizontal. The angle PHQ will be equal to the altitude, if HQ be drawn parallel to DC, for the pair of lines HQ, HP will be respectively at right angles to the sun-line and the horizontal. Draw PQ and HM parallel to AC, and let them meet DCE in M and N respectively. Let HP and its equal HA be represented by a. Then the following values will be readily deduced from the figure : — AD =a cos ded. DH =a sin decl. PQ = o sin alt. CX= AC = AD cos lat. =a cos decl. cos lat. PN= CV = CXcos ACX = o cos dec/, cos to. cos ACX. NQ = MH = DH sin MDH = a sin decl. sin lat. (.-. the angle MDH = DAC = latitude.) And since PQ = NQ + PN, we have, by simple substitution, a sin alt. = a sin decl. sin lat. +a cos decl. cos lat. cos ACX ; or, dividing by a throughout, sin alt. =sin decl. sin lat.+cos decl. cos lat. cos ACX . . . (i) which equation determines the hour-angle ACX shown by the bead. To determine the hour-angle of the sun at the same moment, let fig. 10 represent the celestial sphere, HR the horizon, P the pole, Z the zenith and S the sun. From the spherical triangle PZS, we have cos ZS = cos PS cos ZP+sin PS sin ZP cos ZPS but ZS = zenith distance =90 "-altitude ZP =90°- PR =90°- latitude PS = polar distance =90°- declination, therefore, by substitution sin alt. =sin decl. sin lat.+cos decl. cos lat. cos ZPS ... (2) and ZPS is the hour-angle of the sun. A comparison of the two formulae (i) and (2) shows that the hour- angle given by the bead will be the same as that given by the sun, and proves the theoretical accuracy of the card-dial. Just at sun-rise or at sun-set the amount of refraction slightly exceeds half a degree. If, then, a little cross m (see fig. 8) be made just below the sun-line, at a distance from it which would subtend half a degree at c, the time of sun-set would be found corrected for refraction, if the central line of light were made to fall on cm. LITERATURE. — The following list includes the principal writers on dialling whose works have come down to us, and to these we must refer for descriptions of the various constructions, some simple and direct, others fanciful and intricate, which have been at different times employed : Ptolemy, Analemma, restored by Commandine; Vitruvius, Architecture ; Sebastian Munster, Horolegiographia ; Orontius Fineus, De horo- logiis solaribus; Mutio Oddi da Urbino, Horologi solari; Dryander, De horo- logierum compositione ; Conrad Gesner, Pandectae; Andreas Schoner, Gnomo- nicae; F. Commandine, Horologiorum descriptio ; FIG. 10. Joan. Bapt. Benedictus, De gnomonum usu; Georgius Schomberg, Exegesis fundamentorum gnomonicorum; Joan. Solomon de Caus, Horologes solaires; Joan. Bapt. Trolta, Praxis horologiorum; Desargues, Maniere universelle pour poser I'essieu, &c. ; Ath. Kircher, Ars magna lucis et Umbrae; Hallum, Explicatio horologii in horto regie Londini ; Joan. Mark, Tractatus horologiorum; Clavius, Gnomonices de horologiis. Also among more modern writers, Deschales, Ozanam, Schottus, Wolfius, Picard, Lahire, Walper; in German, Paterson, Michael, Miiller; in English, Foster, Wells, Collins, Leadbetter, Jones, Leybourn, Emerson and Ferguson. See also Hans Loschner, Uber Sonnenuhren (2nd ed., Graz, 1906). (H. G.) DIALECT (from Gr. 5tdXe/CTOJ, conversation, manner of speaking, diaXtyeaOai, to converse), a particular or characteristic manner of speech, and hence any variety of a language. In its widest sense languages which are branches of a common or parent language may be said to be " dialects " of that language; thus Attic, Ionic, Aeolic and Doric are dialects of Greek, though there may never have at any time been a separate language of which they were variations; so the various Romance languages, Italian, French, Spanish, &c., were dialects of Latin. Again, where there have existed side by side, as in England, various branches of a language, such as the languages of the Angles, the Jutes or the Saxons, and the descendant of one particular language, from many causes, has obtained the predominance, the traces of the other languages remain in the " dialects " of the districts where once the original language prevailed. Thus it may be incorrect, from the historical point of view, to say that " dialect " varieties of a language represent degradations of the standard language. A " literary " accepted language, such as modern English, repre- sents the original language spoken in the Midlands, with accretions i56 DIALECTIC— DIALOGUE of Norman, French, and later literary and scientific additions from classical and other sources, while the present-day " dialects " preserve, in inflections, pronunciation and particular words, traces of the original variety of the language not incorporated in the standard language of the country. See the various articles on languages (English, French, &c.). DIALECTIC, or DIALECTICS (from Gr. StdXe/CTos, discourse, debate; •ft 5ia\em/ci7, sc. rtyyv, the art of debate), a logical term, generally used in common parlance in a contemptuous sense for verbal or purely abstract disputation devoid of practical value. According to Aristotle, Zeno of Elea " invented " dialectic, the art of disputation by question and answer, while Plato developed it metaphysically in connexion with his doctrine of " Ideas " as the art of analysing ideas in themselves and in relation to the ultimate idea of the Good (Repub. vii.). The special function of the so-called " Socratic dialectic " was to show the inadequacy of popular beliefs. Aristotle himself used " dialectic," as opposed to " science," for that department of mental activity which examines the presuppositions lying at the back of all the particular sciences. Each particular science has its own subject matter and special principles (Iditu apxai) on which the superstructure of its special discoveries is based. The Aristotelian dialectic, however, deals with the universal laws (Koi.va.1 apxai) of reasoning, which can be applied to the particular arguments of all the sciences. The sciences, for example, all seek to define their own species; dialectic, on the other hand, sets forth the conditions which all definitions must satisfy whatever their subject matter. Again, the sciences all seek to educe general laws; dialectic investigates the nature of such laws, and the kind and degree of necessity to which they can attain. To this general subject matter Aristotle gives the name " Topics " (TOKOI, loci, communes loci). " Dia- lectic " in this sense is the equivalent of " logic." Aristotle also uses the term for the science of probable reasoning as opposed to demonstrative reasoning (awodtiKriK-ij) . The Stoics divided \oyiKrj (logic) into rhetoric and dialectic, and from their time till the end of the middle ages dialectic was either synonymous with, or a part of, logic. In modern philosophy the word has received certain special meanings. In Kantian terminology Dialektik is the name of that portion of the Kritik d. reinen Vernunft in which Kant discusses the impossibility of applying to " things-in-themselves " the principles which are found to govern phenomena. In the system of Hegel the word resumes its original Socratic sense, as the name of that intellectual process whereby the inadequacy of popular conceptions is exposed. Throughout its history, therefore, " dialectic " has been connected with that which is remote from, or alien to, unsystematic thought, with the a priori, or transcendental, rather than with the facts of common experience and material things. DIALLAGE, an important mineral of the pyroxene group, dis- tinguished by its thin foliated structure and bronzy lustre. The chemical composition is the same as diopside, Ca Mg (SiOa)!, but it sometimes contains the molecules (Mg, Fe") (Al, Fe"")2 SiOs and Na Fe" (SiOa)2 in addition, when it approaches to augite in composition. Diallage is in fact an altered form of these varieties of pyroxene; the particular kind of alteration which they have undergone being known as "schillerization." This, as described by Prof. J. W. Judd, consists in the develop- ment of a fine lamellar structure or parting due to secondary twinning and the separation of secondary products along these and other planes of chemical weakness (" solution planes ") in the crystal. The secondary products'consist of mixtures of vari- ous hydrated oxides — opal, gothite, limonite, &c. — and appear as microscopic inclusions filling or partly filling cavities, which have definite outlines with respect to the enclosing crystal and are known as negative crystals. It is to the reflection and inter- ference of light from these minute inclusions that the peculiar bronzy sheen or " schiller " of the mineral is due. The most pronounced lamination is that parallel to the orthopinacoid; another, less distinct, is parallel to the basal plane, and a third parallel to the plane of symmetry; these planes of secondary parting are in addition to the ordinary prismatic cleavage of all pyroxenes. Frequently the material is interlaminated with a rhombic pyroxene (bronzite) or with an amphibole (smaragdite or uralite), the latter being an alteration product of the diallage. Diallage is usually greyish-green or dark green, sometimes brown, in colour, and has a pearly to metallic lustre or schiller on the laminated surfaces. The hardness is 4, and the specific gravity 3-2 to 3-35. It does not occur in distinct crystals with definite outlines, but only as lamellar masses in deep-seated igneous rocks, principally gabbro, of which it is an essential con- stituent. It occurs also in some peridotites and serpentines, and rarely in volcanic rocks (basalt) and crystalline schists. Masses of considerable size are found in the coarse-grained gabbros of the Island of Skye, Le Prese near Bornio in Valtellina, Lombardy, Prato near Florence, and many other localities. The name diallage, from 5taXXo7^, " difference," in allusion to the dissimilar cleavages and planes of fracture, as originally applied by R. J. Haiiy in 1801, included other minerals (the orthorhombic pyroxenes hypersthene, bronzite and bastite, and the smaragdite variety of hornblende) which exhibit the same peculiarities of schiller structure; it is now limited to the monoclinic pyroxenes with this structure. Like the minerals of similar appearance just mentioned, it is sometimes cut and polished for ornamental purposes. (L. J. S.) DIALOGUE, properly the conversation between two or more persons, reported in writing, a form of literature invented by the Greeks for purposes of rhetorical entertainment and instruction, and scarcely modified since the days of its invention. A dialogue is in reality a little drama without a theatre, and with scarcely any change of scene. It should be illuminated with those qualities which La Fontaine applauded in the dialogue of Plato, namely vivacity, fidelity of tone, and accuracy in the opposition of opinions. It has always been a favourite with those writers who have something to censure or to impart, but who love to stand outside the pulpit, and to encourage others to pursue a train of thought which the author does not seem to do more than indicate. The dialogue is so spontaneous a mode of expressing and noting down the undulations of human thought that it almost escapes analysis. All that is recorded, in any literature, of what pretend to be the actual words spoken by living or imaginary people is of the nature of dialogue. One branch of letters, the drama, is entirely founded upon it. But in its technical sense the word is used to describe what the Greek philosophers invented, and what the noblest of them lifted to the extreme refinement of an art. The systematic use of dialogue as an independent literary form is commonly supposed to have been introduced by Plato, whose earliest experiment in it is believed to survive in the Laches. The Platonic dialogue, however, was founded on the mime, which had been cultivated half a century earlier by the Sicilian poets, Sophron and Epicharmus. The works of these writers, which Plato admired and imitated, are lost, but it is believed that they were little plays, usually with only two performers. The recently discovered mimes of Herodas (Herondas) give us some idea of their scope. Plato further simplified the form, and reduced it to pure argumentative conversation, while leaving intact the amusing element of character-drawing. He must have begun this about the year 405, and by 399 he had brought the dialogue to its highest perfection, especially in the cycle directly inspired by the death of Socrates. All his philosophical writings, except the Apology, are cast in this form. As the greatest of all masters of Greek prose style, Plato lifteti his favourite instrument, the dialogue, to its highest splendour, and to this day he remains by far its most distinguished proficient. In the 2nd century A.D. Lucian of Samosata achieved a brilliant success with his ironic dialogues " Of the Gods," " Of the Dead," " Of Love " and " Of the Courtesans." In some of them he attacks superstition and philosophical error with the sharpness of his wit; in others he merely paints scenes of modern life. The title of Lucian's most famous collection was borrowed in the 1 7th century by two French writers of eminence, each of whom prepared Dialogues des marts. These were Fontenelle (1683) and Fenelon (1712). In English non-dramatic literature the dialogue had not been extensively DIALYSIS— DIAMETER employed until Berkeley used it, in 1713, for his Platonic treatise, Hylas and Philonous. Lander's Imaginary Conversations (1821- 1828) is the most famous example of it in the loth century, although the dialogues of Sir Arthur Helps claim attention. In Germany, Wieland adopted this form for several important satirical works published between 1780 and 1799. In Spanish literature, the Dialogues of Valdes (1528) and those on Painting (1633) by Vincenzo Carducci, are celebrated. In Italian, collec- tions of dialogues, on the model of Plato, have been composed by Torquato Tasso (1586), by Galileo (1632), by Galiani (1770), by Leopardi (1825), and by a host of lesser writers. Inourownday, the French have returned to the original application of dialogue, and the inventions of " Gyp," of Henri Lavedan and of others, in which a mundane anecdote is wittily and maliciously told in conversation, would probably present a close analogy to the lost mimes of the early Sicilian poets, if we could meet with them. This kind of dialogue has been employed in English, and with conspicuous cleverness by Mr Anstey Guthrie, but it does not seem so easily appreciated by English as by French readers. (E.G.) DIALYSIS (from the Gr. 8ta, through, \vtiv, to loosen), in chemistry, a process invented by Thomas Graham for separating colloidal and crystalline substances. He found that solutions could be divided into two classes according to their action upon a porous diaphragm such as parchment. If a solution, say of salt, be placed in a drum provided with a parchment bottom, termed a " dialyser," and the drum and its contents placed in a larger vessel of water, the salt will pass through the membrane. If the salt solution be replaced by one of glue, gelatin or gum, it will be found that the membrane is impermeable to these solutes. To the first class Graham gave the name " crystalloids," and to the second " colloids." This method is particularly effective in the preparation of silicic acid. By adding hydrochloric acid to a dilute solution of an alkaline silicate, no precipitate will fall and the solution will contain hydrochloric acid, an alkaline chloride, and silicic acid. If the solution be transferred to a dialyser, the hydrochloric acid and alkaline chloride will pass through the parchment, while the silicic acid will be retained. DIAMAGNETISM. Substances which, like iron, are attracted by the pole of an ordinary magnet are commonly spoken of as magnetic, all others being regarded as non-magnetic. It was noticed by A. C. Becquerel in 1827 that a number of so-called non-magnetic bodies, such as wood and gum lac, were influenced by a very powerful magnet, and he appears to have formed the opinion that the influence was of the same nature as that exerted upon iron, though much feebler, and that all matter was more or less magnetic. Faraday showed in 1845 (Experimental Re- searches, vol. iii.) that while practically all natural substances are indeed acted upon by a sufficiently strong magnetic pole, it is only a comparatively small number that are attracted like iron, the great majority being repelled. Bodies of the latter class were termed by Faraday diamagnetics. The strongest diamagnetic substance known is bismuth, its susceptibility being — 0-000014, and its permeability 0-9998. The diamagnetic quality of this metal can be detected by means of a good permanent magnet, and its repulsion by a magnetic pole had been more than once recognized before the date of Faraday's experiments. The metals gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, antimony and mercury are all diamagnetic; tin, aluminium and platinum are attracted by a very strong pole. (See MAGNETISM.) DIAMANTE, FRA, Italian fresco painter, was born at Prato about 1 400. He was a Carmelite friar, a member of the Florentine community of that order, and was the friend and assistant of Filippo Lippi. The Carmelite convent of Prato which he adorned with many works in fresco has been suppressed, and the buildings have been altered to a degree involving the destruction of the paintings. He was the principal assistant of Fra Filippo in the grand frescoes which may still be seen at the east end of the cathedral of Prato. In the midst of the work he was recalled to Florence by his conventual superior, and a minute of proceedings of the commune of Prato is still extant, in which it is determined to petition the metropolitan of Florence to obtain his return to Prato, — a proof that his share in the work was so important that his recall involved the suspension of it. Subsequently he assisted Fra Filippo in the execution of the frescoes still to be seen in the cathedral of Spoleto, which Fra Diamante completed in 1470 after his master's death in 1469. Fra Filippo left a son ten years old to the care of Diamante, who, having received 200 ducats from the commune of Spoleto, as the balance due for the work done in the cathedral, returned with the child to Florence, and, as Vasari says, bought land for himself with the money, giving but a small portion to the child. The accusation of wrong-doing, however, would depend upon the share of the work executed by Fra Diamante, and the terms of his agreement with Fra Filippo. Fra Diamante must have been nearly seventy when he com- pleted the frescoes at Spoleto, but the exact year of his death is not known. DIAMANTE, JUAN BAUTISTA (i64o?-i684?), Spanish dramatist, was born at Castillo about 1640, entered the army, and began writing for the stage in 1657. He became a knight of Santiago in 1660; the date of his death is unknown, but no reference to him as a living author occurs after 1684. Like many other Spanish dramatists of his time, Diamante is deficient in originality, and his style is riddled with affectations; La Des- graciada Raquel, which was long considered to be his best play, is really Mira de Amescua's Judia de Toledo under another title; and the earliest of Diamante's surviving pieces, El Honrador de su padre (1658), is little more than a free translation of Corneille's Cid. Diamante is historically interesting as the introducer of French dramatic methods into Spain. DIAMANTINA (formerly called Tejuco), a mining town of the state of Minas Geraes, Brazil, in the N.E. part of the state, 3710 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1890) 17,980. Diamantina is built partly on a steep hillside overlooking a small tributary of the Rio Jequitinhonha (where diamond- washing was once carried on), and partly on the level plain above. The town is roughly but substantially built, with broad streets and large squares. It is the seat of a bishopric, with an episcopal seminary, and has many churches. Its public buildings are inconspicuous; they include a theatre, military barracks, hospitals, a lunatic asylum and a secondary school. There are several small manufactures, including cotton-weaving, and diamond-cutting is carried on. The surrounding region, lying on the eastern slopes of one of the lateral ranges of the Serra do Espinhago, is rough and barren, but rich in minerals, principally gold and diamonds. Diamantina is the commercial centre of an extensive region, and has long been noted for its wealth. The date of the discovery of diamonds, upon which its wealth and importance chiefly depend, is uncertain, but the official announcement was made in 1729, and in the following year the mines were declared crown property, with a crown reservation, known as the " forbidden district," 42 leagues in circumference and 8 to 16 leagues in diameter. Gold-mining was forbidden within its limits and diamond-washing was placed under severe restrictions. There are no trustworthy returns of the value of the output, but in 1849 the total was estimated up to that date at 300,000,000 francs (see DIAMOND). The present name of the town was assumed (instead of Tejuco) in 1838, when it was made a cidade. DIAMANTINO, a small town of the state of Matto Grosso, Brazil, near the Diamantino river, about 6 m. above its junction with the Paraguay, in 14° 24' 33* S., 56° 8' 30' W. Pop. (1890) of the municipality 2147, mostly Indians. It stands in a broken sterile region 1837 ft. above sea-level and at the foot of the1 great Matto Grosso plateau. The first mining settlement dates from 1730, when gold was found in the vicinity. On the discovery of diamonds in 1746 the settlement drew a large population and for a time was very prosperous. The mines failed to meet expectations, however, and the population has steadily declined. Ipecacuanha and vanilla beans are now the principal articles of export. DIAMETER (from the Gr. 8ia, through, fifrpov, measure), in geometry, a line passing through the centre of a circle or conic section and terminated by the curve; the "principal diameters" of the ellipse and hyperbola coincide with the "axes" and are at iS8 DIAMOND right angles; " conjugate diameters " are such that each bisects chords parallel to the other. The diameter of a quadric surface is a line at the extremities of which the tangent planes are parallel. Newton defined the diameter of a curve of any order as the locus of the centres of the mean distances of the points of intersection of a system of parallel chords with the curve; this locus may be shown to be a straight line. The word is also used as a uniU of linear measurement of the magnifying power of a lens or microscope. In architecture, the term is used to express the measure of the lower part of the shaft of a column. It is employed by Vitruvius (iii. 2) to determine the height of a column, which should vary from eight to ten diameters according to the intercolumniation: and it is generally the custom to fix the lower diameter of the shaft by the height required and the Order employed. Thus the diameter of the Roman Doric should be about one-eighth of the height, that of the Ionic one-ninth, and of the Corinthian one-tenth (see ORDER). DIAMOND, a mineral universally recognized as chief among precious stones; it is the hardest, the most imperishable, and also the most brilliant of minerals.1 These qualities alone have made it supreme as a jewel since early times, and yet the real brilliancy of the stone is not displayed until it has been faceted by the art of the lapidary (?.».); and this was scarcely developed before the year 1746. The consummate hardness of the diamond, in spite of its high price, has made it most useful for purposes of grinding, polishing and drilling. Numerous attempts have been made to manufacture the diamond by arti- ficial means, and these attempts have a high scientific interest on account of the mystery which surrounds the natural origin of this remarkable mineral. Its physical and chemical properties have been the subject of much study, and have a special interest in view of the extraordinary difference between the physical characters of the diamond and those of graphite (blacklead) or charcoal, with which it is chemically identical, and into which it can be converted by the action of heat or electricity. Again, on account of the great value of the diamond, much of the romance of precious stones has centred round this mineral; and the history of some of the great diamonds of historic times has been traced through many extraordinary vicissitudes. The name 'ASd^as, " the invincible," was probably applied by the Greeks to hard metals, and thence to corundum (emery) and other hard stones. According to Charles William King, the first undoubted application of the name to the diamond is found in Manilius (A.D. 16), — Sic Adamas, punctumlapidis, pretiosior auro, — and Pliny (A.D. 100) speaks of the rarity of the stone, " the most valuable of gems, known only to kings." Pliny de- scribed six varieties, among which the Indian, having six pointed angles, and also resembling two pyramids (turbines, whip-tops) placed base to base, may probably be identified as the ordinary octahedral crystal (fig. i). The " diamond " (Yahalom) in the breastplate of the high priest (Ex. xxxix. n) was certainly some other stone, for it bore the name of a tribe, and methods of engraving the true diamond cannot have been known so early. The stone can hardly have become familiar to the Romans until introduced from India, where it was probably mined at a very early period. But one or other of the remaining varieties mentioned by Pliny (the Macedonian, the Arabian, the Cyprian, &c.) may be the true diamond, which was in great request for the tool of the gem-engraver. Later Roman authors mentioned various rivers in India as yielding the Adamas among their sands. The name Adamas became corrupted into the forms adamant, diamaunt, diamant, diamond; but the same word, owing to a medieval misinterpretation which derived it from adamare (compare the French word aimant), was also applied to the lodestone. Like all the precious stones, the diamond was credited with many marvellous virtues; among others the power of averting insanity, and of rendering poison harmless; and in the middle 1 Diamonds are invariably weighed in carats and in \, \, J, -fa, fa, j"j of a carat. One (English) carat = 3-i7 grains = -2O54 gram. One ounce = 1513 carats. (See CARAT.) ages it was known as the " pietra della reconciliazione," as the peacemaker between husband and wife. Scientific Characters. — The majority of minerals are found most eotnmonly in masses which can with difficulty be recognized as (Aggregates of crystalline grains, and occur comparatively seldom /as distinct crystals; but the diamond is almost always found in single crystals, which show no signs of previous attachment to any matrix; the stones were, until the discovery of the South African mines, almost entirely derived from sands or gravels, but owing to the hardness of the mineral it is rarely, if ever, water-worn, and the crystals are often very perfect. The crystals belong to the cubic system, generally assuming the form of the octahedron (fig. i), but they may, in accordance with the prin- ciples of crystallography, also occur in other forms symmetric- ally derived from the octahedron, — for example, the cube, the i2-faced figure known as the rhombic dodecahedron (fig. 2), or the 48-faced figure known as the hexakis-octahedron (fig. 3), or in combinations of these. The octahedron faces are usually smooth; most of the other faces are rounded (fig. 4). The cube FIG. i. FIG. 2. FIG. 3. FIG. 4. FIG. 5. faces are rough with protruding points. The cube is sometimes found in Brazil, but is very rare among the S. African stones; and the dodecahedron is perhaps more „.. common in Brazil than elsewhere. There is often a furrow running along the edges of the octahedron, or across the edges of the cube, and this indicates that the apparently simple crystal may really consist of eight individuals meet- ing at the centre; or, what comes to the i:'.. same thing, of two individuals inter- penetrating and projecting through each other. If this be so the form of the diamond is really the tetrahedron (and the various figures derived symmetrically from it) and not the octadehron. Fig. 5 shows how the octahedron with furrowed edge may be constructed from two interpene- trating tetrahedra (shown in dotted lines). If the grooves be left out of account, the large faces which have replaced each tetra- hedron corner then make up a figure which has the aspect of a simple octahedron. Such regular interpenetrations are known in crystallography as " twins." There are also twins of dia- mond in which two octahedra (fig. 6) are united by contact along a surface parallel to an octahedron face without interpenetra- tion. On account of their resemblance to the twins of the mineral spinel (which crystallizes in octahedra) these are known as " spinel twins." They are gen- erally flattened along the plane of union. The crystals often display triangular markings, either elevations or pits, upon the octahedron faces; the latter are particularly well defined and have the form of equilateral triangles (fig. 7). They are similar to the " etched figures " produced FIG. 7. by moistening an octahedron of alum, and have probably been produced, like them, by the action of some solvent. Similar, but somewhat different markings are produced by the combustion of diamond in oxygen, unaccompanied by any rounding of the edgesV" Diamond possesses a brilliant " adamantine" lustre, but this tends to be greasy on the surface of the natural stones and gives DIAMOND the rounded crystals somewhat the appearance of drops of gum. Absolutely colourless stones are not so common as cloudy and faintly coloured specimens; the usual tints are grey, brown, yellow or white; and as rarities, red, green, blue and black stones have been found. The colour can sometimes be removed or changed at a high temperature, but generally returns on cooling. It is therefore more probably due to metallic oxides than to hydrocarbons. Sir William Crookes has, however, changed a pale yellow diamond to a bluish-green colour by keeping it embedded in radium bromide for eleven weeks. The black coloration upon the surface produced by this process, as also by the electric bombardment in a vacuum tube, appears to be due to a conversion of the surface film into graphite. Diamond may break with a conchoidal fracture, but the crystals always cleave readily along planes parallel to the octahedron faces: of this property the diamond cutters avail themselves when reducing the stone to the most convenient form for cutting; a sawing process, has, however, now been introduced, which is preferable to that of cleavage. It is the hardest known substance (though tantalum, or an alloy of tantalum now competes with it) and is chosen as 10 in the mineralogist's scale of hardness; but the difference in hardness between diamond (10) and corundum (9) is really greater than that between corundum (9) and talc (i); there is a difference in the hardness of the different faces; the Borneo stones are also said to be harder than those of Australia, and the Australian harder than the African, but this is by no means certain. The specific gravity ranges from 3-56 to 3-50, generallyabout3'S2. The coefficient of expansion increases very rapidly above 750°, and diminishes very rapidly allow temper- atures; the maximum density is attained about -42° C. .The very high refractive power (index = 2-417 for sodium light) gives the stone its extraordinary brilliancy; for light incident within a diamond at a greater angle than 245° is reflected back into the stone instead of passing through it; the corresponding angle for glass is 40?°. The very high dispersion (index for red light = 2-402, for blue light = 2-460) givesit the wonderful" fire " or display of spectral colours. Certain absorption bands at the blue end of the spectrum are supposed to be due to rare elements such as samarium. Unlike other cubic crystals, diamond experiences a diminution of refractive index with increase of temperature. It is very transparent for Rontgen rays, whereas paste imitations are opaque. It is a good conductor of heat, and therefore feels colder to the touch than glass and imitation stones. The diamond has also a somewhat greasy feel. The specific heat increases rapidly with rising temperature up to 60° C., and then more slowly. Crystals belonging to the cubic system should not be birefringent unless strained; diamond often displays double refraction particularly in the neighbourhood of inclusions, both liquid and solid; this is probably due to strain, and the spontaneous explosion of diamonds has often been observed. Diamond differs from graphite in being a bad conductor of electricity: it becomes positively electrified by friction. The electrical resistance is about that of ordinary glass, and is diminished by one-half during exposure by Rontgen rays; the dielectric constant (16) is greater than that which should correspond to the specific gravity. The phosphorescence produced by friction has been known since the time of Robert Boyle (1663); the diamond becomes luminous in a dark room after exposure to sunlight or in the presence of radium; and many stones phosphoresce beautifully (generally with a pale green light) when subjected to the electric discharge in a vacuum tube. Some diamonds are more phosphor- escent than others, and different faces of a crystal may display different tints./The combustibility of the diamond was pre- dicted by Syr Isaac Newton on account of its high refractive power; it was first established experimentally by the Florentine Academicians in 1694. In oxygen or air diamond burns at about 850°, and only continues to do so if maintained at a high temper- ature; but in the absence of oxidising agents it may be raised to a much higher temperature. It is, however, infusible at the temperature of the electric arc, but becomes converted superficially into graphite. Experiments on the combustion of diamond were made by Smithson Tennant (1797) and Sir Humphry Davy (1816), with the object of proving that it is pure carbon; they showed that burnt in oxygen it yields exactly the same amount of carbon dioxide as that produced by burning the same weight of carbon. • Still more convincing experiments were made by A. Krause in 1890. Similarly Guyton de Morveau showed that, like charcoal, diamond converts soft iron into steel. Diamond is insoluble in acid and alkalis, but is oxidised on heating with potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid. j-. Bort (or Boart) is the name given to impure crystals or frag- ments useless for jewels; it is also applied to the rounded crystalline aggregates, which generally have a grey colour, a rough surface, often a radial structure, and are devoid of good cleavage. / They are sometimes spherical (" shot bort "). Carbonado or " black diamond," found in Bahia (also recently in Minas Geraes), is a black material with a minutely crystalline structure somewhat porous, opaaue, resembling charcoal in appearance, devoid of cleavage/rather harder than diamond, but of less specific gravity; it Sometimes displays a rude cubic crystalline form. The largest specimen found (1895) weighed 3078 carats. Both bort and carbonado seem to be really aggre- gates of crystallized diamond, but the carbonado is so nearly structureless that it was till recently regarded as an amorphous modification of carbon. Uses of the Diamond. — The use of the diamond for other purposes than jewelry depends upon its extreme hardness: it has always been the only material used for cutting or engraving the diamond itself. The employment of powdered bort and the lapidary's wheel for faceting diamonds was introduced by L. von Berquen of Bruges in 1476. Diamonds are now employed not only for faceting precious stones, but also for cutting and drilling glass, porcelain, &c,; for fine engraving such as scales; in dentistry for drilling; as a turning tool for electric-light carbons, hard rubber, &c. ; and occasionally for finishing accurate turning work such as the axle of a transit instrument. For these tools the stone is actually shaped to the best form: it is now electroplated before being set in its metal mount in order to secure a firm fastening. It is also used for bearings in watches and electric meters. The best glaziers' diamonds are chosen from crystals such that a natural curved edge can be used. For rock drills, and revolving saws for stone cutting, either diamond, bort or carbonado is employed, set in steel tubes, disks or bands. Rock drilling is the most important industrial application; and for this, owing to its freedom from cleavage, the carbonado is more highly prized than diamond; it is broken into fragments about 3 carats in weight; and in 1905 the value of carbonado was no less than from £10 to £14 a carat. It has been found that the " carbons " in drills can safely be subjected to a pressure of over 60 kilograms per square millimetre, and a speed of 25 metres per second. A recent application of the diamond is for wire drawing; a hole tapering towards the centre is drilled through a diamond, and the metal is drawn through this. No other tool is so endurable, or gives such uniform thickness of wire. Distribution and Mining. — The most important localities for diamonds have been: (i) India, where they were mined from the earliest times till the close of the igth century; (2) South America, where they have been mined since the middle of the i8th century; and (3) South Africa, to which almost the whole of the diamond-mining industry has been transferred since 1870. India. — The diamond is here found in ancient sandstones and con- glomerates, and in the river gravels and sands derived from them. The sandstones and conglomerates belong to the Vindhyan formation and overlie the old crystalline rocks: the diamantiferous beds are well defined, often not more than I ft. in thickness, and contain pebbles of quartzite, jasper, sandstone, slate, &c. The mines fall into five groups situated on the eastern side of the Deccan plateau about the following places (beginning from the south), the first three being in Madras, (i) Chennur near Cuddapah on the river Pennar. (2) Kurnool near Baneganapalle between the rivers Pennar and Kistna. (3) Kollar near Bezwada on the river Kistna. (4) Sambalpur on the river Mahanadi in the Central Provinces. (5) Panna near Allahabad, in Bundelkhand. The mining has always been carried on by natives of low caste, and by primitive methods which do not differ much from those described by the French merchant Jean Baptiste Tavernier (1605-1689), who paid a prolonged visit to most i6o DIAMOND of the mines between 1638 and 1665 as a dealer in precious stones. According to his description shallow pits were sunk, and the gravel excavated was gathered into a walled enclosure where it was crushed and water was pouVed over it, and it was finally sifted in baskets and sorted by hand. The buying and selling was at that period conducted by young children. In more modern times there has been the same excavation of shallow pits, and sluicing, sifting and sorting, by hand labour, the only machinery used being chain pumps made of earthen bowls to remove the water from the deeper pits._ At some of the Indian localities spasmodic mining has been carried on at different periods for centuries, at some the work which had been long abandoned was revived in recent times, at others it has long been abandoned altogether. Many of the large stones of antiquity were probably found in the Kollar group, where Tavernier found 60,000 workers in 1645 (?), the mines having, according to native accounts, been discovered about loo years previously. Golconda was the fortress and the market for the diamond industry at this group of mines, and so gave its name to them. The old mines have now been completely abandoned, but in 1891 about 1000 carats were being raised annually in the neighbourhood of Hyderabad. The Sambalpur group appear to have been the most ancient mines of all, but they were not worked later than 1850. The Panna group were the most productive during the igth century. India was no doubt the source of all the large stones of antiquity; a stone of 67! carats was found at Wajra Karur in the Chennur group in 1881, and one of 210$ carats at Hira Khund in 1809. Other Indian localities besides those mentioned above are Simla, in the N.W. Provinces, where a few stones have been found, and a district on the Gouel and the Sunk rivers in Bengal, which V. Ball has identified with the Soumelpour mentioned by Tavernier. The mines of Golconda and Kurnool were described as early as 1677 in the twelfth volume of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. At the present time very few Indian diamonds find their way out of the country, and, so far as the world's supply is concerned, Indian mining of diamonds may be considered extinct. The first blow to this industry was the discovery of the Brazilian mines in Minas Geraes and Bahia. Brazil. — Diamonds were found about 1725 at Tejuco (now Dia- mantina) in Minas Geraes, and the mining became important about 1740. The chief districts in Minas Geraes are (i) Bagagem on the W. side of the Serra da Mata da Corda; (2) Rio Abaete on the E. side of the same range; these two districts being among the head waters of the Rio de San Francisco and its tributaries ; (3) Diamantina, on and about the watershed separating the Rio de San Francisco from the Rio Jequitinhonha ; and (4) Grao Mogul, nearly 200 m. to the N.E. of Diamantina on the latter river. The Rio Abaete district was worked on a considerable scale between 1785 and 1807, but is now abandoned. Diamantina is at present the most important district; it occupies a mountainous plateau, and the diamonds are found both on the plateau and in the river valleys below it. The mountains consist here of an ancient laminated micaceous quartzite, which is in parts a flexible sandstone known as itacolumite, and in parts a conglomerate; it is interbedded with clay-slate, mica-schist, hornblende-schist and haematite-schist, and intersected by veins of quartz. This series is overlain unconformably by a younger quartzite of similar character, and itself rests upon the crystalline schists. The diamond is found under three conditions: ( i ) in the 'gravels of the present rivers, embedded in a ferruginous clay- cemented conglomerate known as cascalho ; (2) in terraces (gupiarras) in a similar conglomerate occupying higher levels in the present valleys; (3) in plateau deposits in a coarse surface conglomerate known as gurgulho, the diamond and other heavy minerals being embedded in the red clay which cements the larger blocks. Under all these three conditions the diamond is associated with fragments of the rocks of the country and the minerals derived from them, especially quartz, hornstone, jasper, the polymorphous oxide of titanium (rutile, anatase and brookite), oxides and hydrates of iron (magnetite, ilmenite, haematite, limonite), oxide of tin, iron pyrites, tourmaline, garnet, xenotime, monazite, kyanite, diaspore, sphene, topaz, and several phosphates, and also gold. Since the heavy minerals of the cascalho in the river beds are more worn than those of the terraces, it is highly probable that they have been derived by the cutting down of the older river gravels represented by the terraces ; and since in both deposits the heavy minerals are more abundant near the heads of the valleys in the plateau, it is also highly probable that both have really been derived from the plateau deposit. In the latter, especially at Sao Joao da Chapada, the minerals accompany- ing the diamond are scarcely worn at all ; in the terraces and the river beds they are more worn and more abundant ; the terraces, therefore, are to be regarded as a first concentration of the plateau material by the old rivers; and the cascalho as a second concentration by the modern rivers. The mining is carried on by negroes under the super- vision of overseers; the cascalho is dug out in the dry season and removed to a higher level, and is afterwards washed out by hand in running water in shallow wooden basins (bateas). The terraces can be worked at all seasons, and the material is partly washed out by leading streams on to it. The washing of the plateau material is effected in reservoirs of rain water. It is difficult to obtain an estimate of the actual production of the Minas Geraes mines, for no official returns have been published, but in recent years it has certainly been rivalled by the yield in Bahia. The diamond here occurs in river gravels and sands associated with the same minerals as in Minas Geraes; since 1844 the richest mines have been worked in the Serra de Cincora, where the mountains are intersected by the river Paraguassu and its tributaries; it is said that there were as many as 20,000 miners working here in 1845, and it was estimated that 54,000 carats were produced in Bahia in 1858. The earlier workings were in the Serra de Chapada to the N.W. of the mines just mentioned. In 1901 there were about 5000 negroes employed in the Buhia mines; methods were still primitive; the cascalho was dug out from the river beds or tunnelled out from the valley side, and washed once a week in sluices of running water, where it was turned over with the hoe, and finally washed in wooden basins and picked over by hand ; sometimes also the diamantiferous material is scooped out of the bed of the shallow rivers by divers, and by men working under water in caissons. It is almost exclusively in the mines of Bahia, and in particular in the Cincora district, that the valuable carbonado is found. The carbonado and the diamond have been traced to an extensive hard conglomerate which occurs in the middle of the sandstone formation. Diamonds are also mined at Salobro on the river Pardo not far inland from the port of Canavieras in the S.E. corner of Bahia. The enormous development of the South AfricanmineSjWhichsuppliedin 1906, about9O%of the world's produce, has thrown into the shade the Brazilian production ; but the Bulletin for Feb. 1909 of the International Bureau of American Republics gave a very confident account of its future, under improved methods. South Africa. — The first discovery was made in 1867 by Dr W. G. Atherstone, who identified as diamond a pebble obtained from a child in a farm on the banks of the Orange river and brought by a trader to Grahamstown ; it was bought for £500 and displayed in the Paris Exhibition of that year. In 1869 a stone weighing 83^ carats was found near the Orange river; this was purchased by the earl of Dudley for £25,000 and became famous as the " Star of South Africa." A rush of prospectors at once took place to the banks of the Orange and Vaal rivers, and resulted in considerable discoveries, so that in 1870 there was a mining camp of no less than 10,000 persons on the " River Diggings." In the River Diggings the mining was carried on in the coarse river gravels, and by the methods of the Brazilian negroes and of gold placer-miners. A diggers' committee limited the size of claims to 30 ft. square, with free access to the river bank; the gravel and sand were washed in cradles provided with screens of perforated metal, and the concentrates were sorted by hand on tables by means of an iron scraper. But towards the close of 1870 stones were found at Jagersfontein and at Dutoitspan, far from the Vaal river, and led to a second great rush of prospectors, especially to Dutoitspan, and in 1871 to what is now the Kimberley mine in the neighbourhood of the latter. At each of these spots the diamantiferous area was a roughly circular patch of considerable size, and in some occupied the position of one of those depressions or " pans " so frequent in S. Africa. These " dry diggings " were therefore at first supposed to be alluvial in origin like the river gravels; but it was soon discovered that, below the red surface soil and the underlying calcareous deposit, diamonds were also found in a layer of yellowish clay about 50 ft. thick known as " yellow ground." Below this again was a hard bluish-green serpentinous rock which was at first supposed to be barren bed-rock; but this also contained the precious stone, and has become famous, under the name of " blue ground," as the matrix of the S. African diamonds. The yellow ground is merely decomposed blue ground. In the Kimberley district five of these round patches of blue ground were found within an area little more than 3 m. in diameter; that at Kimberley occupying 10 acres, that at Dutoitspan 23 acres. There were soon 50,000 workers on this field, the canvas camp was replaced by a town of brick and iron surrounded by the wooden huts of the natives, and Kimberley became an important centre. It was soon found that each mine was in reality a huge vertical funnel or crater descending to an unknown depth, and filled with diamantiferous blue ground. At first each claim was an independent pit 31 ft. square sunk into the blue ground; the diamantiferous rock was hoisted by bucket and windlass, and roadways were left across the pit to provide access to the claims. But the roadways soon fell in, and ultimately haulage from the claims could only be provided by means of a vast system of wire ropee extending from a triple staging of windlasses erected round the entire edge of the mine, which had by this time become a huge open pit ; .the ropes from the upper wind- lasses extended to the centre, and those from the lower tier to the sides of the pit; covering the whole mass like a gigantic cobweb. (See Plate II. fig. 12.) The buckets of blue ground were hauled up these ropes by means of horse whims, and in 1875 steam winding engines began to be employed. By this time also improved methods in the treatment of the blue ground were introduced. It was carried off in carts to open spaces, where an exposure of some weeks to the air was found to pulverize the hard rock far more efficiently than the old method of crushing with mallets. The placer-miner's cradle and rocking-trough were replaced by puddling troughs stirred by a revolving comb worked by horse power; reservoirs were constructed for the scanty water-supply, bucket elevators were introduced to carry away the tailings ; and the natives were confined in compounds. For these improvements co-operation was necessary; the better claims, which in 1872 had risen from jfioo to more than £4000 in value, began to be consolidated, and a Mining Board was introduced. DIAMOND PLATE I. FIG. 9.- DE BEERS MINE, 1874. FIG. io— KIMBERLEY MINE, 1874. FIG. ii.— DE BEERS MINE, 1873. (From photographs by C. Evans.) VIII. 160. \ PLATE II. DIAMOND FIG. I2.-KIMBERLEY MINE, 1874. :>-/, ~r FIG. 13.— KIMBERLEY MINE, 1902. (From Photographs by C. Evans.) DIAMOND 161 In a very few years, however, the open pit mining was rendered impossible by the mud rushes, by the falls of the masses of barren rock known as " reef," which were left standing in the mine, and by landslips from the sides, so that in 1883, when the pit had reached a depth of about 400 ft., mining in the Kimberley crater had become almost impossible. By 1889, in the wholegroupof mines, Kimberley, Dutoitspan, De Beers and Bultfpntein, open pit working was practi- cally abandoned. Meanwhile mining below the bottom of the pits by means of shafts and underground tunnels had been commenced ; but the full development of modern methods dates from the year 1889 when Cecil Rhodes and Alfred Beit, who had already secured control of the De Beers mine, acquired also the control of the Kimberley mine, and shortly afterwards consolidated the entire group in the hands of the De Beers Company. (See KIMBERLEY.) The scene of native mining was now transferred from the open pit to underground tunnels; the vast network of wire ropes (Plate II. fig. 12) with their ascending and descending buckets disappeared, and with it the cosmopolitan crowd of busy miners working like ants at the bottom of the pit. In place of all this, the visitor to Kimberley encounters at the edge of the town only a huge crater, silent and apparently deserted, with no visible sign of the great mining operations which are conducted nearly half a mile below the surface. The aspect of the Kimberley pit in 1906 is shown in fig. 13 of Plate II., which may be compared with the section of fig. 8. Infig.l3, Plate II. .thesequenceof thebasalt, shale and melaphyre is clearly visible on the sides of the pit ; and fig. 8 shows how the crater or " pipe "of blue ground has penetrated these rocks and also the underlyingquartzite. The workings at De Beers had extended into the still more deeply seated granite in 1906. Figure 9, Plate I., shows the top of the De Beers' crater with basalt over- lying the shale. Figure 8 also explains the modern system of mining introduced by Gardner Williams. A vertical shaft is sunk in the vicinity of the mine, and from this horizontal tunnels are driven into the pipe at dif- ferent levels separated by intervals of 40 ft. Through the blue ground itself on each level a series of parallel tunnels about 120 ft. apart are driven to the opposite side of the pipe, and at right angles to these, and 36 ft. apart, another series of tunnels. When the tunnels reach the side of the mine they are opened upwards and sideways so as to form a large chamber, and the overlying mass of blue ground and debris is allowed to settle down and fill up the gallery. On each level this process is carried somewhat farther back than on the level below (fig. 8) ; material is thus continually withdrawn from one side of the mine and extracted by means of the rock shaft on the opposite side, while the superincumbent debris is contin- ually sinking, and is allowed to fall deeper on the side farthest from the shaft as the blue ground is withdrawn from beneath it. In 1905 the main shaft had been sunk to a depth of 2600 ft. at the Kimberley mine. For the extraction and treatment of the blue ground the De Beers Company in its great winding and washing plant em- ploys labour-saving machinery on a gigantic scale. The ground is transferred in trucks to the shaft where it is automatically tipped into skips holding 96 cubic ft. (six truck loads) ; these are rapidly hoisted to the surface, where their contents are automatically dumped into side-tipping trucks, and these in turn are drawn away in a continual procession by an endless wire rope along the tram lines leading to the vast "distributing floors." These are open tracts upon which the blue ground is spread out and left exposed to sun and rain until it crumbles and disintegrates, the process being hastened by harrowing with steam ploughs ; this may require a period of three or six months, or even a year. The stock of blue ground on the floors at one time in 1905 was nearly 4,500,000 loads. The disintegrated ground is then brought back in the trucks and fed through perforated cylinders into the washing pans; .the hard blue which has resisted disintegration on the floors, and the lumps which are too big to pass the cylindrical sieves, are crushed before going to the pans. These are shallow cylindrical troughs containing muddy water in which the diamonds and other heavy minerals (concentrates) are swept to the rim by revolving toothed arms, while the lighter stuff escapes near the centre of the pan. The concentrates are then passed over sloping tables (pulsator) and shaken to and fro underastream of waterwhicn effects a second concentration of the heaviest material. Until recently the final separation of the diamond from the con- centrates was made by hand picking, but even this has now been replaced by machinery, owing to the remarkable discovery that a greased surface will hold a diamond while allowing the other heavy minerals to pass over it. The concentrates are washed down a sloping table of corrugated iron which is smeared with grease, and it is found that .practically all the diamonds adhere to the table, and the other minerals are washed away ./At the large and important Premier mine in the Transvaal the Elmwe process, used in British Columbia and in Wales for the separation of metallic ores, has been also introduced. In the Elmore process oil is employed to float off the materials which adhere to it, while the other materials remain in the water, the oil being separated from the water by centrifugal action. The other VHI. — 6 minerals found in the concentrates are pebbles and fragments of pyrope, zircon, cyanite, chrome-diopside, enstatite, a green pyroxene, mica, ilmenite,_ magnetrte, chromite, hornblende, olivine, barytes, calcite and pyrites. In all the S. African mines the diamonds are not only crystals of various weights from fractions of a carat to 150 carats, but also occur as microscopic crystals disseminated through the blue ground. In spite of this, however, the average yield in the profitable mines is only from 0-2 carat to 0-6 carat per load of 1600 ID, or on an average about i J grs. per ton. The annual output of diamonds from the De Beers mines was valued in 1906 at nearly £5,000,000; the value per carat ranging from about 353. to 703. Pipes similar to those which surround Kimberley have been found in other parts of S. Africa. One of the best known is that of Jagers- fontein, which was really the first of the dry diggings (discovered in 1870). This large mine is near Fauresmith and 80 m. to the south of Kimberley. In 1905 the year's production from the Orange River Colony mines was more than 320,000 carats, valued at £938,000. But by far the largest of all the pipes hitherto discovered is the Premier SECTJOMOF KIMBERtEY MINE LOOKING EAST 100 tf 0 iro MO tro MO -n> H, ' From Gardner Williams's Diamond Mines of South Africa. FIG. 8. mine in the Transvaal, about 300 m. to the east of Kimberley. This was discovered in 1902 and occupies an area of about 75 acres. In 1906 it was being worked as a shallow open mine ; but the description of the Kimberley methods given above is applicable to the washing plant at that time being introduced into the Premier mine upon a very large scale. Comparatively few of the pipes which have been dis- covered are at all rich in diamonds, and many are quite barren ; some are filled with " hard blue " which even if diamantiferous may be too expensive to work. The most competent S. African geologists believe all these remark- able pipes to be connected with volcanic outbursts which occurred over the whole of S. Africa during the Cretaceous period (after the deposition of the Stormberg beds), and drilled these enormous craters through all the later formations. With the true pipes are associated dykes and fissures also filled with diamantiferous blue ground. It is only in the more northerly part of the country that the pipes are filled with blue ground (or " kimberlite "), and that they are diamantiferous; but over a great part of Cape Colony have been discovered what are probably similar pipes filled with agglomerates, breccias and tuffs, and some with basic lavas; one, in particular, in the Riversdale Division near the southern coast, being occupied by a melilite-basalt. It is quite clear that the occurrence of the diamond in the S. African pipes is quite different from the occurrences in alluvial deposits which have been described above. The question of the origin of the diamond in S. Africa and elsewhere is discussed below. The River Diggings on the Vaaj river are still worked upon a small scale, but the production from this source is so limited that they are of little account in comparison with the mines in the blue ground. The stones, however, are good ; since they differ somewhat from the Kimberley crystals it is probable that they were not derived from the present pipes. Another S. African locality must be mentioned ; considerable finds were reported in 1905 and 1906 from gravels at Somabula near Gwelo in Rhodesia where the diamond is associ- ated with chrysoberyl, corundum (both sapphire and ruby), topaz, garnet, ilmenite, staurolite, rutile, with pebbles of quartz, granite, DIAMOND chlorite-schist, &c. Diamond has also been reported from kimberlite " pipes " in Rhodesia. Other Localities. — In addition to the South American localities mentioned above, small diamonds have also been mined since their discovery in 1890 on the river Mazaruni in British Guiana, and finds have been reported in the gold washings of Dutch Guiana. Borneo has possessed a diamond industry since the island was first settled by the Malays ; the references in the works of Garcia de Orta, Linschoten, De Boot, De Laet and others, to Malacca as a locality relate to Borneo. The large Borneo stone, over 360 carats in weight, known as the Matan, is in all probability not a diamond. The chief mines are situated on the river Kapuas in the west and near Bandjarmassin in the south-east of the island, and the alluvial deposits in which they occur are worked by a small number of Chinese and Malays. Australia has yielded diamonds in alluvial deposits near Bathurst (where the first discovery was made in 1851) and Mudgee in New South Wales, and also near Bingara and Inverell in the north of the colony. At Mount Werong a stone weighing 29 carats was found in 1905. At Ruby Hill near Bingara they were found in a breccia filling a volcanic pipe. At Ballina, in New England, diamonds have been found in the sea sand. Other Australian localities are Echunga in South Australia; Beechworth, Arena and Melbourne in Victoria; Freemantle and Nullagine in Western Australia ; the Palmer and Gilbert rivers in Queensland. These have been for the most part discoveries in alluvial deposits of the gold- fields, and the stones were small. In Tasmania also diamonds have been found in the Corinna goldfields. Europe has produced few diamonds. Humboldt searched for them in the Urals on account of the similarity of the gold and platinum deposits to those of Brazil, and small diamonds were ultimately found (1829) in the gold washings of Bissersk, and later at Ekaterinburg and other spots in the Urals. In Lapland they have been found in the sands of the Pasevig river. Siberia has yielded isolated diamonds from the gold washings of Yenisei. In North America a few small stones have been found in alluvial deposits, mostly auriferous, in Georgia, N. and S. Carolina, Kentucky, Virginia, Tennessee, Wisconsin, California, Oregon and Indiana. A crystal weighing 23} carats was found in Virginia in 1855, and one of 21} carats in Wisconsin in 1886. In 1906 a number of small diamonds were discovered in an altered peridotite some- what resembling the S. African blue ground, at Murfreesboro, Pike county, Arkansas. Considerable interest attaches to the diamonds found in Wisconsin, Michigan and Ohio near the Great Lakes, for they are here found inthe terminal moraines of the great glacial sheet which is supposed to have spread southwards from the region of Hudson Bay; several of the drift minerals of the diamantiferous region of Indiana have been identified as probably of Canadian origin; no diamonds have however yet been found in the intervening country of Ontario. A rock similar to the blue ground of Kimberley has been found in the states of Kentucky and New York. The occurrence of diamond in meteorites is described below. Origin of the Diamond in Nature. — It appears from the foregoing account that at most localities the diamond is found in alluvial de- posits probably far from the place where it originated. The minerals associated with it do not afford much clue to tne original conditions ; they are mostly heavy minerals derived from the neighbouring rocks, in which the diamond itself has not been observed. Among the commonest associates of the diamond are quartz, topaz, tourmaline, rutile, zircon, magnetite, garnet, spinel and other minerals which are common accessory constituents of granite, gneiss and the crystalline schists. Gold (also platinum) is a not infrequent associate, but this may only mean that the sands in which the diamond is found have been searched because they were known to be auriferous ; also that both gold and diamond are among the most durable of minerals and may have survived from ancient rocks of which other traces have been lost. The localities at which the diamond has been supposed to occur in its original matrix are the following: — at Wajra Karur, in the Cuddapah district, India, M. Chaper found diamond with corundum in a decomposed red pegmatite vein in gneiss. At Sao Joao da Chapada, in Minas Geraes, diamonds occur in a clay interstratified with the itacolumite, and are accompanied by sharp crystals of rutile and haematite in the neighbourhood of decomposed quartz veins which intersect the itacolumite. It has been suggested that these three minerals were originally formed in the quartz veins. In both these occurrences the evidence is certainly not sufficient to establish the presence of an original matrix. At Inverell in New South Wales a diamond (1906) has been found embedded in a hornblende diabase which is described as a dyke intersecting the granite. Finally there is the remarkable occurrence in the blue ground of the African pipes. There has been much controversy concerning the nature and origin of the blue ground itself; and even grantea that (as is generally believed) the blue ground is a much serpentinized volcanic breccia consisting originally of an olivine-bronzite-biotite rock (the so-called kimberlite), it contains so many rounded and angular fragments of various rocks and minerals that it is difficult to say which of them may have belonged to the original rock, and whether any were formed in situ, or were brought up from below as inclusions. Carvill Lewis believed the blue ground to be true eruptive rock, and the carbon to have been derived from the bituminous shales of which it contains fragments. The Kimberley shales, which are penetrated by the De Beers group of pipes, were, however, certainly not the source of the carbon at the Premier (Transvaal) mine, for at this locality the shales do not exist. The view that the diamond may have crystallized out from solution in its present matrix receives some support from the experiments of W. Luzi, who found that it can be corroded by the solvent action of fused blue ground; from the experiments of J. Friedlander, who obtained diamond by dissolving graphite in fused olivine ; and still more from the experiments of R. von Hasslinger and J. Wolff, who have obtained it by dissolving graphite in a fused mixture of silicates having approximately the composition of the blue ground. E Cohen, who regarded the pipes as of the nature of a mud volcano, and the blue ground as a kimberlite breccia altered by hydrothermal action, thought that the diamond and accompanying minerals had been brought up from deep-seated crystalline schists. Other authors have sought the origin of the diamond in the action of the hydrated magnesian silicates on hydrocarbons derived from bituminous schists, or in the decomposition of metallic carbides. Of great scientific interest in this connexion is the discovery of small diamonds in certain meteorites, both stones and irons; for example, in the stone which fell at Novo-Urei in Penza, Russia, in 1886, in a stone found at Carcote in Chile, and in the iron found at Canon Diablo in Arizona. Graphitic carbon in cubic form (cliftonite) has also been found in certain meteoric " irons," for example in those from Magura in Szepes county, Hungary, and Youndegin near York in Western Australia. The latter is now generally believed to be altered diamond. The fact that H. Moissan has produced the diamond artificially, by allowing dissolved carbon to crystallize out at a hign temperature and pressure from molten iron, coupled with the occurrence in meteoric iron, has led Sir William Crookes and others to conclude that the mineral may have been derived from deep-seated iron containing carbon in solution (see the article GEM, ARTIFICIAL). Adolf Knop suggested that this may have first yielded hydrocarbons by contact with water, and that from these the crystalline diamond has been formed. The meteoric occurrence has even suggested the fanciful notion that all diamonds were originally derived from meteorites. The meteoric iron of Arizona, some of which contains diamond, is actually found in and about a huge crater which is supposed by some to have been formed by an immense meteorite penetrating the earth's crust. It is, at any rate, established that carbon can crystallize as diamond from solution in iron, and other metals; and it seems that high temperature and pressure and the absence of oxidizing agents are necessary conditions. The presence of sulphur, nickel, &c., in the iron appears to favour the production of the diamond. On the other hand, the occurrence in meteoric stones, and the experiments mentioned above, show that the diamond may also crystallize from a basic magmo, capable of yielding some of the metallic oxides and ferro-magnesian silicates; a magma, therefore, which is not devoid of oxygen. This is still more forcibly suggested by the remarkable eclogite boulder found in the blue ground of the Newlands mine, not far from the Vaal river, and described by T. G. Bonney. The boulder is a crystalline rock consisting of pyroxene (chrome-diopside), garnet, and a little olivine, and is studded with diamond crystals; a portion of it is preserved in the British Museum (Natural History). In another eclogite boulder, diamond was found partly embedded in pyrope. Similar boulders have also been found in the blue ground elsewhere. Specimens of pyrope with attached or embedded diamond had previously been found in the blue ground of the De Beers mines. In the Newlands boulder the diamonds have the appearance of being an original constituent of the eclogite. It seems therefore that a holo- crystalline pyroxene-garnet rock may be one source of the diamond found in blue ground. On the other hand many tons of the somewhat similar eclogite in the De Beers mine have been crushed and have not yielded diamond. Further, the ilmenite, which is the most character- istic associate of the diamond in blue ground, and other of the accompanying minerals, may have come from basic rocks of a different nature. The Inverell occurrence may_ prove to be another example of diamond crystallized from a basic rock. In both occurrences, however, there is still the possibility that the eclogite or the basalt is not the original matrix, but may have caught up the already formed diamond from some other matrix. Some regard the eclogite boulders as derived from deep-seated crystalline rocks, others as concretions in the blue ground. None of the inclusions in the diamond gives any clue to its origin ; diamond itself has been found as an inclusion, as have also black specks of some carbonaceous materials. Other black specks have been identified as haematite and ilmenite; gold has also been found; other included minerals recorded are rutile, topaz, quartz, pyrites, apophyllite, and green scales of chlorite (?). Some of these are of very doubtful identification; others (e.g. apophyllite and chlorite) may have been introduced along cracks. Some of the fibrous inclusions were identified by H. R. Goppert as vegetable structures and were supposed to point to an organic origin, but this view is no longer held. Liquid inclusions, some of which are certainly carbon dioxide, have also been observed. Finally, then, both experiment and the natural occurrence in rocks and meteorites suggest that diamond may crystallize not only from iron but also from a basic silicate magma, possibly from various rocks consisting of basic silicates. The blue ground of S. Africa may be DIAMOND 163 the result of the serpentinization of several such rocks, and although now both brecciated and serpentinized some of these may have been the original matrix. A circumstance often mentioned in support of this view is the fact that the diamonds in one pipe generally differ somewhat in character from those of another, even though they be near neighbours, History. — All the famous diamonds of antiquity must have been Indian stones. The first author who described the Indian mines at all fully was the Portuguese, Garcia de Orta (1565), who was physician to the viceroy of Goa. Before that time there were only legendary accounts like that of Sindbad's " Valley of the Diamonds," or the tale of the stones found in the brains of serpents. V. Ball thinks that the former legend originated in the Indian practice of sacrificing cattle to the evil spirits when a new mine is opened; birds of prey would naturally carry off the flesh, and might give rise to the tale of the eagles carrying diamonds adhering to the meat. The following are some of the most famous diamonds of the world: — A large stone found in the Golconda mines and said to have weighed 787 carats in the rough, before being cut by a Venetian lapidary, was seen in the treasury of Aurangzeb in 1665 by Tavernier, who estimated its weight after cutting as 280 (?) carats, and described it as a rounded icse-cut-stone, tall on one side. The name Great Mogul has been frequently applied to this stone. Tavernier states that it was the famous stone given to Shah Jahan by the emir Jumla. The Orlojf, stolen by a French soldier from the eye of an idol in a Brahmin temple, stolen again from him by a ship's captain, was bought by Prince Orloff for £90,000, and given to the empress Catharine II. It weighs 194! carats, is of a somewhat yellow tinge, and is among the Russian crown jewels. The Koh-i-nor, which was in 1739 in the possession of Nadir Shah, the Persian conqueror, and in 1813 in that of the raja of Lahore, passed into the hands of the East India Company and was by them presented to Queen Victoria in 1850. It then weighed i86^V carats, but was recut in London by Amsterdam workmen, and now weighs io6iV carats. There has been much discussion concerning the possibility of this stone and the Orloff being both fragments of the Great Mogul. The Mogul Baber in his memoirs (1526) relates how in his conquest of India he captured at Agra the great stone weighing 8 mishkals, or 320 ratis, which may be equivalent to about 187 carats. The Koh-i-nor has been identified by some authors with this stone and by others with the stone seen by Tavernier. Tavernier, however, subsequently described and sketched the diamond which he saw as shaped like a bisected egg, quite different therefore from the Koh-i-nor. Nevil Story Maskelyne has shown reason for believ- ing that the stone which Tavernier saw was really the Koh-i-nor and that it is identical with the great diamond of Baber; and that the 280 carats of Tavernier is a misinterpretation on his part of the Indian weights. He suggests that the other and larger diamond of antiquity which was given to Shah Jahan may be one which is now in the treasury of Teheran, and that this is the true Great Mogul which was confused by Tavernier with the one he saw. (See Ball, Appendix I. to Tavernier's Travels (1889) ; and Maskelyne, Nature, 1891, 44, p. 555.). The Regent or Pitt diamond is a magnificent stone found in either India or Borneo; it weighed 410 carats and was bought for £20,400 by Pitt, the governor of Madras; it was subsequently, in 1717, bought for £80,000 (or, according to some authorities, £135,000) by the duke of Orleans, regent of France; it was re- duced by cutting to 136}-^ carats; was stolen with the other crown jewels during the Revolution, but was recovered and is still in France. The A kbar Shah was originally a stone of 1 1 6 carats with Arabic inscriptions engraved upon it; after being cut down to 71 carats it was bought by the gaikwar of Baroda for £33,000. The Nizam, now in the possession of the nizam of Hyderabad, is supposed to weigh 277 carats; but it is only a portion of a stone which is said to have weighed 440 carats before it was broken. The Great Table, a rectangular stone seen by Tavernier in 1642 at Golconda, was found by him to weigh 242^ carats; Maskelyne regards it as identical with the Darya-i-nur, which is also a rectangular stone weighing about 186 carats in the possession of the shah of Persia. Another stone, the Taj-e-mah, belonging to the shah, is a pale rose pear-shaped stone and is said to weigh 146 carats. Other famous Indian'diamonds are the following: — The Sancy, weighing 53^$ carats, which is said to have been successively the property of Charles the Bold, de Sancy, Queen Elizabeth, Henrietta Maria, Cardinal Mazarin, Louis XIV. ; to have been stolen with the Pitt during the French Revolution; and subse- quently to have been the property of the king of Spain, Prince Demidoff and an Indian prince. The Nassak, 78$ carats, the property of the duke of Westminster. The Empress Eugenie, 51 carats, the property of the gaikwar of Baroda. The Pigolt, 49 carats (?). which cannot now be traced. The Pasha, 40 carats. The White Saxon, 48$ carats. The Star of Este, 2sM carats. Coloured Indian diamonds of large size are rare; the most famous are : — a beautiful blue brilliant, 67^ carats, cut from a stone weighing 112-^- carats brought to Europe by Tavernier. It was stolen from the French crown jewels with the Regent and was never recovered. The Hope, 44^ carats, has the same colour and is probably a portion of the missing stone: it was so-called as forming part of the collection of H. T. Hope bought for £18,000), and was sold again in 1906 (resold 1909). Two other blue diamonds are known, weighing 13! and if carats, which may also be portions of the French diamond. The Dresden Green, one of the Saxon crown jewels, 40 carats, has a fine apple-green colour. The Florentine, 133^ carats, one of the Austrian crown jewels, is a very pale yellow. The most famous Brazilian stones are: — The Star of the South, found in 1853, when it weighed 254^ carats and was sold for £40,000; when cut it weighed 125 carats and was bought by the gaikwar of Baroda for £80,000. Also a diamond belonging to Mr Dresden, 119 carats before, and 76^ carats after cutting. Many large stones have been found in South Africa; some are yellow but some are as colourless as the best Indian or Brazilian stones. The most famous are the following: — the Star of South Africa, or Dudley, mentioned above, 83^ carats rough, 46^ carats cut. The Stewart, 288f carats rough, 1 20 carats cut. Both these were found in the river diggings. The Porter Rhodes from Kimberley, of the finest water, weighed about 150 carats. The Victoria, 180 carats, was cut from an octahedron weighing 457^ carats, and was sold to the nizam of Hyderabad for £400,000. The Tiffany, a magnificent orange-yellow stone, weighs 125^ carats cut. A yellowish octahedron found at De Beers weighed 428^ carats, and yielded a brilliant of 288^ carats. Some of the finest and largest stones have come from the Jagersfontein mine; one, the Jubilee, found in 1895, weighed 640 carats in the rough and 239 carats when cut. Until 1905 the largest known diamond in the world was the Excelsior, found in 1893 at Jagersfontein by a native while loading a truck. It weighed 971 carats, and was ultimately cut into ten stones weighing from 68 to 13 carats. But all previous records were surpassed in 1905 by a magnificent stone more than three times the size of any known diamond, which was found in the yellow ground at the newly discovered Premier mine in the Transvaal. This extraordinary diamond weighed 3025$ carats (ij Ib) and was clear and water white; the largest of its surfaces appeared to be a cleavage plane, so that it might be only a portion of a much larger stone. It was known as the Cullinan Diamond. This stone was purchased by the Transvaal government in 1907 and presented to King Edward VII. It was sent to Amsterdam to be cut, and in 1908 was divided into nine large stones and a number of small brilliants. The four largest stones weigh 516! carats, 309^ carats, 92 carats and 62 carats respectively. Of these the first and second are the largest brilliants in existence. All the stones are flawless and of the finest quality. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Boetius de Boot, Gemmarum et lapidum historia (1609); D. Jeffries, A Treatise on Diamonds and Pearls (1757) ; J- Mawe, Travels in the Interior of Brazil (1812) ; Treatise on Diamonds and Precious Stones (1813); Finder, De adamante (1829); Murray, Memoir on the Nature of the Diamond (1831) ; C. Zerenner De adamante dissertatio (1850); H. Emanuel, Diamonds and Precious Stones (1865) ; A. Schrauf, Edelsteinkunde (1869) ; N. Jacobs and N. Chatnan, Monographie du diamant (1880) ; V. Ball, Geology of India (1881) ; C. W. King, The Natural History of Precious Stones 164 DIAMOND NECKLACE and Precious Metals (1883); M. E. Boutan, Le Diamant (1886); S. M. Burnham, Precious Stones in Nature, Art and Literature (1887) ; P. Groth, Grundriss der Edelsteinkunde (1887); A. Liversidge, The Minerals of New South Wales (1888); Tavernier's Travels in, India, translated by V. Ball (1889); E. W. Streeter, The. Great Diamonds of the World (1896) ; H. C. Lewis, The Genesis and Matrix of the Diamond (1897); L. de Launay, Les Diamants du Cap (1897); C. Hintze, Handbuch der Mineralogie (1898); E. W. Streeter, Precious Stones and Gems (6th ed., 1898); Dana, System of Miner- alogy (1899) ; Kunz and others, The Production oj Precious Stones (in annual, Mineral Resources of the United States); M. Bauer, Precious Stones (trans. L. J. Spencer, 1904); A. W. Rogers, An Introduction to the Geology of Cape Colony (1905); Gardner F. Williams, The Diamond Mines of South Africa (revised edition, 1906); George F. Kunz, " Diamonds, a study of their occurrence in the United States, with descriptions and comparisons of those from all known localities" (U.S. Geol. Survey, 1909); P. A. Wagner, Die Diamantfiihrenden Gesteine Sudafrikas (1909). Among papers in scientific periodicals may be mentioned articles by Adler, Ball, Baumhauer, Beck, Bonney, Brewster, Chaper, Cohen, Crookes, Daubree, Derby, Des Cloizeaux, Doelter, Dunn, Flight, Friedel, Gorceix, Gurich, Goeppert, Harger, Hudleston, Hussak, Tannettaz, Jeremejew, de Launay, Lewis, Maskelyne, Meunier, Moissan, Molengraaff, Moulle, Rose, Sadebeck, Scheibe, Stelzner, Stow. See generally Hintze's Handbuch der Mineralogie. (H. A. Mi.) DIAMOND NECKLACE, THE AFFAIR OF THE, a mysterious incident at the court of Louis XVI. of France, which involved the queen Marie Antoinette. The Parisian jewellers Boehmer and Bassenge had spent some years collecting stones for a necklace which they hoped to sell to Madame Du Barry, the favourite of Louis XV., and after his death to Marie Antoinette. In 1778 Louis XVI. proposed to the queen to make her a present of the necklace, which cost 1,600,000 livres. But the queen is said to have refused it, saying that the money would be better spent equipping a man-of-war. According to others, Louis XVI. himself changed his mind. After having vainly tried to place the necklace outside of France, the jewellers attempted again in 1781 to sell it to Marie Antoinette after the birth of the dauphin. It was again refused, but it was evident that the queen regretted not being able to acquire it. At that time there was a personage at the court whom Marie Antoinette particularly detested. It was the cardinal Louis de Rohan, formerly ambassador at Vienna, whence he had been recalled in 1774, having incurred the queen's displeasure by revealing to the empress Maria Theresa the frivolous actions of her daughter, a disclosure which brought a maternal reprimand, and for having spoken lightly of Maria Theresa in a letter of which Marie Antoinette learned the contents. After his return to France the cardinal was anxious to regain the favour of the queen in order to obtain the position of prime minister. In March 1784 he entered into relations with a certain Jeanne de St Remy de Valois, a descendant of a bastard of Henry II., who after many adventures had married a soi-disant comte de Lamotte, and lived on a small pension which the king granted her. This adventuress soon gained the greatest ascendancy over the cardinal, with whom she had intimate relations. She persuaded him that she had been received by the queen and enjoyed her favour; and Rohan resolved to use her to regain the queen's good will. The comtesse de Lamotte assured the cardinal that she was making efforts on his behalf, and soon announced to him that he might send his justification to Marie Antoinette. This was the beginning of a pretended correspondence between Rohan and the queen, the adventuress duly returning replies to Rohan's notes, which she affirmed to come from the queen. The tone of the letters became very warm, and the cardinal, convinced that Marie Antoinette was in love with him, became ardently enamoured of her. He begged the countess to obtain a secret interview for him with the queen, and a meeting took place in August 1784 in a grove in the garden at Versailles between him and a lady whom the cardinal believed to be the queen herself. Rohan offered her a rose, and she promised him that she would forget the past. Later a certain Marie Lejay (renamed by the comtesse " Baronne Gay d'Oliva," the last word being apparently an anagram of Valoi), who resembled Marie Antoinette, stated that she had been engaged to play the role of queen in this comedy. In any case the countess profited by the cardinal's conviction to borrow from him sums of money destined ostensibly for the queen's works of charity. Enriched by these, the countess was able to take an honourable place in society, and many persons believed her relations with Marie Antoinette, of which she boasted openly and unreservedly, to be genuine. It is still an unsettled question whether she simply mystified people, or whether she was really employed by the queen for some unknown purpose, perhaps to ruin the cardinal. In any case the jewellers believed in the relations of the countess with the queen, and they resolved to use her to sell their necklace. She at first refused their commission, then accepted it. On the zist of January 1785 she announced that the queen would buy the necklace, but that not wishing to treat directly, she left the affair to a high personage. A little while later Rohan came to negotiate the purchase of the famous necklace for the 1,600,000 livres, payable in instalments. He said that he was authorized by the queen, and showed the jeweUers the conditions of the bargain approved in the handwriting of Marie Antoinette. The necklace was given up. Rohan took it to the countess's house, where a man, in whom Rohan believed he recognized a valet of the queen, came to fetch it. Madame de Lamotte had told the cardinal that Marie Antoinette would make him a sign to indicate her thanks, and Rohan believed that she did make him a sign. Whether it was so, or merely chance or illusion, no one knows. But it is certain that the cardinal, convinced that he was acting for the queen, had engaged the jewellers to thank her; that Boehmer and Bassenge, before the sale, in order to be doubly sure, had sent word to the queen of the negotiations in her name; that Marie Antoinette had allowed the bargain to be concluded, and that after she had received a letter of thanks from Boehmer, she had burned it. Meanwhile the " comte de Lamotte " appears to have started at once for London, it is said with the necklace, which he broke up in order to sell the stones. When the time came to pay, the comtesse de Lamotte pre- sented the cardinal's notes; but these were insufficient, and Boehmer complained to the queen, who told him that she had received no necklace and had never ordered it. She had the story of the negotiations repeated for her. Then followed a coup de theatre. On the I5th of August 1785, Assumption day, when the whole court was awaiting the king and queen in order to go to the chapel, the cardinal de Rohan, who was preparing to officiate, was arrested and taken to the Bastille. He was able, however, to destroy the correspondence exchanged, as he thought, with the queen, and it is not known whether there was any connivance of the officials, who did not prevent this, or not. The comtesse de Lamotte was not arrested until the i8th of August, after having destroyed her papers. The police set to work to find all her accomplices, and arrested the girl Oliva and a certain Reteaux de Villette, a friend of the countess, who confessed that he had written the letters given to Rohan in the queen's name, and had imitated her signature on the conditions of the bargain. The famous charlatan Cagliostro was also arrested, but it was recog- nized that he had taken no part in the affair. The cardinal de Rohan accepted the parlement of Paris as judges. A sensational trial resulted (May 31, 1786) in the acquittal of the cardinal, of the girl Oliva and of Cagliostro. The comtesse de Lamotte was condemned to be whipped, branded and shut up in the Salpetriere. Her husband was condemned, in his absence, to the galleys for life. Villette was banished. Public opinion was much excited by this trial. It is generally believed that Marie Antoinette was stainless in the matter, that Rohan was an innocent dupe, and that the Lamottes deceived both for their own ends. People, however, persisted in the belief that the queen had used the countess as an instrument to satisfy her hatred of the cardinal de Rohan. Various circumstances fortified this belief, which contributed to render Marie Antoinette very unpopular — her disappointment at Rohan's acquittal, the fact that he was deprived of his charges and exiled to the abbey of la Chaise-Dieu, and finally the escape of the comtesse de Lamotte frcm the Salpetriere, with the connivance, as people believed, o* the court. The adventuress, having taken refuge abroad, published Mtmoires in which she accused the queen. Her DIANA— DIAPASON 165 husband also wrote Memoires, and lived until 1831, after having, it is said, received subsidies from Louis XVIII. See M. Tourneux, Marie Antoinette, devant I'histoire: Essai biblio- graphique (2nd ed., Paris, 1901) ; Emile Campardon, Marie Antoinette et le proces du collier (Paris, 1863) ; P. Audebert, L 'Affaire du collier de la reine, d'apres la corrsspondance inedite du chevalier de Pujol (Rouen, 1901) ; F. d'Albini, Marie Antoinette and the Diamond Neck- lace from another Point of View (London, 1900) ; Funck-Brentano, L' Affaire du collier (1903); A. Lang, Historical Mysteries (1904). Carlyle's essay on The Diamond Necklace (first published in 1837 in Fraser's Magazine) is of historical literary interest. DIANA, in Roman mythology, an old Italian goddess, in later times identified with the Greek Artemis (ciivia, a consonance through all the tones of the scale. In this sense it is only used now, loosely, for the compass of an instrument or voice, or for a harmonious melody. The name is given to the two i66 DIAPER— DIAPHRAGM foundation stops of an organ, the open and the stopped diapason (see ORGAN), and to a standard of musical pitch, as in the French diapason normal (see PITCH, MUSICAL). DIAPER (derived through the Fr. from the Gr. Sia, through, and acrTrpos, white; the derivation from the town of Ypres, " d'Ypres," in Belgium is unhistorical, as diapers were known for centuries before its existence), the name given to a textile fabric, formerly of a rich and costly nature with embroidered ornament, but now of linen or cotton, with a simple woven pattern; and particularly restricted to small napkins. In architecture, the term " diaper " is given to any small pattern of a conventional nature repeated continuously and uniformly over a surface; the designs may be purely geometrical, or based on floral forms, and in early examples were regulated by the pro- cess of their textile origin. Subsequently, similar patterns were employed in the middle ages for the surface decoration of stone, as in Westminster Abbey and Bayeux cathedral in the spandrils of the arcades of the choir and nave; also in mural painting, stained glass, incised brasses, encaustic tiles, &c. Probably in most cases the pattern was copied, so far as the general design is concerned, from the tissues and stuffs of Byzantine manu- facture, which came over to Europe and were highly prized as ecclesiastical vestments. In its textile use, the term diaper was originally applied to silk patterns of a geometrical pattern ; it is now almost exclusively used for diamond patterns made from linen or cotton yarns. An illustra- tion of two patterns of this nature is shown in the figure. The floats of the warp and the weft are mostly in three; indeed the patterns are made from a base weave which is composed entirely of floats of this number. It will be seen that both designs are formed of .what may be termed concentric figures — alternately black and white. Pattern B differs from pattern A only in that more of these concentric figures are used for the complete figure. If pattern B, which shows only one unit, were extended, the effect would be similar to A, except for the size of the unit. In A there are four complete units, and hence the pattern appears more striking. Again, the repeating of B would cause the four corner pieces to join and to form a diamond similar to the one in the centre. The two diamonds in B would then alternate diagonally to left and right. Special names are given to certain kinds of diapers, e.g. " bird's-eye," " pheasant's- eye"; these terms indicate, to a certain extent, the size of the complete diamond in the cloth — the smaller kind taking the name " bird's-eye." The size of the pattern on paper has little connexion with the size of the pattern in the cloth, for it is clearly the number of threads and picks per inch which determine the size of the pattern in the cloth from any given design. Although A is larger than what is usually termed the " bird's-eye " pattern, it is evident that it may be made to appear as such, provided that the cloth is fine enough. These designs, although adapted mostly for cloths such as nursery- diapers, for pinafores, &c., are sometimes used in the production of towels and table-cloths. In the figure, the first pick in A is identical with the first pick in B, and the part C shows how each interweaves with the twenty-four threads. DIAPHORETICS (from Gr. diafoptiv, to carry through), the name given to those remedies which promote perspiration. In health there is constantly taking place an exhalation of watery vapour from the skin, by which not only are many of the effete products of nutrition eliminated, but the body is kept cool. Under exertion or in a heated atmosphere this natural function of the skin is increased, sweating more or less profuse follows, and, evaporation going on rapidly over the whole surface, little or no rise in the temperature of the body takes place. In many forms of disease, such as fevers and inflammatory affections, the action of the skin is arrested, and the surface of the body feels harsh and dry, while the temperature is greatly elevated. The occurrence of perspiration not unfrequently marks a crisis in such diseases, and is in general regarded as a favourable event. In some chronic diseases, such as diabetes and some cases of Bright's disease, the absence of perspiration is a marked feature; while, on the other hand, in rnany wasting diseases, such as phthisis, the action of the skin is increased, and copious exhaust- ing sweating occurs. Many means can be used to induce perspira- tion, among the best known being baths, either in the form of hot vapour or hot water baths, or in that part of the process of the Turkish bath which consists in exposing the body to a dry and hot atmosphere. Such measures, particularly if followed by the drinking of hot liquids and the wrapping of the body in warm clothing, seldom fail to excite copious perspiration. Numerous medicinal substances have the same effect. DIAPHRAGM (Gr. Sid^paT/m, a partition). The dia- phragm or midriff (Anglo-Saxon, mid, middle, hrif, belly) in human anatomy is a large fibro-muscular partition between the cavities of the thorax and abdomen; it is convex toward the thorax, concave toward the abdomen, and consists of a central tendon and a muscular margin. The central tendon(q, fig. i)is trefoil in shape, its leaflets being right, left and anterior; of these the right is the largest and the left the smallest. The fleshy fibres rise, in front from the back of the xiphoid cartilage of the sternum (d) , laterally by six serrations, from the inner surfaces of the lower six ribs, interdigitating with the transversalis, posteriorly from the arcuate ligaments, of which there are five, a pair of external, a pair of internal, and a single median one. The external arcuate ligament (h) stretches from the tip of the twelfth rib (b) to the costal process of the first lumbar vertebra in front of the quad- ratus lumborum muscle (o), the internal and middle are continua- tions of the crura which rise from the ventro-lateral aspects of the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae, the right (e) coming from three, the left (/) from two. On reaching the level of the twelfth thoracic vertebra each crus spreads out into a fan-shaped mass of fibres, of which the innermost join their fellows from the opposite crus, in front of the aortic opening (k), to form the middle arcuate FIG. I. — Abdominal Surface of the Diaphragm. ligament; the outer ones (g) arch in front of the psoas muscle (n) to the tip of the costal process of the first lumbar vertebra to form the internal arcuate ligament, while the intermediate ones pass to the central tendon. There are three large openings in the diaphragm; the aortic (k) is behind the middle arcuate ligament and transmits the aorta, the vena azygos major, and the thoracic duct. In the right leaflet is an opening (sometimes called the hiatus quadratus) for the inferior vena cava and a branch of the right phrenic nerve (m), while in front and a little to the left of the aortic opening is one for the oesophagus and the two pneumo- gastric nerves (/), the left being in front and the right behind. DIARBEKR— DIARRHOEA 167 The fleshy fibres on each side of this opening act as a sphincter. Passing between the xiphoid and costal origins in front are the superior epigastric arteries, while the other terminal branches of the internal mammaries, the musculo-phrenics, pass through between two costal origins. Through the crura pass the splanchnic nerves, and in addition to these the left crus is pierced by the vena azygos minor. The sympathetic nerves usually enter the abdomen behind the internal arcuate ligaments. The phrenic nerves, which are the main supply of the diaphragm, divide before reaching the muscle and pierce it in a number of places to enter its abdominal surface, but some of the lower intercostal nerves assist in the supply. The last thoracic or subcostal nerves pass behind the external arcuate ligament. For the action of the diaphragm see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. Embryology. — The diaphragm is at first developed intheneckregion of the embryo, and this accounts for the phrenic nerves, which supply it, rising from the fourth and fifth cervical. From the mesoderm on the caudal side of the pericardium isdevelopedtheseptumtransversum, and in this the central tendon is formed. The fleshy portion is developed on each side in two parts, an anterior or sterno-costal which is derived from the longitudinal neck musculature, probably the same layer from which the sternothyroid comes, and a spinal part which is a derivative of the transversalis sheet of the trunk. Between these two parts is at one time a gap, the spino-costal hiatus, and this isobliterated by the growth of the pleuro-peritoneal membrane, which may occasionally fail to close ana so may form the site of a phrenic hernia. With the growth of the body and the development of the lungs the diaphragm shifts its position until it becomes the septum between the thoracic and abdominal cavities. (See A. Keith, "On the Development of the Diaphragm," Jour, of Anal, and Phys. vol. 39.) A. Paterson has recorded cases in which the left half of the diaphragm is wanting (Proceedings of the Anatomical Society of Gt. Britain, June 1900; Jour, of Anal, and Phys. vol. 34), and occasionally deficiencies are found elsewhere, especially in the sternal portion. For further details see Quain's Anatomy, vol. i. (London, 1908). Comparative Anatomy. — A complete diaphragm, separating the thoracic from the abdominal parts of the coelom, is characteristic of the Mammalia; it usually has the human structure and relations exceptthat belowthe Anthropoids it is separated from the pericardium by the azygous lobe of the lung. In some Mammals, e.g. Echidna and Phocoena.it is entirely muscular. In theCetacea it is remarkable for its obliquity; its vertebral attachment is much nearer the tail than its sternal or ventral one ; this allows a much larger lung space in the dorsal than in the ventral part of the thorax, and may be concerned with the equipoise of the animal. (Otto Mtiller, " Unter- suchungen iiber die Veranderung, welche die Respirationsorgane der Saugetiere durch die Anpassung an das Leben im Wasser erlitten haben," Jen. Zeitschr.f. Naturwiss., 1898, p. 93.) In the Ungulata only one crus is found (Windle and Parsons, " Muscles of the Ungulata," Proc. Zoo/. Soc., 1903, p. 287). Below the Mammals incomplete partitions between the pleural and peritoneal .cavities are found in Chelonians, Crocodiles and Birds, and also inAmphibians (Xenopus and Pipa). (F. G. P.) DIARBEKR1 (Kara Amid or Black Amid; the Roman Amida), the chief town of a vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, situated on a basaltic plateau on the right bank of the Tigris, which here flows in a deep open valley. The town is still surrounded by the masonry walls of black basalt which give it the name of Kara or Black Amid; they are well built and imposing on the west facing the open country, but almost in ruins where they overlook the river. A mass of gardens and orchards cover the slope down to the river on the S.W., but there are no suburbs outside the walls. The houses are rather crowded but only partially fill the walled area. The population numbers 38,000, nearly half being Christian, comprising Turks, Kurds, Arabs, Turkomans, Armenians, Chaldeans, Jacobites and a few Greeks. The streets are 10 ft to 15 ft. wide, badly paved and dirty; the houses and shops are low, mostly of stone, and some of stone and mud. The bazaar is a good one, and gold and silver filigree work is made, peculiar in character and design. The cotton industry is declining, but manufacture of silk is increasing. Fruit is good and abundant as the rich volcanic soil is well watered from the town springs. The size of the melons is specially famous. To the south, the walls are some 40 ft. high, faced with large cut stone blocks of very solid construction, with towers and square bastions rising to 500 ft. There are four gates: on the north the Kharput gate, on the west the Rum, on the south the Mardin, and on the 1 From Dior, land, and Bekr (i.e. Abu Bekr, the caliph). east the Yeni Kapu or new gate. A citadel enclosure stands at the N. E. corner and is now partly in ruins, but the interior space is occupied by the government konak. The summer climate in the confined space within the town is excessively hot and unhealthy. Epidemics of typhus are not unknown, as well as ophthalmia. The Diarbekr boil is like the " Aleppo button," lasting a long time and leaving a deep scar. Winters are fre- quently severe but do not last long. Snow sometimes lies, and ice is stored for summer use. Scorpions noted for the virulence of their poison abound as well as horse leeches in the tanks. The town is supplied with water both by springs inside the town and by aqueducts from fountains at Ali Punar and Hamervat. The principal exports are wool, mohair and copper ore, and imports are cotton and woollen goods, indigo, coffee, sugar, petroleum, &c. The Great Mosque, Ulu Jami, formerly a Christian church, occupies the site of a Sassanian palace and was built with materials from an older palace, probably that of Tigranes II. The remains consist of the facades of two palaces 400 ft. apart, each formed by a row of Corinthian columns surmounted by an equal number of a Byzantine type. Kufic inscriptions run across the fronts under the entablature. The court of the mosque is entered by a gateway on which lions and other animals are sculptured. The churches of greatest interest are those of SS. Cosmas and Damian (Jacobite) and the church of St James (Greek). In the igth century Diarbekr was one of the largest and most flourishing cities of Asia, and as a commercial centre it now stands at the meeting-point of several important routes. It is at the head of the navigation of the Tigris, which is traversed down stream by keleks or rafts supported by inflated skins. There is a good road to Aleppo and Alexandretta on the Mediter- ranean, and to Samsun on the Black Sea by Kharput, Malatia and Sivas. There are also routes to Mosul and Bitlis. Diarbekr became a Roman colony in A.D. 230 under the name of Amida, and received a Christian bishop in A.D. 325. It was enlarged and strengthened by Constantius II., in whose reign it was taken after a long siege by Shapur (Sapor) II., king of Persia. The historian Ammianus Marcellinus, who took part in the defence, gives a detailed account of it. In the later wars between the Persians and Romans it more than once changed hands. Though ceded by Jovian to the Persians it again became annexed to the Roman empire, and in the reign of Anastasius (A.D. 502) was once more taken by the Persians, when 80,000 of its in- habitants were slain. It was taken c. 638 by the Arabs, and afterwards passed into the hands of the Seljuks and Persians, from whom it was finally captured by Selim I. in 1515; and since that date it has remained under Ottoman rule. About 2 m. below the town is a masonry bridge over the Tigris; the older portion being probably Roman, and the western part, which bears a Kufic inscription, being Arab. The vilayet of Diarbekr extends south from Palu on the Euphrates toMardin and Nisibin on the edge of the Mesopotamian plain, and is divided into three sanjaks — Arghana, Diarbekr and Mardin. The headwaters of the main arm of the Tigris have their source in the vilayet. Cereals, cotton, tobacco, rice and silk are produced, but most of the fertile lands have been abandoned to semi-nomads, who raise large quantities of live stock. The richest portion of the vilayet lies east of the capital in the rolling plains watered by tributaries of the Tigris. An exceptionally rich copper mine exists at Arghana Maden, but it is very imperfectly worked; galena mineral oil and silicious sand are also found. (C. W. W.; F. R. M.) DIARRHOEA (from Gr. 5tA, through, fcu, flow), an exces- sive looseness of the bowels, a symptom of irritation which may be due to various causes, or may be associated with some specific disease. The treatment in such latter cases necessarily varies, since the symptom itself may be remedial, but in ordinary cases depends on the removal of the cause of irritation by the use of aperients, various sedatives being also prescribed. In chronic diarrhoea careful attention to the diet is necessary. i68 DIARY— DIASPORE DIARY, the Lat. diarium (from dies, a day), the book in which are preserved the daily memoranda regarding events and actions which come under the writer's personal observation, or are related to him by others. The person who keeps this record is called a diarist. It is not necessary that the entries in a diary should be made each day, since every life, however full, must contain absolutely empty intervals. But it is essential that the entry should be made during the course of the day to which it refers. When this has evidently not been done, as in the case of Evelyn's diary, there is nevertheless an effort made to give the memoranda the effect of being so recorded, and in point of fact, even in a case like that of Evelyn, it is probable that what we now read is an enlargement of brief notes jotted down on the day cited. When this is not approximately the case, the diary is a fraud, for its whole value depends on its instantaneous transcript of impressions. In its primitive form, the diary must always have existed; as soon as writing was invented, men and women must have wished to note down, in some almanac or journal, memoranda respect- ing their business, their engagements or their adventures. But the literary value of these would be extremely insignificant until the spirit of individualism had crept in, and human beings began to be interesting to other human beings for their own sake. It is not, therefore, until the close of the Renaissance that we find diaries beginning to have literary value, although, as the study of sociology extends, every scrap of genuine and unaffected record of early history possesses an ethical interest. In the 1 7th century, diaries began to be largly written in England, although in most cases without any idea of even eventual publication. Sir William Dugdale (1605-1686) had certainly no expectation that his slight diary would ever see the light. There is no surviving record of a journal kept by Clarendon, Richard Baxter, Lucy Hutchinson and other autobiographical writers of the middle of the century, but we may take it for granted that they possessed some such record, kept from day to day. Bulstrode Whitelocke (1605- 1675), whose Memorials of the English Affairs covers the ground from 1625 to 1660, was a genuine diarist. So was the elder George Fox (1624-1690), who kept not merely " a great journal," but " the little journal books," and whose work was published in 1694. The famous diary of John Evelyn (1620-1706) professes to be the record of seventy years, and, although large tracts of it are covered in a very perfunctory manner, while in others many of the entries have the air of having been written in long after the event, this is a very interesting and amusing work; it was not published until 1818. In spite of all its imperfections there is a great charm about the diary of Evelyn, and it would hold a still higher position in the history of literature than it does if it were not overshadowed by what is unquestionably the most illustrious of the diaries of the world, that of Samuel Pepys (1633-1703). This was begun on the ist of January 1660 and was carried on until the 2gth of May 1669. The extraordinary value of Pepys' diary consists in its fidelity to the portraiture of its author's character. He feigns nothing, conceals nothing, sets nothing down in malice or insincerity. He wrote in a form of shorthand intelligible to no one but himself, and not a phrase betrays the smallest expectation that any eye but his own would ever investigate the pages of his confession. The importance of this wonderful document, in fact, lay unsuspected until 1819, when the Rev. John Smith of Baldock began to decipher the MS. in Magdalene College, Cambridge. It was not until 1825 that Lord Braybrooke published part of what was only fully edited, under the care of Mr Wheatley, in 1893-1896. In the age which suc- ceeded that of Pepys, a diary of extraordinary emotional interest was kept by Swift from 1710 to 1713, and was sent to Ireland in the form of a " Journal to Stella "; it is a surprising amalgam of ambition, affection, wit and freakishness. John Byrom (1692-1763), the Manchester poet, kept a journal, which was published in 1854. The diary of the celebrated dissenting divine, Philip Doddridge (1702-1751), was printed in 1829. Of far greater interest are the admirably composed and vigorously written journals of John Wesley (1703-1791). But the most celebrated work of this kind produced in the latter half of the i8th century was the diary of Fanny Burney (Madame D'Arblay), published in 1842-1846. It will be perceived that, without exception, these works were posthumously published, and the whole conception of the diary has been that it should be written for the writer alone, or, if for the public, for the public when all prejudice shall have passed away and all passion cooled down. Thus, and thus only, can the diary be written so as to impress upon its eventual readers a sense of its author's perfect sincerity and courage. Many of the diaries described above were first published in the opening years of the igth century, and it is unquestionable that the interest which they awakened in the public led to their imitation. Diaries ceased to be rare, but as a rule the specimens which have hitherto appeared have not presented much literary interest. Exception must be made in favour of the journals of two minor politicians, Charles Greville (1794-1865) and Thomas Creevey (1768-1838), whose indiscretions have added much to the gaiety of nations; the papers of the former appeared in 1874- 1887, those of the latter in 1903. The diary of Henry Crabb Robinson (1775-1867), printed in 1869, contains excellent biographical material. Tom Moore's journal, published in 1856 by Lord John Russell, disappointed its readers. But it is probable, if we reason by the analogy of the past, that the most curious and original diaries of the igth century are still unknown to us, and lie jealously guarded under lock and key by the descendants of those who compiled them. It was natural that the form of the diary should appeal to a people so sensitive to social peculiarities and so keen in the observation of them as the French. A medieval document of immense value is the diary kept by an anonymous curi during the reigns of Charles VI. and Charles VII. This Journal d'un bourgeois de Paris was kept from 1409 to 1431, and was continued by another hand down to 1449. The marquis de Dangeau (1638-1720) kept a diary from 1684 till the year of his death; this although dull, and as Saint-Simon said " of an insipidity to make you sick," is an inexhaustible storehouse of facts about the reign of Louis XIV. Saint-Simon's own brilliant memoirs, written from 1691 to 1723, may be considered as a sort of diary. The lawyer, Edmond Barbier (1689-1771), wrote ajournalof the anecdotes and little facts which came to his knowledge from 1 7 18 to 1762. The studious care which he took to be correct, and his manifest candour, give a singular value to Barbier's record ; his diary was not printed at all until 1847. nor, in its entirety, until 1857. The song-writer, Charles Colle (1700-1783), kept a journal histor ique from 175810 1782; it is full of vivacity, but very scandalous and spiteful. It saw the light in 1805, and surprised those to whom Colle, in his lifetime, had seemed the most placid and good-natured of men. Petit de Bachaumont (1690-1770) had access to remarkable sources of information, and his Memoires secrets (a diary the publication of which began in 1762 and was continued after Bachaumont's death, until 1787, by other persons) contains a valuable mass of documents. The marquis d'Argenson (1694-1757) kept a diary, of which a com- paratively full textwas first published in 1 8 59. In recent times the posthumous publication of the diaries of the Russian artist, Marie Bashkirtseff (1860-1884), produced a great sensation in 1887, and revealed a most remarkable temperament. The brothers Jules and Edmond de Goncourt kept a very minute diary of all that occurred around them in artistic and literary Paris; after the death of Jules, in 1870, this was continued by Edmond, who published the three first volumes in 1 888. The publication of this work was continued, and it produced no little scandal. It is excessively ill-natured in parts, but of its vivid picturesqueness, and of its general accuracy as a transcript of conversation, there can be no two opinions. (E. G.) DIASPORE, a native aluminium hydroxide, AIO(OH), crystal- lizing in the orthorhombic system and isomorphous with gothite and manganite. It occurs sometimes as flattened crystals, but usually as lamellar or scaly masses, the flattened surface being a direction of perfect cleavage on which the lustre is markedly pearly in character. It is colourless or greyish- white, yellowish, sometimes violet in colour, and varies from translucent to DIASTYLE— DIATOMACEAE 169 transparent. It may be readily distinguished from other colour- less transparent minerals, with a perfect cleavage and pearly lustre — mica, talc, brucite, gypsum — by its greater hardness of 65-7. The specific gravity is 3-4. When heated before the blowpipe it decrepitates violently, breaking up into white pearly scales; it was because of this property that the mineral was named diaspore by R. J. Hatty in 1801, from Siaavdpew, " to scatter." The mineral occurs as an alteration product of corundum or emery, and is found in granular limestone and other crystalline rocks. Well-developed crystals are found in the emery deposits of the Urals and at Chester, Massachusetts, and in kaolin at Schemnitz in Hungary. If obtainable in large quantity it would be of economic importance as a source of alumina. (L. J. S.) DIASTYLE (from Gr. Sid, through, and orDXos, column), in architecture, a term used to designate an intercolumniation of three or four diameters. DIATOMACEAE. For the knowledge we possess of these beautiful plants, so minute as to be undiscernible by our unaided vision, we are indebted to the assistance of the microscope. It was not till towards the close of the i8th century that the first known forms of this group were discovered by O. F. Miiller. And so slow was the process of discovery in this field of scientific re- search that in the course of half a century, when Agardh published his Systema algarum in 1824, only forty-nine species included under eight genera had been described. Since that time, however, with modern microscopes and microscopic methods, eminent botanists in all parts of the civilized world have studied these minute plants, with the result that the number of known genera and species has been greatly increased. Over 10,000 species of diatoms have been described, and about 1200 species and numerous varieties occur in the fresh waters and on the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland. Rabenhorst, in the index to his Flora Europaea algarum (1864) enumerated about 4000 forms which had up to that time been discovered throughout the continent of Europe. The diatoms are more commonly known among systematic botanists as the Bacillarieae, particularly on the continent of Europe, and although such an immense number of very diverse forms are included in it, the group as a whole exhibits a remark- able uniformity of structure. The Bacillarieae is one of the large groups of Algae, placed by some in close proximity to the FIG. i. A and B, Melosira arenaria. E, showing formation of auxospore. C-E, Melosira varians. All X45°. Conjugatae and by others as an order of the Brown Algae (or Phaeophyceae) ; but their characters are so distinctive and their structure is so uniform as to warrant the separation of the diatoms as a distinct class. The affinities of the group are doubtful. ———•.-. niNNiiMijiiNjii The diatoms exhibit great '"'"' ""* variety of form. While some FIG. 2.—Synedra Ulna. Xaoo. species are circular and more or less disk-shaped, others are oval in outline. Some are linear, as Synedra Ulna (fig. 2); others more or less cres- FIG; 3- — Podo- centic; others again are cuneate, as Podosphenia Lyngbyii (fig. 3); some few have a sigmoid outline, as Pleuro- sigma balticum (fig. 4); but the prevailing forms are naviculoid, as in the large family Naviculaceae, of which the genus Navicula embraces upwards of 1000 species. They vary also in their modes of growth, — some being free-floating, others attached to foreign bodies by simple or branched gelatinous stalks, which in some species are short and thick, while in others they are long and slender. In some genera the forms are simple, while in others the frustules are connected together in ribbon-like filaments, or form, as in other cases, zigzag chains. In some genera the individuals are naked, while in many others they are enclosed in a more or less definite gelatinous investment. The conditions necessary to their growth are moisture and light. Wherever these circum- stances coexist, - „ diatomaceous FIG. 4.-Pfe«ro«g«a Ja/teum. Xzoo. forms will almost invariably be found. They occur mixed with other organisms on the surface of moist rocks; in streamlets and pools, they form a brownish stratum on the surface of the mud, or cover the stems and leaves of water plants or floating twigs with a furry investment. Marine forms are usually attached to various sea-weeds, and many are found in the stomachs of molluscs, holothurians, ascidians and other denizens of the ocean. The fresh-water forms are specifically distinct from those incidental to salt or brackish water, — fresh-water species, however, are sometimes FIG. 5. A-C, Tetracyclus lacustris. D and E, Tabellaria fenestrata. F and G, Tabellaria flocculosa. All X5OO. carried some distance into the sea by the force of the current, and in tidal rivers marine forms are carried up by the force of the tide. Some notion may be formed of the extreme minuteness of these forms from the fact that one the length of which is TJ J^th of an inch may be considered as beyond the medium size. Some few, indeed, are much larger, but by far the greater proportion are of very much smaller dimensions. Diatoms are unicellular plants distinguished from kindred forms by the fact of having their soft vegetative part covered by a siliceous case. Each individual is known as a frustule, and the cell-wall consists of two similar valves nearly parallel to each other, each valve being furnished with a rim (or connecting-band) projecting from it at a right angle. One of these valves with its rim is slightly smaller than the IJO DIATOMACEAE other, the smaller fitting into the larger pretty much as a pill-box fits into its cover. This peculiarity of structure affords ample scope for the growth of the protoplasmic cell-contents, for as the latter increase in volume the siliceous valves are pushed out, and their corresponding siliceous rims become broader. The con- necting-bands although closely fitting their respective valves are distinct from them, and together the two bands form the girdle. An individual diatom is usually described from two aspects, one in which the surface of the valve is exposed to view — the valve view, and one in which the girdle side is exposed — the girdle view. The valves are thin and transparent, convex on the outside, and generally ornamented with a variety of sculptured markings. These sculptures often present the aspect of striae across the face of the valve, and the best lenses have shown them to consist of a series of small cavities within the siliceous wall of the cell. The valves of some of the marine genera exhibit a beautiful areolated structure due to the presence of larger chambers within the siliceous cell-wall. Many diatoms possess thickenings of the cell-wall, visible in the valve view, in the centre of the valve and at each extremity. These thickenings are known as the nodules, and they are generally connected by a long median line, the raphe, which is a cleft in the siliceous valve, extending at least some part of its length. The protoplasmic contents of this siliceous box-like unicell are very similar to the contents of many other algal cells. There is a living protoplasmic layer or primordial utricle, connected either by two broad bands or by a number of anastomosing threads with a central mass of protoplasm in which the nucleus is embedded. The greater part of the cavity of the cell is occupied by one or several fluid vacuoles. The characteristic brown colour of diatoms is due to the presence of chromatophores embedded in the lining layer of protoplasm. In number and form these chromatophores are variable. They contain chlorophyll, but the green colour is masked by the presence of diatomin, a brown pigment which resembles that which occurs in the Brown Algae or Phaeophyceae. The chromatophores contain a variable number of pyrenoids, colourless proteid bodies of a crystalloidal character. One of the first phenomena which comes under the notice of the observer is the extraordinary power of motion with which the frustules are endowed. Some species move slowly backwards and forwards in pretty much the same line, but in the case of Bacillaria paradoxa the motion is very rapid, the frustules darting through the water in a zigzag course. To account for this motion various theories have been suggested, none of which appear to be altogether satisfactory. There is little doubt that the movements are connected with the raphe, and in some diatoms there is much evidence to prove that they are due to an exudation of mucilage. Classification. — The most natural system of classification of the Bacillarieae is the one put forward by Schutt (1896), and since generally followed by systematists. He separates them into two primary divisions, the ' Centricae ' and the ' Pennatae.' The former includes all those diatoms which in the valve view possess a radial symmetry around a central point, and which are destitute of a raphe (or a pseudoraphe). The latter includes those which are zygomorphic or otherwise irregular, and in which the valve view is generally boat-shaped or needle-shaped, with the mark- ings arranged in a sagittal manner on each side of a raphe or pseudoraphe. Reprodwtion. — In the Diatomaceae, as well as in the Desmidieae, the ordinary mode of increase is by simple cell-division. The cell-contents within the enclosure of the siliceous case separate into two distinct masses. As these two daughter-masses become more and more developed, the valves of the mother-cell are pushed more and more widely apart. A new siliceous valve is secreted by each of the two masses on the side opposite to the original valve, the new valves being situated within the girdle of the original frustule. When this process has been completed the girdle of the mother frustule gives way, and two distinct frustules are formed, the siliceous valves in each of these new frustules being one of the valves of the mother-cell, and a newly formed valve similar and more or less parallel to it. During the life of the plant this process of self-division is continued with an almost incredible rapidity. On this subject the observation of Professor William Smith, writing in 1853, is worthy of special notice: — " I have been unable to ascertain the time occupied in a single act of self -division, but supposing it to be completed in twenty-four hours we should have, as the progeny of a single frustule, the amazing number of 1,000,000,000 in a single month, a circumstance which will in some degree explain the sudden, or. at least rapid, appearance of these organisms in localities where they were a short time previously either unrecognized or sparingly dif- fused " (British Diatomaceae, vol. i. p. 25). Individual diatoms when once produced by cell-division are incapable of any increase in size owing to the rigidity of their siliceous cell-walls, and since the new valves are always formed within the girdle of the old ones, it would follow that every succeeding generation is reduced in size by the thickness of the girdle. In some diatoms, however, this is not strictly true as daughter-cells are some- times produced of larger size than the parent-cells. Thus, the reduction in size of the individuals is not always proportionate to the number of cell-divisions. On the diminution in size having reached a limit in any species, the maximum size is regained by the formation of an auxospore. There are five known methods of reproduction by auxospores, but it is unneces- sary here to enter into details of these methods. Suffice it to say that a normal auxospore is produced by the conjugation of two parent-cells, its distinguishing feature being a rejuven- escence accompanied by a marked increase in size. These auxospores formed without conjugation are parthenogenetic. Mode of Preparation. — The Diatomaceae are usually gathered in small bottles, and special care should be taken to collect them as free as possible from extraneous matter. A small portion having been examined under the microscope, should the gathering be thought worthy of preservation, some of the material is boiled in acid for the purpose of cleaning it. The acids usually employed are hydrochloric, nitric or sulphuric, according as circumstances require. When the operator considers that by this process all foreign matter has been eliminated, the residuum is put into a precipitating jar of a conical shape, broader at the bottom than at the top, and covered to the brim with filtered or distilled water. When the diatoms have settled in the bottom of the jar, the supernatant fluid is carefully removed by a syringe or some similar instrument, so that the sediment be not disturbed. The jar is again filled with water, and the process repeated till the acid has been completely removed. It is desirable afterwards to boil the sediment for a short time with supercarbonate of soda, the alkali being removed in the same manner as the acid. A small portion may then be placed with a pipette upon a slip of glass, and, when the moisture has been thoroughly evaporated, the film that remains should be covered with dilute Canada balsam, and, a thin glass cover having been gently laid over the balsam, the preparation should be laid aside for a short time to harden, and then is ready for observation. General Remarks. — Diatoms are most abundant in cold latitudes, having a general preference for cold water. In the pelagic waters of lakes and of the oceans they are often very abundant, and in the cold waters of the Arctic and Antarctic FIG. 6. — Formation of Auxospores. A. Navicula limosa. B. Achnanlhes flexella C. Navicula Amphisbaena. D. Navicula viridis. A-C, X45o; D, X.'350. DIAULOS— DIAZ, NARCISSE 171 Oceans they exist in prodigious numbers. They thus form a large proportion of both the marine and the fresh-water plankton. Large numbers of fossil diatoms are known. Not only are these minute plants assisting at the present time in the accumula- tion of oceanic and lake deposits, but in former ages they have been sufficiently active to give rise to considerable deposits of diatomaceous earths. When the plant has fulfilled its natural course the siliceous covering sinks to the bottom of the water in which it had lived, and there forms part of the sediment. When in the process of ages, as it has often happened, the accumulated sediment has been hardened into solid rock, the siliceous frustules of the diatoms remain unaltered, and, if the rock be disintegrated by natural or artificial means, may be removed from the enveloping matrix and subjected to examination under the microscope. The forms found may from their character help in some degree to illustrate the conditions under which the stratum of rock had been originally deposited. These earths are generally of a white or grey colour. Some of them are hard, but most are soft and friable. Many of them are of economic importance, being used as polishing powders (" Tripoli "), as absorbents for nitroglycerin in the manufacture of dynamite (" Kieselguhr "), as a dentifrice, and more recently they have been used to a large extent in the manufacture of non-conducting and sound-proof materials. Most of these diatomaceous earths are associated with rocks of Tertiary formations, although it is generally regarded that the earliest appearance of diatoms is in the Upper Cretaceous (chalk). Vast deposits of Diatomaceous earths have been discovered in various parts of the world, — some the deposit of fresh, others of salt water. Of these deposits the most remarkable for extent, as well as for the number and beauty of the species contained in it, is that of Richmond, in Virginia, one of the United States of America. It extends for many miles, and is in some places at least 40 ft. deep. It is a remarkable fact that though the genera- tions of a diatom in the space of a few months far exceed in number the generation of man during the period usually assigned to the existence of the race, the fossil genera and species are in most respects to the most minute details identical with the numerous living representatives of their class. (E.O'M.jG.S.W.*) DIAULOS (from Gr. 5i-, double, and auXos, pipe), in archi- tecture, the peristyle round the great court of the palaestra, described by Vitruvius (v. n), which measured two stadia (1200 ft.) in length; on the south side this peristyle had two rows of columns, so that in stormy weather the rain might not be driven into the inner part. The word was also used in ancient Greece for a foot-race of twice the usual length. DIAVOLO, FRA (1771-1806), the popular name given to a famous Italian brigand associated with the political revolutions of southern Italy at the time of the French invasion. His real name was Michele Pezza, and he was born of low parentage at Itri; he had committed many murders and robberies in the Terra di Lavoro, but by good luck combined with audacity he always escaped capture, whence his name of Fra Diavolo, popular superstition having invested him with the characters of a monk and a demon, and it seems that at one time he actually was a monk. When the kingdom of Naples was overrun by the French and the Parthenopaean Republic established (1799), Cardinal . Ruffo, acting on behalf of the Bourbon king Ferdinand IV., who had fled to Sicily, undertook the reconquest of the country, and for this purpose he raised bands of peasants, gaol-birds, brigands, &.C., under the name of Sanfedisti or bande delta Santa Fede (" bands of the Holy Faith ")• Fra Diavolo was made leader of one of them, and waged untiring war against the French troops, cutting off isolated detachments and murdering stragglers and couriers. Owing to his unrivalled knowledge of the country, he succeeded in interrupting the enemy's communications between Rome and Naples. But although, like his fellow-brigands under Ruffo, he styled himself " the faithful servant and subject of His Sicilian Majesty," wore a military uniform and held military rank, and was even created duke of Cassano, his atrocities were worthy of a bandit chief. On one occasion he threw some of his prisoners, men, women and children, over a precipice, and on another he had a party of seventy shot. His excesses while at Albano were such that the Neapolitan general Naselli had him arrested and imprisoned in the castle of St Angelo, but he was liberated soon after. When Joseph Bonaparte was made king of Naples, extra- ordinary tribunals were established to suppress brigandage, and a price was put on Fra Diavolo 's head. After spreading terror through Calabria, he crossed over to Sicily, where he concerted further attacks on the French. He returned to the mainland at the head of 200 convicts, and committed further excesses in the Terra di Lavoro; but the French troops were everywhere on the alert to capture him and he had to take refuge in the woods of Lenola. For two months he evaded his pursuers, but at length, hungry and ill, he went in disguise to the village of Baronissi, where he was recognized and arrested, tried by an extraordinary tribunal, condemned to death and shot. In his last moments he cursed both the Bourbons and Admiral Sir Sidney Smith for having induced him to engage in this reckless adventure (1806). Although his cruelty was abominable, he was not altogether without generosity, and by his courage and audacity he acquired a certain romantic popularity. His name has gained a world-wide celebrity as the title of a famous opera by Auber. The best known account of Fra Diavolo is in Pietro Colletta's Storia del reame di Napoli (2nd ed., Florence, 1848); B. Amante's Fra Diavolo a il suo tempo (Florence, 1904) is an attempted rehabiji- tation; but A. Luzio, whose account in Profili e bozzetti storici (Milan, 1906) gives the latest information on the subject, has de- molished Amante's arguments. (L. V.*) DIAZ, NARCISSE VIRGIL10 (1808-1876), French painter, was born in Bordeaux of Spanish parents, on the 25th of August 1808. At first a figure-painter who indulged in strong colour, in his later life Diaz became a painter of the forest and a " tone artist " of the first order. He spent much time at Barbizon; and although he is the least exalted of the half-dozen great artists who are usually grouped round that name, he sometimes produced works of the highest quality. At the age of ten Diaz became an orphan, and misfortune dogged his earlier years. His foot was bitten by a reptile in Meudon wood, near Sevres, where he had been taken to live with some friends of his mother. The bite was badly dressed, and ultimately it cost him his leg. Afterwards his wooden stump became famous. At fifteen he entered the studios at Sevres, where the decoration of porcelain occupied him; but tiring of the restraint of fixed hours, he took to painting Eastern figures dressed in richly coloured garments. Turks and Oriental scenes attracted him, and many brilliant gems remain of this period. About 1831 Diaz encountered Theodore Rousseau, for whom he entertained a great veneration, although Rousseau was four years his junior; but it was not until ten years later that the remark- able incident took place of Rousseau teaching Diaz to paint trees. At Fontainebleau Diaz found Rousseau painting his wonderful forest pictures, and determined to paint in the same way if possible. Rousseau, then in poor health, worried at home, and embittered against the world, was difficult to approach. Diaz followed him surreptitiously to the forest, — wooden leg not hindering, — and he dodged round after the painter, trying to observe his method of work. After a time Diaz found a way to become friendly with Rousseau, and revealed his anxiety to understand his painting. Rousseau was touched with the passionate words of admiration, and finally taught Diaz all he knew. Diaz exhibited many pictures at the Paris Salon, and was decorated in 1851. During the Franco-German War he went to Brussels. After 1871 he became fashionable, his works gradually rose in the estimation of collectors, and he worked constantly and successfully. In 1876 he caught cold at his son's grave, and on the i8th of November of that year he died at Mentone, whither he had gone to recruit his health. Diaz's finest pictures are his forest scenes and storms, and it is on these, and not on his pretty figures, that his fame is likely to rest. There are several fairly good examples of the master in the Louvre, and three small figure pictures in the Wallace collection, Hertford House. Perhaps the most notable of Diaz's works are " La Fee aux Perles " (1857), in the Louvre; " Sunset in the Forest " (1868); " The Storm," 172 DIAZ, PORFIRIO— DIAZ DE NOVAES and " The Forest of Fontainebleau " (1870) at Leeds. Diaz had no well-known pupils, but Leon Richet followed markedly his methods of tree-painting, and J. F. Millet at one period painted small figures in avowed imitation of Diaz's then popular subjects. See A. Hustin, Les Artistes celebres: Diaz (Paris); D. Croal Thomson, The Barbizon School of Painters (London, 1890) ; J. W. Mollett, Diaz (London, 1890) ; J. Claretie, Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains : Diaz (Paris, 1882); Albert Wolff, La Capitale de I' art: Narcisse Diaz (Paris, 1886); Ph. Burty, Mattres et petit- mattres: N. Diaz (Paris, 1877). (D. C.T.) DIAZ, PORFIRIO (1830-^), president of the republic of Mexico (q.v.), was born in the southern state of Oaxaca, on the i sth of September 1830. His father was an innkeeper in the little capital of that province, and died three years after the birth of Porfirio, leaving a family of seven children. The boy, who had Indian blood in his veins, was educated for the Catholic Church, a body having immense influence in the country at that time and ordering and controlling revolutions by the strength of their filled coffers. Arrived at the age of sixteen Porfirio Diaz threw off the authority of the priests. Fired with enthusiasm by stories told by the revolutionary soldiers continually passing through Oaxaca, and hearing about the war with the United States, a year later he determined to set out for Mexico city and join the National Guard. There being no trains, and he being too poor to ride, he walked the greater part of the 250 m., but arrived there too late, as the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo (1848) had been already signed, and Texas finally ceded to the United States. Thus his entering the army was for the time defeated. Thereupon he returned to his native town and began studying law. He took pupils in order to pay his own fees at the Law Institute, and help his mother. At this time he came under the notice and influence of Don Marcos Perez and Benito Juarez, the first a judge, the second a governor of the state of Oaxaca, and soon to become famous as the deliverer of Mexico fiom the priesthood (War of Reform). Diaz continued in his native town until 1854, when, refusing to vote for the dictator, Santa Anna, he was stung by a taunt of cowardice, and hastily pushing his way to the voting place, he recorded his vote in favour of Alvarez and the revolu- tionists. Orders were given for his arrest, but seizing a rifle and mounting a horse he placed himself at the head of a few revolting peasants, and from that moment became one of the leading spirits in that long struggle for reform, known as the War of Reform, which, under the leadership of Juarez, followed the over- throw of Santa Anna. Promotion succeeded promotion, as Diaz led his troops from victory to victory, amid great privations and difficulties. He was made captain (1856), lieutenant-colonel and colonel (1859), brigadier-general (1861), and general of division for the army (1863) . Closely following on civil war, political strife, open rebellion and the great War of Reform, came the French invasion of 1862, and the landing of the emperor Maximilian in 1864. From the moment the French disclosed their intentions of settling in Mexico in 1862, Diaz took a prominent part against the foreign invasion. He was twice seriously wounded, imprisoned on three different occasions, had two hairbreadth escapes, and took part in many daring engagements. So important a personage did he become that both Marshal Bazaine and theemperor'Maximilian made overtures to him. At the time of Maximilian's death (with which Diaz personally had nothing to do) he was carrying on the siege of Mexico city, which ended in the surrender of the town two days after the emperor was shot at Queretaro between his two leading generals. Diaz at once set to work to pay up arrears due to his soldiers, proclaimed death as the penalty of plunder and theft, and in the few weeks that followed showed his great administrative powers, the officers as well as the rank and file receiving arrears of pay. On the very day that he occupied Mexico city, the great commander of the army of the east, to everyone's surprise, sent in his resignation. He was, indeed, appointed to the command of the second division of the army by President Juarez in his military reorganization, but Diaz, seeing men who had given great and loyal service to the state dismissed from their positions in the government, and disgusted at this course, retired to the little city of Oaxaca; there he lived, helping in the reorganization of the army but taking no active part in the government until 1871. On Juarez' death Lerdo succeeded as president, in 1872. His term of office again brought discord, and when it was known that he was attempting to be re-elected in 1876, the storm broke. Diaz came from retirement, took up the leadership against Lerdo, and after desperate struggles and a daring escape finally made a triumphal entry into Mexico city on the 24th of November 1876, as provisional president, quickly followed by the full president- ship. His term of office marks a prominent change in the history of Mexico; from that date he at once forged ahead with financial and political reform, the scrupulous settlement of all national debts, the welding together of the peoples and tribes (there are 150 different Indian tribes) of his country, the establishment of railroads and telegraphs, and all this in a land which had been upheaved for a century with revolutions and bloodshed, and which had had fifty-two dictators, presidents and rulers in fifty -nine years. In 1880 Diaz was succeeded by Gonzalez, the former minister of war, for four years (owing to the limit of the presidential office), but in 1884 he was unanimously re-elected. The government having set aside the above- mentioned limitation, Diaz was continually re-elected to the presidency. He married twice and had a son and two daughters. His gifted second wife (Carmelita), very popular in Mexico, was many years younger than himself. King Edward VII. made him an honorary grand commander of the Bath in June 1906, in recognition of his wonderful administration as perpetual presi- dent for over a quarter of a century. See also Mrs Alec Tweedie, Porfirio Diaz, Seven Times President of Mexico (1906), and Mexico as I saw it (1901) ; Dr Noll, From Empire to Republic^ (1890); Lieut. Seaton Schroeder, Fall of Maximilian's Empire (New York, 1887); R. de Z. Enriquez, P. Diaz (1908); and an article by Percy Martin in Quarterly Review for October 1909- (E. A. T.) DIAZ DE NOVAES, BARTHOLOMEU (fl. 1481-1500), Portuguese explorer, discoverer of the Cape of Good Hope, was probably a kinsman of Joao Diaz, one of the first Portuguese to round Cape Bojador (1434), and of Diniz Diaz, the discoverer of Cape Verde (1445)- In 1478 a Bartholomeu Diaz, probably identical with the discoverer, was exempted from certain customary payments on ivory brought from the Guinea coast. In 1481 he commanded one of the vessels sent by King John II. under Diogo d'Azambuja to the Gold Coast. In 1486 he seems to have been a cavalier of the king's household, and superintendent of the royal warehouses; on the loth of October in this year he received an annuity of 6000 reis from King John for " services to come "; and some time after this (probably about July or August 1487, rather than July 1486, the traditional date) he left Lisbon with three ships to carry on the work of African explora- tion so greatly advanced by Diogo Cao (1482-1486). Passing Cao's farthest point near Cape Cross (in the modern German South-west Africa and) in 21° 50' S., he erected a pillar on what is now known as Diaz Point, south of Angra Pequena or Luderitz Bay, in 26° 38' S.; of this fragments still exist. From this point (according to De Barros) Diaz ran thirteen days southwards before strong winds, which freshened to dangerous stormy weather, in a comparatively high southern latitude, considerably south of the Cape. When the storm subsided the Portuguese stood east; and failing, after several days' search, to find land, turned north, and so struck the south coast of Cape Colony at Mossel Bay (Diaz' Bahia dos Vaqueiros), half way between the Cape of Good Hope and Port Elizabeth (February 3,1488). Thence they coasted eastward, passing Algoa Bay (Diaz' Bahia da Roca), erecting pillars (or perhaps wooden crosses) , it is said, on one of the islands in this bay and at or near Cape Padrone farther east; of these no traces remain. The officers and men now began to insist on return, and Diaz could only persuade them to go as far as the estuary of the Great Fish River (Diaz' Rio do Iffante, so named from his colleague, Captain Joao Iffante). Here, however, half way between Port Elizabeth and East London (and indeed from Cape Padrone), the north-easterly trend of the coast became unmistakable: the way round Africa had been laid open. On his return Diaz perhaps named Cape Agulhas after St B randan; DIAZO COMPOUNDS while on the southernmost projection of the modern Cape peninsula, whose remarkable highlands (Table Mountain, & doubtless impressed him as the practical termination of the continent, he bestowed, says De Barros, the name of Cape of Storms (Cabo Tormentoso) in memory of the storms he hac experienced in these far southern waters; this name (in the •ordinary tradition) was changed by King John to that of Gooc Hope (Cabo da Boa EsperanQa). Some excellent authorities, however, make Diaz himself give the Cape its present name. Hard by this " so many ages unknown promontory " the ex- plorer probably erected his last pillar. After touching at the Ilha do Principe (Prince's Island, south-west of the Cameroons) as well as at the Gold Coast, he appeared at Lisbon in December 1488. He had discovered 1260 m. of hitherto unknown coast; and his voyage, taken with the letters soon afterwards received from Pero de Covilhao (who by way of Cairo and Aden had reached Malabar on one side and the " Zanzibar coast " on the other as far south as Sofala, in 1487-1488) was rightly considered to have solved the question of an ocean route round Africa to the Indies and other lands of South and East Asia. No record has yet been found of any adequate reward for Diaz: on the contrary, when the great Indian expedition was being prepared (for Vasco da Gama's future leadership) Bartolomeu only superintended the building and outfit of the ships; when the fleet sailed in 1497, he only accompanied da Gama to the Cape Verde Islands, and after this was ordered to El Mina OR the Gold Coast. On Cabral's voyage of 1500 he was indeed permitted to take part in the discovery of Brazil (April 22), and thence should have helped to guide the fleet to India; but he perished in a great storm off his own Cabo Tormentoso. Like Moses, as Galvano says, he was allowed to see the Promised Land, but not to enter in. See Joao de Barros, Asia, Dec. I. bk. iii. ch. 4; Duarte Pacheco Pereira, Esmeraldo de situ orbis, esp. pp. 15, 90, 92, 04 and Raphael Bastos's introduction to the edition of 1892 (Pacheco met Diaz, returning from his great voyage, at the Ilha do Principe) ; a marginal note, probably by Christopher Columbus himself, on fol. 13 of a copy of Pierre d'Ailly's Imago mundi, now in the Colombina at Seville (the writer of this note fixes Diaz's return to Lisbon, December 1488, and says he was present at Diaz's interview with the king of Portugal, when the explorer described his voyage and showed his route upon the chart he had kept) ; a similar but briefer note in a copy of Pope Pius II. 's Historic rerum ubique gestarum, from the same hand; the Roteiro of Vasco da Gama's First Voyage (Journal of the First Voyage of ... Da Gama, Hakluyt Soc., ed. E. G. Ravenstein (1898), pp. 9, 14); Ramusio, Navigationi ford ed.), vol. i. fol. 144; Castanheda, Historia, bk. i. ch. i ; Galvano, Descobrimentos (Discoveries of the World), Hakluyt Spc. (1862), p. 77 ; E. G. Ravenstein, " Voyages of ... Cao and . . . Dias," in Geog. Journ. (London, December 1900), vol. xvi. pp. 638-655), an excellent critical summary in the light of the most recent investigations of all the material. The fragments of Diaz's only remaining pillar (from Diaz Point) are now partly at the Cape Museum, partly at Lisbon: the latter are photographed in Raven- stein's paper in Geog. Journ. (December 1900, p. 642). (C. R. B.) DIAZO COMPOUNDS, in organic chemistry, compounds of the type R-N-2-X (where R = a hydrocarbon radical, and X = an acid radical or a hydro xyl group). These compounds may be divided into two classes, namely, the true diazo compounds, characterized by the grouping — N = N— , and the diazonium compounds, characterized by the grouping N;N<. The diazonium compounds were first discovered by P. Griess (Ann., 1858, 106, pp. 123 et seq.), and may be prepared by the action of nitrous fumes on a well-cooled solution of a salt of a primary amine, C6H6NHj-HN03 + HNO2 = C6H6N2.NO3 + 2H20, or, as is more usually the case (since the diazonium salts themselves are generally used only in aqueous solution) by the addition of a well-cooled solution of potassium or sodium nitrite to a well-cooled dilute acid solution of the primary amine. In order to isolate the anhydrous diazonium salts, the method of E. Knoevenagel (Ber., 1890, 23, p. 2094) may be employed. In this process the amine salt is dissolved in absolute alcohol and diazotized by the addition of amyl nitrite; a crystalline pre- cipitate of the diazonium salt is formed on standing, or on the addition. of a small quantity of ether. The diazonium salts are also formed by the action of zinc-dust and acids on the nitrates of primary amines (R. Mohlau, Ber., 1883, 16, p. 3080), and by the action of hydroxylamine on nitrosobenzenes. They are colourless crystalline solids which turn brown on exposure. They dissolve easily in water, but only to a slight extent in alcohol and ether. They are very unstable, exploding violently when heated or rubbed. Benzene diazonium nitrate, C6H6N(NO3):N, crystal- lizes in long silky needles. The sulphate and chloride are similar, but they are not quite so unstable as the nitrate. The bromide may be prepared by the addition of bromine to an ethereal solution of diazo-amino-benzene (tribromaniline remaining in solution). By the addition of potassium bromide and bromine water to diazonium salts they are converted into a perbromide, e.g. C6H6N2Br3, which crystallizes in yellow plates. The diazonium salts are characterized by their great reactivity and consequently are important reagents in synthetical processes, since by their agency the amino group in a primary amine may be exchanged for other elements or radicals. The chief reactions are as follows : — 1. Replacement of-NH, by -OH: — The amine is diazotized and the aqueous solution of the diazonium salt is heated, nitrogen being eliminated and a phenol formed. 2. Replacement of- NHt by halogens and by the - CN and - CNO groups: — The diazonium salt is warmed with an acid solution of the corresponding cuprous salt (T. Sandmeyer, Ber., 1884, 17, p. 2650), or with copper powder (L. Gattermann, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 1218; 1892, 25, p. 1074). In the case of iodine, the substitution is effected by adding a warm solution of potassium iodide to the diazonium solution, no copper or cuprous salt being necessary; whilst for the production of nitriles a solution of potassium cuprous cyanide is used. This reaction (the so-called " Sandmeyer " reaction) has been investigated by A. Hantzsch and J. W. Blagden (Ber., 1900,33^.2544), who consider that three simultaneous reactions occur, namely, the formation of labile double salts which decompose in such a fashion that the radical attached to the copper atom wanders to the aromatic nucleus; a catalytic action, in which nitrogen is eliminated and the acid radical attaches itself to the aromatic nucleus; and finally, the formation of azo compounds. 3. Replacement of -NHt by -NO2: — A well -cooled concen- trated solution of potassium mercuric nitrate is added to a cooled solution of benzene diazonium nitrate, when the crystalline salt 2C6H6N2-NO3, Hg(NO2)2 is precipitated. On warming this with copper powder, it gives a quantitative yield of nitrobenzene (A. Hantzsch, Ber., 1900, 33, p. 2551). 4. Replacement of - NH2 by hydrogen : —This exchange is brought about, m some cases, by boiling the diazonium salt with alcohol; but I. Remsen and his pupils (Amer. Chem. Journ., 1888, 9, pp. 389 et seq.) have shown that the main product of this reaction is usually a phenolic ether. This reaction has also been investigated by A. Hantzsch and E. Jochem (Ber., 1901, 34, p. 3337), who arrived at the conclusion that the normal decomposition of diazonium salts by alcohols results in the formation of phenolic ethers, but that an increase in the molecular weight of the alcohol, or the accumulation of negative groups in the aromatic nucleus, diminishes the yield of the ether and increases the amount of the hydrocarbon formed. The replacement is more readily brought about by the use of sodium stannite (P. Friedlander, Ber., 1889, 22, p. 587), or by the use of a concentrated solution of hypophosphorous acid (J. Mai, Ber., 1902, 35, p. 162). A. Hantzsch (Ber., 1 896,29^. 947 jlSgS, 31, p. 1253) has shown that the chlor- and brom- diazoniumthiocyanates, when dissolved in alcohol containing a trace of hydrochloric acid, become converted into the isomeric thiocyanbenzene diazonium chlorides and bromides. This change only occurs when the halogen atom is in the ortho- or para- position to the - N2- group. Metallic Diazo Derivatives. — Benzene diazonium chlorid«4sdecom- posed by silver oxide in aqueous solution, with the formation of benzene diazonium hydroxide, CeHU-NCOH); N. This hydroxide, although possessing powerful basic properties, is unstable in the presence of alkalis and neutralizes them, being converted first into :he isomeric benzene-diazptic acid, the potassium salt of which is obtained when the diazonium chloride is added to an excess of cold concentrated potash (A. Hantzsch and W. B. Davidson, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 1612). Potassium benzene diazotate, CeH6N2'OK, crystallizes in colourless silky needles. The free acid is not known ; by the addition of the potassium salt to 50% acetic acid at —20° C., the acid anhydride, benzene diazo oxide, (C6H5N2)2O, is obtained as a very unstable, yellow, insoluble compound, exploding spontaneously at 0° C. Strong acids convert it into a diazonium salt, and potash converts it into the diazotate. On the constitution, of these anhy- drides see E. Bamberger, Ber., 1896, 29, p. 446, and A. Hantzsch, Ber., 1896,29, p. 1067; 1898, 31, p. 636. By the addition of the diazonium salts to a hot concentrated solution of a caustic alkali, C. Schraube and C. Schmidt(5er., 1894, 27, p. 52o)obtatned an isomer of potassium jenzene diazotate. These ise-diazotates are formed much more readily when the aromatic nucleus in the diazonium salt contains negative radicals. Potassium benzene iso-diazotate resembles the lormal salt, but is more stable, and is more highly ionized. Car- bon dioxide converts it into phenyl nitrosamine, C6H5NH-NO 174 DIAZO COMPOUNDS (A. Hantzsch). The potassium salt of the iso-diazo hydroxide yields on methylation a nitrogen ether, R'N(CH3)-NO, whilst the silver salt yields an oxygen ether, R-N: N-OCHj. These results point to the conclusion that the iso-diazo hydroxide is a tautomeric substance. The same oxygen ether is formed by the methylation of the silver salt of the normal diazo hydroxide; this points to the conclusion that the isomeric hydroxides, corresponding with the silver derivatives, have the same structural formulae, namely, R-N: N-OH. These oxygen ethers contain the grouping - N : N - , since they couple very readily with the phenols in alkaline solution to form azo compounds (q.v.) (E. Bamberger, Ber., 180,5, 28, p. 225); they are also explosive. By oxidizing potassium benzene iso-diazotate with alkaline potassium ferricyanide, E. Bamberger (Ber., 1894, 27, p. 914) obtained the diazoic acids, R-NH-NO2, substances which he had previously prepared by similarly oxidizing the diazonium salts, by dehydrating the nitrates of primary amines with acetic anhydride, and by the action of nitric anhydride on the primary amines. Concentrated acids convert them into the isomeric nitro-amines, the - NO2 group 'going into the nucleus in the ortho- or para- position to the amine nitrogen; this appears to indicate that the compounds are nitra- mines. They behave, however, as tautomeric substances, since their alkali salts on methylation give nitrogen ethers, whilst their silver salts yield oxygen ethers: •> potassium salt — > R'N(CH3).N02 nitramine. R'NH'N02 ^ ~~* silver salt -» R'N : N'O'OCH , diazoate. Phenyl nitramine, CeH5NH NC>2, is a colourless crystalline solid, which melts at 46° C. Sodium amalgam in alkaline solution reduces it to phenylhydrazine. Constitution of the Diazo Compounds. — P. Griess (Ann., 1866, 137, p. 39) considered thatthediazocompoundswereformedby theaddition of complex groupings of the type Cer^Nz— to the inorganic acids; whilst A. Kekul6 (Zeit.f. Chemie, 1866, 2, p. 308), on account of their ready condensation to form azo compounds and their easy reduction to hydrazines, assumed that they were substances of the type R-N: N-C1. The constitution of the diazonium group- N2-X, may be inferred from the following facts: — The group CeHsNj- behaves in many respects similarly to an alkali metal, and even more so to the ammonium group, since it is capable of forming colourless neutral salts with mineral acids, which in dilute aqueous solution are strongly ionized, but do not show any trace of hydrolytic dissociation (A. Hantzsch, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 1734). Again, the diazonium chlorides combine with platinic chloride to form difficultly soluble double platinum salts, such as (CeHs^ClVPtCU; similar gold salts, CeHcN^Cl-AuCls, are known. Determinations of the electrical con- ductivity of the diazonium chloride and nitrate also show that the diazonium radical is strictly comparable with other quaternary ammonium ions. For these reasons, one must assume the existence of pentavalent nitrogen in the diazonium salts, in order to account for their basic properties. The constitution of the isomeric diazo hydroxides has given rise to much discussion. E. Bamberger (Ber., 1895, 28, pp.444 et seq.) and C. W. Blomstrand (Journ. prakt.Chem., 1896, 53, pp. Ifkjetseq.) hold that the compounds are structurally different, the normal diazo- hydroxide being a diazonium derivative of the type R-N(;N)-OH. The recent work of A. Hantzsch and his pupils seems to invalidate this view (Ber., 1894, 27, pp. 1702 et seq. ; see also A. Hantzsch, DieDiazo- verbindungen). According to Hantzsch the isomeric diazo hydroxides are structurally identical, and the differences in behaviour are due to stereo-chemica1 relations, the isomerism being comparable with that of the oximes (q.v.). On such a hypothesis, the relatively unstable normal diazo hydroxides would be the sjTZ-compounds, since here the nitrogen atoms would be more easily eliminated, whilst the stable iso-diazo derivatives would be the an "V" >N;N+|-> >N;N< -> | | +HC1 ->R'X+N2. Cl H Cl ^H N = N J. Cain (Jour. Ghent. Soc., 1907, 91, p. 1049) suggested a quinonoid formula for diazonium salts, which has been combated by Hantzsch (Ber., 1908,41, pp. 3532 et seq.). G.T. Morgan and F. M. G. Mickle- thwaite (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1908, 93, p. 617; 1909, 95, p. 1319) have pointed out that the salts may possess a dynamic formula, Cain's representing the middle stage, thus: Diazoamines. — The diazoamines, R-N2-NHR, maybe prepared by the action of the primary and secondary amines on the diazonium salts, or by the action of nitrous acid on the free primary amine. I n the latter reaction it is assumed that the isodiazohydroxide first formed is immediately attacked by a second molecule of the amine. They are yellow crystalline solids, which do not unite with acids. Nitrous acid converts them, in acid solution, into diazonium salts. They are readily converted into the isomeric aminoazo compounds, either by standing in alcoholic solution, or by warming with a mixture of the parent base and its hydrochloride; the diazo group preferably going into the para-position to the amino group. When the para-position is occupied, the diazo group takes the ortho- position. H. Goldschmidt and R. U. Reinders (Ber., 1896, 29, p. 1369, 1899) have shown that the transformation is a monomoleculaf reaction, the velocity of transformation in moderately dilute solution being independent of the concentration, but proportional to the amount of the catalyst present (amine hydrochloride) and to the temperature. It has also been shown that when different salts of the amine are used, their catalytic influence varies in amount and is almost proportional to their degree of ionization in aqueous solution. Diazoaminobenzene, CeHsNj-NHCeHs, crystallizes in golden yellow laminae, which melt at 96 °C. and explode at a slightly higher tempera- ture. It is readily soluble in alcohol, ether and benzene. Concen- trated hydrochloric acid converts it into chlprbenzene, aniline and nitrogen. Zinc dust and alcoholic acetic acid reduce it to aniline and phenylhydrazine. Diazoimino compounds, R-Ns, may be regarded as derivatives of azoimide (g.f.) ; they are formed by the action of ammonia on the diazoperbromides,orby the action of hydroxylamine on the diazonium sulphates (J. Mai, Ber., 1892, 25, p. 372; T. Curtius, Ber., 1893, 26, p. 1271). Diazobenzeneimide, CeH6N 3, is a yellowish oil of stupefying odour. It boils at 59° C. (12 mm.), and explodes when heated. Concentrated hydrochloric acid decomposes it with formation of DIAZOMATA— DIBDIN, T. F. '75 chloranilines and elimination of nitrogen, whilst on boiling with sulphuric acid it is converted into aminophenols. Aliphatic Diazo Compounds. — The esters of the aliphatic amino acids may be diazotized in a manner similar to the primary aromatic amines, a fact discovered by T. Curtius (Ber., 1833, 16, p. 2230). The first aliphatic diazo compound to be isolated was diazoacetic ester, CH-Nz-COjCjHs, which is prepared by the action of potassium nitrite on the ethyl ester of glycocoll hydrochloride>HCl-NH2-CH2-CO2C2H5 + KNO2 = CHN2-COsC2H6+KCl+2H2O. It is a yellowish oil which melts at— 24° C.; it boils at 143-144° C., but cannot be distilled safely as it decomposes violently, giving nitrogen and ethyl fumarate. It explodes in contact with concentrated sulphuric acid. On reduction it yields ammonia and glycocoll (aminoacetic acid). When heated with water it forms ethyl hydroxy-acetate ; with alcohol it yields ethyl ethoxyacetate. Halogen acids convert it into monohalogen fatty acids, and the halogens themselves convert it into dihalogen fatty acids. It unites with aldehydes to form esters of ketonic acids, and with aniline yields anilido-acetic acid. It forms an addition product with acrylic ester, which on heating loses nitrogen and leaves trimethylene dicarboxylic ester. Concentrated ammonia converts it into diazoacetamide, CHN2-CONH2, which crystallizes in golden yellow plates which melt at 114° C. For other reactions see HYDRAZINE. The constitution of the diazo fatty esters is inferred from the fact that the two nitrogen atoms, when split off, are replaced by two monovalent elements or groups, thus leading to ^ the formula , for diazoacetic ester. Diazosuccinic ester, Nj-CCCOzCzHs^, is similarly prepared by the action of nitrous acid on the hydrochloride of aspartic ester. It is decomposed by boiling water and yields fumaric ester. Diazomethane, CH2N2, was first obtained in 1894 by H. v. Pech- mann (Ber., 1894, 27, p. 1888; 1895, 28, p. 855). It is prepared by the action of aqueous or alcoholic solutions of the caustic alkalis on the nitroso-acidyl derivatives of methylamine (such, for example, as nitrosomethyl urethane, NO-f^CHsVCC^CjHs, which is formed on passing nitrous fumes into an ethereal solution of methyl urethane). E. Bamberger (Ber., 1895, 28, p. 1682) regards it as the anhydride of iso-diazomethane, CHj-N:N-OH, and has prepared it by a method similar to that used for the preparation of isp-diazobenzene. By the action of bleaching powder on methylamine hydrochloride, there is obtained a volatile liquid (methyldichloramine, CHs-N-CU), boil- ing at 58-60° C., which explodes violently when heated with water, yielding hydrocyanic acid (CH3NCl2 = HCN-t-2HCl). Well-dried hydroxylamine hydrochloride is dissolved in methyl alcohol and mixed with sodium methylate; a solution of methyldichloramine in absolute ether is then added and an ethereal solution of diazomethane distils over. Diazomethane is a yellow inodorous gas, very poisonous and corrosive. It may be condensed to a liquid, which boils at about o° C. It is a powerful methylating agent, reacting with water to form methyl alcohol, and converting acetic acid into methylacetate, hydro- chloric acid into methyl chloride, hydrocyanic acid into acetonitrile, and phenol into anisol, nitrogen being eliminated in each case. It is reduced by sodium amalgam (in alcoholic solution) to methylhydrazine, CH3'NH-NH2. It unites directly with acetylene to form pyrazole (H. v. Pechmann, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2950) and with fumaric methyl ester it forms pyrazolin dicarboxylic ester. (F. G. P.*) SeeG. T. Morgan, B.A . Rep., 1902 ; J. Cain, Diazo Compounds, 1908. DIAZOMATA (Gr. 5idfco/ja, a girdle), in architecture, the landing places and passages which were carried round the semi- circle and separated the upper and lower tiers in a Greek theatre. DIBDIN, CHARLES (1745-1814), British musician, dramatist, novelist, actor and song-writer, the son of a parish clerk, was born at Southampton on or before the 4th of March 1745, and was the youngest of a family of eighteen. His parents designing him for the church, he was sent to Winchester; but his love of music early diverted his thoughts from the clerical profession. After receiving some instruction from the organist of Winchester cathedral, where he was a chorister from 1756 to 1759, he went to London at the age of fifteen. Here he was placed in a music warehouse in Cheapside, but he soon abandoned this employment to become a singing actor at Covent Garden. On the 2 ist of May 1762 his first work, an operetta entitled The Shepherd's Artifice, with words and music by himself, was produced at this theatre. Other works followed, his reputation being firmly established by the music to the play of The Padlock, produced at Drury Lane under Garrick's management in 1 768, the composer himself taking the part of Mungo with conspicuous success. He continued for some years to be connected with Drury Lane, both as composer and as actor, and produced during this period two of his best known works, The Waterman (1774) and The Quaker (1775). A quarrel with Garrick led to the termination of his engagement. In The Comic Mirror he ridiculed prominent contemporary figures through the medium of a puppet show. In 1782 he became joint manager of the Royal circus, afterwards known as the Surrey theatre. In three years he lost this position owing to a quarrel with his partner. His opera Liberty Hall, containing the suc- cessful songs " Jock Ratlin," " The Highmettled Racer," and " The Bells of Aberdovey," was produced at Drury Lane theatre on the 8th of February 1785. In 1788 he sailed for the East Indies, but the vessel having put in to Torbay hi stress of weather, he changed his mind and returned to London. In a musical variety entertainment called The Oddities, he succeeded in win- ning marked popularity with a number of songs that included " 'Twas in the good ship ' Rover'," " Saturday Night at Sea," "I sailed from the Downs in the ' Nancy,' " and the immortal " Tom Bowling," written on the death of his eldest brother, Captain Thomas Dibdin, at whose invitation he had planned his visit to India. A series of monodramatic entertainments which he gave at his theatre, Sans Souci, in Leicester Square, brought his songs, music and recitations more prominently into notice, and permanently established his fame as a lyric poet. It was at these entertainments that he first introduced many of those sea-songs which so powerfully influenced the national spirit. The words breathe the simple loyalty and dauntless courage that are the cardinal virtues of the British sailor, and the music was ap- propriate and naturally melodious. Their effect in stimulating and ennobling the spirit of the navy during the war with France was so marked as to call for special acknowledgment. In 1803 Dibdin was rewarded by government with a pension of £200 a year, of which he was only for a time deprived under the ad- ministration of Lord Grenville. During this period he opened a music shop in the Strand, but the venture was a failure. Dibdin died of paralysis in London on the 2Sth of July 1814. Besides his Musical Tour through England (1788), his Professional Life, an autobiography published in 1803, a History of the Stage (1795), and several smaller works, he wrote upwards of 1400 songs and about thirty dramatic pieces. He also wrote the following novels: — The Devil (1785); Hannah Hewitt (1792); The Younger Brother (1793). An edition of his songs by G. Hogarth (1843) contains a memoir of his life. His two sons, Charles and Thomas John Dibdin (?.».), whose works are often confused with those of their father, were also popular dramatists in their day. DIBDIN, THOMAS FROGNALL (1776-1847), English biblio- grapher, born at Calcutta in 1776, was the son of Thomas Dibdin, the sailor brother of Charles Dibdin. His father and mother both died on the way home to England in 1780, and Thomas was brought up by a maternal uncle. He was educated at St John's College, Oxford, and studied for a time at Lincoln's Inn. After an unsuccessful attempt to obtain practice as a provincial counsel at Worcester, he was ordained a clergyman at the close of 1804, being appointed to a curacy at Kensington. It was not until 1823 that he received the living of Exning in Sussex. Soon after- wards he was appointed by Lord Liverpool to the rectory of St Mary's, Bryanston Square, which he held until his death on the 1 8th of November 1847. The first of his numerous bibliographical works was his Introduction to the Knowledge of Editions of the Classics (1802), which brought him under the notice of the third Earl Spencer, to whom he owed much important aid in his bibliographical pursuits. The rich library at Althorp was thrown open to him; he spent much of his time in it, and in 1814-1815 published his Bibliotheca Spenceriana. As the library was not open to the general public, the information given in the Bibliotheca was found very useful, but since its author was unable even to read the characters in which the books he described were written, the work was marred by the errors which more or less characterize all his productions. This fault of inaccuracy how- ever was less obtrusive in his series of playful, discursive works in the form of dialogues on his favourite subject, the first of which, Bibliomania (1809), was republished with large additions in 1811, and was very popular, passing through numerous editions. To the same class belonged the Bibliographical Decameron, a larger work, which appeared in 181 7. In 1810 he began the publication of a new and much extended edition of Ames's Typographical Antiquities. The first volume was a great success, but the publica- tion was checked by the failure of the fourth volume, and was DIBDIN, T. J.— DICE never completed. In 1818 Dibdin was commissioned by Earl Spencer to purchase books for him on the continent, an expedi- tion described in his sumptuous Bibliographical, Antiquarian and Picturesque Tour in France and Germany (1821). In 1824 he made an ambitious venture in his Library Companion, or the Young Man's Guide and Old Man's Comfort in the Choice of a Library, intended to point out the best works in all departments of literature. His culture was not broad enough, however, to render him competent for the task, and the work was severely criticized. For some years Dibdin gave himself up chiefly to religious literature. He returned to bibliography in his Bibliophobia, or Remarks on the Present Depression in the State of Literature and the Book Trade (1832), and the same subject furnishes the main interest of his Reminiscences of a Literary Life (1836), and his Bibliographical, Antiquarian and Picturesque Tour in the Northern Counties of England and Scotland (1838). Dibdin was the originator and vice-president, Lord Spencer being the president, cf the Roxburghe Club, founded in 1812, — the first of the numerous book clubs which have done such service to literature. DIBDIN, THOMAS JOHN (1771-1841), English dramatist and song-writer, son of Charles Dibdin, the song-writer, and of Mrs Davenet, an actress whose real name was Harriet Pitt, was born on the 2ist of March 1771. He was apprenticed to his maternal uncle, a London upholsterer, and later to William Rawlins, afterwards sheriff of London. He summoned his second master unsuccessfully for rough treatment; and after a few years of service he ran away to join a company of country players. From 1789 to 1795 he played in all sorts of parts; he acted as scene painter at Liverpool in 1791; and during this period he com- posed more than 1000 songs. He made his first attempt as a dramatic writer in Something New, followed by The Mad Guardian in 1795. He returned to London in 1795, having married two years before; and in the winter of 1798-1799 his Jew and the Doctor was produced at Covent Garden. From this time he contributed a very large number of comedies, operas, farces, &c., to the public entertainment. Some of these brought immense popularity to the writer and immense profits to the theatres. It is stated that the pantomime of Mother Goose (1807) produced more than £20,000 for the management at Covent Garden theatre, and the High-mettled Racer, adapted as a pantomime from his father's play, £18,000 at Astley's. Dibdin was prompter and pantomime writer at Drury Lane until 1816, when he took the Surrey theatre. This venture proved disastrous and he became bankrupt. After this he was manager of the Haymarket, but without his old success, and his last years were passed in comparative poverty. In 1827 he published two volumes of Reminiscences; and at the time of his death he was preparing an edition of his father's sea songs, for which a small sum was allowed him weekly by the lords of the admiralty. Of his own songs " The Oak Table " and " The Snug Little Island " are well-known examples. He died in London on the i6th of September 1841. DIBRA (Slav. Debra), the capital of a sanjak bearing the same name, in the vilayet of Monastir, eastern Albania, Turkey. Pop. (1900) about 15,000. Dibra occupies a valley enclosed by mountains, and watered by the Tsrni Drin and Radika rivers, which meet 3 m. S. It is a fortified city, and the only episcopal see of the Bulgarian exarchate in Albania; most of the inhabit- ants are Albanians, but there is a strong Bulgarian colony. The local trade is almost entirely agricultural. DIBRUGARH, a town of British India, in the Lakhimpur district of eastern Bengal and Assam, of which it is the head- quarters, situated on the Dibru river about 4 m. above its confluence with the Brahmaputra. Pop. (1001) 11,227. It is the terminus of steamer navigation on the Brahmaputra, and also of a railway running to important coal-mines and petroleum wells, which connects with the Assam-Bengal system. Large quantities of coal and tea are exported. There are a military cantonment, the headquarters of the volunteer corps known as the Assam Valley Light Horse; a government high school, a training school for masters; and an aided school for girls. In 1900 a medical school for the province was established, out of a bequest left by Brigade-Surgeon J. Berry-White, which is maintained by the government, to train hospital assistants for the tea gardens. The Williamson artisan school is entirely supported by an endowment. DICAEARCHUS, of Messene in Sicily, Peripatetic philosopher and pupil of Aristotle, historian, and geographer, flourished about 320 B.C. He was a friend of Theophrastus, to whom he dedicated the majority of his works. Of his writings, which comprised treatises on a great variety of subjects, only the titles and a few fragments survive. The most important of them was his |8ios TTJS 'EXXdSos (Life in Greece), in which the moral, political and social condition of the people was very fully discussed. In his Tripoliticos he described the best form of government as a mixture of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy, and illustrated it by the example of Sparta. Among the philosophical works of Dicaearchus may be mentioned the Lesbiaci, a dialogue in three books, in which the author endeavours to prove that the soul is mortal, to which he added a supplement called Corinthiaci. He also wrote a Description of the World illustrated by maps, in which was probably included his Measurements of Mountains. A description of Greece (150 iambics, in C. Miiller, Frag. hist. Grace, i. 238-243) was formerly attributed to him, but, as the initial letters of the first twenty-three lines show, was really the work of Dionysius, son of Calliphon. Three considerable fragments of a prose description of Greece (Muller, i. 97-110) are now assigned to an unknown author named Heracleides. The De re publica of Cicero is supposed to be founded on one of Dicaearchus's works. The best edition of the fragments is by M. Fuhr (1841), a work of great learning; see also a dissertation by F. G. Osann, Beitrdge zur rom. und griech. Litteratur, ii. pp. 1-117 (1839); Pauly-Wissowa, Realencydopddie der klass. Altertumswiss. v. pt. i (1905). DICE (plural of die, O. Fr. de, derived from Lat. dare, to give), small cubes of ivory, bone, wood or metal, used in gaming. The six sides of a die are each marked with a different number of incised dots in such a manner that the sum of the dots on any two opposite sides shall be 7. Dice seem always to have been employed, as is the case to-day, for gambling purposes, and they are also used in such games as backgammon. There are many methods of playing, from one to five dice being used, although two or three are the ordinary numbers employed in Great Britain and America. The dice are thrown upon a table or other smooth surface either from the hand or from a receptacle called a dice-box, the latter method having been in common use in Greece, Rome and the Orient in ancient times. Dice-boxes have been made in many shapes and of various materials, such as wood, leather, agate, crystal, metal or paper. Many contain bars within to ensure a proper agitation of the dice, and thus defeat trickery. Some, formerly used in England, were employed with unmarked dice, and allowed the cubes to fall through a kind of funnel upon a board marked off into six equal parts numbered from i to 6. It is a remarkable fact, that, wherever dice have been found, whether in the tombs of ancient Egypt, of classic Greece, or of the far East, they differ hi no material respect from those in use to-day, the elongated ones with rounded ends found in Roman graves having been, not dice but tali, or knucklebones. Eight- sided dice have comparatively lately been introduced in France as aids to children in learning the multiplication table. The teetotum, or spinning die, used in many modern games, was known in ancient times in China and Japan. The increased popularity of the more elaborate forms of gaming has resulted in the decline of dicing. The usual method is to throw three times with three dice. If one or more sixes or fives are thrown the first time they may be reserved, the other throws being made with the dice that are left. The object is to throw three sixes = 18 or as near that number as possible, the highest throw winning, or, when drinks are to be paid for, the lowest throw losing. (For other methods of throwing consult the Encyclopaedia of Indoor Games, by R. F. Foster, 1903.) The most popular form of pure gambling with dice at the present day, particularly with the lower classes in America, is Craps, or Crap-Shooting, a simple form of Hazard, of French origin. Two dice are used. Each player puts up a stake DICETO 177 and the first caster may cover any or all of the bets. He then shoots, i.e. throws the dice from his open hand upon the table If the sum of the dice is 7 or 1 1 the throw is a nick, or natural, anc the caster wins all stakes. If the throw is either 2, 3 or 12 it is a crap, and the caster loses all. If any other number is thrown it is a point, and the caster continues until he throws the same number again, in which case he wins, or a 7, in which case he loses. The now practically obsolete game of Hazard was much more complicated than Craps. (Consult The Game of Hazard Investigated, by George Lowbut.) Poker dice are marked with ace, king, queen, jack and ten-spot. Five are used and the object is, in three throws, to make pairs, triplets, full hands or fours and fives of a kind, five aces being the highest hand. Straights do not count. In throwing to decide the payment of drinks the usual method is called horse and horse, in which the highest throws retire, leaving the two lowest to decide the loser by the best two in three throws. Should each player win one throw- both are said to be horse and horse, and the next throw determines the loser. The two last casters may also agree to sudden death, i.e. a single throw. Loaded dice, i.e. dice weighted slightly on the side of the lowest number, have been used by swindlers from the very earliest times to the present day, a fact proved by countless literary allusions. Modern dice are often rounded at the corners, which are otherwise apt to wear off irregularly. History. — Dice were probably evolved from knucklebones. The antiquary Thomas Hyde, in his Syntagma, records his opinion that the game of " odd or even," played with pebbles, is nearly coeval with the creation of man. It is almost impossible to trace clearly the development of dice as distinguished from knucklebones, on account of the confusing of the two games by, the ancient writers. It is certain, however, that both were played in times antecedent to those of which we possess any written records. Sophocles, in a fragment, ascribed their in- vention to Palamedes, a Greek, who taught them to his country- men during the siege of Troy, and who, according to Pausanias (on Corinth, xx.), made an offering of them on the altar of the temple of Fortune. Herodotus (Clio) relates that the Lydians, during a period of famine in the days of King Atys, invented dice, knucklebones and indeed all other games except chess. The fact that dice have been used throughout the Orient from time immemorial, as has been proved by excavations from ancient tombs, seems to point clearly to an Asiatic origin. Dicing is mentioned as an Indian game in the Rig-veda. In its primitive form knucklebones was essentially a game of skill, played by women and children, while dice were used for gambling, and it was doubtless the gambling spirit of the age which was responsible for the derivative form of knucklebones, in which four sides of the bones received different values, which were then counted, like dice. Gambling with three, sometimes two, dice (Kvffa.) was a very popular form of amusement in Greece, especially with the upper classes, and was an almost invariable accompani- ment to the symposium, or drinking banquet. The dice were cast from conical beakers, and the highest throw was three sixes, called Aphrodite, while the lowest, three aces, was called the dog. Both in Greece and Rome different modes of counting were in vogue. Roman dice were called tesserae from the Greek word for four, indicative of the four sides. The Romans were passionate gamblers, especially in the luxurious days of the Empire, and dicing was a favourite form, though it was forbidden except during the Saturnalia. The emperor Augustus wrote in a letter to Suetonius concerning a game that he had played with his friends: " Whoever threw a dog or a six paid a denarius to the bank for every die, and whoever threw a Venus (the highest) won everything." In the houses of the rich the dice-beakers were of carved ivory and the dice of crystal inlaid with gold. Mark Antony wasted his time at Alexandria with dicing, while, accord- ing to Suetonius, the emperors Augustus, Nero and Claudius were passionately fond of it, the last named having written a book on the game. Caligula notoriously cheated at the game; Domitian played it, and Commodus set apart special rooms in his palace for it. The emperor Verus, adopted son of Antonine, is known to have thrown dice whole nights together. Fashionable society followed the lead of its emperors, and, in spite of the severity of the laws, fortunes were squandered at the dicing-table. Horace derided the youth of the period, who wasted his time amid the dangers of dicing instead of taming his charger and giving him- self up to the hardships of the chase. Throwing dice for money was the cause of many special laws in Rome, according to one of which no suit could be brought by a person who allowed gambling in his house, even if he had been cheated or assaulted. Pro- fessional gamblers were common, and some of their loaded dice are preserved in museums. The common public-houses were the resorts of gamblers, and a fresco is extant showing two quarrelling dicers being ejected by the indignant host. Virgil, in the Copa generally ascribed to him, characterizes the spirit of that age in verse, which has been Englished as follows: — " What ho ! Bring dice and good wine ! Who cares for the morrow? Live — so calls grinning Death — Live, for I come to you soon!" That the barbarians were also given to gaming, whether or not they learned it from their Roman conquerors, is proved by Tacitus, who states that the Germans were passionately fond of dicing, so much so, indeed, that, having lost everything, they would even stake their personal liberty. Centuries later, during the middle ages, dicing became the favourite pastime of the knights, and both dicing schools (scholae deciorum) and gilds of dicers existed. After the downfall of feudalism the famous German mercenaries called landsknechts established a reputation as the most notorious dicing gamblers of their time. Many of the dice of the period were curiously carved in the images of men and beasts. In France both knights and ladies were given to dicing, which repeated legislation, including interdictions on the part of St Louis in 1254 and 1256, did not abolish. In Japan, China, Korea, India and other Asiatic countries dice have always been popular and are so still. See Foster's Encyclopaedia of Indoor Games (1903); Raymond's Illustriertes Knobelbreyier (Oramenburg, 1888) ; Les Jeux des Anciens, by L. Becqde Fouquieres (Paris, 1869) ; Das Knochelspiel der Alien, by Bolle (Wismar, 1886) ; Die Spiele der Griechen und Ranter, by W. Richter (Leipzig, 1887); Raymond's Alte und neue Wurfelspiele; Chinese Games with Dice, by Stewart Culin (Philadelphia, 1889); Korean Games, by Stewart Culin (Philadelphia, 1895). DICETO, RALPH DE (d. c. 1202), dean of St Paul's, London, and chronicler, is first mentioned in 1152, when he received the archdeaconry of Middlesex. He was probably born between 1 1 20 and 1130; of his parentage and nationality we know nothing. The common statement that he derived his surname from Diss in Norfolk is a mere conjecture; Dicetum may equally well be a Latinized form of Dissai, or Dicy, or Dizy, place-names which are found in Maine, Picardy, Burgundy and Champagne. In 1152 Diceto was already a master of arts; presumably he had studied at Paris. His reputation for learning and integrity stood high; he was regarded with respect and favour by Arnulf of Lisieux and Gilbert Foliot of Hereford (afterwards of London), two of the most eminent bishops of their time. Quite naturally, the archdeacon took in the Becket question the same side as his iriends. Although his narrative is colourless, and although he was one of those who showed some sympathy for Becket at the council of Northampton (1164), the correspondence of Diceto shows that he regarded the archbishop's conduct as ill-considered, and that he gave advice to those whom Becket regarded as his chief enemies. Diceto was selected, in 1166, as the envoy of the English bishops when they protested against the excommunica- tions launched by Becket. But, apart from this episode, which he characteristically omits to record, he remained in the background. The natural impartiality of his intellect was accentuated by a certain timidity, which is apparent in his writings no less than .n his life. About 1180 he became dean of St Paul's. In this office he distinguished himself by careful management of the estates, by restoring the discipline of the chapter, and by building at his own expense a deanery-house. A scholar and a man of considerable erudition, he showed a strong preference for his- :orical studies; and about the time when he was preferred to the deanery he began to collect materials for the history of his i78 DICEY— DICKENS own times. His friendships with Richard Fitz Nigel, who suc- ceeded Foliot in the see of London, with William Longchamp, the chancellor of Richard I., and with Walter of Coutances, the arch- bishop of Rouen, gave him excellent opportunities of collecting information. His two chief works, the Abbreviations Chronico- rum and the Ymagines Historiarum, cover the history of the world from the birth of Christ to the year 1202. The former, which ends in 1147, is a work of learning and industry, but almost entirely based upon extant sources. The latter, begin- ning as a compilation from Robert de Monte and the letters of Foliot, becomes an original authority about 1172, and a contem- porary record about 1181. In precision and fulness of detail the Ymagines are inferior to the chronicles of the so-called Benedict and of Hoveden. Though an annalist, Diceto is careless in his chronology; and the documents which he incorporates, while often important, are selected on no principle. He has little sense of style; but displays considerable insight when he ventures to discuss a political situation. For this reason, and on account of the details with which they supplement the more important chronicles of the period, the Ymagines are a valuable though a secondary source. See W. Stubbs' edition of the Historical Works of Diceto (Rolls ed. 1876, 2 vols.), and especially the introduction. The second volume contains minor works which are the barest compendia of facts taken from well-known sources. Diceto's fragmentary Domesday of the capitular estates has been edited by Archdeacon Hale in TheDomesday of St Paul's, pp. 109 ff. (Camden Society, 1858). DICEY, EDWARD (1832- ), English writer, son of T. E. Dicey of Claybrook Hall, Leicestershire, was born in 1832. Edu- cated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took mathematical and classical honours, he became an active journalist, contribut- ing largely to the principal reviews. He was called to the bar in 1875, became a bencher of Gray's Inn in 1896, and was treasurer in 190-3-1904. He was connected with the Daily Telegraph as leader writer and then as special correspondent, and after a short spell in 1870 as editor of the Daily News he became editor of the Observer, a position which he held until 1889. Of his many books on foreign affairs perhaps the most important are his England and Egypt (1884), Bulgaria, the Peasant State (1895), The Story of the Khedivate (1902), and The Egypt of the Future (1907). He was created C.B. in 1886. His brother ALBERT VENN DICEY (b. 1835), English jurist, was educated at Balliol College, Oxford, where he took a first class in the classical schools in 1858. He was called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1863. He held fellowships successively at Balliol, Trinity and All Souls', and from 1882 to 1909 was Vinerian professor of law. He became Q.C. in 1890. His chief works are the Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitu- tion (1885, 6th ed. 1902), which ranks as a standard work on the subject; England's Case against Home Rule (1886); A Digest of the Law of England with Reference to the Conflict of Laws (1896), and Lectures on the Relation between Law and Public Opinion in England during the ipth century (1905). DICHOTOMY (Gr. bl%a, apart, refivuv, to cut), literally a cutting asunder, the technical term for a form of logical division, consisting in the separation of a genus into two species, one of which has and the other has not, a certain quality or attribute. Thus men may be thus divided into white men, and men who are not white; each of these may be subdivided similarly. On the principle of contradiction this division is both exhaustive and exclusive; there can be no overlapping, and no members of the original genus or the lower groups are omitted. This method of classification, though formally accurate, has slight value in the exact sciences, partly because at every step one of the two groups is merely negatively characterized and therefore incapable of real subdivision; it is useful, however, in setting forth clearly the gradual descent from the most inclusive genus (summum genus) through species to the lowest class (infima species), which is divisible only into individual persons or things. (See further DIVISION.) In astronomy the term is used for the aspect of the moon or of a planet when apparently half illuminated, so that its disk has the form of a semicircle. DICK, ROBERT (1811-1866), Scottish geologist and botanist- was born at Tullibody, in Clackmannanshire, in January 1811. His father was an officer of excise. At the age of thirteen, after receiving a good elementary education at the parish school, Robert Dick was apprenticed to a baker, and served for three years. In these early days he became interested in wild flowers — he made a collection of plants and gradually acquired some knowledge of their names from an old encyclopaedia. When his time was out he left Tullibody and gained employment as a journeyman baker at Leith, Glasgow and Greenock. Meanwhile his father, who in 1826 had been removed to Thurso, as super- visor of excise, advised his son to set up a baker's shop in that town. Thither Robert Dick went in 1830, he started in business as a baker and worked laboriously until he died on the 24th of December 1866. Throughout this period he zealously devoted himself to studying and collecting the plants, mollusca and insects of a wide area of Caithness, and his attention was directed soon after he settled in Thurso to the rocks and fossils. In 1 83 5 he first found remains of fossil fishes; but it was net till some years later that his interest became greatly stirred. Then he obtained a copy of Hugh Miller's Old Red Sandstone (published in 1841), and he began systematically to collect with hammer and chisel the fossils from the Caithness flags. In 1845 he found remains of Holoptychius and forwarded specimens to Hugh Miller, and he continued to send the best of his fossil fishes to that geologist, and to others after the death of Miller. In this way he largely contri- buted to the progress of geological knowledge, although he him- self published nothing and was ever averse from publicity. His herbarium, which consisted of about 200 folios of mosses, ferns and flowering plants " almost unique in its completeness," is now stored, with many of his fossils, in the museum at Thurso. Dick had a hard struggle for existence, especially through competition during his late years, when he was reduced almost to beggary: but of this few, if any, of his friends were aware until it was too late. A monument erected in the new cemetery at Thurso testifies to the respect which his life-work created, when the merits of this enthusiastic naturalist came to be appreciated. See Robert Dick, Baker of Thurso, Geologist and Botanist, by Samuel Smiles (1878). DICK, THOMAS (1774-1857), Scottish writer on astronomy, was born at Dundee on the 24th of November 1774. The appearance of a brilliant meteor inspired him, when in his ninth year, with a passion for astronomy; and at the age of sixteen he forsook the loom, and supported himself by teaching. In 1794 he entered the university of Edinburgh, and set up a school on the termination of his course; then, in 1801, took out a licence to preach, and officiated for some years as probationer in the United Presbyterian church. From about 1807 to 1817 he taught in the secession school at Methven in Perthshire, and during the ensuing decade in that of Perth, where he composed his first substantive book, The Christian Philosopher (1823, 8th ed. 1842). Its success determined his vocation as an author; he built himself, in 1827, a cottage at Broughty Ferry, near Dundee, and devoted himself wholly to literary and scientific pursuits. They proved, however, owing to his unpractical turn of mind, but slightly remunerative, and he was in 1847 relieved from actual poverty by a crown pension of £50 a year, eked out by a> local subscription. He died on the 2gth of July 1857. His best-known works are: Celestial Scenery (1837), The Sidereal Heavens (1840), and The Practical Astronomer (1845), in which is con- tained (p. 204) a remarkable forecast of the powers and uses of celestial photography. Written with competent knowledge, and in an agreeable style, they obtained deserved and widespread popularity. See R. Charnbers's Eminent 'Scotsmen (ed. 1868); Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Society, xviii. 98; Athenaeum (1857). p. 1008. (A. M. C.) DICKENS, CHARLES JOHN HUFFAM (1812-1870), English novelist, was born on the 7th of February 1812 at a house in the Mile End Terrace, Commercial Road, Landport (Portsea) — a house which was opened as a Dickens Museum on 22nd July 1904. His father John Dickens (d. 1851), a clerk in the navy-pay office DICKENS 179 on a salary of £80 a year, and stationed for the time being at Portsmouth, had married in 1809 Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas Barrow, and she bore him a family of eight children, Charles being the second. In the winter of 1814 the family moved from Portsea in the snow, as he remembered, to London, and lodged for a time near the Middlesex hospital. The country of the novelist's childhood, however, was the kingdom of Kent, where the family was established in proximity to the dockyard at Chatham from 1816101821. He looked upon himself in later years as a man of Kent, and his capital abode as that in Ordnance Terrace, or 18 St Mary's Place, Chatham, amid surroundings classified in Mr Pickwick's notes as " appearing " to be soldiers, sailors, Jews, chalk, shrimps, officers and dockyard men. He fell into a family the general tendency of which was to go down in the world, during one of its easier periods (John Dickens was now fifth clerk on £250 a year), and he always regarded himself as belonging by right to a comfortable, genteel, lower middle- class stratum of society. His mother taught him to read; to his father he appeared very early in the light of a young prodigy, and by him Charles was made to sit on a tall chair and warble popular ballads, or even to tell stories and anecdotes for the benefit of fellow-clerks in the office. John Dickens, however, had a small collection of books which were kept in a little room upstairs that led out of Charles's own, and in this attic the boy found his true literary instructors in Roderick Random, Peregrine Pickle, Humphry Clinker, Tom Jones, The Vicar of Wakcfield, Don Quixote, Gil Bias and Robinson Crusoe. The story of how he played at the characters in these books and sustained his idea of Roderick Random for a month at a stretch is picturesquely told in David Copperfield. Here as well as in his first and last books and in what many regard as his best, Great Expectations, Dickens returns with unabated fondness and mastery to the surround- ings of his childhood. From seven to nine years he was at a school kept in Clover Lane; Chatham, by a Baptist minister named William Giles, who gave him Goldsmith's Bee as a keep- sake when the call to Somerset House necessitated the removal of the family from Rochester to a shabby house in Bayham Street, Camden Town. At the very moment when a consciousness of capacity was beginning to plump his youthful ambitions, the whole flattering dream vanished and left not a rack behind. Happiness and Chatham had been left behind together, and Charles was about to enter a school far sterner and also far more instructive than that in Clover Lane. The family income had been first decreased and then mortgaged; the creditors of the " prodigal father " would not give him time; John Dickens was consigned to the Marshalsea; Mrs Dickens started an " Educational Establishment " as a forlorn hope in Upper Gower Street; and Charles, who had helped his mother with the children, blacked the boots, carried things to the pawnshop and done other menial work, was now sent out to earn his own living as a young hand in a blacking warehouse, at Old Hungerford Stairs, on a salary of six shillings a week. He tied, trimmed and labelled blacking pots for over a year, dining off a saveloy and a slice of pudding, consorting with two very rough boys, Bob Fagin and Pol Green, and sleeping in an attic in Little College Street, Camden Town, in the house of Mrs Roylance (Pipchin), while on Sunday he spent the day with his parents in their comfortable prison, where they had the services of a " marchioness " imported from the Chatham workhouse. Already consumed by ambition, proud, sensitive and on his dignity to an extent not uncommon among boys of talent, he felt his position keenly, and in later years worked himself up into a passion of self-pity in connexion with the " degradation " and " humiliation " of this episode. The two years of childish hard- ship which ate like iron into his soul were obviously of supreme importance in the growth of the novelist. Recollections of the streets and the prison and its purlieus supplied him with a store of literary material upon which he drew through all the years of his best activity. And the bitterness of such an experience was not prolonged sufficiently to become sour. From 1824 to 1826, having been rescued by a family quarrel and by a windfall in the shape of a legacy to his father, from the warehouse, he spent two years at an academy known as Wellington House, at the corner of Granby Street and the Hampstead Road (the lighter traits of which are reproduced in Salem House), and was there known as a merry and rather mischievous boy. Fortunately he learned nothing there to compromise the results of previous instruction. His father had now emerged from the Marshalsea and was seeking employment as a parliamentary reporter. A Gray's Inn solicitor with whom he had had dealings was attracted by the bright, clever look of Charles, and took him into his office as a boy at a salary of thirteen and sixpence (rising to fifteen shillings) a week. He remained in Mr Blackmore's office from May 1827 to November 1828, but he had lost none of his eager thirst for dis- tinction, and spent all his spare time mastering Gurney's short- hand and reading early and late at the British Museum. A more industrious apprentice in the lower grades of the literary profession has never been known, and the consciousness of opportunities used to the most splendid advantage can hardly have been absent from the man who was shortly to take his place at the head of it as if to the manner born. Lowten and Guppy, and Swiveller had been observed from this office lad's stool; he was now greatly to widen his area of study as a reporter in Doctors' Commons and various police courts, including Bow Street, working all day at law and much of the night at shorthand. Some one asked John Dickens, during the first eager period of curiosity as to the man behind " Pickwick," where his son Charles was educated. " Well really," said the prodigal father, " he may be said — haw — haw — to have educated himself." He was one of the most rapid and accurate reporters in London when, at nine- teen years of age, in 1831, he realized his immediate ambition and "entered the gallery" as parliamentary reporter to the True Sun. Later he was reporter to the Mirror of Parliament and then to the Morning Chronicle. Several of his earliest letters are concerned with his exploits as a reporter, and allude to the experiences he had, travelling fifteen miles an hour and being upset in almost every description of known vehicle in various parts of Britain between 1831 and 1836. The family was now living in Bentwick Street, Manchester Square, but John Dickens was still no infrequent inmate of the sponging-houses. With all the accessories of these places of entertainment his son had grown to be excessively familiar. Writing about 1832 to his school friend Tom Mitton, Dickens tells him that his father has been arrested at the suit of a wine firm, and begs him go over to Cursitcr Street and see what can be done. On another occasion of a paternal disappearance he observes: " I own that his absence does not give me any great uneasiness, knowing how apt he is to get out of the way when anything goes wrong." In yet another letter he asks for a loan of four shillings. In the meanwhile, however, he had commenced author in a more creative sense by penning some sketches of contemporary London life, such as he had attempted in his school days in imita- tion of the sketches published in the London and other magazines of that day. The first of these appeared in the December number of the Old Monthly Magazine for 1833. By the following August, when the signature " Boz " was first given, five of these sketches had appeared. By the end of 1834 we find him settled in rooms in Furnival's Inn, and a little later his salary on the Morning Chronicle was raised, owing to the intervention of one of its chiefs, George Hogarth, the father of (in addition to six sons) eight charming daughters, to one of whom, Catherine, Charles was engaged to be married before the year was out. Clearly as his career now seemed designated, he was at this time or a little before it coquetting very seriously with the stage: but circumstances were rapidly to determine another stage in his career. A year before Queen Victoria's accession appeared in two volumes Sketches by Boz, Illustrative of Everyday Life and Everyday People. The book came from a prentice hand, but like the little tract on the Puritan abuse of the Sabbath entitled " Sunday under three Heads " which appeared a few months later, it contains in germ all, or almost all, the future Dickens. Glance at the headings of the pages. Here we have the Beadle and all connected with him, London streets, theatres, shows, the pawn- shop, Doctors' Commons, Christmas, Newgate, coaching, the i8o DICKENS river. Here comes a satirical picture of parliament, fun made of cheap snobbery, a rap on the knuckles of sectarianism. And what could be more prophetic than the title of the opening chapter — Our Parish? With the Parish — a large one indeed — Dickens to the end concerned himself; he began with a rapid survey of his whole field, hinting at all he might accomplish, indicating the limits he was not to pass. This year was to be still more momentous to Dickens, for, on the 2nd of April 1836, he was married to George Hogarth's eldest daughter Catherine. He seems to have fallen in love with the daughters collectively, and, judging by subsequent events, it has been suggested that perhaps he married the wrong one. His wife's sister Mary was the romance of his early married life, and another sister, Georgina, was the dearest friend of his last ten years. A few days before the marriage, just two months after the appearance of the Sketches, the first part of The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club was announced. One of the chief vogues of the day was the issue of humorous, sporting or anecdotal novels in parts, with plates, and some of the best talent of the day, repre- sented by Ainsworth, Bulwer, Marryat, Maxwell, Egan, Hook and Surtees, had been pressed into this kind of enterprise. The pubh'shers of the day had not been slow to perceive Dickens's aptitude for this species of " letterpress." A member of the firm of Chapman & Hall called upon him at Furnival's Inn in December 1835 with a proposal that he should write about a Nimrod Club of amateur sportsmen, foredoomed to perpetual ignominies, while the comic illustrations were to be etched by Seymour, a well-known rival of Cruikshank (the illustrator of Boz). The offer -was too tempting for Dickens to refuse, but he changed the idea from a club of Cockney sportsmen to that of a club of eccentric peripatetics, on the sensible grounds, first that sporting sketches were stale, and, secondly, that he knew nothing worth speaking of about sport. The first seven pictures appeared with the signature of Seymour and the letterpress of Dickens. Before the eighth picture appeared Seymour had blown his brains out. After a brief interval of Buss, Dickens obtained the services of Hablot K. Browne, known to all as " Phiz." Author and illustrator were as well suited to one another and to the common creation of a unique thing as Gilbert and Sullivan. Having early got rid of the sporting element, Dickens found himself at once. The subject exactly suited his knowledge, his skill in arranging incidents — nay, his very limitations too. No modern book is so incalculable. We ccmmence laughing heartily at Pickwick and his troupe. The laugh becomes kindlier. We are led on through a tangle of adventure, never dreaming what is before us. The landscape changes: Pickwick becomes the symbol of kind- heartedness, simplicity and innocent levity. Suddenly in the Fleet Prison a deeper note is struck. The medley of human relation- ships, the loneliness, the mystery and sadness of human destinies are fathomed. The tragedy of human life is revealed to us amid its most farcical elements. The droll and laughable figure of the hero is transfigured by the kindliness of human sympathy into a beneficent and bespectacled angel in shorts and gaiters. By defying accepted rules, Dickens had transcended the limited sphere hitherto allotted to his art: he had produced a book to be enshrined henceforth in the inmost hearts of all sorts and conditions of his countrymen, and had definitely enlarged the boundaries of English humour and English fiction. As for Mr Pickwick, he is a fairy like Puck or Santa Claus, while his creator is " the last of the mythologists and perhaps the greatest." When The Pickwick Papers appeared in book form at the close of 1837 Dickens's popular reputation was made. From the appearance of Sam Weller in part v. the universal hunger for the monthly parts had risen to a furore. The book was promptly translated into French and German. The author had received little assistance from press or critics, he had no influential con- nexions, his class of subjects was such as to " expose him at the outset to the fatal objections of vulgarity," yet in less than six months from the appearance of the first number, as the Quarterly Review almost ruefully admits, the whole reading world was talking about the Pickwickians. The names of Winkle, Wardle, Weller, Jingle, Snodgrass, Dodson & Fogg, were as familiar as household words. Pickwick chintzes figured in the linendrapers" windows, and Pickwick cigars in every tobacconist's; Weller corduroys became the stock-in-trade of every breeches-maker; Boz cabs might be seen rattling through the streets, and the portrait of the author of Pelham and Crichton was scraped down to make way for that of the new popular favourite on the omni- buses. A new and original genius had suddenly sprung up, there was no denying it, even though, as the Quarterly concluded, " it required no gift of prophecy to foretell his fate — he has risen like a rocket and he will come down like the stick." It would have needed a very emphatic gift of prophecy indeed to foretell that Dickens's reputation would have gone on rising until at the present day (after one sharp fall, which reached an extreme about 1887) it stands higher than it has ever stood before. Dickens's assumption of the literary purple was as amazing as anything else about him. Accepting the homage of the luminaries of the literary, artistic and polite worlds as if it had been his natural due, he arranges for the settlement of his family, decrees, like another Edmund Kean, that his son is to go to Eton, carries on the most complicated negotiations with his publishers and editors, presides and orates with incomparable force at innumer- able banquets, public and private, arranges elaborate villegiatures in the country, at the seaside, in France or in Italy, arbitrates in public on every topic, political, ethical, artistic, social or literary, entertains and legislates for an increasingly large domestic circle, both juvenile and adult, rules himself and his time-table with a rod of iron. In his letter-writing alone, Dickens did a life's literary work. Nowadays no one thinks of writing such letters; that is to say, letters of such length and detail, for the quality is Dickens's own. He evidently enjoyed this use of the pen. Page after page of Forster's Life (750 pages in the Letters edited by his daughter and sister-in-law) is occupied with transcription from private correspondence, and never a line of this but is thoroughly worthy of print and preservation. ^ If he makes a tour in any part of the British Isles, he writes a full description of all he sees, of everything that happens, and writes it with such gusto, such mirth, such strokes of fine picturing, as appear in no other private letters ever given to the public. Naturally buoyant in all circumstances, a holiday gave him the exhilaration of a school- boy. See how he writes from Cornwall, when on a trip with two or three friends, in 1843. " Heavens ! if you could have seen the necks of bottles, distracting in their immense variety of shape, peering out of the carriage pockets ! If you could have witnessed the deep devotion of the post-boys, the maniac glee of the waiters ! If you could have followed us into the earthy old churches we visited, and into the strange caverns on the gloomy seashore, and down into the depths of mines, and up to the tops of giddy heights, where the unspeakably green water was roaring, I don't know how many hundred feet below. ... I never laughed in my life as I did on this journey. It would have done you good to hear me. I was choking and gasping and bursting the buckles off the back of my stock, all the way. And Stanfield " — the painter — " got into such apoplectic entanglements that, we were obliged to beat him on the back with portmanteaus before we could recover him." The animation of Dickens's look would attract the attention of any one, anywhere. His figure was not that of an Adonis, but his brightness made him the centre and pivot of every society he was in. The keenness and vivacity of his eye combined with his inordinate appetite for life to give the unique quality to all that he wrote. His instrument is that of the direct, sinewy English of Smollett, combined with much of the humorous grace of Goldsmith (his two favourite authors), but modernized to a certain extent under the influence of Washington Irving, Sydney Smith, Jeffrey, Lamb, and other writers of the London Magazine. He taught himself to speak French and Italian, but he could have read little in any language. His ideas were those of the inchoate and insular liberalism of the 'thirties. His unique force in literature he was to owe to no supreme artistic or intellectual quality, but almost entirely to his inordinate gift of observation, his sympathy with the humble, his power over the emotions and his incomparable endowment of unalloyed human fun. To DICKENS 181 contemporaries he was not so much a man as an institution, at the very mention of whose name faces were puckered with grins or wreathed in smiles. To many his work was a revelation, the revelation of a new world and one far better than their own. And his influence went further than this in the direction of revolution or revival. It gave what were then universally referred to as " the lower orders " a new sense of self-respect, a new feeling of citizenship. Like the defiance of another Luther, or the Declaration of a new Independence, it emitted a fresh ray of hope across the firmament. He did for the whole English-speaking race what Burns had done for Scotland — he gave it a new conceit of itself. He knew what a people wanted and he told what he knew. He could do this better than anybody else because his mind was theirs. He shared many of their " great useless virtues," among which generosity ranks before justice, and sympathy before truth, even though, true to his middle-class vein, he exalts piety, chastity and honesty in a manner somewhat alien to the mind of the low-bred man. This is what makes Dickens such a demigod and his public success such a marvel, and this also is why any exclusively literary criticism of his work is bound to be so inadequate. It should also help us to make the necessary allowances for the man. Dickens, even the Dickens of legend that we know, is far from perfect. The Dickens of reality to which Time may furnish a nearer approximation is far less perfect. But when we consider the corroding influence of adula- tion, and the intoxication of unbridled success, we cannot but wonder at the relatively high level of moderation and self-control that Dickens almost invariably observed. Mr G. K. Chesterton remarks suggestively that Dickens had all his life the faults of the little boy who is kept up too late at night. He is overwrought by happiness to the verge of exasperation, and yet as a matter of fact he does keep on the right side of the breaking point. The specific and curative in his case was the work in which he took such anxious pride, and such unmitigated delight. He revelled in punctual and regular work; at his desk he was often in the highest spirits. Behold how he pictured himself, one day at BroadstairS, where he was writing Chuzzlewit. " In a bay- window in a one-pair sits, from nine o'clock to one, a gentleman with rather long hair and no neckcloth, who writes and grins, as if he thought he was very funny indeed. At one he disappears, presently emerges from a bathing-machine, and may be seen, a kind of salmon-colour porpoise, splashing about in the ocean. After that, he may be viewed in another bay-window on the ground-floor eating a strong lunch; and after that, walking a dozen miles or so, or lying on his back on the sand reading a book. Nobody bothers him, unless they know he is disposed to be talked to, and I am told he is very comfortable indeed. He's as brown as a berry, and they do say he is as good as a small fortune to the innkeeper, who sells beer and cold punch." Here is the secret of such work as that of Dickens; it is done with delight — done (in a sense) easily, done with the mechanism of mind and body in splendid order. Even so did Scott write ; though more rapidly and with less conscious care: his chapter finished before the world had got up to breakfast. Later, Dickens produced novels less excellent with much more of mental strain. The effects of age could not have shown themselves so soon, but for the unfortunate loss of energy involved in his non-literary labours. While the public were still rejoicing in the first sprightly runnings of the " new humour," the humorist set to work desperately on the grim scenes of Oliver Twist, the story of a parish orphan, the nucleus of which had already seen the light in his Sketches. The early scenes are of a harrowing reality, despite the germ of forced pathos which the observant reader may detect in the pitiful parting between Oliver and little Dick; but what will strike every reader at once in this book is the direct- ness and power of the English style, so nervous and unadorned: from its unmistakable clearness and vigour Dickens was to travel far as time went on. But the full effect of the old simplicity is felt in such masterpieces of description as the drive of Oliver and Sikes to Chertsey, the condemned-cell ecstasy of Fagin, or the unforgettable first encounter between Oliver and the Artful Dodger. Before November 1837 had ended, Charles Dickens entered on an engagement to write a successor to Pickwick on similar lines of publication. Oliver Twist was then in mid-career; a Life of Grimaldi and Barnaby Ritdge were already covenanted for. Dickens forged ahead with the new tale of Nicholas Nickleby and was justified by the results, for its sale far surpassed even that of Pickwick. As a conception it is one of his weakest. An unmistakably 18th-century character pervades it. Some of the vignettes are among the most piquant and besetting ever written. Large parts of it are totally unobserved conventional melo- drama; but the Portsmouth Theatre and Dotheboys Hall and Mrs Nickleby (based to some extent, it is thought, upon Miss Bates in Emma, but also upon the author's Mamma) live for ever as Dickens conceived them in the pages of Nicholas Nickleby. Having got rid of Nicholas Nickleby and resigned his editor- ship of Bentley's Miscellany, in which Oliver Twist originally appeared, Dickens conceived the idea of a weekly periodical to be issued as Master Humphrey's Clock, to comprise short stories, essays and miscellaneous papers, after the model of Addison's Spectator. To make the weekly numbers " go," he introduced Mr Pickwick, Sam Weller and his father in friendly intercourse. But the public requisitioned " a story," and in No. 4 he had to brace himself up to give them one. Thus was commenced The Old Curiosity Shop, which was continued with slight inter- ruptions, and followed by Barnaby Rudge. For the first time we find Dickens obsessed by a highly complicated plot. The tonality achieved in The Old Curiosity Shop surpassed anything he had attempted in this difficult vein, while the rich humour of Dick Swiveller and the Marchioness, and the vivid portraiture of the wandering Bohemians, attain the very highest level of Dickensian drollery; but in the lamentable tale of Little Nell (though Landor and Jeffrey thought the character-drawing of this infant comparable with that of Cordelia), it is generally admitted that he committed an indecent assault upon the emotions by exhibiting a veritable monster of piety and long- suffering in a child of tender years. In Barnaby Rudge he was manifestly affected by the influence of Scott, whose achievements he always regarded with a touching veneration. The plot, again, is of the utmost complexity, and Edgar Allan Poe (who predicted the conclusion) must be one of the few persons who ever really mastered it. But few of Dickens's books are written in a more admirable style. Master Humphrey's Clock concluded, Dickens started in 1842 on his first visit to America — an episode hitherto without parallel in English literary history, for he was received everywhere with popular acclamation as the representative of a grand triumph of the English language and imagination, without regard to distinctions of nationality. He offended the American public grievously by a few words of frank description and a few quotations of the advertisement columns of American papers illustrating the essential barbarity of the old slave system (American Notes) . Dickens was soon pining for home — no English writer is more essentially and insularly English in inspiration and aspiration than he is. He still brooded over the perverseness of America on the copyright question, and in his next book he took the opportunity of uttering a few of his impressions about the objectionable sides of American democracy, the result being that " all Yankee-doodle-dom blazed up like one universal soda bottle," as Carlyle said. Martin Chuzzlewit (1843-1844) is import- ant as closing his great character period. His sew originale, as the French would say, was by this time to a considerable extent exhausted, and he had to depend more upon artistic elaboration, upon satires, upon tours de force of description, upon romantic and ingenious contrivances. But all these resources combined proved unequal to his powers as an original observer of popular types, until he reinforced himself by autobiographic reminiscence, as in David Copperfield and Great Expectations, the two great books remaining to his later career. After these two masterpieces and the three wonderful books with which he made his debut, we are inclined to rank Chuzzlewit. Nothing in Dickens is more admirably seen and presented than Todgers's, a bit of London particular cut out with a knife. Mr 182 DICKENS Pecksniff and Mrs Gamp, Betsy Prig and " Mrs Harris " have passed into the national language and life. The coach journey, the windy autumn night, the stealthy trail of Jonas, the under- tone of tragedy in the Charity and Mercy and Chuffey episodes suggest a blending of imaginative vision and physical penetration hardly seen elsewhere. Two things are specially notable about this novel — the exceptional care taken over it (as shown by the interlineations in the MS.) and the caprice or nojichalance of the purchasing public, its sales being far lower than those of any of its monthly predecessors. At the close of 1843, to pay outstanding debts of his now lavish housekeeping, he wrote that pioneer of Christmas numbers, that national benefit as Thackeray called it, A Christmas Carol. It failed to realize his pecuniary anticipations, and Dickens resolved upon a drastic policy of retrenchment and reform. He would save expense by living abroad and would punish his publishers by withdrawing his custom from them, at least for a time. Like everything else upon which he ever determined, this resolution was carried out with the greatest possible precision and despatch. In June 1844 he set out for Marseilles with his now rapidly increasing family (the journey cost him £200). In a villa on the outskirts of Genoa he wrote The Chimes, which, during a brief excursion to London before Christmas, he read to a select circle of friends (the germ of his subsequent lecture-audiences), including Forster, Carlyle, Stanfield, Dyce, Maclise and Jerrold. He was again in London in 1845, enjoying his favourite diversion of private theatricals; and in January 1846 he experimented briefly as the editor of a London morning paper — the Daily News. By early spring he was back at Lausanne, writing his customary vivid letters to his friends, craving as usual for London streets, commencing Dombey and Son, and walking his fourteen miles daily. The success of Dombey and Son completely rehabilitated the master's finances, enabled him to return to England, send his son to Eton and to begin to save money. Artistically it is less satisfactory; it contains some of Dickens's prime curios, such as Cuttle, Bunsby, Toots, Blimber, Pipchin, Mrs MacStinger and young Biler; it contains also that master- piece of sentimentality which trembles upon the borderland of the sublime and the ridiculous, the death of Paul Dombey (" that sweet Paul," as Jeffrey, the " critic laureate," called him), and some grievous and unquestionable blemishes. As a narrative, moreover, it tails off into a highly complicated and exacting plot. It was followed by a long rest at Broadstairs before Dickens returned to the native home of his genius, and early in 1849 " began to prepare for David Copperfield. " " Of all my books," Dickens wrote, " I like this the best; like many fond parents I have my favourite child, and his name is David Copperfield." In some respects it stands to Dickens in something of the same relation in which the contemporary Pendennis stands to Thackeray. As in that book, too, the earlier portions are the best. They gained in intensity by the auto- biographical form into which they are thrown; as Thackeray observed, there was no writing against such power. The tragedy of Emily and the character of Rosa Dartle are stagey and unreal; Uriah Heep is bad art; Agnes, again, is far less convincing as a consolation than Dickens would have us believe; but these are more than compensated by the wonderful realization of early boyhood in the book, by the picture of Mr Creakle's school, the Peggottys, the inimitable Mr Micawber, Betsy Trot- wood and that monument of selfish misery, Mrs Gummidge. At the end of March 1850 commenced the new twopenny weekly called Household Words, which Dickens planned to form a direct means of communication between himself and his readers, and as a means of collecting around him and encouraging the talents of the younger generation. No one was better quali- fied than he for this work, whether we consider his complete freedom from literary jealousy or his magical gift of inspiring young authors. Following the somewhat dreary and incoherent Bleak House of 1852, Hard Times (1854) — an anti-Manchester School tract, which Ruskin regarded as Dickens's best work — was the first long story written for Household Words. About this time Dickens made his final home at Gad's Hill, near Rochester, and put the finishing touch to another long novel published upon the old plan, Little Dorrit (1855-1857). In spite of the exquisite comedy of the master of the Marshalsea and the final tragedy of the central figure, Little Dorrit is sadly deficient in the old vitality, the humour is often a mock reality, and the repetition of comic catch-words and overstrung similes and metaphors is such as to affect the reader with nervous irritation. The plot and characters ruin each other in this amorphous production. The Tale of Two Cities, commenced in All the Year Round (the successor of Household Words) in 1859, is much better: the main characters are powerful, the story genuinely tragic, and the atmosphere lurid; but enormous labour was everywhere ex- pended upon the construction of stylistic ornament. The Tale of Two Cities was followed by two finer efforts at atmospheric delineation, the best things he ever did of this kind: Great Expectations (1861), over which there broods the mournful impression of the foggy marshes of the Lower Thames; and Our Mutual Friend (1864-1865), in which the ooze and mud and slime of Rotherhithe, its boatmen and loafers, are made to per- vade the whole book with cumulative effect. The general effect produced by the stories is, however, very different. In the first case, the foreground was supplied by autobiographical material of the most vivid interest, and the lucidity of the creative impulse impelled .him to write upon this occasion with the old simplicity,, though with an added power. Nothing therefore, in the whole range of Dickens surpassed the early chapters of Great Expecta- tions in perfection of technique or in mastery of all the resources of the novelist's art. To have created Abel Magwitch alone is to be a god indeed, says Mr Swinburne, among the creators of death- less men. Pumblechook is actually better and droller and truer to imaginative life than Pecksniff; Joe Gargery is worthy to have been praised and loved at once by Fielding and by Sterne: Mr Jaggers and his ch'ents, Mr Wemmick and his parent and his bride, are such figures as Shakespeare, when dropping out of poetry, might have created, if his lot had been cast in a later century. " Can as much be said," Mr Swinburne boldly asks, " for the creatures of any other man or god ? " In November 1867 Dickens made a second expedition to America, leaving all the writing that he was ever to complete be- hind him. He was to make a round sum of money, enough to free him from all embarrassments, by a long series of exhausting read- ings, commencing at the Tremont Temple, Boston, on the 2nd of December. The strain of Dickens's ordinary life was so tense and so continuous that it is, perhaps, rash to assume that he broke down eventually under this particular stress; for other reasons, however, his persistence in these readings, subsequent to his return, was strongly deprecated by his literary friends, led by the arbitrary and relentless Forster. It is a long testimony to Dickens's self-restraint, even in his most capricious and despotic moments, that he never broke the cord of obligation which bound him to his literary mentor, though sparring matches between them were latterly of frequent occurrence. His farewell reading was given on the isth of March 1870, at St James's Hall. He then vanished from " those garish lights," as he called them, " for evermore." Of the three brief months that remained to him, his last book, The Mystery of Edwin Drood, was the chief occupa- tion. It hardly promised to become a masterpiece (Longfellow's opinion) as did Thackeray's Denis Duval, but contained much fine descriptive technique, grouped round a scene of which Dickens had an unrivalled sympathetic knowledge. In March and April 1870 Dickens, as was his wont, was mixing in the best society; he dined with the prince at Lord Houghton's and was twice at court, once at a long deferred private interview with the queen, who had given him a presentation copy of her Leaves from a Journal of our Life in the Highlands with the inscription " From one of the humblest of authors to one of the greatest "; and who now begged him on his persistent refusal of any other title to accept the nominal distinction of a privy councillor. He took for four months the Milner Gibsons' house at 5 Hyde Park Place, opposite the Marble Arch, where he gave a brilliant reception on the 7th of April. His last public appear- ance was made at the Royal Academy banquet early in May. DICKENS 183 He returned to his regular methodical routine of work at Gad's Hill on the 3oth of May, and one of the last instalments he wrote of Edwin Drood contained an ominous speculation as to the next two people to die at Cloisterham: " Curious to make a guess at the two, or say at one of the two." Two letters bearing the well- known superscription " Gad's Hill Place, Higham by Rochester, Kent " are dated the 8th of June, and, on the same Thursday, after a long spell of writing in the Chalet where he habitually wrote, he collapsed suddenly at dinner. Startled by the sudden change in the colour and expression of his face, his sister-in-law (Miss Hogarth) asked him if he was ill; he said " Yes, very ill," but added that he would finish dinner and go on afterwards to London. " Come and lie down," she entreated; " Yes, on the ground," he said, very distinctly; these were the last words he spoke, and he slid from her arms and fell upon the floor. He died at 6-10 P.M. on Friday, the gth of June, and was buried privately in Poets' Corner, Westminster Abbey, in the early morning of the i4th of June. One of the most appealing memorials was the drawing by his " new illustrator " Luke Fildes in the Graphic of " The Empty Chair; Gad's Hill: ninth of June, 1870." " Statesmen, men of science, philanthropists, the acknowledged benefactors of their race, might pass away, and yet not leave the void which will be caused by the death of Charles Dickens " (The Times). In his will he enjoined his friends to erect no monument in his honour, and directed his name and dates only to be inscribed on his tomb, adding this proud provision, " I rest my claim to the remembrance of my country on my published works." Dickens had no artistic ideals worth speaking about. The sympathy of his readers was the one thing he cared about and, like Cobbett, he went straight for it through the avenue of the emotions. In personality, intensity and range of creative genius he can hardly be said to have any modern rival. His creations live, move and have their being about us constantly, like those of Homer, Virgil, Chaucer, Rabelais, Cervantes, Shakespeare, Btmyan, Moliere and Sir Walter Scott. As to the books them- selves, the backgrounds on which these mighty figures are pro- jected, they are manifestly too vast, too chaotic and too unequal ever to become classics. Like most of the novels constructed upon the unreformed model of Smollett and Fielding, those of Dickens are enormous stock-pots into which the author casts every kind of autobiographical experience, emotion, pleasantry, anecdote, adage or apophthegm. The fusion is necessarily very incomplete and the hotch-potch is bound to fall to pieces with time. Dickens's plots, it must be admitted, are strangely unintelligible, the repetitions and stylistic decorations of his work exceed all bounds, the form is unmanageable and insignificant. The diffuseness of the English novel, in short, and its extravagant didacticism cannot fail to be most prejudicial to its perpetuation. In these circumstances there is very little fiction that will stand concentration and condensation so well as that of Dickens. For these reasons among others our interest in Dickens's novels as integers has diminished and is diminishing. But, on the other hand, our interest and pride in him as a man and as a repre- sentative author of his age and nation has been steadily augmented and is still mounting. Much of the old criticism of his work, that it was not up to a sufficiently high level of art, scholarship or gentility, that as an author he is given to caricature, redundancy and a shameless subservience to popular caprice, must now be discarded as irrelevant. As regards forn T.1 excellence it is plain that Dickens labours under the double disadvantage of writing in the least disciplined of all literary genres ir the most lawless literary milieu of the modern world, that of \'ictorian England. In spite of these defects, which are those of masters such as Rabelais, Hugo and Tolstoy, the work of Dickens is more and more instinctively felt to be true, original and ennobling. It is already beginning to undergo a process of automatic s. if ting, segregation and crystalliza- tion, at the conclusion of which it will probably occupy a larger segment in the literary conscious ness of the English-spoken race than ever before. Portraits of Dickens, from the ^ay and alert " Boz " of Samuel Lawrence, and the self-consciou , rather foppish portrait by Maclise which served as frontispiece to Nicholas Nickleby, to the sketch of him as Bobadil by C. R. Leslie, the Drummond and Ary Scheffer portraits of middle age and the haggard and drawn representations of him from photographs after his shattering experiences as a public entertainer from 1856 (the year of his separation from his wife) onwards, are reproduced in Kitton, in Forster and Gissing and in the other biographies. Sketches are also given in most of the books of his successive dwelling places at Ordnance Terrace and 18 St Mary's Place, Chatham; Bayham Street, Camden Town; 15 FurnivaPs Inn; 48 Doughty Street; i Devonshire Terrace, Regent's Park; Tavistock House, Tavistock Square; and Gad's Hill Place. The manuscripts of all the novels, with the exception of the Tale of Two Cities and Edwin Drood, were given to Forster, and are now preserved in the Dyce and Forster Museum at South Kensington. The work of Dickens was a prize for which publishers naturally contended both before and after his death. The first collective edition of his works was begun in April 1847, and their number is now very great. The most complete is still that of Messrs Chapman & Hall, the original publishers of Pickwick; others of special interest are the Harrap edition, originally edited by F. G. Kitton; Macmillan's edition with original illustrations and introduction by Charles Dickens the younger; and the edition in the World's Classics with introductions by G. K. Chesterton. Of the transla- tions the best known is that done into French by Lorain, Pichot and others, with B.H. Gausseron's excellent Pages Choisies (1903). BIBLIOGRAPHY. — During his lifetime Dickens's biographer was clearly indicated in his guide, philosopher and friend, John Forster, who had known the novelist intimately since the days of his first triumph with Pickwick, who had constituted himself a veritable encyclopaedia of information about Dickens, and had clung to his subject (in spite of many rebuffs which his peremptory temper found it hard to digest) as tightly as ever Boswell had enveloped Johnson. Two volumes of Forster's Life of Charles Dickens appeared in 1872 and a third in 1874. He relied much on Dickens's letters to himself and produced trifl^ must always remain the authoritative work. The first two volumes are put together with much art, the portrait as a whole has been regarded as truthful, and the immediate success was extraordinary. In the opinion of Carlyle, Forster's book was not unworthy to be named after that of Boswell. A useful abridgment was carried out in 1903 by the novelist George Gissing. Gissing also wrote Charles Dickens: A Critical Study (1898), which ranks with G.K.Chesterton's Charles Didkens(i<)o6)as a commentary inspired by deep insight and adorned by great literary talent upon the genius of the master-novelist. The names of other lives, sketches, articles and estimates of Dickens and his works would occupy a large volume in the mere enumeration. See R. H. Shepherd, The Bibliography of Dickens (1880) ; James Cqoke's Bibliography of the Writings of Charles Dickens (1879); Dickensiana, by F. G. Kitton (1886); and Biblio- graphy by J. P. Anderson, appended to Sir F. T. Marzials's Life of Charles Dickens (1887). Among the earlier sketches may be specially cited the lives by I. C. Hotten and G. A. Sala (1870), the Anecdote- Biography edited by the American R. H. Stoddard (1874), Dr A. W. Ward in the English Men of Letters Series (1878), that by Sir Leslie Stephen in the Dictionary of National Biography, and that by Pro- fessor Minto in the eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. The Letters were first issued in two volumes edited by his daughter and sister-in-law in 1880. For Dickens's connexion with Kent the following books are specially valuable : — ^Robert Langton's Childhood and Youth of Charles Dickens (1883) ; Langton s Dickens and Rochester (1880); Thomas Frost's In Kent with Charles Dickens (1880); F. G. Kitten's The Dickens Country (1905); H. S. Ward's The Real Dickens Land (1004) ; R. Allbut's Rambles in Dickens Land (1899 and 1903). For Dickens's reading tours see G. Dolby's Charles Dickens as I knew him (1884) ; J. T. Fields's In and Out of Doors with Charles Dickens (1876); Charles Kent's Dickens as a Reader (1872). And for other aspects of his life see M. Dickens's My Father as I recall him (1807) ; P. H. Fitzgerald's Life of C. Dickens as revealed in his Writings (1905), and Bozland (1895); F. G. Kitton's Charles Dickens, his Life, Writings and Personality, a useful compen- dium (1902); T. E. Pemberton's Charles Dickens and the Stage, and Dickens's London (1876) ; F. Miltoun's Dickens's London (1904) ; Kitton's Dickens and his Illustrators; W. Teignmouth Shore's Charles Dickens and his Friends (1904 and 1909); B. W. Matz, Story of Dickens's Life and Work (1904), and review of solutions to Edwin Drood in The Bookman for March 1908 ; the recollections of Edmund Yates, Trollope, James Payn, Lehmann, R. H. Home, Lockwood and many others. The Dickensian, a magazine devoted to Dickensian subjects, was started in 1905; it is the organ of the Dickens Fellow- ship, and in a sense of the Boz Club. A Dickens Dictionary (by G. A. Pierce) appeared in 1872 and 1878 ; another (by A. J. Philip) in 1909 ; and a Dickens Concordance by Mary Williams in 1907. (T. SE.) 184 DICKINSON, A. E.— DICKSON, J. R. DICKINSON, ANNA ELIZABETH (1842- ), American author and lecturer, was born, of Quaker parentage, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 28th of October 1842. She was educated at the Friends' Free School in Philadelphia, and was for a time a teacher. In 1861 she obtained a clerkship in the United States mint, but was removed for criticizing General McClellan at a public meeting. She had gradually become widely known as an eloquent and persuasive public speaker, one of the first of her sex to mount the platform to discuss the burning questions of the hour. Before the Civil War she lectured on anti-slavery topics, during the warshe toured the country on behalf of the Sanitary Commission, and also lectured on reconstruction, temperance and woman's rights. She wrote several plays, in- cluding The Crown of Thorns (1876) ; Mary Tudor (1878), in which she appeared in the title role; Aurelian (1878) ; and An American Girl (1880), successfully acted by Fanny Davenport. She also published a novel, Which Answer? (1868); A Paying Investment, a Plea for Education (1876); and A Ragged Register of People, Places and Opinions (1879). DICKINSON, JOHN (1732-1808), American statesman and pamphleteer, was born in Talbot county, Maryland, on the 8th of November 1732. He removed with his father to Kent county, Delaware, in 1740, studied under private tutors, read law, and in 1753 entered the Middle Temple, London. Returning to America in 1757, he began the practice of law in Philadelphia, was speaker of the Delaware assembly in 1760, and was a member of the Pennsylvania assembly in 1762-1765 and again in I77&-I776.1 He represented Pennsylvania in the Stamp Act Congress (1765) and in the Continental Congress from 1774 to 1776, when he was defeated owing to his opposition to the Declaration of Independence. He then retired to Delaware, served for a time as private and later as brigadier-general in the state militia, and was again a member of the Continental Congress (from Delaware) in 1 7 79-1 780. He was president of the executive council, or chief executive officer, of Delaware in 1781-1782, and of Pennsylvania in 1782—1783, and was a delegate from Delaware to the Annapolis convention of 1786 and the Federal Constitutional convention of 1787. Dickinson has aptly been called the " Penman of the Revolution." No other writer of the day presented arguments so numerous, so timely and so popular. He drafted the " Declara- tion of Rights " of the Stamp Act Congress, the " Petition to the King" and the "Address to the Inhabitants of Quebec" of the congress of 1774, and the second "Petition to the King"2 and the "Articles of Confederation" of the second Congress. Most influential of all, however, were The Letters of a Farmer in Pennsylvania, written in 1767-1768 in condemnation of the Townshend Acts of 1767, in which he rejected speculative natural rights theories and appealed to the common sense of the people through simple legal arguments. By opposing the Declaration of Independence, he lost his popularity and was never able entirely to regain it. As the representative of a small state, he championed the principle of state equality in the constitu- tional convention, but was one of the first to advocate the compromise, which was finally adopted, providing for equal representation, in one house and proportional representation in the other. He was probably influenced by Delaware prejudice against Pennsylvania when he drafted the clause which forbids the creation of a new state by the junction of two or more states or parts of states without the consent of the states concerned as well as of congress. After the adjournment of the convention he defended its work in a series of letters signed " Fabius," which will bear comparison with- the best of the Federalist productions. It was largely through his influence that Delaware and Pennsylvania were the first two states to ratify the Constitution. Dickinson's interests were not exclusively political. He helped to found Dickinson College (named in his honour) at Carlisle, Pennsylvania, in 1783, was the first president of its board of 1 Being under -the same proprietor and the same governor, Pennsylvania and Delaware were so closely connected before the Revolution that there was an interchange of public men. * The " Declaration of the United Colonies of North America . . . setting forth the Causes and the Necessity of their Taking up Arms " (often erroneously attributed to Thomas Jefferson). trustees, and was for many years its chief benefactor. He died on the 1 4th of February 1808 and was buried in the Friends' burial ground in Wilmington, Del. See C. J. Stille, Life and Times of John Dickinson, and P. L. Ford (editor), The Writings of John Dickinson, in yols. xiii. and xiv. respectively of the Memoirs of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1891 and 1895). DICKSON, SIR ALEXANDER (I777-i84o), British artillerist, entered the Royal Military Academy in 1793, passing out as second lieutenant in the Royal Artillery in the following year. As a subaltern he saw service in Minorca in 1798 and at Malta in 1800. As a captain he took part in the unfortunate Montevideo Expedition of 1806-07, and m J8o9 he accompanied_Howorth to the Peninsular War as brigade-major of the artillery. He soon obtained a command in the Portuguese artillery, and as a lieutenant-colonel of the Portuguese service took part in the various battles of 1810-11. At the two sieges of Budazoz, Ciudad Rodrigo, the Salamanca forts and Burgos, he was entrusted by Wellington (who had the highest opinion of him) with most of the detailed artillery work, and at Salamanca battle he commanded the reserve artillery. In the end he became commander of the whole of the artillery of the allied army, and though still only a substantive captain in the British service he had under his orders some 8000 men. At Vitoria, the Pyrenees battles and Toulouse he directed the movements of the artillery engaged, and at the end of the war received handsome presents from the officers who had served under him, many of whom were his seniors in the army list. He was at the disastrous affair of New Orleans, but returned to Europe in time for the Waterloo campaign. He was present at Quatre Bras and Waterloo on the artillery staff of Wellington's army, and subsequently commanded the British battering train at the sieges of the French fortresses left behind the advancing allies. For the rest of his life he was on home service, principally as a staff officer of artillery. He died, a major-general and G.C.B.,'in 1840. A memorial was erected at Woolwich in 1847. Dickson was one of the earliest fellows of the Royal Geographical Society. His diaries kept in the Peninsula were the main source of informa- tion used in Duncan's History of the Royal Artillery. DICKSON, SIR JAMES ROBERT (1832-1901), Australian statesman, was born in Plymouth on the 3Oth of November 1832. He was brought up in Glasgow, receiving his education at the high school, and became a clerk in the City of Glasgow Bank. In 1854 he emigrated to Victoria, but after some years spent in that colony and in New South Wales, he settled in 1862 in Queensland, where he was connected with many important business enterprises, among them the Royal Bank of Queensland. He entered the Queensland House of Assembly in 1872, and became minister of works (1876), treasurer (1876-1879, and 1883- 1887), acting premier (1884), but resigned in 1887 on the question of taxing land. In 1889 he retired from business, and spent three years in Europe before resuming political life. He fought for the introduction of Polynesian labour on the Queensland sugar plantations at the general election of 1892, and wastelected to the House of Assembly in that year and again at the elections of 1893 and 1896. He became secretary for railways in 1897, minister for home affairs in 1898, represented Queensland in the federal council of Australia in 1896 and at the postal conference at Hobart in 1898, and in 1898 became premier. His energies were now devoted to the formation of an Australian commonwealth. He secured the reference of the question to a plebiscite, the result of which justified his anticipations. He resigned the premiership in November 1899, but in the ministry of Robert Philip, formed in the next month, he was reappo-lnted to the offices of chief secretary and vice-president of the executive council which he had combined with the office of premier. He represented Queensland in 1900 at the conference held in Ijondon to consider the question of Australian unity, and on his return was appointed minister of defence in the first government of the Australian Commonwealth. He did not long survive the ace jmplishment of his political aims, dying at Sydney on the toth of January 1901, in the midst of the festivities attending the ii 'auguration of the new state. DICOTYLEDONS— DICTATOR 185 DICOTYLEDONS, in botany, the larger of the two great classes of angiosperms, embracing most of the common flower -bearing plants. The name expresses the most universal character of ihe class, the importance of which was first noticed by John Ray, namely, the presence of a pair of seed-leaves or cotyledons, in the plantlet or embryo contained in the seed. The embryo is generally surrounded by a larger or smaller amount of foodstuff (endosperm) which serves to nourish it in its development to form a seedling when the seed germinates; frequently, however, as in pea or bean and their allies, the whole of the nourishment for future use is stored up in the cotyledons themselves, which then become thick and fleshy. In germination of the seed the root of the embryo (radicle) grows out to get a holdfast for the plant; this is generally followed by the growth of the short stem immediately above the root, the so-called " hypocotyl," which carries up the cotyledons above the ground, where they spread to the light and become the first green leaves of the plant. Protected between the cotyledons and terminating the axis of the plant is the first stem-bud (the plumule of the embryo), by the further growth and development of which the aerial portion of the plant, consisting of stem, leaves and branches, is formed, while the development of the radicle forms the root-system. The size and manner of growth of the adult plant show a great variety, from the small herb lasting for one season only, to the forest tree living for centuries. The arrangement of the conduct- ing tissue in the stem is characteristic; a transverse section of the very young stem shows a nunber of distinct conducting strands — vascular bundles — arranged in a ring round the pith; these soon become united to form a closed ring of bast and wood, separated by a layer of formative lissue (cambium). In perennials the stem shows a regular increase in thickness each year by the addition of a new ring of wood outside the old one — for details of structure see PLANTS : A natomy. A similar growth occurs in the root. This increase in the diameter of stem and root is correlated with the increase in leaf -area each season, due to the continued production of new leal -bearing branches. A character- istic of the class is afforded by the complicated network formed by the leaf -veins, — well seen in a skeleton leaf, from which the soft parts have been removed by maceration. The parts of the flower are most frequently arranged in fives, or multiples of fives; for instance, a common arrangement is as follows, — five sepals, succeeded by five petals, ten stamens in two sets of five, and five or fewer carpels; an arrangement in fours is less frequent, while the arrangement in threes, so common in monocotyledons, is rare in dicotyledons. In some orders the parts are numerous, chiefly in the case of the stamens and the carpels, as in the buttercup and other members of the order Ranunculaceae. There is a very wide range in the general structure and arrangement of the parts of the flower, associated with the means for ensuring the transference of pollen; in the simplest cases the flower consists only of a few stamens or carpels, with no enveloping sepals or petals, as in the willow, while in the more elaborate type each series is represented, the whole forming a complicated structure closely correlated with the size, form and habits of the pollinating agent (see FLOWER). The characters of the fruit and seed and the means for ensuring the dispersal of the seeds are also very varied (see FRUIT). DICTATOR (from the Lat. diclarc, frequentative of dicere, to speak). In modern usage this term is loosely used for a personal ruler enjoying extraordinary and extra-constitutional power. The etymological sense of one who " dictates " — i.e. one whose word (dictum) is law (from which that of one who " dictates," i.e. speaks for some writer to record, is to be distinguished) — has been assisted by the historical use of the term, in ancient times, for an extraordinary magistrate in the Roman commonwealth. It is unknown precisely how the Roman word .came into use, though an explanation of the earlier official title, magister popidi, throws some light on the subject. That designation may mean " head of the (infantry) host " as opposed to his subordinate, the magister equitum, who was " head of the cavalry." If this explana- tion be accepted, emphasis was thus laid in early times on the military aspect of the dictatorship, and in fact the office seems to have been instituted for the purpose of meeting a military crisis such as might have proved too serious for the annual consuls with their divided command. Later constitutional theory held that the repression of civil discord was also one of the motives for the institution of a dictatorship. Such is the view expressed by Cicero in the De legibus (iii. 3, 9) and by the emperor Claudius in his extant Oratio (i. 28). This function of the office, although it may not have been contemplated at first, is attested by the internal history of Rome. In the crisis of the agitation that gathered round the Licinian laws (367 B.C.) a dictator was ap- pointed, and in 314 B.C. we have the notice of a dictator created for purposes of criminal jurisdiction (quaestionibus exercendis). The dictator appointed to meet the dangers of war, sedition or crime was technically described as " the administrative dictator " (rei gerundae causa) . Minor, or merely formal, needs of the state might lead to the creation of other types of this office. Thus we find dictators destined to hold the elections, to make out the list of the senate, to celebrate games, to establish festivals, and to drive the nail into the temple of Jupiter — an act of natural magic which was believed to avert pestilence. These dictators appointed for minor purposes were expected to retire from office as soon as their function was completed. The " administrative dictator " held office for at least six months. The powers of a dictator were a temporary revival of those of the kings; but there were some limitations to his authority. He was never concerned with civil jurisdiction, and was dependent on the senate for supplies of money. His military authority was confined to Italy; and his power of life and death over the citizens was at an early period limited by law. It was probably the lex Valeria of 300 B.C. that made him subject to the right of criminal appeal (provocatio) within the limits of the city. But during his tenure of power all the magistrates of the people were regarded as his subordinates; and it was even held that the right of assistance (auxilium), furnished by the tribunes of the plebs to members of the citizen body, should not be effectively exercised when the state was under this type of martial law. The dictator was nominated by one of the consuls. But here as else- where the senate asserted its authority over the magistrates, and the view was finally held that the senate should not only suggest the need of nomination but also the name of the nominee. After the nomination, the imperium of the dictator was confirmed by a lex curiata (see COMITIA). To emphasize the superiority of this imperium over that of the consuls, the dictator might be preceded by twenty-four lictors, not by the usual twelve; and, at least in the earlier period of the office, these lictors bore the axes, the symbols of life and death, within the city walls. Tradition represents the dictatorship as having a life of three centuries in the history of the Roman state. The first dictator is said to have been created in 501 B.C.; the last of the " administrative " dictators belongs to the year 216 B.C. It was an office that was incompatible both with the grov/ing spirit of constitutionalism and with the greater security of the city; and the epoch of the Second Punic War was marked by experiments with the office, such as the election of Q. Fabius Maximus by the people, and the co-dictatorship of M. Minucius with Fabius, which heralded its disuse (see PUNIC WARS). The emergency office of the early and middle Republic has few points of contact, except those of the extraordinary position and almost unfettered authority of its holder, with the dictatorship as revised by Sulla and by Caesar. Sulla's dictatorship was the form taken by a piovisional government. He was created " for the establishment of the Republic." It is less certain whether the dictatorships held by Caesar were of a consciously provisional character. Since the office represented the only supreme Imperium in Rome, it was the natural resort of the founder of a monarchy (see SULLA and CAESAR) . Ostensibly to prevent its further use for such a purpose, M. Antonius in 44 B.C. carried a law abolishing the dictatorship as a part of the constitution. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Mommsen, Romiscfos Staatsrecht, ii. 141 foil. (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1887); Herzog, Geschichte und System der romi- schen Staatsverfassung, i. 718 foil. (Leipzig, 1884); Pauly-Wissowa, Rcalcncyclopddie, v. 370 foil, (new edition, Stuttgart, 1893, &c.); i86 DICTIONARY Lange, Romische Alterthumer, i. 542 foil. (Berlin, 1856, &c.) ; Darem- berg-Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquites grecques et romaines, ii. 161 foil. (1875, &c.); Haverfield, " The Abolition of the Dictatorship," in Classical Review, iii. 77. (A. H. J. G.) DICTIONARY. In its proper and most usual meaning a dictionary is a book containing a collection of the words of a language, dialect or subject, arranged alphabetically or Definition jn some other definite order ,and with explanations in the "history. sameorsomeother language. When the words are few in number, being only a small part of those belonging to the subject, or when they are given without explanation, or some only are explained, or the explanations are partial, the work is called a vocabulary; and when there is merely a list of explana- tions of the technical words and expressions in some particular subject, a glossary. An alphabetical arrangement of the words of some book or author with references to the places where they occur is called an index (q.v.). When under each word the phrases containing it are added to the references, the work is called a concordance. Sometimes, however, these names are given to true dictionaries; thus the great Italian dictionary of the Accademia della Crusca, in six volumes folio, is called Vocabolario, and Ernesti's dictionary to Cicero is called Index. When the words are arranged according to a definite system of classification under heads and subdivisions, according to their nature or their meaning, the book is usually called a classed vocabulary; but when sufficient explanations are given it is often accepted as a dictionary, like the Onomasticon of Julius Pollux, or the native dictionaries of Sanskrit, Manchu and many other languages. Dictionaries were originally books of reference explaining the words of a language or of some part of it. As the names of things, as well as those of persons and places, are words, and often require explanation even more than other classes of words, they were necessarily included in dictionaries, and often to a very great extent. In time, books were devoted to them alone, and were limited to special subjects, and these have so multiplied, that dictionaries of things now rival in number and variety those of words or of languages, while they often far surpass them in bulk. There are dictionaries of biography and history, real and fictitious, general and special, relating to men of all countries, characters and professions; the English Dictionary of National Biography (see BIOGRAPHY) is a great instance of one form of these; dictionaries of bibliography, relating to all books, or to those of some particular kind or country; dictionaries of geography (sometimes called gazetteers) of the whole world, of particular countries, or of small districts, of towns and of villages, of castles, monasteries and other buildings. There are dictionaries of philosophy; of the Bible; of mathematics; of natural history, zoology, botany; of birds, trees, plants and flowers; of chemistry, geology and mineralogy; of architecture, painting and music; of medicine, surgery, anatomy, pathology and physiology; of diplomacy; of law, canon, civil, statutory and criminal; of political and social sciences; of agriculture, rural economy and gardening; of commerce, navigation, horse- manship and the military arts; of mechanics, machines and the manual arts. There are dictionaries of antiquities, of chronology, of dates, of genealogy, of heraldry, of diplomatics, of abbreviations, of useful receipts, of monograms, of adulterations and of very many other subjects. These works are separately referred to in the bibliographies attached to the articles on the separate subjects. And lastly, there are dictionaries of the arts and sciences, and their comprehensive offspring, encyclopaedias (q.v.), which include in themselves every branch of knowledge. Neither under the heading of dictionary nor under that of encyclopaedia do we propose to include a mention of every work of its class, but many of these will be referred to in the separate articles on the subjects to which they pertain. And in this article we confine ourselves to an account of those dictionaries which are primarily word-books. This is practically the most convenient distinction from the subject-book or encyclopaedia; though the two characters are often combined in one work. Thus the Century Dictionary has encyclopaedic features, while the present edition of the Encyclopaedia Brilannica, restoring its earlier tradition but carrying out the idea more systematically, also embodies dictionary features. Dictionarium is a word of low or modern Latinity;1 dictio, from which it was formed, was used in medieval Latin to mean a word. Lexicon is a corresponding word of Greek origin, meaning a book of or for words — a dictionary. A glossary is properly a collection of unusual or foreign words requiring explanation. It is the name frequently given to English dictionaries of dialects, which the Germans usually call idioticon, and the Italians vocabolario. Worterbuch, a book of words, was first used among the Germans, according to Grimm, by Kramer (1719), imitated from the -Dutch woordenboek. From the Germans the Swedes and Danes adopted ordbok, ordbog. The Icelandic ordabdk, like the German, contains the genitive plural. The Slavonic nations use slovar, slovnik, and the southern Slavs ryetshnik, from slow, ryetsh, a word, formed, like dictionary and lexicon, without composition. Many other names have been given to dictionaries, as thesaurus, Sprachschatz, cornucopia, gazophylacium, comprehensorium, calholicon, to indicate their completeness ; manipulus predicantium, promptorium puerorum, liber memorialis, hortus vocabulorum, ionia (a violet bed), alveary (a beehive), kamoos (the sea), haft kulzum (the seven seas), tsze tkn*(a. standard of character), onomasticon, nomenclator, biblio- theca, elucidario, Mundart-sammlung, clavis, scala, pharetra? La Crusca from the great Italian dictionary, and Calepino (in Spanish and Italian) from the Latin dictionary of Calepinus. The tendency of great dictionaries is to unite in themselves all the peculiar features of special dictionaries. A large dictionary is most useful when a word is to be thoroughly studied, or when there is difficulty in making out the meaning of a word or phrase. Special dictionaries are more useful for special purposes; for instance, synonyms are best studied in a dictionary of synonyms. And small dictionaries are more convenient for frequent use, as in translating from an unfamiliar language, for words may be found more quickly, and they present the words and their meanings in a concentrated and compact form, instead of being scattered over a large space, and separated by other matter. Dictionaries of several languages, called polyglots, are of different kinds. Some are polyglot in the vocabulary, but not in the explanation, like Johnson's dictionary of Persian and Arabic explained in English; some in the interpretation, but not in the vocabulary or explanation, like Calepini ocloglotton, a Latin dictionary of Latin, with the meanings in seven languages. Many great dictionaries are now polyglot in this sense. Some are polyglot in the vocabulary and interpretation, but are explained in one language, like Jal's Glossaire nautique, a glossary of sea terms in many languages, giving the equivalents of each word in the other languages, but the explanation in French. Pauthier's Annamese Dictionary is polyglot in a peculiar way. It gives the Chinese characters with their pronunciation in Chinese and Annamese. Special dictionaries are of many kinds. There are technical dictionaries of etymology, foreign words, dialects, secret languages, slang, neology, barbarous words, faults of ex- pression, choice words, prosody, pronunciation, spelling, orators, poets, law, music, proper names, particular authors, nouns, verbs, participles, particles, double forms, difficulties and many others. Pick's dictionary (Gottingen, 1868, 8vo; 1874-1876, 8vo, 4 vols.) is a remarkable attempt to ascertain the common language of the Indo-European nations before each of their great separations. In the second edition of his Etymologische Forschungen (Lemgo and Detmoldt, 1850-1873, 8vo, 7217 pages) Pott gives a comparative lexicon of Indo-European roots, 2226 in number, occupying 5140 pages. 1 Joannes de Garlandia (John Garland; fl. 1202-1252) gives the following explanation in his Dictionarius, which is a classed vocabulary: — " Dictionarius dicitur libellus iste a dictionibus magis necessariis, quas tenetur quilibet scolaris, non tantum in scrinio de lignis facto, sed in cordis armariolo firmiter retinere." This has been supposed to be the first use of the word. 2 An excellent dictionary of quotations, perhaps the first of the kind; a large folio volume printed in Strassburg about 1475 is entitled " Pharetra auctoritates et dicta doctorum, philosophorum, et poetarum continens." DICTIONARY 187 At no time was progress in the making of general dictionaries so rapid as during the second half of the igth century. It is to be seen in three things: in the perfecting of the theory of what Methods a 8enera^ dictionary should be; in the elaboration of methods of collecting and editing lexicographic materials; and in the magnitude and improved quality of the work which has been accomplished or planned. Each of these can best be illustrated from English lexicography, in which the process of development has in all directions been carried farthest. The advance that has been made in theory began with a radical change of opinion with regard to the chief end of the general dictionary of a language. The older view of the matter was that the lexicographer should furnish a standard of usage — should register only those words which are, or at some period of the language have been, " good " from a literary point of view, with their " proper " senses and uses, or should at least furnish the means of determining what these are. In other words, his chief duty was conceived to be to sift and refine, to decide authori- tatively questions with regard to good usage, and thus to fix the language as completely as might be possible within the limits determined by the literary taste of his time. Thus the Accademia della Crusca, founded near the close of the i6th century, was established for the purpose of purifying in this way the Italian tongue, and in 1612 the Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca, long the standard of that language, was published. The Academic Franchise, the first edition of whose dictionary appeared in 1694, had a similar origin. In England the idea of constructing a dictionary upon this principle arose during the second quarter of the iSth century. It was imagined by men of letters — among them Alexander Pope — that the English language had then attained such perfection that further improvement was hardly possible, and it was feared that if it were not fixed by lexicographic authority deterioration would soon begin. Since there was no English " Academy," it was necessary that the task should fall to some one whose judgment would command respect, and the man who undertook it was Samuel Johnson. His dic-~ tionary, the first edition of which, in two folio volumes, appeared in 1755, was in many respects admirable, but it was inade- quate even as a standard of the then existing literary usage. Johnson himself did not long entertain the belief that the natural development of a language can be arrested in that or in any other way. His work was, however, generally accepted as a final authority, and the ideas upon which it was founded dominated English lexicography for more than a century. The first effective protest in England against the supremacy of this literary view was made by Dean (later Archbishop) Trench, in a paper on " Some Deficiencies in Existing English Dictionaries " read before the Philological Society in 1857. " A dictionary," he said, "accord- ing to that idea of it which seems to me alone capable of being logically maintained, is an inventory of the language; much more, but this primarily. ... It is no task of the maker of it to select the good words of the language. . . . The business which he has undertaken is to collect and arrange all words, whether good or bad, whether they commend themselves to his judgment or other- wise. . . . He is an historian of [the language], not a critic." That is, for the literary view of the chief end of the general dictionary should be substituted the philological or scientific. In Germany this substitution had already been effected by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm in their dictionary of the German language, the first volume of which appeared in 1854. In brief, then, the modern view is that the general dictionary of a language should be a record of all the words— current or obsolete — of that language, with all their meanings and uses, but should not attempt to be, except secondarily or indirectly, a guide to " good " usage. A " standard " dictionary has, in fact, been recognized to be an impossibility, if not an absurdity. This theoretical requirement must, of course, be modified considerably in practice. The date at which a modern language is to be regarded by the lexicographer as " beginning " must, as a rule, be somewhat arbitrarily chosen; while considerable portions of its earlier vocabulary cannot be recovered because of the incompleteness of the literary record. Moreover, not even the most complete dictionary can include all the words which the records — earlier and later— actually contain. Many words, that is to say, which are found in the literature of a language cannot be regarded as, for lexicographic purposes, belonging to that language; while many more may or may not be held to belong to it, according to the judgment — almost the whim — of the individual lexicographer. This is especially true of the English tongue. " That vast aggregate of words and phrases which constitutes the vocabulary of English-speaking men presents, to the mind that endeavours to grasp it as a definite whole, the aspect of one of those nebulous masses familiar to the astronomer, in which a clear and unmistakable nucleus shades off on all sides, through zones of decreasing brightness, to a dim marginal film that seems to end nowhere, but to lose itself imperceptibly in the surrounding darkness " (Dr J. A. H. Murray, Oxford Diet. General Explanations, p. xvii). This " marginal film " of words with more or less doubtful claims to recognition includes thousands of the terms of the natural sciences (the New-Latin classificatory names of zoology and botany, names of chemical compounds and of minerals, and the like); half-naturalized foreign words; dialectal words; slang terms; trade names (many of which have passed or are passing into common use) ; proper names and many more. Many of these even the most complete dictionary should exclude; others it should include; but where the line shall be drawn will always remain a vexed question. Another important principle upon which Trench insisted, and which also expresses a requirement of modern scientific philology, is that the dictionary shall be not merely a record, but also an historical record of words and their uses. From the literary point of view the most important thing is present usage. To that alone the idea of a " standard " has any application. Dictionaries of the older type, therefore, usually make the common, or " proper " or " root " meaning of a word the starting point of its definition, and arrange its other senses in a logical or accidental order commonly ignoring the historical order in which the various meanings arose. Still less do they attempt to give data from which the vocabulary of the language at any previous period may be determined. The philologist, however, for whom the growth, or progressive alteration, of a language is a fact of central importance, regards no record of a language as complete which does not exhibit this growth in its successive stages. He desires to know when and where each word, and each form and sense of it, are first found in the language; if the word or sense is obsolete, when it died; and any other fact that throws light upon its history. He requires, accordingly, of the lexicographer that, having ascertained these data, he shall make them the foundation of his exposition — in particular, of the division and arrangement of his definitions, that sense being placed first which appeared first in order of time. In other words, each article in the dictionary should furnish an orderly biography of the word of which it treats, each word and sense being so dated that the exact time of its appearance and the duration of its use may as nearly as possible be determined. This, in principle, is the method of the new lexicography. In practice it is subject to limitations similar to those of the vocabulary mentioned above. Incompleteness of the early record is here an even greater obstacle; and there are many words whose history is, for one reason or another, so unimportant that to treat it elaborately would be a waste of labour and space. The adoption of the historical principle involves a further note- worthy modification of older methods, namely, an important extension of the use of quotations. To Dr Johnson belongs the credit of showing how useful, when properly chosen, they may be, not only in corroborating the lexicographer's statements, but also in revealing special shades of meaning or variations of use which his definitions cannot well express. No part of Johnson's work is more valuable than this. This idea was more fully developed and applied by Dr Charles Richardson, whose New Dictionary of the English Language . . . Illustrated by Quotations from the Best Authors (1835-1836) still remains a most valuable collection of literary illustrations. Lexicographers, however, have, with i88 DICTIONARY few exceptions, until a recent date, employed quotations chiefly for the ends just mentioned — as instances of use or as illustra- tions of correct usage — with scarcely any recognition of their value as historical evidence; and they have taken them almost exclusively from the works of the " best " authors. But since all the data upon which conclusions with regard to the history of a word can be based must be collected from the literature of the language, it is evident that, in so far as the lexicographer is required to furnish evidence for an historical inference, a quotation is the best form in which he can give it. In fact, extracts, properly selected and grouped, are generally sufficient to show the entire meaning and biography of a word without the aid of elaborate definitions. The latter simply save the reader the trouble of drawing the proper conclusions for himself. A further rule of the new lexicography, accordingly, is that quotations should be used, primarily, as historical evidence, and that the history of words and meanings should be exhibited by means of them. The earliest instance of use that can be found, and (if the word or sense is obsolete) the latest, are as a rule to be given; while in the case of an important word or sense, instances taken from successive periods of its currency also should be cited. Moreover, a quotation which contains an important bit of historical evidence must be used, whether its source is "good," from the literary point of view, or not — whether it is a classic of the language or from a daily newspaper; though where choice is possible, preference should, of course, be given to quotations extracted from the works of the best writers. This rule does not do away with the illustrative use of quotations, which is still recognized as highly important, but it subordinates it to their historical use. It is necessary to add that it implies that the extracts must be given exactly and in tho original spelling and capitalization, accurately dated, and furnished with a precise reference to author, book, volume, page and edition; for insistence upon these requirements — which are obviously im- portant, whatever the use of the quotation may be — is one of the most noteworthy of modern innovations. Johnson usually gave simply the author's name, and often quoted from memory and inaccurately; and many of his successors to this day have followed — altogether or to some extent — his example. The chief difficulty in the way of this use of quotations — after the difficulty of collection — is that of finding space for them in a dictionary of reasonable size. Preference must be given to those which are essential, the number of those which are cited merely on methodical grounds being made as small as possible, It is hardly necessary to add that the negative evidence furnished by quotations is generally of little value; one can seldom, that is, be certain that the lexicographer has actually found the earliest or the latest use, or that the word or sense has not been current during some intermediate period from which he has no quotations. Lastly, a much more important place in the scheme of the ideal dictionary is now assigned to the etymology of words. This may be attributed, in part, to the recent rapid development of ety- mology as a science, and to the greater abundance of trustworthy data; but it is chiefly due to the fact that from the historical point of view the connexion between that section of the biography of a word which lies within the language — subsequent, that is, to the time when the language may, for lexicographical purposes, be assumed to have begun, or to the time when the word was adopted or invented — and its antecedent history has become more vital and interesting. Etymology, in other words, is essentially the history of the form of a word up to the time when it became a part of the language, and is, in a measure, an extension of the history of the development of the word in the language. More- over, it is the only means by which the exact relations of allied words can be ascertained, and the separation of words of the same form but of diverse origin (homonyms) can be effected, and is thus, for the dictionary, the foundation of all family history and correct genealogy. In fact, the attention that has been paid to these two points in the best recent lexicography is one of its distinguishing and most important characteristics. Related to the etymology of words are the changes in their form which may have occurred while they have been in use as parts of the language — modifications of their pronunciation, corruptions by popular etymology or false associations, and the like. The facts with regard to these things which the wide research necessitated by the historical method furnishes abundantly to the modern lexicographer are often among the most novel and interesting of his acquisitions. It should be added that even approximate conformity to the theoretical requirements of modern lexicography as above out- lined is possible only under conditions similar to those under which the Oxford New English Dictionary was undertaken (see below). The labour demanded is too vast, and the necessary bulk of the dictionary too great. When, however, a language is recorded in c/ne such dictionary, those of smaller size and more modest pretensions can rest upon it as an authority and conform to it as a model so far as their special limitations permit. The ideal thus developed is primarily that of the general dictionary of the purely philological type, but it applies also to the encyclopaedic dictionary. In so far as the latter is strictly lexicographic — deals with words as words, and not with the things they denote — it should be made after the model of the former, and is defective to the extent in which it deviates from it. The addition of encyclopaedic matter to the philological in no way affects the genera! principles involved. It may, however, for practical reasons, modify their application in various ways. For example, the number of obsolete and dialectal words included may be much diminished and the number of scientific terms (for instance, new Latin botanical and zoological names) be increased; and the relative amount of space devoted to etymologies and quotations may be lessened. In general, since books of this kind are designed to serve more or less as works of general reference, the making of them must be governed by considerations of practical utility which the compilers of a purely philological dictionary are not obliged to regard. The encyclopaedic type itself, although it has often been criticized as hybrid — as a mixture of two things which should be kept distinct — is entirely defensible. Between the dictionary and the encyclopaedia the dividing line cannot sharply be drawn. There are words the meaning of which cannot be explained fully without some description of things, and, on the other hand, the description of things and processes often involves the definition of names. To the combination of the two objection cannot justly be made, so long as it is effected in a way — with a selection of material — that leaves the dictionary essentially a dictionary and not an encyclopaedia. Moreover, the large vocabulary of the general dictionary makes it possible to present certain kinds of encyclopaedic matter with a degree of fulness and a convenience of arrangement which are possible in no single work of any other class. In fact, it may be said that if the encyclopaedic dictionary did not exist it would have to be invented; that its justification is its indispensableness. Not the least of its advantages is that it makes legitimate the use of diagrams and pictorial illustrations, which, if properly selected and executed, are often valuable aids to definition. On its practical side the advance in lexicography has consisted in the elaboration of methods long in use rather than in the in- vention of new ones. The only way to collect the data upon which the vocabulary, the definitions and the history are to be based is, of course, to search for them in the written monuments of the language, as all lexicographers who have not merely borrowed from their predecessors have done. But the wider scope and special aims of the new lexicography demand that the investigation shall be vastly more comprehensive, systematic and precise. It is necessary, in brief, that, as far as may be possible, the literature (of all kinds) of every period of the language shall be examined systematically, in order that all the words, and senses and forms of words, which have existed during any period may be found, and that enough excerpts (carefully verified,credited and dated) to cover all the essential facts shall be made. The books, pamphlets, journals, newspapers, and so on which must thus be searched will be numbered by thousands, and the quotations selected may (as in the case of the Oxford New English Dictionary) be counted by millions. This task is beyond the powers of any one man, even though he be a Johnson, or a Littr6 or a Grimm, and it is now DICTIONARY 189 assigned to a corps of readers whose number is limited only by the ability of the editor to obtain such assistance. The modern method of editing the material thus accumulated— the actual work of compilation — also is characterized by the application of the principle of the division of labour. Johnson boasted that his dictionary was written with but little assistance from the learned, and the same was in large measure true of that of Littre. Such attempts on the part of one man to write practically the whole of a general dictionary are no longer possible, not merely because of the vast labour and philological research necessitated by modern aims, but more especially because the immense development of the vocabulary of the special sciences renders indispensable the assistance, in the work of definition, of persons who are expert in those sciences. The tendency, accordingly, has been to enlarge greatly the editorial staff of the dictionary, scores of sub-editors and contributors being now employed where a dozen or fewer were formerly deemed sufficient. In other words, the making of a " complete " dictionary has become a co-operative enterprise, to the success of which workers in all the fields of literature and science contribute. The most complete exemplification of these principles and methods is the Oxford New English Dictionary, on historical principles, founded mainly on materials collected by ihe Philo- logical Society. This monumental work originated in the sug- gestion of Trench that an attempt should be made, under the direction of the Philological Society, to complete the vocabulary of existing dictionaries and to supply the historical information which they lacked. The suggestion was adopted, considerable material was collected, and Mr Herbert Coleridge was appointed general editor. He died in 1861, and was succeeded by Dr F. J. Furnivall. Little, however, was done, beyond the collection of quotations — about 2,000,000 of which were gathered — until in 1878 the expense of printing and publishing the proposed dictionary was assumed by the Delegates of the University Press, and the editorship was entrusted to Dr (afterwards Sir) J. A. H. Murray. As the historical point of beginning, the middle of the 1 2th century was selected, all words that were obsolete at that date being excluded, though the history of words that were current both before and after that date is given in its entirety; and it was decided that the search for quotations — which, accord- ing to the original design, was to cover the entire literature down to the beginning of the i6th century and as much of the subse- quent literature (especially the works of the more important writers and works on special subjects) as might be possible — should be made more thorough. More than 800 readers, in all parts of the world, offered their aid ; and when the preface to the first volume appeared in 1888, the editor was able to announce that the readers had increased to 130x5, and that 3,50x3,000 cf quotations, taken from the writings of more than 5000 authors, had already been amassed. The whole work was planned to be completed in ten large volumes, each issued first in smaller parts. The first part was issued in 1884, and by the beginning of 1910 the first part of the letter S had been reached. The historical method of exposition, particularly by quota- tions, is applied in the New English Dictionary, if not in all cases with entire success, yet, on the whole, with a regularity and a precision which leave little to be desired. A minor fault is that excerpts from second or third rate authors have occasionally been used where better ones from writers of the first class either must have been at hand or could have been found. As was said above, the literary quality of the question is highly important even in historical lexicography, and should not be neglected un- necessarily. Other special features of the book are the complete- ness with which variations of pronunciation and orthography (with dates) are given; the fulness and scientific excellence of the etymologies, which abound in new information and corrections of old errors; the phonetic precision with which the present (British) pronunciation is indicated; and the elaborate sub- division of meanings. The definitions as a whole are marked by a high degree of accuracy, though in a certain number of cases (not explicable by the date of the volumes) the lists of meanings are not so good as one would expect, as compared (say) with the Century Dictionary. Work of such magnitude and quality is possible, practically,onlywhentheeditorof the dictionary can com- mand not merely the aid of a very large number of scholars and men of science, but their gratuitous aid. In this the New English Dictionary has been singularly fortunate. The conditions under which it originated, and its aim, have interested scholars every- where, and led them to contribute to the perfecting of it their knowledge and time. The long list of names of such helpers in Sir J. A. H. Murray's preface is in curious contrast with their absence from Dr Johnson's and the few which are given in that of Littre. The editor's principal assistants were Dr Henry Bradley and Dr W. A. Craigie. Of the dictionary as a whole it may be said that it is one of the greatest achievements, whether in literature or science, of modern English scholarship and research. The New English Dictionary furnishes for the first time data from which the extent of the English word-store at any given period, and the direction and rapidity of its growth, can fairly be estimated. For this purpose the materials furnished by the older dictionaries are quite insufficient, on account of their incompleteness and unhistorical character. For example 100 pages of the New English Dictionary (from the letter H) contain 1002 words, of which, as the dated quota- tions show, 585 were current in 1750 (though some, of course, were very rare, some dialectal, and so on), 191 were obsolete at that date, ana 226 have since come into use. But of the more than 700 words — current or obsolete — which Johnson might thus have recorded, he actually did record only about 300. Later dictionaries give more of them, but they in no way show their status at the date in question. It is worth noting that the figures given seem to indicate that not very many more words have been added to the vocabulary of the language during the past 150 years than had been lost by 1750. The pages selected, however, contain comparatively few recent scientific terms. A broader comparison would probably show that the gain has been more than twice as great as the loss. In the Deutsches Worterbuch of Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm the scientific spirit, as was said above, first found expression in general lexicography. The desirability of a complete inventory and investigation of German words was recognized by Leibnitz and by various 18th-century scholars, but the plan and methods of the Grimms were the direct product of the then new scientific philology. Their design, in brief, was to give an exhaustive account of the words of the literary language (New High German) from about the end of the isth century, including their earlier etymological and later history, with references to important dialectal words and forms; and to illustrate their use and history abundantly by quotations. The first volume appeared in 1854. Jacob Grimm (died 1863) edited the first, second (with his brother, who died in 1859), third and a part of the fourth volumes; the others have been edited by various distinguished scholars. The scope and methods of this dictionary have been broadened somewhat as the work has advanced. In general it may be said that it differs from the New English Dictionary chiefly in its omission of pronunciations and other pedagogic matter; its irregular treatment of dates; its much less systematic and less lucid statement of etymologies; its less systematic and less fruitful use of quotations; and its less convenient and less intelligible arrangement of material and typography. These general principles lie also at the foundation of the scholarly Dictionnaire de la langue franqaise of E. Littre, though they are there carried out less systematically and less completely. In the arrangement of the definitions the first place is given to the most primitive meaning of the word instead of to the most common one, as in the dictionary of the Academy; but the other meanings follow in an order that is often logical rather than historical. Quotations also are frequently used merely as literary illustrations, or are entirely omitted; in the special paragraphs on the history of words before the i6th century, however, they are put to a. strictly historical use. This dictionary — perhaps the greatest ever compiled by one man — was published 1863-1872. (Supplement, 1878.) The Thesaurus Linguae Lalinae, prepared under the auspices of the German Academies of Berlin, Gottingen, Leipzig, Munich and Vienna, is a notable application of the principles and practical co-operative method of modern lexicography to the classical tongues. The plan of the work is to collect quotations which shall register, with its full context, every word (except DICTIONARY the most familiar particles) in the text of each Latin author down to the middle of the 2nd century A.D., and to extract all important passages from all writers of the following centuries down to the 7th: and upon these materials to found a complete historical dictionary of the Latin language. The work of collecting quotations was begun in 1894, and the first part of the first volume has been published. In the making of all these great dictionaries (except, of course, the last) the needs of the general pubh'c as well as those of scholars have been kept in view. But the type to which the general dictionary designed for popular use has tended more and more to conform is the encyclopaedic. This combination of lexicon and encyclopaedia is exhibited in an extreme — and theoretically objectionable — form in the Grand dictionnaire universel du XIX' siecle of Pierre Larousse. Besides common words and their definitions, it contains a great many proper names, with a correspondingly large number of biographical, geographical, historical and other articles, the connexion of which with the strictly lexicographical part is purely mechanical. Its utility, which — notwithstanding its many defects — is very great, makes it, however, a model in many respects. Fifteen volumes were published (1866-1876), and supplements were brought out later (1878-1890). The Nouveau Larousse illustre started publication in 1901, and was completed in 1904 (7 vols.). This is not an abridgment or a fresh edition of the Grand Dictionnaire of Pierre Larousse, but a new and distinct publication. The most notable work of this class, in English, is the Century Dictionary, an American product, edited by Professor W. D. Whitney, and published 1889-1891 in six volumes, containing 7046 pages (large quarto). It conforms to the philological mode in giving with great fulness the older as well as the present vocabulary of the language, and in the completeness of its etymologies; but it does not attempt to give the full history of every word within the language. Among its other more note- worthy characteristics are the inclusion of a great number of modern scientific and technical words, and the abundance of its quotations. The quotations are for the most part provided with references, but they are not dated. Even when compared with the much larger New English Dictionary, the Century's great merit is the excellent enumeration of meanings, and the ac- curacy of its explanations; in this respect it is often better and fuller than the New English. In the application of the encyclo- paedic method this dictionary is conservative, excluding, with a few exceptions, proper names, and restricting, for the most part, the encyclopaedic matter to descriptive and other details which may legitimately be added to the definitions. Its pictorial illustrations are very numerous and well executed. In the manner of its compilation it is a good example of modern co- operative dictionary-making, being the joint product of a large number of specialists. Next to the New English Dictionary it is the most complete and scholarly of English lexicons. Bibliography. — The following list of dictionaries (from the 9th edition of this work, with occasional corrections) is given for its historical interest, but in recent years dictionary-making has been so abundant that no attempt is made to be completely inclusive of later works; the various articles on languages may be consulted for these. The list is arranged geographically by families of languages, or by regions. In each group the order, when not alphabetical, is usually from north to south, extinct languages generally coming first, and dialects being placed under their language. Dictionaries forming parts of other works, such as travels, histories, transactions, periodicals, reading-books, &c., are generally excluded. The system here adopted was chosen as on the whole the one best calculated to keep together dictionaries naturally associated. The languages to be considered are too many for an alphabetical arrangement, which ignores all relations both natural and geographical, and too few to require a strict classification by affinities, by which the European languages, which for many reasons should be kept together, would be dispersed. Under either system, Arabic, Persian and Turkish, whose dictionaries are so closely connected, would be widely separated. A wholly geographical arrangement would be in- convenient, especially in Europe. Any system, however, which attempts to arrange in a consecutive series the great network of languages by which the whole world is enclosed, must be open to some objections; and the arrangement adopted in this list has produced some anomalies and dispersions which might cause inconvenience if not pointed out. The old Italic languages are placed under Latin, all dialects of France under French (but Provencal as a distinct language), and Wallachian among Romanic languages. Low German and its dialects are not separated from High German. Basque is placed after Celtic; Albanian, Gipsy and Turkish at the end of Europe, the last being thus separated from its dialects and congeners in Northern and Central Asia, among which are placed the Kazan dialect of Tatar, Samoyed and Ostiak. Accadian is placed after Assyrian among the Semitic languages, and Maltese as a dialect of Arabic; while the Ethiopic is among African languages as it seemed undesirable to separate it from the other Abyssinian languages, or these from their neighbours to the north and south. Circassian and Ossetic are joined to the first group of Aryan languages lying to the north-west of Persia, and containing Armenian, Georgian and Kurd. The following is the order of the groups, some of the more important languages, that is, of those best provided with dictionaries, standing alone: — EUROPE: Greek, Latin, French, Romance, Teutonic (Scandi- navian and German), Celtic, Basque, Baltic, Slavonic, Ugrian, Gipsy, Albanian. ASIA: Semitic, Armenian, Persian, Sanskrit, Indian, Indo- Chinese, Malay Archipelago, Philippines, Chinese, Japanese, Northern and Central Asia. AFRICA: Egypt and Abyssinia, Eastern Africa, Southern, Western, Central, Berber. AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA. AMERICA: North, Central (with Mexico), South. EUROPE Greek. — Athenaeus quotes 35 writers of works, known or sup- posed to be dictionaries, for, as they are all lost, it is often difficult to decide on their nature. Of these, Anticlides, who lived after the reign of Alexander the Great, wrote 'E£rry7;TiKcid(bed of violets), first printed by D'Ansse de Villoison, Anecdota Graeca, Venetiis, 1781, 410, vol. i. pp. 1-442. It was supposed to have been of much value before it was published. Thomas, Magister Officiorum under Andronicus Palaeologus, afterward called as a mpnkTheodulus, wrote 'EicXo7 1766, 8vo: Pillon, Paris, 1847, 8vo. PROPER NAMES. — Pape, ed- Sengebusch, 1866, 8vo, 969 pages. VERBS. — Veitch, 2nd ed. Oxf- 1866. TERMINATIONS. — Hoogeveen, Cantab. 1810, 4to: Pape, Berlin, 1836, 8vo. PARTICULAR AUTHORS. — Aeschylus: Wellauer, 2 vols. Lips. 1830-1831, 8vo. Aristophanes: Caravella, Oxonii, 1822, 8vo. Demosthenes: Reiske, Lips. 1775, 8vo. Euripides: Beck, Cantab. 1829, 8vo. Herodotus: Schweighauser, Strassburg, 1824, 8vo, 2 vols. Hesiod: Osoruis, Neapol. 1791, 8vo. Homer: Apollunius Sophista, ed. Tollius, Lugd. Bat., 1788, 8vo: Schaufelberger, Zurich, 1761-1768, 8vo, 8 vols.: Crusius, Hanover, 1836, 8vo: Wittich, London, 1843, 8vo: Doderlein, Erlangen, 8vo, 3 vols.: Eberling, Lipsiae, 1875, 8vo: Autenrieth, Leipzig, 1873, 8vo; London, 1877, 8vo. Isocrates: Mitchell, Oxon. 1828, 8vo. Pindar: Portus, Hanov. 1606, 8vo. Plato: Timaeus, ed. Koch, Lips. 1828, 8vo: Mitchell, Oxon. 1832, 8vo: Ast,- Lips. 1835-1838, 8vo, 3 vols. Plutarch: Wyttenbach, Lips. 1835, 8vo, 2 vols. Sophocles: Ellendt, Regiomonti, 1834-1835, 8vo eci. ; Genthe, Berlin, 1872, 8vo. Thucy- dides: Betant, Geneva, 1843-1847, 8vo, 2 vols. Xenophon: Sturtz, Lips. 1801-1804, 8vo, 4 vols. : Cannesin (Anabasis, Gr. -Finnish), Hel- sirgissa, 1868, 8vo: Sauppe, Lipsiae, 1869, 8vo. Septuagint: Hutter, Noribergae, 1598, 4to: Biel, Hagae, 1779-1780, 8vo. New Testament: Lithocomus, Colon, 1552, 8vo: Parkhurst, ed. Major, London, 1845, 8vo: Schleusner (juxta ed. Lips, quartam), Glasguae, 1824, 4to. Medieval and Modern Greek. — Meursius, Lugd. Bat. 1614, 4to: Critopulos, Stendaliae, 1787, 8vo: Portius, Par. 1635, 4t°: Du Cange, Paris, 1682, fol., 2 vols.; Ludg. 1688, fol. ENGLISH. — Polymera, Hermopolis, 1854, 8vo: Sophocles, Cambr. Mass. 1860-1887: Contopoulos, Athens, 1867, 8vo; Smyrna, 1868-1870, 8vo, 2 parts, 1042 pages. FRENCH. — Skarlatos, Athens, 1852, 4to: Byzantius, ib. 1856, 8vo, 2 vols.: Varvati, 4th ed. ib., 1860, 8vo. ITALIAN.— Germane, Romae, 1622, 8vo: Somavera, Parigi, 1709, fol., 2 vols.: Pericles, Hermopolis, 1857, 8yo. GERMAN. — Schmidt, Lips. 1825-1827, I2mo, 2 vols.: Petraris, Leipz. 1897. POLYGLOTS. — Kqniaz (Russian and Fr.), Moscow, 1811, 4to; Schmidt (Fr.-Germ.), Leipzig, 1837-1840, I2mo, 3 vols.: Theocharopulas de Patras (Fr.- Eng.), Munich, 1840, 121110. Latin. — Johannes de Janua, Catholicon or Summa, finished in 1286, printed Moguntiae 1460, fol.; Venice, 1487; and about 20 editions before 1500: Johannes, Comprehensorium, Valentia, 1475, fol.: Nestor Dionysius, Onomasticon, Milan, 1477, fol.: Stephanus, Paris, 1531, fol., 2 vols.: Gesner, Lips. 1749, fol., 4 vols.: Forcellini, Patavii, 1771, fol., 4 yqls. POLYGLOT. — Calepinus, Reggio, 1502, fol. (Aldus printed 16 editions, with the Greek equivalents of the Latin words; Venetiis, 1575, fol., added Italian, French and Spanish; Basileae, 1590, fol., is in n languages; several editions, from 1609, are called Octolingue; many of the latter 2 vol. editions were edited by John Facciolati) : Verantius (Ital., Germ., Dalmatian, Hungarian), Venetiis, 1595, 4to: Lodereckerus (Ital., Germ., Dalm., Hungar., Bohem., Polish), Pragae, 1605, 410. ENGLISH. — Promptorium parvulorum, compiled in 14^.0 by GalfridusGrammaticus, a Dominican monk of Lynn Episcopi, in Norfolk, was printed by Pynson, 1499; 8 editions, 1508-1528, ed. Way, Camden Society, 1843-1865, 3 vols. 4to; Medulla grammaticis, probably by the same author, MS. written 1483; printed as Ortus vocabulorum, by Wynkyn de Worde, 1500; 13 editions 1500-1523 ; Sir Thomas Elyot, London, 1538, fol. ; 2nd ed. '543; Bibliotheca Eliotae, ed. Cooper, ib. 1545, fol.: Huloet, Abecedarium, London, 1552, fol.; Dictionarie, 1572, fol.: Cooper, London,- 1565, fol. ; 4th edition, 1584, fol. : Baret, Alvearie, ib. 1575, fol.; 1580, fol.: Fleming, ib. 1583, fol.: Ainsworth, London, 1736, dto; ed. Morell, London, 1796, 4to, 2 vols.; ed. Beatson and Ellis, ib. i860, 8vo: Scheller, translated by Riddle, Oxford, 1835, fol.: Smith, London, 1855, 8vo; 1870: Lewis and Short, Oxford, 1879. ENG.-LATIN. — Levins, Manipuluspuerorum, Lond. 1570,410: Riddle, ib. 1838, 8vo: Smith, ib. 1855, 8vo. FRENCH. — Catholicon parvum, Geneva, 1487: Estienne, Dictionnaire, Paris, 1539, fol. 675 pag^es; enlarged 1549; ed. Huggins, Lond. 1572: Id. Dictionarium Latino- Gallicum, Lutetiae, 1546, fol.; Paris, 1552; 1560: Id., Dictionariolum puerorum, Paris, 1542, 410: Les Mots franc.ais, Paris, 1544, 4to; the copy in the British Museum has the autograph of Queen Catherine Parr: Thierry (Fr.-Lat.), Paris, 1564, fol.: Danet, Ad usum Delphini, Pans, 1700, 4to, 2 vols.; and frequently: Quicherat, 9th ed. Paris, 1857, 8vo: Theil, 3rd ed. Paris, 1863, 8vo: Freund, ib. 1835-1865, 410, 3 yols. GERMAN. — Joh. Melber, of Gerolzhofen, Vocabularius praedicantium, of which 26 editions are described by Hain (Repertorium, No. 11,022, &c.), 15 undated, 7 dated 1480-1495, 4to, and 3 after 1504: Vocabularius gemma gemmarum, Antwerp, 1484,410; 1487; 12 editions, 1505-1518: Herman Torentinus, Eluci- darius carminum, Daventri, 1501, 4to; 22 editions, 1504-1536 :Binnart, Ant. 1649, 8vo: Id., Biglotton, ib. 1661 ; 4th ed. 1688: Faber, ed. Gesner, flagae Com. 1735, fol., 2 vols.: Hederick, Lips. 1766, 8vo, 2 vols. : Ingerslev, Braunschweig, 1835-1855, 8yq, 2 vols. : Thesaurus linguae Latinae, Leipzig, 1900: Walde, Lateinisches etymologisches Worterbuch, 1906. ITALIAN. — Seebar (Sicilian translation of Lebrixa), Venet. 1525, 8vo: Venuti, 1589, 8vo: Galesini, Venez. 1605, 8vo: Bazzarini and Bellini, Torino, 1864, 4to, 2 vols. 3100 pages. SPANISH. — Salmanticae, 1494, fol.; Antonio de Lebrixa, Nebrissenis, Compluti, 1520, fol., 2 vols.: Sanchez de la Ballesta, Salamanca, 1587, 410: Valbuena, Madrid, 1826, fol. PORTUGUESE. — 192 DICTIONARY Bluteau, Lisbon, 1712-1728, fol., 10 vols: Fonseca, ib. 1771, fol.: Ferreira, Paris, 1834, 410; 1852. ROMANSCH. — Promptuario < di voci volgari, Valgrisii, 1565, 4to. VLACH. — Divalitu, Bucuresci, 1852, 8vo. SWEDISH. — Vocabula, Rostock, 1574, 8vo; Stockholm, 1579: Lindblom, Upsala, 1790, 410. DUTCH. — Binnart, Antw. 1649, 8vo: Scheller, Lugd. Bat. 1799, 4to, 2 ypls. FLEMISH. — Paludanus, Gandavi, 1544, 4to. POLISH. — Macinius, Konigsberg, 1564, fol.: Garszynski, Breslau, 1823, 8vo, 2 vols. BOHEMIAN. — Johannes Aquensis, Pilsnae, 1511,410: Reschel, Olmucii, 1 560- 1562,41:0, 2 vols. : Cnapius, Cracovia, 1661, fol., 3 vols. ILLYRIAN. — Bellosztenecz, Zagrab, 1740, 4to: Jambresich (also Germ, and Hungar.), Zagrab, 1742, 4to. SERVIAN. — Swotlik, Budae, 1721, 8vo. HUNGARIAN. — Molnar, Frankf. a. M. 1645, 8vo: Pariz-Papai, Leutschen, 1708, 8vo; 1767. FINNISH. — Rothsen, Helsingissa, 1864, 8vo. POETIC. — Epithetorum et synonymorum thesaurus, Paris, 1662, 8vo, attributed to Chatillon ; reprinted by Paul Aler, a German Jesuit, as Gradus ad Parnassum, Pans, 1687, 8vo; many subsequent editions : Schirach, Hal. 1768, 8vo: Noel, Paris, 1810, 8vo; 1826: Quicherat, Paris, 1852, 8vo: Young, London, 1856, 8vo. EROTIC. — Rambach, Stuttgart, 1836, 8vo. RHETORICAL. — Ernesti, Lips. 1797, 8vo. CIVIL LAW. — Dirksen, Berolini, i837,4to. SYNONYMS. — Hill, Edinb. 1804, 4to: Doderlein, Lips. 1826-1828, 8vo, 6 vols. ETYMOLOGY. — Danet, Paris, 1677, 8vo: Vossius, Neap. 1762, fol., 2 vols.: Salmon, London, 1796, 8vo, 2 vols.: Nagel, Berlin, 1869, 8vo; Latin roots, with their French and English derivatives, explained in German: Zehetmayr, Vindobonae, 1873, 8vo: Vanicek, Leipz. 1874, 8vo. BARBAROUS.— Marchellus, Mediol. 1753, 4to; Krebs, Frankf. a. M. 1834, 8vo; 1837. PARTICULAR AUTHORS.- — Caesar: Crusius, Hanoy. 1838, 8vo. Cicero: Nizzoli, Brescia, 1535, fol.; ed. Facciolati, Patavii, 1734, fol.; London, 1820, 8vo, 3 vols. : Ernesti, Lips. 1739, 8vo; Halle, 1831. Cornelius Nepos: Schmieder, Halle, 1798, 8yo; 1816: Billerbeck, Hanover, 1825, 8vo. Curtius Rufus: Crusius, Hanov. 1844, 8vo. Horace: Ernesti, Berlin, 1802-1804, 8vo, 3 vols.: Doring, Leipz. 1829, 8vo. Justin: Meinecke, Lemgo, 1793, 8vo; 2nd ed. 1818. Livy: Ernesti, Lips. 1784, 8vo; ed Schafer, 1804. Ovid: Gierig, Leipz. 1814: (Metamorphoses) Meinecke, 2nd ed., Lemgo, 1825, 8vo: Billerbeck (Do.), Hanover, 1831, 8vo. Phaedrus: Oertel, Nurnberg, 1798, 8vo: Horstel, Leipz. 1803, 8vo: Billerbeck Hanover, 1828, 8vo. Plautus: Paraeus, Franki. 1614, 8vo. Pliny: Denso, Rostock, 1766, 8vo. Pliny, jun.: Wensch, Wittenberg, 1837- 1839, 4to. Quintilian: Bonnellus, Leipz. 1834, 8vo. Sallust: Schneider, Leipz. 1834, 8vo: Crusius, Hanover, 1840, 8vo. Tacitus: Botticher, Berlin, 1830, 8vo. Velleius Paterculus: Koch, Leipz. 1857, 8vo. Virgil: Clavis, London, 1742, 8vo: Braunhard, Coburg, 1834, 8vo. Vitruvius: Rode, Leipz. 1679, 410, 2 vols.: Orsini, Perugia, 1801, 8vo. OLD ITALIAN LANGUAGES. — Fabretti, Torini, 1858, 4to. Umbrian : Huschke, Leipz. 1860, 8vo. Oscan and Sabellian: Id. Elberfeld, 1856, 8vo. MEDIEVAL LATIN. — Du Cange, Glossarium, Paris, 1733-1736, fol., 6 vols. ; Carpentier, Suppl., Paris, 1766, fol., 4 vols. ; ed. Adelung, Halae, 1772-1784, 8vo, 6 vols.; ed. Henschel, Paris, i84p-;i85O, 410, 7 vols. (vol. vii. contains a glossary of Old French) : Brinckmeier, Gotha, 1850-1863, 8vp, 2 vols.: Hildebrand (Glossarium saec. ix.), Getting. 1854, 410: Diefenbach, Glossarium, Frankf. 1857, 4to: Id. Gloss, novum, ib. 1867,410. ECCLESIASTICAL. — Magri, Messina, 1644, 4to; 8th ed. Venezia, 1732; Latin translation, Magri Hierolexicon, Romae, 1677, fol.; 6th ed. Bologna, 1765, 4to, 2 vols. Romance Languages. Romance Languages generally. — Diez, Bonn, 1853, 8vo; 2nd ed. ib. 1861-1862, 8vo, 2 vols.; 3rd ed. ib. 1869-1870, 8vo, 2 vols.; transl. by Donkin, 1864, 8vo. French. — Ranconet, Thresor, ed. Nicot, Paris, 1606, fol.; ib. 1618, 410: Richelet, Geneve, 1680, fol., 2 vols.; ed. Gattel, Paris, 1840, 8vo, 2 vols. The French Academy, after five years' consideration, beg?m their dictionary, on the 7th of February 1639, by examining the letter A, which took them nine months to go through. The word Academic was for some time omitted by oversight. They decided, on the 8th of March 1638, not to cite authorities, and they have since always claimed the right of making their own examples. Olivier justifies them by saying that for eighty years all the best writers belonged to their body, and they could not be expected to cite each other. Their design was to raise the language to its last perfection, and to open a road to reach the highest eloquence. Antoine Furetiere, one of their members^ compiled a dictionary which he says cost him forty years' labour for ten hours a day, and the manuscript filled fifteen chests. He gave words of all kinds, especially technical, names of persons and places, and phrases. As a specimen, he published his Essai, Paris, 1684, 4to; Amst. 1685, I2mo. The Academy charged him with using the materials they had prepared for their dictionary, and expelled him, on the 22nd of January 1685, for plagiarism. He died on the I4th of May 1688, in the midst of the consequent controversy and law suit. His complete work was published, with a preface by Bayle, La Haye and Rotterdam, 1690, fol., 3 vols. ; again edited by Basnage de Beauval, 1701; La Haye, 1707, fol., 4 vols. From the edition of 1701 the very popular so-called Dictionnaire de Trevoux, Trevoux, 1704, fol., 2 vols., was made by the Jesuits, who excluded everything that seemed to favour the Calvinism of Basnage. The last of its many editions is Paris, 1771, fol., 8 vols. The Academy's dictionary was first printed Paris, 1694, fol., 2 vols. They began the revision in 1700; second edition 1718, fol., 2 vols.; 3rd, 1740, fol., 2 vols.; 6th, 1835, 2 vols. 410, reprinted 1855; Supplement, by F. Raymond, 1836, 4to; Complement, 1842, 410, reprinted 1856, Dictionnaire historique, Paris, 1858-1865, 4to, 2 parts (A to Actu), 795 pages, published by the Institut: Dochez, Paris, 1859,410: Bescherelle, 16.1844, 4to, 2 vols.; 5th ed. Paris, 1857, 410, 2 vols. ; 1865; 1887: Landais, Paris, 1835; I2th ed. ib. 1854, 4to, 2 vols.: Littre, Paris, 1863-1873, 410, 4 vols. 7118 pages: Supplement, Paris, 1877, 410: Godefroy (with dialects from gth to 15th cent.), Paris, 1881-1895, and Complement : Hatzfield, Darmesteter, and Thomas, Paris, 1890-1900: Larive and Fleury, (mots et chases, Ulustre), Paris, 1884-1891. ENGLISH. — Palsgrave, Lesdaircissement de la langue francoyse, London, 1530, 4to, 2 parts; 1852: Hollyband, London, 1533, 4to: Cotgrave, ib. 1611, fol.: Boyer, La Have, 1702, 4to, 2 vols. ; 37th ed. Paris, 1851, 8vo, 2 vols. : Fleming and Tibbins, Paris, 1846-1849, 410, 2 vols.; ib. 1854, 4to, 2 vols.; ib. 1870-1872, 410, 2 vols.: Tarver, London, 1853-1854, 8vo, 2 vols.; 1867-1872: Bellows, Gloucester, 1873, i6mo; ib. 1876. IDEOLOGICAL, or ANALOGICAL. — Robertson, Paris, 1859, 8vo: Boissiere, Paris, 1862, 8vo. ETYMOLOGY/ — Lebon, Paris, 1571, 8vo: Menage, ib. 1650, 410. Pougens projected a Tresor des origines, his extracts for which, filling nearly 100 volumes folio, are in the library of the Institut. He published a specimen, Paris, 1819, 4to. After his death, Archeologie franc.aise, Paris, 1821, 8vo, 2 yols., was com- piled from his MSS., which were much used by Littre: Scheler, Bruxelles, 1862, 8vo; 1873: Brachet, 2nd ed. Paris, 1870, I2mo; English trans. Kitchin, Oxf. 1866, 8vo. GREEK WORDS. — Trippault, Orleans. 1580, 8vo: Morin, Paris, 1809, 8vo. GERMAN WORDS. — Atzler, Cothen, 1867, 8vo. ORIENTAL WORDS. — Pihan, Paris, 1847, 8vo; 1866: Devic, ib. 1876, 8vo. NEOLOGY. — Desfontaines, 3rd ed. Amst. 1728, I2mo: Mercier, Paris, 1801, 8vo, 2 vols.: Richard, ib. 1842, 8vo; 2nd ed. 1845. POETIC. — Diet, des rimes (by La Noue), Geneve, 1596, 8vo; Cologny, 1624, 8vo: Carpentier, Le Gradus franfais, Paris, 1825, 8vo, 2 vols. EROTIC. — De Landes, Bruxelles, 1861, I2mp. ORATORY. — Demandreand Fontenai, Paris, 1802, 8vp: Planche, ib. 1819-1820, 8vo, 3 vols. PRONUNCIATION. — Feline, ib. 1857, 8yo. DOUBLE FORMS. — Brachet, ib. 1871, 8vo. EPITHETS. — Daire, ib. 1817, 8vo. VERBS. — Bescherelle, ib. 1855, 8vo, 2 vols.: 3rd ed. 1858. PARTICIPLES. — Id., ib. 1861, I2mo. DIFFICULTIES. — Boiste, London, 1828, I2mo: Laveaux, Paris, 1872, 8vo, 843 pages. SYNONYMS. — Boinvilliers, Paris, 1826, 8vo: Lafaye, ib. 1858, 8vo; 1861; 1869: Guizot, ib. 1809, 8vo; 6th ed. 1863; 1873. HOMONYMS. — Zlatagorski (Germ., Russian, Eng.), Leipzig, 1862, 8vo, 664 pages. IMITATIVE WORDS. — Nodier, Onomatopees, ib. 1828, 8vo. TECHNOLOGY. — D'Hautel, ib. 1808, 8vo, 2vols. : Desgranges, ib. 1821, 8vo: Tolhausen (Fr., Eng., Germ.), Leipz. 1873, 8vp, 3 vols. FAULTS OF EXPRESSION. — Roland, Gap, 1823, 8vo: Blondin, Paris, 1823, 8vo. PARTICULAR AUTHORS. — Corneille: Godefroy, ib. 1862, 8vo, 2 yols.: Marty-La veaux, ib. 1868, 8vp, 2 vols. La Fontaine: Lorin, ib. 1852, 8vo. Malherbe: Regnier, ib. 1869, 8yo. Moliere: Genin, ib. 1846, 8vo: Marty-Laveaux, ib. 8vo. Racine: Marty- Laveaux, ib. 1873, 8vo, 2 vols. M"" de Sevigne: Sommer, ib. 1867, 8vo, 2 vols. OLD FRENCH. — La Curne de St Palaye prepared a dictionary, of which he only published Projet d'un glossaire, Paris, 1756, 410. His MSS. in many volumes are in the National Library, and were much used by Littre. They were printed by L. Fayre, and fasciculi 21-30 (torn, iii.), Niort, 4to. 484 pages, were published in February 1877. Lacombe (vieux langage), Paris, 1766, 2 vols. 4to: Kelham (Norman and Old French), London, 1779, 8vo: Roquefort (langue romane), Paris, 1808, 8vo; Supplement, ib. 1820, 8vo: Pougens, Archeologie, ib. 1821, 8vo, 2 vols.: Burguy, Berlin, 1851- 1856, 8vo, 3 vols. : Laborde (Notice des emaux . . . du Louvre, part ii.), Paris, 1853, 8vo, 564 pages: ' Cachet (rhymed chronicles), Bruxelles, 1859, 4to: Le Hericher (Norman, English and French), Paris, 1862, 3 vols. 8vo: Hippeau (l2th and I3th centuries), Paris, 1875, 8vo. DIALECTS. — Jaubert (central), Paris, 1856-1857, 8vo, 2 yols.: Baumgarten (north and centre), Coblentz, 1870, 8vo: Azais, Idiomes romans du midi, Montpellier, 1877. Austrasian: Francois. Metz, 1773, 8vo. Auvergne: Mege, Riom, 1861, I2mo. Beam: Lespi, Pau, 1858, 8vo. Beaucaire: Bonnet (Bouguiren), Nismes, 1840, 8vo. Pays de Bray: Decorde, Neufchatel, 1852, 8vo. Burgundy: Mignard, Dijon, 1870, 8vo. Pays de Castres: Couzinie, Castres, 1850,410. Dauphine: Champollion-Figeac, Paris, 1809, 8vo: Jules, Valence, 1835, 8vo; Paris, 1840, 410. Dep. of Doubs: Tissot (Patois des Fourg, arr. de Pontarlier) Besancon, 1865, 8vo. Forez: Gras, Pans, 1864, 8vo; Neolas, Lyon, 1865, 8vo. Franche Comte: Maisoiforte, 2nd ed. Besancon, 1753, 8vo. Gascony: Des- grouais (Gasconismes corriges), Toulouse, 1766, 8vo; 1769; 1812, I2mo, 2 vols. ; 1825, 8vo, 2 vols. Dep.ofGers: Censc-Montaut, Paris, 1863, 8vo. Geneva: Humbert, Geneve, 1820, 8vo. Languedoc: Odde, Tolose, 1578, 8vo: Doujat, Toulouse, 1638, 8vo: De S.[auvages], Nismes, 1756, 2 vols.; 1785; Alais, 1820: Azais, Beziers, 1876. &c., 8vo: Hombres, Alais, 1872, 4tp: Thomas (Greek words) Mont- pellier, 1843, 4to. Liege: Forir, Liege, 1866, 8vo, vol i. 455 pages. Lille: Vermesse, Lille, 1861, I2mo: Debuire du Buc ib., 1867, 8vo. Limousin: Beronie, ed. Vialle (Correze), Tulle, 1823, 4to. 1 This volume was issued with a new title-page as Glossaire du moyen Age, Paris, 1872. DICTIONARY '93 Lyonnais, Forez, Beaujolais: Onofrio, Lyon, 1864, 8vo. Haul Maine: R.[aoul] de M. [ontesson], Paris, 1857; 1859, 503 pages. Mentone: Andrews, Nice, 1877, I2mo. Dep. de la Meuse : Cordier, Paris, 1853, 8vo. Norman: Edelestand and Alfred Dumeril, Caen, 1849, 8vo: Dubois, ib. 1857, 8vo: Le Hericher (Philologie topo- graphique), Caen, 1863, 4to: Id. (elements scandinaves), Avranches, 1861, I2mo: Metivier (Guernsey), London, 1870, 8vo: Vasnier (arrond de Pont Audemer), Rouen, 1861, 8vo: Delboulle (Vallee d'Yeres), Le Havre, 1876. Picardy: Corblet, Amiens, 1851, 8vo. Poitou, Saintonge, Aunis: Favre, Niort, 1867, 8vo. Poitou: Beauchet-Filleau, Paris, 1864, 8yo: Levrier, Niort, 1867, 8vo: Lalanne, Poitiers, 1868, 8vo. Saintonge: Boucherie, Angouleme, 1865, 8vo: Jonain, Royan, 1867, 8vo. Savoy: Pont (Terratzu de la Tarantaise), Chambery, 1869, 8vo. La Suisse Romande: Bridel, Lausanne, 1866, 8yo. Dep. of Tarn: Gary, Castre, 1845, 8vo. Dep. of Vaucluse: Barjavel, Carpentras, 1849, 8vo. Walloon (Rouchf): Cambresier, Liege, 1787, 8vo: Grandgagnage, ib. 1845-1850, 8vo. 2 vols. : Chav6e, Paris, 1857, i8mo: Vermesse, Doudi, 1867, 8vo. Sigart (Montois), Bruxelles, 1870, 8vo. SLANG. — Oudin, Curiositez Frangaises, Paris, 1640, 8vo: Baudeau de Saumaise (Precieuses, Langue de Ruelles), Paris, 1660, I2mo; ed. Livet, ib. 1856: Le Roux, Diet. Comique, Amst. 1788, and 6 other editions: Cargme Prenant [i.e. Taumaise], (argot reforme), Paris, 1829, 8vo: Larchey (excentricitees du langage), Paris, 1860, I2mo; 5th ed. 1865: Delvau (langue verte, Parisian), Paris, 1867, 8vo: Larchey, Paris, 1873, 410, 236 pages. Provencal. — Pallas, Avignon, 1723, 4to: Bastero, La Crusca Pro- venzale, Roma, 1724, fol. vol. i. only: Raynouard, Paris, 1836-1844, 8vo, 6 vols.: Garcm, Draguignand, 1841, 8vo, 2 vols. : Honnorat, Digne, 1846-1849, 410, 4 vols. 107,201 words: Id., Vocab.fr. prov., ib. 1848, I2mo, 1174 pages. Spanish. — Covarruvias Orosco, Madrid, i6n,fol.; ib. 1673-1674, fol. 2 vols. ; Acadamia Espanola, Madrid, 1726-1739, fol. 6 vols. ; 8th ed. 1837 : Caballero, Madrid, 1849, fol. ; 8th ed. ib. 1860, 4to, 2 vols. : Cuesta, ib. 1872, fol. 2 vols. : Campano, Paris, 1876, i8mo, 1015 pages. Cuervo, 1886-1894; Monlau, 1881 ; Zerola, Toro y Gomes, and Isaza, 1895; Serrano (encyclopaedic) 1876-1881. ENGLISH. — Percivall, London, 1591, 4to: Pineda, London, 1740, fol.: Connelly and Higgins, Madrid, 1 797-1 798, 410,4 vols. : Neuman and Baretti,9th ed. London, 1831, 8vo, 2 vols. ; 1874. FRENCH. — Oudin, Paris, 1607, 4to, 1660; Gattel, Lyon, 1803, 410, 2 vols.: Dominguez, Madrid, 1846, 8vo, 6 vols. : Blanc, Paris, 1862, 8vo, 2 vols. GERMAN. — Wagener, Hamb. 1801-1805, 8vo, 4 vols.: Seckendorp, ib. 1823, 8vo, 3 vols.: Franceson, 3rd ed. Leipzig, 1862, 8vo, 2 vols. ITALIAN. — Franciosini, Venezia, 1735, 8vo, 2 vojs. ; Cormon y Manni, Leon, 1843, i6mo, 2 vols.: Romero, Madrid, 1844, 4to. SYNONYMS. — Dicctonario de Sinonimos, Paris, 1853, 410. ETYMOLOGY. — Aldrete, Madrid, 1682, fol.: Monlau y Roca, ib. 1856, I2mo; Barcia, 1881-1883. ARABIC WORDS. — Hammer Purgstall, Wien, 1855, 8vo: Dozy and Engel- niann, 2d ed. Leiden, 1869, 8vo. ANCIENT. — Sanchez, Paris, 1842, 8vo. RHYMING. — Garcia de Rengifo (consonancias) Salmantica, 1592, 4to; 1876. DON QUIXOTE. — Beneke (German), Leipzig, 1800, l6mo; 4th ed. Berlin, 1841, i6mo. DIALECTS. — Aragonese: Peralta, Zaragoza, 1836, 8vo: Borao, ib. 1859, 410. Catalan: Rocha de Girona (Latin), Barcinone, 1561, fol.: Dictionari Catala (Lat. Fr. Span.), Barcelona, 1642, 8vo: Lacavalleria (Cat.-Lat.), ib. 1696, fol. : Esteve, ed. Belvitges, &c. (Catal.-Sp. Lat.), Barcelona, 1805-1835, fol. 2 vols. : Saura (Cat.-Span.), ib. 1851, i6mp; 2nded.(Span.-Cat.), ib. 1854; 3rd ed. (id.) ib. 1862, 8vo: Labernia, ib. 1844-1848, 8vo, 2 vols. 1864. Gattegan: Rodriguez, Coruna, 1863, 4to: Cuveira y Pifiol, Madrid, 1877, 8vo. Majorca: Figuera, Palma, 1840, 410: Amengual, 16.1845,410. Minorca: Diccionario, Madrid, 1848, 8vo. Valencian: Palmyreno, Valentiae, 1569: Ros, Valencia, 1764, 8vo: Fuster, ib. 1827, 8vo: Lamarca, 2nd ed. ib. 1842, i6mo. Cuba: Glossary of Creole Words, London, 1840, 8vo: Pichardo, 1836; 2nd ed. Havana, 1849, 8vo; 3rd ed. ib. 1862, 8vo; Madrid, 1860, 410. Portuguese. — Lima, Lisbon, 1783, 410: Moraes da Silva, ib. 1789, 4to, 2 vols._; 6th ed. 1858: Academia real das Sciencas, ib. '793> torn, i., ccvi. and 544 pages (A to Azurrar); Faria, ib. 1849, fol. 2 vols. ; 3rd ed. ib. 1850-1857, fol. 2 vols. 2220 pages. ENGLISH. — Vieyra, London, 1773, 2 vols. 410: Lacerda, Lisboa, 1866-1871, 4to, 2 vols. FRENCH. — Marquez, Lisboa, 1756-1 761, fol. 2 vols. : Roquette, Paris, 1841, 8vo, 2 vols.; 4th ed. 1860: Marques, Lisbonne, 1875, fol. 2 vols.: S_ouza Pinto, Paris, 1877, 32mo, 1024 pages. GERMAN. — Wagener, Leipzig, 1811-1812, 8vo, 2 vols. : Wollheim, ib. 1844, I2mo, 2 vols. : Bosche, Hamburg, 1858, 8vo, 2 vols. 1660 pages. ITALIAN. — Costa e Sa, Lisboa, 1773-1774, fol. 2 vols. 1652 pages: Prefumo, Lisboa, 1853, 8vo, 1162 pages. ANCIENT. — Joaquim de Sancta Rosa de Viterbo, tb. 1798, fol. 2 vols. ; 1824, 8vo. ARABIC WORDS. — Souza, ib. 1789, 4to; 2nd ed. by S. Antonio Moura, ib. 1830, 224 pages. ORIENTAL AND AFRICAN WORDS, NOT ARABIC. — Sao Luiz, ib. 1837, 4to, 123 pages. FRENCH WORDS. — Id., ib. 1827, 4to; 2nd ed. Rio de Janeiro, 1835, 8v°. SYNONYMS. — Id., ib. 1821, 410; 2nd ed. ib. 1824-1828, 8vo. Fonseca, Paris, 1833, 8vo; 1859, i8mo, 863 pages. HOMONYMS. — De Couto, Lisboa, 1842, fol. POETIC. — Luzitano (i.e. Freire), ib. 1765, 8vo, 2 vols. ; 3rd ed. ib. 1820, 4to, 2 vols. RHYMING. — Couto Guerreiro, Lisboa, 1763, 410. NAVAL. — Tiberghien, Rio de Janeiro, 1870, 8yo. CEYLON-PORTUGUESE. — Fox, Colombo, 1819, 8vo: Callaway, ib. 1823, 8vo. Italian. — Accarigi, Vocabulario, Cento, 1543, 4to: Alunno, La VIII. 7 fabrica del mundo, Vinezia, 1548, fol. : Porccachi, Venetia, 1588, fol. : Accademici della Crusca, Vocabulario, Venez. 1612, fol.; 4th ed. Firenze, 1729-1738, fol. 6 vols. : Costa and Cardinali, Bologna, 1819- 1826, 4to, 7 vols.: Tommaseo and Bellini, Torino, 1861, &c., 410, 4 vols. : Petrocchi, 1884-1891. ENGLISH. — Thomas, London, 1598, 4to : Florio, London, 1598, 4to, 1611: Baretti, London, 1794, 2 vols.; 1854, 8vo, 2 vols. : Petronj and Davenport, Londra, 1828, 8vo, 3 vols. : Grassi, Leipz. 1854, I2mo: Millhouse, Lend., 1868, 8vo, 2 vols. 1348 pages. FRENCH. — Albert!, Paris, 1771, 410, 2 vols.; Milan, 1862: Barberi, Paris, 1838, 410,2 vols. : Renzi, Paris, 1850, 8vp. GERMAN. — Libra utilissimo,Venetiis, 1499,410: Valentin!, Leipzig, 1834-1836, 410,4 vols. ETYMOLOGY. — Menage, Geneva, 1685, fol.: Bolza, Vienna, 1852, 410. PROVENCAL WORDS. — Nannucci, Firenze, 1840, 8vo. SYNONYMS. — Rabbi, Venezia, 1774, 410; loth ed. 1817: Tommaseo, Firenze, 1839-1840, 410, 2 vols. : Milano, 1856, 8vo; 1867. VERBS. — Mastrofini, Roma, 1814, 410, 2 vols. SELECT WORDS AND PHRASES. — Redi, Brescia, 1769, 8vo. INCORRECT WORDS AND PHRASES. — Molassi, Parma, 1830-1841, 8vo, 854 pages. SUPPOSED GALLICISMS. — Viani, Firenze, 1858-1860, 8vo, 2 vols. ADDITIONS TO THE DICTION- ARIES.— Gherardini, Milano, 1819-1821, 8vo, 2 vols.; ib. 1852-1857, 8vo, 6 vols. RHYMING. — Falco, Napoli, 1535, 410: Ruscelli, Venetia, 1563, 8vo; 1827: Stigliani, Roma, 1658, 8vo: Rosasco, Padova, 1763, 410; Palermo, 1840, 8vo. TECHNICAL. — Bona villa- Aquilino, Mil. 1819-1821, 8vo, 5 vols. ; 2nded. 1829-1831, 4to, 2 vols. :Vogtberg (Germ.), Wein, 1831, 8vo. PARTICULAR AUTHORS. — Boccaccio: Aluno, Le ricchezze della lingua volgare, Vinegia, 1543, fol. Dante: Blanc, Leipzig, 1852, 8vo; Firenze, 1859, 8vo. DIALECTS. — Bergamo: Gasparini, Mediol. 1565: Zappetini, Bergamo, 1859, 8vo: Tiraboschi (anc. and mod.), Turin, 1873, 8vo. Bologna: Bumaldi, Bologna, 1660, 121110: Ferrari, ib. 1820, 8vo; 1838, 4to. Bfescia: Gagliardi, Brescia, 1759, 8vo: Melchiori, ib. 1817-1820, 8vo: Vocabu- lanetto, ib. 1872, 410. Como: Monti, Milano, 1845, 8vo. Ferrara: Manini, Ferrara, 1805, 8vo: Azzi, ib. 1857, 8vo. Friuli: Scala, Pordenone, 1870, 8vo. Genoa: Casaccia, Gen. 1842-1851, 8vo; 1873, &c. : Paganini, ib. 1857, 8vo. Lombardy: Margharini, Tuderti, 1870, 8vo. Mantua: Cherubini, Milano, 1827, 4to. Milan: Varon, ib. 1606, 8vo: Cherubini, ib. 1814, 8vo, 2 vols.; 1841-1844, 8vo, 4 vols.; 1851-1861, 8vo, 5 vols.: Banfi, ib. 1857, 8vo: 1870, 8vo. Modena: Galvani, Modena, 1868, 8vo. Naples: Galiani, Napoli, 1789, I2mo, 2 vols. Parma: Peschieri, Parma, 1828-1831, 8vo, 3 vols. 1840; Malespina, ib. 1856, 8vo, 2 vols. Pavia : Dizionario domes- ticp pavese, Pavia, 1829, 8vo: Gambini, ib. 1850, 410, 346 pages. Piacenza: Nicolli, Piacenza, 1832: Foresti, ib. 1837-1838, 8vo, 2 pts. Piedmont: Pino, Torino, 1784, 410: Capello (Fr.), Turin, 1814, 8vo, 2 pts.: Zalli (Ital. Lat. Fr.), Carmagnola, 1815, 8vo, 2 vols: Sant' Albino, Torino, 1860, 4to. Reggio: Vocabulario Reggiano, 1832. Romagna: Morri, Fienza, 1840. Rome: Raccolto di yoci Romani e Marchiani, Osimo, 1769, 8vo. Roveretano and Trentino: Azzolini, Venezia, 1856, 8vo. Sardinia: Porru, Casteddu, 1832, fol.: Spano, Cagliari, 1851-1852, fol. 3 vols. Sicily: Bono (It. Lat.), Palermo, I75I-I754. 4to, 3 vols. ; 1783-1785, 4to, 5 vols. : Pasqualino, ib. 1785- J795. 4to, 5 vols. : Mortillaro, 16.1853, 4to, 956 pages: Biundi, »6.i857, I2mo, 578 pages: Traina, ib. 1870, 8vo. Siena: Barbagli, Siena, 1602, 410. Taranto: Vincentiis, Taranto, 1872, 8vo. Turin: Somis di Chavrie, Torino, 1843, 8 vo. Tuscany: Luna, Napoli, 1536, 410: Politi, Roma, 1604, 8vo; Venezia, 1615; 1628; 1665; Paulo, ib. 1740, 410. Vaudois: Callet, Lausanne, 1862, I2mo. Venetian: Patriarch! (Veneziano e padevano), Padova, 1755, 4to; 1796, 1821: Boerio, Venezia, 1829, 410; 1858-1859; 1861. Verona: Angeli, Verona, 1821, 8vo. Vicenza: Conti, Vicenza, 1871, 8vo. LINGUA FRANCA. — Dictionnaire de la langue Franque, ou Petit Mauresque, Marseille, 1830, i6mo, 107 pages. SLANG. — Sabio (lingua Zerga), Venetia, 1556, 8vo; 1575: Trattato degli bianti, Pisa, 1828, 8vo. Romansh. — Promptuario de voci volgari e Latine, Valgrisii, 1565, 410: Der, die, das, oder Nomenclatura (German nouns explained in Rom.), Seoul, 1744, 8vo: Conradi, Zurich, 1820, 8vo; 1826, izmo, 2 vols.: Carisch, Chur, 1821, 8vo; 1852, l6mo. Vlach. — Lesicon Rumanese (Lat. Hung. Germ.), Budae, 1825, 4tq: Bobb (Lat. Hung.), Clus, 1822-1823, 410, 2 vols. FRENCH. — Vaillant, Boucoureshti, 1840, 8vo: Poyenar, Aaron and Hill, Boucourest, 1840-1841, 410, 2 vols.; Jassi, 1852, i6mo, 2 vols.: De Pontbriant, Bucuresci, 1862, 8vo: Cihac, Frankf. 1870, 8vo: Costinescu, Bucuresci, 1870, 8vo, 724 pages: Antonescu, Bucharest, 1874, i6mo, 2 vols. 919 pages. GERMAN. — Clemens, Hermanstadt, 1823, 8vo: Isser, Kronstadt, 1850: Polyzu, ib. 1857, 8vo. TEUTONIC : (i) Scandinavian. Icelandic. — LATIN. — Andreae, Havniae, 1683, 8vo: Halderson (Lat. Danish), ib. 1814, 4to, 2 vols. ENGLISH. — Cleasby-Vigfusson, Oxford, 1874, 4*o. GERMAN. — Dieterich, Stockholm, 1844, 8vo: Mobius, Leipzig, 1866, 8vo. DANISH. — Jonssen, Kjobenhavn, 1863, 8vo. NORWEGIAN. — Kraft, Christiania, 1863, 8vo: Fritzner, Kristiania, 1867, 8vo. POETIC. — Egilsson (Latin), Hafniae, 1860, 8vo; 1864. Swedish. — Kindblad, Stockholm, 1840, 410: Almqvist, Orebro, 1842-1844, 8vo: Dalin, Ordbog. Stockholm, 1850-1853, 8vo, 2 vols. 1668 pages; 1867, &c. 4to (vol. i. ii., A to Fjermare, 928 pages): Id., Handordbog, ib. 1868, I2mo, 804 pages: Svenska Academien. Stockholm, 1870, 410 (A) pp. 187. LATIN.— Stjernhjelm, Holm, 1643, 410: Verelius, Upsala, 1691, 8vo: Ihre (Suco-Gothicum), DICTIONARY Upsala, 1769, fol. 2 vols. ENGLISH. — Serenius, Nykoping, 1757, 4to: Brisnon, Upsala, 1784, 410: Widegren, Stockholm, 1788, 410; Brisman, Upsala, 1801, 410; 3rd ed. 1815, 2 vols. : Deleen Orebro, 1829, 8vo: Granberg, ib. 1832, 121110: Nilssen, Widmark, &c., Stockholm, 1875, 8vo. FRENCH. — Moller, Stockholm, 1745, 4to: Biorkengren, ib. 1795, 2 vols. : Nordforss, ib. 1805, 8vo, 2 vols. : 2nd ed. Orebro, 1827, I2mo: West, Stockh. 1807, 8vo: Dalin, ib. 1842- 1843, 4to, 2 vols.; 1872. GERMAN. — Dahnert, Holmiae, 1746, 410: Heinrich, Christiansund, 1814, 4to, 2 vols.; 4th ed. Orebro, 1841, 'I2mo: Helms, Leipzig, 1858, 8vo; 1872. DANISH. — Host, Kjobenhavn, 1799, 4to: Welander, Stockholm, 1844, 8vo: Dalin, ib. 1869, i6mo: Kaper, Kjobenhavn, 1876, i6mo. ETYMOLOGY. — Tamm, Upsala, 1874, &c., 8vo (A and B), 200 pages. FOREIGN WORDS. — Sahlstedt, Wasteras, 1769, 8vo: Andersson (20,000), Stockholm, 1857, l6mo: Tullberg, ib. 1868, 8vo: Ekbohrn, ib. 1870, I2mo: Dalin, ib. 1870, &c., 8vo. SYNONYMS. — Id., ib. 1870, I2mo. NAVAL. — Ramsten, ib. 1866, 8vo. TECHNICAL. — Jungberg, ib. 1873, 8vo. DIALECTS. — Ihre, Upsala, 1766, 410: Rietz, Lund, 1862-1867, 4to, 859 pages. Bohusldn: Idioticon Bohusiense, Gotaborg, 1776, 410. Dalecarlia: Arborelius, Upsala, 1813, 410. Gothland: Hof (Sven), Stockholmiae, 1772, 8vo: Raaf (Ydre), Orebro, 1859, 8vo. Holland,: Moller, Lund, 158, 8vo. Helsingland: Lenstrom, ib. 1841, 8vo: Fornminnessallskap, Hudikswall, 1870, 8vo. Norwegian. — Jenssen, Kjobenhavn, 1646, 8vo: Pontoppidan, Bergen, 1749, 8vo: Hanson (German), Christiania, 1840, 8vo: Aasen, ib. 1873, 8vo, 992 pages. Danish. — Aphelen, Kopenh, 1764, 4to, 2 vols.; 1775, 4to, 3 vols.: Molbech, Kjobenhavn, 1833, 8vo, 2 vols.: ib. 1859, 2 vols.: Videns- kabernes Selskab, ib. 1793-1865, Kalkar. ENGLISH. — Berthelson (Eng. Dan.), 1754, 4to: Wolff, London, 1779, 410. Bay, ib. 1807, 8vo, 2 vols. ; 1824, 8vo: Hornbeck, ib. 1863, 8vo: Ferrall and Repp, ib. 1814, i6mo; 1873, 8vo: Rosing, Copenhagen, 1869, 8vo: Ancker, ib. 1874, 8vo. FRENCH. — Aphelen, ib. 1754, 8vo: Id., ib. 1759, 4to, 2 vols.; 2nd ed. 1772-1777, vol. i. ii. GERMAN. — Id., ib. 1764, 4to, 2 vols.: Gronberg, 2nd ed. Kopenh. 1836-1839, I2mo, 2 vols.; 1851, Helms, Leipzig, 1858, 8vo. SYNONYMS. — Miiller, Kjobenhavn, 1853, 8vo. FOREIGN WORDS. — Hansen, Christiania, 1842, I2mo. NAVAL. — Wilsoet, Copenhagen, 1830, 8vo: Fisker (French), Kjobenhavn, 1839, 8vo. OLD DANISH. — Molbech, ib. 18.57-1868, 8vo, 2 vols. DIALECTS. — Id., ib. 1841, 8vo. Bornholm: Adler. ib. 1856, 8vo. South Jutland: Kok, 1867, 8vo. SLANG. — Kristiansen (Gadesproget), ib. 1866, 8vo. p. 452. (2) Germanic. Teutonic. — COMPARATIVE. — Meidinger, Frankf. a. M. 1833, 8vo, 2nd ed. 1836, 8vo. Gothic. — Junius, Dortrecht, 1665, 4to: 1671; 1684, Diefen- bach (comparative), Franckf. a. M. 1846-1851, 2 vols. 8vo: Schulze, Magdeburg, 1848, 410: 1867, 8vo: Skeat, London, 1868, 4to: Balg (Comparative Glossary), Magvike, Wisconsin, 1887-1889. ULPHILAS (editions with dictionaries). — Castilionaeus, Mediol, 1829, 4to :Gabelentz and Lobe, Altenburg, 1836-1 843, 410, 2 vols. : Gaugen- gigl, Passau, 1848, 8vo: Stamm, Paderborn, 1857: Stamm and Heyne, ib. 1866, 8vo. Anglo-Saxon. — LATIN. — Somner (Lat. Eng.), Oxonii, 1659, fol.: Benson, ib. 1701, 8vo: Lye (A.-S. and Gothic), London, 1772, fol. 2 vols. : Ettmuller, Quedlinburg, 1851, 8vo. 838 pages. ENGLISH. — Bosworth, London, 1838, 8vo, 721 pa^es: Id. (Compendious), 1848, 278 pages. Corson (A.-S. and Early English), New York, 1871, 8vo, 587 pages; Toller (based on Bosworth), Oxford, 1882-1898. GERMAN. — Bouterwek, Gutersloh, 1850, 8vo, 418 pages: Grein (Poets), Gottingen, 1861-1863, 8vo, 2 vols.: Leo, Halle, 1872, 8vo. English. — Cockeram, London, 1623, 8vo: 9th ed. 1650: Blount, ib. 1656, 8vo: Philips, The new World of Words, London, 1658, fol.: Bailey, London, 1721, 8vo; 2nd ed. ib. 1736, fol.; 24th ed. ib. 1782, 8vo: Johnson, ib. 1755, fol. 2 vols.; ed. Todd, London, 1818, 4to, 4 vols.; ib. 1827. 410, 3 vols.; ed. Latham, ib. 1866-1874, 4to, 4 vols. (2 in 4 parts): Barclay, London, 1774, 4to; ed. Woodward, tb. 1848: Sheridan, ib. 1780, 4to, 2 vols. : Webster, New York, 1828, 4to, 2 vols.; London, 1832, 4to, 2 vols.; ed. Goodrich and Porter, 1865, 4to: Richardson, 16. 1836, 4to, 2 vols.; Supplement, 1856: Ogilvie, Imperial Dictionary, Glasgow, 1850-1855, 8vo, 3 vols. (the new edition of Ogilvie by Charles Annandale, 4 vols., 1882, was an encyclopaedic dictionary, which served to some extent as the founda- tion of the Century Dictionary) ; Boag, Do., Edinburgh, 1852-1853, 8vo, 2 vols.: Craik, ib. 1856, 8vo: Worcester, Boston, 1863, jto. Stormouth and Bayne, 1885; Murray and Bradley, The Oxford English Dictionary, 1884- ; Whitney, The Century Diet., New York, 1889-1891; Porter, Webs/er's Internal. Diet., Springfield, Massachusetts, 1890; Funk, Standard Diet., New York, 1 894; Hunter, The Encyclopaedic Diet., 1879-1888. ETYMOLOGY. — Skinner.Londini, 1671, fol.: Junius, Oxonii, 1743, fol.: Wedgewood, London, 1859- 1865, 3 vols. ; ib. 1872, 8vo. Skeat, Oxford, 1881 ; Fennell (Anglicized words), Camb. 1892. PRONOUNCING. — Walker, London, 1774, 4to: by Smart, 2nd ed. ib. 1846, 8vo. PRONOUNCING IN GERMAN. — Hausner, Frankf. 1793, 8vo ; 3rd ed. 1807 ; Winkelmann, Berlin, 1818, 8vo: Voigtmann, Coburg, 1835, 8vo: Albert, Leipz. 1839, 8vo: Bassler, ib. 1840, ibmo. ANALYTICAL. — Booth, Bath, 1836, 4to: Roget, Thesaurus, London, 1852, 8vo; 6th ed. 1857; Boston, 1874. SYNONYMS. — Piozzi, London, 1794, 8vo, 2 vols.: L. [abarthe], Paris, 1803, 8vo, 2 vols.: Crabb, London, 1823, 8vo; nth ed. 1859: C. J. Smith, ib. 1871, 8vo, 610 pages. REDUPLICATED WORDS. — Wheatley, ib. 1866, 8vo. SURNAMES. — Arthur, New York, 1857, I2mo, about 2600 names: Lower, ib. 1860, 410. PARTICLES. — Le Febure de Villebrune, Paris, 1774, 8vo. RHYMING. — Levins, Manipulus Puerorum, London, 1570, 4to; ed. Wheatley, ib. 1867, 8vo: Walker, London, 1775, 8vo; 1865, 8vo. SHAKESPEARE. — Nares, Berlin, 1822, 410; ed. Halliwell and Wright, London, 1859, 8vo: Schmidt, Berlin, 1874. OLD ENGLISH. — Spelman, London [1626], fol. (A to I only); 1664 (completed); 1687 (best ed.): Coleridge (1250-1300), ib. 1859, 8vo: Stratmann (Early Eng.), Krefeld, 1867, 8vo; 2nd ed. 1873, 410: Bradley (new edition of Stratman), Oxford, 1891; Matzner and Bieling, Berlin, 1878- OLD AND PROVINCIAL. — Halliwell, London, 1844-1846, 8vo; 2nd ed. ib. 1850, 2 vols.: 6th ed. 1904: Wright, ib. 1857, 8vo, 2 vols.; 1862. DIALECTS. — Ray, ib. 1674, I2mo: Grose, ib. 1787, 8vo; 1790: Holloway, Lewes, 1840, 8vo; Wright, Eng. Dialect Diet., London, 1898-1905, 28 vols. Scotch: Jamieson, Edin. 1806, 410, 2 vols.; Supplement, 1826, 2 vols.; abridged by Johnstpne, ib. 1846, 8vo: Brown,Edin,lS45,8vo: Motherby(German), Konigsberg, 1826-1828, 8vo: (Shetland and Orkney), Edmonston, London, 1866, 8vo: (Banff shire), Gregor, ib. 1866, 8vo. North Country: Brockett, London, 1839, 8vo, 2 vols. Berkshire: [Lousley] ib. 1852, 8vo, Cheshire: Wilbraham, ib. 1817, 4to; 1826, 121110: Leigh, Chester, 1877, 8vo. Cumberland: Glossary, ib. 1851, I2mo: Dickenson, Whitehaven, 1854, I2mo; Supplement, 1867: Ferguson (Scandin- avian Words), London, 1856, 8vo. Derbyshire: Hooson (mining), Wrexham, 1747, 8vo: Sleigh, London, 1865, 8vo. Dorset: Barnes, Berlin, 1863, 8vo. Durham: [Dinsdale] (Teesdale), London, 1849, I2mo. Gloucestershire: Huntley (Cotswold), ib. 1868, 8vo. Hereford- shire: [Sir George Cornewall Lewis,] London, 1839, I2mo. Lanca- shire: Nodal and Milner, Manchester Literary Club, 1875, 8vo, Morris (Furness), London, 1869, 8vo: R. B. Peacock (Lonsdale, North and South of the Sands), ib. 1869, 8vo. Leicestershire: A. B. Evans, ib. 1848, 8vo. Lincolnshire: Brogden, ib. 1866, I2mo: Peacock (Manley & Corringham), ib. 1877, 8vo. Norfolk and Suffolk : Forby, London, 1830, 8vo, 2 vols. Northamptonshire: Sternberg, ib. 1851, 8vo: Miss Anne E. Baker, ib. 1866, 8vo, 2 vols. 868 pages. Somersetshire: Jennings, ib. 1869, 8vo: W. P. Williams and W. A. Tones, Taunton, 1873, 8vo. Suffolk: Moor, Woodbridge, 1823, I2mo: Bowditch (Surnames), Boston, U.S., 1851, 8vo; 1858; 3rd ed. London, 1861, 8vo, 784 pages. Sussex: Cooper, Brighton, 1836, 8vo: Parish, Farncombe, 1875, 8vo. Wiltshire: Akerman, London, 1842, I2mo. Yorkshire (North and East), Toone, ib. 1832, 8vo: (Craven), Carr, 2nd ed. London, 1828, 8vo, 2 vols.: (Swaledale), Harland, ib. 1873, 8vo: (Cleveland), Atkinson, ib. 1868, 410, 653 pages: (Whitby) [F. K. Robinson], ib. 1876, 8vo: (Mid- Yorkshire and Lower Niddersdale), C. Clough Robinson, ib. 1876, 8vo: (Leeds), Id., ib. 1861, I2mo: (Wakefield), Banks, ib. 1865, i6mo: (Hallam- shire), Hunter, London, 1829, 8vo. Ireland: (Forth and Bargy, Co. Wexford), Poole, London, 1867, 8vo. America: Pickering, Boston, 1816, 8vo: Bartlett, New York, 1848, 8vo; 3rd ed. Boston, 1860. 8vo; Dutch transl. by Keijzer, Gorinchen, 1854, I2mo; Germ, transl. by Kohler, Leipz. 1868, 8vo. Elwyn, Philadelphia, 1859. 8vo. Negro English: Kingos, St Croix, 1770, 8vo: Focke (Dutch), Leiden, 1855, 8vo: Wullschlaegel, Lobau, 1856, 8vo. 350 pages. SLANG. — Grose, London, 1785, 8vo; 1796: Hotten, ib. 1864, 8vo; 1866; Farmer & Henley (7 vols., 1890-1904). Frisic. — Wassenbergh, Leeuwarden, 1802, 8vo: Franeker, 1806, 8vo: Outzen, Kopenh. 1837, 4to: Hettema (Dutch), Leuwarden, 1832, 8yo; 1874, 8 vo, 607 pages: Winkler (Nederdeutsch en Friesch Dialectikon), 's Gravenhage, 1874, 8vo, 2 vols. 1025 pages. OLD FRISIC. — Wiarda (Germ.), Aurich, 1786, 8vo: Richthofen, Gottingen, 1840, 4to. NORTH FRISIC. — Bendson (Germ.), Leiden, 1860, 8vo: Johansen (Fohringer und Amrumer Mundart), Kiel, 1862, 8vo. EAST FRISIC. — Stiirenburg, Aurich, 1857, 8vo. HELIGOLAND. — Oelrichs, i. /., 1836, i6mo. Dutch. — Kok, 2nd ed. Amst. 1785-1798, 8vo, 38 vols.: Weiland, Amst. 1790-1811, 8vo, II vols.: Harrebomee, Utrecht, 1857, 410; 1862-1870, 8vo, 3 vols. : De Vries and Te Winkel, Gravenh. 1864, &c., 4to (new ed. 1882- ); Dale, ib. 4th ed. 1898; ENGLISH. — Hex- ham, ed. Manley, Rotterdam, 1675-1678, 4to: Holtrop, Dortrecht, 1823-1824, 8vo, 2 vols. : Bomhoff, Nimeguen, 1859, 8vo, 2 vols. 2323 pages: Jaeger, Gouda, 1862, i6mo: Calisch, Tiel, 1871, &c., 8vo. FRENCH. — Halma, Amst. 1710, 410; 4th ed. 1761 : Marin, ib. 1793, 4to, 2 vols.: Winkelman, ib. 1793, 4to, 2 vols.: Mook, Zutphen, 1 824-1 825, 8vo, 4 vols. ; Gouda, 1857, 8vo, 2 vols. 281 8 pages : Kramers, ib. 1859-1862, 2 vols. i6mo. GERMAN. — Kramer, Niirnb. 1719, fol.;: 1759, 410, 2 vols.; ed. Titius, 1784, Weiland, Haag, 1812, 8vo: Terwen, Amst. 1844, 8vo. ETYMOLOGY. — Franck, 1884-1892. ORIENTAL WORDS. — Dozy, 's Gravenhage, 1867, 8vo. GENDERS OF NOUNS. — Bilderdijk, Amst. 1822, 8vo, 2 vols. SPELLING. — Id., 's Gravenhage, 1829, 8vo. FREQUENTATIVES. — De Jager, Gouda, 1875, 8vo, vol. i. OLD DUTCH. — Suringer, Leyden, 1865, 8yo. MIDDLE DUTCH. — De Vries, 's Gravenhage, 1864, &c., 4to. Verwijs and Verdam, ib. 1885- Flemish. — Kilian, Antw. 1511, 8vo; ed. Hasselt, Utrecht, 1777, 4to, 2 vols. FRENCH. — Berlemont, Anvers, 1511, 4to: Meurier, ib. 1557, 8vo: Rouxell and Halma, Amst. 1708, 410; 6th ed. 1821: Van de Velde and Sleeckx, Brux. 1848-1851, 8vo, 2440 pages; ib. DICTIONARY 1860, 6vo, 2 vols. ANCIENT NAMES OF PLACES. — Grandgagnage by order of the Minister of War: Creusat, Franc.-Kabyle (Zouaoua), Alger, 1873, Svo. Saiiah: Minutoli, Berlin, 1827, 4to. AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA Australia. — New South Wales: Threlkeld (Lake Macquarie Language), Sydney, 1834, Svo. Victoria: Bunce, Melbourne, 1856, I2mo, about 2200 words. South Australia: Williams, South Australia, 1839, Svo: Teichelmann and Schiirmann, Adelaide, 1840, Svo: Meyer, ib. 1843, Svo. Murray River: Moorhouse, ib. 1846, 8vo. Parnkalla: Schiirmann, Adelaide, 1844, Svo. Woolner District: Vocabulary, ib. 1869, I2mo. Western Australia: Sir George Grey, Perth, 1839, 410; London, 1840, 8vo: Moore, ib. 1843: Brady, Roma, 1845, 24mo, Svo, 187 pages. Tasmania: Millegan, Tasmania, 1857. Polynesia. — Hale, Grammars and Vocabularies of all the Poly- nesian Languages, Philadelphia, 1846, 4to. Marquesas, Sandwich Gambler: Mosblech, Paris, 1843, Svo. Hawaiian: Andrews, Vocabulary, Lahainaluna, 1636, 8vo: Id., Dictionary, Honolulu, 1865, Svo, 575 pages, about 15,500 words. Marquesas: Pierquin, de Gembloux, Bourges, 1843, Svo: Buschmann, Berlin, 1843, Svo. Samoan: Dictionary, Samoa, 1862, Svo. Tahitian: A Tahitian and English Dictionary, Tahiti, 1851, Svo, 314 pages. Tonga: Rabone, Vavau, 1845, Svo. Fijian: Hazlewood (Fiji-Eng.), Vewa. 1850, 2OO DICTYOGENS— DIDACHE I2mo: Id. (Eng.-Fiji), ib. 1852, I2mo: Id., London, 1872, 8vo. Maori: Kendall, 1820, I2mo: Williams, Paihia, 1844, 8vo; 3rd ed. London, 1871, 8vo: Taylor, Auckland, 1870, I2mo. AMERICA North America. — Eskimo: Washington, London, 1850, 8vo: Petitot (Mackenzie and Anderson Rivers), Paris, 1876, 4to. Kinai: Radloff, St Petersburg, 1874, 4to- Greenland: Egede (Gr. Dan. Lat., 3 parts), Hafn, 1750, 8vo; 1760, Fabricius, Kjobenhavn, 1804, 410. Hudson's Bay Indians: Bowrey, London, 1701, fol. Abnaki: Rasles, Cambridge, U.S., 1833, 410. Chippewa: Baraga, Cincinnati, 1853, I2mo, 622 pages: Petitot, Paris, 1876, 4to, 455 pages. Massachusetts or Natick : Cotton, Cambridge, U.S. 1829, 8vo. Onondaga: Shea (French-Onon.), from a MS. (of I7th century), London, 1860, 4to, 109 pages. Dacota: Riggs, New York, 1851, 410, 424 pages:] Williamson (Eng. Dae.), Santos Agency, Nebraska, izrno, 139 pages. Mohawk: Bruyas, New York, 1863, 8vo. Hidatsa (Minnetarees, Gros Venires of the Missouri) : Matthews, ib. 1874, 8vo. Chpctaw: Byington, ib. 1852, i6mo. Clattam and Lummi: Gibbs, ib. 1863, 8vo. Yakama: Pandosy, translated by Gibbs and Shea, ib. 1862, 8vo. Chinook: Gibbs, New York, 1863, 4to. Chinook jargon, the trade language of Oregon: Id., ib. 1863, 8vo. Tatche or Telame: Sitjar, ib. 1841, 8vo. Mexico and Central America. — Tepehuan: Rinaldini, Mexico, 1743,410. Cora- Ortega, Mexico, 1732,410. Tarahumara: Steffel, Briinn, 1791, 8vo. Otomi: Carochi, Mexico, 1645, 4*0: Neve y Molina, ib. 1767, 8vo: Yepes, ib. 1826, 4to: Piccolomini, Roma, 1841, 8vo. Mexican or Aztec: Molina, Mexico, 1555, 4to; 1571, fol. 2 vols.: Arenas, ib. 1583; 1611, 8vo; 1683; 1725; 1793, I2mo: Biondelli, Milan, 1869, fol. Mexican, Tontonacan, and Huastecan: Olmos, Mexico, 1555-1560, 410, 2 vols. Huastecan: Tapia Zenteno, ib. 1767, 410, 128 pages. Opata or Tequima: Lombardo, t'6. 1702, 4to. Tarasca: Gilberti, ib. 1559, 4to: Lagunas, ib. 1574, 8yo. Mixtecan: Alvarado, Mexico, 1593, 4to. Zapoteca: Cordova, ib. 1578, 4.to. Maya: Beltran de Santa Rosa Maria, ib. 1746, 4to; Merida de Yucatan, 1859, 4to, 250 pages: Brasseur de Bourbourg, Paris, 1874, 8vo, 745 pages. Quiche: Id. (also Cak- chiquel and Trutuhil dialects), ib. 1862, 8vo. South America. — Chibcha: Uricoechea, Paris, 1871, 8vo. Chayma: Tauste, Madrid, 1680, 4to: Yanguas, Burgos, 1683, 4to. Carib: Raymond, Auxerre, 1665-1666, 8vo. Galibi: D.[e]. L.[a] S.[auvage], Paris, 1763, 8vo. Tupi: Costa Rubim, Rio de Janeiro, 1853, 8vo: Silva Guimaraes, Bahia, 1854, 8vp: Diaz, Lipsia, 1858, i6mo. Guarani: Ruiz de Montoyo, Madrid, 1639, 4to; 1640; 1722, 4to; ed. Platzmann, Leipzig, 1876, &c., 8vo, to be in 4 vols. 1850 pages. Moxa: Marban, Lima, 1701, 8vo. Lule: Machoni deCorderia, Madrid, 1732, I2mo. Quichua: Santo Thomas, Ciudad de los Reyes, 1586, 8vo: Torres Rubio, Sevilla, 1603, 8vo; Lima, 1609, 8vo; ed. Figueredo, Lima, 1754, 8vo; Holguin, Ciudad de los Reyes, 1608, 8vo: Tschudi, Wien, 1853, 8vo, 2 vols. : Markham, London, 1 864, 8vo : Lopez, Les Races A ryennes de Perou, Paris, 1 87 1 , 8vo, comparative vocabulary, pp. 345-421. Aymara: Bertonio, Chicuyto, 1612, 4to, 2 vols. Chileno: Valdivia (also Allentiac and Milcocayac), Lima, 1607, 8vo: Febres, ib. 1765, I2mo; ed. Hernandez y Caluza, Santiago, 1846, 8vo, 2 vols. Tsonecan (Patagonian) : Schmid, Bristol, 1860, I2mo. The above article incorporates the salient features of the 9th- edition article by the Rev. Ponsonby A. Lyons, and the loth-edition article by Benjamin E. Smith. - DICTYOGENS (Gr. &KTVOV, a net, and the termination -ytvr)s, produced), a botanical name proposed by John Lindley for a class including certain families of Monocotyledons which have net-veined leaves. The class was not generally recognized. DICTYS CRETENSIS, of Cnossus in Crete, the supposed com- panion of Idomeneus during the Trojan War, and author of a diary of its events. The MS. of this work, written in Phoenician characters, was said to have been found in his tomb (enclosed in a leaden box) at the time of an earthquake during the reign of Nero, by whose order it was translated into Greek. In the 4th century A.D. a certain Lucius Septimius brought out Dictys Cretensis Ephemeris belli Trojani, which professed to be a Latin translation of the Greek version. Scholars were not agreed whether any Greek original really existed; but all doubt on the point was removed by the discovery of a fragment in Greek amongst the papyri found by B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt in 1905-1906. Possibly the Latin Ephemeris was the work of Septimius himself. Its chief interest lies in the fact that (together with Dares Phrygius's De excidio Trojae) it was the source from which the Homeric legends were introduced into the romantic literature of the middle ages. Best edition by F. Meister (1873), with short but useful introduc- tion and index of Latinity; see also G. Korting, Diktys und Dares (1874), with concise bibliography; H. Dunger, Die Sage vom tro- janischen Kriege in den Bearbeitungen des Mittelalters und ihren antiken Quellen (l 869, with a literary genealogical table) ; E. Collilieux, Etude sur Dictys de Crete el Dares de Phrygie (1887), with biblio- graphy; W. Greif, " Die mittelalterlichen Bearbeitungen der Tro- janersage," in E. M. Stengel's Ausgaben und Abhandlungen aus dem Gebieteder romanischen Philolpgie, No. 61 (1886, esp. sections 82, 83, 168-172); F. Colagrosso, " Ditte Cretese " in AM dellar. Accadetma di Archeologia (Naples, 1897, vol. 18, pt. ii. 2); F. Noack, " Der griechische Dictys, in Philologus, supp. vi. 403 ff. ; N. E. Griffin, Dares and Dictys, Introduction to the Study of the Medieval Versions of the Story of Troy (1907). DICUIL (fl. 825), Irish monastic scholar, grammarian and geographer. He was the author of the De mensura orbis lerrae, finished in 825, which contains the earliest clear notice of a European discovery of and settlement in Iceland and the most definite Western reference to the old freshwater canal between the Nile and the Red Sea, finally blocked up in 767. In 795 (February i-August i) Irish hermits had visited Iceland; on their return they reported the marvel of the perpetual day at midsummer in " Thule," where there was then " no darkness to hinder one from doing what one would." These eremites also navigated the sea north of Iceland on their first arrival, and found it ice-free for one day's sail, after which they came to the ice-wall. Relics of this, and perhaps of other Irish religious settlements, were found by the permanent Scandinavian colonists of Iceland in the pth century. Of the old Egyptian freshwater canal Dicuil learnt from one " brother Fidelis," probably another Irish monk, who, on his way to Jerusalem, sailed along the " Nile " into the Red Sea — passing on his way the " Barns of Joseph " or Pyramids of Giza, which are well described. Dicuil's knowledge of the islands north and west of Britain is evidently intimate; his references to Irish exploration and colonization, and to (more recent) Scandinavian devastation of the same, as far as the Faeroes, are noteworthy, like his notice of the elephant sent by Harun al-Rashid (in 801) to Charles the Great, the most curious item in a political and diplomatic intercourse of high importance. Dicuil's reading was wide; he quotes from, or refers to, thirty Greek and Latin writers, including the classical Homer, Hecataeus, Herodotus, Thucydides, Virgil, Pliny and King Juba, the sub-classical Solinus, the patristic St Isidore and Orosius, and his contemporary the Irish poet Sedulius; — in particular, he professes to utilize the alleged surveys of the Roman world executed by order of Julius Caesar, Augustus and Theodosius (whether Theodosius the Great or Theodosius II. is uncertain). He probably did not know Greek; his references to Greek authors do not imply this. Though certainly Irish by birth, it has been conjectured (from his references to Sedulius and the caliph's elephant) that he was in later life in an Irish monastery in the Prankish empire. Letronne in- clines to identify him with Dicuil or Dichull, abbot of Pahlacht, born about 760. There are seven chief MSS. of the De mensura (Dicuil's tract on grammar is lost); of these the earliest and best are (i) Paris, National Library, Lat. 4806; (2) Dresden, Regius D. 182; both are of the loth century. Three editions exist: (i) C. A. Walckenaer's, Paris, 1807; (2) A. Letronne's, Paris, 1814, best as to commentary; (3) G. Parthey's, Berlin, 1870, best as to text. See also C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography (London, 1897), i. 317-327. 522-523. 52.9: T. Wright, Biographia Britannica literaria, Anglo-Saxon Period (London, 1842), pp. 372-376. (C. R. B.) DIDACHE, THE, or Teaching of the (twelve) Apostles,— the most important of the recent recoveries in the region of early Christian literature (see APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE). It was previously known by name from lists of canonical and extra- canonical books compiled by Eusebius and other writers. More- over, it had come to be suspected by several scholars that a lost book, variously entitled The Two Ways or The Judgment of Peter, had been freely used in a number of works, of which mention must presently be made. In 1882 a critical reconstruction of this book was made by Adam Krawutzcky with marvellous accuracy, as was shown when in the very next year the Greek bishop and metropolitan, Philotheus Bryennius, published The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles from the same manuscript from DIDACHE 201 which he had previously published the complete form of the Epistle of Clement.1 TheDidache, as we now have it in the Greek, falls into two marked divisions: (a) a book of moral precepts, opening with the words, " There are two ways"; (6) a manual of church ordin- ances, linked on to the foregoing by the words, "Having first said all these things, baptize, &c." Each of these must be considered separately before we approach the question of the locality and date of the whole book in its present form. 1 . The Two Ways. — The author of the complete work, as we now have it, has modified the original Two Ways by inserting near the beginning a considerable section containing, among other matter, passages from the Sermon on the Mount, in which the language of St Matthew's Gospel is blended with that of St Luke's. He has also added at the close a few sentences, begin- ning, " If thou canst not bear (the whole yoke of the Lord), bear what thou canst " (vi. 2) ; and among minor changes he has introduced, in dealing with confession, reference to " the church " (iv. 14). No part of this matter is to be found in the following documents, which present us in varying degrees of accuracy with The Two Ways: (i.) the Epistle of Barnabas, chaps, xix., xx. (in which the order of the book has been much broken up, and a good deal has been omitted) ; (ii.) the Ecclesiastical Canons of the Holy Apostles, usually called the Apostolic Church Order, a book which presents a parallel to the Teaching, in so far as it consists first of a form of The Two Ways, and secondly of a number of church ordinances (here, however, as in the Syriac Didascalia, which gives about the same amount of The Two Ways, various sections are ascribed to individual apostles, e.g. " John said, There are two ways," &c.); (iii.) a discourse of the Egyptian monk Schnudi (d. 451), preserved in Arabic (see Iselin, Texte u. Unters., 1895); (iv.) a Latin version, of which a fragment was published by O. von Gebhardt in 1884, and the whole by J. Schlecht in 1900. When by the aid of this evidence The Two Ways is restored to us free of glosses, it has the appearance of being a Jewish manual which has been carried over into the use of the Christian church. This is of course only a probable inference; there is no prototype extant in Jewish literature, and, comparing the moral (non-doctrinal) instruction for Christian catechumens in Hermas, Shepherd (Mand. i.-ix.), no real need to assume one. There was a danger of admitting Gentile converts to the church on too easy moral terms; hence the need of such insistence on the ideal as in The Two Ways and the Mandates. The recent recovery of the Latin version is of singular interest, as showing that, even without the distinctively Christian additions and interpolations which our full form of the Teaching presents, it was circulating under the title Doctrina apostolorum? 2. The second part of our Teaching might be called a church directory. It consists of precepts relating to church life, which are couched in the second person plural; whereas The Two Ways uses throughout the second person singular. It appears to be a composite work. First (vii. i-xi. 2) is a short sacramental manual intended for the use of local elders or presbyters, though such are not named, for they were not yet a distinctive order or clergy. This section was probably added to The Two Ways before the addition of the remainder. It orders baptism in the three- fold name, making a distinction as to waters which has Jewish parallels, and permitting a threefold pouring on the head, if sufficient water for immersion cannot be had. It prescribes a fast before baptism for the baptizer as well as the candidate. Fasts are to be kept on Wednesday and Friday, not Monday and Thursday, which are the fast days of " the hypocrites," i.e. by a perversion of the Lord's words, the Jews. " Neither pray ye as 1 The MS. was found in the Library of the Jerusalem Monastery of the Most Holy Sepulchre, in Phanar, the Greek quarter of Constantinople. It is a small octavo volume of 120 parchment leaves, written throughout by Leo, " notary and sinner," who finished his task on the iithof June 1156. Besides Tke Didache and the Epistles of Clement it contains several spurious Ignatian epistles. 2 The word twelve had no place in the original title and was inserted when the original Didache or Teaching (e.g. The Two Ways) was combined with the church manual which mentions apostles outside of the twelve. It may be noted that the division of the Didache into chapters is due to Bryennius, that into verses to A. Harnack. the hypocrites; but as the Lord commanded in His Gospel." Then follows the Lord's Prayer, almost exactly as in St Matthew, with a brief doxology — " for Thine is the power and the glory for ever. " This is to be said three times a day. Next come three eucharistic prayers, the language of which is clearly marked off from that of the rest of the book, and shows parallels with the diction of St John's Gospel. They are probably founded on Jewish thanksgivings, and it is of interest to note that a portion of them is prescribed as a grace before meat in (pseudo-) Athanasius' De nrginitate. A trace of them is found in one of the liturgical prayers of Serapion, bishop of Thmui, in Egypt, but they have left little mark on the liturgies of the church. As in Ignatius and other early writers, the eucharist, a real meal (x. i) of a family character, is regarded as producing immortality (cf. " spiritual food and drink and eternal life "). None are to partake of it save those who have been " baptized in the name of the Lord " (an expression which is of interest in a document which prescribes the threefold formula). The prophets are not to be confined to these forms, but may " give thanks as much as they will." This appears to show that a prophet, if present, would naturally preside over the eucharist. The next section (xi. 3-xiii.) deals with the ministry of spiritual gifts as exercised by apostles, prophets and teachers. An apostle is to be " re- ceived as the Lord "; but he must follow the Gospel precepts, stay but one or two days, and take no money, but only bread enough for a day's journey. Here we have that wider use of the term " apostle " to which Lightfoot had already drawn attention. A prophet, on the contrary, may settle if he chooses, and in that case he is to receive tithes and first-fruits; " for they are your high priests." If he be once approved as a true prophet, his words and acts are not to be criticized; for this is the sin that shall not be forgiven. Next comes a section (xiv., xv.) reflecting a somewhat later development concerning fixed services and ministry; the desire for a stated service, and the need of regular provision for it, is leading to a new order of things. The eucharist is to be celebrated every Lord's Day, and preceded by confession of sins, " that your sacrifice may be pure ... for this is that sacrifice which was spoken of by the Lord, In every place and time to offer unto Me a pure sacrifice. Appoint therefore unto yourselves bishops and deacons, worthy of the Lord, men meek and uncovetous, and true and approved; for they also minister unto you the ministration of the prophets and teachers. Therefore despise them not; for they are your honoured ones, together with the prophets and teachers." This is an arrange- ment recommended by one who has tried it, and he reassures the old-fashioned believer who clings to the less formal regime (and whose protest was voiced in the Montanist movement), that there will be no spiritual loss under the new system. The book closes (chap, xvi.) with exhortations to steadfastness in the last days, and to the coming of the " world-deceiver " or Antichrist, which will precede the coming of the Lord. This section is perhaps the actual utterance of a Christian prophet, and may be of earlier origin than the two preceding sections. 3. It will now be clear that indications of the locality and date of our present Teaching must be sought for only in the second part, and in the Christian interpolations in the first part. We have no ground for thinking that the second part ever existed independently as a separate book. The whole work was in the hands of the writer of the seventh book of the Apostolic Consti- tutions, who embodies almost every sentence of it, interspersing it with passages of Scripture, and modifying the precepts of the second part to suit a later (4th-century) stage of church develop- ment; this writer was also the interpolator of the Epistles of Ignatius, and belonged to the Syrian Church. Whether the second part was known to the writer of the Apostolic Church Order is not clear, as his only quotation of it comes from one of the eucharistic prayers. The allusions of early writers seem to point to Egypt, but their references are mostly to the first part, so that we must be careful how we argue from them as to the provenance of the book as a whole. Against Egypt has been urged the allusion in one of the eucharistic prayers to " corn upon the mountains." This is found in the Prayer-book of Serapion 202 DIDACTIC POETRY (c. 350) but omitted in a later Egyptian prayer; the form as we have it in The Didache may have passed into Egypt with the authority of tradition which was afterwards weakened. The anti- Jewish tone of the second part suggests the neighbourhood of Jews, from whom the Christians were to be sharply dis- tinguished. Either Egypt or Syria would satisfy this condition, and in favour of Syria is the fact that the presbyterate there was to a late date regarded as a rank rather than an office. If we can connect the injunctions(vi. 3)concerning (abstinence from certain) food and that which is offered to idols with the old trouble that arose at Antioch (Acts xv. i) and was legislated for by the Jerusalem council, we have additional support for the Syrian claim. But all that we can safely say as to locality is that the community here represented seems to have been isolated, and out of touch with the larger centres of Christian life. This last consideration helps us in discussing the question of date. For such an isolated community may have preserved primitive customs for some time after they had generally dis- appeared. Certainly the stage of development is an early one, as is shown, e.g., by the prominence of prophets, and the need that was felt for the vindication of the position of the bishops and deacons (there is no mention at all of presbyters); moreover, there is no reference to a canon of Scripture (though the written Gospel is expressly mentioned) or to a creed. On the other hand the " apostles " of the second part are obviously not " the twelve apostles " of the title; and the prophets seem in some instances to have proved unworthy of their high position. The ministry of enthusiasm which they represent is about to give way to the ministry of office, a transition which is reflected in the New Testament in the 3rd Epistle of John. Three of the Gospels have clearly been for some time in circulation; St Matthew's is used several times, and there are phrases which occur only in St Luke's, while St John's Gospel lies behind the eucharistic prayers which the writer has embodied in his work. There are no indications of any form of doctrinal heresy as needing rebuke; the warnings against false teaching are quite general. While the first part must be dated before the Epistle of Barnabas, i.e. before A.D. 90, it seems wisest not to place the complete work much earlier than A.D. 1 20, and there are passages which may well be later. A large literature has sprung up round The Didache since 1884. Harnack's edition in Texte u. Unters. vol. ii. (1884) is indispensable to the student; and his discussions in Altchristl. Litteratur and Chronologic give clear summaries of his work. Other editions of the text are those of F. X. Funk, Patres Apostolici, vol. i. (Tubingen, 1901); H. Lietzmann (Bonn, 1903; with Latin version). Dr J. E. Odgers has published an English translation with introduction and notes (London, 1906). Dr C. Taylor in 1886 drew attention to some important parallels in Jewish literature; his edition contains an English translation. Dr Rendel Harris published in 1 887 a complete facsimile, and gathered a great store of patristic illustration. Text and translation will also be found in Lightfoot's Apostolic Fathers (ed. min.) The fullest critical treatment in English is by Dr Vernon Bartlet in the extra volume of Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; the most complete commentary on the text is by P. Drews in Hennecke's Handbuch zu den N.T. Apocryphen (1904). Other references to the literature may be found by consulting Harnack's Altchristl. Litteratur. DIDACTIC POETRY, that form of verse the aim of which is, less to excite the hearer by passion or move him by pathos, than to instruct his mind and improve his morals. The Greek word 5t5cucTuc6s signifies a teacher, from the verb 5tSd(TKetv, and poetry of the class under discussion approaches us with the arts and graces of a schoolmaster. At no time was it found convenient to combine lyrical verse with instruction, and there- fore from the beginning of literature the didactic poets have chosen a form approaching the epical. Modern criticism, which discourages the epic, and is increasingly anxious to limit the word " poetry " to lyric, is inclined to exclude the term " didactic poetry " from our nomenclature, as a phrase absurd in itself. It is indeed more than probable that didactic verse is hopelessly obsolete. Definite information is now to be found in a thousand shapes, directly and boldly presented in clear and technical prose. No farmer, however elegant, will any longer choose to study agriculture in hexameters, or even in Tusser's shambling metre. The sciences and the professions will not waste their time on methods of instruction which must, from their very nature, be artless, inexact and vague. But in the morning of the world, those who taught with authority might well believe that verse was the proper, nay, the only serious vehicle of their instruction. What they knew was extremely limited, and in its nature it was simple and straightforward; it had little technical subtlety; it constantly lapsed into the fabulous and the conjectural. Not only could what early sages knew, or guessed, about astronomy and medicine and geography be conveniently put into rolling verse, but, in the absence of all written books, this was the easiest way in which information could be made attractive to the ear and be retained by the memory. In the prehistoric dawn of Greek civilization there appear to have been three classes of poetry, to which the literature of Europe looks back as to its triple fountain-head. There were romantic epics, dealing with the adventures of gods and heroes; these Homer represents. There were mystic chants and religious odes, purely lyrical in character, of which the best Orphic Hymns must have been the type. And lastly there was a great body of verse occupied entirely with increasing the knowledge of citizens in useful branches of art and observation; these were the beginnings of didactic poetry, and we class them together under the dim name of Hesiod. It is impossible to date these earliest didactic poems, which nevertheless set the fashion of form which has been preserved ever since. The Works and Days, which passes as the direct masterpiece of Hesiod ( or 4 oz. rice. 2 oz. raisins ) i ft potatoes (or i oz. compressed vegetables). On shore establishments and depot ships J pt. fresh milk is issued in lieu of the | oz. of condensed milk. In the United States navy there is more liberality and variety of diet, the approximate daily cost of the rations supplied being is. 3d. per head. In the American mercantile marine, too, according to the scale sanctioned by act of Congress (December 21, 1898) for American ships, the seaman is better off than in the British merchant service. The scale is shown in Table III. TABLE III. On alternate - days. In the British mercantile marine there is no scale of provisions prescribed by the Board of Trade; there is, however, a traditional scale very generally adopted, having the sanction of custom only and seldom adhered to. The following dietary scale for steerage passengers, laid down in the I2th schedule of the Merchant Shipping Act 1 894, is of interest. See Table IV. Certain substitutions may be made in this scale at the option of the master of any emigrant ship, provided that the substituted articles are set forth in the contract tickets of the steerage passengers. _ In the British army the soldier is fed partly by a system of co-opera- tion. He gets a free ration from government of I ft of bread and j ft of meat; in addition there is a messing allowance of 3^d. per man per day. He is able to supplement his food by purchases from the canteen. Much depends on the individual management in each — Scale A. ScaleB. For voyages not ex- For voyages ex- ceeding 84 days for sailing ships ceeding 84 days for sailing ships or 50 days for or 50 days for steamships. steamships. ft oz. ft oz. Bread or biscuit, not in- ferior to navy biscuit 3 8 3 8 Wheaten flour 0 2 0 Oatmeal 8 I 0 Rice . 8 o 8 Peas .... 8 i 8 Beef . 4 1 4 Pork 0 I O Butter o 4 Potatoes 2 0 2 0 Sugar I 0 I 0 Tea . O 2 0 2 Salt .... 0 2 O 2 Pepper (white or black), ground 0 O* o oj Vinegar Preserved meat . I gill i gill I 0 Suet .... . o 6 Raisins o 8 Lime juice . o 6 Weekly Scale. Articles. Weekly Scale. Articles. 3ift Biscuits. ioz. Tea. 3f Salt beef. 21 ,, Sugar. 3 „ pork. li ft Molasses. i* Flour. 9 oz. Fruits, dried. 2 Meats, preserved. ipt. Pickles. IOJ Bread, fresh (8 ft flour i „ Vinegar. in lieu). 8 oz. Corn Meal. I Fish, dried. 12 Onions. 7 Potatoes or yams. 7 Lard. i Tomatoes, preserved. 7 Butter. § Peas. 1 Mustard. | Calavances. Rice. i Pepper. Salt. 5i oz. Coffee, green. regiment as to the satisfactory expenditure of the messing allowance. In some regiments an allowance is made from the canteen funds towards messing in addition to that granted by the government. The ordinary field ration of the British soldier is ij ft of bread or i ft of biscuit; i ft of fresh, salt or preserved meat; J oz. of coffee; Joz. of tea; 2 oz. of sugar; § oz. of salt, fa oz. of pepper, the whole weighing something over 2 ft 3 oz. This cannot be looked on as a fixed ration, as it varies in different campaigns, according to the country into which the troops may be sent. The Prussian soldier during peace gets weekly from his canteen 1 1 ft I oz. of rye bread and not quite 2 J ft of meat. This is obviously insufficient, but under TABLE IV.— Weekly, per Statute Adult. the conscription system it is reckoned that he will be able to make up the deficiency out of his own private means, or obtain charitable contributions from his friends. In the French infantry of the line each man during peace gets weekly 15 Ib of bread, 3ft ft of meat, 2} ft of haricot beans or other vegetables, with salt and pepper, and if oz. of brandy. An Austrian under the same circumstances receives 13-9 ft of bread, J ft of flour and 3-3 ft of meat. The Russian conscript is allowed weekly : — Black bread 7 ft. 7ft. Meat Kvass (beer) Sour cabbage Barley Salts . Horse-radish Pepper Vinegar 7-7 quarts. 243 gills =I22j OZ. 243 gills = 1225 oz. lo| oz. 28 grains. 28 grains. 5J gills = 26J oz. DIETEflCS, the science of diet, i.e. the food and nutrition of man in health and disease (see NUTRITION). This article deals mainly with that part of the subject which has to do with the composition and nutritive values of foods and their adaptation to the use of people in health. The principal topics considered are: (i) Food and its functions; (2) Metabolism of matter and energy; (3) Composition of food materials; (4) Digestibility of food; (5) Fuel value of food; (6) Food consumption; (7) Quan- tities of nutrients needed; (8) Hygienic economy of food; (9) Pecuniary economy of food. i. Food and its Functions. — For practical purposes, food may be denned as that which, when taken into the body, may be utilized for the formation and repair of body tissue, and the production of energy. More specifically, food meets the requirements of the body in several ways. It is used for the formation of the tissues and fluids of the body, and for the restoration of losses of sub- stance due to bodily activity. The potential energy of the food is converted into heat or muscular work or other forms of energy. In being thus utilized, food protects body substance or previously acquired nutritive material from consumption. When the amount DIETETICS 215 of food taken into the body is in excess of immediate needs, the surplus may be stored for future consumption. Ordinary food materials, such as meat, fish, eggs, vegetables, &c., consist of inedible materials, or refuse, e.g. bone of meat and fish, shell of eggs, rind and seed of vegetables; and edible material, as flesh of meat and fish, white and yolk of eggs, wheat flour, &c. The edible material is by no means a simple sub- stance, but consists of water, and some or ail of the compounds variously designated as food stuffs, proximate principles, nutritive ingredients or nutrients, which are classified as protein, fats, carbohydrates and mineral matters. These have various functions in the nourishment of the body. The refuse commonly contains compounds similar to those in the food from which it is derived, but since it cannot be eaten, it is usually considered as a non-nutrient. It is of importance chiefly in a consideration of the pecuniary economy of food. Water is also considered as a non-nutrient, because although it is a constituent of all the tissues and fluids of the body, the body may obtain the water it needs from that drunk; hence, that contained in the food materials is of no special significance as a nutrient. Mineral matters, such as sulphates, chlorides, phosphates and carbonates of sodium, potassium, calcium, &c., are found in different combinations and quantities in most food materials. These are used by the body in the formation of the various tissues, especially the skeletal and protective tissues, in digestion, and in metabolic processes within the body. They yield little or no energy, unless perhaps the very small amount involved in their chemical transformation. Protein ' is a term used to designate the whole group of nitrogenous compounds of food except the nitrogenous fats. It includes the albuminoids, as albumin of egg-white, and of blood serum, myosin of meat (muscle), casein of milk, globulin of blood and of egg yolk, fibrin of blood, gluten of flour; the gelatinoids, as gelatin and allied substances of connective tissue, collagen of tendon, ossein of bone and the so-called extractives ( e.g. creatin) of meats; and the amids (e.g. asparagin) and allied compounds of vegetables and fruits. The albuminoids and gelatinoids, classed together as proteids, are the most important constituents of food, because they alone can supply the nitrogenous material necessary for the formation of the body tissues. For this purpose, the albuminoids are most valuable. Both groups of compounds, however, supply the body with energy, and the gelatinoids in being thus utilized protect the albuminoids from consumption for this purpose. When their supply in the food is in excess of the needs of the body, the surplus proteids may be converted into body fat and stored. The so-called extractives, which are the principal constituents of meat extract, beef tea and the like, act principally as stimulants and appetizers. It has been believed that they serve neither to build tissue nor to yield energy, but recent investigations2 indicate that creatin may be metabolized in the body. The/a/i of food include both the animal fats and the vegetable oils. The carbohydrates include such compounds as starches, sugars and the fibre of plants or cellulose, though the latter has but little value as food for man. The more important function of both these classes of nutrients is to supply energy to the body to meet its requirements above that which it may obtain from the proteids. It is not improbable that the atoms of their molecules as well as those from the proteids are built up into the proto- plasmic substance of the tissues. In this sense, these nutrients may be considered as being utilized also for the formation of tissue; but they are rather the accessory ingredients, whereas the proteids are the essential ingredients for this purpose. The fats in the food in excess of the body requirements may be stored as body fat, and the surplus carbohydrates may also be converted into fat and stored. 1 The terms applied by different writers to these nitrogenous compounds are conflicting. For instance, the term " proteid " is sometimes used as protein is here used, and sometimes to designate the group here called albuminoids. The classification and terminology here followed are those tentatively recommended by the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. 'Folin, Festschrift fiir Ola} Hammarsten, iii. (Upsala, 1906). To a certain extent, then, the nutrients of the food may substitute each other. All may be incorporated into the proto- plasmic structure of body tissue, though only the proteids can supply the essential nitrogenous ingredients; and apart from the portion of the proteid material that is indispensable for this purpose, all the nutrients are used as a source of energy. If the supply of energy in the food is not sufficient, the body will use its own proteid and fat for this purpose. The gelatinoids, fats and carbohydrates in being utilized for energy protect the body proteids from consumption. The fat stored in the body from the excess of food is a reserve of energy material, on which the body may draw when the quantity of energy in the food is insufficient for its immediate needs. What compounds are especially concerned in intellectual activity is not known. The belief that fish is especially rich in phosphorus and valuable as a brain food has no foundation in observed fact. 2. Metabolism of Matter and Energy. — The processes of nutri- tion thus consist largely of the transformation of food into body material and the conversion of the potential energy of both food and body material into the kinetic energy of heat and muscular work and other forms of energy. These various processes are generally designated by the term metabolism. The metabolism of matter in the body is governed largely by the needs of the body for energy. The science of nutrition, of which the present subject forms a part, is based on the principle that the transformations of matter and energy in the body occur in accordance with the laws of the conservation of matter and of energy. That the body can neither create nor destroy matter has long been universally accepted. It would seem that the transformation of energy must likewise be governed by the law of the conservation of energy; indeed there is every reason a priori to believe that it must; but the experimental difficulties in the way of absolute demonstration of the principle are considerable. For such demonstration it is necessary to prove that the income and expenditure of energy are equal. Apparatus and methods of inquiry devised in recent years, however, afford means for a comparison of the amounts of both matter and energy received and expended by the body, and from the results obtained in a large amount of such research, it seems probable that the law obtains in the living organism in general. The first attempt at such demonstration was made by M. Rubner3 in 1894, experimenting with dogs doing no external muscular work. The income of energy (as heat) was computed, but the heat eliminated was measured. In the average of eight experiments continuing forty-five days, the two quantities agreed within 0-47 %, thus demonstrating what it was desired to prove — that the heat given off by the body came solely from the oxidation of food within it. Results in accordance with these were reported by Studenski4 in 1897, and by Laulanie6 in 1898. The most extensive and complete data yet available on the subject have been obtained by W. O. Atwater, F. G. Benedict and associates6 in experiments with men in the respiration calori- meter, in which a subject may remain for several consecutive days and nights. These experiments involve actual weighing and analyses of the food and drink, and of the gaseous, liquid and solid excretory products; determinations of potential energy (heat of oxidation) of the oxidizable material received and given off by the body (including estimation of the energy of the material gained or lost by the body) ; and measurements of the amounts of energy expended as heat and as external muscular work. By October 1906 eighty-eight experiments with fifteen different sub- jects had been completed. The separate experiments continued from two to thirteen days, making a total of over 270 days. 3 Ztschr. Biol. 30, 73. 4 In Russian. Cited in United States Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Bui. No. 45, A Digest of Metabolism Experiments, by W. O. Atwater and C. F. Langworthy. 6 Arch, physiol. norm, et path. (1894) 4- 6 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletins Nos. 63, 69, 109, 136, 175. For a description of the respira- tion calorimeter here mentioned see also publication No. 42 of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. 2l6 DIETETICS In some cases the subjects were at rest; in others they per- formed varying amounts of external muscular work on an apparatus by means of which the amount of work done was measured. In some cases they fasted, and in others they received body. The variations for individual days, and in the average for individual experiments as well, were in some cases appreciable, amounting to as much as 6%, which is not strange in view of the uncertainties in physiological experimenting; but in the average TABLE I. — Percentage Composition of some Common Food Materials. Food Material. Refuse. Water. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Mineral Matter. Fuel Value per lb. % % o/ /o % »/ /o °/ /o Calories. Beef, fresh (medium fat) — Chuck .... 16-3 52-6 15-5 15-0 . . 0-8 910 Loin ..... 13-3 52-5 16-1 17-5 . . 0-9 1025 Ribs Round ..... 20-8 7-2 43-8 60-7 13-9 19-0 21-2 12-8 0-7 I-O 1135 800 Shoulder 16-4 56-8 16-4 9-8 0-9 715 Beef, dried and smoked 47 53-7 26-4 6-9 . . 8-9 790 Veal- Leg 14-2 60- 1 15-5 7-9 . . 0-9 625 Loin ..... 16-5 57-6 16-6 9-0 0-9 685 Breast .... 21-3 52-0 15-4 I I-O , t 0-8 745 Mutton — Leg . - . . . 18-4 51-2 I5-I 14-7 . . 0-8 890 Loin ..... 16-0 42-0 13-5 28-3 0-7 HIS Flank 9'9 39-o 13-8 36-9 0-6 1770 Pork- Loin . . ... 19-7 41-8 13-4 24-2 , . 0-8 1245 Ham, fresh .... 10-7 48-0 I3-5 25-9 t t 0-8 1320 Ham, smoked and salted 13-6 34-8 14-2 33-4 4-2 1635 Fat, salt .... 7-9 1-9 86-2 . . 3'9 3555 Bacon ..... 77 17-4 9-1 62-2 4-1 2715 Lard, refined IOO-O 4100 Chicken .... 25-9 47-1 137 12-3 f 0-7 765 Turkey ..... 22-7 42-4 16-1 18-4 , , 0-8 1060 Goose ..... I7-6 38-5 13-4 29-8 0-7 1475 Eggs ... II-2 65-5 13-1 9'3 . . 0-9 635 Cod, fresh .... 29-9 58-5 n-i O-2 . . 0-8 220 Cod, salted .... 24-9 40-2 16-0 0-4 18-5 325 Mackerel, fresh 44'7 40-4 10-2 4'2 0-7 370 Herring, smoked 44.4 19-2 20-5 8-8 7'4 755 Salmon, tinned 63-5 21-8 I2-I 2-6 915 Oysters, shelled 88-3 6-0 1-3 3'3 i-i 225 Butter I I-O I-O 85-0 3-o 34io Cheese ..... 34-2 25-9 337 2-4 3-8 1885 Milk, whole .... 87-0 3'3 4-0 5-o 0-7 310 Milk, skimmed 9C-5 3'4 0-3 5-1 0-7 165 Oatmeal ..... 77 16-7 7'3 66-2 2-1 1800 Corn (maize) meal 12-5 9-2 1-9 75-4 I-O !635 Rye Hour ..... 12-9 6-8 0-9 78-7 0-7 1620 Buckwheat flour 13-6 6-4 1-2 77-9 0-9 1605 Rice . . . ' . 12-3 8-0 0-3 79-0 0-4 1620 Wheat flour, white 12-O 1 1 -4 I'O 75-1 °'5 '635 Wheat flour, graham 1 1 '3 13-3 2-2 71-4 •8 1645 Wheat, breakfast food 9-6 •I2-I 1-8 75-2 •3 1680 Wheat bread, white . 35-3 9-2 1-3 53-1 •i 1200 Wheat bread, graham 357 8-9 1-8 52-1 •5 "95 Rye bread .... 357 9-0 0-6 53-2 •5 1170 Biscuit (crackers) 6-8 97 I2-I 69-7 7 1925 Macaroni ..... 10-3 13-4 O-O 74-1 •3 1645 Sugar ..... IOO-O 1750 Starch (corn starch) 90-0 1680 Beans, dried .... 12-6 22-5 1-8 59-6 3-5 1520 Peas, dried .... 9-5 24-6 I-O 62-0 2-9 1565 Beets ._, .... 20-0 70-0 1-3 O'l 77 0-9 1 60 Cabbage ..... iS'O 777 1-4 O-2 4-8 0-9 "5 Squash ..... 50-0 44-2 0-7 0-2 4-5 0-4 IOO Potatoes . . 20-0 62-6 1-8 O-I 14-7 o-S 295 Sweet potatoes . •>„•'•• 20-0 55'2 1-4 0-6 21-9 0-9 440 Tomatoes ..... 94-3 0-9 0-4 3-9 0-5 IOO Apples ..... 25-0 63-3 o-3 o-3 10-8 0-3 190 Bananas ..... 35-o 48-9 0-8 0-4 14-3 0-6 260 Grapes . . . . . 25-0 58-0 I-O 1-2 14-4 0-4 295 Oranges ..... 27-0 63-4 0-6 O-I 8-5 0-4 150 Strawberries .... 5-o 85-9 0-9 0-6 7-0 0-6 150 Almonds ..... 45-o 27 n-5 30-2 9-5 i-i 1515 Brazil nuts . 49-6 2-6 8-6 337 3-5 2-O. 1485 Chestnuts. . 16-0 37-8 5'2 4'5 35-4 i-i 915 Walnuts . . . . , • 58-1 I-O 6-9 26-6 6-8 0-6 1250 diets generally not far from sufficient to maintain nitrogen, and usually carbon, equilibrium in the body. In these experiments the amount of energy expended by the body as heat and as external muscular work measured in terms of heat agreed on the average very closely with the amount of heat that would be produced by the oxidation of all the matter metabolized in the of all the experiments the energy of the expenditure was above 99-9% of the energy of the income, — an agreement within one part in 1000. While these results do not absolutely prove the application of the law of the conservation of energy in the human body, they certainly approximate very closely to such demonstra- tion. It is of course possible that energy may have given off DIETETICS 217 from the body in other forms than heat and external muscular work. It is conceivable, for example, that intellectual activity may involve the transformation of physical energy, and that the energy involved may be eliminated in some form now unknown. But if the body did give off energy which was not measured in these experiments, the quantity must have been extremely small. It seems fair to infer from the results obtained that the meta- bolism of energy in the body occurred in conformity with the law of the conservation of energy. 3. Composition of Food Materials. — The composition of food is determined by chemical analyses, the results of which are conventionally expressed in terms of the nutritive ingredients previously described. As a result of an enormous amount of such investigation in recent years, the kinds and proportions of nutrients in our common sorts of food are well known. Average actually digested and absorbed. Thus, two foods may contain equal amounts of the same nutrient, but the one most easily digested will really be of most value to the body, because less effort is necessary to utilize it. Considerable study of this factor is being made, and much valuable information is accumulating, but it is of more especial importance in cases of disordered digestion. The digestibility of food in the sense of thoroughness of digestion, however, is of particular importance in the present discussion. Only that portion of the food that is digested and absorbed is available to the body for the building of tissue and the production of energy. Not all the food eaten is thus actually digested; undigested material is excreted in the faeces. The thoroughness of digestion is determined experimentally by weighing and analysing the food eaten and the faeces pertaining TABLE II. — Coefficients of Digestibility (or Availability) of Nutrients in Different Classes of Food Materials. Kind of Food. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Kind of Food. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. /o o/ /o % /o % o/ la Meats .... 98 98 Corn meal So 99 Fish .... 96 97 Wheat meals without bran 83 93 Poultry .... Eggs .... 96 97 97 Wheat meals with bran White bread . B 92 98 Dairy products Total animal food of 97 96 98 Entire wheat bread Graham bread 82 76 94 90 mixed diet 97 97 98 Rice .... 76 91 Potatoes 73 98 Fruits and nuts So 86 96 Beets, carrots, &c. 72 97 Sugars and starches 98 Cabbage, lettuce. &c. Legumes Oatmeal .... 78 78 90 90 83 95 97 Total vegetable food of mixed diet . Total food of mixed diet . 85 92 90 95 97 97 values for percentage composition of some ordinary food materials are shown in Table I. (Table I. also includes figures for fuel value.) It will be observed that different kinds of food materials vary widely in their proportions of nutrients. In general the animal foods contain the most protein and fats, and vegetable foods are rich in carbohydrates. The chief nutrient of lean meat and fish is protein ; but in medium fat meats the proportion of fat is as large as that of protein, and in the fatter meats it is larger. Cheese is rich in both protein and fat. Among the vegetable foods, dried beans and peas are especially rich in protein. The proportion in oatmeal is also fairly large, in wheat it is moderate, and in maize meal and rice it is rather small. Oats contain more oil than any of the common cereals, but in none of them is the proportion especially large. The most abundant nutrient in all the cereals is starch, which comprises from two-thirds to three-fourths or more of their total nutritive substance. Cotton-seed is rich in edible oil, and so are olives. Some of the nuts contain fairly large proportions of both protein and fat. The nutrient of potatoes is starch, present in fair proportion. Fruits contain considerable carbohydrates, chiefly sugar. Green vegetables are not of much account as sources of any of the nutrients or energy. Similar food materials from different sources may also differ considerably in composition. This is especially true of meats. Thus, the leaner portions from a fat animal may contain nearly as much fat as the fatter portions from a lean animal. The data here presented are largely those for American food products, but the available analyses of English food materials indicate that the latter differ but little from the former in composition. The analyses of meats produced in Europe imply that they commonly contain somewhat less fat and more water, and often more protein, than American meats. The meats of English production compare with the American more than with the European meats. Similar vegetable foods from the different countries do not differ so much in composition. 4. Digestibility or Availability of Food Materials. — The value of any food material for nutriment depends not merely upon the kinds and amounts of nutrients it contains, but also upon the ease and convenience with which the nutrients may be digested, and especially upon the proportion of the nutrients that will be to it. The difference between the corresponding ingredients of the two is commonly considered to represent the amounts of the ingredients digested. Expressed in percentages, these are called coefficients of digestibility. See Table II. Such a method is not strictly accurate, because the faeces do not consist entirely of undigested food but contain in addition to this the so-called metabolic products, which include the resi- duum of digestive juices not resorbed, fragments of intestinal epithelium, &c. Since there is as yet no satisfactory method of separating these constituents of the excreta, the actual digesti- bility of the food is not determined. It has been suggested that since these materials must originally come from food, they represent, when expressed in terms of food ingredients, the cost of digestion; hence that the values determined as above explained represent the portion of food available to the body for the build- ing of tissue and the yielding of energy, and what is commonly designated as digestibility should be called availability. Other writers retain the term " digestibility," but express the results as " apparent digestibility," until more knowledge regarding the metabolic products of the excreta is available and the actual digestibility may be ascertained. Experimental inquiry of this nature has been very active in recent years, especially in Europe, the United States and Japan; and the results of considerably over 1000 digestion experiments with single foods or combinations of food materials are available. These were mostly with men, but some were with women and with children. The larger part of these have been taken into account in the following estimations of the digestibility of the nutrients in different classes of food materials. The figures here shown are subject to revision as experimental data accumulate. They are not to be taken as exact measures of the digestibility (or availability) of every kind of food in each given class, but they probably represent fairly well the average digestibility of the classes of food materials as ordinarily utilized in the mixed diet. 5. Fuel Value of Food. — The potential energy of food is commonly measured as the amount of heat evolved when the food is completely oxidized. In the laboratory this is determined by burning the food in oxygen in a calorimeter. The results, which are known as the heat of combustion of the food, are DIETETICS expressed in calories, one calory being the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water one degree centigrade. But it is to be observed that this unit is TABLE III. — Estimates of Heals of Combustion and of Fuel Value of Nutrients in Ordinary Mixed Diet. Nutrients. Heat of Combustion. Fuel Value. Calories. Calories. One gram of protein One gram of fats . One gram of carbohydrates 5-65 9-40 4-15 4-05 8-93 4-03 employed simply from convenience, and without implication as to what extent the energy of food is converted into heat in the body. The unit employed in the measurement of some other greater than that which the body will actually derive from it. In the first place, as previously shown, part of the food will not be digested and absorbed. In the second place, the nitrogenous compounds absorbed are not completely oxidized in the body, the residuum being excreted in the urine as urea and other bodies that are capable of further oxidation in the calorimeter. The total heat of combustion of the food eaten must therefore be diminished by the heat of combustion of the oxidizable material rejected by the body, to find what amount of energy is actually available to the organism for the production of work and heat. The amount thus determined is commonly known as the fuel value of food. Rubner's1 commonly quoted estimates for the fuel value of the nutrients of mixed diet are, — for protein and carbohydrates 4-1, and for fats 9-3 calories per gram. According to the method of deduction, however, these factors were more applicable to digested than to total nutrients. Atwater2 and associates have deduced, TABLE IV. — Quantities of Available Nutrients and Energy in Daily Food Consumption of Persons in Different Circumstances. Number of Studies. Nutrients and Energy per Man per Day. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Fuel Value. Persons with Active Work. Grams. Grams. Grams. Calories. English royal engineer's .... I I 132 1 20 79 IO7 612 6s7 3835 49/)C Swedish mechanics . 5 **7 174 *w/ 105 wo/ 693 T-^^O 459° Bavarian lumbermen . 3 1 20 277 702 6015 American lumbermen 5 155 327 804 6745 Japanese rice cleaner i 103 II 917 4415 Japanese jinrikshaw runner Chinese farm labourers in California i i 137 132 22 90 1010 621 5050 3980 American athletes 19 178 192 525 4740 American working-men's families 13 156 226 694 5650 Persons with Ordinary Work. Bavarian mechanics . ii 112 32 553 3060 Bavarian farm labourers 5 126 52 526 3200 Russian peasants 119 31 57i 3155 Prussian prisoners i 117 28 620 3320 Swedish mechanics . 6 123 75 5°7 3325 American working-men's families 69 105 J35 426 3480 Persons with Light Work. American artisans' families 21 93 107 358 2880 English tailors (prisoners) I 121 37 509 2970 German shoemakers .... I 99 73 367 2629 Japanese prisoners ..... I 43 6 444 2IIO Professional and Business Men. Japanese professional men 13 75 15 408 2I9O Japanese students 8 85 18 537 28OO Japanese military cadets II 98 20 61 1 3185 German physicians . 2 121 90 317 2685 Swedish medical students 5 117 1 08 291 2725 Danish physicians i 124 133 242 2790 American professional and business men and students ...... 5i 98 125 411 3285 Persons with Little or no Exercise. Prussian prisoners ..... 2 90 27 427 2400 Japanese prisoners ..... I 36 6 360 1725 Inmates of home for aged — Germany I 85 43 322 2097 Inmates of hospitals for insane — America . 49 80 86 353 2590 Persons in Destitute Circumstances. Prussian working people .... 13 63 43 372 2215 Italian mechanics ..... 5 70 36 384 2225 American working-men's families ii 69 75 263 2085 form of energy might be used instead, as, for example, the foot- ton, which represents the amount of energy necessary to raise one ton through one foot. The amount of energy which a given quantity of food will produce on complete oxidation outside the body, however, is from data much more extensive than those available to Rubner, factors for total nutrients somewhat lower than these, as shown 1Ztschr. Biol. 21 (1885), p. 377. 2 Connecticut (Storrs) Agricultural (1899), 73- Experiment Station Report DIETETICS 219 in Table III. These estimates seem to represent the best average factors at present available, but are subject to revision as knowledge is extended. The heats of combustion of all the fats in an ordinary mixed diet would average about 9-40 calories per gram, but as only 95% of the fat would be available to the body, the fuel value per gram would be (9-40X0-95 = ) 8-93 calories. Similarly, the average heat of combustion of carbohydrates of the diet would be about 4-15 calories per gram, and as 97% of the total quantity is available to the body, the fuel value per gram would be 4-03. (It is commonly assumed that the resorbed fats and carbo- hydrates are completely oxidized in the body.) The heats of combustion of all the kinds of protein in the diet would average about 5-65 calories per gram. Since about 92% of the total protein would be available to the body, the potential energy of the available protein would be equivalent to (5-65X0-92 = ) 5-20 calories; but as the available protein is not completely oxidized allowance must be made for the potential energy of the incom- pletely oxidized residue. This is estimated as equivalent to 1-15 calories for the 0-92 gram of available protein; hence, the fuel value of the total protein is (5-20-1-15 = ) 4-05 calories per gram. Nutrients of the same class, but from different food materials, vary both in digestibility and in heat of combustion, and hence in fuel value. These factors are therefore not so applicable to the nutrients of the separate articles in a diet as to those of the diet as a whole. 6. Food Consumption. — Much information regarding the food consumption of people in various circumstances in different parts of the world has accumulated during the past twenty years, as a result of studies of actual dietaries in England, Germany, Italy, Russia, Sweden and elsewhere in Europe, in Japan and other oriental countries, and especially in the United States. These studies commonly consist in ascertaining the kinds, amounts and composition of the different food materials consumed by a group of persons during a given period and the number of meals taken by each member of the group, and computing the quantities of the different nutrients in the food on the basis of one man for one day. When the members of the group are of different age, sex, occupation, &c., account must be taken of the effect of these factors on consumption in estimating the value " per man." Men as a rule eat more than women under similar conditions, women mo re than children, and persons at active work more than those at sedentary occupation. The navvy, for example, who is constantly using up more nutritive material or body tissue to supply the energy required for his muscular work needs more protein and energy in his food than a bookkeeper who sits at his desk all day. In making allowance for these differences, the various indi- viduals are commonly compared with a man at moderately active muscular work, who is taken as unity. A man at hard muscular work is reckoned at 1-2 times such an individual; a man with light muscular work or a boy 15-16 years old, -9; a man at sedentary occupation, woman at moderately active muscular work, boy 13-14 or girl 15-16 years old, -8; woman at light work, boy 12 or girl 13-14 years old, -7; boy 10-11 or girl 10-12 years old, -6; child 6-9 years old, -5; child 2-5 years old, -4; child under 2 years, -3. These factors are by no means absolute or final, but are based in part upon experimental data and in part upon arbitrary assumption. The total number of dietary studies on record is very large, but not all of them are complete enough to furnish reliable data. Upwards of 1000 are sufficiently accurate to be included in statistical averages of food consumed by people in different circumstances, nearly half of which have been made in the United States in the past decade. The number of persons in the indi- vidual studies has ranged from one to several hundred. Some typical results are shown in Table IV. 7. Quantities of Nutrients needed. — For the proper nourish- ment of the body, the important problem is how much protein, fats and carbohydrates, or more simply, what amounts of protein and potential energy are needed under varying circumstances, to build and repair muscular and other tissues and to supply energy for muscular, work, heat and other forms of energy. The answer to the problem is sought in the data obtained in dietary studies with considerable numbers of people, and in metabolism experiments with individuals in which the income and expenditure of the body are measured. From the informa- tion thus derived, different investigators have proposed so-called dietary standards, such as are shown in the table below, but unfortunately the experimental data are still insufficient for entirely trustworthy figures of this sort; hence the term " standard " as here used is misleading. The figures given are not to be considered as exact and final as that would suggest; they are merely tentative estimates of the average daily amounts of nutrients and energy required. (It is«to be especially noted that these are available nutrients and fuel value rather than total nutrients and energy.) Some of the values proposed by other investigators are slightly larger than these, and others are decidedly smaller, but these are the ones that have hitherto been most commonly accepted in Europe and America. TABLE V. — Standards for Dietaries. Available Nutrients and Energy per Man per Day. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Fuel Value. Voit's Standards. Grams.1 Grams. Grams. Calories. Man at hard work Man at moderate work 133 109 95 53 437 485 3270 2965 Atwater's Standards. Man at very hard muscular work 161 z t 5500 Man at hard muscular work 138 4150 Man at moderately active muscular work "5 3400 Man at light to moderate muscular work 103 3050 Man at " sedentary " or woman at moder- ately active work 92 2700 Woman at light mus- cular work, or man without muscular exercise 83 2450 8. Hygienic Economy of Food. — For people in good health, there are two important rules to be observed in the regulation of the diet. One is to choose the foods that " agree " with them, and to avoid those which they cannot digest and assimilate without harm; and the other is to use such sorts and quantities of foods as will supply the kinds and amounts of nutrients needed by the body and yet to avoid burdening it with superfluous material to be disposed of at the cost of health and strength. As for the first-mentioned rule, it is practically impossible to give information that may be of more than general application. There are people who, because of some individual peculiarity, cannot use foods which for people in general are wholesome and nutritious. Some persons cannot endure milk, others suffer if they eat eggs, others have to eschew certain kinds of meat, or are made uncomfortable by fruit; but such cases are exceptions. Very liltle is known regarding the cause of these conditions. It is possible that in the metabolic processes to which the ingredients of the food are subjected in the body, or even during digestion before the substances are actually taken into the body, com- pounds may be formed that are in one way or another injurious. Whatever the cause may be, it is literally true in this sense that "what is one man's meat is another man's poison," and each must learn for himself what foods " agree " with him and what ones do not. But for the great majority of people in health, 1 One ounce equals 28-35 grams. 2 As the chief function of both fats and carbohydrates is to furnish energy, their exact proportion in the diet is of small account. The amount of either may vary largely according to taste, available supply, or other condition, as long as the total amount of both is sufficient, together with the protein to furnish the required energy. 220 DIETETICS suitable combinations of the ordinary sorts of wholesome food materials make a healthful diet. On the other hand, some foods are of particular value at times, aside from their use for nourish- ment. Fruits and green vegetables often benefit people greatly, not as nutriment merely, for they may have very little actual nutritive material, but because of fruit or vegetable acids or other substances which they contain, and which sometimes serve a most useful purpose. The proper observance of the second rule mentioned requires information regarding the demands of the body for food under different circumstances. To supply this information is one purpose of the effort to determine the so-called dietary standards TABLE VI. — Amounts of Nutrients and Energy Furnished for One Shilling in Food Materials at Ordinary Prices. Food Materials as Purchased. Prices per lb One Shilling will buy Total Food Materials. Available Nutrients. Fuel Value. Protein. Fat. Carbo- hydrates. Beef, round ..... s. d. O IO o 8| o 5 ft. 1-20 I-4I 2-40 lb. •22 •26 •44 lb. •H •17 •29 ft. Calories. 1,155 1,235 2,105 Beef, sirloin ..... O IO o 9 o 8 o 5 I -2O i-33 1-50 2-40 •19 •21 •20 •22 1,225 1,360 Beef, rib .... o 9 o 7* o 4J 1-33 i -60 2-67 •I9 •19 1,200 Mutton, leg .... o 9 o 5 1-33 2-40 •2O •37 •20 •35 . . 1,245 2,245 Pork, spare-rib .... o 9 o 7 1-33 1-71 •17 •22 •3> •39 '.645 2,110 Pork, salt, fat .... o 7 o 5 1-71 2-40 •03 •04 1-40 1-97 6,025 8,460 Pork, smoked ham .... o 8 o 4i i-5« 2-67 •20 •36 •48 •85 2,435 4,33° Fresh cod .... o 4 o 3 3-00 4-00 •34 •45 •01 •OI 710 945 Salt cod o 3? 0 10 3'43 i -20 •54 •07 •07 •OI •04 1.370 275 Milk, whole, 4d. a qt. 3d. aqt. 2d aqt. O 2 0 I-J O I 6-00 8-00 I2-OO •19 •26 •38 •23 •30 •46 •3« •40 •60 1-915 2,55° 3-825 Milk, skimmed, ad. a qt. . O I 12-00 •40 •03 •61 2,085 Butter I 6 i 3 I O •67 •80 I -CO •01 •01 •OI •54 •64 •81 2,320 2,770 3,460 Margarine .... o 4 3-00 2-37 10,080 Eggs, 2s. a dozen . ; ,, l$s. a dozen .... ,, is. a dozen . i 4 I O o 8 •75 I-OO 1-50 •IO •13 •19 •07 •09 •13 475 635 950 Cheese ...... o 8 o 7 o 5 1-50 1-71 2-40 •3« •43 •60 •48 •55 •77 •04 •04 •06 2,865 3,265 4,585 Wheat bread . _••; 0 I) 10-67 •76 •13 5-57 12,421 Wheat flour .... 0 I? 0 1^ 7-64 8-16 •67 •72 •07 •07 5-63 6-01 12,110 12,935 Oatmeal .... 0 I? 0 I* 8-39 8-16 I«II i -08 •54 •53 5-54 5-39 14.835 14-430 Rice I .... 0 If 6-86 •45 •02 5-27 10,795 Potatoes .... o of o oj 18-00 24-00 •25 •34 •02 •O2 2-70 3-6o 5-605 7,470 Beans ...... 0 2 6-00 1-05 •IO 3-47 8,960 Sugar ...... I 1 6-86 6-86 12,760 DIETRICH, C. W. E.— DIETRICH OF BERN 221 mentioned above. It should be observed, however, that these are generally more applicable to the proper feeding of a group or class of people as a whole than for particular individuals in this class. The needs of individuals will vary largely from the average in accordance with the activity and individuality. Moreover, it is neither necessary nor desirable for the individual to follow any standard exactly from day to day. It is requisite only that the average supply shall be sufficient to meet the demands of the body during a given period. The cooking of food and other modes of preparing it for consumption have much to do with its nutritive value. Many materials which, owing to their mechanical condition or to some other cause, are not particularly desirable food materials in their natural state, are quite nutritious when cooked or other- wise prepared for consumption. It is also a matter of common experience that well-cooked food is wholesome and appetizing, whereas the same material poorly prepared is unpalatable. There are three chief purposes of cooking; the first is to change the mechanical condition of the food. Heating changes the structure of many food materials very materially, so that they may be more easily chewed and brought into a condition in which the digestive juices can act upon them more freely, and in this way probably influencing the ease and thoroughness of digestion. The second is to make the food more appetizing by improving the appearance or flavour or both. Food which is attractive to the eye and pleasing to the palate quickens the flow of saliva and other digestive juices and thus aids digestion. The third is to kill, by heat, disease germs, parasites or other dangerous organisms that may be contained in food. This is often a very important matter and applies to both animal and vegetable foods. Scrupulous neatness should always be observed in storing, handling and serving food. If ever cleanliness is desirable it must be in the things we eat, and every care should be taken to ensure it for the sake of health as well as of decency. Cleanliness in this connexion means not only absence of visible dirt, but freedom from undesirable bacteria and other minute organisms and from worms and other parasites. If food, raw or cooked, is kept in dirty places, peddled from dirty carts, prepared in dirty rooms and in dirty dishes, or exposed to foul air, disease germs and other offensive and dangerous substances may easily enter it. 9. Pecuniary Economy of Food. — Statistics of economy and of cost of living in Great Britain, Germany and the United States show that at least half, and commonly more, of the income of wage-earners and other people in moderate circumstances is expended for subsistence. The relatively large cost of food, and the important influence of diet upon health and strength, make a more widespread understanding of the subject of dietetics very desirable. The maxim that " the best is the cheapest " does not apply to food. The " best " food, in the sense of that which is the finest in appearance and flavour and which is sold at the highest price, is not generally the most economical. The price of food is not regulated largely by its value for nutriment. Its agreeableness to the palate or to the buyer's fancy is a large factor in determining the current demand and market price. There is no more nutriment in an ounce of protein or fat from the tender-loin of beef than from the round or shoulder. The protein of animal food has, however, some advantage over that of vegetable foods in that it is more thoroughly, and perhaps more easily, digested, for which reason it would be economical to pay somewhat more for the same quantity of nutritive material in the animal food. Furthermore, animal foods such as meats, fish and the like, gratify the palate as most vegetable foods do not. For persons in good health, foods in which the nutrients are the most expensive are like costly articles of adornment. People who can well afford them may be justified in buying them, but they are not economical. The most economical food is that which is at the same time most healthful and cheapest. The variations in the cost of the actual nutriment in different food materials may be illustrated by comparison of the amounts of nutrients obtained for a given sum in the materials as bought at ordinary market prices. This is done in Table VI., which shows the amounts of available nutrients contained in the quan- tities of different food materials that may be purchased for one shilling at prices common in England. When proper attention is given to the needs of the body for food and the relation between cost and nutritive value of food materials, it will be found that with care in the purchase and skill in the preparation of food, considerable control may be had over the expensiveness of a palatable, nutritious and healthful diet. AUTHORITIES. — COMPOSITION OF FOODS: — Konig, Chemit der menschlichen Nahrungs- und Genussmittel; Atwater and Bryant, " Composition of American Food Materials," Bui. 28, Office of Experiment Stations, U.S. Department of Agriculture. NUTRITION AND DIETETICS: — Armsby, Principles of Animal Nutrition; Lusk, The Science of Nutrition; Burney Yeo, Food in Health and Disease; Munk and Uffelmann, Die Erndhrung des gesunden und kranken Menschen; Von Leyden, Erndhrungstherapie und Diatetik; Dujardin- Beaumetz, Hygiene alimentaire; Hutchison, Food and Dietetics; R. H. Chittenden, Physiological Economy in Nutrition(igo^), Nutrition of Man (1907) ; Atwater, " Chemistry and Economy of Food," Bui. 21, Office of Experiment Stations, U.S. Department of Agriculture. See also other Bulletins of the same office on composition of food, results of dietary studies, metabolism experiments, &c., in the United States. GENERAL METABOLISM: — Voit, Physiologic des allgemeinen Staff - wechsels und der Erndhrung; Hermann, Handbuch der Physiologic, Bd. vi. ; Von Noorden, Pathologie des Stoffwechsels; Schafer, Text- Book of Physiology, vol. i.; Atwater and Langworthy, " Digest of Metabolism Experiments," Bull. 45, Office of Experiment Stations, U.S. Department of Agriculture. (W. O. A. ; R. D. M.) DIETRICH, CHRISTIAN WILHELM ERNST (1712-1774), German painter, was born at Weimar, where he was brought up early to the profession of art by his father Johann George, then painter of miniatures to the court of the duke. Having been sent to Dresden to perfect himself under the care of Alexander Thiele, he had the good fortune to finish in two hours, at the age of eighteen, a picture which attracted the attention of the king of Saxony. Augustus II. was so pleased with Dietrich's readiness of hand that he gave him means to study abroad, and visit in succession the chief cities of Italy and the Netherlands. There he learnt to copy and to imitate masters of the previous century with a versatility truly surprising. Winckelmann, to whom he had been recommended, did not hesitate to call him the Raphael of landscape. Yet in this branch of his practice he merely imitated Salvator Rosa and Everdingen. He was more successful in aping the style of Rembrandt, and numerous examples of this habit may be found in the galleries of St Petersburg, Vienna and Dresden. At Dresden, indeed, there are pictures acknowledged to be his, bearing the fictitious dates of 1636 and 1638, and the name of Rembrandt. Among Dietrich's cleverest reproductions we may account that of Ostade's manner in the " Itinerant Singers " at the National Gallery. His skill in catching the character of the later masters of Holland is shown in candle- light scenes, such as the " Squirrel and the Peep-Show " at St Petersburg, where we are easily reminded of Godfried Schalcken. Dietrich tried every branch of art except portraits, painting Italian and Dutch views alternately with Scripture scenes and still life. In 1 741 he was appointed court painter to Augustus III. at Dresden, with an annual salary of 400 thalers (£60) , conditional on the production of four cabinet pictures a year. This condition, no doubt, accounts for the presence of fifty-two of the master's panels and canvases in one of the rooms at the Dresden museum. Dietrich, though popular and probably the busiest artist of his time, never produced anything of his own; and his imitations are necessarily inferior to the originals which he affected to copy. His best work is certainly that which he gave to engravings. A collection of these at the British Museum, produced on the general lines of earlier men, such as Ostade and Rembrandt, reveal both spirit and skill. Dietrich, after his return from the Peninsula, generally signed himself " Dietericij," and with this signature most of his extant pictures are inscribed. He died at Dresden, after he had successively filled the important appoint- ments of director of the school of painting at the Meissen porcelain factory and professor of the Dresden academy of arts. DIETRICH OF BERN, the name given in German popular poetry to Theodoric the Great. |The legendary history of Dietrich differs so widely from the life of Theodoric that it has been suggested that the two were originally unconnected. Medieval 222 DIEZ, F. C. chroniclers, however, repeatedly asserted the identity of Dietrich and Theodoric, although the more critical noted the anachronisms involved in making Ermanaric (d. 376) and Attila (d. 453) con- temporary with Theodoric (b. 455)- That the legend is based on vague historical reminiscences is proved by the retention of the names of Theodoric (Thiuda-reiks, Dietrich) and his father Theudemir (Dietmar), by Dietrich's connexion with Bern (Verona) and Raben (Ravenna) . Something of the Gothic king's character descended to Dietrich, familiarly called the Beruer, the favourite of German medieval saga heroes, although his story did not leave the same mark on later German literature as did that of the Nibelungs. The cycle of songs connected with his name in South Germany is partially preserved in the Heldenbuch (q.v.) in Dietrich's Flucht, the RabensMacht and Alpharts Tod; but it was reserved for an Icelandic author, writing in Norway in the I3th century, to compile, with many romantic additions, a consecutive account of Dietrich. In this Norse prose redaction, known as the Vilkina Saga, cr more correctly the Thidrekssaga, is incorporated much extraneous matter from the Nibelungen and Wayland legends, in fact practically the whole of south German heroic tradition. There are traces of a form of the Dietrich legend in which he was represented as starting out from Byzantium, in accordance with historical tradition, for his conquest of Italy. But this early disappeared, and was superseded by the existing legend, in which, perhaps by an " epic fusion " with his father Theudemir, he was associated with Attila, and then by an easy transition with Ermanaric. Dietrich was driven from his kingdom of Bern by his uncle Ermanaric. After years of exile at the court of Attila he returned with a Hunnish army to Italy, and defeated Ermanaric in the Rabenschlacht, or battle of Ravenna. Attila 's two sons, with Dietrich's brother, fell in the fight, and Dietrich returned to Attila 's court to answer for the death of the young princes. This very improbable renunciation of the advantages of his victory suggests that in the original version of the story the Rabenschlacht was a defeat. In the poem of Ermenrichs Tod he is represented as slaying Ermanaric, as in fact Theodoric slew Odoacer. '' Otacher " replaces Ermanaric as his adversary in the Hildebrandslied, which relates how thirty years after the earlier attempt he reconquered his Lombard kingdom. Dietrich's long residence at Attila's court represents the youth and early man- hood of Theodoric spent at the imperial court and fighting in the Balkan peninsula, and, in accordance with epic custom, the period of exile was adorned with war-like exploits, with fights with dragons and giants, most of which had no essential connexion with the cycle. The romantic poems of Konig Laurin, Sigcnot, Eckenlied and Virginal are based largely on local traditions originally independent of Dietrich. The court of Attila (Etzel) was a ready bridge to the Nibelungen legend. In the final catas- trophe he was at length compelled, after steadily holding aloof from the. combat, to avenge the slaughter of his Amelungs by the Burgundians, and delivered Hagen bound into the hands of Kriemhild. The flame breath which anger induced from him shows the influence of pure myth, but the tales of his demonic origin and of his being carried off by the devil in the shape of a black horse may safely be put down to the clerical hostility to Theodoric's Arianism. Generally speaking, Dietrich of Bern was the wise and just monarch as opposed to Ermanaric, the typical tyrant of Germanic legend. He was invariably represented as slow of provocation and a friend of peace, but once roused to battle not even Siegfried could withstand his onslaught. But probably Dietrich's fight with Siegfried in Kriemhild's rose garden at Worms is a late addition to the Rosengarten myth. The chief heroes of the Dietrich cycle are his tutor and companion in arms, Hildebrand (see HILDEBRAND, LAY or), with his nephews the Wolfings Alphart and Wolfhart; Wittich, who renounced his allegiance to Dietrich and slew the sons of Attila; Heime and Biterolf. The contents of the poems dealing with the Dietrich cycle are summarized by Uhland in Schriften zur Geschichte der Dichlung und Sage (Stuttgart, 1873). The Thidrekssaga (ed. C. Unger, Christiania, 1853) is translated into German by F. H. v. der Hagen in Altdcutsche und altnordische Heldensagen (vols. i. and ii. 3rd ed., Breslau, 1872). A summary of it forms the concluding chapter of T. Hodgkin's Theodoric the Goth (1891). The variations in the Dietrich legend in the Latin historians, in Old and Middle High German literature, and in the northern saga, can be studied in W. Grimm's Deutsche Heldensage (2nd ed., Berlin, 1867). There is a good account in English in F. E. Sandbach's Heroic Saga-cycle of Dietrich of Bern (1906), forming No. 15 of Alfred Nutt's Popular Studies in Mythology, and another in M. Bentinck Smith's translation of Dr O. L. Jinczek's Deutsche Heldensage (Northern Legends, London, 1902). For modern German authorities and commentators see B. Symons, " Deutsche Heldensage " in H. Paul's Grd. d. german. Phil. (Strassburg, new ed., I9°5) ; also Goedeke, Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung (i. 241-246). DIEZ, FRIEDRICH CHRISTIAN (1794-1876), German philologist, was born at Giessen, in Hesse- Darmstadt, on the 1 5th of March 1794. He was educated first at the gymnasium and then at the university of his native town. There he studied classics under Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker (1784-1868) who had just returned from a two years' residence in Italy to fill the chair of archaeology and Greek literature. It was Welcker who kindled in him a love of Italian poetry, and thus gave the first bent to his genius. In 1813 he joined the Hesse corps as a volunteer and served in the French campaign. Next year he returned to his books, and this short taste of military service was the only break in a long and uneventful life of literary labours. By his parents' desire he applied himself for a short time to law, but a visit to Goethe in 1818 gave a new direction to his studies, and determined his future career. Goethe had been reading Raynouard's Selections from the Romance Poets, and advised the young scholar to explore the rich mine of Provencal literature which the French savant had opened up. This advice was eagerly folio wed, and henceforth Diezdevoted himself to Romance literature. He thus became the founder of Romance philology. After supporting himself for some years by private teaching, he removed in 1822 to Bonn, where he held the position of privat- docent. In 1823 he published his first work, An Introduction to Romance Poetry; in the following year appeared The Poetry of the Troubadours, and in 1829 The Lives and Works of the Troubadours. In 1830 he was called to the chair of modern literature. The rest of his life was mainly occupied with the composition of the two great works on which his fame rests, the Grammar of the Romance Languages (1836-1844), and the Lexicon of the Romance Languages — Italian, Spanish and French (1853); in these two works Diez did for the Romance group of languages what Jacob Grimm did for the Teutonic family. He died at Bonn on the 2gth of May 1876. The earliest French philologists, such as Perion and Henri Estienne, had sought to discover the origin of French in Greek and even in Hebrew. For more than a century Menage's Etymological Dictionary held the field without a rival. Considering the time at which it was written (1650), it was a meritorious work, but philology was then in the empirical stage, and many of Menage's derivations (such as that of "rat "from the Latin "mus,"orof " haricot " from " faba ") have since become bywords among philologists. A great advance was made by Raynouard, who by his critical editions of the works of the Ttoubadours, published in the first years of the igth century, laid the foundations on which Diez afterwards built. The difference between Diez's method and that of his predecessors is well stated by him in the preface to his dictionary. In sum it is the difference between science and guess-work. The scientific method is to follow implicitly the discovered principles and rules of phonology, and not to swerve a foot's breadth from them unless plain, actual exceptions shall justify it; to follow the genius of the language, and by cross- questioning to elicit its secrets; to gauge each letter and estimate the value which attaches to it in each position; and lastly to possess the true philosophic spirit which is prepared to welcome any new fact, though it may modify or upset the most cherished theory. Such is the historical method which Diez pursues in his grammar and dictionary. To collect and arrange facts is, as he tells us, the sole secret of his success, and he adds in other words the famous apophthegm of Newton, " hypotheses non fingo." The introduction to the grammar consists of two parts: — the first discusses the Latin, Greek and Teutonic elements common to the Romance languages; the second treats of the six dialects separately, their origin and the elements peculiar to each. The grammar itself is divided into four books, on phonology, on flexion, on the formation of words by composition and derivation, and on syntax. His dictionary is divided into two parts. The first contains words common to two at least of the three principal groups of Romance : — Italian, Spanish and Portuguese, and Provencal and French. The Italian, as nearest the original, is placed at the head of each article. DIEZ— DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF 223 The second part treats of words peculiar to one group. There is no separate glossary of Wallachian. Of the introduction to the grammar there is an English translation by C. B. Cayley. The dictionary has been published in a remodelled form for English readers by T. C. Donkin. DIEZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse- Nassau, romantically situated in the deep valley of the Lahn, here crossed by an old bridge, 30 m. E. from Coblenz on the railway to Wetzlar. Pop. 4500. It is overlooked by a former castle of the counts of Nassau-Dillenburg, now a prison. Close by, on an eminence above the river, lies the castle of Oranien- stein, formerly a Benedictine nunnery and now a cadet school, with beautiful gardens. There are a Roman Catholic and two Evangelical churches. The new part of the town is well built and contains numerous pretty villa residences. In addition to extensive iron-works there are sawmills and tanneries. In the vicinity are Fachingen, celebrated for its mineral waters, and the majestic castle of Schaumburg belonging to the prince of Waldeck-Pyrmont. DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences}, that branch of mathematics which deals with the successive differences of the terms of a series. 1. The most important of the cases to which mathematical methods can be applied are those in which the terms of the series are the values, taken at stated intervals (regular or irregular), of a continuously varying quantity. In these cases the formulae of finite differences enable certain quantities, whose exact value depends on the law of variation (i.e. the law which governs the relative magnitude of these terms) to be calculated, often with great accuracy, from the given terms of the series, without explicit reference to the law of variation itself. The methods used may be extended to cases where the series is a double series (series of double entry), i.e. where the value of each term depends on the values of a pair of other quantities. 2. The first differences of a series are obtained by subtracting from each term the term immediately preceding it. If these are treated as terms of a new series, the first differences of this series are the second differences of the original series; and so on. The successive differences are also called differences of the first, second, . . . order. The differences of successive orders are most conveniently arranged in successive columns of a table thus: — Term. ist Diff. 2nd Diff. 3rd Diff. 4th Diff. a b b-a r h c— 2b+a c d d-c e-d d-2c+b e—2d+c de-ld+y-b e— 4d+6c— 46+0 e (A) Algebra of Differences and Sums. 3. The formal relations between the terms of the series and the differences may be seen by comparing the arrangements (A) and (B) in fig. i. In (A) the various terms and differences are the same as in §2, but placed differently. In (B) we take a new series of terms a, /3, 7, 5, commencing with the same term a, and take the successive sums of pairs of terms, instead of the successive I- differences, but place them to the left instead of to the right. It will be seen, in the first place, that the successive terms in (A), reading downwards to the right, and the successive terms in (B), reading downwards to the left, consist each of a series of terms whose coefficients follow the binomial law; i. e. the coefficients in b—a, c — 2b+a, d—y+^b—a, . . . and in O+/3, 0+2/3+7, 0+3/3+37+5, . . . are respectively the same as in y—x, (y—x)1, (y—x)*, . . . and in x+y, (x+y)2, (x+y)3, . . . In the second place, it will be seen that the relations between the various terms in (A) are identical with the relations between the similarly placed terms in (B) ; e.g. 0+y is the difference of 0+2/8+7 and o+/3, just asc — 6 is the difference of c and b: and d— cis the sum of c — band d—2c+b, just as /3+2y+& is the sum of £+7 and 7+8. Hence if we take ff, y, S, . . . of (B) as being the same as b—a, c—2b+a,d—y+3b—a, . . . of (A), all corresponding terms in the two diagrams will be the same. Thus we obtain the two principal formulae connecting terms and differences. If we provisionally described— a,c— 26+0, . . . as the first, second, . . . differences of ,the particular term a (§ 7), then (i.) the nth difference of a is where/, k . . . are the (n + i)th, nth, . . . terms of the series a, b, c, . . . ; the coefficients being those of the terms in the expansion of (y— *)": and (ii.) the (n + i)th term of the series, i.e. the nth term after a, is a+n0+^^y+... where 0, y, . . . are the first, second, . . . differences of a; the coefficients being those of the terms in the expansion of (x+y)n. 4. Now suppose we treat the terms a, b, c, ... as being them- selves the first differences of another series. Then, if the first term of this series is N, the subsequent terms are N+o, N+o+6, N+a+ b+c, . . .; i.e. the difference between the (» + i)th term and the first term is the sum of the first n terms of the original series. The term N, in the diagram (A), will come above and to the left of a; and we see, by (ii.) of §3, that the sum of the first n terms of the original series is n.n — i ,, , n.n-i0 , n.n-i.n-2 5« = %n\2a + (n — l)p\. 6. As another example, take the series i, 8, 27, . . . the terms of which are the cubes of i, 2, 3, ... The first, second and third differences of the first term are 7, 12 and 6; and it may be shown (§ 14 (i.)) that all differences of a higher order are zero. Hence the sum of the first n terms is n.n — i.n— 2 , , «.n — i.n— 2.n— 3 +6- 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 7. In § 3 we have described b—a, c — 26+0, ... as the first, second, . . . differences of a. This ascription of the differences to particular terms of the series is quite arbitrary. If we read the differences in the table of § 2 upwards to the right instead of down- wards to the right, we might describe e— d, e — 2d+c, ... as the first, second, . . . differences of e. On the other hand, the term of greatest weight in c— 2b+a, i.e. the term which has the numerically greatest coefficient, is b, and therefore c — 2b+a might properly be regarded as the second difference of b; and similarlye— 4d+6c — 46+0 might be regarded as the fourth difference of c. These three methods of regarding the differences lead to three different systems of notation, which are described in §§ 9, 10 and 1 1. •Notation of Differences and Sums. 8. It is convenient to denote the terms a, b, c, . . . of the series by «o, «i, «s, MS .... If we merely have the terms of the series, «„ may be regarded as meaning the (n + i)th term. Usually, however, the terms are the values of a quantity u, which is a function of another quantity *, and tha values of x, to which a, b, c, . . . corre- spond, proceed by a constant difference h. If xa and «o are a pair of corresponding values of x and «, and if any other value Xt>+mh of x and the corresponding value of » are denoted by xm and «m, then the terms of the series will be. . .«it_i, «»_i, «„, «n+i, Mn+j. . ., corre- sponding to values of x denoted by. . .Xn-s, Xa-i, xn, x*+t, Xn+t. . . . 9. In the advancing-difference notation Un+i— ua is denoted by Ati,,. The differences Au», AMI, A«2 . . . may then be regarded as values of a function Aw corresponding to values of x proceeding by constant difference A; and therefore Awn+i — Awn is denoted by AAM«, or, more briefly, A2Mn; and so on. Hence the table of differences in §2, with the corresponding values of x and of « placed opposite each other in the ordinary manner of mathematical tables, becomes X U ISt Diff. 2nd Ditf. 3rd Diff. 4th Diff. Xn-i W.i-2 • A*L A«*i *„_! «„-, A'tt^2 A%^,... Xn ttr, »-l ^2^^ n-2 A4Mij_2 Att, A'Mn-! Xn+1 tt.v+1 A**) A^Wii A'"" Lc The terms of the series of which . . . u*-i, «„, «»+i, . . . are the first differences are denoted by SM, with proper suffixes, so 224 DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF that this series is ... Vun-i, 21*,, 2»n+i .... The suffixes are chosen so that we may have A2Mn = Mn, whatever n may be; and therefore (§ 4) 2«n may be regarded as being the sum of the terms of the series up to and including «n_i. Thus if we write Sw^i = C+K»_2, where C is any constant, we shall have and so on. This is true whatever C may be, so that the knowledge of ... Un-i, Un, . • • gives us no knowledge of the exact value of 2ttn; in other words, C is an arbitrary constant, the value of which must be supposed to be the same throughout any operations in which we are concerned with values of 2u corresponding to different suffixes. There is another symbol E, used in conjunction with u to denote the next term in the series. Thus Ewn means Mn+i, so that n*n. 10. Corresponding to the advancmg-difference notation there is a receding-difference notation, in which «„+!-«» is regarded as a difference of M»+I, and may be denoted by A'ttn+i, and similarly Un+i— 2un+un-i may be denoted by A'2un+i. This notation is only required for certain special purposes, and the usage is not settled (§ 19 (ii.)). 11. The central -difference notation depends on treating «»+i— 2«»+«n-i as the second dfference of «„, and therefore as corresponding to the value *„; but there is no settled system of notation. The following seems to be the most convenient. Since un is a function of *„, and the second difference u^2-2un+i+un is a func- tion of *„+!, the first difference un+r-u, must be regarded as a func- tion of *»+}, i.e. of Kx.+Sn+i). We therefore write ua+i-un = 8tt,,+j, and each difference in the table in § 9 will have the same suffix as the value of * in the same horizontal line; or, if the difference is of an odd order, its suffix will be the means of those of the two nearest values of x. This is shown in the table below. In this notation, instead of using the symbol E, we use a symbol M to denote the mean of two consecutive values of «, or of two consecu- tive differences of the same order, the suffixes being assigned on the same principle as in the case of the differences. Thus ), &c. If we take the means of the differences of odd order immediately above and below the horizontal line through any value of x, these means, with the differences of even order in that line, constitute the central differences of the corresponding value of «. Thus the table of central differences is as follows, the values obtained as means being placed in brackets to distinguish them from the actual differences : — X U ist Diff. 2nd Diff. 3rd Diff. 4th Diff. X.-1 «»-2 (Mfci. 2) «•«. 2 (M*3*,-, I**J *.-! «„-! fjfc) «2«n-, (M«3M«-l) «'«„_! . . . *» H. tei 52«n So S'w. . . . *»+! Mn*, 0*8«»+i) 5^wn+j r ix5 'M nj. i ) 5^W 4,3 «<«n+I . . . *»+« «n-H ("5""+2) S^Mn+1 (liS^Mn-l-z) """' Similarly, by taking the means of consecutive values of u and also of consecutive differences of even order, we should get a series of terms and differences central to the intervals xn_2 to *n_i, *n-i to The terms of the series of which the values of u are the first differ- ences are denoted by O-M, with suffixes on the same principle; the suffixes being chosen so that &aun shall be equal to «„. Thus, if », &C., then and also C being an arbitrary constant which must remain the same through- out any series of operations. Operators and Symbolic Methods. 12. There are two further stages in the use of the symbols A, 2, 4, „) r. = N. The solution, if pi, p ..... pm are all different, is va = Cipi*+ Cipi"+ . . . +Cmpm"+V,,, where Q, C2 . . . are constants, and tin = Vn is any one solution of the equation. The method of finding a value for V» depends on the form of N. Certain modifications are required when two or more of the p's are equal. It should be observed, in all cases of this kind, that, in describing Ci, C2 as " constants," it is meant that the value of any one, as Ci, is the same for all values of n occurring in the series. A " constant " may, however, be a periodic function of n. Applications to Continuous Functions. 1 6. The cases of greatest practical importance are those in which u is a continuous function of x. The terms «i, Ut . . . of the series then represent the successive values of u corresponding to x = xit x, . . . The important applications of the theory in these cases are to (i.) relations between differences and differential coefficients, (ii.) DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION 225 interpolation, or the determination of intermediate values of u, and (iii ) relations between sums and integrals. 17 Starting from any pair of values *o and «o, we may suppose the interval h from *o to Xi to be divided into q equal portions. I we suppose the corresponding values of u to be obtained, and their differences taken, the successive advancing differences of «o being denoted by d«o, d2«o .... we have (§ 3 (ii.)) When q is made indefinitely great, this (writing /(*) for «) becomes Taylors Theorem (INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS) which, expressed in terms of operators, is This gives the relation between A and D. Also we have and, if p is any integer, From these equations uplq could be expressed in terms of «o, «i, «»,... ; this is a particular case of interpolation (q.v.). ' 18. Differences and Differential Coefficients. — The various formulae are most quickly obtained by symbolical methods; i.e. by dealing with the operators A, E, D, . . . as if they were algebraical quantities. Thus the relation E = e"o (§ 17) gives The formulae connecting central differences with differential coefficients are based on the relations n=coshiAD = J(el*D+e~i*D), 6 = 2 sinh JAD=e»AD— e-JAD, and may be grouped as follows: — . . .)MO )«! tto 1 When u is a rational integral function of x, each of the above series is a terminating series. In other cases the series will be an infinite one, and may be divergent; but it may be used for purposes o: approximation up to a certain point, and there will be a " remainder,1' the limits of whose magnitude will be determinate. 19. Sums and Integrals. — The relation between a sum and an integral is usually expressed by the Euler-Maclaurin formula. The principle of this formula is that, if um and «m+i, are ordinates of a curve, distant h from one another, then for a first approximation to the area of the curve between Mm and «m-n we have %h(um+um+i) vill. 8 and the difference between this and the true value of the area can De expressed as the difference of two expressions, one of which is a unction of xm, and the other is the same function of Denoting these by 4>(xm) and (xm+i), we have '+ /xm+ Xm Adding a series of similar expressions, we find /: The function i>(x) can be expressed in terms either of differential coefficients of u or of advancing or central differences; thus there are three formulae. (i.) The Euler-Maclaurin formula, properly so called, (due inde- pendently to Euler and Maclaurin) is udx = where Bi, Bu, Bs . . . are Bernoulli's numbers. (ii.) If we express differential coefficients in terms of advancing differences, we get a theorem which is due to Laplace :— i fXn -r I «(ix=/i(x, y, dy/dx) =o be satisfied by any one of the curves F(x, y, c) = o,where cisan arbitrary constant, it is clear that the envelope of these curves, when existent, must also satisfy the differential equation; for this equation prescribes a relation connecting only the co-ordinates x, y and the differential coefficient dy/dx, and these three quantities are the same at any point of the envelope for the envelope and for the particular curve of the family which there touches the envelope. The relation ex- pressing the equation of the envelope is called a singular solution of the differential equation, meaning an isolated solution, as not being one of a family of curves depending upon an arbitrary parameter. An extended form of Clairaut's equation expressed by y=xF(p)+f(p) may be similarly solved by first differentiating in regard to p, when it reduces to a linear equation of which x is the dependent and p the independent variable; from the integral of this linear equation, and the original differential equation, the quantity p is then to be eliminated. Other types of solvable differential equations of the first order are (l) where M, N are homogeneous polynomials in x and y, of the same order; by putting v=y/x and eliminating y, the equation becomes of the first type considered above, in » and x. An equation (oB^iA) (ax+by+c)dy/dx=Ax+'By+C may be reduced to this rule by first putting x-\-h, y+k for x and y, and determining h, k so that ah+bk+c — o, AA+B£+C = o. (2) An equation in which y does not explicitly occur, /(*, dy/dx) =o, may, theoretically, be reduced to the type dy/dx = F(x); similarly an equation F(y, dy/dx) —o. (3) An equation J(dy/dx, x, y) =o, which is an integral polynomial in dy/dx, may, theoretically, be solved for dy/dx, as an algebraic equation ; to any root dy/dx = FI (x,y) corresponds, suppose, a solution to be the other root, so that = -P, the auxiliary differential equation for z, referred to above, becomes - + (9 - ) z = Re-"1, which leads to zeC*"*)* = B + where B is an arbitrary constant, and hence to or say to y = Aee*+Ce**+U, where A, C are arbitrary constants and U is a function of x, not present at all when R = o. If the quadratic equation 02 + P0+Q=o has equal roots, so that 26=— P, the auxiliary equation in z becomes dz/dx = Re"91, giving z = B + j Re~e*dx, where 8 is an arbitrary constant, and hence or, say, y= (A.+Bx)ee*+U, where A, B are arbitrary constants, and U is a function of x not present at all when R = o. The portion Ae**-r-Be«* or (A+Ex)eex of the solution, which is known as the com- plementary function, can clearly be written down at once by inspec- tion of the given differential equation. The remaining portion U may, by taking the constants in the complementary function properly, be replaced by any particular solution whatever of the differential equation for if u be any particular solution, this has a form or a form « = (Ao+Bo*)e*"+U; thus the general solution can be written (A-A0)eSI+(B-Bo)e*'-l-M, or {A-Aa+(B-E<1)x}e<>'+u, where A— Ao, B — Bo, like A, B, are arbitrary constants. A similar result holds for a linear differential equation of any order, say ~ where PI, PS, ... Pn are constants, and R is a function of x. If we form the algebraic equation 6"+PiO"-1 + ... +Pn = o, and all the roots of this equation be different, say they are 0i, 0s, • • • 0n, the general solution of the differential equation is where Ai, As, ... An are arbitrary constants, and u is any DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION 227 particular solution whatever; but if there be one root 9i re- ' must be replaced by peated r times, the terms A^ l + . . . 8 f (Ai+A2x + . . . +Arxr-1)e ' where Ai, . . . A, are arbitrary con- stants; the remaining terms in the complementary function will similarly need alteration of form if there be other repeated roots. To complete the solution of the differential equation we need some method of determining a particular intagral u; we explain a pro- cedure which is effective for this purpose in the cases in which R is a sum of terms of the form e°x(x), where (x) is an integral poly- nomial in x; this includes cases in which R contains terms of the form cos bx.j>(x) or sin bx.(«"tt), i.e.jg(e°*u), being equal to D(e»"T), where » = (D+o)«, is equal to e" (D+o)p, that is to e°*(D+a)*u. In this way we find D*(e"u) =ea'(D+a)"u, where n is any positive integer. Hence if rf-(D) be any polynomial in D with constant co- efficients, ^(D) (eOIij)=eaV(D+a)«. Next, denoting \ udx by D — *«, and any solution of the differential equation j^~^-oz = u by z = (D+o)-'«, we have D[e«(D-t-a)-1«] = D(e"z) = eM(D+o)z = e"u, so that we may write D-l(e"u)=e"(D+a)-lu, where the meaning is that one value of the left side is equal to one value of the right side; from this, the expression D~~*(e°xu), which means D-'ID-He"*)], is equal to D-'(e"z) and hence to ^ which we write e"(D+a)~*«<; proceeding thus we obtain where n is any positive integer, and the meaning, as before, is that one value of the first expression is equal to one value of the second. More generally, if ^(D) be any polynomial in D with constant co- efficients, and we agree to denote by ./,/p\" any solution z of the differential equation ^(D)z = M, we have, if v = .A/n +a)u' tne identity (e°*v) =e"x\lf(D+a)v=e'"u, which we write in the form This gives us the first step in the method we are explaining, namely that a solution of the differential equation iff(D)y = eaIu+ «**p+ . . . where u, v, . . . are any functions of x, is any function denoted by the expression It is now to be shown how to obtain one value of,/p . »u, when u is a polynomial in x, namely one solution of the differential equation tt. Let the highest power of * entering in u be x"; if / were a variable quantity, the rational fraction in t, ,;/ ., by first writing it as a sum of partial fractions, or otherwise, could be identic- ally written in the form where (t) is a polynomial in t; this shows that there exists an identity of the form and hence an identity . . . +HmD»]« in this, since u contains no power of x higher than xm, the second term on the right may be omitted. We thus reach the conclusion that a solution of the differential equation ^(D+o)z = w is given by +K1D-»+H+H1D+ . . . + HmD-)«, of which the operator on the right is obtained simply by expanding iM(D+a) in ascending powers of D, as if D were a numerical quantity, the expansion being carried as far as the highest power of D which, operating upon u, does not give zero. In this form every term in z is capable of immediate calculation. Example. — For the equation t cos x or cos x, o are 8= ±», the roots of the associated algebraic equation ((P-l-i)* each repeated ; the complementary function is thus (A+Bx)e"+(C+Dx)e-<*, where A, B, C, D are arbitrary constants; this is the same as (H+Kx) cos x+(M+Nx) sin x, where H, K, M, N are arbitrary constants. To obtain a particular integral we must find a value of (l+D*)-*xl cos x; this is the real part of (i-r-D1)-1 e<*x* and hence of eiI[i+(D+i)t]-tx* or e*''[2»D(i-|tD)]-V, or -le^D-'Ci+iD-fD'-frD'+ftD^VD1. . .)*», or -iev*(?1B*5 + l«*4-!:cl-i«!+¥*+S*') ; the real part of this is -l_(A*6-i*!+ ¥*) cos x+lds'-f^+S) sin x. This expression added to the complementary function found above gives the complete integral; and no generality is lost by omitting from the particular integral the terms -H * cos x+fe sin x, which are of the types of terms already occurring in the complementary function. The symbolical method which has been explained has wider appli- cations than.that to which we have, for simplicity of explanation, restricted it. For example, if 4/(x) be any function of x, and Oi, Oj, . . .a, be different constants, and [(<+Oi) (t+at) . . . (t+a*)]~l when expressed in partial fractions be written ^cm(t-\-a^)~l, a par- ticular integral of the differential equation (D+ = tf<(x) is given by The particular integral is thus expressed as a sum of n integrals. A linear differential equation of w f which the left side has the form where PI, . . . P« are constants, can be reduced to the case considered above. Writing x — et we have the identity x"j£=e($-l)(0-2)...(6-m + i) u, where 0=d/dt. When the linear differential equation, which we take to be of the second order, has variable coefficients, though there is no general rule for obtaining a solution in finite terms, there are some results which it is of advantage to have in mind. We have seen that if one solution of the equation obtained by putting the right side zero, say yi, be known, the equation can be solved. If yt be another solution of where m, n, k are there being no relation of the form my\ +nyt constants, it is easy to see that A exp. ( | Pdx so that we have yi'yt-yiyi where A is a suitably chosen constant, and exp. z denotes e1. In terms of the two solutions y\, yi of the differential equation having zero on the right side, the general solution of the equation with R = #(*) on the right side can at once be verified to be where u, v respectively denote the integrals The equation by writing y=v exp. ( — i \ Pdx), is at once seen to be reduced to T o, where d*v ,dP . If i do -~-^, the equation becomes dx = l+r?< a non-linear equation of the first order. More generally the equation where A, B, C are functions of x, is, by the substitution i dy reduced to the linear equation The equation =o. dx~ known as Riccati's equation, is transformed into an equation of the same form by a substitution of the form Tf=-(aY+6)/(cY-|-J>')y+c+)*£', the quantity X being so chosen that b+\b' = \(a+\a'), so that we have ', where P, Q, R are constants. The integration of this gives x, and thence y can be found. A similar process is applicable when we have three or more dependent variables whose differential coefficients in regard to the single independent variables are given as linear functions of the dependent variables with constant coefficients. Another method of solution of the equations dx/dt = ax+by+c, dy/dt = a'x+b'y+c', consists in differentiating the first equation, thereby obtaining d?x dx . ,dy dP=adi+bdx' from the two given equations, by elimination of y, we can express dy/dt as a linear function of x and dx/dt; we can thus form an equation of the shape dtx/dP^P+Qx+RdxIdt, where P, Q, R are constants; this can be integrated by methods previously ex- plained, and the integral, involving two arbitrary constants, gives, by the equation dx/dt = ax+by+c, the corresponding value of y. Conversely it should be noticed that any single linear differential equation (x, y, z)=C whose differential is equivalent with the given differential equation ; that is, p being a proper function of x, y, z, we assume that there exist equations Off) -mf Otft -*r Q(P rj these equations require and hence X (dy'Jz'J ~T * \te~dx) T" \te~dy conversely it can be proved that this is sufficient in order that /JL may exist to render n(Xdx+\dy+Zdz) a perfect differential; in particular it may be satisfied in virtue of the three equations such as — -— = o dy dz ' in which case we may take p = i. Assuming the condition in its general form, take in the given differential equation a plane section of the surface = C parallel to the plane z, viz. put z con- stant, and consider the resulting differential equation in the two variables x, y, namely Xdx+Ydy = o; let (x, y, z) =constant, be its integral, the constant z entering, as a rule, in \j/ because it enters in X and Y. Now differentiate the relation $(x, y, z)=/(z), where/ is a function to be determined, so obtaining there exists a function a of x, y, z such that because ^ = constant, is the integral of ~X.dx-\-\dy=o; we desire to prove that /can be chosen so that also, in virtue of t(x, y, z) =/(z), we have W d\ £, namely j =5*-— aZ; az dz if this can be proved the relation y>(x, y, z)-/(z) =constant, will be the integral of the given differential equation. To prove this it is enough to show that, in virtue of ^(x, y, z) =/(z), the function rp — wZ can be expressed in terms of z only. Now in consequence of the originally assumed relations, r ?*_..v- ^-..-7 we have and hence dx dy' _ dxdy dydx~ ' this shows that, as functions of x and y, $ is a function of (see the note at the end of part i. of this article, on Jacobian determinants), so that we may write ^ = F(z, ), from which dF ^ dj dF,dFd dF , a 7 dF dt dF '- in virtue of 4>(x, y, z)=/(z), and ^ = F(z, ), the function can be written in terms of z only, thus dF/dz can be written in terms of 2 only, and what we required to prove is proved. Consider lastly a simple type of differential equation containing two independent variables, say x and y, and one dependent variable z, namely the equation p|5+Q|l=Ri dx *dy where P, Q, R are functions of x, y, z. This is known as Lagrange's linear partial differential equation of the first order. To integrate this, consider first the ordinary differential equations dx/dz = P/R, dy/dz = Q/R, and suppose that two functions u, v, of x, y, z can be determined, independent of one another, such that the equations u = a, v = b, where a, b are arbitrary constants, lead to these ordinary differential equations, namely such that JHu , ~3tt . r.du , .JSv . f^dv . Dd» P^+Q^+% = ° and Pdx+Qdy+Rdz=0- Then if F(x, y, z) =o be a relation satisfying the original differential equations, this relation giving rise to It follows that the determinant of three rows and columns vanishes whose first row consists of the three quantities dF/dx, dF/dy, dF/dz, whose second row consists of the three quantities dujdx, du/dy, du/dz, whose third row consists similarly of the partial derivatives of v. The vanishing of this so-called Jacobian determinant is known to imply that F is expressible as a function of u and v, unless these are themselves functionally related, which is contrary to hypothesis (see the note below on Jacobian determinants). Conversely, any relation (u, v)=o can easily be proved, in virtue of the equations satisfied by u and f, to lead to The solution of this partial equation is thus reduced to the solu- tion of the two ordinary differential equations expressed by dx/P = dy/Q = dz/R. In regard to this problem one remark may be made which is often of use in practice: when one equation u=a has been found to satisfy the -differential equations, we may utilize this to obtain the second equation v = b; for instance, we may, by means of u = a, eliminate z — when then from the resulting equations in x and y a relation !» = & has been found containing x and y and a, the substitution a = u will give a relation involving x, y, z. Note on Jacobian Determinants. — The fact assumed above that the vanishing of the Jacobian determinant whose elements are the partial derivatives of three functions F, «, v, of three variables x, y, i, DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION 229 involves that there exists a functional relation connecting the three functions F, u, v, may be proved somewhat roughly as follows: — The corresponding theorem is true for any number of variables. Consider first the case of two functions p, q, of two variables x, y. The function p, not being constant, must contain one of the variables, say x ; we can then suppose x expressed in terms of y and the function p ; thus the function q can be expressed in terms of y and the function p, say q = Q(p, y). This is clear enough in the simplest cases which arise, when the functions are rational. Hence we have these give _= dx~dpdxdy dpdydy' _ dxdy dydx~dxdy ' by hypothesis dp/dx is not identically zero; therefore if the Jacobian determinant of p and q in regard to x and y is zero identically, so is dQ/dy, or Q does not contain y, so that q is expressible as a function of p only. Conversely, such an expression can be seen at once to make the Jacobian of p and q vanish identically. Passing now to the case of three variables, suppose that the Jacobian determinant of the three functions F, u, v in regard to x, y, z is identically zero. We prove that if u, v are not themselves functionally connected, F is expressible as a function of u and v. Suppose first that the minors of the elements of dF/dx, dF/dy, dF/dz in the determinant are all identically zero, namely the three deter- minants such as dudv _dudv dydz~dzdy' then by the case of two variables considered above there exist three functional relations^ (u,v,x) = o,^2(«,p,y) =o, ^s(u,v,z) = o, of which the first, for example, follows from the vanishing of dudv_dudy_ dy dz dz dy' We cannot assume that x is absent from fa, or y from ^2, or z from ^3 ; but conversely we cannot simultaneously have x entering in ^i, and y in fa, and z in ^3, or else by elimination of u and v from the three equations ^1=0, ^2=0, ^3 = 0, we should find a necessary relation connecting the three independent quantities x, y, z; which is absurd. Thus when the three minors of dF/dx, dF/dy, dF/dz in the Jacobian determinant are all zero, there exists a functional relation connecting u and » only. Suppose no such relation to exist; we can then suppose, for example, that ^__ dydz dzdy isnotzero. Then from the equations u(x, y, z) =u, v(x,y,z) =rwecan express y and z in terms of u, v, and x (the attempt to do this could only fail by leading to a relation connecting u, v and x, and the existence of such a relation would involve that the determinant dudv dudv dydz~dzdy was zero), and so write F in the form F(*, y: z) =*(«, v, x). We then have dF =d&d_U,d$d_v d* dF_dJbdu ,S^dv_ dF_dJI>du ,v dx ~dudx'dvdx~i~dx' dy ~dudy'dv dy' dz ~dudz~^dv dz' thereby the Jacobian determinant of F, u, v is reduced to d* /dudv_dudv\ _ dx \dydz dz dy) ' by hypothesis the second factor of this does not vanish identically ; hence d$/dx = o identically, and * does not contain x; so that F is expressible in terms of u, v only ; as was to be proved. Part II.— General Theory. Differential equations arise in the expression of the relations between quantities by the elimination of details, either unknown or regarded as unessential to the formulation of the relations in question. They give rise, therefore, to the two closely connected problems of determining what arrangement of details is consistent with them, and of developing, apart from these details, the general properties expressed by them. Very roughly, two methods of study can be distinguished, with the names Transformation- theories, Function-theories; the former is concerned with the reduction of the algebraical relations to the fewest and simplest forms, eventually with the hope of obtaining explicit expressions of the dependent variables in terms of the independent variables; the latter is concerned with the determination of the general descriptive relations among the quantities which are involved by the differential equations, with as little use of algebraical calcula- tions as may be possible. Under the former heading we may, with the assumption of a few theorems belonging to the latter, arrange the theory of partial differential equations and Pfaff's problem, with their geometrical interpretations, as at present developed, and the applications of Lie's theory of transforma- tion-groups to partial and to ordinary equations; under the latter, the study of linear differential equations in the manner initiated1 by Riemann, the applications of discontinuous groups, the theory of the singularities of integrals, and the study of potential equations with existence-theorems arising therefrom. In order to be clear we shall enter into some detail in regard to partial differential equations of the first order, both those which are linear in any number of variables and those not linear in two independent variables, and also in regard to the function-theory of linear differential equations of the second order. Space renders impossible anything further than the briefest account of many other matters; in particular, the theories of partial equations of higher than the first order, the function- theory of the singularities of ordinary equations not linear and the applications to differential geometry, are taken account of only in the bibliography. It is believed that on the whole the article will be more useful to the reader than if explanations of method had been further curtailed to include more facts. When we speak of a function without qualification, it is to be understood that in the immediate neighbourhood of a particular set x0, ym . . of values of the independent variables x, y, . . . of the function, at whatever point of the range of values for x, y, . . . under consideration xa, y0, . . may be chosen, the function can be expressed as a series of positive integral powers of the differences x— X0, y—y0,..., convergent when these are sufficiently small (see FUNCTION: Functions of Complex Vari- ables). Without this condition, which we express by saying that the function is developable about *„, y0, . . . , many results provisionally stated in the transformation theories would be unmeaning or incorrect. If, then, we have a set of k functions, fi . . . ft, of n independent variables x\ . . . xn, we say that they are independent when n>Ji and not every determinant of k rows and columns vanishes of the matrix of k rows and » columns whose r-th row has the constituents dfr/dxi, . . .dfrldxn', the justification being in the theorem, which we assume, that if the determinant involving, for instance, the first k columns be not zero for x\ = x\ . . . xn=xn0, and the functions be developable about this point, then from the equations f\ = c\, . . .ft—Ck we can express x\, . . . x* by convergent power series in the differences **+!— *t°+i, . . . Xn—xn°, and so regard x\, . . . ** as functions of the remaining variables. This we of t en express by saying that the equations /i = Ci, . . ./*=£* can be solved for *i,... Xk. The explanation is given as a type of explanation often understood in what follows. We may conveniently begin by stating the theorem : If each of the n functions 0i, . . .nol the (n + i) variables *i,. . .x^t be develop- able about the values xi°, . . . xn"t°, the n differential equations of the form dxi/dt = i(txi, ...*„) are satisfied e by convergent power series „ v°-4-f/ — /*AA -L(V — / \2A ,L o/ MM? first reducing respectively to xi", . . .x,f when t = t°;&nd the °™er" only functions satisfying the equations and reducing respectively to *i°, . . . xn° when* = <", are those determined by continuation of these series. If the result of solving these n equations for xi", . . •. xa° be written in the forma>i(jCi, . . . xnt) = x\°, . . .u,,(xi, . . . xnt) =xa°, it is at once evident that the differential equation Single df/dt+,df/dXl+. . .+adf/dXn = 0 homogene- possesses n integrals, namely, the functions «i, . . . «„, °* which are developable about the values (xf. . . . Xn°t") and e?"f ? . reduce respectively to x i, . . .*„ wheni = /°. And in fact it °'lne'" has no other integrals so reducing. Thus this equation also possesses a unique integral reducing when t = t° to an arbitrary function $(xi, . . . #„), this integral being (ui, . . . «„). Conversely the existence of these principal integrals «i, . . . w, of the partial equation establishes the existence of the specified solutions of the ordinary equations dxi/dt = 'n absolute value, not greater than the corresponding coefficient in PHJ. Thus if the series for F be convergent, the series for / will also be ; and we are thus reduced to (i), specifying functions A, B with real positive coefficients, each in absolute value not less than the corresponding coefficient in a, b; (2) proving that the equation MF/dx+BdF/dy =dF(dt possesses an integral Po+tPi+CPi/2\ + ... in which the coefficients in P. are real and positive, and each not less than the absolute value of the corresponding coefficient in p0. If a, 6 be developable for *, y both in absolute value less than r and for / less in absolute value than R, and for such values o, 6 be both less in absolute value than the real positive constant M, it is not difficult to verify that we may take A = B = M (i -£±2) "' (l -Q ~\ and obtain and that this solves the problem when *, y, t are sufficiently small for the two cases pa = x, p<,=y. One obvious application of the general theorem is to the proof of the existence of an integral of an ordinary linear differential equation given by the n equations dy/dx=yi, dyi/dx=yi . . , dyn-i/dx=p-piy«-i- . • .-p_*y; but in fact any simultaneous system of ordinary equations is re- ducible to a system of the form dxi/dt = i(txi, . . . *»)• Suppose we have k homogeneous linear partial equations of the first order in n independent variables, the general equation being andf/dxi+. . .+a(x,+i, ...*„) which is developable about xS+i, • • • x,°, namely, this common solution is ^(uv+i, . . . (Q•<,, z») of three- dimensioned space (about which a, b are developable) a plane, namely, z-s,=a,(x-x,)+b,(y-y,'), and therefore, through this arbitrary point oo 2 directions, namely, all those in the plane. If now there be a surface z = ^(x, y), satisfying dz = adz+bdy and passing through (xa, ya, z,,), this plane will touch the surface, and the operations of passing along the surface from (x,, ya, z») to (xa-\-dxo, ya, za+dzc) and then to (x.-\-dxa, y,+dy0, z,+dlz,), ought to lead to the same value of dlza as do the operations of passing along the surface trom (*,. y,, z,) to (xo, ya+dy<,, z»+«z0), and then to (x,,+dx,, y,+dy,, Zo-H'z,), namely, J'z. ought to be equal to dlza. But we find and so at once reach the condition of integrability. If now we put DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION 231 x = Xo+t, y — y,+mt, and regard m as constant, we shall in fact be considering the section of the surface by a fixed plane y-y0 = m(x-x0) ; along this section dz = dt(a+bm) ; if we then integrate the equation dx/dt = a+bm, where a, b are expressed as functions of m and /, with m kept constant, finding the solution which reduces to z, for / = o, and in the result again replace m by (y-y«)/(x-xa), we shall have the surface in question. In the general case the equations dXj=CijdXl+. ,C,jdXr Mayer"* similarly determine through an arbitrary point Xi°, . ._. xn° method of a planar manifold of r dimensions in space of n dimensions, Integra- and when the conditions of integrability are satisfied, tlon. every direction in this manifold through this point is tangent to the manifold of r dimensions, expressed by ur+i=xr\i, . . un = Xn°, which satisfies the equations and passes through this point. If we put xi-x\° = t, x^-xi" = ntit, . . . xr-xr° = mrt, and regard MI, ... m, as fixed, the (n-r) total equations take the form dxj/dt = Cij+miCij+. . .+mrcrj, and their integration is equivalent to that of the single partial equation n df/dt+ 2(Cij+miCn+. . . +mrc,j)dfldxj = o in the n-r + i variables /, av+i, . . . xn. Determining the solutions Qr+i,. . . .a, which reduce.to respectively *r+i,- . .*„ when* = o, and sub- stituting t = xi-xi", mi = (xi-xi°)/(xi-x,°), . . . mr = (xr-xr°)/(xi-xl°), we obtain the solutions of the original system of partial equa- tions previously denoted by ov+i, . . . o>n. It is to be remarked, however, that the presence of the fixed parameters mi, ... m, in the single integration may frequently render it more difficult than if they were assigned numerical quantities. We have above considered the integration of an equation dz = adz+bdy on the hypothesis that the condition da / dy-}-bda/dz = db/dz -\-adbfdz. p. „. It is natural to inquire what relations among x, y, z, if any, are implied by, or are consistent with, a differential relation adx+bdy+cdx = o, when a, b, c are unrestricted functions of x, y, z. This problem leads to the consideration of the so-called Pfaffian Expression adx+bdy+cde. It can be shown (i) if each of the quantities db/dz-dc/dy, dc/dx-da/dz, da/dy-db/dz, which we shall denote respectively by w2s, ««, un, be identically zero, the expression is the differential of a function of x, y, z, equal to dt say; (2) that if the quantity auii+buai+cua is identically zero, the ex- pression is of the form udt, i.e. it can be made a perfect differential by multiplication by the factor i/u; (3) that in general the ex- pression is of the form dt+Uidti. Consider the matrix of four rows and three columns, in which the elements of the first row are a, b, c, and the elements of the (r+i)-th row, for r = i, 2, 3, are the quantities Uri, Urt, UT>, where ttn = «s2 = Ms»=o. Then it is easily seen that the cases (i), (2), (3) above correspond respectively to the cases when (i) every determinant of this matrix of two rows and columns is zero, (2) every determinant of three rows and columns is zero, (3) when no condition is assumed. This result can be general- ized as follows: if 01, . . . an be any functions of xi, . . . *„, the so- called Pfaffian expression atdxi+. . .+andx* can be reduced to one or other of the two forms Uidti+. . .-{-utdti,, dt-\-uidti-\-. . .-\-Uk-idtt-i, wherein t, u\, . . .,t\, . . . are independent functions of xi, . . .xn, and k is such that in these two cases respectively 2k or 2k-i is the rank of a certain matrix of n + i rows and n columns, that is, the greatest number of rows and columns in a non-vanishing determinant of the matrix; the matrix is that whose first row is constituted by the quantities 01, . . . on, whose s-th element in the (r-f l)-th row is the quantity da,ldx,-da,ldx,. The proof of such a reduced form can be obtained from the two results: (i) If t be any given functjon of the 2m independent variables MI, ... Mm, n + i variables in virtue of which the Pfaffian equation is satisfied independently of the form of the functions , , say, together with u'i = d/dt'i ..... u'm=d/dt'm,'wh\ch contain only one relation connecting the variables /', t\, . . . t'm only. This method for a single Pfaffian equation can, strictly speaking, be generalized to a simultaneous system of (n-r) Pfaffian equations dxj = cijdxi+. . .+cTjdxr only in the case already treated, ... , when this system is satisfied by regarding av+i, . . . *„ as . suitable functions of the independent variables x\, . . . x,; %?eff!" in that case the integral manifolds are of r dimensions. When these are non-existent, there may be integral mani- equa folds of higher dimensions ; for if d = r+i (ci r+idxi + . . . +cr,r+idxr) + tfy+j ( ) + . . . be identically zero, then 0ff+ca,r+i«#v+i+. . .+cir,n0n=p, or <£ satisfies the r partial differential equations previously associated with the total equations; when these are not a complete system, but in- cluded in a complete system of r-it equations, having therefore n-r-p independent integrals, the total equations are satisfied over a manifold of r+n dimensions (see E. v. Weber, Math. Annal. Iv. (1901), p. 386). It seems desirable to add here certain results, largely of algebraic character, which naturally arise in connexion with the theory of contact transformations. For any two functions of the 2n independent variables xi,...x*,pi,... pn we denote by (jrf) CoatKt &&£ d*d _ transfer. the sum of the n terms such as , / - , , . For two matlons. (i'P \CLXi dPidjCi functions of the (2n + l) independent variables z,xt, . . . x,,pi, ... pn we denote by [<£^] the sum of the n terms such as d (dt ,.dy\ dpi (dxl+^Tz) ~ d It can at once be verified that for any three functions[/[^]] + [0[^/]] which when/, *, *do not contain z becomes the identity (/((#)) + GK./V>)) =o. Then.if Xi,. ..Xn, PI, ... P» be such functions of xi, . . . xn,p\ . . . pn that PidXi + . . . +PndXn is identically equal to pidx!+ . . . +pndx,, it can be shown by elementary algebra, after equating coefficients of inde- pendent differentials, (i) that the functions Xi, . . . P» are independ- ent functions of the 2n variables *i, . . . pn, so that the equations *',=Xi, p'i = Pi]can be solved ford, ...*„, pi, . . . £n,and represent therefore a transformation, which we call a homogeneous contact transformation ; (2) that the Xj, . . . Xn are homogeneous functions of pi,. . . pn of zero dimensions the PI,... P» are homogeneous functions of pi, . . . pn of dimension one, and the in(n-i) relations (X ior-pi/p^.i and dic dijdy_ dqdy ~du di~ dt du+(lu~di~ dtdu' which is equal to dpdF . dx/dF , dF\ . dqdF . ay (dF . dF\ dF As TT is a developable function of t, this, giving shows that U is everywhere zero. Thus integrals of F=o are obtainable by considering the aggregate of characteristic chains issuing from arbitrary chain connectivities T satisfying F=o; and such connectivities T are, it is seen at once, determinable without integration. Conversely, as such a chain connectivity T can be taken out from the elements of any given integral all possible integrals are obtainable in this way. For instance, an arbitrary curve in space, given by x0=8(u), ya = (u),zc = \f'(u), determines by the two equations F(*b, y,, z,, p,, g«,)=o, 4>'(u) = pjB' (u) +q,' (u) , such a chain connectivity T, through which there passes a perfectly definite integral of the equation F = o. By taking oo 2 initial chain connectivities T, as for instance by taking the curves x<,=8, yo = Zo = iA to be the oo 2 curves upon an arbitrary surface, we thus obtair oo 2 integrals, and so oo * elements satisfying F = o. In general, ii functions G, H, independent of F, be obtained, such that the equations F = o, G = 6, H—c represent an integral for all values of the constants b, c, these equations are said to constitute a complete ntegral. Then oo 4 elements satisfying F = o are known, and in fact :yery other form of integral can be obtained without further integra- ions. In the foregoing discussion of the differential equations of a characteristic chain, the denominators dF/dp, . . . may be supposed ;o be modified in form by means of F = o in any way conducive to a simple integration. In the immediately following explanation of ideas, however, we consider indifferently all equations F= constant; when a function of x, y, z, p, q is said to be zero, it is meant that this ^s so identically, not in virtue of F = o; in other words, we consider :he integration of F=o, where a is an arbitrary constant. In the theory of linear partial equations we have seen that the integration of the equations of the characteristic chains, from whjch, ooenKtons as has just been seen, that of the equation F=a follows ' -fssan, at once, would be involved in completely integrating . the single linear homogeneous partial differential equation . of the first order [F/] =o where the notation is that " explained above under Contact Transformations. One "' obvious integral is/=F. Putting F = a, where a is arbi- trary , and eliminating one of the independent variables, we can reduce this equation [F/] = o to one in four variables ; and sojon. Calling, then, the determination of a single integral of a single homogeneous partial differential equation of the first order in n independent variables, an operation of order »-i, the characteristic chains, and therefore the most general integral of F = o, can be obtained by successive opera- tions of orders 3, 2, I. If, however, an integral of F=o be repre- sented by F = a, G = b, H =c, where b and c are arbitrary constants, the expression of the fact that a characteristic chain of F =a satisfies dG = o, gives [FG]=o; similarly, [FH] = o and [GH]=o, these three relations being identically true. Conversely, suppose that an integral G, independent of F, has been obtained of the equation [F/] = o, which is an operation of order three. Then it follows from theidentity lfl*t}]+[4[m+WM=[W+W]+[f] before remarked, by putting = F, <1> = G, and then (F/]=A(/), [G/] = B(/), that AB(/)-BA(/) = -^B (/)--^A(/), so that the two linear equations [F/] =o, [G/] =o form a complete system; as two integrals F, G are known, they have a common integral H, independent of F, G, deter- minable by an operation of order one only. The three functions F, G, H thus identically satisfy the relations (FG] = [GH] = [FH] =o. The oo 2 elements satisfying F = a, G = b, H=c, wherein o, b, c are assigned constants, can then be seen to constitute anintegralpf F =a. For the conditions that a characteristic chain of G = b issuing from an element satisfying F=a, G = b, H=c should consist only of elements satisfying these three equations are simply[FG] =o,[GH] =o. Thus, starting from an arbitrary element of (F=a, G = 6, H =c),we can single out a connectivity of elements of (F = o, G — b, H=c) forming a characteristic chain of G = ft; then the aggregate of the characteristic chains of F = a issuing from the elements of this characteristic chain of G =b will be a connectivity consisting only of elements of (F=o, G = b, H=c), and will therefore constitute an integral of F=a; further, it will include all elements of (F =a, G=b, H=c). This result follows also from a theorem given under Contact Transformations, which shows, moreover, that though the characteristic chains of F = a are not determined by the three equations F=a, G = b, H=c, no further integration is now necessary to find them. By this theorem, since identically [FG] = [GH] = [FH]=o, we can find, by the solution of linear algebraic equations only, a non-vanishing function a and two functions A, C, such that dG-AdF-CdH =a(dz-pdz-qdy) ; thus all the elements satisfying F = a,G = 6,H=c, satisfy dz = pdx+qdy and constitute a connectivity, which is therefore an integral of F=a. While, further, from the associated theorems, F, G, H, A, C are independent functions and [FC]=o. Thus C may be taken to be the remaining integral independent of G, H, of the equation [F/] =o, whereby the characteristic chains are entirely determined. When we consider the particular equation F=o, neglecting the case when neither p nor q enters, and supposing p to enter, we may express p from F = o in terms of x, y, z, q, and then eliminate it from all other equations. Then instead of the equation [Ff] = o, we have, if F =o give p = 4>(x, y, z, q), the equation moreover obtainable by omitting the term in df/dp in [p-, g»; we have seen that the aggregate of such chains issuing from the elements of an arbitrary chain satisfying d Za — podxa — q<4y0 = o constitute an integral of the equation p = dx—qdy = i, . p, = r, wherein pi, . pr are not involved in t, pj—4>i\=o, has a solution z = idxi — ... — rdxr — pr+idxr+i — ... — pn dxn into the form «=;jp and so express xt, . . . *„ in terms of t, xit . . . x,, pi, . . . pn, assuming that the determinant of the quantities , IA is not zero; if, further, H denote the function of t, xt, . . . *„, pi, . . . pn, numerically equal to pi±i+. . .+pnXn — L, it is easy to prove that dpt/dl = -dHjdxi, dXi/dt = dH/dpi. These Equations so.caned canonical equations form part of those for the characteristic chains of the single partial equation dynamics. dz/^+H«, *,, . . . xn, dzjdxi, _. . ., dz/dx,) = o, to which then the solution of the original equations for xi . . . xn can be reduced. Itmay beshown (i) that ifz = ^(t, *i, . . . *n, ci, • • cn)+c be a complete integral of this equation, then pi=d\f>ldxi, d„»), pi = Pi(t, Xi0,. . .p°n) be the principal solutions of the canonical equations for t = f, and o> denote the result of substituting these values in pidH/dpi+. . .+pndHidpn—H, and «= f't wdt, where, after integration, SI is to be expressed as a function of /, Xi . . . Xn, xi", . . . Xn°, then 2 = 12+2° is a complete integral of the partial equation. A. system of differential equations is said to allow a certain continuous group of transformations (see GROUPS, THEORY OF) when the introduction for the variables in the differen- Appika- ^ eqUations of the new variables given by the 'theory of equations of the group leads, for all values of the coatiou- parameters of the group, to the same differential equa- ou* groups tions in tne new variables. It would be interesting Theories.' to verifX in examples that this is the case in at least the majority of the differential equations which are known to be integrable in finite terms. We give a theorem of very general application for the case of a simultaneous complete system of linear partial homogeneous differential equations of the first order, to the solution of which the various differential equa- tions discussed have been reduced. It will be enough to consider whether the given differential equations allow the infinitesimal transformations of the group. It can be shown easily that sufficient conditions in order that a complete system IIi/=o. . .n*/ = o, in n independent variables, should allow the infinitesimal transformation P/=o are expressed by fe equations niP/-Pni/=Xiin,/+...+XitIIi/. Suppose now a complete system of n — r equations in n variables to allow a group of r infinitesimal transformations (Pi/, . . ., Pr/) which has an invariant subgroup of r—i parameters (Pi/, . . ., Pr_i/), it being supposed that the n quantities tti/, . . ., Hn-rf, PI/, . . ., Prf are not connected by an identical linear equation (with co- efficients even depending on the independent variables). Then it can be shown that one solution of the complete system is deter- minable by a quadrature. For each of IliPo-/— Palli/ is a linear function of Uif, . . ., Un-rf and the simultaneous system of inde- pendent equations IIi/=o, . . . n»_r/=o, PI/=O, . . . Pr_i/=o is therefore a complete system, allowing the infinitesimal trans- formation P,/. This complete system of n — I equations has there- fore one common solution a, and Pr(a>) is a function of a. By choosing u suitably, we can then make Pr(u) = i. From this equation and the n — i equations Hita = o, P<7">=o, we can determine w by a quadrature only. Hence can be deduced a much more general result, that if the group of r parameters be integrable, the complete system can be entirely solved by quadratures; it is only necessary to introduce the solution found by the first quadrature as an independent variable, whereby we obtain a complete system of n—r equations in n — I variables, subject to an integrable group of r — i parameters, and to continue this process. We give some examples of the application of the theorem, (i) If an equation of the first order y' = $(x, y) allow the infinitesimal transformation tdf/dx+ridf/dy, the integral curves u(x, y)=y°, wherein w(x, y) is the solution of 5+^(3C.y) = ° reducing to y for x=x°, are interchanged among themselves by the infinitesimal transformation, or ldx+tda>/dy = o, determines (x, y,yi) , if H,Hi be the solutions for y and yi chosen to reduce to y° and yi" when x = x°, and the equations H=y, Hi = yi be equivalent to ci)=y, <*i—yi°, then w, 101 are the principal solutions of nf=df/dx+yidf/dy+ and Pw; must be functions of a and ui, or the partial differential equation nf must allow the group P/. Thus by our general theorem, if the differential equation allow a group of two parameters (and such a group is always integrable), it can be solved by quadratures, our explanation sufficing, however, only provided the form Uf and the two infinitesimal transformations are not linearly connected. It can be shown, from the fact that jji is a quadratic polynomial in yi, that no differential equation of the second order can allow more than 8 really independent infinitesimal transformations, and that every homogeneous linear differential equation of the second order allows just 8, being in fact reducible to d?y/dx* = o. Since every group of more than two parameters has subgroups of two para- meters, a differential equation of the second order allowing a group of more than two parameters can, as a rule, be solved by quadratures. By transforming the group we see that if a differential equation of the second order allows a single infinitesimal transformation, it can be transformed to the form F(x,d-y/dx, tfy/dx*) ; this is not the case for every differential equation of the second order. (3) For an ordinary differential equation of the third order, allowing an integ- rable group of three parameters whose infinitesimal transformations are not linearly connected with the partial equation to which |the solution of the given ordinary equation is reducible, the similar result follows that it can be integrated by quadratures. But if the group of three parameters be simple, this result must be replaced by the statement that the integration is reducible to quadratures and that of a so-called Riccati equation of the first order, of the form dy/dx = A+By+Cy*, where A, B, C are functions of x. (4) Simi- larly for the integration by quadratures of an ordinary equation yn = ^(*, y, yi, • • • y«-i) of any order. Moreover, the group allowed by the equation may quite well consist of extended contact transfor- mations. An important application is to the case where the differ- ential equation is the resolvent equation defining the group of DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION 235 transformations or rationality group of another differential equation (see below) ; in particular, when the rationality group of an ordinary linear differential equation is integrable, the equation can be solved by quadratures. Following the practical and provisional division of theories of differential equations, to which we alluded at starting, into transformation theories and function theories, we pass now to Siye some account of the latter. These are both function a necessary logical complement of the former, and the theories of only remaining resource when the expedients of the differen- former have been exhausted. While in the former equations, investigations we have dealt only with values of the independent variables about which the functions are developable, the leading idea now becomes, as was long ago remarked by G. Green, the consideration of the neighbourhood of the values of the variables for which this developable character ceases. Beginning, as before, with existence theorems applicable for ordinary values of the variables, we are to consider the cases of failure of such theorems. When in a given set of differential equations the number of equations is greater than the number of dependent variables, the equations cannot be expected to have common solutions unless certain conditions of compatibility, obtainable by equating different forms of the same differential coefficients deducible from the equations, are satisfied. We have had examples in systems of linear equations, and in the case of a set of equations Pi = i, . . . ,p,=r. For the case when the number of equations is the same as that of dependent variables, the following is a general theorem which should be referred to: Let there be r equations in r dependent variables z\, . . . z, and n independent variables x\, . . . x*; let the differential coefficient of A general Za of highest order which enters be of order ha, and existence theorem, suppose (rWaldxfa to enter, so that the equations can be written d*ffZ(r/<,, where in the general differen- tial coefficient of zp which enters in , say we have kia, <£a'h~l) arbitrary save that they must be developable about aj, a», . . . an, and such that for these values of &, . . . x*, the function p reduces to bp, and the differential coefficient reduces to i''*, •••*„• Then the theorem is that there exists one, and only one, set of functions z\, . . . z, oi x*, . . . xn developable about a\, . . . On satisfying the given differential equations, and such that for x\ — a\ we have Zv = a, dZr/dx^t™, . . . ^-V<**ff~\ = <*>>""• And, moreover, if the arbitrary functions <£ff, ^ . . . contain a certain number of arbitrary variables t\, . . . lm, and be de- velopable about the values t\, . . . tm° of these variables, the solutions Zi, . . . zT will contain l\, . . . tm, and be developable about t°, . . . tm°. The proof of this theorem may be given by showing that if ordinary power series in *i— Oi, . . . x»—a*, ti— h", . . . tm—tm0 be substituted in the equations wherein in Za the coefficients of (xi— oi)", xi— oi, .... (*i— oOV"1 are the arbitrary functions 4>a, aw, . . . ff(*~1), divided respectively by I, l!, 2!, &c., then the differential equations determine uniquely all the other coefficients, and that the resulting series are convergent. We rely, in fact, upon the theory of monogenic analytical functions (see FUNCTION), a function being determined entirely by its development in the neighbourhood of one set of values of the independent variables, from which all its other values arise by continuation-, it being of course understood that the coefficients in the differential equations are to be continued at the same time. But it is to be remarked that there is no ground for believing, if this method of continuation be utilized, that the function is single- valued ; we may quite well return to the same values of the independent variables with a different value of the function, belonging, as we say, to a different branch of the function; and there is even no reason for assuming that the number of branches is finite, or that different branches have the same singular points and regions of existence. Moreover, and this is the most difficult con- sideration of all, all these circumstances may be dependent upon the values supposed given to the arbitrary constants of the integral ; in other words, the singular points may be either fixed, being deter- mined by the differential equations themselves, or they may be movable with the variation of the arbitrary constants of integration. Such difficulties arise even in establishing the reversion of an elliptic integral, in solving the equation (its) = (* '~ ' (* ~ ^ (x-a3)(x -a,); about an ordinary value the right side is developable; if we put x—ai=h*, the right side becomes developable about n_i is a linear function of «, . . . wn_i with constant coefficients, say fi =Aii«+ . . . Ai*u*-i. Then y°v+. . . +yVif^-i = (2iAiIy<°) «+. . . +(2iAiny0,)«^i: this is equal to u(y°u+ . . . +y°«-i*._i) if 2;Airy0i =/1ji°r_1; eliminating y°, . . . y°n-i from these linear equations, we have a determinantal equation of order « forp; let m be one of its roots; determining the ratios of 31°, y\°, . . . y°n_i to satisfy the linear equations, we have thus proved that there exists an integral, H, of the equation, which when continued round the point 2 and back to the starting-point, becomes changed to Hi =MiH. Let now { be the value of x at 2 and r\ one of the values of (i/2vi) log MI ; con- sider the function (x— fJ^iH; when x makes a circuit round * = $, this becomes changed to exp(-2xirt) (x-Q-'mH, that is, is unchanged; thus we may put H = (*— £)ri<£i, ^i being a function single-valued for paths in the region considered described about 2, and therefore, by Laurent's Theorem (see FUNCTION), caoable of expression in the annular region about this point by a series of positive and negative integral powers of x— {, which in general may contain an infinite number of negative powers; there is, however, no reason to suppose n to be an integer, or even real. Thus, if all the roots of the determinantal equation inn are different, we obtain n integrals of the forms (*— f)pi^i, . . ., (*— |)r»0n. In general we obtain as many integrals of this form as there are really different roots; and the problem arises to discover, in case a root be k times repeated, k — I equations of as simple a form as possible to replace the k — I equations of the form y°v+ . . . + y0n-i0n-i=p(y «+ • • • +;y°n-iWn-i) which would have existed had the roots been different. The most natural method of obtaining a suggestion lies probably in remarking that if rj = ri+ft, there is an integral [(x— £)ri+*t by H, a circuit of the point £ changes K into A similar artifice suggests itself when three of the roots of the deter- minantal equation are the same, and so on. We are thus led to the result, which is justified by anexamination of the algebraic conditions, that whatever may be the circumstances as to the roots of the determinantal equation, n integrals exist, breaking up into batches, the values of the constituents Hi, Hi, ... of a batch after circuit about x = £ being Hi' = /aiHi, H2' = MiH2+Hi, H3'=MiH3+H2, and so on. And this is found to lead to the forms (x — £)ri0i, and so on. Here each of i, fa, xi, X2, • • • is a series of positive and negative integral powers of x — £ in which the number of negative powers may be infinite. It appears natural enough now to inquire whether, under proper conditions for the forms of the rational functions ai, . . . an, it may be possible to ensure that in each of the series &, fa, \i, • • . the number of negative powers shall be finite. Herein equations. jjgs> jn fact> tne limitation which experience has shown to be justified by the completeness of the results obtained. Assum- ing n integrals in which in each of l, the cases m = o, m = i being easily dealt with, and if «*(*) = (*-£i) . . . (*-&»), we must have a.$(x) and &.[#(«)]* finite for all finite values of x, equal say to the re- spective polynomials ^(x) and 0(x), of which by the conditions at x =» the highest respective orders possible are m — I and 2(m — i). and if 01, A be its roots, we have ai+ft = i — iA(6)/*'(fi) and «tift=0(£i)/[#'(£i)]2. Thus by an elementary theorem of algebra, the sum S(l — ai— 0i)/(x — fc), extended to the m finite singular points, is equal to t(x)/(x), and the sum 2(i -oi-ft) is equal to the ratio of the coefficients of the highest powers of x in t(x) and (x), and therefore equal to l+a+0, where a, 0 are the indices at x = oo . Further, if (x, l)m_2 denote the integral part of the quotient B(x)/(x), we have2a,ft0'(&)/(*-£i) equal to-(x, i)m-2+9(*)/0(*), and the coefficient of ac™-2 in (x, l)m-2 is a/3. Thus the differential equation has the form y"+/2(i-oi-ft)/(*-ii)+y[(*. i)«-i+2o<&0'(&)/(*-&)]/*(*) =0. If, however, .we make a change in the dependent variable, putting y = (x — £i)°i . . . (x — £m)°m>i, it is easy to see that the equation changes into one having the same singular points about each of which it is regular, and that the indices at x = {,- become o and ft— a,, which we shall denote by X;, for (x — {,)"j can be developed in positive integral powers of x — £, about * = &; by this transformation the indices at x = oo are changed to a+oi + . . . +am, /3+ft + . . . +/3ra which we shall denote by A, /*. If we suppose this change to have been introduced, and still denote the independent variable by y, the equation has the form y"+y"S(i-\i)l(x-^+y(x, i),_,/0(*) =o, while X+M+XI+ . . . +\m = m — I. Conversely, it is easy to verify that if XM be the coefficient of *m~2 in (x, l)m_2, this equation has the specified singular points and indices whatever be the other coefficients in (*, l)m-2. Thus we see that (beside the cases m = o, m = i) the " Fuchsian equation " of the second order with two finite singular points is distinguished by the fact that it has a definite form when the singular points and the indices are assigned. *w«|sw In that case, putting («-&)/(*—&)- t/(t - 1 ) , the singular " points are transformed to o, I , op , and, as is clear, without e1"atloa- change of indices. Still denoting the independent variable by x, the equation then has the form *(i -x)y"+y'[i -Ai -x(i +X+M)] -X/ry =o, which is the ordinary hypergeometric equation. Provided none of AI, X2, X — M be zero or integral about x = o, it has the solutions F(X, n, i -X,, *), x\F(\+\i, M+XI, i+Ai, x) ; about x = I it has the solutions F(X, M, I -X2, i -*), (i -x)^P(\+\i, M+X2, i +X2, i -*), where X+M+Xi + X2 = i ; about * = oo it has the solutions *-*F(X, X+X,, X-M+i, *-i) where F(o, /3, y, x) is the series a0x a h 7 1.2.7(7 + 1) •• •' which converges when |*i — I algebraically. In accordance with our general theory, logarithms are to be ex- pected in the solution when one of Xj, X2, X— ju is zero or integral. Indeed when Xi is a negative integer, not zero, the second solution about x = o would contain vanishing factors in the denominators of its coefficients; in case X or n be one of the positive integers I, 2, ... ( — Xi), vanishing factors occur also in the numerators; and then, in fact, the second solution about x = o becomes x\ times an integral polynomial of degree ( — Xi)— X or of degree ( — Xi)— it. But when Xi is a negative integer including zero, and neither X nor ji is one of the positive integers I, 2 ... ( — Xi), the second solution about x = o involves a term having the factor log x. When Xi is a positive integer, not zero, the second solution about x = o persists as a solution, in accordance with the order of arrangement of the roots of the index equation in our theory; the first solution is then replaced by an integral polynomial of degree — X or — in, when Xor PL is one of the negative integers o, — I,— 2, . . ., I— Xi, but otherwise contains a logarithm. Similarly for the solutions about x = i or x — ; it will be seen below how the results are deducible from those for x = o. Denote now the solutions about x = o by «i, «*; those about * = i by PI, »2; and those about x = 2; in the region (S0Si) common to the circles Sa, Si of radius I whose centres are the points x = o, * = i, all the first four are valid, and there exist equations «i=Ari+Bti2, «2 = Cwi + Dt;2 , . where A, B, C, D are constants; in the region (S.S) lying inside the circle Si and outside the circle So, those that are valid are v\, t>2, 101, wt, and there exist equations »i = Paii+Qt»2) vi = Rwi+Twt, where P, Q, R, T are constants; thus considering any integral whose expression within the circle S<, is aui+bu,, where o, 6 are constants, the same integral will be represented within the circle Si by (oA+6C)»i + (aB+6D)u2, and outside these circles will be represented by _ A single-valued branch of such integral can be obtained by making a barrier in the plane joining oo to o and I to oo ; for instance, by excluding the consideration of real negative values of x and of real DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION 237 positive values greater than i, and defining the phase of x and x-i for real values between o and I as respectively o and r. We can form the Fuchsian equation of the second order with three arbitrary singular points &, £2, {s, and no singular point _ . at x = oo, and with respective indices a!, /Si, at, ft, a3, /Sjsuch ntloaof thatai-h8i+aj+ft+a«-t-0» = l. This equation can then be the eaua- transformed mto the hypergepmetric equation in 24 ways; lloa into' f°r out °f £'' ^2l ^3 we can 'n s*x wavs choose two, say itself &' &' wnicn are to be transformed respectively into o and i, by (x-fi)/(x-|2)=<(<-i); and then there are four possible transformations of the dependent variable which will reduce one of the indices at t = o to zero and one of the indices at t = i also to zero, namely, we may reduce either 01 or /3i at / = o, and simultaneously either o2 or fa at t=i. Thus the hypergeo- metric equation itself can be transformed into itself in 24 ways, and from the expression F(X, ju, i-Ai, x) which satisfies it follow 23 other forms of solution; they involve four series in each of the argu- ments, x, x-i, ijx, i/(i-x), (x-i)/x, x/(x-i). Five of the 23 solutions agree with the fundamental solutions already described about x = o, x = l, x = ao ; and from the principles by which these were obtained it is immediately clear that the 24 forms are, in value, equal in fours. The quarter periods K, K' of Jacobi's theory of elliptic functions, of which K = j"f*(i-h sin *))~*d to o and from i to +» , and, supposing logarithms not to enter about x = o, choose two quite definite integrals yi, yi of the equation, say j>i = F(X, M, i-Xi,*),yi = xAiF(X+Xi,/«+Xi, l+Xi,x), with the condition that the phase of x is zero when x is real and between o and i. Then the value of s=yi/yi is definite for all values of * in the divided plane, s being a single-valued monogenic branch of an analytical function existing and without singularities all over this region. If, now, the values of s that so arise be plotted on to another plane, a value p+iq of s being represented by a point (p, q) of this j-plane, and the value of x from which it arose being mentally associated with this point of the s-plane, these points will fill a connected region therein, with a continuous boundary formed of four portions corresponding to the two sides of the two barriers of the x-plane. The question is then, firstly, whether the same value of s can arise for two different values of x, that is, whether the same point (p , q) of the s-plane can arise twice, or in other words, whether the region of the s-plane overlaps itself or not. Supposing this is not so, a second part of the question presents itself. If in the x-plane the barrier joining - oo to o be momentarily removed, and x describe a small circle with centre at x = o starting from a point x= -h-ik, where h, k are small, real, and positive and coming back to this point, the original value s at this point will be changed to a value a, which in the original case did not arise for this value of x, and possibly not at all. If, now, after restoring the barrier the values arising by continuation from we find, as a third condition necessary in order that x may be a single-valued function of s, that X-/» must be the inverse of an integer or be zero. These three differences of the indices, namely, Xi, X2, X-AI, are the quantities which enter in the differential equation satisfied by x as a function of ?, which is easily found to be where xi=dxlds, &c. ; and hi = i-yi1, h> = i-X22, h3 = i-(X-ji)1. Into the converse question whether the three conditions are sufficient to ensure (i) that the s region corresponding to any branch does not overlap itself, (2) that no two such regions overlap, we have no space to enter. The second question clearly requires the inquiry whether the group (that is, the monodromy group) of the differential equation is properly discontinuous. ( See GROUPS, THEORY OF.) The foregoing account will give an idea of the nature of the function theories of differential equations; it appears essential not to exclude some explanation of a theory intimately related both to such theories and to transformation theories, which is a generalization of Galois's theory of algebraic equations. We deal only with the application to homogeneous linear differential equations. In general a function of variables Xi, Xi . . . is said to be rational when it can be formed from them and the integers i, 2, 3, ... by a finite number of additions, subtractions, multiplications pa, this poly- nomial is not the product of other polynomials in /''also of rational .form ; and, secondly, the equation has no solution satisfying also a rational equation of lower order. From this it follows that if an irreducible equation P=o have one solution satisfying another rational equation Q = o of the same or higher order, then all the solutions of P =o also satisfy Q = o. For from the equation P = o we can by differentiation express ,y(t+i>) jK*+2)> ... jn terms of x, y, yW, .... y1", and so put the function Q rationally in terms of these quantities only. It is sufficient, then, to prove the result when the equation Q = o is of the same order as P = o. Let both the equations be arranged as integral polynomials in /*> ; their algebraic eliminant in regara to /*> must then vanish identically, for they are known to have one common solution not satisfying an equation of lower order; thus the equation P =o involves Q =o for all solutions of P =o. Now let jK»>=aiy<"-j> + . . . +any be a given rational homo- geneous linear differential equation; let y\, . . . yn be n particular functions of x, unconnected by any equation with constant co- efficients of the form Ciyi+ • • • -\-cayn=o, all satisfying the differential equation; let iji, . . . ijn be linear functions of y\, . . . yn, say in=h.nyi+ . . . +Ai,yn, where the constant coefficients A;,- have a non-vanishing deter- minant ; write (y) = A(y), these being the equations of a general linear homogeneous group whose transformations may be denoted by A, B, .... We desire to form a rational function 0(ij), or say <£(A(y)), of iji, . . . >j, in which the i)2 constants A,-/ shall all be essential, and not feduce effectively to a fewer number, as they would, for instance, if the yi, . . . y* were connected by a linear equation with constant coefficients. Such a function is in fact given, if the solutions yit . . . yn be developable Irreducl- bllity of a rational equation. The variant function fora linear equation. 238 DIFFLUGIA— DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT by its in positive integral powers about x = (x— a)1"-1'"!),. Such a function, V, we call a variant. Then differentiating V in regard to *, and replacing value Oii)("-l) +. . . +O»TI, we can arrange dV/dx, and similarly each of d*V/dx* . . . d^V/dx^, where N=n*, as a linear function of the N quantities m, . . .17., . . . m*"-1', • • • W-^.and thence by elimination obtain a linear differential equation for V of order N with rational coefficients. This we equation. denoteby F=o. Further, each of iji, . . . ij» is expressible as a linear function of V, dV/dx, . . . dN-1V/d*N-1, with rational co- efficients not involving any of the n2 coefficients Ai,-, since otherwise V would satisfy a linear equation of order less than N, which is impossible, as it involves (linearly) the w2 arbitrary coefficients Ai,-, which would not enter into the coefficients of the supposed equation. In particular, yi, . . . yn are expressible rationally as linear functions of u, du/dx, . . . dF-Lw/dx*1-1, where u> is the particular function (y). Any solution W of the equation F = o is derivable from functions flt. . . f», which are linear functions of yi, . . . yn, just as V was derived from iji, . . .ij»; but it does not follow that these functions fi, . . . f.are obtained from yi, . . . y» by a transforma- tion of the linear group A, B, . . . ; for it may happen that the determinant d(fi,. . . fn)/(dyi, . . . ?„) is zero. In that case fi,. . . fn may be called a singular set, and W a singular solution ; it satisfiesan equation of lower than the N-th order. But every solution V, W, ordinary or singular, of the equation F=o, is expressible rationally in terms of «, du/dx, . . . d^-^/dx^-1; we shall write, simply, V=r(u). Consider now the rational irreducible equation of lowest order, not necessarily a linear equation, which is satisfied by «>; as y\, . . . yn are particular functions, it may quite well be of order less than N ; we call it the resolvent equation, suppose it of order p, and denote it by y(v). Upon it the whole theory turns. In the first place, as y(v) =o is satisfied by the solution « of F=o, all the solutions of y(v) are solutions F = o, and are therefore rationally expressible by «; any one may then be denoted by r(o>). If this solution of F = o be not singular, it corresponds to a transformation A of the linear group (A, B, . . .), effected upon yi, . . . y». The coefficients Ai,- of this transformation follow from the expressions before mentioned for iji. . .i^in terms of VjdV/dx.&V/dx1, ... by substituting V = r(u); thus they depend on the p arbitrary para- meters which enter into the general expression for the integral of the equation y(v) =o. Without going into further details, it is then clear enough that the resolvent equation, being irreducible and such that any solution is expressible rationally, with p parameters, in terms of the solution a, enables us to define a linear homogeneous group of transformations of yi . . . yn depending on p parameters ; and every operation of this (continuous) group corresponds to a rational transformation of the solution of the resolvent equation. This is the group called the rationality group, or the group of trans- formations of the original homogeneous linear differential equation. The group must not be confounded with a subgroup of itself, the monodromy group of the equation, often called simply the group of the equation, which is a set of transformations, not depend- ing on arbitrary variable parameters, arising for one particular fundamental set of solutions of the linear equation (see GROUPS, THEORY OF). The importance of the rationality group consists in three proposi- tions. (i) Any rational function of yi, . . . y» which is unaltered in * value by the transformations of the group can be written The fan- ;n rat;onal form. (2) If any rational function be changed * in form, becoming a rational function of yi, . . . yn, a "", transformation of the group applied to its new form will leave its value unaltered. (3) Any homogeneous linear ration- transformation leaving unaltered the value of every allty ' rational function of yi, . . . y» which has a rational value, rroup. belongs to the group. It follows from these that any group of linear homogeneous transformations having the properties (i) (2) is identical with the group in question. It is clear that with these properties the group must be of the greatest import- ance in attempting to'discover what functions of x must be regarded as rational in order that the values of yi . . . yn may be expressed. And this is the problem of solving the equation from another point of view. LITERATURE. — (o) Formal or Transformation Theories for Equations of the First Order: — E. Goursat, Lemons sur I' integration des equa- tions aux derivees partielles du premier ordre (Paris, 1891); E. v. Weber, Vorlesungen uber das Pfajfsche Problem und die Theorie der partiellen Differentialgleichungen erster Ordnung (Leipzig, 1900); S. Lie und G. Scheffers, Geometrie der Beruhrungstransformationen, Bd. i. (Leipzig, 1896); Forsyth, Theory of Differential Equations, Part i., Exact Equations and P faffs Problem (Cambridge, 1890); S. Lie, "Allgemeine Untersuchungen fiber Differentialgleichungen, die eine continuirliche endliche Gruppe gestatten " (Memoir), Mathem. Annal. xxv. (1885), pp. 71-151 ; S. Lie und G. Scheffers, Vorlesungen uber Differentialgleichungen mil bekannten infinitesimalen Transforma- tionen (Leipzig, 1891). A very full bibliography is given in the book of E. v. Weber referred to ; those here named are perhaps sufficiently representative of modern works. Of classical works may be named : Jacobi, Vorlesungen uber Dynamik (von A. Clebsch, Berlin, 1866); Werke, Supplementband; G Monge, Application de I'analyse a la geometrie (par M. Liouville, Paris, 1850); J. L. Lagrange, Lemons sur le calcul des fonctions (Paris, 1806), and Theorie des fonctions analytiques (Paris, Prairial, an V); G. Boole, A Treatise on Differ- ential Equations (London, 1859); and Supplementary Volume (London, 1865); Darboux, Lefons sur la theorie generals des surfaces, tt. i.-iv. (Paris, 1887-1896); S. Lie, Theorie der transforma- tionsgruppen ii. (on Contact Transformations) (Leipzig, 1890). (/3) Quantitative or Function Theories for Linear Equations: — C. Jordan, Cours d' analyse, t. iii. (Paris, 1896); E. Picard, Traite d'analyse, tt. ii. and iii. (Paris, 1893, 1896); Fuchs, Various Memoirs, beginning with that in Crelle's Journal, Bd. Ixvi. p. 121; Riemann, Werke, 2' Aufl. (1892); Schlesinger, Handbuch der Theorie der linearen Differentialgleichungen, Bde. i.-ii. (Leipzig, 18957-1898); Heffter, Einleitung in die Theorie der linearen Differen- tialgleichungen mil einer unabhdngigen Variablen (Leipzig, 1894) ; Klein, Vorlesungen uber lineare Diflerentialgleichungen der zweiten Ordnung (Autographed, Gottingen, 1894); and Vorlesungen uber die hypergeometrische Function (Autographed, Gottingen, 1894); Forsyth, Theory of Differential Equations, Linear Equations. (y) Rationality Group (of Linear Differential Equations): — Picard, Traite d' Analyse, as above, t. iii.; Vessiot, Annales de I'Ecole Normale, serie III. t. ix. p. 199 (Memoir); S. Lie, Transformationsgruppen, as above, iii. A connected account is given in Schlesinger, as above, Bd. ii., erstes Theil. (i) Function Theories of Non-Linear Ordinary Equations: — Painlev6, Lemons sur la theorie analytique des equations differentielles (Paris, 1897, Autographed); Forsyth, Theory of Differential Equa- tions, Part ii.. Ordinary Equations not Linear (two volumes, ii. and iii.) (Cambridge, 1900) ; Kpnigsberger, Lehrbuch der Theorie der Differen- tialgleichungen (Leipzig, 1889); Painlev6, Lefons sur Vintegration des Equations differentielles de la mecanique et applications (Paris, 1895)- (f) Formal Theories of Partial Equations of the Second and Higher Orders: — E. Goursat, Lemons sur Vintegration des equations aux derivees partielles du second ordre, tt. i. and ii. (Paris, 1896, 1898); Forsyth, Treatise on Differential Equations (London, 1889); and Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (A.), vol. cxci. (1898), pp. 1-86. (f) See also the six extensive articles in the second volume of the German Encyclopaedia of Mathematics. (H. F. BA.) DIFFLUGIA (L. Leclerc), a genus of lobose Rhizopoda, char- acterized by a shell formed of sand granules cemented together; these are swallowed by the animal, and during the process of bud-fission they pass to the surface of the daughter-bud and are cemented there. Centropyxis (Steia) and Lecqueureuxia (Schlumberg) differ only in minor points. DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT.— i. When light proceeding from a small source falls upon an opaque object, a shadow is cast upon a screen situated behind the obstacle, and this shadow is found to be bordered by alternations of brightness and darkness, known as " diffraction bands." The phenomena thus presented were described by Grimaldi and by Newton. Subsequently T. Young showed that in their formation interference plays an important part, but the complete explanation was reserved for A. J. Fresnel. Later investigations by Fraunhofer, Airy and others have greatly widened the field, and under the head of " diffraction " are now usually treated all the effects dependent upon the limitation of a beam of light, as well as those which arise from irregularities of any kind at surfaces through which it is trans- mitted, or at which it is reflected. 2. Shadows. — In the infancy of the undulatory theory the objection most frequently urged against it was the difficulty of explaining the very existence of shadows. Thanks to Fresnel and his followers, this department of optics is now precisely the one in which the theory has gained its greatest triumphs. The principle employed in these investigations is due to C. Huygens, and may be thus formulated. If round the origin of waves an ideal closed surface be drawn, the whole action of the waves in the region beyond may be regarded as due to the motion continually propagated across the various elements of this surface. The wave motion due to any element of the surface is called a secondary wave, and in estimating the total effect regard must be paid to the phases as well as the amplitudes of the components. It is usually convenient to choose as the surface of resolution a wave-front, i.e. a surface at which the primary vibrations are in one phase. Any obscurity that may hang over Huygens's principle is due mainly to the indefiniteness of thought and expression which we must be content to put up with if we wish to avoid pledging ourselves as to the character of the vibrations. In the application to sound, where we know what we are dealing with, the matter is simple enough in principle, although mathematical difficulties would often stand in the way of the calculations we might wish to make. DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT 239 FIG. i. The ideal surface of resolution may be there regarded as a flexible lamina; and we know that, if by forces locally applied every element of the lamina be made to move normally to itself exactly as the air at that place does, the external aerial motion is fully determined. By the principle of superposition the whole effect may be found by integration of the partial effects due to each element of the surface, the other elements remaining at rest. We will now consider in detail the important case in which uniform plane waves are resolved at a surface coincident with a wave-front (OQ). We imagine a wave-front divided 0 * Q into elementary rings or zones — often named after Huygens, but better after Fresnel — by spheres described round P (the point at which the aggregate effect is to be estimated), the first sphere, touching the plane at O, with a radius equal to PO, and the succeeding spheres with radii increasing at each step by $X. There are thus marked out_ a series of circles, whose radii * are given by x*+r2 = (r+inX)2, or x? =nXr nearly ; so that the rings are at first of nearly equal area. Now the effect upon P of each element of the plane is proportional to its area; but it depends also upon the distance from P, and possibly upon the inclination of the secondary ray to the direction of vibration and to the wave-front. The latter question can only be treated in connexion with the dynamical theory (see below, § 1 1) ; but under all ordinary circum- stances the result is independent of the precise answer that may be given. All that it is necessary to assume is that the effects of the successive zones gradually diminish, whether from the increasing obliquity of the secondary ray or because (on account of the limita- tion of the region of integration) the zones become at last more and more incomplete. The component vibrations at P due to the successive zones are thus nearly equal in amplitude and opposite in phase (the phase of each corresponding to that of the infinitesimal circle midway between the boundaries), and the series which we have to sum is one in which the terms are alternately opposite in sign and, while at first nearly constant in numerical magnitude, gradually diminish to zero. In such a series each term may be regarded as very nearly indeed destroyed by the halves of its immediate neighbours, and thus the sum of the whole series is represented by half the first term, which stands over uncompensated. The question is thus reduced to that of finding the effect of the first zone, or central circle, of which the area is ir\r. We have seen that the problem before us is independent of the law of the secondary wave as regards obliquity; but the result of the integration necessarily involves the law of the intensity and phase of a secondary wave as a function of r, the distance from the origin. And we may in fact, as was done by A. Smith (Camb. Math. Journ., 1843, 3, p. 46), determine the law of the secondary wave, by comparing the result of the integration with that obtained by sup- posing the primary wave to pass on to P without resolution. Now as to the phase of the secondary wave, it might appear natural to suppose that it starts from any point Q with the phase of the primary wave, so that on arrival at P, it is retarded by the amount corresponding to QP. But a little consideration will prove that in that case the series of secondary waves could not reconstitute the primary wave. For the aggregate effect of the secondary waves is the half of that of the first Fresnel zone, and it is the central element only of that zone for which the distance to be travelled is equal to r. Let us conceive the zone in question to be divided into infinitesimal rings of equal area. The effects due to each of these rings are equal in amplitude and of phase ranging uniformly over half a complete period. The phase of the resultant is midway between those of the extreme elements, that is to say, a quarter of a period behind that due to the element at the centre of the circle. It is accordingly necessary to suppose that the secondary waves start with a phase one-quarter of a period in advance of that of the primary wave at the surface of resolution. Further, it is evident that account must be taken of the variation of phase in estimating the magnitude of the effect at P of the first zone. The middle element alone contributes without deduction; the effect of every other must be found by introduction of a resolv- ing factor, equal to cos 6, if 9 represent the difference of phase between this element and the resultant. Accordingly, the amplitude of the resultant will be less than if all its components had the same phase, in the ratio -+JT cos 9d6 : JT, or 2: r. Now 2 area /ir = 2Xr; so that, in order to reconcile the amplitude of the primary wave (taken as unity) with the half effect of the first zone, the amplitude, at distance r, of the secondary wave emitted from the element of area dS must be taken to be dS/Xr ........ (1). _2j /" Xjo By this expression, in. conjunction with the quarter-period accelera- tion of phase, the law of the secondary wave is determined. That the amplitude of the secondary wave should vary as r~l was to be expected from considerations respecting energy; but the occurrence of the factor X~l, and the acceleration of phase, have sometimes been regarded as mysterious. It may be well therefore to remember that precisely these laws apply to a secondary wave of sound, which can be investigated upon the strictest mechanical principles. The recomposition of the secondary waves may also be treated analytically. If the primary wave at O be cos kat, the effect of the secondary wave proceeding from the element dS> at Q is rfS dS . j^ cos k(al-p+l\) - -j^ sin k(at— p). If dS = 2vxdx, we have for the whole effect sink(at-p)xdx o ~ P or, since xdx — pdp, k = 2ir/X, — k£°° sin k(at—p)dp= [—cos k(at — p)]"^ In order to obtain the effect of the primary wave, as retarded by traversing the distance r, viz. cos k(at-r), it is necessary to suppose that the integrated term vanishes at the upper limit. And it is im- portant to notice that without some further understanding the integral is really ambiguous. According to the assumed law of the secondary wave, the result must actually depend upon the precise radius of the outer boundary of the region of integration, supposed to be exactly circular. This case is, however, at most very special and exceptional. We may usually suppose that a large number of the outer rings are incomplete, so that the integrated term at the upper limit may properly be taken to vanish. If a formal proof be desired, it may be obtained by introducing into the integral a factor such as tf"**", in which h is ultimately made to diminish without limit. When the primary wave is plane, the area of the first Fresnel zone is irXr, and, since the secondary waves vary as r~l, the intensity is independent of r, as of course it should be. If, however, the primary wave be spherical, and of radius a at the wave-front of resolution, then we know that at a distance r further on the amplitude of the primary wave will be diminished in the ratio o:(r+a). This may be regarded as a consequence of the altered area of the first Fresnel zone. For, if * be its radius, we have so that xt = \ar/(a+r) nearly. Since the distance to be travelled by the secondary waves is still r, we see how the effect of the first zone, and therefore of the whole series is proportional to a/(a+r). In like manner may be treated other cases, such as that of a primary wave-front of unequal principal curvatures. The general explanation of the formation of shadows may also be conveniently based upon Fresnel's zones. If the point under consideration be so far away from the geometrical shadow that a large number of the earlier zones are complete, then the illumina- tion, determined sensibly by the first zone, is the same as if there were no obstruction at ajl. If, on the other hand, the point be well immersed in the geometrical shadow, the earlier zones are altogether missing, and, instead of a series of terms beginning with finite numerical magnitude and gradually diminishing to zero, we have now to deal with one of which the terms diminish to zero at both ends. The sum of such a series is very approximately zero, each term being neutralized by the halves of its immediate neighbours, which are of the opposite sign. The question of light or darkness then depends upon whether the series begins or ends abruptly. With few exceptions, abruptness can occur only in the presence of the first term, viz. when the secondary wave of least retardation is unob- structed, or when a ray passes through the point under consideration. According to the undulatory theory the light cannot be regarded strictly as travelling along a ray ; but the existence of an unobstructed ray implies that the system of Fresnel's zones can be commenced, and, if a large number of these zones are fully developed and do not terminate abruptly, the illumination is unaffected by the neighbour- hood of obstacles. Intermediate cases in which a few zones only are formed belong especially to the province of diffraction. An interesting exception to the general rule that full brightness requires the existence of the first zone occurs when the obstacle assumes the form of a small circular disk parallel to the plane of the incident waves. In the earlier half of the i8th century R. Delisle found that the centre of the circular shadow was occupied by a bright point of light, but the observation passed into oblivion until S. D. Poisson brought forward as an objection to Fresnel's theory that it required at the centre of a circular shadow a point as bright as if no obstacle were intervening. If we conceive the primary wave to be broken up at the plane of the disk, a system of Fresnel s zones can be constructed which begin from the circumference; and the first zone external to the disk plays the part ordinarily taken by the centre of the entire system. The whole effect is the 240 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT half of that of the first existing zone, and this is sensibly the same as if there were no obstruction. When light passes through a small circular or annular aperture, the illumination at any point along the axis depends upon the precise relation between the aperture and the distance from it at which the point is taken. If, as in the last paragraph, we imagine a system of zones to be drawn commencing from the inner circular boundary of the aperture, the question turns upon the manner in which the series terminates at the outer boundary. If the aperture be such as to fit exactly an integral number of zones, the aggregate effect may be regarded as the half of those due to the first and last zones. If the number of zones be even, the action of the first and last zones are antagonistic, and there is complete darkness at the point. If on the other hand the number of zones be odd, the effects con- spire; and the illumination (proportional to the square of the ampli- tude) is four times as great as if there were no obstruction at all. The process of augmenting the resultant illumination at a par- ticular point by stopping some of the secondary rays may be carried much further (Soret, Pogg. Ann., 1875, 156, p. 99). By the aid of photography it is easy to prepare a plate, transparent where the zones of oda order fall, and opaque where those of even order fall. Such a plate has the power of a condensing lens, and gives an illumination out of all jproportion to what could be obtained without it. An even greater effect (fourfold) can be attained by providing that the stoppage of the light from the alternate zones is replaced by a phase-reversal without loss of amplitude. R. W. Wood (Phil. Mag., 1898, 45, p 513) has succeeded in constructing zone plates upon this principle. In such experiments the narrowness of the zones renders necessary a pretty close approximation to the geometrical conditions. Thus in the case of the circular disk, equidistant (r) from the source of light and from the screen upon which the shadow is observed, the width of the first exterior zone is given by 2x being the diameter of the disk. If 2r = ioop cm., 2x = i cm., X = 6Xio~» cm., then d* = -oois cm. Hence, in order that this zone may be perfectly formed, there should be no error in the circum- ference of the order of -ooi cm. (It is easy to see that the radius of the bright spot is of the same order of magnitude.) The experiment succeeds in a dark room of the length above mentioned, with a threepenny bit (supported by three threads) as obstacle, the origin ctf light being a small needle hole in a plate of tin, through which the sun's rays shine horizontally after reflection from an external mirror. In the absence of a heliostat it is more convenient to obtain a point of light with the aid of a lens of short focus. The amplitude of the light at any point in the axis, when plane waves are incident perpendicularly upon an annular aperture, is, as above, cos k(at-ri)-cos k(at-ri) =2 sin kat sin k(ri-rt), fj, r\ being the distances of the outer and inner boundaries from the point in question. It is scarcely necessary to remark that in all such cases the calculation applies in the first instance to homogeneous light, and that, in accordance with Fourier's theorem, each homogeneous component of a mixture may be treated separately. When the original light is white, the presence of some components and the absence of others will usually give rise to coloured effects, variable with the precise circumstances of the case. Although the matter can be fully treated only upon the basis of a dynamical theory, it is proper to point out at once that there is an element of assumption in the application of Huygens's principle to the calculation of the effects produced by opaque screens of limited extent. Properly applied, the principle could not fail; but, as may readily be proved in the case of sonorous waves, it is not in strict- ness sufficient to assume the expression for a secondary wave suitable when the primary wave is undisturbed, with mere limitation of the integration to the transparent parts of the screen. But, except perhaps in the case of very fine gratings, it is probable that the error thus caused is Insignificant; for the incorrect estimation of the secondary waves will be limited to distances of a few wave-lengths only from the boundary of opaque and transparent parts. 3. Fraunhofer's Diffraction Phenomena. — A very general problem in diffraction is the investigation of the distribution of light over a screen upon which impinge divergent or con- vergent spherical waves after passage through various diffracting apertures. When the waves are convergent and the recipient screen is placed so as to contain the centre of convergency — the image of the original radiant point, the calculation assumes a less complicated form. This class of phenomena was investigated by J. von Fraunhofer (upon principles laid down by Fresnel), and are sometimes called after his name. We may conveniently FIG. 2. commence with them on account of their simplicity and great importance in respect to the theory of optical instruments. If / be the radius of the spherical wave at the place of resolution, where the vibration is represented by cos kat, then at any point M (fig. 2) in the recipient screen the vibration due to an element u, and in the second quadrant there is none because the signs of « and tan u are opposite. The first root after zero is thus in the third quadrant, corresponding to m = l. Even in this case the series converges sufficiently to give the value of the root with considerable accuracy, while for higher values of m it is all that could be desired. The actual values of u/v (calculated in another manner by F. M. Schwerd) are 1-4303, 2-4590, 3-4709, 4-4747. 5'48i8, 6-4844, &c. Since the maxima occur when M = (m + i)ir nearly, the successive values are not very different from &c ' 4 _L 9"2' 25"' The application of these results to (3) shows that the field is brightest at the centre f = o, 17 = 0, viz. at the geometrical image of the radiant point. It is traversed by dark lines whose equations | = mf\/a, T? = mf\/b. Within the rectangle formed by pairs of consecutive dark lines, and not far from its centre, the brightness rises to a maximum; but these subsequent maxima are in all cases much inferior to the brightness at the centre of the entire pattern (£ = o, 17=0). By the principle of energy the illumination over the entire focal plane must be equal to that pyer the diffracting area ; and thus, in accordance with the suppositions by which (3) was obtained, its value when integrated from J = co to {=+», and from i)=— ao to 17 =+» should be equal to ah. This integration, employed originally by P. Kelland (Edin. Trans. 15, p. 315) to determine the absolute intensity of a secondary wave, may be at once effected by means of the known formula It will be observed that, while the total intensity is proportional to ab, the intensity at the focal point is proportional to O262. If the aperture be increased, not only is the total brightness over the focal plane increased with it, but there is also a concentration of the diffraction pattern. The form of (3) shows immediately that, if a and 6 be altered, the co-ordinates of any characteristic point in the pattern vary as a-1 and b-*. The contraction of the diffraction pattern with increase of aperture is of fundamental importance in connexion with the resolving power of optical instruments. According to common optics, where images are absolute, the diffraction pattern is supposed to be infinitely small, and two radiant points, however near together, form separated images. This is tantamount to an assumption that X is infinitely small. The actual finiteness of X imposes a limit upon the separating or resolving power of an optical instrument. This indefiniteness of images is sometimes said to be due to diffraction by the edge' of the aperture, and proposals have even been made for curing it by causing the transition between the interrupted and transmitted parts of the primary wave to be less abrupt. Such a view of the matter is altogether misleading. What requires explanation is not the imperfection of actual images so much as the possibility of their being as good as we find them. At the focal point (i = o, ij = o) all the secondary waves agree in phase, and the intensity is easily expressed, whatever be the form of the aperture. From the general formula (2), if A be the area of aperture, I»!=AVX*P (7). The formation of a sharp image of the radiant point requires that the illumination become insignificant when £, ») attain small values, and this insignificance can only arise as a consequence of discrepancies of phase among the secondary waves from various parts of the aperture. So long as there is no sensible discrepancy of phase there can be no sensible diminution of brightness as com- pared with that to be found at the focal point itseTf. We may go further, and lay it down that there can be no considerable loss of brightness until the difference of phase of the waves proceeding from the nearest and farthest parts of the aperture amounts to JX. When the difference of phase amounts to X, we may expect the resultant illumination to be very much reduced. In the particular case of a rectangular aperture the course of things can be readily followed, especially if we conceive/ to be infinite. In the direction (suppose horizontal) for which 17=0, |//=sin 6, the phases of the secondary waves range over a complete period when sin 0 = X/a, and, since all parts of the horizontal aperture are equally effective, there is in this direction a complete compensation and consequent absence of illumination. When sin 0 = fX/a, the phases range one and a half periods, and there is revival of illumination. We may compare the brightness with that in the direction 8=0. The phase of the resultant amplitude is the same as that due to the central secondary wave, and the discrepancies of phase among the components reduce the amplitude in the proportion d : i , or — 2/3*-:! ; so that the brightness in this direction is 4/9*' of the maximum at 6 = 0. In like manner we may find the illumination in any other direction, and it is obvious that it vanishes when sin 6 is any multiple of X/a. The reason of the augmentation of resolving power with aperture will now be evident. The larger the aperture the smaller are the angles through which it is necessary to deviate from the principal direction in order to bring in specified discrepancies of phase — the more concentrated is the image. In many cases the subject of examination is a luminous line of uniform intensity, the various points of which are to be treated as independent sources of light. If the image of the line be £ = o, the intensity at any point £, it of the diffraction pattern may be represented by (S), FIG. 3. the same law as obtains for a luminous point when horizontal directions are alone considered. The definition of a fine vertical line, and consequently the resolving power for contiguous vertical lines, is thus independent of the vertical aperture of the instrument, a law of great importance in the theory of the spectroscope. The distribution of illumination in the image of a luminous line is shown by the curve ABC (fig. 3), representing the value of the function sin2w/«2 from w=p to M = 2jr. The part corresponding to negative values of u is similar, OA being a line of symmetry. Let us now consider the distribution of brightness in the image of a double line whose components are of equal strength, and at such an angular interval that the central line in the image of one coincides with the first zero of brightness in the image of the other. In fig. 3 the curve of brightness for one component is ABC, and for the other OA'C'; and the curve representing half the combined brightnesses is E'BE. The brightness (cor- responding to B) midway between the two A central points AA' is -8106 of the bright- ness at the central points themselves. We may consider this to be about the limit pf closeness at which there could be any decided appearance of resolution, though doubtless an observer accustomed to his instrument would recognize the duplicity with certainty. The obliquity, corre- sponding to M = w, is such that the phases of the secondary waves range over a com- plete period, i.e. such that the projection of the horizontal aperture upon this direction is one wave-length. We conclude that a double line cannot be fairly resolved unless Us components subtend an angle exceeding that subtended by the wave-length of light at a distance equal to the horizontal aperture. This rule is convenient on account of its simplicity ; and it is sufficiently accurate in view of the necessary uncertainty as to what exactly is meant by resolution. If the angular interval between the components of a double line be half as great again as that supposed in the figure, the brightness midway between is -1802 as against 1-0450 at the central lines of each image. Such a falling off in the middle must be more than sufficient for resolution. If the angle subtended by the components of a double line be twice that subtended by the wave-length at a distance equal to the horizontal aperture, the central bands are just clear of one another, and there is a line of absolute blackness in the middle of the combined images. The resolving power of a telescope with circular or rectangular aperture is easily investigated experimentally. The best object for examination is a grating of fine wires, about fifty to the inch, backed by a sodium flame. The object-glass is provided with diaphragms pierced with round holes or slits. One of these, of width equal, say, to one-tenth of an inch, is inserted in front of the object-glass, and the telescope, carefully focused all the while, is drawn gradually back from the grating until the lines are no longer seen. From a measure- ment of the maximum distance the least angle between consecutive lines consistent with resolution may be deduced, and a comparison made with the rule stated above. Merely to show the dependence of resolving power on aperture it is not necessary to use a telescope at all. It is sufficient to look at wire gauze backed by the sky or by a flame, through a piece of blackened cardboard, pierced by a needle and held close to the eye. By varying the distance the point is easily found at which resolution ceases ; and the observation is as sharp as with a telescope. The 242 DIFFRACTION. OF LIGHT function of the telescope is in fact to allow the use of a wider, and therefore more easily measurable, aperture. An interesting modi- fication of the experiment may be made by using light of various wave-lengths. Since the limitation of the width of the central band in the image of a luminous line depends upon discrepancies of phase among the secondary waves, and since the discrepancy is greatest for the waves which come from the edges of the aperture, the question arises how far the operation of the central parts of the aperture is ad- vantageous. If we imagine the aperture reduced to two equal narrow slits bordering its edges, compensation will evidently be complete when the projection on an oblique direction is equal to iX, instead of X as for the complete aperture. By this procedure the width of the central band in the diffraction pattern is halved, and so far an advantage is attained. But, as will be evident, the bright bands bordering the central band are now not inferior to it in brightness; in fact, a band similar to the central band is repro- duced an indefinite number of times, so long as there is no sensible discrepancy of phase in the secondary waves proceeding from the various parts of the same slit. Under these circumstances the narrowing of the band is paid for at a ruinous price, and the arrange- ment must be condemned altogether. A more moderate suppression of the central parts is, however, sometimes advantageous. Theory and experiment alike prove that a double line, of which the components are equally strong, is better resolved when, for example, one-sixth of the horizontal aperture is blocked off by a central screen ; or the rays quite at the centre may be allowed to pass, while others a little farther removed are blocked off. Stops, each occupying one-eighth of the width, and with centres situated at the points of tnsection, answer well the required purpose. It has already been suggested that the principle of energy requires that the general expression for I2 in (2) when integrated over the whole of the plane J, TJ should be equal to A, where A is the area of the aperture. A general analytical verification has been given by Sir G. G. Stokes (Edin. Trans., 1853, 20, p. 317). Analytically expressed — ff+£Vdtdr,=ffdxdy = A . (9). We have seen that IJ (the intensity at the focal point) was equal to A2/X!/2. If A' be the area over which the intensity must be I§ in order to give the actual total intensity in accordance with the relation between A and A' is AA' = X5/2. Since A' is in some sense the area of the diffraction pattern, it may be considered to be a rough criterion of the definition, and we infer that the definition of a point depends principally upon the area of the aperture, and only in a very secondary degree upon the shape when the area is maintained constant. 4. Theory of Circular Aperture. — We will now consider the important case where the form of the aperture is circular. Writing for brevity *{//-#, fc|//-S. ..... 0). we have for the general expression (§ n) of the intensity X»/»P = S»+C» ..... (2), where S>=ffsin(px+qy)dxdy, . . . (3), C=ffcos(px+qy)dxdy, . . . (4). When, as in the application to rectangular or circular apertures, the form is symmetrical with respect to the axes both of x and y, S = o, and C reduces to C=JJ"cospxcosqydxdy, . . . (o). In the case of the circular aperture the distribution of light is of course symmetrical with respect to the focal point p = o, g = o; and C is a function of p and q only through V (t>*+, y = p sin , C =/f cos px dx dy =/0R f02" cos (pp cos B)pdpdO. Now by definition J0(z) = (z cos 9) dO = 1 - The value of C for an annular aperture of radius r and width dr is dC = 2,]o(pp)pdp ....... (12). For the complete circle, as before. F» In these expressions we are to replace p by k£/f, or rather, since the diffraction pattern is symmetrical, by kr/f, where r is the distance of any point in the focal plane from the centre of the system. The roots of Jo(z) after the first may be found from -050661 -053041 , -262051 ,. „> . . U 337)- Lord Rayleigh has recorded that he was himself convinced by Fraunhofer's reasoning at a date antecedent to the writings of Helmholtz and Abbe. 244 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT increases. When the interval is very small the discrepancy, though mathematically existent, produces no practical effect, and the illumination at B due to P is as important as that due to A, the intensities of the two luminous sources being supposed equal. Under these conditions it is clear that A and P are not separated in the image. The question is to what amount must the distance AP be increased in order that the difference of situation may make itself felt in the image. This is necessarily a question of degree; but it does not require detailed calculations in order to show that the discrepancy first becomes conspicuous when the phases corresponding to the various secondary waves which travel from P to B range over a complete period. The illumination at B due to P then becomes comparatively small, indeed for some forms of aperture evanescent. The extreme discrepancy is that between the waves which travel through the outermost parts of the object-glass at L and L' ; so that if we adopt the above standard of resolution, the question is where must P be situated in order that the relative retardation of the rays PL and PL' may on their arrival at B amount to a wave-length (X). In virtue of the general lawthat the reduced optical path is stationary in value, this retardation may be calculated without allowance for the different paths pursued on the farther side of L, L', so that the value is simply PL — PL'. Now since AP is very small, AL' — PL' = AP sin a, where a is the angular semi-aperture L'AB. In like manner PL— AL has the same value, so that PL-PL'=2APsina. According to the standard adopted, the condition of resolution is therefore that AP, or «, should exceed ^X/sin a. If e be less than this, the images overlap too much; while if « greatly exceed the above value the images become unnecessarily separated. In the above argument the whole space between the object and the lens is supposed to be occupied by matter of one refractive index, and X represents the wave-length in this medium of the kind of light employed. If the restriction as to uniformity be violated, what we have ultimately to deal with is the wave-length in the medium immediately surrounding the object. Calling the refractive index M, we have as the critical value of «, e = jXo/A'sin a (1), Xo being the wave-length in vacua. The denominator n sin a is the quantity well known (after Abbe) as the " numerical aperture." The extreme value possible for o is a right angle, so that for the microscopic limit we have e = JXo//K .., the error of retardation due to an elevation BD (fig. 5) 246 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT from which it follows that an error of given magnitude in the figure of a surface is less important in oblique than in perpendicular reflection. It must, however, be borne in mind that errors can sometimes be compensated by altering adjustments. If a surface intended to be flat is affected with a slight general curvature, a remedy may be found in an alteration of focus, and the remedy is the less complete as the reflection is more oblique. The formula expressing the optical power of prismatic spectro- scopes may readily be investigated upon the principles of the wave theory. Let AoBo be a plane wave-surface of the light before it falls upon the prisms, AB the corresponding wave-surface for a particular part of the spectrum after the light has passed the prisms, or after it has passed the eye-piece of the observing telescope. The path of a ray from the wave-surface Ao Bo to A or B is determined by the con- dition that the optical distance, Jpds, is a minimum; and, as AB is by supposition a wave-surface, this optical distance is the same for both points. Thus jnds(lorA.)=jnds (for B) .... (4). We have now to consider the behaviour of light belonging to a neighbouring part of the spectrum. The path of a ray from the wave-surface AoBo to the point A is changed; but in virtue of the minimum property the change may be neglected in calculating the optical distance.as it influences the result by quantities of the second order only in the changes of refrangibility. Accordingly, the optical distance fromAoBo to A is represented by f(n+Sii)ds, the integration being along the original path Ao . . . A; and similarly the optical distance between AoB0 and B is represented by f(n+Sn)ds, the integration being along Bo ... B. In virtue of (4) the difference of the optical distances to A and B is fads (along B« . . . B)-JWi (along Ao ... A) (5). The new wave-surface is formed in such a position that the optical distance is constant; and therefore the dispersion, or the angle through which the wave-surface is turned by the change of refrangi- bility, is found simply by dividing (5) by the distance AB. If, as in common flint-glass spectroscopes, there is only one dispersing substance, (&nds = &p.s, where s is simply the thickness traversed by the ray. If h and (upon the same side), the relative retardation from each element of width (a+d) to the next is 'a+d) (sin 0+sin ) ; and this is the quantity which is to be equated 0 m\. Thus sinfl+sin 0 = 2 sin %(8+) cos 1(6 — ) =m\/(a+d) (5). The "deviation" is (0+), and is therefore a minimum when 1 = , i.e. when the grating is so situated that the angles of incidence and diffraction are equal. In the case of a reflection grating the same method applies. If 6 and denote the angles with the normal made by the incident and diffracted rays, the formula (5) still holds, and, if the deviation be reckoned from the direction of the regularly reflected rays, it is expressed as before ;by (0+), and is a mini- mum when 6 — , that is, when the diffracted rays return upon the course of the incident •ays. In either case (as also with a prism) the josition of minimum deviation leaves the FIG. 7. width of the beam unaltered, i.e. neither magnifies nor diminishes the angular width of the object under view. From (5) we see that, when the light falls perpendicularly upon grating (0 = o), there is no spectrum formed (the image corre- sponding to m=o not being counted as a spectrum), if the grating "nterval Vi u~ a ' where t))=AQ', u=AQ, o = OA, <*> = angleof incidence QAO, equal to the angle of reflection Q'AO. If Q be on the circle described upon OA as diameter, so that u-a cos , then Q' lies also upon the same circle; and in this case it follows from the symmetry that the unsymmetrical aberration (depending upon a) vanishes. This disposition is adopted in Rowland's instrument; only, in addition to the central image formed at the angle ' = , there are a series of spectra with various values of 4>', btit all disposed upon the same circle. Rowland's investigation is contained in the paper already referred to; but the following account of the theory is in the form adopted by R. T. Glazebrook (Phil. Mag., 1883). In order to find the difference of optical distances between the courses QAQ', QPQ', we have to express QP-QA, PQ'-AQ'. To find the former, we have, if OAQ = <£, AOP = «, = (tt+a sin sin u>)2— a2 sin 20sin 2a>+4a sin 2ju(a-» cos ). FIG. 2 " In the same way we may conclude that in flat gratings any departure from a straight line has the effect of causing the dust in the slit and the spectrum to have different foci — a fact sometimes observed " (Rowland, " On Concave Gratings for Optical Purposes, Phil. Mag., September 1883). DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT 249 Now as far as «4 4 sin 4w = and thus to the same order QP2 = (u+a sin sin w)* —a cos (u—a cos ) sin 2aj + j) sin 4w. But if we now suppose that Q lies on the circle u=a cos , the middle term vanishes, and we get, correct as far as w4, QP = (M+asin sin a) so that in which it is to be noticed that the adjustment necessary to secure the disappearance of sin 2&> is sufficient also to destroy the term in sin3 w. A similar expression can be found for Q'P— Q'A; and thus, if Q'A = ii, Q'AO=<£' , where v = a cos ' , we get /) . . . (10). If (£' = <£, the term of the first order vanishes, and the reduction of the difference of path via P and via A to a term of the fourth order proves not only that Q and Q' are conjugate foci, but also that the foci are exempt from the most important term in the aberration. In the present application ' is not necessarily equal to ; but if P correspond to a line upon the grating, the difference of retarda- tions for consecutive positions of P, so far as expressed by the term of the first order, will be equal to =FJM\ (m integral), and therefore without influence, provided a (sin -sin') = =F mX (11), where a denotes the constant interval between the planes contain- ing the lines. This is the ordinary formula for a reflecting plane grating, and it shows that the spectra are formed in the usual directions. They are here focused (so far as the rays in the primary plane are concerned) upon the circle OQ'A, and the outstanding aberration is of the fourth order. In order that a large part of the field of view may be in focus at once, it is desirable that the locus of the focused spectrum should be nearly perpendicular to the line of vision. For this purpose Rowland places the eye-piece at O, so that = o, and then by (n) the value of ' in the m" spectrum is If u now relate to the edge of the grating, on which there are altogether n lines, n sin <£'tan ' , ^a mnXsin' wtan ' (13). This expresses the retardation of the extreme relatively to the central ray, and is to be reckoned positive, whatever may be the signs of u, and 0'. If the semi-angular aperture (u) be Tj0, and tan 4>' = i, mn might be as great as four millions before the error of phase would reach JX. If it were desired to use an angular aperture so large that the aberration according to (13) would be injurious, Rowland points out that on his machine there would be no difficulty in applying a remedy by making a slightly variable towards the edges. Or, retaining a constant, we might attain compensation by so polishing the surface as to bring the circumference slightly forward in comparison with the position it would occupy upon a true sphere. It may be remarked that these calculations apply to the rays in the primary plane only. The image is greatly affected with astig- matism ; but this is of little consequence, if 7 in (8) be small enough. Curvature of the primary focal line having a very injurious effect upon definition, it may be inferred from the excellent performance of these gratings that y is in fact small. Its value does not appear to have been calculated. The other coefficients in (8) vanish in virtue of the symmetry. The mechanical arrangements for maintaining the focus are of great simplicity. The grating at A and the eye-piece at O are rigidly attached to a bar AO, whose ends rest on carriages, moving on rails OQ, AQ at right angles to each other. A tie between the middle point of the rod OA and Q can be used if thought desirable. The absence of chromatic aberration gives a great advantage in the comparison of overlapping spectra, which Rowland has turned to excellent account in his determinations of the relative wave- lengths of lines in the solar spectrum (Phil. Mag., 1887). For absolute determinations of wave-lengths plane gratings are used. It is found (Bell, Phil. Mag., 1887) that the angular measurements present less difficulty than the comparison of the grating interval with the standard metre. There is also some uncertainty as to the actual temperature of the grating when in use. In order to minimize the heating action of the light, it might be submitted to a preliminary prismatic analysis before it reaches the slit of the spectrometer, after the manner of Helmholtz. In spite of the many improvements introduced by Rowland and of the care with which his observations were made, recent workers have come to the conclusion that errors of unexpected amount have crept into his measurements of wave-lengths, and there is even a disposition to discard the grating altogether for funda- mental work in favour of the so-called " interference methods," as developed by A. A. Michelson, and by C. Fabry and J. B. Perot. The grating would in any case retain its utility for the reference of new lines to standards otherwise fixed. For such standards a relative accuracy of at least one part in a million seems now to be attainable. Since the time of Fraunhofer many skilled mechanicians have given their attention to the ruling of gratings. Those of Nobert were employed by A. J. Angstrom in his celebrated researches upon wave-lengths. L. M. Rutherfurd introduced into common use the reflection grating, finding that speculum metal was less trying than glass to the diamond point, upon the permanence of which so much depends. In Rowland's dividing engine the screws were prepared by a special process devised by him, and the resulting gratings, plane and concave, have supplied the means for much of the best modern optical work. It would seem, however, that further improvements are not excluded. There are various copying processes by which it is possible to reproduce an original ruling in more or less perfection. The earliest is that of Quincke, who coated a glass grating with a chemical silver deposit, subsequently thickened with copper in an electrolytic bath. The metallic plate thus produced formed, when stripped from its support, a reflection grating reproducing many of the characteristics of the original. It is best to com- mence the electrolytic thickening in a silver acetate bath. At the present time excellent reproductions of Rowland's speculum gratings are on the market (Thorp, Ives, Wallace), prepared, after a suggestion of Sir David Brewster, by coating the original with a varnish, e.g. of celluloid. Much skill is required to secure that the film when stripped shall remain undeformed. A much easier method, applicable to glass originals, is that of photographic reproduction by contact printing. In several papers dating from 1872, Lord Rayleigh (see Collected Papers, i. 157, 160, 199, 504; iv. 226) has shown that success may be attained by a variety of processes, including bichromated gelatin and the old bitumen process, and has investigated the effect of imperfect approximation during the exposure between the prepared plate and the original. For many purposes the copies, containing lines up to 10,000 to the inch, are not inferior. It is to be desired that transparent gratings should be obtained from first-class ruling machines. To save the diamond point it might be possible to use something softer than ordinary glass as the material of the plate. 9. Talbot's Bands. — These very remarkable bands are seen under certain conditions when a tolerably pure spectrum is re- garded with the naked eye, or with a telescope, half the aperture being covered by a thin plate, e.g. of glass or mica. The view of the matter taken by the discoverer (Phil. Mag., 1837, 10, p. 364) was that any ray which suffered in traversing the plate a retardation of an odd number of half wave-lengths would be extinguished, and that thus the spectrum would be seen interrupted by a number of dark bars. But this'explanation cannot be accepted as it stands, being open to the same objection as Arago's theory of stellar scintillation.1 It is as far as possible from being true that a body emitting homogeneous light would disappear on merely covering half the aperture of vision with a half- wave plate. Such a conclusion would be in the face of the principle of energy, which teaches plainly that the retardation in question leaves the aggregate brightness unaltered. The actual formation of 1 On account of inequalities in the atmosphere giving a variable refraction, the light from a star would be irregularly distributed over a screen. The experiment is easily made on a laboratory scale, with a small source of light, the rays from which „ in their course towards a rather distant screen, are disturbed by the neighbourhood of a heated body. At a moment when the eye, or object-glass of a telescope, occupies a dark position, the star vanishes. A fraction of a second later the aperture occupies a bright place, and the star reappears. According to this view the chromatic effects depend entirely upon atmospheric dispersion. 250 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT the bands comes about in a very curious way, as is shown by a circumstance first observed by Brewster. When the retarding plate is held on the side towards the red of the spectrum, the bands are not seen. Even in the contrary case , the thickness of the plate must not exceed a certain limit, dependent upon the purity of the spectrum. A satisfactory explanation of these bands was first given by Airy (Phil. Trans., 1840, 225; 1841, i), but we shall here follow the investigation of Sir G. G. Stokes ( Phil. Trans., 1848, 227), limiting ourselves, however, to the case where the retarded and unretarded beams are contiguous and of equal width. The aperture of the unretarded beam may thus be taken to be limited by x= —h, * = o, y— —I, y=+l; and that of the beam re- tarded by R to be given by * = o, x = h, y=—l, y = +l. For the former (i) § 3 gives 2lh . kr,l 2f_ . kth . ,( , &) sm -j • kth sin w • sm * I at~J % I • on integration and reduction. For the retarded stream the only difference is that we must sub- tract R from at, and that the limits of * are o and -\-h. We thus get for the disturbance at £, ij, due to this stream 2lh kril2 kth ~ If we put for shortness T for the quantity under the last circular function in (i), the expressions (i), (2) may be put under the forms u sinr, » sin (T— o) respectively; and, if I be the intensity, I will be measured by the sum of the squares of the coefficients of sin r and cos T in the expression u sin T+» sin (T— a), so that I =«2+»*+2«i) cos o, which becomes on putting for u, v, and a their values, and putting (3), (4). If the subject of examination be a luminous line parallel to ij, we shall obtain what we require by integrating (4) with respect to i\ from — oo to + 00. The constant multiplier is of no especial interest so that we may take as applicable to the image of a line 2 . jlrfft I /2irR 2ir£ft\ ) If R = JX, I vanishes at £=o; but the whole illumination, repre- sented by | I d£, is independent of the value of R. If R=o, J — oe 1 2ir? h I =|jsin2-r^-, in agreement with § 3, where o has the meaning here attached to 2ft. The expression (5) gives the illumination at £ due to that part of the complete image whose geometrical focus is at £ = o, the retardation for this component being R. Since we have now to integrate for the whole illumination at a particular point O due to all the components which have their foci in its neighbourhood, we may conveniently regard O as origin. £ is then the co-ordinate relatively to O of any focal point O' for which the retardation is R; and the required result is obtained by simply integrating (5) with respect to £ from — oo to +00. To each value of £ corresponds a different value of X, and (in consequence of the dispersing power of the plate) of R. The variation of X may, however, be neglected in the integration, except in 2?rR/X, where a small variation of X entails a comparatively large alteration of phase. If we write p = 2jrR/X (6), we must regard p as a function of £, and we may take with sufficient approximation under any ordinary circumstances _ f I £ (tf\ where p' denotes the value of p at O, and o is a constant, which is positive when the retarding plate is held at the side on which the blue of the_spectrum is seen. The possibility of dark bands depends upon o being positive. Only in this case can retain the constant value — i throughout the integration, and then only when ra = 2xA/X/ (8) and cosp'=-i (9). The first of these equations is the condition for the formation of dark bands, and the second marks their situation, which is the same as that determined by the imperfect theory. The integration can be effected without much difficulty. For the first term in (5) the evaluation is effected at once by a known formula. In the second term if we observe that cos (p' + (a - 2rhl\f) t] = cos [p' - g,|) = cos p' cos gi£ +sin p' sin gi{, we see that the second part vanishes when integrated, and that the remaining integral is of the form where (10). By differentiation with respect to g! it may be proved that t0 = 0 fromgi = — oo togi = — ahi, t0 = iir(2&i+gi) from gi= -2hi to gi=0, t0 = iir(2Ai-fr) fromgi = 0 togi=2fc, w = 0 fromgi = 2Ai togi = oo. The integrated intensity, I', or 2rht+2 COS pW, is thus I' = 2Tftj ...... (11), when gi numerically exceeds ahi; and, when gi lies between =2&i, I =» {2fti + (2ft, -V ft1) cos p') . . . (12). It appears therefore that there are no bands at all unless ro lies between o and +4*1, and that within these limits the best bands are formed at the middle of the range when er=2ft,. The formation of bands thus requires that the retarding plate be held upon the side already specified, so that BJ be positive ; and that the thickness of the plate (to which CT is proportional) do not exceed a certain limit, which we may call 2T0. At the best thickness To the bands are black, and not otherwise. The linear width of the band (?) is the increment of £ which alters p by 2ir, so that e=2ir/CT ...... (13). With the best thickness CT=27rft/X/ ...... (14). so that in this case « = A//A ...... (15). The bands are thus of the same width as those due to two infinitely narrow apertures coincident with the central lines of the retarded and unretarded streams, the subject of examination being itself a fine luminous line. If it be desired to see a given number of bands in the whole or in any part of the spectrum, the thickness of the retarding plate is thereby determined, independently of all other considerations. But in order that the bands may be really visible, and still more in order that they may be black, another condition must be satisfied. It is necessary that the aperture of the pupil be accommodated to the angular extent of the spectrum, or reciprocally. Black bands will be too fine to be well seen unless the aperture (2/1) of the pupil be somewhat contracted. One-twentieth to one-fiftieth of an inch is suitable. The aperture and the number of bands being both fixed, the condition of blackness determines the angular magni- tude of a band and of the spectrum. The use of a grating is very convenient, for not only are there several spectra in view at the same time, but the dispersion can be varied continuously by sloping the grating. The slits may be cut out of tin-plate, and half covered by mica or " microscopic glass," held in position by a little cement. If a telescope be employed there is a distinction to be observed, according as the half-covered aperture is between the eye and the ocular, or in front of the object-glass. In the former case the function of the telescope is simply to increase the dispersion, and the formation of the bands is of course independent of the par- ticular manner in which the dispersion arises. If, however, the half-covered aperture be in front of the object-glass, the pheno- menon is magnified as a whole, and the desirable relation between the (unmagnified) dispersion and the aperture is the same as with- out the telescope. There appears to be no further advantage in the use of a telescope than the increased facility of accommodation, and for this of course a very low power suffices. The original investigation of Stokes, here briefly sketched, extends also to the case where the streams are of unequal width h, k, and are separated by an interval 2g. In the case of unequal width the bands cannot be black; but if h = k, the finiteness of 2g does not preclude the formation of black bands. The theory of Talbot's bands with a half-covered circular aperture has been considered by H. Struve (St Peters. Trans., 1883, 31, No. i). The subject of " Talbot's bands " has been treated in a very instructive manner by A. Schuster (Phil. Mag., 1904), whose point of view offers the great advantage of affording an instantaneous explanation of the peculiarity noticed by Brewster. A plane pulse, i.e. a disturbance limited to an infinitely thin slice of the medium, is supposed to fall upon a parallel grating, which again may DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT 251 be regarded as formed of infinitely thin wires, or infinitely narrow lines traced upon glass. The secondary pulses diverted by the ruling fall upon an object-glass as usual, and on arrival at the focus constitute a procession equallyspaced in time, the interval between consecutive members depending upon the obliquity. If a retarding plate be now inserted so as to operate upon the pulses which come from one side of the grating, while leaving the remainder unaffected, we have to consider what happens at the focal point chosen. A full discussion would call for the formal application of Fourier's theorem, but some conclusions of importance are almost obvious. Previously to the introduction of the plate we have an effect corresponding to wave-lengths closely grouped around the principal wave-length, viz. a sin , where a is the grating-interval and <#> the objiquity, the closeness of the grouping increasing with the number of intervals. In addition to these wave-lengths there are other groups centred round the wave-lengths which are submultiples of the principal one — the overlapping spectra of the second and higher orders. Suppose now that the plate is introduced so as to cover half the aperture and that it retards those pulses which would otherwise arrive first. The consequences must depend upon the amount of the retardation. As this increases from zero, the two processions which correspond to the two halves of the aperture begin to overlap, and the overlapping gradually increases until there is almost complete superposition. The stage upon which we will fix our attention is that where the one procession bisects the intervals between the other, so that a new simple procession is constituted, containing the same number of members as before the insertion of the plate, but now spaced at intervals only half as great. It is evident that the effect at the focal point is the obliteration of the first and other spectra of odd order, so that as regards the spectrum of the first order we may consider that the two beams interfere. The formation of black bands is thus explained, and it requires that the plate be introduced upon one particular side, and that the amount of the retardation be adjusted to a particular value. If the retardation be too little, the overlapping of the processions is incomplete, so that besides the procession of half period there are residues of the original processions of full period. The same thing occurs if the retardation be too great. If it exceed the double of the value necessary for black bands, there is again no overlapping and consequently no interference. If the plate be introduced upon the other side, so as to retard the procession originally in arrear, there is no overlapping, whatever may be the amount of retardation. In this way the principal features of the phenomenon are accounted for, and Schuster has shown further how to extend the results to spectra having their origin in prisms instead of gratings. 10. Diffraction when the Source of Light is not seen in Focus. —The phenomena to be considered under this head are of less importance than those investigated by Fraunhofer, and will be treated in less detail; but in view of their historical interest and of the ease with which many of the experiments may be tried, some account of their theory cannot be omitted. One or two examples have already attracted our attention when considering Fresnel's zones, viz. the shadow of a circular disk and of a screen circularly perforated. Fresnel commenced his researches with an examination of the fringes, external and internal, which accompany the shadow of a narrow opaque strip, such as a wire. As a source of light he used sunshine passing through a very small hole perforated in a metal plate, or condensed by a lens of short focus. In the absence of a heliostat the latter was the more convenient. Following, un- known to himself, in the footsteps of Young, he deduced the principle of interference from the circumstance that the darkness of the interior bands requires the co-operation of light from both sides of the obstacle. At first, too, he followed Young in the view that the exterior bands are the result of interference between the direct light and that reflected from the edge of the obstacle, but he soon discovered that the character of the edge — e.g. whether it was the cutting edge or the back of a razor — made no material difference, and was thus led to the conclusion that the explanation of these phenomena requires nothing more than the application of Huygens's principle to the unobstructed parts of the wave. In observing the bands he received them at first upon a screen of finely ground glass, upon which a magnifying lens was focused; but it soon appeared that the ground glass could be dispensed with, the diffraction pattern being viewed in the same way as the image formed by the object-glass of a telescope is viewed through the eye-piece. This simplification was attended by a great saving of light, allowing measures to be taken such as would otherwise have presented great difficulties. In theoretical investigations these problems are usually treated as of two dimensions only, everything being referred to the plane passing through the luminous point and perpendicular to the diffract- ing edges, supposed to be straight and parallel. In strictness this idea is appropriate only when the source is a luminous line, emitting cylindrical waves, such as might be obtained from a luminous point with the aid of a cylindrical lens. When, in order to apply Huygens's principle, the wave is supposed to be broken up, the phase is the same at every_ element of the surface of resolution which lies upon a line perpendicular to the plane of reference, and thus the effect of the whole line, or rather infinitesimal strip, is related in a constant manner to that of the element which lies in the plane of reference, and may be considered to be represented thereby. The same method of representation is applicable to spherical waves, issuing from a point, if the radius of curvature be large; for, al- though there is variation of phase along the 1 ul_ _f o_l •_£_•*_ • 1 _.«_•_ * «_ _ . * I *• FIG. 17. length of the infinitesimal strip, the whole effect depends practically upon that of the central parts where the phase is sensibly constant.1 In fig. 17 APQ is the arc of the circle representative of the wave- front of resolution, the centre being at O, and the radius OA being equal to a. B is the point at which the effect is required, distant a+b from O, so that AB=ft, AP = j, PQ=ds. Taking as the standard phase that of the secondary wave from A, we may represent the effect of PQ by where S=BP-AP is the retardation at B of the wave from P relatively to that from A. Now ..... . . (1), so that, if we write the effect at B is \ 2FF5) \ '' \ COS?T/ COS (3), the limits of integration depending upon the disposition of the diffracting edges. When a, b, \ are regarded as constant, the first factor may be omitted, — as indeed should be done for consistency's sake, inasmuch as other factors of the same nature have been omitted already. The intensity I2, the quantity with which we are principally concerned, may thus be expressed I1={/cosjTt>2.I.>= I si ./o sin jjrt>2.dt> (29). The origin of co-ordinates O corresponds to v = o ; and the asymptotic points J, J', round which the curve revolves in an ever-closing spiral, correspond to v = =*= w . The intrinsic equation, expressing the relation between the arc o- (measured from O) and the inclination of the tangent at any points to the axis of x, assumes a very simple form. For dx =cos %irv-.dv, dy = s'\ so that a =/V(d*2 +(*/)=», * = tan-' (dy/dx) = Jirr (30), (31). DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT 253 Accordingly, and for the curvature, (32); (33). Cornu remarks that this equation suffices to determine the general character of the curve. For the osculating circle at any point includes the whole of the /" "X curve which lies beyond; and the successive con- volutions envelop one an- other-without intersection. The utility of the curve depends upon the fact that the elements of arc repre- sent, in amplitude and phase, the component vi- brations due to the corre- sponding portions of the primary wave-front. For by (.39) dv = de, and by (2) dv is proportional to ds. Moreover by (2) and (31) the retardation of phase of the elementary vibration p,G from PQ (fig. 17) is 2*&/\, or . Hence, in accordance with the rule for compounding vector quantities, the resultant vibration at B, due to any finite part of the primary wave, is represented in amplitude and phase by the chord joining the ex- tremities of the corresponding arc (o?-), f the displacements of the same particle at the end of time /, measured in the directions of the three axes respectively. Then the first of the equations of motion may be put under the form where with the direction of vibration, or axis of z. Then the displacement at O will take place in a direction perpendicular to OiO, and lying in the plane ZOiO ; and, if f ' be the displacement at O, reckoned positive in the direction nearest to that in which the incident vibrations are reckoned positive, .... (5), In particular, if we shall have It is then verified that, after integration with respect to dS>, (6) gives the same disturbance as if the primary wave had been supposed to pass on unbroken. The occurrence of sin as a factor in (6) shows that the relative intensities of the primary light and of that diffracted in the direc- tion 9 depend upon the condition of the former as regards polariza- tion. If the direction of primary vibration be perpendicular to the plane of diffraction (containing both primary and secondary rays), sin # = i; but, if the primary vibration be in the plane of diffraction, sin #=cos 0. This result was employed by Stokes as a criterion of the direction of vibration; and his experiments, con- ducted with gratings, led him to the conclusion that the vibrations 254 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT of polarized light are executed in a direction perpendicular to the plane of polarization. The factor (i+cos 6) shows in what manner the secondary dis- turbance depends upon the direction in which it is propagated with respect to the front of the primary wave. If, as suffices for all practical purposes, we limit the application of the formulae to points in advance of the plane at which the wave is supposed to be broken up, we may use simpler methods of resolu- tion than that above considered. It appears indeed that the purely mathematical question has no definite answer. In illustration of this the analogous problem for sound may be referred to. Imagine a flexible lamina to be introduced so as to coincide with the plane at which resolution is to be effected. The introduction of the lamina (supposed to be devoid of inertia) will make no difference to the propagation of plane parallel sonorous waves through the position which it occupies. At every point the motion of the lamina will be the same as would have occurred in its absence, the pressure of the waves impinging from behind being just what is required to generate the waves in front. Now it is evident that the aerial motion in front of the lamina is determined by what happens at the lamina without regard to the cause of the motion there existing. Whether the necessary forces are due to aerial pressures acting on the rear, or to forces directly impressed from without, is a matter of indifference. The conception of the lamina leads immediately to two schemes, according to which a primary wave may be supposed to be broken up. In the first of these the element dS, the effect of which is to be estimated, is supposed to execute its actual motion, while every other element of the plane lamina is maintained at rest. The resulting aerial motion in front is readily calculated (see Rayleigh, Theory of Sound, § 278) ; it is symmetrical with respect to the origin, i.e. inde- pendent of 8. When the secondary disturbance thus obtained is integrated with respect to dS> over the entire plane of the lamina, the result is necessarily the same as would have been obtained had the primary wave been supposed to pass on without resolution, for this is precisely the motion generated when every element of the lamina vibrates with a common motion, equal to that attributed to dS. The only assumption here involved is the evidently legitimate one that, when two systems of variously distributed motion at the lamina are superposed, the corresponding motions in front are superposed also. The method of resolution just described is the simplest, but it is only one of an indefinite number that might be proposed, and which are all equally legitimate, so long as the question is regarded as a merely mathematical one, without reference to the physical pro- perties of actual screens. If, instead of supposing the motion at dS to be that of the primary wave, and to be zero elsewhere, we suppose the force operative over the element dS of the lamina to be that corresponding to the primary wave, and to vanish elsewhere, we obtain a secondary wave following quite a different law. In this case the motion in different directions varies as cos0, vanishing at right angles to the direction of propagation of the primary wave. Here again, on integration over the entire lamina, the aggregate effect of the secondary waves is necessarily the same as that of the primary. In order to apply these ideas to the investigation of the secondary wave of light, we require the solution of a problem, first treated by Stokes, viz. the determination of the motion in an infinitely extended elastic solid due to a locally applied periodic force. If we suppose that the force impressed upon the element of mass D dx dy dz is DZ dx dy dz, being everywhere parallel to the axis of Z, the only change required in our equations (i), (2) is the addition of the term Z to the second member of the third equation (2). In the forced vibration, now under consideration, Z, and the quantities £, ?j, f, 5 expressing the resulting motion, are to be supposed proportional to «•'"', where •i = il( — i), and n = 2jr/T, r being the periodic time. Under these circumstances the double differentiation with respect to t of any quantity is equivalent to multiplication by the factor — »a, and thus our equations take the form . . . (7). It will now be convenient to introduce the quantities CTI, sr2, BTS, which express the rotations of the elements of the medium round axes parallel to those of co-ordinates, in accordance with the equations In terms of these we obtain from (7), by differentiation and subtrac- tion, (9). dS The first of equations (9) gives For Oi we have -, = 0 (10). where r is the distance between the element dxdydz and the point where ui is estimated, and (12), X being the wave-length. (This solution may be verified in the same manner as Poisson's theorem, in which k=o.) We will now introduce the supposition that the force Z acts only within a small space of volume T, situated at (x, y, z), and for simplicity suppose that it is at the origin of co-ordinates that the rotations are to be estimated. Integrating by parts in (11), we get fe-* dZ , r7e-*-1 f 7 d /e-*\ , J — TyAy= \L—\ -J Z3y-(— ) dy' in which the integrated terms at the limits vanish, Z being finite only within the region T. Thus Since the dimensions of T are supposed to be very small in com- parison with X, the factor j- \f-f-J is sensibly constant ; so that, if Z stand for the mean value of Z over the volume T, we may write = TZ y d /e~<*\ In like manner we find TZ * d /e-*\ From (iq), (13), (14) we see that, as might have been expected, the rotation at any point is about an axis perpendicular both to the direction of the force and to the line joining the point to the source of disturbance. If the resultant rotation be CD , we have TZ V (**+?*) d (e-**\ _TZsinJ d fe- shows that there is no disturbance radiated in the direction of the force, a feature which might have been anticipated from considerations of symmetry. We will now apply (18) to the investigation of a law of secondary disturbance, when a primary wave sia(nt-kx) (19) is supposed to be broken up in passing the plane x = o. The first step is to calculate the force which represents the reaction between the parts of the medium separated by x = o. The force operative upon the positive half is parallel to OZ, and of amount per unit of area equal to and to this force acting over the whole of the plane the actual motion on the positive side may be conceived to be due. The DIFFUSION 255 secondary disturbance corresponding to the element dS of the plane may be supposed to be that caused by a force of the above magnitude acting over dS and vanishing elsewhere; and it only remains to examine what the result of such a force would be. Now it is evident that the force in question, supposed to act upon the positive half only of the medium, produces just double of the effect that would be caused by the same force if the medium were undivided, and on the latter supposition (being also localized at a point) it comes under the head already considered. According to (18), the effect of the force acting at dS parallel to OZ, and of amount equal to 2&kD dS cos nt, will be a disturbance r = dS_sinJ,cos(n<_fer) (20)> AT regard being had to (12). This therefore expresses the secondary disturbance at a distance r and in a direction making an angle with OZ (the direction of primary vibration) due to the element dS of the wave-front. The proportionality of the secondary disturbance to sin 4> is common to the present law and to that given by Stokes, but here there is no dependence upon the angle 0 between the primary and secondary rays. The occurrence of the factor (Xrj r1, and the necessity of supposing the phase of the secondary wave accelerated by a quarter of an undulation, were first established by Archibald Smith, as the result of a comparison between the primary wave, supposed to pass on without resolution, and the integrated effect of al! the secondary waves (§ 2). The occurrence of factors such as sin , or KI+COS 8), in the expression of the secondary wave has no influence upon the result of the integration, the effects of all the elements for which the factors differ appreciably from unity being destroyed by mutual interference. The choice between various methods of resolution, all mathe- matically admissible, would be guided by physical considerations respecting the mode of action of obstacles. Thus, tojefer again to the acoustical analogue in which plane waves are incident upon a perforated rigid screen, the circumstances of the case are best represented by the first method of resolution, leading to symmetrical secondary waves, in which the normal motion is supposed to be zero over the unperforated parts. Indeed, if the aperture is very small, this method gives the correct result, save as to a constant factor. In like manner our present law (20) would apply to the kind of obstruc- tion that would be caused by an actual physical division of the elastic medium, extending over the whole of the area supposed to be occupied by the intercepting screen, but of course not extending to the parts supposed to be perforated. On the electromagnetic theory, the problem of diffraction becomes definite when the properties of the obstacle are laid down. The simplest supposition is that the material composing the obstacle is perfectly conducting, i.e. perfectly reflecting. On this basis A. J. W.Sommerfeld (Math. Ann., 1895, 47, p. 317), with great mathe- matical skill, has solved the problem of the shadow thrown by a semi-infinite plane screen. A simplified exposition has been given by Horace Lamb (Proc. Land. Math. Soc., 1906, 4, p. 190). It appears that Fresnel's results, although based on an imperfect theory, require only insignificant corrections. Problems not limited to two dimensions, such for example as the shadow of a circular disk, present great difficulties, and have not hitherto been treated by a rigorous method ; but there is no reason to suppose that Fresnel's results would be departed from materially. (R.) DIFFUSION (from the Lat. di/undere; dis-, asunder, and fundere, to pour out), in general, a spreading out, scattering or circulation; in physics the term is applied to a special phenomenon, treated below. i. General Description. — When two different substances are placed in contact with each other they sometimes remain separate, but in many cases a gradual mixing takes place. In the case where both the substances are gases the process of mixing continues until the result is a uniform mixture. In other cases the proportions in which two different substances can mix lie between certain fixed limits, but the mixture is distinguished from a chemical compound by the fact that between these limits the composition of the mixture is capable of continuous variation, while in chemical compounds, the proportions of the different constituents can only have a discrete series of numerical values, each different ratio representing a different compound. If we take, for example, air and water in the presence of each other, air will become dissolved in the water, and water will evaporate into the air, and the proportions of either constituent absorbed by the other will vary continuously. But a limit will come when the air will absorb no more water, and the water will absorb no more air, and throughout the change a definite surface of separation will exist between the liquid and the gaseous parts. When no surface of separation ever exists between two substances they must necessarily be capable of mixing in all proportions. If they are not capable of mixing in all proportions a discontinuous change must occur somewhere between the regions where the substances are still unmixed, thus giving rise to a surface of separation. The phenomena of mixing thus involves the following pro- cesses:— (i) A motion of the substances relative to one another throughout a definite region of space in which mixing is taking place. This relative motion is called " diffusion." (2) The pas- sage of portions of the mixing substances across the surface of separation when such a surface exists. These surface actions are described under various terms such as solution, evaporation, condensation and so forth. For example, when a soluble salt is placed in a liquid, the process which occurs at the surface of the salt is called " solution," but the salt which enters the liquid by solution is transported from the surface into the interior of the liquid by " diffusion." Diffusion may take place in solids, that is, in regions occupied by matter which continues to exhibit the properties of the solid state. Thus if two liquids which can mix are separated by a membrane or partition, the mixing may take place through the membrane. If a solution of salt is separated from pure water by a sheet of parchment, part of the salt will pass through the parch- ment into the water. If water and glycerin are separated in this way most of the water will pass into the glycerin and a little glycerin will pass through in the opposite direction, a property frequently used by microscopists for the purpose of gradually transferring minute algae from water into glycerin. A still more interesting series of examples is afforded by the passage of gases through partitions of metal, notably the passage of hydrogen through platinum and palladium at high temperatures. When the process is considered with reference to a membrane or partition taken as a whole, the passage of a substance from one side to the other is commonly known as " osmosis " or " transpiration " (see SOLUTION), but what occurs in the material of the membrane itself is correctly described as diffusion. Simple cases of diffusion are easily observed qualitatively. If a solution of a coloured salt is carefully introduced by a funnel into the bottom of a jar containing water, the two portions will at first be fairly well defined, but if the mixture can exist in all propor- tions, the surface of separation will gradually disappear; and the rise of the colour into the upper part and its gradual weakening in the lower part, may be watched for days, weeks or even longer intervals. The diffusion of a strong aniline colouring matter into the interior of gelatine is easily observed, and is commonly seen in copying apparatus. Diffusion of gases may be shown to exist by taking glass jars containing vapours of hydrochloric acid and ammonia, and placing them in communication with the heavier gas downmost. The precipitation of ammonium chloride shows that diffusion exists, though the chemical action prevents this example from forming a typical case of diffusion. Again, when a film of Canada balsam is enclosed between glass plates, the disappearance during a few weeks of small air bubbles enclosed in the balsam can be watched under the microscope. In fluid media, whether liquids or gases, the process of mixing is greatly accelerated by stirring or agitating the fluids, and liquids which might take years to mix if left to themselves can thus be mixed in a few seconds. It is necessary to carefully distinguish the effects of agitation from those of diffusion proper. By shaking up two liquids which do not mix we split them up into a large number of different portions, and so greatly increase the area of the surface of separation, besides decreasing the thicknesses of the various portions. But even when we produce the appearance of a uniform turbid mixture, the small portions remain quite distinct. If however the fluids can really mix, the final process must in every case depend on diffusion, and all we do by shaking is to increase the sectional area, and decrease the thickness of the diffusing portions, thus rendering the completion of the operation more rapid. If a gas is shaken up in a liquid the process of absorption of the bubbles is also accelerated by capillary action, as occurs in an ordinary sparklet bottle. To state the matter precisely, however finely two fluids have been 256 DIFFUSION subdivided by agitation, the molecular constitution of the different portions remains unchanged. The ultimate process by which the individual molecules of two different substances become mixed, producing finally a homogeneous mixture, is in every case diffusion. In other words, diffusion is that relative motion of the molecules of two different substances by which the proportions of the molecules in any region containing a finite number of molecules are changed. In order, therefore, to make accurate observations of diffusion in fluids it is necessary to guard against any cause which may set up currents; and in some cases this is exceedingly difficult. Thus, if gas is absorbed at the upper surface of a liquid, and if the gaseous solution is heavier than the pure liquid, currents may be set up, and a steady state of diffusion may cease to exist. This has been tested experimentally by C. G. von Hiifner and W. E. Adney. The same thing may happen when a gas is evolved into a liquid at the surface of a solid even if no bubbles are formed ; thus if pieces of aluminium are placed in caustic soda, the currents set up by the evolution of hydrogen are sufficient to set the aluminium pieces in motion, and it is probable that the motions of the Diatomaceae are similarly caused by the evolution of oxygen. In some pairs of substances diffusion may take place more rapidly than in others. Of course the progress of events in any experiment necessarily depends on various causes, such as the size of the containing vessels, but it is easy to see that when experiments with different substances are carried out under similar conditions, however these " similar conditions " be defined, the rates of diffusion must be capable of numerical comparison, and the results must be expressible in terms of at least one physical quantity, which for any two substances can be called their co- efficient of diffusion. How to select this quantity we shall see later. 2 Quantitative Methods of observing Diffusion. — The simplest plan of determining the progress of diffusion between two liquids would be to draw off and examine portions from different strata at some stage in the process; the disturbance produced would, however, interfere with the subsequent process of diffusion, and the observations could not be continued. By placing in the liquid column hollow glass beads of different average densities, and observing at what height they remain suspended, it is possible to trace the variations of density of the liquid column at different depths, and different times. In this method, which was originally introduced by Lord Kelvin, difficulties were caused by the adherence of small air bubbles to the beads. In general, optical methods are the most capable of giving exact results, and the following may be distinguished, (a) By refraction in a horizontal plane. If the containing vessel is in the form of a prism, the deviation of a horizontal ray of light in passing through the prism determines the index of refraction, and consequently the density of the stratum through which the ray passes, (b) By refraction in a vertical plane. Owing to the density varying with the depth, a horizontal ray entering the liquid also undergoes a small vertical deviation, being bent downwards towards the layers of greater density. The observa- tion of this vertical deviation determines not the actual density, but its rate of variation with the depth, i.e. the "density gradient" at any point, (c) By the saccharimeter. In the cases of solutions of sugar, which cause rotation of the plane of polarized light, the density of the sugar at any depth may be determined by observing the corresponding angle of rotation, this was done originally by W. Voigt. 2- Elementary Definitions of Coefficient of Diffusion. — The simplest case of diffusion is that of a substance, say a gas, diffusing in the interior of a homogeneous solid medium, which remains at rest, when no external forces act on the system. We may regard it as the result of experience that: (i) if the density of the diffus- ing substance is everywhere the same no diffusion takes place, and (2) if the density of the diffusing substance is different at different points, diffusion will take place from places of greater to those of lesser density, and will not cease until the density is everywhere the same. It follows that the rate of flow of the diffusing sub- stance at any point in any direction must depend on the density gradient at that point in that direction, i.e. on the rate at which the density of the diffusing substance decreases as we move in that direction. We may define the coefficient of diffusion as the ratio of the total mass per unit area which flows across any small section, to the rate of decrease of the density per unit distance in a direction perpendicular to that section. In the case of steady diffusion parallel to the axis of x, if p be the density of the diffusing substance, and q the mass which flows across a unit of area in a plane perpendicular to the axis of x, then the density gradient is —dpldx and the ratio of q to this is called the " coefficient of diffusion." By what has been said this ratio remains finite, how- ever small the actual gradient and flow may be; and it is natural to assume, at any rate as a first approximation, that it is constant as far as the quantities in question are concerned. Thus if the coefficient of diffusion be denoted by K we have g= —K(dp/dx). Further, the rate at which the quantity of substance is increasing in an element between the distances x and x+dx is equal to the difference of the rates of flow in and out of the two faces, whence as in hydrodynamics, we have dpldt= —dqjdx. It follows that the equation of diffusion in this case assumes the form

(w2— Ui). This definition implies the following laws of resistance to diffusion, which must be regarded as based on experience, and not as self-evident truths: (i) each fluid tends to assume, so far as diffusion is concerned, the same equilibrium distribution that it would assume if its motion were unresisted by the presence of the other fluid. (Of course, the mutual attraction of gravitation of the two fluids might affect the final distribution, but this is practically negligible. Leaving such actions as this out of DIFFUSION 257 account the following statement is correct.) In a state of equilibrium, the density of each fluid at any point thus depends only on the partial pressure of that fluid alone, and is the same as if the other fluids were absent. It does not depend on the partial pressures of the other fluids. If this were not the case, the resistance to diffusion would be analogous to friction, and would contain terms which were independent of the relative velocity ui— u\. (2) For slow motions the resistance to diffusion is (approximately at any rate) proportional to the relative velocity. (3) The coefficient of resistance C is not necessarily always constant; it may, for example, and, in general, does, depend on the temperature. If we form the equations of hydrodynamics for the different fluids occurring in any mixture, taking account of diffusion, but neglecting viscosity, and using suffixes I, 2 to denote the separate fluids, these assume the form given by James Clerk Maxwell (" Diffusion," in Ency. Brit., gth ed.) : — Pl~l)t~St~ fa~ XlPl+Cl2plp2(tti — «2) +&C. = O, where I );/, tl/i, . flu, . du, - and these equations imply that when diffusion and other motions cease, the fluids satisfy the separate conditions of equilibrium dpi/dx — Xipi—o. The assumption made in the following account is that terms such as Dui/Dt may be neglected in the cases considered. A further property based on experience is that the motions set up in a mixture by diffusion are very slow compared with those set up by mechanical actions, such as differences of pressure. Thus, if two gases at equal temperature and pressure be allowed to mix by diffusion, the heavier gas being below the lighter, the process will take a long time; on the other hand, if two gases, or parts of the same gas, at different pressures be connected, equalization of pressure will take place almost immediately. It follows from this property that the forces required to overcome the " inertia " of the fluids in the motions due to diffusion are quite imperceptible. At any stage of the process, therefore, any one of the diffusing fluids may be regarded as in equilibrium under the action of its own partial pressure, the external forces to which it is subjected and the resistance to diffusion of the other fluids. 5. Slow Diffusion of two Gases. Relation between the Co- efficients of Resistance and of Diffusion. — We now suppose the diffusing substances to be two gases which obey Boyle's law, and that diffusion takes place in a closed cylinder or tube of unit sectional area at constant temperature, the surfaces of equal density being perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, so that the direction of diffusion is along the length of the cylinder, and we suppose no external forces, such as gravity, to act on the system. The densities of the gases are denoted by pi, p2, their velocities of diffusion by u\, u2, and if their partial pressures are pi, p3, we have by Boyle's law pi = k\pi, £2 = £202, where *t, ki are constants for the two gases, the temperature being constant. The axis of the cylinder is taken as the axis of x. From the considerations of the preceding section, the effects of inertia of the diffusing gases may be neglected, and at any instant of the process either of the gases is to be treated as kept in equilibrium by its partial pressure and the resistance to diffusion produced by the other gas. Calling this resistance per unit volume R.and putting R = Cpip2(«i— «2), where C is the coefficient of resistance, the equa- tions of equilibrium give •j;f+Cpip2(«i-tt2)=0, and •^+Cp2pi(«2-tti)-o. (1). These involve where P is the total pressure of the mixture, and is everywhere constant, consistently with the conditions of mechanical equilibrium. Now dpi/dx is the pressure-gradient of the first gas, and is, by Boyle's law, equal to ki times the corresponding density-gradient. Again piUi is the mass of gas flowing across any section per unit time, and kipiUi or p\u\ can be regarded as representing the flux of partial pressure produced by the motion of the gas. Since the total pressure is everywhere constant, and the ends of the cylinder are supposed fixed, the fluxes of partial pressure due to the two gases are equal and opposite, so that piui+piui = o or AipiMi+A2p2M2 = o . . . (3). From (2) (3) we find by elementary algebra Ullpt = -U-jpl = (Ul—U2)/(pi +/>.) = («, -M2)/P, vm. 9 and therefore plUl = — piU2=p1p-1(ui Hence equations (i) (2) gives whence also substituting pi = k\kt dpi - = kw, and by transposing ktk2 dpi , and p2w2 = — We may now define the " coefficient of diffusion " of either gas as the ratio of the rate of flow of that gas to its density-gradient. With this definition, the coefficients of diffusion of both the gases in a mixture are equal, each being equal to kik2/CP. The ratios of the fluxes of partial pressure to the corresponding pressure-gradients are also equal to the same coefficient. Calling this coefficient K, we also observe that the equations of continuity for the two gases are leading to the equations of diffusion dpi d /,,dpi\ . dpi d -dt=dx(K-^)'andw=rx[ exactly as in the case of diffusion through a solid. If we attempt to treat diffusion in liquids by a similar method, it is, in the first place, necessary to define the " partial pressure " of the components occurring in a liquid mixture. This leads to the conception of " osmotic pressure," which is dealt with in the article SOLUTION. For dilute solutions at constant temperature, the assumption that the osmotic pressure is proportional to the density, leads to results agreeing fairly closely with experience, and this fact may be represented by the statement that a sub- stance occurring in a dilute solution behaves like a perfect gas. 6. Relation of the Coefficient of Diffusion to the Units of Length and Time. — We may write the equation defining K in the form P dx' Here —dp/pdx represents the " percentage rate " at which the density decreases with the distance x; and we thus see that the coefficient of diffusion represents the ratio of the velocity of flow to the percentage rate at which the density decreases with the distance measured in the direction of flow. This percentage rate being of the nature of a number divided by a length, and the velocity being of the nature of a length divided by a time, we may state that K is of two dimensions in length and — i in time, i.e. dimensions L2/T. Example i. Taking K =0-1423 for carbon dioxide and air (at temperature o° C. and pressure 76 cm. of mercury) referred to a centimetre and a second as units, we may interpret the result as follows: — Supposing in a mixture of carbon dioxide and air, the density of the carbon dioxide decreases by, say, l, 2 or 3% of itself in a distance of I cm., then the corresponding velocities of the diffusing carbon dioxide will be respectively o-oi, 0-02 and 0-03 times 0-1423, that is, 0-001423, 0-002846 and 0-004269 cm. per second in the three cases. Example 2. If we wished to take a foot and a second as our units, we should have to divide the value of the coefficient of diffusion in Example I by the square of the number of centimetres in I ft., that is, roughly speaking, by 900, giving the new value of K =000016 roughly. 7. Numerical Values of the Coefficient of Diffusion. — The table on p. 258 gives the values of the coefficient of diffusion of several of the principal pairs of gases at a pressure of 76 cm. of mercury, and also of a number of other substances. In the gases the centimetre and second are taken as fundamental units, in other cases the centimetre and day. 8. Irreversible Changes accompanying Diffusion.- — The diffusion of two gases at constant pressure and temperature is a good example of an " irreversible process." The gases always tend to mix, never to separate. In order to separate the gases a change must be effected in the external conditions to which the mixture is subjected, either by liquefying one of the gases, or by separating them by diffusion through a membrane, or by bringing other out- side influences to bear on them. In the case of liquids, electrolysis affords a means of separating the constituents of a mixture. Every such method involves some change taking place outside the mixture, and this change may be regarded as a " compensating DIFFUSION transformation." We thus have an instance of the property that every irreversible change leaves an indelible imprint some- where or other on the progress of events in the universe. That the process of diffusion obeys the laws of irreversible thermo- dynamics (if these laws are properly stated) is proved by the fact that the compensating transformations required to separate mixed gases do not essentially involve anything but transforma- tion of energy. The process of allowing gases to mix by diffusion, and then separating them by a compensating transformation, thus constitutes an irreversible cycle, the outside effects of which Substances. Temp. K. Author. Carbon dioxide and air .... o°C. 0-1423 cm2/sec. J. Loschmidt. ,, hydrogen . o°C. 0-5558 , „ oxygen o°C. 0-1409 , , „ carbon monoxide o°C. o- 1406 , , „ marsh gas (methane) o°C. 0-1586 , ,, nitrous oxide o°C. 0-0983 , Hydrogen and oxygen .... o°C. 0-7214 , ,, carbon monoxide o°C. 0-6422 , , „ sulphur dioxide o°C. 0-4800 , , Oxygen and carbon monoxide . o°C. 0-1802 , Water and ammonia .... 20° C. 1-250 G. Hiifner. ,» 11 5°C. 0-822 j. ,, common salt (density I -0269) 0-355 cmVhour. J. Graham. 14-33° C. I -020, 0-996, 0-972, 0-932 cmVday. F. Heimbrodt. „ zinc sulphate (0-312 gm/cm3) . 0-1162 „ W. Seitz. „ zinc sulphate (normal) 0-2355 II „ zinc acetate (double normal) . 0-II95 n ,, zinc formate (half normal) 0-4654 ,, ,, cadmium sulphate (double normal) .... 0-2456 ,, „ glycerin (|n, $n, In, 1-511) 10-14° C. 0-356, 0-350, 0-342, 0-315 cmVday. F. Heimbrodt. „ urea ,, ,, 14-83° C. 0-973, 0-946, 0-926, 0-883 cmVday. M ,, hydrochloric acid . 14-30° C. 2-208, 2-331, 2-480 cmVday. Gelatin 20% and ammonia I7°C. 127-1 , A. Hagenbach. ,, , carbon dioxide 0-845 ,, ,, , nitrous oxide. 0-509 M ,, , oxygen 0-230 ,, ,, , hydrogen 0-0565 " are that energy somewhere or other must be less capable of trans- formation than it was before the change. We express this fact by stating that an irreversible process essentially implies a loss of availability. To measure this loss we make use of the laws of thermodynamics, and in particular of Lord Kelvin's statement that " It is impossible by means of inanimate material agency to derive mechanical effect from any portion of matter by cooling it below the temperature of the coldest of the surrounding objects." Let 'us now assume that we have any system such as the gases above considered, and that it is in the presence of an indefinitely extended medium which we shall call the " auxiliary medium." If heat be taken from any part of the system, only part of this heat can be converted into work by means of thermodynamic engines; and the rest will be given to the auxiliary medium, and will constitute unavailable energy or waste. To understand what this means, we may consider the case of a condensing steam engine. Only part of the energy liberated by the combustion of the coal is available for driving the engine, the rest takes the form of heat imparted to the condenser. The colder the condenser the more efficient is the engine, and the smaller is the quantity of waste. The amount of unavailable energy associated with any given transformation is proportional to the absolute temperature of the auxiliary medium. When divided by that temperature the quotient is called the change of " entropy " associated with the given change (see THERMODYNAMICS). Thus if a body at temperature T receives a quantity of heat Q, and if To is the temperature of the auxiliary medium, the quantity of work which could be obtained from Q by means of ideal thermodynamic engines would be Q(i — To/T), and the balance, which is O/IVT, would take the form of unavailable or waste energy given to the medium. The quotient of this, when divided by To, is Q/T, and this represents the quantity of entropy associated with Q units of heat at temperature T. Any irreversible change for which a compensating transformation of energy exists represents, therefore, an increase of unavailable energy, which is measurable in terms of entropy. The increase of entropy is independent of the temperature of the auxiliary medium. It thus affords a measure of the extent to which energy has run to waste during the change. Moreover, when a body is heated, the increase of entropy is the factor which determines how much of the energy imparted to the body is unavailable for conversion into work under given conditions. In all cases we have increase of unavailable energy temperature of auxiliary medium = mcrease of entra is the velocity and /„ is the length of the path of a 260 DIGBY, SIR E. molecule of A, this expression for the coefficient of diffusion is of the right dimensions in length and time. If, moreover, we observe that when diffusion takes place in a fixed direction, say that of the axis of x, it depends only on the resolved part of the velocity and length of path in that direction : this hypothesis readily leads to our taking the mean value of !sWaL as the coefficient of diffusion for the gas A. This value was obtained by O. E. Meyer and others. Unfortunately, however, it makes the coefficients of diffusion unequal for the two gases, a result inconsistent with that obtained above from considerations of the coefficient of resistance, and leading to the consequence that differences of pressure would be set up in different parts of the gas. To equalize these differences of pressure, Meyer assumed that a counter current is set up, this current being, of course, very slow in practice; and J. Stefan assumed that the diffusion of one gas was not affected by collisions between mole- cules of the same gas. When the molecules are mixed in equal proportions both hypotheses lead to the value l([wala]+[wi,lb]), (square brackets denoting mean values). When one gas preponder- ates largely over the other, the phenomena of diffusion are too difficult of observation to allow of accurate experimental tests being made. Moreover, in this case no difference exists unless the molecules are different in size or mass. Instead of supposing a velocity of translation added after the mathematical calculations have been performed, a better plan is to assume from the outset that the molecules of the two gases have small velocities of translation in opposite directions, superposed on the distribution of velocitv, which would occur in a medium repre- senting a gas at rest. When a collision occurs between molecules of different gases a transference of momentum takes place between them, and the quantity of momentum so transferred in one second in a unit of volume gives a dynamical measure of the resistance to diffusion. It is to be observed that, however small the relative velocity of the gases A and B, it plays an all-important part in determining the coefficient of resistance; for without such relative motion, and with the velocities evenly distributed in all directions, no transference of momentum could take place. The coefficient of resistance being found, the motion of each of the two gases may be discussed separately. One of the most important consequences of the kinetic theory is that if the volume be kept constant the coefficient of diffusion varies as the square root of the absolute temperature. To prove this, we merely have to imagine the velocity of each molecule to be suddenly increased « fold; the subsequent processes, includ- ing diffusion, will then go on n times as fast; and the temperature T, being proportional to the kinetic energy, and therefore to the square of the velocity, will be increased «2 fold. Thus K, the coefficient of diffusion, varies as VT. The relation of K to the density when the temperature remains constant is more difficult to discuss, but it may be sufficient to notice that if the number of molecules is increased n fold, the chances of a collision are n times as great, and the distance traversed between collisions is (not therefore but as the result of more detailed reasoning) on the average i/n of what it was before. Thus the free path, and therefore the coefficient of diffusion, varies inversely as the density, or directly as the volume. If the pressure p and temperature T be taken as variables, K varies inversely as p and directly as VT3. Now according to the experiments first made by J. C. Maxwell and J. Loschmidt, it appeared that with constant density K was proportional to T more nearly than to VT. The inference is that in this respect a medium formed of colliding spheres fails to give a correct mechanical model of gases. It has been found by L. Boltzmann, Maxwell and others that a system of particles whose mutual actions vary according to the inverse fifth power of the distance between them represents more correctly the relation between the coefficient of diffusion and temperature in actual gases. Other recent theories of diffusion have been advanced by M. Thiesen, P. Langevin and W. Sutherland. On the other hand, J. Thovert finds experimental evidence that the coefficient of diffusion is proportional to molecular velocity in the cases examined of non-electrolytes dissolved in water at iS° at 2-5 grams per litre. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The best introduction to the study of theories of diffusion is afforded by O. E. Meyer's Kinetic Theory of Gases, translated by Robert E. Baynes (London, 1899). The mathematical portion, though sufficient for ordinary purposes, is mostly of the simplest possible character. Another useful treatise is R. Ruhlmann's Handbuch der mechanischen Warmetheorie (Brunswick, 1885). For a shorter sketch the reader may refer to J. C. Maxwell's Theory of Heat, chaps, xix. and xxii., or numerous other treatises on physics. The theory of the semi-permeable membrane is discussed by M. Planck in his Treatise on Thermodynamics, English translation by A. Ogg (1903), also in treatises on thermodynamics by W. Voigt and other writers. For a more detailed study of diffusion in general the following papers may be consulted: — L. Boltzmann, " Zur Integration derDiffusionsgleichung," Sitzung. der k. bayer.Akad math.- phys. Klasse (May 1894); T. des Coudres, " Diffusionsvorgange in einem Zylinder," Wied. Ann. Iv. (1895), p. 213; J. Loschmidt, " Experimentaluntersuchungen iiber Diffusion," Wien. Sitz. Ixi., Ixii. (1870); J. Stefan, " Gleichgewicht und . . . Diffusion von Gas- mengen," Wien. Sitz. Ixiii., " Dynamische Theorie der Diffusion," Wien. Sitz. Ixv. (April 1872) ; M. Toepler, " Gas-diffusion," Wied. Ann. Iviii. (1896), p. 599; A. Wretschko, " Experimentalunter- suchungen iiber die Diffusion von Gasmengen," Wien. Sitz. Ixii. The mathematical theory of diffusion, according to the kinetic theory of gases, has been treated by a number of different methods, and for the study of these the reader may consult L. Boltzmann, Vorlesungen iiber Gastheorie (Leipzig, 1896-1898); S. H. Burbury, Kinetic Theory of Gases (Cambridge, 1899), and papers by L. Boltz- mann in Wien. Sitz. Ixxxvi. (1882), Ixxxvii. (1883); P. G. Tait, " Foundations of the Kinetic Theory of Gases," Trans. R.S.E. xxxiii., xxxv., xxvi., or Scientific Papers, ii. (Cambridge, 1900). For recent work reference should be made to the current issues of Science Abstracts (London), and entries under the heading " Diffusion " will be found in the general index at the end of each volume. (G. H. BR.) DIGBY, SIR EVERARD (1578-1606), English conspirator, son of Everard Digby of Stoke Dry, Rutland, was born on the i6th of May 1578. He inherited a large estate at his father's death in 1592, and acquired a considerable increase by his marriage in 1596 to Mary, daughter and heir of William Mulsho of Gothurst (now Gayhurst), in Buckinghamshire. He obtained a place in Queen Elizabeth's household and as a ward of the crown was brought up a Protestant; but about 1599 he came under the influence of the Jesuit, John Gerard, and soon afterwards joined the Roman Catholics. He supported James's accession and was knighted by the latter on the 23rd of April 1603. In a letter to Salisbury, the date of which has been ascribed to May 1605, Digby offered to go on a mission to the pope to obtain from the latter a promise to prevent Romanist attempts against the government in return for concessions to the Roman Catholics; adding that if severe measures were again taken against them " within brief there will be massacres, rebellions and desperate attempts against the king and state." Digby had suffered no personal injury or persecution on account of his religion, but he sympathized with his co-religionists; and when at Michaelmas, 1605, the government had fully decided to return to the policy of repression, the authors of the Gunpowder Plot (q.v.) sought his financial support, and he joined eagerly in the conspiracy. His particular share in the plan was the organization of a rising in the Midlands; and on the pretence of a hunting party he assembled a body of gentlemen together at Danchurch in Warwickshire on the 5th of November, who were to take action immediately the news arrived from London of the successful destruction of the king and the House of Lords, and to seize the person of the princess Elizabeth, who was residing in the neighbourhood. The con- spirators arrived late on the evening of the 6th to tell their story of failure and disaster, and Digby, who possibly might have escaped the more serious charge of high treason, was persuaded by Catesby, with a false tale that the king and Salisbury were dead, to further implicate himself in the plot and join the small band of conspirators in their hopeless endeavour to raise the country. He accompanied them, the same day, to Huddington in Worcester- shire and on the 7th to Holbeche in Staffordshire. The following morning, however, he abandoned his companions, dismissed his servants except two, who declared " they would never leave him but against their will," and attempted with these to conceal him- self in a pit. He was, however, soon discovered and surrounded. He made a last effort to break through his captors on horseback, but was taken and conveyed a prisoner to the Tower. His trial took place in Westminster Hall, on the 27th of January 1606, and alone among the conspirators he pleaded guilty, declaring that the motives of his crime had been his 'friendship for Catesby and his devotion to his religion. He was condemned to death, and his execution, which took place on the 3ist, in St Paul's Churchyard, was accompanied by all the brutalities exacted by the law. Digby was a handsome man, of fine presence. Father Gerard DIGBY, SIR K. 261 extols his skill in sport, his " riding of great horses," as well as his skill in music, his gifts of mind and his religious devotion, and concludes " he was as complete a man in all things, that deserved estimation or might win affection as one should see in a kingdom." Some of Digby's letters and papers, which include a poem before his execution, a last letter to his infant sons and corre- spondence with his wife from the Tower, were published in The Gunpowder Treason by Thomas Barlow, bishop of Lincoln, in 1679. He left two sons, of whom the elder, Sir Kenelm Digby, was the well-known author and diplomatist. See works on the Gunpowder Plot; Narrative of Father Gerard, in Condition of the Catholics under James I. by J. Morris (1872), &c. A life of Digby under the title of A Life of a Conspirator, by a Romish Recusant (Thomas Longueville), was published in 1895- (P. C. Y.) DIGBY, SIR KENELM (i6o3-!665), English author, diplom- atist and naval commander, son of Sir Everard Digby (q.v.), was born on the i ith of July 1603, and after his father's execution in 1606 resided with his mother at Gayhurst, being brought up apparently as a Roman Catholic. In 1617 he accompanied his cousin, Sir John Digby, afterwards ist earl of Bristol, and then ambassador in Spain, to Madrid. On his return in April 1618 he entered Gloucester Hall (now Worcester College), Oxford, and studied under Thomas Allen (1542-1632), the celebrated mathe- matician, who was much impressed with his abilities and called him the Mirandula, i.e. the infant prodigy, of his age.1 He left the university without taking a degree in 1620, and travelled in France, where, according to his own account, he inspired an uncontrollable passion in the queen-mother, Marie de' Medici, now a lady of more than mature age and charms; he visited Florence, and in March 1623 joined Sir John Digby again at Madrid, at the time when PrinceCharles and Buckingham arrived on their adventurous expedition. He- joined the prince's house- hold and returned with him to England on the 5th of October 1623, being knighted by James I. on the 23rd of October and receiving the appointment of gentleman of the privy chamber to Prince Charles. In 1625 he married secretly Venetia, daughter of Sir Edward Hanley of Tonge Castle, Shropshire, a lady of extra- ordinary beauty and intellectual attainments, but of doubtful virtue. Digby was a man of great stature and bodily strength. Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of Clarendon, who with Ben Jonson was included among his most intimate friends, describes him as " a man of very extraordinary person and presence which drew the eyes of all men upon him, a wonderful graceful behaviour, a flowing courtesy and civility, and such a volubility of language as surprised and delighted."2 Digby for sometime was excluded from public employment by Buckingham's jealousy of his cousin, Lord Bristol. At length in 1627, on the latter's advice, Digby determined to attempt " some generous action," and on the 22nd of December, with the approval of the king, embarked as a privateer with two ships, with the object of attack- ing the French ships in the Venetian harbour of Scanderoon. On the i8th of January he arrived off Gibraltar and captured several Spanish and Flemish vessels. From the I5th of February to the 2/th of March he remained at anchor off Algiers on account of the sickness of his men, and extracted a promise from the authorities of better treatment of the English ships. He seized a rich Dutch vessel near Majorca, and after other adventures gained a complete victory over the French and Venetian ships in the harbour of Scanderoon on the i ith of June. His successes, however, brought upon the English merchants the risk of reprisals, and he was urged to depart. He returned home in triumph in February 1629, and was well received by the king, and was made a commissioner of the navy in October 1630, but his proceedings were disavowed on account of the complaints of the Venetian ambassador. In 1633 Lady Digby died, and her memory was celebrated by Ben Jonson in a series of poems entitled Eupheme, and by other poets of the day. Digby retired to Gresham College, and exhibited ex- travagant grief, maintaining a seclusion for two years. About this time Digby professed himself a Protestant, but by October 1635, while in France, he had already returned to the Roman 1 Letters by Eminent Persons (Aubrey's Lives), ii. 324. 1 Life and Continuation. Catholic faith.3 In a letter dated the 27th of March 1636 Laud remonstrates with him, but assures him of the continuance of his friendship.4 In 1638 he published A Conference with a Lady about choice of a Religion, in which he argues that the Roman Church, possessing alone the qualifications of universality, unity of doctrine and uninterrupted apostolic succession, is the only true church, and that the intrusion of error into it is impossible. The same subject is treated in letters to George Digby, afterwards 2nd earl of Bristol, dated the 2nd of November 1638 and the 29th of November 1639, which were published in 1651, as well as in a further Discourse concerning Infallibility in Religion in 1652. Returning to England he associated himself with the queen and her Roman Catholic friends, and joined in the appeal to the English Romanists for money to support the king's Scottish expedition.5 In consequence he was summoned to the bar of the House of Commons on the 27th of January 1641, and the king was petitioned to remove him with other recusants from his councils. He left England, and while at Paris killed in a duel a French lord who had insulted Charles I. in his presence. Louis XIII. took his part, and furnished him with a military escort into Flanders. Returning home he was imprisoned, by order of the House of Commons, early in 1642, successively in the " Three Tobacco Pipes nigh Charing Cross," where his delightful con- versation is said to have transformed the prison into " a place of delight," 6 and at Winchester House. He was finally released and allowed to go to France on the 3oth of July 1643, through the intervention of the queen of France, Anne of Austria, on condition that he would neither promote nor conceal any plots abroad against the English government. Before leaving England an attempt was made to draw from him an admission that Laud, with whom he had been intimate, had desired to be made a cardinal, but Digby denied that the archbishop had any leanings towards Rome. On the ist of November 1643 it was resolved by the Commons to confiscate his property. He published in London the same year Observations on the 22nd stanza in the plh canto of the 2nd book of Spenser's " Faerie Queene," the MS. of which is in the Egerton collection (British Museum, No. 2725 f. 117 b), and Observations on a surreptitious and unauthorized edition of the Religio Medici, by Sir Thomas Browne, from the Roman Catholic point of view, which drew a severe rebuke from the author. After his arrival in Paris he published his chief philosophical works, Of Bodies and Of the Immortality of Man's Soul (1644), autograph MSS. of which are in the Bibliotheque Ste Genevieve at Paris, and made the acquaintance of Descartes. He was appointed by Queen Henrietta Maria her chancellor, and in the summer of 1645 he was despatched by her to Rome to obtain assistance. Digby promised the conversion of Charles and of his chief supporters. At first his eloquence made a great impression. Pope Innocent X. declared that he spoke not merely as a Catholic but as an ecclesiastic. But the absence of any warrant from Charles himself roused suspicions as to the solidity of his assurances, and he obtained nothing but a grant of 20,000 crowns. A violent quarrel with the pope followed, and he returned in 1646, having consented in the queen's name to complete religious freedom for the Roman Catholics, both in England and Ireland, to an independent parlia- ment in Ireland, and to the surrender of Dublin and all the Irish fortresses into the hands of the Roman Catholics, the king's troops to be employed in enforcing the articles and the pope granting about £36,000 with a promise of further payments in obtaining direct assistance. In February 1649 Digby was invited to come to England to arrange a proposed toleration of the Roman Catholics, but on his arrival in May the scheme had already been abandoned. He was again banished on the 3ist of August, and it was not till 1654 that he was allowed by the council of state to return. He now entered into close relations with Cromwell, from whom he hoped to obtain toleration for the Roman Catholics, and whose alliance he desired to secure for France rather than for 3 Strafford's Letters, i. 474. 4 Laud's Works, vi. 447. * Thomason Tracts, Brit. Mus. E 164 (15). 6 A rchaeologia Cantiana, ii. 190. 262 DIGBY, K. H.— DIGESTIVE ORGANS Spain, and was engaged by Cromwell, much to the scandal of both Royalists and Roundheads, in negotiations abroad, of which the aim was probably to prevent a union between those two foreign powers. He visited Germany, in 1660 was in Paris, and at the Restoration returned to England. He was well received in spite of his former relations with Cromwell, and was confirmed in his post as Queen Henrietta Maria's chancellor. In January 1661 he delivered a lecture, which was published the same month, at Gresham College, on the vegetation of plants, and became an original member of the Royal Society in 1663. In January 1664 he was forbidden to appear at court, the cause assigned being that he had interposed too far in favour of the 2nd earl of Bristol, disgraced by the king on account of the charge of high treason brought by him against Clarendon into the House of Lords. The rest of his life was spent in the enjoyment of literary and scientific society at his house in Covent Garden. He died on the nth of June 1665. He had five children, of whom two, a son and one daughter, survived him. Digby, though he possessed for the time a considerable know- ledge of natural science, and is said to have been the first to explain the necessity of oxygen to the existence of plants, bears no high place in the history of science. He was a firm believer in astrology and alchemy, and the extraordinary fables which he circulated on the subject of his discoveries are evidence of any- thing rather than of the scientific spirit. In 1656 he made public a marvellous account of a city in Tripoli, petrified in a few hours, which he printed in the Mercurius Politicus. Malicious reports had been current that his wife had been poisoned by one of his prescriptions, viper wine, taken to preserve her beauty. Evelyn, who visited him in Paris in 1651, describes him as an " errant mountebank." Henry Stubbes characterizes him as "the very Pliny of our age for lying," and Lady Fanshawe refers to the same " infirmity." J His famous " powder of sympathy," which seems to have been only powder of " vitriol," healed without any contact, by being merely applied to a rag or bandage taken from the wound, and Digby records a miraculous cure by this means in a lecture given by him at Montpellier on this subject in 1658, published in French and English the same year, in German in 1660 and in Dutch in 1663; but Digby 's claim to its original discovery is doubtful, Nathaniel Highmore in his History of Generation (1651, p. 113) calling the powder " Talbot's powder," and ascribing its invention to Sir Gilbert Talbot. Some of Digby's pills and preparations, however, described in The Closet of the Eminently Learned Sir Kenelm Digby Knt. Opened (publ. 1677), are said to make less demand upon the faith of patients, and his injunction on the subject of the making of tea, to let the water " remain upon it no longer than you can say the Miserere Psalm very leisurely," is one by no means to be ridiculed. As a philo- sopher and an Aristotelian Digby shows little originality and followed the methods of the schoolmen. His Roman Catholic orthodoxy mixed with rationalism, and his political opinions, according to which any existing authority should receive support, were evidently derived from Thomas White (1582-1676), the Roman Catholic philosopher, who lived with him in France. White published in 1651 Institutionum Peripateticorum libri quinque, purporting to expound Digby's "peripatetic philo- sophy," but going far beyond Digby's published treatises. Digby's Memoirs are composed in the high-flown ."antastic manner then usual when recounting incidents of love and adventure, but the style of his more sober works is excellent. In 1632 he presented to the Bodleian library a collection of 236 MSS., be- queathed to him by his former tutor Thomas Allen, and described in Catalogi codicum manuscriptorum bibliothecae Bodleianae, by W. D. Macray, part ix. Besides the works already mentioned Digby translated A Treatise of adhering to God written by Albert the Great, Bishop of Ratisbon (1653); and he was the author of Private Memoirs, published by Sir N. H. Nicholas from Harleian MS. 6j$8 with introduction (1827); Journal of the Scanderoon Voyage in 1628, printed by J. Bruce with preface (Camden Society, 1868); Poems from Sir Kenelm Digby's Papers . . . with 1 Diet, of Nat. Biog. sub " Digby." See also Robert Boyle's Works (1744), v. 302. preface and notes (Roxburghe Club, 1877); in the Add. MSS. 34,362 f. 66 is a poem Of the Miserys of Man, probably by Digby; Choice of Experimental Receipts in Physick and Chirurgery . . . collected by Sir K. Digby (1668), and Chymical Secrets and Rare Experiments ( 1683) , were published by G. Hartman, who describes himself as Digby's steward and laboratory assistant. See the Life of Sir Kenelm Digby by one of his Descendants (T. Longueville), 1896. (P. C. Y.) DIGBY, KENELM HENRY (1800-1880), English writer, youngest son of William Digby, dean of Clonfert, was born at Clonfert, Ireland, in 1800. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and soon after taking his B.A. degree there in 1819 became a Roman Catholic. He spent most of his life, which was mainly devoted to literary pursuits, in London, where he died on the 22nd of March 1880. Digby's reputation rests chiefly on his earliest publication, The Broadstone of Honour, or Rules for the Gentlemen of England (1822), which contains an exhaustive survey of medieval customs, full of quotations from varied sources. The work was subsequently enlarged and issued (1826-1827) in four volumes entitled: Godefridus, Tancredus, Morus and Orlandus (numerous re-impressions, the best of which is the edition brought out by B. Quaritch in five volumes, 1876^1877). Among Digby's other works are: Mores Catholici, or Ages of Faith (n vols., London, 1831-1840); Compitum; or the Meeting of the Ways at the Catholic Church (7 vols., London, 2848-1854); The Lovers' Seat, Kathemerina; or Common Things in relation to Beauty, Virtue and Faith (2 vols., London, 1856). A complete list is given in J. Gillow's Bibliographical Dictionary of English Catholics, ii. 81-83. DIGENES ACRITAS, BASILIUS, Byzantine national hero, probably lived in the loth century. He is named Digenes (of double birth) as the son of a Moslem father and a Christian mother; Acritas (oxpa, frontier, boundary), as one of the fron- tier guards of the empire, corresponding to the Roman milites limilanei. The chief duty of these acritae consisted in repelling Moslem inroads and the raids of the apelatae (cattle-lifters), brigands who may be compared with the more modern Klephts. The original Digenes epic is lost, but four poems are extant, in which the different incidents of the legend have been worked up by different hands. The first of these consists of about 4000 lines, written in the so-called " political " metre, and was dis- covered in the latter part of the ipth century, in a 16th-century MS., at Trebizond; the other three MSS. were found at Grotta Ferrata, Andros and Oxford. The poem, which has been com- pared with the Chanson de Roland and the Romance of the Cid, undoubtedly contains a kernel of fact, although it cannot be regarded as in any sense an historical record. The scene of action is laid in Cappadocia and the district of the Euphrates. Editions of the Trebizond MS. by C. Sathas and E. Legrand in the Collection des monuments pour servir & V elude de la langue neo- hellenique, new series, vi. (1875), and by S. Joannides (Constantinople, 1887). See monographs by A. Luber (Salzburg, 1885) and G. Wartenberg (Berlin, 1897). Full information will be found in C. Krumbacher's Ceschichle der byzantinischen Litteratur , p. 827 (2nd ed., 1897); see also G. Schlumberger, L'Epopee Byzantine a la fin du dixicme siecle (1897). DIGEST, a term used generally of any digested or carefully arranged collection or compendium of written matter, but more particularly in law of a compilation in condensed form of a body of law digested in a systematical method; e.g. the Digest (Digesta) or Pandects (navStKrai) of Justinian, a collection of extracts from the earlier jurists compiled by order of the emperor Justinian. The word is also given to the compilations of the main points (marginal or hand-notes) of decided cases, usually arranged in alphabetical and subject order, and published under such titles as " Common Law Digest," " Annual Digest," &c. DIGESTIVE ORGANS (PATHOLOGY). Several facts of im- portance have to be borne in mind for a proper appreciation of the pathology of the organs concerned in digestive processes (for the anatomy see ALIMENTARY CANAL and allied articles). In the first place, more than all other systems, the digestive comprises greater range of structure and exhibits wider diversity of function within its domain. Each separate structure and each different function presents special pathological signs and symptoms. Again, the duties imposed upon the system have to be performed DIGESTIVE ORGANS 263 notwithstanding constant variations in the work set them. The crude articles of diet offered them vary immensely in nature, bulk and utility, from which they must elaborate simple food-elements for absorption, incorporate them after absorption into complex organic substances properly designed to supply the constant needs of cellular activity, of growth and repair, and fitly harmonized to fulfil the many requirements of very divergent processes and functions. Any form of unphysiological diet, each failure to cater for the wants of any special tissue engaged in, or of any processes of, metabolism, carry with them pathological signs. Perhaps in greater degree than elsewhere are the individual sections of the digestive system dependent upon, and closely correlated with, one another. The lungs can only yield oxygen to the blood when the oxygen is uncombined; no compounds are of use. The digestive organs have to deal with an enormous variety of compound bodies, from which to obtain the elements necessary for protoplasmic upkeep and activity. Morbid lesions of the respiratory and circulatory systems are frequently capable of compensation through increased activity elsewhere, and the symptoms they give rise to follow chiefly along one line; diseases of the digestive organs are more liable to occasion disorders elsewhere than to excite compensatory actions. The digestive system includes every organ, function and process concerned with the utilization of food-stuffs, from the moment of their entrance into the mouth, their preparation in the canal, assimi- lation with the tissues, their employment therein, up to their excretion or expulsion in the form of waste. Each portion resembles a link of a continuous chain; each link depends upon the integrity of the others, the weakening or breaking of one straining or making impotent the chain as a whole. The mucous membrane lining the alimentary tract is the part most subject to pathological alterations, and in this connexion it should be remembered that this membrane differs both in structure and functions throughout the tract. Chiefly protective from the mouth to the cardia, it is secretory and absorbent in the stomach and bowel; while the glandular cells forming part of it secrete both acid and alkaline fluids, several ferments or mucus. Over the dorsum of the tongue its modified cells subserve the sense of taste. Without, connected with it by the submucous connective tissue, is placed the muscular coat, and externally over the greater portion of its length the peritoneal serous membrane. All parts are supplied with blood-vessels, lymph-ducts and nerves, the last belonging either to local or to central circuits. Associated with the tract are the salivary glands, the liver and the pancreas; while, in addition, lymphoid tissue is met with diffuselyscattered throughout the lining membranes in the tonsils, appendix, solitary glands and Peyer's patches, and the mesenteric glands. The functions of the various parts of the system in whose lesions we are here interested are many in number, and can only be summarized here. (For the physiology of digestion see NUTRITION.) Broadly, they may be given as: (i) Ingestion and swallowing of food, transmission of it through the tract, and expulsion of the waste material; (2) secretion of acids and alkalis for the performance of digestive processes, aided by (3) elaboration and addition of complex bodies, termed enzymes or ferments; (4) secretion of mucus; (5) protection of the body against organismal infection, and against toxic products; (6) absorption of food elements and reconstitution of them into complex substances fitted for metabolic application; and (7) excretion of the waste products of protoplasmic action. These functions may be altered by disease, singly or in conjunction; it is rare, however, to find but one affected, while an apparently identical disturbance of function may often arise from totally different organic lesions. Another point of importance is seen in the close interdependence which exists between the secretions of acid and those of alkaline reaction. The difference in reaction seems to act mutatis mutandis as a stimulant in each instance. General Diseases. In all sections of the alimentary canal actively engaged in the digestion of food, a well-marked local engorgement of the blood- vessels supplying the walls occurs. The hyperaemia abates soon after completion of the special duties of the individual sections. This normal condition may be abnormally exaggerated by over- stimulation from irritant poisons introduced into the canal; from too rich, too copious or indigestible articles of diet; or from too prolonged an experience of some unvaried kind of food-stuff, especially if large quantities of it are necessary for metabolic needs; entering into the first stage of inflammation, acute hyperaemia. More important, because productive of less tractable lesions, is passive congestion of the digestive organs. Whenever the flow of blood into the right side of the heart is hindered, whether it arise from disease of the heart itself, or of the lungs, or proceed from obstruction in some part of the portal system, the damming-back of the venous circulation speedily produces a more or less pronounced stasis of the blood in the walls of the alimentary canal and in the associated abdominal glands. The lack of a sufficiently vigorous flow of blood is followed by deficient secretion of digestive agents from the glandular elements involved, by decreased motility of the muscular coats of the stomach and bowel, and lessened adapt- ability throughout for dealing with even slight irregular demands on their powers. The mucous membrane of the stomach and bowel, less able to withstand the effects of irritation, even of a minor character, readily passes into a condition of chronic catarrh, while it frequently is the seat of small abrasions, haemorrhagic erosions, which may cause vomiting of blood and the appearance of blood in the stools. Obstruction to the flow of blood from the liver leads to dilatation of its blood-vessels, consequent pressure upon the hepatic cells adjoining them, and their gradual loss of function, or even atrophy and degeneration. In addition to the results of such passive congestion exhibited by the stomach and bowel as noted above, passive congestion of the liver is often accompanied by varicose enlargement of the abdominal veins, in particular of those which surround the lower end of the oesophagus, the lowest part of the rectum and anus. In the latter position these dilated veins constitute what are known as haemorrhoids or piles, internal or external as their site lies within or outside the anal aperture. The mucous and serous membranes of the canal and the glandular elements of the associated organs are the parts most subject to inflammatory affections. Among the several sections of the digestive tract itself, the oesophagus and jejunum are singularly exempt from inflammatory processes; the fauces, stomach, caecum and appendix, ileum, mouth and duodenum (including the opening of the common bile-duct), are more commonly involved. Stomatitis, or inflammation of the mouth, has many predisposing factors, but it has now been definitely determined that its exciting cause is always some form of micro-organism. Any condition favouring oral sepsis, as carious teeth, pyorrhoea alveolaris (a dis- charge of pus due to inflamed granulations round carious teeth), granulations beneath thick crusts of tartar, or an irritating tooth plate, favours the growth of pyogenic organisms and hence of stomatitis. Many varieties of this disease have been described, but all are forms of " pyogenic " or " septic stomatitis." This in its mildest form is catarrhal or erythematous, and is attended only by slight swelling tenderness and salivation. In its next stage of acuteness it is known as " membranous," as a false membrane is produced somewhat resembling that due to diphtheria, though caused by a staphylococcus only. A still more acute form is " ulcerative," which may go on to the forma- tion of an abscess beneath the tongue. Scarlet fever usually gives rise to a slight inflammation of the mouth followed by desquamation, but more rarely it is accompanied by a most severe oedematous stomatitis with glossitis and tonsillitis. Erysipelas on the face may infect the mouth, and an acute stomatitis due to the diphtheria bacillus, Klebs-Loeffler bacillus, has been described. A distinct and very dangerous form of stomatitis in infants and young children is known as " aphthous stomatitis " or " thrush." This is caused by the growth of Oidium albicans. It is always preceded by a gastro-enteritis and dry mouth, and if this is not attended to, soon attracts attention by the little white raised patches surrounded by a dusky red zone 264 DIGESTIVE ORGANS scattered on tongue and cheeks. Epidemics have occurred in hospitals and orphanages. Mouth breathing is the cause of many ills. As a result of this, the mucous membrane of the tongue, &c., becomes dry, micro-organisms multiply and the mouth becomes foul. Also from disease of the nose, the upper jaw, palate and teeth do not make proper progress in development. There is overgrowth of tonsils, and adenoids, with resulting deafness, and the child's mental development suffers. An ordinary " sore throat " usually signifies acute catarrh of the fauces, and is of purely organismal origin, " catching cold " being only a secondary and minor cause. In " relaxed throats " there is a chronic catarrhal state of the lining membrane, with some passive con- gestion. The tonsils are peculiarly liable to catarrhal attacks, as might a priori be expected by reason of their Cerberus-like function with regard to bacterial intruders. Still, acute attacks of tonsillitis appear on good evidence to be more common among individuals predisposed constitutionally to rheumatic manifesta- tions. Cases of acute tonsillitis may or may not go on to suppura- tion or quinsy; in all there is great congestion of the glands, increased mucus secretion, and often secondary involvement of the lymphatic glands of the neck. Repeated acute attacks often lead to chronic inflammation, in which the glands are enlarged, and often hypertrophied in the true sense of the term. The oesophagus is the seat of inflammation but seldom. In infants and young children thrush due to Oidium albicans may spread from the mouth, and also a diphtheritic inflammation spreads from the fauces into the oesophagus. A catarrhal oesophagitis is rarely seen, but the commonest form is traumatic, due to the swallowing of boiling water, corrosive or irritant substances, &c. A non-malignant ulceration may result which later leads on to an oesophageal stricture. The physical changes presented by the coats of the stomach and the intestine, the subjects of catarrhal attacks, closely resemble one another, but differ symptomatic- ally. Acute catarrh of the stomach is associated with intense hyperaemia of its lining coats, with visible engorgement and swelling of the mucous membrane, and an excessive secretion of mucus. The formation of active gastric juice is arrested, digestion ceases, peristaltic movements are sluggish or absent, unless so over-stimulated that they act in a direction the reverse of the normal, and induce expulsion of the gastric contents by vomiting. The gastric contents, in whatever degree of dilution or concentra- tion they may have been ingested, when ejected are of porridge- thick consistency, and often but slightly digested. Such conditions may succeed a severe alcoholic bout, be caused by irritant substances taken in by the mouth or arise from fer- mentative processes in the stomach contents themselves. Should the irritating material succeed in passing from the stomach into the bowel, similar physical signs are present; but as the quickest path offered for the expulsion of the offending substances from the body is downwards, peristalsis is increased, the flow of fluid from the intestinal glands is larger in bulk, though of less potency as regards its normal actions, than in health, and diarrhoea, with removal of the irritant, follows. As a general rule, the more marked the involvement of the large bowel, the severer and more fluid is the resultant diarrhoea. Inflammation of the stomach may be due to mechanical injury, thermal or chemical irritants or invasion by micro-organisms. Also all the symptoms of gastric catarrh may be brought on by any acute emotion. The commonest mechanical injury is that due to an excess of food, especially when following on a fast; poisons act as irritants, and also the weevils of cheese and the larvae of insects. Inflammatory affections of the caecum and its attached appendix vermiformis are very common, and give rise to several special symptoms and signs. Acute inflammatory appendicitis appears to be inci easing in frequency, and is associated by many with the modern deterioration in the teeth. Constipation certainly predisposes to it, and it appears to be more prevalent among medical men, commercial travellers, or any engaged in arduous callings, subjected to irregular meals, fatigue and exposure. A foreign body is the exciting cause in many cases, though less commonly so than was formerly imagined. The inflammation in the appendix varies in intensity from a very slight catarrhal or simple form to an ulcerative variety, and much more rarely to the acute fulminating appendicitis in which necrosis of the appendix with abscess formation occurs. It is always accompanied by more or less peritonitis, which is pro- tective in nature, shutting in the inflammatory process. Very similar symptomatically is the condition termed perityphlitis, doubtless in former days frequently due to the appendix, an acute or chronic inflammation of the walls of the caecum often leading to abscess formation outside the gut, with or without direct communication with the canal. The colon is subject to three main forms of inflammation. In simple colitis the mucous membrane of the colon is intensely injected, bright red in colour, and secreting a thick mucus, but there is no accompanying ulceration. It is often found in association with some constitu- tional disease, as Bright's disease, and also with cancer of the bowel. But when it has no association with other trouble it is probably bacterial in origin, the Bacillus enteritidis spirogenes having been isolated in many cases. The motions always contain large quantities of mucus and more or less blood. A second very severe form of inflammation of the colon is known as " membran- ous colitis," and this may be either dyspeptic, or secondary to other diseases. In this trouble membranes are passed per anum, accompanied by a pain so intense as often to cause fainting. In severe cases complete tubular casts of the intestine have been found. Often the motions contain very little faecal matter, but consist only of membranes, mucus and a little blood. A third form is that known as " ulcerative colitis." Any part of the large intestine may be affected, and the ulceration shows no special distribution. In severe cases the muscular coat is exposed, and perforation may ensue. The number of ulcers varies from a few to many dozen, and in size from a pea to a five-shilling piece. Like all chronic intestinal ulcers they show a tendency to become transverse. Chronic catarrhal affections of the stomach are very common, and often follow upon repeated acute attacks. In them the connective tissue increases at the expense of the glandular elements; the mucous membrane becomes thickened and less active in function. Should the muscular coat be involved, the elasticity and contractility of the organ suffer; peristaltic move- ment is weakened; expulsion of the contents through the pylorus hindered; and, aggravated by these effects, the condition becomes worse, atonic dyspepsia in its most pronounced form results, with or without dilatation. Chronic vascular congestion may occasion in process of time similar signs and symptoms. Duodenal catarrh is constantly associated with jaundice, indeed is most probably the commonest cause of catarrhal jaundice; often it is accompanied by catarrh of the common bile-duct. Chronic inflammation of the small intestine gives rise to less prominent symptoms than in the stomach. It generally arises from more than one cause; or rather secondary causes rapidly become as import- ant as the primary in its incidence. Chronic congestion and pro- longed irritation lead to deficient secretion and sluggish peristalsis; these effects encourage intestinal putrefaction and autointoxi- cation; and these latter, in turn, increase the local unrest. The intestinal mucous membrane, the peritoneum and the mesenteric glands are the chief sites of tubercular infection in the digestive organs. Rarely met with in the gullet and stomach, and comparatively seldom in the mouth and 'ksifias' lips, tubercular inflammation of the small intestine and peritoneum is common. Tubercular enteritis is a frequent accompaniment of phthisis, but may occur apart from tubercle of other organs. Children are especially subject to the primary form. Tubercular peritonitis often is present also. The in- flammatory process readily tends towards ulcer formation, with haemorrhage and sometimes perforation. If in the large bowel, the symptoms are usually less acute than those characterizing tubercular inflammation of the small intestine. The appendix has been found to be the seat of tubercular processes; in the rectum they form the general cause of the fistulae and abscesses so commonly met with here. Tubercular peritonitis may be primary or secondary, acute or chronic; occasionally very acute cases are seen running a rapid course; the majority are chronic in type. DIGESTIVE ORGANS 265 The tubercles spread over the surface of the serous membrane, and if small and not very numerous may give rise in chronic cases to few symptoms; if larger, and especially when they involve and obstruct the lymph- and blood-vesseis, ;iscii es follows. It is hardly possible that tubercular invasion of the mesenteric glands can ever occur unaccompanied by peritoneal infection; but when the infection of the glands constitutes the most pro- minent sign, the term tabes mesenlerica is sometimes employed. Here the glands, enlarged, forma doughy mass in the abdomen, leading to marked protrusion of the abdominal walls, with wasting elsewhere and diarrhoea. The liver is seldom attacked by tubercle, unless in cases of general miliary tuberculosis. Now and then it contains large caseous tubercular masses in its substance. An important fact with regard to the tubercular processes in the digestive organs lies in the ready response to treatment shown by many cases of peritoneal or mesenteric invasion, particularly in the young. The later sequelae of syphilis display a predilection for the rectam and the liver, usually leading to the development of a stricture in the former, to a diffuse hepatitis or the formation of gummata in the second. In inherited syphilis the temporary teeth usually appear early, are discoloured and soon crumble away. The permanent teeth may be sound and healthy, but are often — especially the upper incisors — notched aji'd stunted, when they are known as " Hutchinson's teeth." As the result both of syphilis and of tubercle, the tissues of the liver and bowel may present a peculiar alteration; they become amyloid, or lard- aceous, a condition in which they appear " waxy," are coloured dark mahogany brown with dilute iodine solutions, and show degenerative changes in the connective tissue. The Bacillus typhosus discovered by Eberth is the causal agent of typhoid fever, and has its chief seat of activity in the small intestine, more especially in the lower half of the ileum. Attack- ing the lymphoid follicles in the mucous membrane, it causes first inflammatory enlargement, then necrosis and ulceration. The adjacent portions of the mucous membrane show acute catar,rhal changes. Diarrhoea, of a special " pea-soup " type, may or may not be present; while haemorrhage from the bowel, if ulcers have formed, is common. As the ulcers frequently extend down to the peritoneal coat cf the bowel, perforation of this membrane and extravasation into the peritoneal cavity is easily induced by irritants introduced into or elaborated in the bowel, acting physically or by the excitation of hyper-peristalsis. True Asiatic cholera is due to the comma-bacillus or spirillum of cholera, which is found in the rice-water evacuations, in the contents of the intestine after death, and in the mucous membrane of the intestine just beneath the epithelium. It has not been found in the blood. It produces an intense irritation of the bowel, seldom of the stomach, without giving rise locally to any marked physical change; it causes violent diarrhoea and copious dis- charges of " rice-water " stools, consisting largely of serum swarming with the organism. Dysentery gives rise to an inflammation of the large intestine and sometimes of the lower part of the ileum, resulting in exten- sive ulceration and accompanied by faecal discharges of mucus, muco-pus or blood. In some forms a protozoan, the Amoeba dysenteriae, is found in the stools — this is the amoebic dysentery; in other cases a bacillus, Bacillus dysenteriae , is found — the bacillary dysentery. Acute parotitis, or mumps, is an infectious disease of the parotid glands, chiefly interesting because of the association between it and the testes in males, inflammation of these glands occasionally following or replacing the affection of the parotids. The causal agent is probably organismal, but has as yet escaped detection. The relative frequency with which malignant growths occur in the different organs of the digestive system may be gathered from the tabular analysis, on p. 266, of 1768 cases recorded in the books of the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary as having been treated in the medical and surgical wards between the years 1892 and 1809 inclusive. Of these, 1263, or 71-44 %, were males; 505, or 28-56%, females. (See Table I. p. 266.) New growths. If the figures there given be classified upon broader lines, the results are as given in Table II. p. 266, and speak for them- selves. I The digestive organs are peculiarly subject to malignant disease, a result of the incessant changes from passive to active conditions, and vice versa, called for by repeated introduction of food; while the comparative frequency with which different parts are attacked depends, in part, upon the degree of irritation or changes of function imposed upon them. Scirrhous, en- cephaloid and colloid forms of carcinoma occur. In the stomach and oesophagus the scirrhous form is most common, the soft encephaloid form coming next. The most common situation for cancerous growth in the stomach is the pyloric region. Walsh out of 1300 cases found 60-8 % near the pylorus, 11-4 % over the lesser curvature, and 4-7 % more or less over the whole organ. The small intestine is rarely attacked by cancer; the large intestine frequently. The rectum, sigmoid flexure, caecum and colon are affected, and in this order, the cylindrical-celled form being the most common. Carcinoma of the peritoneum is generally colloid in character, and is often secondary to growths in other organs. Cancer of the liver follows cancer of the stomach and rectum in frequency of occurrence, and is relatively more common in females than males. Secondary invasion of the liver is a frequent sequel to gastric cancer. The pancreas occasionally is the seat of cancerous growth. Sarcomata are not so often met with in the digestive organs. When present, they generally involve the peritoneum or the mesenteric glands. The liver is sometimes attacked, the stomach rarely. Benign tumours are not of common occurrence in the digestive organs. Simple growths of the salivary glands, cysts of the pancreas and polypoid tumours of the rectum are the most frequent. The intestinal canal is the habitat of the majority of animal parasites found in man. Frequently their presence leads to no morbid symptoms, local or general; nor are the symptoms, when they do arise, always characteristic of the presence of parasites alone. Discovery of their bodies, or of their parasites eggs, in the stools is in most instances the only satis- factory proof of their presence. The parasites found in the bowel belong principally to two natural groups, Protozoa and Metazoa. The great class of the Protozoa furnish amoebae, members of Sporozoa and Infusoria. The amoebae are almost invariably found in the large intestine; one species, indeed, is termed Amoeba coli. The frequently observed relation between attacks of dysentery and the presence of amoebae in the stools has led to the proposition that an Amoeba dysenlerica exists, causing the disease — a theory supported by the detection of amoebae in the contents of dysenteric abscesses of the liver. No symptoms of injury to health appear to accompany the presence of Sporozoa in the bowel, while the species of Infusoria found in it, the Cercomonas, and Trichomonas inleslinalis, and the Balantidium coli, may or may not be guilty of prolonging conditions within the bowel as have previously set up diarrhoea. The Metazoa supply examples of intestinal parasites from the classes Annuloida and Nematoidea. To the former class belong the various tapeworms found in the small intestine of man. They, like other intestinal parasites, are destitute of any power of active digestion, simply absorbing the nutritious proceeds of the digestive processes of their hosts. Nematode worms infest both the small and large intestine; Ascaris lumbricoides, the common round worm, and the male Oxyuris vermicularis are found in the small bowel, the adult female Oxyuris vermicitlaris and the Tricocephalus dispar in the large. The eggs of the Trichina spiralis, when introduced with the food, develop in the bowel into larval forms which invade the tissues of the body, to find in the muscles congenial spots wherein to reach maturity. Similarly, the eggs of the Echinococcus arc hatched in the bowel, and the embryos proceed to take up their abode in the tissues of the body, developing into cysts capable of growth into mature worms after their ingestion by dogs. 266 DIGESTIVE ORGANS Numbers of bacterial forms habitually infest the alimentary canal. Many of them are non-pathogenic; some develop patho- genic characters only under provocation or when a suitable environment induces them to act in such a manner; others may form the materies morbiot special lesions, or be casual visitors capable of originating disease if opportunity occurs. Apart from those organisms associated with acute infective diseases, disturbances of function and physical TABLE I. Males. Females. Both Sexes. Organ or Tissue in Order of Frequency. Per- centage. Organ or Tissue in Order of Frequency. Per- centage. Organ or Tissue in Order of Frequency. Per- centage. I Stomach 22-56 I Stomach 22-37 I Stomach 22-49 2 Lip .... 12-94 2 Rectum . 17-24 2 Rectum 13-12 3 Rectum . n-57 3 Liver . . . 15-50 3 Liver IO-O2 4 Tongue . 11-36 4 Peritoneum 7-86 4 Lip . . . . 9-89 5 Oesophagus 10-90 5 Oesophagus 5-33 5 Oesophagus 9-29 6 Liver 7-80 6 Sigmoid 4-53 6 Tongue . 8-96 7 Jaw .... 6-38 7 Pancreas 3-52 7 Jaw .... 5-65 8 Mouth . . 2-88 8 Tongue . 3-12 8 Peritoneum 2-94 9 Tonsils . 2-09 9 Omentum . 2-98 9 Sigmoid 2-56 10 Sigmoid flexure 1-77 10 Lip .... 2-57 10 Mouth . 2-40 II Parotid . . 1 II Jaw .... 1-97 1 1 Pancreas i -80 12 Pancreas . . ) I- IO 12 Colon . . . ) T Q . 12 Tonsils . 1-35 13 Caecum . . ( 13 Abdomen . . ) I-O4 13 Omentum . 1-25 14 Peritoneum. . \ 0-94 14 Intestine 1-56 14 Parotid . . ) 15 Colon . 0-89 15 Caecum '•37 15 Colon . . . ) I • 12 16 Pharynx . . "1 16 Mouth . . . ) T T Q 16 Caecum I -08 17 Intestine (site unknown) . . J 0-79 17 Parotid . . \ 1 8 Splenic flexure I -10 0-98 17 Intestine . . ) 1 8 Abdomen . . \ l-OO 1 8 Abdomen . 0-71 19 Jejunum and 19 Pharynx O-62 19 Mesentery .. . ) 20 Omentum . . $ o-55 ileum . 20 Tonsils . 0-78 0-68 20 Mesentery . 21 Jejunum and "| 0-52 21 Hepatic flexure o-39 21 Pharynx . . "1 ileum ... 1 22 Submaxillary . "| 22 Hepatic flexure 0-40 22 Hepatic flexure 0-44 gland ... 1 23 Mesentery . . J 23 Splenic flexure J 23 Jejunum and ileum . . . j 0-31 24 Submaxillary . / 25 Duodenum . . ) O-2O 24 Submaxillary . 25 Duodenum 0-28 O-22 24 Duodenum . 0-23 25 Splenic flexure 0-15 Note. — The figures where several organs are bracketed apply to each organ separately lesions may be the result of abnormal bacterial activity in the canal; and these disturbances may be both local and general. Many of the bacteria commonly present produce putrefactive changes in the contents of the tract by their metabolic processes. They render the medium they grow in alkaline, produce different gases and elaborate more or less virulent toxins. Other species set up an acid fermentation, seldom accompanied by gas or toxin formation. The products of either class are inimical to the free TABLE II. Bacillus lactis may be found where the child is bottle fed. If there is trouble with the first dentition and food is allowed to collect, staphylococci, streptococci, pneumococci and colon bacilli may be present. Even in healthy babies Oidiwm albicans may be present, and in older children the pseudo-diphtheria bacillus. From carious teeth may be isolated streptothrix, leptothrix, spirilla and fusiform bacilli. Under conditions of health these micro-organisms live in the mouth as saprophytes, and show no virulence when culti- vated and injected into animals. The two common pyogenetic organ- isms, Staphylococcus albus and brevis, show no virulence. Also the pneumococcus, though often present, must be raised in virulence before it can produce untoward results. The foulness of the mouth is supposed to be due to the colon bacillus and its allies, but those obtained from the mouth are in- nocuous. Also to enable the Oidium albicans to attack the mucous mem- brane there must be some slight inflammation or injury. The micro- organisms found in the stomach gain access to that organ in the food or by regurgitation from the small intestine. Most are relatively inert, but some have a special fer- mentative action on the food (see NUTRITION). Abelous isolated six- teen distinct species of organism from a healthy stomach, including Sarcinae, B. lactis, pyocyaneus, subtilis, lactis erythrogenes, amy- lobacter, megatherium, and Vibrio rugula. Hare-lip, cleft palate, hernia and imperforate anus are physical Males. Per- centage. Females. Per- centage. Total. Per- centage. iMouth and pharynx 2 Oesophagus and stomach 3 Intestines 4 Liver 5 Peritoneum 6 Pancreas 37-85 33-46 17-04 7-8 2-75 i-i I Intestines 2 Oesophagus and stomach 3 Liver . . 4 Peritoneum . 5 M ou t h and pharynx 6 Pancreas 28-9 27-7 15-5 I3-I "•3 3-5 i Oesophagus and stomach 2 Mouth and pharynx 3 Intestines 4 Liver 5 Peritoneum . 6 Pancreas 3I-78 30-27 20-42 IO-O2 5-71 I -80 growth of members of the other. The specieswhichproduceacids aremoreresistant to the action of acids. Thus, when the contents of the stomach possess a normal or excessive proportion of free hydrochloric acid, a much larger number of putrefactive and pathogenic organisms in the food are destroyed or inhibited than of the bacteria of acid fermentation. Diminished gastric acidity allows of the entry of a greater number of putrefactive (and pathogenic) types, with, as a consequence, increased facilities for their growth and activity, and the appearance of intestinal derangements. In a healthy new-born infant the mouth is free from micro- organisms, and very few are found in a breast-fed baby, but abnormalities which are interesting to the surgeon rather than to the pathologist. The oesophagus may be the seat of a diverti- culum, or blind pouch, usually situated in its lower half, which in most instances is probably partly acquired and partly congenital; a local weakness succumbing to pressure. Hypertrophy of the muscular coat of the pyloric region is an infrequent congenital gastric anomaly in infants, preventing the passage of food into the bowel, and causing death in a short time. Incomplete closure of the vitelline duct results in the presence of a diverticulum — Meckel's — generally connected with the ileum, mainly important by reason of the readiness with which it occasions intestinal obstruction. Idiopathic congenital dilatation of the colon has been described. Traction diverticula of the oeso- phagus not uncommonly occur as sequels to suppurative inflamma- tion of cervical lymphatic glands. More frequently dilatation of a section is met with, due as a rule to the presence of a stricture. The stomach often diverges from the normal in size, shape and position. Normally capable in the adult of containing from fifty to sixty ounces, either by reason of organic disease, or as the result of functional disturb- ance, its capacity may vary enormously. The writer has seen post mortem a stomach which held a gallon (160 ounces), and again one holding only two ounces. Cancer spread over a large area and cirrhosis of the stomach wall cause diminution in capacity; pyloric obstruction, weakness of the muscular coat, and nervous influences are associated with dilatation. A peculiar distortion of the shape of the stomach follows cicatrization of DIGESTIVE ORGANS 267 ulcers of greater or lesser curvature; the gastric cavity becomes " hour-glass " in shape. In addition, the stomach may be dis- placed downwards as a whole, a condition known as gastroptosis: if the pyloric portion only be displaced, the lesion is termed pyloroptosis. Ptoses of other abdominal organs are described; the liver, transverse colon, spleen and kidneys may be involved. Displacements downwards of the stomach and transverse colon, along with a movable right kidney and associated with dyspepsia and neurasthenia, form the malady termed by Glenard entero- ptosis. A general visceroptosis often occurs in those patients who have some tuberculous lesion of the lungs or elsewhere, this disease causing a general weakening and subsequent stretching of all ligaments. Displacements of the abdominal viscera are almost invariably accompanied by symptoms of dyspepsia of a neurotic type. The rectum is liable to prolapse, consequent upon constipation and straining at stool, or following local injuries of the perineal floor. Every pathological lesion shown by digestive organs is closely associated with the state of the nervous system, general or local; Influence so stoppage of active gastric digestive processes after of the profound nervous shock, and occurrence of nervous nervous diarrhoea from the same cause. Gastric dyspepsia system. of nervous origin presents most varied and contra- dictory symptoms: diminished acidity of the gastric juice, hyper-acidity, over-production, arrest of secretion, lessened or increased movements, greater sensitiveness to the presence of contents, dilatation or spasm. Often the nervous cause can be traced back farther, — in females, frequently to the pelvic organs; in both sexes, to the condition of the blood, the brain or the bowel. Unhealthy conditions related to evacuation of the bowel-contents commonly induce reflex nervous manifestations of abnormal character referred to the stomach and liver. Gastric disturbances similarly react upon the proper conduct of intestinal functions. Local Diseases. The. Mouth. — The lining membrane of the cheeks inside the mouth, of the gums and the under-surface and edges of the tongue, is often the seat of small irritable ulcers, usually associated with some digestive derangement. A crop of minute vesicles known as Koplik's spots over these parts has been lately stated by Koplik to be an early symptom of measles. Xerostomia, or dry mouth, is a rare condition, connected with lack of salivary secretion. Gangrenous stomatitis, cancrum oris, or noma, occasionally attacks debilitated children, or patients convalescing from acute fevers, more especially after measles. It commences in the gums or cheeks, and causes widespread sloughing of the adjacent soft parts. — it may be of the bones. The Stomach. — It were futile to attempt to enumerate all the protean manifestations of disturbance which proceed from a dis- ordered stomach. The possible permutations and combinations of the causes of gastric vagaries almost reach infinity. Idio- syncrasy, past and present gastric education, penury or plethora, actual digestive power, motility, bodily requirements and condi- tions, environment, mental influences, local or adjacent organic lesions, and, not least, reflex impressions from other organs, all contribute to the variance. Ulcer of the stomach, however — the perforating gastric ulcer — occupies a unique position among diseases of this organ. Gastric ulcers are circumscribed, punched out, rarely larger than a sixpenny-bit, funnel-shaped, the narrower end towards the peritoneal coat, and distributed in those regions of the stomach wall which are most exposed to the action of the gastric contents. They occur most frequently in females, especially if anaemic, and are usually accompanied by excess of acid, actual or relative to the state of the blood, in the stomach contents. Local pain, dorsal pain, generally to the left of the eighth or ninth dorsal spinous process, and haematemesis and melaena, are symptom- atic of it. The amount of blood lost varies with the rapidity of ulcer formation and the size of vessel opened into. Fatal results arise from ulceration into large blood-vessels, followed by copious haemorrhage, or by perforation of the ulcer into the peritoneal cavity.' Scars of such ulcers may be found post mortem, although no symptoms of gastric disease have been exhibited during life; gastric ulcers, therefore, may be latent. Irritation of the sensory nerve-endings in the stomach wall from the presence of an increased proportion of acid, organic or mineral, in the stomach contents is accountable for the well- known symptom heartburn. Water-brash is a term applied to eructation of a colourless, almost tasteless fluid, probably saliva, which has collected in the lower part of the oesophagus from failure of the cardiac sphincter of the stomach to relax; reversed oesophageal peristalsis causing regurgitation. A similar reversed action serves in merycism, or rumination, occasionally found in man, to raise part of the food, lately ingested, from the stomach to the mouth. Vomiting also is aided by reversed peristaltic action, both of the stomach and the oesophagus, with the help of the diaphragm and the muscles of the anterior abdominal wall. Emesis may be caused both by local nervous influence, and through the central nervous mechanism either reflexly or from the direct action of substances circulating in the blood. Further, the causal agent acting on the central nervous apparatus may be organic or functional, as well as medicinal. Vomiting without any apparent cause suggests nervous lesions, organic or reflex. The obstinate vomiting of pregnancy is a case in point. Here the primary cause proceeds reflexly from the pelvis. In females the pelvic organs are often the true source of emesis. Haematemesis accompanies gastric ulcer, cancer, chronic congestion with haemorrhagic erosion, congestion of the liver, or may follow violent acts of vomiting. In cases of ulcer the blood is usually bright and in considerable amount; in cancer, darker, like coffee- grounds; and in cases of erosion, in smaller quantity and of bright colour. The reaction of the stomach contents, if the cause be doubtful, yields valuable aid towards a diagnosis. Of increased acidity in gastric ulcer, normal in hepatic congestion, it is diminished in cancer; but as the acid present in cancer is largely lactic, analysis of the gastric contents must often be a sine qua non, because hyperacidity from lactic may obscure hypoacidity of hydrochloric acid. Flatulence usually results from fermentative processes in the stomach and bowel, as the outcome of bacterial activity. A different form of flatulence is common in neurotic individuals; in such the gas evolved consists simply in carbonic acid liberated from the blood, and its evolution is generally characterized by rapid development and by lack of all fermentative signs. The Liver. — The liver is an organ frequently libelled for the delinquencies of other organs, and regarded as a common source of ill. In catarrhal jaundice it is in most cases the bowel that is at fault, the liver acting properly, but unable to get rid of all the bile produced. The liver suffers, however, from several diseases of its own. Its fibrous or connective tissue is very apt to increase at the expense of the cellular elements, destroying their functions. This cirrhotic process usually follows long-continued irritation, such as is produced by too much alcohol absorbed from the bowel habitually, the organ gradually becoming harder in texture and smaller in bulk. Hypertrophic cirrhosis of the liver is not un- commonly met with, in which the liver is much increased in size, the " unilobular " form, also of alcoholic origin. In still-born children and in some infants a form of hypertrophic cirrhosis is occasionally seen, probably of hereditary syphilitic origin. Acute congestion of the liver forms an important symptom of malarial fever, and often leads in time to establishment of cirrhotic changes; here the liver is generally enlarged, but not invariably so, and the part played by alcohol in its causation has still to be investigated. Acute yellow atrophy of the liver is a disease sui generis. Of rare occurrence, possibly of toxic origin, it is marked by jaundice, at first of usual type, later becoming most intense; by vomiting; haemorrhages widely distributed ; rapid diminution in the size of the liver; the appearance of leucin and tyrosin in the urine, with lessened urea; and in two or three days, death. The liver after death is soft, of a reddish colour dotted with yellow patches, and weighs only about a third part of the normal — about i^ Ib in place of 3! Ib. A closely analogous affection of the liver, known as Weil's disease, is of infectious type, and has been noted in 268 DIGGES— DIGITALIS epidemic form. In this the spleen and liver are commonly but not always swollen, and the liver is often tender on pressure. As a large proportion of the sufferers from this disease have been butchers, and the epidemics have occurred in the hot season of the year, it probably arises from contact with decomposing animal matter. Hepatic abscess may follow on an attack of amoebic dysentery, and is produced either by infection through the portal vein, or by direct infection from the adjacent colon. In general pyaemia multiple small abscesses may occur in the liver. The Gall- Bladder. — The formation of biliary calculi in the gall- bladder is the chief point of interest here. At least 75% of such cases occur in women, especially in those who have borne children. Tight-lacing has been stated to act as an exciting cause, owing to the consequent retardation of the flow of bile. Gall-stones may number from one to many thousands. They are largely com- posed of cholesterin, combined with small amounts of bile- pigments and acids, lime and magnesium salts. Their presence may give rise to no symptoms, or may cause violent biliary colic, and, if the bile-stream be obstructed, to jaundice. Inflammatory processes may be initiated in the gall-bladder or the bile-ducts, catarrhal or suppurative in character. The Pancreas. — Haemorrhages into the body of the pancreas, acute and chronic inflammation, calculi, cysts and tumours, among which cancer is by far the most common, are recognized as occurring in this organ; the point of greatest interest regarding them lies in the relations established between pancreatic disease and diabetes mellitus, affections of the gland frequently being complicated by, and probably causing, the appearance of sugar in the urine. The Small Intestine. — Little remains to be added to the account of inflammatory lesions in connexion with the small intestine. It offers but few conditions peculiar to itself, save in typhoid fever, and the ease with which it contrives to become kinked, or intus- suscepted, producing obstruction, or to take part in hernial protrusions. The first section, the duodenum, is subject to development of ulcers very similar to those of the gastric mucous membrane. For long duodenal ulceration has been regarded as a complication of extensive burns of the skin, but the relationship between them has not yet been quite satisfactorily explained. The condition of colic in the bowel usually arises from over- distension of some part of the small gut with gas, the frequent sharp turns of the gut facilitating temporary closure of its lumen by pressure of the dilated gut near a curve against the part beyond. In the large bowel accumulations of gas seldom cause such acute symptoms, having a readier exit. The Large Intestine. — The colon, especially the ascending portion, may become immensely dilated, usually after prolonged constipation and paralysis of the gut; occasionally the condition is congenital. Straining efforts made in defaecation may often account for prolapse of the lower end of the rectum through the anus. Haemorrhage from the bowel is usually a sign of disease situated in the large intestine: if bright in colour, the source is probably low down; if dark, from the caecum or from above the ileo-caecal valve. Blood after a short stay in any section of the alimentary canal darkens, and eventually becomes almost black in colour. (A. L. G.; M. F.*) DIGGES, WEST (1720-1786), English actor, made his first stage appearance in Dublin in 1749 as Jaffier in Venice Preserved; and both there and in Edinburgh until 1764 he acted in many tragic r61es with success. He was the original " young Norval " in Home's Douglas (1756). His first London appearance was as Cato in the Haymarket in 1777, and he afterwards played Lear, Macbeth, Shylock and Wolsey. In 1881 he returned to Dublin and retired in 1784. DIGIT (Lat. digitus, finger) , literally a finger or toe, and so used to mean, from counting on the fingers, a single numeral, or, from measuring, a finger's breadth. In astronomy a digit is the twelfth part of the diameter of the sun or moon; it is used to express the magnitude of an eclipse. DIGITALIS. The leaves of the foxglove (q.v.), gathered from wild plants when about two-thirds of their flowers are expanded, deprived usually of the petiole and the thicker part of the midrib, and dried, constitute the drug digitalis or digitalis folia of the Pharmacopoeia. The prepared leaves have a faint odour and bitter taste; and to preserve their properties they must be kept excluded from light in stoppered bottles. They are occasionally adulterated with the leaves of Inula Conyza, ploughman's spikenard, which may be distinguished by their greater rough- ness, their less divided margins, and their odour when rubbed; also with the leaves of Symphytum officinale, comfrey, and of Verbascum Thapsus, great mullein, which unlike those of the foxglove have woolly upper and under surfaces. The earliest known descriptions of the foxglove are those given by Leonhard Fuchs and Tragus about the middle of the i6th century, but its virtues were doubtless known to herbalists at a much remoter period. J. Gerarde, in his Herbal (1597), advocates the use of foxglove for a variety of complaints; and John Parkinson, in the Tlieatrum Botanicum, or Theater of Plants (1640), and later W. Salmon, in The New London Dispensatory, similarly praised the remedy. Digitalis was first brought prominently under the notice of the medical profession by Dr W. Withering, who, in his Account of the Foxglove (1785), gave details of upwards of 200 cases chiefly dropsical, in which it was used. Digitalis contains four important glucosides, of which three are cardiac stimulants. The most powerful is digitoxin C^H^On, an extremely poisonous and cumulative drug, insoluble in water. Digilalin, CssHjeOu, is crystalline and is also insoluble in water. Digitalcin is amorphous but readily soluble in water. It can therefore be administered subcutaneously, in doses of about one- hundredth of a grain. Digitonin, on the other hand, is a cardiac depressant, and has been found to be identical with saponin, the chief constituent of senega root. There are numerous pre- parations, patent and pharmacopeial, their composition being extremely varied, so that, unless one has reason to be certain of any particular preparation, it is almost better to use only the dried leaves themselves in the form of a powder (dose 5-2 grains). The pharmacopeial tincture may be given in doses of five to fifteen minims, and the infusion has the unusually small dose of two to four drachms — the dose of other infusions being an ounce or more. The tincture contains a fair proportion of both digitalin and digitoxin. Digitalis leaves have no definite external action. Taken by the mouth, the drug is apt to cause considerable digestive disturbance, varying in different cases and sometimes so severe as to cause serious difficulty. This action is probably due to the digitonin, which is thus a constituent in every way undesirable. The all- important property of the drug is its action on the circulation. Its first action on any of the body-tissues is upon unstriped muscle, so that the first consequence of its absorption is a con- traction of the arteries and arterioles. No other known drug has an equally marked action in contracting the arterioles. As the vaso-motor centre in the medulla oblongata is also stimulated, as well as the contractions of the heart, there is thus trebly caused a very great rise in the blood-pressure. The clinical influence of digitalis upon the heart is very well defined. After the taking of a moderate dose the pulse is markedly slowed. This is due to a very definite influence upon the different portions of the cardiac cycle. The systole is not altered in length, but the diastole is very much prolonged, and since this is the period not only of cardiac rest but also of cardiac " feeding " — the coronary vessels being compressed and occluded during systole — the result is greatly to benefit the nutrition of the cardiac muscle. So definite is this that, despite a great increase in the force of the contractions and despite experimental proof that the heart does more work in a given time under the influence of digitalis, the organ subsequently displays all the signs of having rested, its improved vigour being really due to its obtaining a larger supply of the nutrient blood. Almost equally striking is the fact that digitalis causes an irregular pulse to become regular. Added to the greater force of cardiac contraction is a permanent tonic contraction of the organ, so that its internal capacity is reduced. The bearing of this fact on cases of cardiac dilatation is evident. In larger doses a remarkable sequel to these actions DIGNE— DIJON 269 may be observed. The cardiac contractions become irregular, the ventricle assumes curious shapes — " hour-glass," &c. — becomes very pale and bloodless, and finally the heart stops in a state of spasm, which shortly afterwards becomes rigor-mortis. Before this final change the heart may be started again by the applica- tion of a soluble potassium salt, or by raising the fluid pressure within it. Clinically it is to be observed that the drug is cumu- lative, being very slowly excreted, and that after it has been taken for some time the pulse may become irregular, the blood-pressure low, and the cardiac pulsations rapid and feeble. These symptoms with more or less gastro-intestinal irritation and decrease in the quantity of urine passed indicate digitalis poison- ing. The initial action of digitalis is a stimulation of the cardiac terminals of the vagus nerves, so that the heart's action is slowed. Thereafter follows the most important effect of the drug, which is a direct stimulation of the cardiac muscle. This can be proved to occur in a heart so embryonic that no nerves can be recognized in it, and in portions of cardiac muscle that contain neither nerve- cells nor nerve-fibres. The action of this drug on the kidney is of importance only second to its action on the circulation. In small or moderate doses it is a powerful diuretic. Though Heidenhain asserts that rise in the renal blood-pressure has not a diuretic action per se, it seems probable that this influence of the drug is due to a rise in the general blood-pressure associated with a relatively dilated condition of the renal vessels. In large doses, on the other hand, the renal vessels also are constricted and the amount of urine falls. It is probable that digitalis increases the amount of water rather than that of the urinary solids. In large doses the action of digitalis on the circulation causes various cerebral symptoms, such as seeing all objects blue, and various other disturbances of the special senses. There appears also to be a specific action of lowering the reflex excitability of the spinal cord. Digitalis is used in therapeutics exclusively for its action on the circulation. In prescribing this drug it must be remembered that fully three days elapse before it gets into the system, and thus it must always be combined with other remedies to tide the patient over this period. It must never be prescribed in large doses to begin with, as some patients are quite unable to take it,intractable vomiting being caused. The three days that must pass before any clinical effect is obtained renders it useless in an emergency. A certain consequence of its use is to cause or increase cardiac hypertrophy — a condition which has its own dangers and ultimately disastrous consequences, and must never be provoked beyond the positive needs of the case. But digitalis is indicated whenever the heart shows itself unequal to the work it has to perform. This formula includes the vast majority of cardiac cases. The drug is contra-indicated in all cases where the heart is already beating too slowly; in aortic incompetence — where the prolongation of diastole increases the amount of the blood that regurgitates through the incompetent valve; in chronic Bright's disease and in fatty degeneration of the heart — since nothing can cause fat to become contractile. DIGNE, the chief town of the department of the Basses Alpes, in S.E. France, 14 m. by a branch line from the main railway line between Grenoble and Avignon. Pop. (1906), town, 4628; commune, 7456. The Ville Haute is built on a mountain spur running down to the left bank of the Bleone river, and is composed of a labyrinth of narrow winding streets, above which towers the present cathedral church, dating from the end of the isth century, but largely reconstructed in modern times, and the former bishop's palace (now the prison). The fine Boulevard Gassendi separates the Ville Haute from the Ville Basse, which is of modern date. The old cathedral (Notre Dame du Bourg) is a building of the I3th century, but is now disused except for funerals: it stands at the east end of the Ville Basse. The neighbourhood of Digne is rich in orchards, which have long made the town famous in France for its preserved fruits and confections. It is the Dinia of the Romans, and was the capital of the Bodiontii. From the early 6th century at least it has been an episcopal see, which till 1700 was in the ecclesiastical province of Embrun, but since 1802 in that of Aix en Provence. The history of Digne in the middle ages is bound up with that of its bishops, under whom it prospered greatly. But it suffered much during the religious wars of the i6th and I7th centuries, when it was sacked several times. A little way off, above the right bank of the Bleone, is Charnptercier, the birthplace of the astronomer Gassendi (1592-1655), whose name has been given to the principal thoroughfare of the little town. See F. Guichard, Souvenirs historiques sur la ville de Digne el ses environs (Digne, 1847). (W. A. B. C.) DIGOIN, a town of cast-central France, in the department of Saone-et-Loirc, on the right bank of the Loire, 55 m. W.N.W. of Macon on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 5321. It is situated at the meeting places of the Loire, the Lateral canal of the Loire and the Canal du Centre, which here crosses the Loire by a fine aqueduct. The town carries on considerable manufactures of faience, pottery and porcelain. The port on the Canal du Centre has considerable traffic in timber, sand, iron, coal and stone. DIJON, a town of eastern France, capital of the department of Cote d'Or and formerly capital of the province of Burgundy, 195 m. S.E. of Paris on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 65,516. It is situated on the western border of the fertile plain of Burgundy, at the foot of Mont Afrique, the north-eastern summit of the Cote d'Or range, and at the confluence of the Ouche and the Suzon; it also has a port on the canal of Burgundy. The great strategic importance of Dijon as a centre of railways and roads, and its position with reference to an invasion of France from the Rhine, have led to the creation of a fortress forming part of the Langres group. There is no enceinte, but on the east side detached forts, 3 to 4 m. distant from the centre, command all the great roads, while the hilly ground to the west is protected by Fort Hauteville to the N.W. and the "groups" of Motte Giron and Mont Afrique to the S.W., these latter being very formidable works. Including a fort near Saussy (about 8 m. to the N.W.) protecting the water-supply of Dijon, there are eight forts, besides the groups above mentioned. The fortifications which partly surrounded the eld and central portion of the city have disappeared to make way for tree-lined boulevards with fine squares at intervals. The old churches and historic buildings of Dijon are to be found in the irregular streets of the old town, but industrial and commercial" activity has been transferred to the new quarters beyond its limits. A fine park more than 80 acres in extent lies to the south of the city, which is rich in open spaces and promenades, the latter including the botanical garden and the Promenade de 1'Arquebuse, in which there is a black poplar famous for its size and age. The cathedral of St Benigne, originally an abbey church, was built in the latter half of the i3th century on the site of a Romanesque basilica, of which the crypt remains. The west front is flanked by two towers and the crossing is surmounted by a slender timber spire. The plan consists of three naves, short transepts and a small choir, without ambulatory, terminating in three apses. In the interior there is a fine organ and a quantity of statuary, and the vaults contain the remains of Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, and Anne of Burgundy, daughter of John the Fearless. The site of the abbey buildings is occupied by the bishop's palace and an ecclesiastical seminary. The church of Notre-Dame, typical of the Gothic style of Burgundy, was erected from 1252 to 1334, and is distinguished for the grace of its interior and the beauty of the western facade. The portal consists of three arched openings, above which are two stages of arcades, open to the light and supported on slender columns. A row of gargoyles surmounts each storey of the facade, which is also ornamented by sculptured friezes. A turret to the right of the portal carries a clock called the Jaquemart, on which the hours are struck by two figures. The church of St Michel belongs to the 1 5th century. The west facade, the most remarkable feature of the church, is, however, of the Renaissance period. The vaulting of the three portals is of exceptional depth owing to the projection of the lower storey of the facade. Above this storey rise two towers of five stages, the fifth stage being formed by an octagonal cupola. The columns decorating the facade represent all the four orders. The design of this facade is wrongly attributed to Hugues 270 DIKE— DILAPIDATION Sarnbin (fl. c. 1540), a native of Dijon, and pupil of Leonardo da Vinci, but the sculpture of the portals, including " The Last Judgment " on the tympanum of the main portal, is probably from his hand. St Jean (isth century) and St Etienne (isth, i6thand 1 7th centuries), now used as the exchange, are the other chief churches. Of the ancient palace of the dukes of Burgundy there remain two towers, the Tour de la Terrasse and the Tour de Bar, the guard-room and the kitchens; these now form part of the hotel de ville, the rest of which belongs to the i;th and 1 8th centuries. This building contains an archaeological museum with a collection of Roman stone monuments; the archives of the town; and the principal museum, which, besides valuable paintings and other works of art, contains the magnificent tombs of Philip the Bold and John the Fearless, dukes of Burgundy. These were transferred from the Chartreuse of Dijon (or of Champmol), built by Philip the Bold as a mausoleum, now re- placed by a lunatic asylum. Relics of it survive in the old Gothic entrance, the portal of the church, a tower and the well of Moses, which is adorned with statues of Moses and the prophets by Claux Sluter (fl. end of I4th century), the Dutch sculptor, who also designed the tomb of Philip the Bold. The Palais de Justice, which belongs to the reign of Louis XII., is of interest as the former seat of the parlement of Burgundy. Dijon possesses several houses of the isth, i6th and i7th centuries, notably the Maison Richard in the Gothic, and the Hotel Vogue in the Renaissance style. St Bernard, the composer J. P. Rameau and the sculptor Francois Rude have statues in the town, of which they were natives. There are also monuments to those in- habitants of Dijon who fell in the engagement before the town in 1870, and to President Carnot and Garibaldi. The town is important as the seat of a prefecture, a bishopric, a court of appeal and a court of assizes, and as centre of an academic (educational district) . There are tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, an exchange (occupying the former cathedral of St Etienne), and an important branch of the Bank of France. Its educational establishments include faculties of law, of science and of letters, a preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy, a higher school of commerce, a school of fine art, a conservatoire of music, lycees and training colleges, and there is a public library with about 100,000 volumes. Dijon is well known for its mustard, and for the black currant liqueur called cassis de Dijon; its industries include the manu- facture of machinery, automobiles, bicycles, soap, biscuits, brandy, leather, boots and shoes, candles and hosiery. There are also flour mills, breweries, important printing works, vinegar works and, in the vicinity, nursery gardens. The state has a large tobacco manufactory in the town. Dijon has considerable trade in cereals and wool, and is the second market for the wines of Burgundy. Under the Romans Dijon (Divonense caslrum) was a vicus in the civitas of Langres. In the 2nd century it was the scene of the martyrdom of St Benignus (Benigne, vulg. Berin, Berain), the apostle of Burgundy. About 274 the emperor Aurelian surrounded it with ramparts. Gregory of Tours, in the 6th century, comments on the strength and pleasant situation of the place, expressing surprise that it does not rank as a civitas. During the middle ages the fortunes of Dijon followed those of Burgundy, the dukes of which acquired it early in the nth century. The communal privileges, conferred on the town in 1182 by Hugh III., duke of Burgundy, were confirmed by Philip Augustus in 1183, and in the i3th century the dukes took up their residence there. For the decoration of the palace and other monuments built by them, eminent artists were gathered from northern France and Flanders, and during this period the town became one of the great intellectual centres of France. The union of the duchy with the crown in 1477 deprived Dijon of the splendour of the ducal court ; but to cbunterbalance this loss it was made the capital of the province and seat of a parlement. Its fidelity to the monarchy was tested in -1513, when the citizens were besieged by 50,000 Swiss and Germans, and forced to agree to a treaty so disadvantageous that Louis XII. refused to ratify it. In the wars of religion Dijon sided with the League, and only opened its gates to Henry IV. in 1595. The i8th century was a brilliant period for the city; it became the seat of a bishopric, its streets were improved, its commerce developed, and an academy of science and letters founded; while its literary salons were hardly less celebrated than those of Paris. The neighbourhood was the scene of considerable fighting during the Franco-German War, which was, however, indirectly of some advantage to the city owing to the impetus given to its industries by the immigrants from Alsace. See H. Chabeuf, Dijon a trailers les ages (Dijon, 1897), and Dijon, monuments et souvenirs (Dijon, 1894). DIKE, or DYKE (Old Eng. die, a word which appears in various forms in many Teutonic languages, cf . Dutch dijk, German Teich, Danish dige, and in French, derived from Teutonic, digue; it is the same word as " ditch " and is ultimately connected with the root of " dig "), properly a trench dug out of the earth for de- fensive and other purposes. Water naturally collects in such trenches, and hence the word is applied to natural and artificial channels filled with water, as appears in the proverbial expression " February fill-dyke," and in the names of many narrow water- ways in East Anglia. " Dike " also is naturally used of the bank of earth thrown up out of the ditch, and so of any embankment, dam or causeway, particularly the defensive works in Holland, the Fen district of England, and other low-lying districts which are liable to flooding by the sea or rivers (see HOLLAND and FENS). In Scotland any wall, fence or even hedge, used as a boundary is called a dyke. In geology the term is applied to wall-like masses or rock (sometimes projecting beyond the surrounding surface) which fill up vertical or highly inclined fissures in the strata. DIKKA, a term in Mahommedan architecture for the tribune raised upon columns, from which the Koran is recited and the prayers intoned by the Imam of the mosque. DILAPIDATION (Lat. for " scattering the stones," lapides, of a building) , a term meaning in general a falling into decay, but more particularly used in the plural in English law for (i) the waste committed by the incumbent of an ecclesiastical living; (2) the disrepair for which a tenant is usually liable when he has agreed to give up his premises in good repair (see EASEMENT; FLAT; LANDLORD AND TENANT). By the general law a tenant for life has no power to cut down timber, destroy buildings, &c. (voluntary waste), or to let buildings fall into disrepair (per- missive waste). In the eye of the law an incumbent of a living is a tenant for life of his benefice, and any waste, voluntary or per- missive, on his part must be made good by his administrators to his successor in office. The principles on which such dilapidations are to be ascertained, and the application of the money payable in respect thereof, depend partly on old ecclesiastical law and partly on acts of parliament. Questions as to ecclesiastical dilapidations usually arise in respect of the residence house and other buildings belonging to the living. Inclosures, hedges, ditches and the like are included in things " of which the beneficed person hath the burden and charge of reparation." In a leading case (Ross v. Adcock, 1868, L.R. 3 C.P. 657) it was said that the court was acquainted with no precedent or decision extending the liability of the executors of a deceased incumbent to any species of waste beyond dilapidation of the house, chancel or other buildings or fences of the benefice. And it has been held that the mere mis- management or miscultivation of the ecclesiastical lands will not give rise to an action for dilapidations. To place the law relating to dilapidations on a more satisfactory footing, the Ecclesiastical Dilapidations Act 1871 was passed. The buildings to which the act applies are defined to be such houses of residence, chancels, walls, fences and other buildings and things as the incumbent of the benefice is by law and custom bound to maintain in repair. In each diocese a surveyor is appointed by the archdeacons and rural deans subject to the approval of the bishop; and such surveyor shall by the direction of the bishop examine the build- ings on the following occasions — viz. (i) when the benefice is sequestrated; (2) when it is vacant; (3) at the request of the incumbent or on complaint by the archdeacon, rural dean or patron. The surveyor specifies the works required, and gives an DILATATION— DILKE 271 estimate of their probable cost. In the case of a vacant benefice, the new incumbent and the old incumbent or his representatives may lodge objections to the surveyor's report on any grounds of fact or law, and the bishop, after consideration, may make an order for the repairs and their cost, for which the late incumbent or his representatives are liable. The sum so stated becomes a debt due from the late incumbent or his representatives to the new incumbent, who shall pay over the money when recovered to the governors of Queen Anne's Bounty. The governors pay for the works on execution on receipt of a certificate from the surveyor; and the surveyor, when the works have been completed to his satisfaction, gives a certificate to that effect, the effect of which, so far as regards the incumbent, is to protect him from liability for dilapidations for the next five years. Unnecessary buildings belonging to a residence house may, by the authority of the bishop and with the consent of the patron, be removed. An amending statute of 1872 (Ecclesiastical Dilapidations Act (1871) Amendment) relates chiefly to advances by the governors of Queen Anne's Bounty for the purposes of the act. DILATATION (from Lat. dis-, distributive, and latus, wide), a widening or enlarging; a term used in physiology. &c. DILATORY (from Lat. dilatus, from dijferre, to put off or delay), delaying, or slow; in law a " dilatory plea " is one made merely for delaying the suit. DILEMMA (Gr. &X?;wua, a double proposition, from Si- and \anpaveiv), a term used technically in Iqgic, and popularly in common parlance and rhetoric, (i) The latter use has no exact definition, but in general it describes a situation wherein from either of two (or more) possible alternatives an unsatis- factory conclusion results. The alternatives are called the " horns " of the dilemma. Thus a nation which has to choose between bankruptcy and the repudiation of its debts is on the horns of a dilemma. (2) In logic there is considerable divergence of opinion as to the best definition. Whatdy defined it as " a conditional syllogism with two or more antecedents in the major and a disjunctive minor." Aulus Gellius gives an example as follows: — " Women are either fair or ugly; if you marry a fair woman, she will attract other men; if an ugly woman she will not please you; therefore marriage is absurd." From either alternative, an unpleasant result follows. Four kinds of dilemma are admitted: — (a) Simple Constructive: If A, then C; if B, then C, but either B or A; therefore C. (b) Simple Destructive: If A is true, B is true; if A is true, C is true; B and C are not both true; therefore A is not true, (c) Complex Constructive: If A, then B; if C, then D; but either A or C; therefore either B or D. (d) Complex Destructive: If A is true, B is true; if C is true, D is true; but B and D are not both true; hence A and C are not both true. The soundness of the dilemmatic argument in general depends on the alternative possibilities. Unless the alternatives produced exhaust the possibilities of the case, the conclusion is invalid. The logical form of the argument makes it especially valuable in public speaking, before uncritical audiences. It is, in fact, important rather as a rhetorcial subtlety than as a serious argument. Dilemmist is also a term used to translate Vaibhashikas, the name of a Buddhist school of philosophy. DILETTANTE, an Italian word for one who delights in the fine arts, especially in music and painting, so a lover of the fine arts in general. The Ital. dilettare is from Lat. delectare, to delight. Properly the word refers to an " amateur " as opposed to a " professional " cultivation of the arts, but like " amateur " it is often used in a depreciatory sense for one who is only a dabbler, or who only has a superficial knowledge or interest in art. The Dilettanti Society founded in 1733-1734 still exists in England. A history of the society, by Lionel Cust, was published in 1898. DILIGENCE, in law, the care which a person is bound to exercise in his relations with others. The possible degrees of diligence are of course numerous, and the same degree is not required in all cases. Thus a mere depositary would not be held bound to the same degree of diligence as a person borrowing an article for his own use and benefit. Jurists, following the divisions of the civil law, have concurred in fixing three approximate standards of diligence — viz. ordinary (diligentia) , less than ordinary (levissima diligentia) and more than ordinary (exactissima diligentia). Ordinary or common diligence is defined by Story (On Bailments) as " that degree of diligence which men in general exert in respect of their own concerns." So Sir Wilb'am Jones: — " This care, which every person of common prudence and capable of governing a family takes of his own concerns, is a proper measure of that which would uniformly be required in performing every contract, if there were not strong reasons for exacting in some of them a greater and permitting in others a less degree of attention" ( Essay on Bailments) . The highest degree of diligence would be that which only very prudent persons bestow on their own concerns; the lowest, that which even careless persons bestow on their own concerns. The want of these various degrees of diligence is negligence in corresponding degrees. These approximations indicate roughly the greater or less severity with which the law will judge the performance of different classes of contracts; but English judges have been inclined to repudiate the distinction as a useless refinement of the jurists. Thus Baron Rolfe could see no difference between negligence and gross negligence; it was the same thing with the addition of a vituper- ative epithet. See NEGLIGENCE. Diligence, in Scots law, is a general term for the process by which persons, lands or effects are attached on execution, or in security for debt. DILKE, SIR CHARLES WENTWORTH, Bart. (1810-1869), English politician, son of Charles Wentworth Dilke, proprietor and editor of The Athenaeum, was born in London on the i8th of February 1810, and was educated at Westminster school and Trinity Hall, Cambridge. He studied law, and in 1834 took his degree of LL.B., but did not practise. He assisted his father in his literary work, and was for some years chairman of the council of the Society of Arts, besides taking a prominent part in the affairs of the Royal Horticultural Society and other bodies. He was one of the most zealous promoters of the Great Exhibition (1851), and a member of the executive committee. At the close of the exhibition he was honoured by foreign sovereigns, and the queen offered him knighthood, which, however, he did not accept; he also declined a large remuneration offered by the royal com- mission. In 1853 Dilke was one of the English commissioners at the New York Industrial Exhibition, and prepared a report on it. He again declined to receive any money reward for his services. He was appointed one of the five royal commissioners for the Great Exhibition of 1862; and soon after the death of the prince consort he was created a baronet. In 1865 he entered parliament as member for Wallingford. In 1869 he was sent to Russia as representative of England at the horticultural exhibition held at St Petersburg. His health, however, had been for some time failing, and he died suddenly in that city, on the loth of May 1 869. A selection from his writings, Papers of a Critic (2 vols., 1875), contains a biographical sketch by his son. His son, SIR CHARLES WENTWORTH DILKE, BART. (1843- ), became a prominent Liberal politician, as M.P. for Chelsea (1868-1886), under-secretary for foreign affairs (1880-1882), and president of the local government board (1882-1885); and he was then marked out as one of the best-informed and ablest of the advanced Radicals. He was chairman of the royal commission on the housing of the working classes in 1884-1885. But his sensational appearance as co-respondent in a divorce case of a peculiarly unpleasant character in 1885 cast a cloud over his career. He was defeated in Chelsea in 1886, and did not return to parliament till 1892, when he was elected for the Forest of Dean; and though his knowledge of foreign affairs and his powers as a critic and writer on military and naval questions were admittedly of the highest order, his official position in public life could not again be recovered. His military writings are The British Army (1888); Army Reform (1898) and, with Mr Spenser Wilkinson, Imperial Defence (1892). On colonial questions he wrote with equal authority. His Greater Britain (2 vols., 1866- 1867) reached a fourth edition in 1868, and was followed by Problems of Greater Britain (2 vols., 1890) and The British Empire (1899). He was twice married, his second wife (nee 272 DILL— DILLMANN Dill (A nethum or Peucedanum graveolens) , leaf and inflorescence. Emilia Frances Strong), the widow of Mark Pattison, being an accomplished art critic and collector. She died in 1904. The most important of her books were the studies on French Painters of the Eighteenth Century (1899) and three subsequent volumes on the architects and sculptors, furniture and decoration, engravers and draughtsmen of the same period, the last of which appeared in 1902. A posthumous volume, The Book of the Spiritual Life (1905), contains a memoir of her by Sir Charles Dilke. DILL (Anethum or Peucedanum graveolens), a member of the natural botanical order Umbelliferae, indigenous to the south of Europe, Egypt and the Cape of Good Hope. It resembles fennel in appearance. Its root is long and fusiform; the stem is round, jointed and about a yard high; the leaves have fragrant leaflets; and the fruits are brown oval and concavo-con- vex. The piant flowers from June till August in England. The seeds are sown, preferably as soon as ripe, either broad- cast or in drills between 6 and 12 in. asunder. The young plants should be thinned when 3 or 4 weeks old, so as to be at distances of about 10 in. A sheltered spot and dry soil are needed for the production of the seed in the climate of England. The leaves of the dill are used in soups and sauces, and, as well as the umbels, for flavouring pickles. The seeds are employed for the preparation of dill-water and oil of dill; they are largely consumed in the manufacture of gin, and, when ground, are eaten in the East as a condiment. The British Pharmacopoeia contains the Aqua Anethi or dill- water (dose 1-2 oz.), and the Oleum Anethi, almost identical in composition with caraway oil, and given in doses of 5-3 minims. Dill-water is largely used as a carminative for children, and as a vehicle for the exhibition of nauseous drugs. DILLEN [DILLENIUS], JOHANN JAKOB (1684-1747), English botanist, was born at Darmstadt in 1684, and was educated at the university of Giessen, where he wrote several botanical papers for the Ephcmcrides naturae curiosorum, and printed, in 1719. his Catalogus plantarum sponte circa Gissam nascentium, illustrated with figures drawn and engraved by his own hand, and containing descriptions of many new species. In 1 7 2 1 , at the instance of the botanist William Sherard (1659-1728), he came to England, and in 1724 he published a new edition of Ray's Synopsis stirpium Britannicarum. In 1732 he published Hortus Ellhamensis, a catalogue of the rare plants growing at Eltham, Kent, in the collection of Sherard's younger brother, James (1666-1738), who, after making a fortune as an apothecary, devoted himself to gardening and music. For this work Dillen himself executed 324 plates, and it was described by Linnaeus, who spent a month with him at Oxford in 1736, and afterwards dedicated his Critica botanica to him, as " opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non vidit." In 1 734 he was appointed Sherardian prof essor of botany at Oxford, in accordance with the will of W. Sherard, who at his death in 1728 left the university £3000 for the endowment of the chair, as well as his library and herbarium. Dillen, who was also the author of an Historia muscorum (1741), died at Oxford, of apoplexy, on the 2nd of April 1747. His manuscripts, books and collections of dried plants, with many drawings, were bought by his successor at Oxford, Dr Humphry Sibthorp (1713-1797), and ultimately passed into the possession of the university. For an account of his collections preserved at Oxford, see The Dillenian Herbaria, by G. Claridge Druce (Oxford, 1907). DILLENBUR6, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, delightfully situated in the midst of a well-wooded country, on the Dill, 25 m. N.W. from Giessen on the railway to Troisdorf. Pop. 4500. On an eminence above it lie the ruins of the castle of Dillenburg, founded by Count Henry the Rich of Nassau, about the year 1255, and the birthplace of Prince William of Orange (1533). It has an Evangelical church, with the vault of the princes of Nassau-Dillenburg, a Roman Catholic church, a classical school, a teachers' seminary and a chamber of commerce. Its industries embrace iron-works, tanne.ies and the manufacture of cigars. Owing to its beautiful surroundings Dillenburg has become a favourite summer resort. DILLENS, JULIEN (1840-1904), Belgian sculptor, was born at Antwerp on the 8th of June 1849, son of a painter. He studied under Eugene Simonis at the Brussels Academy of Fine Arts. In 1877 he received the prix de Rome for " A Gaulish Chief taken Prisoner by the Romans." At Brussels, in 1881, he executed the groups entitled " Justice " and " Herkenbald, the Brussels Brutus." For the pediment of the orphanage at Uccle, " Figure Kneeling" (Brussels Gallery), and the statue of the lawyer Metdepenningen in front of the Palais de Justice at Ghent, he was awarded the medal of honour in 1889 at the Paris Universal Exhibition, where, in 1900, his " Two Statues of the Anspach Monument" gained him a similar distinction. For the town of Brussels he executed "The Four Continents" (MaisonduRenard, Grand' Place), " The Lansquenets " crowning the lucarnes of the Maison de Roi, and the " Monument t' Serclaes " under the arcades of the Maison de I'Etoile, and, for the Belgian govern- ment, " Flemish Art," " German Art," " Classic Art " and " Art applied to Industry " (all in the Palais des Beaux Arts, Brussels), " The Laurel" (Bqtanic Garden, Brussels), and the statue of " Bernard van Orley " (Place du petit Sablon, Brussels). Mention must also be made of " An Enigma " (1876), the bronze busts of "Rogierde la Pasture" and "P. P. Rubens" (1879), "Etruria " (1880), "(The Painter Leon Frederic " (1888), " Madame Leon Herbo," " Hermes." a scheme of decoration for the ogival fagade of the h6tel de ville at Ghent (1893), " The Genius of the Funeral Monument of the Moselli Family," " The Silence of Death " (for the entrance of the cemetery of St Gilles), two caryatides for the town hall of St Gilles, presentation plaquette to Dr Heger, medals of MM. Godefroid and Vanderkindere and of " The Three Burgomasters of Brussels," and the ivories " Allegretto," "Minerva" and the " Jamaer Memorial." Dillens died at Brussels in November 1904. DILLINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the left bank of the Danube, 25 m. N.E. from Ulm, on the railway to Ingolstadt. Pop. (1905) 6078. Its principal buildings are an old palace, formerly the residence of the bishops of Augsburg and now government offices, a royal gymnasium, a Latin school with a library of 75,000 volumes, seven churches (six Roman Catholic), two episcopal seminaries, a Capuchin monastery, a Franciscan convent and a deaf and dumb asylum. The university, founded in 1549, was abolished in 1804, being converted into a lyceum. The inhabitants are engaged in cattle- rearing, the cultivation of corn, hops and fruit, shipbuilding and the shipping trade, and the manufacture of cloth, paper and cutlery. In the vicinity is the Karolinen canal, which cuts off a bend in the Danube between Lauingen and Dillingen. In 1488 Dillingen became the residence of the bishops of Augsburg; was taken by the Swedes in 1632 and 1648, by the Austrians in 170?, and on the iyth of June 1800 by the French. In 1803 it passed to Bavaria. DILLMANN, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1823-1894), German orientalist and biblical scholar, the son of a Wurttemberg schoolmaster, was born at Illingen on the 25th of April 1823. He was educated at Tubingen, where he became a pupil and friend of Heinrich Ewald, and studied under F. C. Baur, though he did not join the new Tubingen school. For a short time he worked as pastor at Gersheim, near his native place, but he soon came to feel that his studies demanded his whole time. He devoted him- self to the study of Ethiopic MSS. in the libraries of Paris, London and Oxford, and this work caused a revival of Ethiopic study in the igth century. In 1847 and 1848 he prepared catalogues of the Ethiopic MSS. in the British Museum and the Bodleian library at Oxford. He then set to work upon an edition of the Ethiopic bible. Returning to Tubingen in 1848, in 1853 he was appointed professor extraordinarius. Subsequently he became DILLON— DINAJPUR professor of philosophy at Kiel (1854), and of theology at Giessen (1864) and Berlin (1869). He died on the 4th of July 1894. In 1851 he had published the Book of Enoch in Ethiopian (German, 1853), and at Kiel he completed the first part of the Ethiopic bible, Oclateuchus Aelhiopicus (1853-1855). In 1857 appeared his Grammatik der iithiopischen Sprache (2nd ed. by C. Bezold, 1899); in 1859 the Book of Jubilees; in 1861 and 1871 another part of the Ethiopic bible, Libri Regum ; in 1865 his great Lexicon linguae aelhiopicae; in 1866 his Chrestomalhia aethiopica. Always a theologian at heart, however, he returned to theology in 1864. Plis Giessen lectures were published under the titles, Ursprung der altlestamentlichen Religion (1865) and Die Prophelen des alien Bundes nach Hirer polilischen Wirksamkeit (1868). In 1869 appeared his CommenlarzumHiob (4th ed. 1891) which stamped him as one of the foremost Old Testament exegetes. His renown as a theologian, however, was mainly founded by the series of commentaries, based on those of August Wilhelm Knobels' Genesis (Leipzig, 1875; 6th ed. 1892; Eng. trans, by W. B. Stevenson, Edinburgh, 1897); Exodus und Leviticus, 1880, revised edition by V. Ryssel, 1897; Numeri, Deuteronomium und Josua, with a dissertation on the origin of 'the Hexateuch, 1886; Jesaja, 1890 (revised edition by Rudolf Kittel in 1898). In 1877 he published the Ascension of Isaiah in Ethiopian and Latin. He was also a contributor to D. Schenkel's Bibellexikon, Brockhaus's Conversalionslcxikon, and Herzog's Realencyklopddie. His lectures on Old Testament theology, Vorlesungen iiber Theologie dcs Allen Teslamentes, were published by Kittel in 1895. See the articles in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadic. and the Allgemeine deutsche Biographic; F. Lichtenberger, History of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century (1889); Wolf Baudissin, A. Dillmann (Leipzig, 1895). DILLON, ARTHUR RICHARD (1721-1807), French arch- bishop, was the son of Arthur Dillon (1670-1733), an Irish gentleman who became general in the French service. He was born at St Germain, entered the priesthood and was successively cure of Elan near Mezieres, vicar-general of Pontoise (1747), bishop of Evreux (1753) and archbishop of Toulouse (1758), archbishop of Narbonne in 1763, and in that capacity, president of the estates of Languedoc. He devoted himself much less to the spiritual direction of his diocese than to its temporal welfare, carrying out many works of public utility, bridges, canals, roads, harbours, &c.; had chairs of chemistry and of physics created at Montpellier and at Toulouse, and tried to reduce the poverty, especially in Narbonne. In 1 787 and in 1 788 he was a member of the Assembly of Notables called together by Lcuis XVI., and in 1788 presided over the assembly of the clergy. Having refused to accept the civil constitution of the clergy, Dillon had to leave Narbonne in 1790, then to emigrate to Coblenz in 1791. Soon afterwards he went to London, where he lived until his death in 1807, never accepting the Concordat, which had suppressed his archiepiscopal see. See L. Audibret, Le Dernier President des Etats du Languedoc, Mgr. Arthur Richard Dillon, archeveque de Narbonne (Bordeaux, 1868); L. dc Lavergne, Les Assemblies provinciates sous Louis XVI (Paris, 1864). DILLON, JOHN (1851- ), Irish nationalist politician, was the son of John Blake Dillon (1816-1866), who sat in parliament for Tipperary, and was one of the leaders of " Young Ireland." John Dillon was educated at the Roman Catholic university of Dublin, and afterwards studied medicine. He entered parliament in 1880 as member for Tipperary, and was at first an ardent supporter of C. S. Parnell. In August he delivered a speech on the Land League at Kildare which was characterized as " wicked and cowardly " by W. E. Forster; he advocated boycotting, and was arrested in May 1881 under the Coercion Act, and again after two months of freedom in October. In 1883 he resigned his seat for reasons of health, but was returned unopposed in 1885 for East Mayo, which he continued to represent. He was one of the prime movers in the famous " plan of campaign," which provided that the tenant should pay his rent to the National League instead of the landlord, and in case of eviction be supported by the general fund. Mr Dillon was compelled by the court of queen's bench on 273 the i4th of December 1886 to find securities for good behaviour, but two days later he was arrested while receiving rents on Lord Clanricarde's estates. In this instance the jury disagreed, but in June 1888 under the provisions of the new Criminal Law Procedure Bill he was condemned to six months' imprisonment. He was, however, released in September, and in the spring of 1889 sailed for Australia and New Zealand, where he collected funds for the Nationalist party. On his return to Ireland he was again arrested, but, being allowed bail, sailed to America, and failed to appear at the trial. He returned to Ireland by way of Boulogne, where he and Mr W. O'Brien held long and indecisive conferences with Parncll. They surrendered to the police in February, and on their release from Gal way gaol in July declared their opposition to Parnell. After the expulsion of Mr T. M. Healy and others from the Irish National Federation, Mr Dillon became the chair- man (February 1896). His early friendship with Mr O'Brien gave place to considerable hostility, but the various sections of the party were ostensibly reconciled in 1900 under the leadership of Mr Redmond. In the autumn of 1896 he arranged a conven- tion of the Irish race, which included 2000 delegates from various parts of the world. In 1897 Mr Dillon opposed in the House the Address to Queen Victoria on the occasion of the Diamond Jubilee, on the ground that her reign had not been a blessing to Ireland, and he showed the same uncompromising attitude in 1901 when a grant to Lord Roberts was under discussion, accusing him of " systematized inhumanity." He was suspended on the 2oth of March for violent language addressed to Mr Chamberlain. He married in 1895 Elizabeth (d. 1907), daughter of Lord Justice J. C. Mathew. DILUVIUM (Lat. for "deluge," from diluere, to wash away), a term in geology for superficial deposits formed by flood-like operations of water, and so contrasted with alluvium (q.v.) or alluvial deposits formed by slow and steady aqueous agencies. The term was formerly given to the " boulder clay " deposits, supposed to have been caused by the Noachian deluge. DIME (from the Lat. decima, a tenth, through the O. Fr. disme), the tenth part, the tithe paid as church dues, or as tribute to a temporal power. In this sense it is obsolete, but is found in Wycliffe's translation of the Bible — '' He gave him dymes of alle thingis " (Gen. xiv. 20). A dime is a silver coin of the United States, in value 10 cents (English equivalent about 5d.) or one- tenth of a dollar; hence " dime-novel," a cheap sensational novel, a " penny dreadful "; also " dime-museum." DIMENSION (from Lat. dimensio, a measuring), in geometry, a magnitude measured in a specified direction, i.e. length, breadth and thickness; thus a line has only length and is said to be of one dimension, a surface has length and breadth, and has two dimensions, a solid has length, breadth and thickness, and has three dimensions. This concept is extended to algebra: since a line, surface and solid are represented by linear, quadratic and cubic equations, and are of one, two and three dimensions; a biquadratic equation has its highest terms of four dimensions, and, in general, an equation in any number of variables which has the greatest sum of the indices of any term equal to n is said to have n dimensions. The " fourth dimension " is a type of non- Euclidean geometry, in which it is conceived that a " solid " has one dimension more than the solids of experience. For the dimensions of units see UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF. DIMITY, derived from the Gr. Siiuros " double thread," through the Ital. dimito, " a kind of course linzie-wolzie " (Florio, 1611); a cloth commonly employed for bed upholstery and curtains, and usually white, though sometimes a pattern is printed on it in colours. It is stout in texture, and woven in raised patterns. DINAJPUR, a town (with a population in 1901 of 13,430) and district of Britsh India, in the Raishahi division of Eastern Bengal aad Assam. The earthquake of the I2th of June 1897 caused serious damage to most of the public buildings of the town. There is a railway station and a government high school. The district comprises an area of 3946 sq. m. It is traversed in every direction by a network of channels and water courses. Along the banks of the Kulik river, the undulating ridges and long lines of 274 DINAN— DINARCHUS mango-trees give the landscape a beauty which is not found else- where. Dinajpur forms part of the rich arable tract lying between the Ganges and the southern slopes of the Himalayas. Although essentially a fluvial district, it does not possess any river navigable throughout the year by boats of 4 tons burden. Rice forms the staple agricultural product. The climate of the district, although cooler than that of Calcutta, is very unhealthy, and the people have a sickly appearance. The worst part of the year is at the close of the rains in September and October, during which months few of the natives escape fever. The average maximum tempera- ture is 92-3° F., and the minimum 74-8°. The average rainfall is 85-54 in. In 1901 the population was 1,567,080, showing an increase of 6 % in the decade. The district is partly traversed by the main line of the Eastern Bengal railway and by two branch lines. Save between 1404 and 1442, when it was the seat of an independent raj, founded by Raja Ganesh, a Hindu turned Mussulman, Dinajpur has no separate history. Pillars and copper-plate inscriptions have yielded numerous records of the Pal kings who ruled the country from the 9th century onwards, and the district is famous for many other antiquities, some of which are connected by legend with an immemorial past (see Reports, Arch. Survey of India, xv. ; Epigraphia Indica, ii.). DINAN, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of C6tes-du-Nord, 37 m. E. of St Brieuc on the Western railway. Pop. (1906) 8588. Dinan is situated on a height on the left bank of the Ranee (here canalized), some 17 m. above its mouth at St Malo, with which it com- municates by means of small steamers. It is united to the village of Lanvallay on the right bank of the river by a granite viaduct 130 ft. in height. The town is almost entirely encircled by the ramparts of the middle ages, strengthened at intervals by towers and defended on the south by a castle of the late i4th century, which now serves as prison. Three old gateways are also pre- served. Dinan has two interesting churches; that of St Malo, of late Gothic architecture, and St Sauveur, in which the Roman- esque and Gothic styles are intermingled. In the latter church a granite monument contains the heart of Bertrand Du Guesclin, whose connexion with the town is also commemorated by an equestrian statue. The quaint winding streets of Dinan are often bordered by medieval houses. Its picturesqueness attracts large numbers of visitors and there are many English residents in the town and its vicinity. About three-quarters of a mile from the town are the ruins of the chateau and the Benedictine abbey at Lehon; near the neighbouring village of St Esprit stands the large lunatic asylum of Les Bas Foins, founded in 1836; and at no great distance is the now dismantled chateau of La Garaye, which was rendered famous in the i8th century by the philan- thropic devotion of the count and countess whose story is told .in Mrs Norton's Lady of La Garaye. Dinan is the seat of a sub- prefect and has a tribunal of first instance, and a communal college. There is trade in grain, cider, wax, butter and other agricultural products. The industries include the manufacture of leather, farm-implements and canvas. The principal event in the history of Dinan, which was a strong- hold of the dukes of Brittany, is the siege by the English under the duke of Lancaster in 1359, during which Du Guesclin and an English knight called Thomas of Canterbury engaged in single combat. DINANT, an ancient town on the right bank of the Meuse in the province of Namur, Belgium, connected by a bridge with the left bank, on which are the station and the suburb of St Medard. Pop. (1904) 7674. The name is supposed to be derived from Diana, and as early as the 7th century it was named as one of the dependencies of the bishopric of Tongres. In the loth century it passed under the titular sway of Liege, and remained the fief of the prince-bishopric till the French revolution put an end to that survival of feudalism. In the middle of the 1 5th century Dinant reached the height of its prosperity. With a population of 60,000, and 8000 workers in copper, it was one of the most flourishing cities in Walloon Belgium until it incurred the wrath of Charles the Bold. Belief in the strength of its walls and of the castle that occupied the centre bridge, thus effectually command- ing navigation by the river, engendered arrogance and over- confidence, and the people of Dinant thought they could defy the full power of Burgundy. Perhaps they also expected aid from France or Liege. In T466 Charles, in his father's name, laid siege to Dinant, and on the 27th of August carried the place by storm. He razed the walls and allowed the women, children and priests to retire in safety to Liege, but the male prisoners he either hanged or drowned in the river by causing them to be cast from the projecting cliff of Bouvignes. In 1675 the capture of Dinant formed one of the early military achievements of Louis XIV., and it remained in the hands of the French for nearly thirty years after that date. The citadel on the cliff, 300 ft. or 408 steps above the town, was fortified by the Dutch in 1818. It is now dis- mantled, but forms the chief curiosity of the place. The views of the river valley from this eminence are exceedingly fine. Half way up the cliff, but some distance south of the citadel, is the grotto of Montfat, alleged to be the site of Diana's shrine. The church of Notre Dame, dating from the I3th century, stands immediately under the citadel and flanking the bridge. It has been restored, and is considered by some authorities, although others make the same claim on behalf of Huy, the most complete specimen in Belgium of pointed Gothic architecture. The baptismal fonts date from the i2th century, and the curious spire in the form of an elongated pumpkin and covered with slates gives a fantastic and original appearance to the whole edifice. The present prosperity of Dinant is chiefly derived from its being a favourite summer resort for Belgians as well as foreigners. It has facilities for boating and bathing as well as for trips by steamer up and down the river Meuse. It is also a convenient central point for excursions into the Ardennes. Although there are some indications of increased industrial activity in recent years, the population of Dinant is not one-eighth of what it was at the time of the Burgundians. DINAPUR, a town and military station of British India, in the Patna district of Bengal, on the right bank of the Ganges, 12 m. W. of Patna city by rail. Pop. (1901) 33,699. It is the largest military cantonment in Bengal, with accommodation for two batteries of artillery, a European and a native infantry regiment. In 1857 the sepoy garrison of the place initiated the mutiny of that year in Patna district, but after a conflict with the European troops were forced to retire from the town, and subsequently laid siege to Arrah. DINARCHUS, last of the " ten " Attic orators, son of Sostratus (or, according to Suidas, Socrates), born at Corinth about 361 B.C. He settled at Athens early in life, and when not more than twenty-five was already active as a writer of speeches for the law courts. As an alien, he was unable to take part in the debates. He had been the pupil both of Theophrastus and of Demetrius Phalereus, and had early acquired a certain fluency and versa- tility of style. In 324 the Areopagus, after inquiry, reported that nine men had taken bribes from Harpalus, the fugitive treasurer of Alexander. Ten public prosecutors were appointed. Dinarchus wrote, for one or more of these prosecutors, the three speeches which are still extant — Against Demosthenes, Against Aristogeiton, Against Philodes. The sympathies of Dinarchus were in favour of an Athenian oligarchy under Macedonian control; but it should be remembered that he was not an Athenian citizen. Aeschines and Demades had no such excuse. In the Harpalus affair, Demosthenes was doubtless innocent, and so, probably, were others of the accused. Yet Hypereides, the most fiery of the patriots, was on the same side as Dinarchus. Under the regency of his old master, Demetrius Phalereus, Dinarchus exercised much political influence. The years 3 1 7-307 were the most prosperous of his life. On the fall of Demetrius Phalereus and the restoration of the democracy by Demetrius Poliorcetes, Dinarchus was condemned to death and withdrew into exile at Chalcis in Euboea. About 292, thanks to his friend Theophrastus, he was able to return to Attica, and took up his abode in the country with a former associate, Proxenus. He afterwards brought an action against Proxenus on the ground that he had robbed him of some money and plate. Dinarchus died at Athens about 291. DINARD— DINGELSTEDT 275 According to Suidas, Dinarchus wrote 160 speeches; and Dionysius held that, out of 85 extant speeches bearing his name, 58 were genuine, — 28 relating to public, 30 to private causes. Although the authenticity of the three speeches mentioned above is generally admitted, Demetrius of Magnesia doubted that of the speech Against Demosthenes, while A. Westermann rejected all three. Dinarchus had little individual style and imitated by turns Lysias, Hypereides and Demosthenes. He is called by Hermogenes 6 Kpi6i.v6s ttaujoadanp, a metaphor taken from barley compared with wheat, or beer compared with wine, — a Demosthenes whose strength is rougher, without flavour or sparkle. Editions: (text and exhaustive commentary) E. Matzner (1842); (text) T. Thalheim (1887), F. Blass (1888); see L. L. Forman, Index Andocideus, Lycurgeus, Dinarcheus (1897) ; and, in general, F. Blass, Attische Beredsamkeit, iii. There is a valuable treatise on the life and speeches of Dinarchus by Dionysius of Halicarnassus. DINARD, a seaside town of north-western France, in the department of Ille-et-Vilaine. The town, which is the chief watering-place of Brittany, is situated on a rocky promontory at the mouth of the Ranee opposite St Malo, which is about i m. distant. It is a favourite resort of English and Americans as well as of the French, its attractions being the beauty of its situation, the mildness of the climate and the good bathing. It has two casinos and numerous luxurious hotels and elegant villas. Together with the adjoining watering-place of St Enogat, Dinard has a population of 4882 (1906). DINDIGUL, a town of British India, in the Madura district of Madras, 880 ft. above the sea, 40 m. from Madura by rail. Pop. (1901) 25,182. Dindigul has risen into importance as the centre of a trade in tobacco and manufacture of cigars, which are exported to England. There are two large European cigar factories here. The town has manufactures of silk, muslin and blankets, and an export trade in hides and cardamoms; and there is a large native Christian population, with two churches. The ancient fort, well preserved, stands on a rock rising 350 ft. above the town; this was formerly a position of great strategic importance, commanding passes into Madura from Coimbatore, and figured prominently in the military operations of the Mahrattas in the i7th and i8th centuries, and of Hyder Ali in !75S seq., being thrice captured by the British (1767, 1783, 1790). After the two first captures it was restored to Hyder Ali under treaty; after the third it was ceded to the East India Company. DINDORF, KARL WILHELM (1802-1883), German classical scholar, was born at Leipzig on the 2nd of January 1802. From his earliest years he showed a strong taste for classical studies, and after completing F. Invernizi's edition of Aristophanes at an early age, and editing several grammarians and rhetoricians, was in 1828 appointed extraordinary professor of literary history in his native city. Disappointed at not obtaining the ordinary professorship when it became vacant in 1833, he resigned his post in the same year, and devoted himself entirely to study and literary work. His attention had at first been chiefly given to Athenaeus, whom he edited in 1827, and to the Greek dramatists, all of whom he edited separately and combined in his Poetae scenici Graeci (1830 and later editions). He also wrote a work on the metres of the Greek dramatic poets, and compiled special lexicons to Aeschylus and Sophocles. He edited Procopius for Niebuhr's Corpus of the Byzantine writers, and between 1846 and 1851 brought out at Oxford an important edition of Demosthenes; he also edited Lucian and Josephus for the Didot classics. His last important editorial labour was his Eusebius of Caesarea (1867-1871). Much of his attention was occupied by the re- publication of Stephanus's Thesaurus (Paris, 1831-1865), chiefly executed by him and his brother Ludwig, a work of prodigious labour and utility. His reputation suffered somewhat through the imposture practised upon him by the Greek Constantine Simonides, who succeeded in deceiving him by a fabricated fragment of the Greek historian Uranius. The book was printed, and a few copies had been circulated, when the forgery was discovered, just in time to prevent its being given to the world under the auspices of the university of Oxford. Shortly after the death of his brother, he lost all his property and his library by rash speculations. He died on the ist of August 1883. His brother LUDWIG (1805-1871) was born at Leipzig on the 3rd of January 1 805, and died there on the 6th of September 1871. He never held any academical position, and led so secluded a life that many doubted his existence, and declared that he was a mere pseudonym. The important share which he took in the edition of the Thesaurus is nevertheless authenticated by his own signature to his contributions. He also published valuable editions of Polybius, Dio Cassius and other Greek historians. D'INDY, PAUL-MARIE-THEODORE-VINCENT (1851- ), French musical composer, was born in Paris, on the 27th of March 1851. He studied composition and the organ at the Paris Conser- vatoire under Cesar Franck, and obtained the grand prize offered by the city of Paris in 1885 with Le Chant de la Cloche, a dramatic legend after Schiller. His principal works, beside the above, are the symphonic trilogy Wallenstein, the symphonic works entitled Saugefleurie, La Fortt enchantZe, Istar, Symphonic sur un air monlagnard franqais; overture to Anthony and Cleopatra; Sle Marie Magdeleinc, a cantata; Allendez-moi sous I'orme, a one-act opera; Fervaal, a musical drama in three acts. Vincent d'Indy is perhaps the most prominent among the disciples of Cesar Franck. Imbued with very high aims, he was always guided by a lofty ideal, and few musicians have attained so complete a mastery over the art of instrumentation. His music, however, lacks simplicity, and can never become popular in the widest sense. His opera Fervaal, which is styled " action musicale," is constructed upon the system of Leit-motifs. Its legendary subject recalls both Parsifal and Tristan, and the music is also suggestive of Wagnerian influence. D'Indy can scarcely be considered so typical a representative of modern French music as his juniors Alfred Bruneau, the composer of Le R&ie, L'Altaque du moulin, Messidor, or Gustave Charpentier, the author of Louise, who chose subjects of modern life for their operatic works. DINEIR, a small town in Asia Minor, built amidst the ruins of Celaenae-Apamea, near the sources of the Maeander (Menderes). It is the terminus of the Smyrna-Aidin-Dineir railway. Pop. 1400. (See APAMEA.) DINGELSTEDT, FRANZ VON (1814-1881), German poet and dramatist, was born at Halsdorf, in Hesse Cassel, on the 3oth of June 1814. Having studied at the university of Marburg, he became in 1836 a master at the Lyceum in Cassel, from which he was transferred to Fulda in 1838. In 1839 he produced a novel, Unter der Erde, which obtained considerable success, and in 1841 published the book by which he is best remembered, the Lieder eines kosmopolitischen Nachtwiichters. These poems, animated as they are by a spirit of bitter opposition to everything that savours of despotism, were an effective contribution to the political poetry of the day. The popularity of this book determined Dingelstedt to take up a literary career, and iri 1841 he obtained an appointment on the staff of the Augsburger allgemeine Zeitung. In 1843, however, the satirist of German princes accepted, to the general surprise, the appointment of private librarian to the king of Wurttemberg, and in the same year he married the celebrated Bohemian opera singer, Jenny Lutzer. In 1845 ne published a volume of poems, some of which, treating of modern life, possessed great literary rather than strictly poetical merit. A subsequent collection, published in 1852, attracted little attention. The success of his tragedy Das Haus der Barneveldt (1850) obtained for him the position of intendant at the court theatre at Munich, where he soon became the centre of literary society. He incurred, however, the animosity of the Jesuit clique at the court, and in 1856 was suddenly dismissed on the most frivolous charges. A similar position was offered to him at Weimar through the influence of Liszt, and he remained there until 1867. His administration was most successful, and he especially distinguished himself by presenting all Shakespeare's historical plays upon the stage in an unbroken cycle. In 1867 he became director of the court opera house in Vienna, and in 1872 of the Hofburgtheater, a position he held until his death on the 1 5th of May 1881. Among his other works may be noticed an autobiographical sketch of his Munich career, entitled Munchener 276 DINGHY— DINKA Bilderbogen (1879), Die Amazone, an art novel of considerable merit (1869), translations of several of Shakespeare's comedies, and several writings dealing with questions of practical drama- turgy. He was ennobled in 1867 by the king of Bavaria and in 1876 was created Freihen by the emperor of Austria. Dingelstedt's Samtliche Werke appeared in 12 vols. (1877-1878), but this edition is far from complete. On his life see, besides the autobiography mentioned above, J. Rodenberg, Heimaterinnerungen an F. Dingelstedt (Berlin, 1882), and by the same author, F. Dingel- stedt, Blatter aus seinem Nachlass (2 vols., 1891). Also an essay by A. Stern in Zur Literatur der Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1880). DINGHY, or DINGEY (from the Hindu dengi a small boat, the diminutive of denga, a sloop or coasting vessel), a boat of greatly varying size and shape, used on the rivers of India; the term is applied also, in certain districts, to a larger boat used for coasting purposes. The name was adopted by the merchantmen trading with India, and is now generally used to designate the small extra boat kept for general purposes on a man-of-war or merchant vessel, and also, on the Thames, for small pleasure boats built for one or two pairs of sculls. DINGLE, a seaport and market town of county Kerry, Ireland, in the west parliamentary division, the terminus of the Tralee and Dingle railway. Pop. ( 1 90 1 ) 1 7 86. This may be considered the most westerly town in the United Kingdom unless Knightstown at Valencia Island be excepted: it lies on the south side of the northernmost of the great promontories which pro- trude into the Atlantic on the south-western coast of Ireland, on the fine natural harbour of Dingle Bay, in a wild hilly district abundant in relics of antiquity. The town, which is the centre of a considerable fishing industry, especially in mackerel, was in the 1 6th century of no little importance as a seaport; it had also a noted manufacture of linen. It was incorporated by Queen Elizabeth, and returned two members to the Irish parliament until the Union. DINGO, a name applied apparently by Europeans to the warrigal, or native Australian dog. the Canis dingo of J. F. Blumenbach. The dingo is a stoutly-built, rather short-legged, sandy-coloured dog, intermediate in size between a jackal and a wolf, and measuring about 51 in. in total length, of which the tail takes up about eleven. In general appearance it is very like some of the pariah dogs of India and Egypt; and, except on distributional grounds, there is no reason for regarding it as specifically distinct from such breeds. Dingos, which are found both wild and tame, interbreed freely with European dogs in- troduced into the country, and it may be that the large amount of black on the back of many specimens may be the result of crossing of this nature. The main point of interest connected with the dingo relates to its origin; that is to say, whether it is a member of the indigenous Australian fauna (among which it is the only large placental mammal), or whether it has been introduced into the country by man. There seems to be no doubt that fossilized remains of the dingo occur intermingled with those of the extinct Australian mammals, such as giant kangaroos, giant wombats and the still more gigantic Diprotodon. And since remains of man have apparently not yet been detected in these deposits, it has been thought by some naturalists that the dingo must be an indigenous species. This was the opinion of Sir Frederick McCoy, by whom the deposits in question were regarded as probably of Pliocene age. A similar view is adopted by D . Ogil vy in a Catalogue of A uslralian Mammals, published at Sydney in 1892; the writer going how- ever one step further and expressing the belief that the dingo is the ancestor of all domesticated dogs. The latter contention cannot for a moment be sustained; and there are also strong arguments against the indigenous origin of the dingo. That the animal now occurs in a wild state is no argument whatever as to its being indigenous, seeing that a domesticated breed introduced by man into a new country abounding in game would almost certainly revert to the wild state. The apparent absence of human remains in the beds yielding dingo teeth and bones (which are almost certainly not older than the Pleistocene) is of only negative value, and liable to be upset by new discoveries. Then, again (as has been pointed out by R. I. Pocock in the first part of the Kennel Encyclopaedia, 1907), the absence of any really wild species of the typical group of the genus Canis between Burma and Siam on the one hand and Australia on the other is a very strong argument against the dingo being indigenous, seeing that, whether brought by man or having travelled thither of its own accord, the dingo must have reached its present habitat by way of the Austro-Malay archipelago. If it had followed that route in the course of nature, it is inconceivable that it would not still be found on some portions of the route. On the supposition that the dingo was introduced by man, we have now fairly decisive evidence that the native Australian, in place of being (as formerly supposed) a member of the negro stock, is a low type of Caucasian allied to the Veddahs of Ceylon and the Toalas of Celebes. Consequently the Australian natives must be presumed to have reached the island-continent by way of Malaya; and if this be admitted, nothing is more likely than that they should have been accompanied by pariah dogs of the Indian type. Confirmation of this is afforded by the occurrence in the mountains of Java of a pariah-like dog which has reverted to an almost completely wild condition; and likewise by the fact that the old voyagers met with dogs more or less similar to the dingo in New Guinea, New Zealand and the Solomon and certain other of the smaller Pacific islands. On the whole, then, the most probable explanation of the case is that the dingo is an introduced species closely allied to the Indian pariah dog. Whether the latter represents a truly wild type now extinct, cannot be determined. If so, all pariahs should be classed with the Australian warrigal under the name of Canis dingo. If, on the other hand, pariahs, and consequently the dingo, cannot be separated specifically from ths domesticated dogs of western Europe, then the dingo should be designated Canis familiaris dingo. (R. L.*) DINGWALL, a royal and police burgh and county town of the shire of Ross and Cromarty, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 2519. It is situated near the head of Cromarty Firth where the valley of the Peffery unites with the alluvial lands at the mouth of the Conon, i8| m. N.W. of Inverness by the Highland railway. Its name, derived from the Scandinavian Thingvb'llr, " field or meeting- place of the thing," or local assembly, preserves the Norse origin of the town; its Gaelic designation is Inverpefferon," the mouth of the Peffery." The 18th-century town house, and some remains of the ancient mansion of the once powerful earls of Ross still exist. There is also a public park. An obelisk, 57 ft. high, was erected over the grave of the ist earl of Cromarty. The town belongs to the Wick district group of parliamentary burghs. It is a nourishing distributing centre and has an important corn market and auction marts. Some shipping is carried on at the harbour at the mouth of the Peffery, about a mile below the burgh. Branch lines of the Highland railway run to Strathpeffer and to Strome Ferry and Kyle of Lochalsh (for Skye). Alexander II. created Dingwall a royal borough in 1226, and its charter was renewed by James IV. On the top of Knockfarrel (Gaelic, cnoc, hill; faire, watch, or guard), a hill about 3 m. to the west, is a large and very complete vitrified fort with ramparts. DINKA (called by the Arabs Jange), a widely spread negro people dwelling on the right bank of the White Nile to about 12° N., around the mouth of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, along the right bank of that river and on the banks of the lower Sobat. Like the Shilluk, they were greatly harried from the north by Nuba- Arabic tribes, but remained comparatively free owing to the vast extent of their country, estimated to cover 40,000 sq. m., and their energy in defending themselves. They are a tall race with skins of almost blue black. The men wear practically no clothes, married women having a short apron, and unmarried girls a fringe of iron cones round the waist. They tattoo themselves with tribal marks, and extract the lower incisors; they also pierce the ears and lip for the attachment of ornaments, and wear a variety of feather, iron, ivory and brass ornaments. Nearly all shave the head, but some give the hair a reddish colour by moistening it with animal matter. Polygamy is general; some headmen have as many as thirty or more wives; but six is the average number. They are great cattle and sheep breeders; the men tend their beasts with great devotion, despising agriculture, DINKELSBUHL— DINOFLAGELLATA 277 which is left to the women; the cattle are called by means of drums. Save under stress of famine cattle are never killed for food, the people subsisting largely on durra. The Dinkas reverence the cow, and snakes, which they call " brothers." Their folklore recognizes a good and evil deity; one of the two wives of the good deity created man, and the dead go to live with him in a great park filled with animals of enormous size. The evil deity created cripples. The Dinka came, in 1899, under the control of the Sudan government, justice being administered as far as possible in accord with tribal custom. A compendium of Dinka laws was compiled by Captain H. D. E. O'Sullivan. See G. A. Schweinfurth, The Heart of Africa (1874); W. Junker, Travels in Africa, Eng. edit. (London, 1890-1892); The Anglo- Egyptian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 1905). DINKELSBUHL, a town of German}', in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Wornitz, i6m. N. from Nordlingen, on the rail- way to Dombiihl. Pop. 5000. It is an interesting medieval town, still surrounded by old walls -and towers, and has an Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches. Notable is the so-called Deutsches Haus, the ancestral home of the counts of Drechsel- Deufstetten, a fine specimen of the German renaissance style of wooden architecture. There are a Latin and industrial school, several benevolent institutions, and a monument to Christoph von Schmid (1768-1854), a writer of stories for the young. The inhabitants carry on the manufacture of brushes, gloves, stock- ings and gingerbread, and deal largely in cattle. Fortified by the emperor Henry I., Dinkelsbtihl received in 1305 the same municipal rights as Ulm, and obtained in 1351 the position of a free imperial city, which it retained till 1802, when it passed to Bavaria. Its municipal code, the Dinkelsbiihler Recht, published in 1536, and revised in 1738, contained a very extensive collection of public and private laws. DINNER, the chief meal of the day, eaten either in the middle of the day, as was formerly the universal custom, or in the evening. The word " dine " comes through Fr. from Med. Lat. disnare, for disjejunare, to break one's fast (jejunium); it is, therefore, the same word as Fr. dejeuner, to breakfast, in modern France, to take the midday meal, diner being used for the later repast. The term " dinner-wagon," originally a movable table to hold dishes, is now used of a two-tier side- board. DINOCRATES, a great and original Greek architect, of the age of Alexander the Great. He tried to captivate the ambitious fancy of that king with a design for carving Mount Athos into a gigantic seated statue. This plan was not carried out, but Dino- crates designed for Alexander the plan of the new city of Alex- andria, and constructed the vast funeral pyre of Hephaestion. Alexandria was, like Peiraeus and Rhodes (see HIPPODAMUS), built on a regular plan; the streets After F. Schut, in Engler and Prantl's °f mOSt Carl'er tOWDS being narrOW and confused. DINOFLAGELLATA, so called by O. Biitschli (= the CILIO- verse grooves in which lie the FLAGELLATA of E. Claparide and respective flagella /./., t.f. ; s.p., H. Lachmann), a group of Pro- large "sack pusule" discharging tozoa characterized as Mastigo- tnrough a tube by pore o : c.p., , ., . . . " collective pusule discharging Phora> Provided with two flagella, at o, and surrounded by a ring the one anterior extended in loco- of formative " or " daughter motion, the other coiled round pusules"; n, nucleus. its basg) or lying in a transverse groove. The body is bounded by a firm pellicle, often supple- mented by an armour (" lorica ") of cuticular cellulose plates, with usually a marked longitudinal groove from which the anterior flagellum springs, and an oblique or spiral transverse cp. P/ianzcn/amilien, by permission of Wm. Engelmann. FIG. I. — Peridiniumdivergens showing longitudinal and trans- groove for the second flagellum. In Polykrikos (fig. 2, 9) there are eight transverse grooves each with its flagellum. The armour-plates are often exquisitely sculptured, and may be produced into spines or perpendicular plates to give greater surface extension, as we find in other plankton organisms. The cortical plasma may protrude pseudopodia in the longi- tudinal groove; it contains trichocysts in several species, true nematocysts in Polykrikos. It contains chromatophores in many species, coloured by a mixed lipochrome pigment which FIG. 2. From Delage and Hfrouard's Troilt de snoloqie concrete, by permission of Schleicher Freres. 1. Modified from Schiitt, Ornitho- 4. After Steip, Prorocentrum. ceras. 5, 6. Ceratium, single and series. 2. Diagram of transverse fission 7. Pouchetia fusus (Schiitt). of a Dinoflagellate. 3. After Schiitt, Exuviaeetta. 8. Cithanstes. 9. After Biitschli, Polykrikos. appears to be distinct from diatomin. The endoplasm is ramified between alveoli; it contains a large nucleus (in Polykrikos there are eight nuclei, accompanied by smaller, more numerous bodies regarded by O. Biitschli as micro- nuclei). Besides the other spaces are definite rounded or oval vacuoles with a permanent pellicular wall termed by Schiitt " pusules "; these open by a duct or ducts into the longitudinal groove. They enlarge and diminish, and are possibly excretory like the " contractile vacuoles " of other Protista; though it has been suggested that by their communication with the medium they subserve nutrition. Nutrition is of course holozoic or 278 DINOTHERIUM— DIG CASSIUS saprophytic in the colourless forms, holophytic in the coloured; but these divergent methods are exhibited by different species of the same genus, or even by individuals of one and the same species under different conditions. Binary fission has been widely observed, both in the active condition or after loss of the flagella: it differs from that of true Flagellates in not being longitudinal, but transverse or oblique (fig. 2, 2). Re- peated fission (brood-formation) within a cyst has also been observed, as in Pyrocystis and Ceratium; and possibly the chains of Ceralium and other (fig. 2, 5 and 6) genera are due to the non- separation of the brood-cells. Conjugation of adults has been observed in several species, the most complete account being that of Zederbauer on Ceratium hirundinella (marine): either mate puts forth a tube which meets and opens into that of the other (as in some species of Chlamydomonas and Desmids) ; the two cell-bodies fuse in this tube, and encyst to form a rest- ing zygospore. The Dinoflagellates are relatively large for Mastigophora, many attaining 50 /i (riV) in length. The majority are marine; but some genera (Ceratium, Peridinium) include fresh-water species. Many are highly phosphorescent and some by their abundance colour the water of the sea or pool which they dwell in. Like so many coloured Protista, they frequently possess a pigmented " eye-spot " in which may be sunk a spheroidal refractive body (" lens "). The affinities of the Dinoflagellata are certainly with those Cryptomonadine Flagellates which possess two unequal flagella; the zoospores or young of the Cystoflagellates are practically colourless Dinoflagellates. 1. Gymnodiniaceae: body naked, or with a simple cellulose or gelatinous envelope; both grooves present. Pyrocystis (Murray), often encysted, spherical orcrescentic, becoming free within cyst wall, and escaping whole or after brood-divisions as a form like Gymno- dinium ; Gymnodinium (Stein) ; Hemidinium (Stein) ; Pouchetia (Schiitt) (fig. 2, 7) with complex eye-spot; to this group we may refer Polykrikos (Butschli) (fig. 2, 9), with its metameric transverse grooves and flagella. 2. Prorocentraceae (Schiitt) (=the Adinida of Bergh); body sur- rounded by a firm shell of two valves without a girdle band ; trans- verse groove absent; transverse flagellum coiled round base of longitudinal. Exuviaeella (Cienk.) (fig. 2, 3); Prorocentrum (Ehrb.) (fig. 2, 4). 3. Peridiniaceae (Schutt) ; body with a shell of plates, a girdle band along the transverse groove, in which the transverse flageljum lies. Genera, Peridinium (Ehrb.) (fig. l), fresh-water and marine; Ceratium (Schrank) (fig. 2, 5, 6), fresh-water and marine; Citharistes (Stein); Ornithoceras (Claparede and Lachmann) (fig. 2, i). LITERATURE. — R. S. Bergh, "DerOrganismusder Cilioflagellaten," Morphol. Jahrbuch, vii. (1881); F. von Stein, Organismus der Infu- sionsthiere, Abth. 3, 2. Halfte; Die Naturgeschichte der arthrodelen Flagellaten (1883); Butschli, "Mastigophora" (in Bronn's Thier- reich, i. Abth. 2), 1881—1887; G. Pouchet, various observations on Dinoflagellates, Journal de Vanatomie et de la physiologie (1885, 1887, 1891); F. Schutt, " Die Peridineen der Plankton Expedition " (Ergebnisse d. PI. Exed. i. Th. vol. iv. 1895); and " Peridiniales " in Engler and Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien, vol. i. Abt. 2 b. (1896); Zederbauer, Berichte d. deutschen botanischen Gesellschaft, vol. xx. (1900); Delage and Herouard, Traite de zoologie concrete, vol. i. La Cellule et les protozoaires (1896). (M. HA.) DINOTHERIUM, an extinct mammal, fossil remains of which occur in the Miocene beds of France, Germany, Greece and Northern India. These consist chiefly of teeth and the bones of the head. An entire skull, obtained from the Lower Pliocene beds of Eppelsheim, Hesse-Darmstadt, in 1836, measured 4.5 ft. in length and 3 ft. in breadth, and indicates an animal exceeding the elephant in size. The upper jaw is apparently destitute of incisor and canine teeth, but possesses five molars on each side, with a corresponding number in the jaw beneath. The most remarkable feature, however, consists in the front part of the lower jaw being bent downwards and bearing two tusk-like incisors also directed downwards and backwards. Dinotherium is a member of the group Proboscidea, of the line of descent of the elephants. DINWIDDIE, ROBERT (1693-1770), English colonial governor of Virginia, was born near Glasgow, Scotland, in 1693. From the position of customs clerk in Bermuda, which he held in 1727-1738, he was promoted to be surveyor-general of the customs " of the southern ports of the continent of America," as a reward for having exposed the corruption in the West Indian customs service. In r/43 he was commissioned to examine into the customs service in the Barbadoes arid exposed similar corruption there. In 1751-1758 he was lieutenant-governor of Virginia, first as the deputy of Lord Albemarle and then, from July 1756 to January 1758, as deputy for Lord Loudon. He was energetic in the discharge of his duties, but aroused much animosity among the colonists by his zeal in looking after the royal quit-rents, and by exacting heavy fees for the issue of land-patents. It was his chief concern to prevent the French from building in the Ohio Valley a chain of forts connecting their settlements in the north with those on the Gulf of Mexico; and in the autumn of 1753 he sent George Washington to Fort Le Bceuf, a newly established French post at what is now Waterford, Pennsylvania, with a message demanding the withdrawal of the French from English territory. As the French refused to comply, Dinwiddie secured from the reluctant Virginia assembly a grant of £10,000 and in the spring of 1754 he sent Washington-with an armed force toward the forks of the Ohio river " to prevent the intentions of the French in settling those lands." In the latter part of May Washington encountered a French force at a spot called Great Meadows, near the Youghiogheny river, in what is now south- western Pennsylvania, and a skirmish followed which precipitated the French and Indian War. Dinwiddie was especially active at this time in urging the co-operation of the colonies against the French in the Ohio Valley; but none of the other governors, except William Shirley of Massachusetts, was then much con- cerned about the western frontier, and he could accomplish very little. His appeals to the home government, however, resulted in the sending of General Edward Braddock to Virginia with two regiments of regular troops; and at Braddock's call Dinwiddie and the governors of Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania and Maryland met at Alexandria, Virginia, in April 1755, and planned the initial operations of the war. Dinwiddie's administra- tion was marked by a constant wrangle with the assembly over money matters; and its obstinate resistance to military appro- priations caused him in 1754 and 1755 to urge the home govern- ment to secure an act of parliament compelling the colonies to raise money for their protection. In January 1758 he left Virginia and lived in England until his death on the 2 7th of July 1770 at Clifton, Bristol. The Official Records of Robert Dinwiddie, Lieutenant-Governor of Virginia (1751-1758), published in two volumes, at Richmond, Va., in 1883-1884, by the Virginia Historical Society, and edited by R. A. Brock, are of great value for the political history of the colonies in this period. DIO CASSIUS (more correctly CASSIUS Dio), COCCEIANUS (c. A.D. 150-235), Roman historian, was born at Nicaea in Bithynia. His father was Cassius Apronianus, governor of Dalmatia and Cilicia under Marcus Aurelius, and on his mother's side he was the grandson of Dio Chrysostom, who had assumed the surname of Cocceianus in honour of his patron the emperor Cocceius Nerva. After his father's death, Dio Cassius left Cilicia for Rome (180) and became a member of the senate. During the reign of Commodus, Dio practised as an advocate at the Roman bar, and held the offices of aedile and quaestor. He was raised to the praetorship by Pertinax (193), but did not assume office till the reign of Septimius Severus, with whom he was for a long time on the most intimate footing. By Macrinus he was entrusted with the administration of Pergamum and Smyrna; and on his return to Rome he was raised to the consulship about 220. After this he obtained the proconsulship of Africa, and again on his return was sent as legate successively to Dalmatia and Pannonia. He was raised a second time to the consulship by Alexander Severus, in 229; but on the plea of ill health soon afterwards retired to Nicaea, where he died. Before writing his history of Rome (Tco/uaoca or 'Pw^aiKri 'Icrropta), Dio Cassius had dedicated to the emperor Severus an account of various dreams and prodigies which had presaged his elevation to the throne (perhaps the 'Ev65ta attributed to Dio by Suidas), and had also written a biography of his fellow-countryman Arrian. The history of Rome, which DIOCESE— DIG CHRYSOSTOM 279 consisted of eighty books, — and, after the example of Livy, was divided into decades, — began with the landing of Aeneas in Italy, and was continued as far as the reign of Alexander Severus (222-235). Of this great work we 'possess books 36-60, contain- ing the history of events from 68 B.C.-A.D. 47; books 36 and 55-60 are imperfect. We also have part of 35 and 36-80 in the epitome of John Xiphilinus, an nth-century Byzantine monk. For the earlier period the loss of Dio's work is partly supplied by the history of Zonaras, who followed him closely. Numerous fragments are also contained in the excerpts of Constantine Porphyrogenitus. Dio's work is a most important authority for the history of the last years of the republic and the early empire. His industry was great and the various important offices he held afforded him ample opportunities for historical investigation. His style, though marred by Latinisms, is clearer than that of his model Thucydides, and his narrative shows the hand of the practised soldier and politician; the language is correct and free from affectation. But he displays a superstitious regard for miracles and prophecies; he has nothing to say against the arbitrary acts of the emperors, which he seems to take as a matter of course; and his work, although far more than a mere compila- tion, is not remarkable for impartiality, vigour of judgment or critical historical faculty. The best edition with notes is that of H. S. Reimar (1750-1752), new ed. by F. G. Sturz (1824-1836); text by I. Melber (1890 foil.), with account of previous editions, and U. P. Boissevain (1895— 1901) ; translation by H. B. Foster (Troy, New York, 1905 foil.), with full bibliography ; see also W. Christ, Geschichte der gnechischen Litteratur (1898), p. 675; E. Schwartz in Pauly-Wisspwa's Realencydopadie, iii. pt. 2 (1899) ; C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Studium der alien Geschichte (1895). DIOCESE (formed on Fr. diocese, in place of the Eng. form diocess — current until the ipth century — from Lat. dioecesis, med. Lat. variant diocesis, from Gr. 5uo'ua\ais, " house- keeping," " administration," SiouctLV, " to keep house," " to govern"), the sphere of a bishop's jurisdiction. In this, its sole modern sense, the word diocese (dioecesis) has only been regularly used since the gth century, though isola ted instances of such use occur so early as the 3rd, what is now known as a diocese having been till then usually called a parochia (parish). The Greek word 5iouo7ixreias (De nalura), of which considerable fragments are extant (chiefly in Simplicius) ; it is possible that he wrote also Against the Sophists and On the Nature of Man, to which the well-known fragment about the veins would belong; possibly these discussions were subdivisions of his great work. Fragments in F. Mullach, Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum, i. (1860); F. Panzerbieter, Diogents Apottoniates (1830), with philosophical dissertation; J. Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy (1892) ; H. Ritter and L. Preller, Historia philosophiae (4th ed., 1869), §§ 59-68; E. Krause, Diogenes von Apollonia (1909). See IONIAN SCHOOL. DIOGENES LAERTIUS (or LAERTIUS DIOGENES), the biographer of the Greek philosophers, is supposed by some to have received his surname from the town of Laerte in Cilicia, and by others from the Roman family of the Laertii. Of the circum- stances of his life we know nothing. He must have lived after Sextus Empiricus (c. A.D. 200), whom he mentions, and before Stephanus of Byzantium (c. A.D. 50x3), who quotes him. It is probable that he flourished during the reign of Alexander Severus (A.D. 222-235) an(l his successors. His own opinions are equally uncertain. By some he was regarded as a Christian; but it seems more probable that he was an Epicurean. The work by which he is known professes to give an account of the lives and sayings of the Greek philosophers. Although it is at best an uncritical and unphilosophical compilation, its value, as giving us an insight into the private life of the Greek sages, justly led Montaigne to exclaim that he wished that instead of one Laertius there had been a dozen. He treats his subject in two divisions which he describes as the Ionian and the Italian schools; the division is quite unscientific. The biographies of the former begin with Anaximander, and end with Clitomachus, Theophrastus and Chrysippus; the latter begins with Pythagoras, and ends with Epicurus. The Socratic school, with its various branches, .is classed with the Ionic; while the Eleatics and sceptics are treated under the Italic. The whole of the last book is devoted to Epicurus, and contains three most interesting letters addressed to Herodotus, Pythocles and Menoeceus. His chief authorities were Diocles of Magnesia's Cursory Notice ('Emdpo^ri) of Philo- sophers and Favorinus's Miscellaneous History and Memoirs. From the statements of Burlaeus (Walter Burley, a 14th-century monk) in his De iiila et rnoribus philosophorum the text of Diogenes seems to have been much fuller than that which we now possess. In addition to the Lives, Diogenes was the author of a work in verse on famous men, in various metres. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Editio princeps (1533) ; H. Hiibner and C. Jacobitz with commentary (1828-1833); C. G. Cobet (1850), text only. See F. Nietzsche, " De Diogenis Laertii fontibus " in Rheinisches Museum, xxiii., xxiv. (1868-1869) ; J. Freudenthal, " Zu Quellenkunde Diog. Lae'rt.," in Hellenistische Studien, iii. (1879); O. Maass, De biographis Graecis (1880); V. Egger, De fontibus Diog. La'ert. (1881). There is an English translation by C. D. Yonge in Bohn's Classical Library. DIOGENIANUS, of Heraclea on the Pontus (or in Caria), Greek grammarian, flourished during the reign of Hadrian. He was the author of an alphabetical lexicon, chiefly of poetical words, abridged from the great lexicon (Ilept y\taay birth, " Scytha natione." This may mean only that he was a native of the region bordering on the Black Sea, and does not necessarily imply that he was not of Greek origin. Such origin is ndicated by his name and by his thorough familiarity with the "Jreek language. His surname " Exiguus " is usually translated ' the Little," but he probably assumed it out of humility. He was living at Rome in the first half of the 6th century, and is usually spoken of as abbot of a Roman monastery. Cassiodorus, lowever, calls him simply " monk," while Bede calls him " abbot." But as itwas not unusual to apply the latter term to distinguished monks who were not heads of their houses, it is uncertain whether Dionysius was abbot in fact or only by courtesy. He was in high repute as a learned theologian, was profoundly versed in the Holy Scriptures and in canon law, and was also an accomplished mathematician and astronomer. We owe to him a collection of 401 ecclesiastical canons, including the apostolical canons and the decrees of the councils of Nicaea, Constantinople, Chalcedon and Sardis, and also a collection of the decretals of the popes from Siricius (385) to Anastasius II. (498). These collections, which had great authority in the West (see CANON LAW), were published by Justel in 1628. Dionysius did good service to his contempor- aries by his translations of many Greek works into Latin; and by these translations some works, the originals of which have perished, have been handed down to us. His name, however, is now perhaps chiefly remembered for his chronological labours. It was Dionysius who introduced the method of reckoning the Christian era which we now use (see CHRONOLOGY). His friend Cassiodorus depicts in glowing terms the character of Dionysius as a saintly ascetic, and praises his wisdom and simplicity, his accomplishments and his lowly-mindedness, his power of eloquent speech and his capacity of silence. He died at Rome, some time before A.D. 550. His works have been published in Migne, Patrologia Latina, tome 67 ; see especially A. Tardif , Hisloire des sources du droil canonique (Paris, 1887), and D. Pitra, Analecta novissima, Spicilegii Snlesmensis continualio, vol. i. p. 36 (Pads, 1885). DIONYSIUS HALICARNASSENSIS ("of Halicarnassus "), Greek historian and teacher of rhetoric, flourished during the reign of Augustus. He went to Rome after the termination of the civil wars, and spent twenty-two years in studying the Latin language and literature and preparing materials for his history. During this period he gave lessons in rhetoric, and enjoyed the society of many distinguished men. The date of his death is unknown. His great work, entitled TC^UCUK)? apxcuoKoyla (Roman Antiquities), embraced the history of Rome from the mythical period to the beginning of the first Punic War. It was divided into twenty books, — of which the first nine remain entire, the tenth and eleventh are nearly complete, and the remaining books exist in fragments in the excerpts of Constantine Porphyrogenitus and an epitome discovered by Angelo Mai in a Milan MS. The first three books of Appian, and Plutarch's Life of Camillus also embody much of Dionysius. His chief object was to reconcile the Greeks to the rule of Rome, by dilating upon the good qualities of their conquerors. According to him, history is philosophy teaching by examples, and this idea he has carried out from the point of view of the Greek rhetorician. But he has carefully consulted the best authorities, and his work and that of Livy are the only connected and detailed extant accounts of early Roman history. Dionysius was also the author of several rhetorical treatises, in which he shows that he has thoroughly studied the best Attic models: — The Art of Rhetoric (which is rather a collection of 286 DIONYSIUS PERIEGETES— DIONYSUS essays on the theory of rhetoric), incomplete, and certainly not all his work; The Arrangement of Words (Ilepi avvOfcreus ovonarbiv), treating of the combination of words according to the different styles of oratory; On Imitation (II«pi jiijuijcreus), on the best models in the different kinds of literature and the way in which they are to be imitated — a fragmentary work; Commentaries on the Attic Orators (Hepl TUP dpxaicov pT]T6ptiiv inronvr/naTUTiiol) , which, however, only deal with Lysias, Isaeus, Isocrates and (by way of supplement) Dinarchus ; On the admirable Style of Demosthenes (Ilepi rfjs Xexroc^s Arj/jo- aOivovs deivorijTos) ; and On the Character of Thucydides (IIe/»t TOV QovKvSLdov xapaKrrjpos), a detailed but on the whole an unfair estimate. These two treatises are supplemented by letters to Cn. Pompeius and Ammaeus (two). Complete edition by J. I. Reiske (1774-1777) ; of the Archaeologia by A. Kiessling and V. Prou (1886) and C. Jacoby (1885-1891); Opuscula by Usener and Radermacher (1899); Eng. translation by E. Spelman (1758). A full bibliography of the rhetorical works is given in W. Rhys Roberts's edition of the Three Literary Letters (1901) ; the same author published an edition of the De compositione verborum (1910, with trans.) ; see also M. Egger, Denysd'Halicarnasse (1902), a very useful treatise. On the sources of Dionysius see O. Bocksch, " De fontibus Dion. Halicarnassensis " in Leipziger Studien, xvii. (1895). Cf. also J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Class. Schol. i. (1906). DIONYSIUS PERIEGETES, author of a Tiepifijijaa rrjs olKovnivris, a description of the habitable world in Greek hexameter verse, written in a terse and elegant style. Nothing certain is known of the date or nationality of the writer, but there is some reason for believing that he was an Alexandrian, who wrote in the time of Hadrian (some put him as late as the end of the 3rd century). The work enjoyed a high degree of popularity in ancient times as a school-book; it was translated into Latin by Rufus Festus Avienus, and by the grammarian Priscian. The commentary of Eustathius is valuable. The best editions are by G. Bernhardy (1828) and C. Miiller (1861) in their Geographici Graeci minores; see also E. H. Bunbury, Ancient Geography (ii. p. 480), who regards the author as flourishing from the reign of Nero to that of Trajan, and U. Bernays, Studien zu Dion. Perieg. (1905). There are two old English translations: T. Twine (1572, black letter), J. Free (1789, blank verse). DIONYSIUS TELMAHARENSIS (" of Tell-Mahre "), patriarch or supreme head of the Syrian Jacobite Church during the years 818-848, was born at Tell-Mahre near Rakka (ar-Rakkah) on the Ballkh. He was the author of an important historical work, which has seemingly perished except for some passages quoted by Barhebraeus and an extract found by Assemani in Cod. Vat. 144 and published by him in the Bibliotheca orientalis (ii. 72-77). He spent his earlier years as a monk at the convent of I£en-neshre on the upper Euphrates; and when this monastery was destroyed by fire in 815, he migrated northwards to that of Kaisum in the district of Samosata. At the death of the Jacobite patriarch Cyriacus in 81 7, the church was agitated by a dispute about the use of the phrase " heavenly bread " in connexion with the Eucharist. An anti-patriarch had been appointed in the person of Abraham of Kartamin, who insisted on the use of the phrase in opposition to the recognized authorities of the church. The council of bishops who met at Rakka in the summer of 818 to choose a successor to Cyriacus had great difficulty in finding a worthy occupant of the patriarchal chair, but finally agreed on the election of Dionysius, hitherto known only as an honest monk who devoted himself to historical studies. Sorely against his will he was brought to Rakka, ordained deacon and priest on two successive days, and raised to the supreme ecclesiastical dignity en the ist of August. From this time he showed the utmost zeal in fulfilling the duties of his office, and undertook many journeys both within and without his province. The ecclesiastical schism continued unhealed during the thirty years of his patriarchate. The details of this contest, of his relations with the caliph Ma'mun, and of his many travels — including a journey to Egypt, on which he viewed with admiration the- great Egyptian monuments, — are to be found in the Ecclesiastical Chronicle of Barhebraeus.1 He died in 848, his last days having been especially 1 Ed. Abbeloos and Lamy, j. 343-386; cf. Wright, Syriac Literature, 196-200, and Chabot's introduction to his translation of the fourth part of the Chronicle of (pseudo) Dionysius. embittered by Mahommedan oppression. We learn from Michael the Syrian that his Annals consisted of two parts each divided into eight chapters, and covered a period of 260 years, viz. from the accession of the emperor Maurice (582-583) to the death of Theophilus (842-843). In addition to the lost Annals, Dionysius was from the time of Assemani until 1896 credited with the authorship of another im- portant historical work — a Chronicle, which in four parts narrates the history of the world from the creation to the year A.D. 774-775 and is preserved entire in Cod. Vat. 162. The first part (edited by Tullberg, Upsala, 1850) reaches to the epoch of Constantine the Great, and is in the main an epitome of the Eusebian Chronicle.2 The second part reaches to Theodosius II. and follows closely the Ecclesiastical History of Socrates; while the third, extending to Justin II., reproduces the second part of the History of John of Asia or Ephesus, and also contains the well-known chronicle attributed to Joshua the Stylite. The fourth part 3 is not like the others a compilation, but the original work of the author, and reaches to the year 774-775 — apparently the date when he was writing. On the publication of this fourth part by M. Chabot, it was discovered and clearly proved by Noldeke ( Vienna Oriental Journal, x. 160-170), and Nau (Bulletin critique, xvii. 321-327), who independently reached the same conclusion, that Assemani's opinion was a mistake, and that the chronicle in question was the work not of Dionysius of Tell-Mahre but of an earlier writer, a monk of the convent of Zuknln near Amid (Diarbekr) on the upper Tigris. Though the author was a man of limited intelligence and destitute of historical skill, yet the last part of his work at least has considerable value as a contemporary account of events during the middle period of the 8th century. (N. M ) DIONYSIUS THRAX (so called because his father was a Thracian) , the author of the first Greek grammar, flourished about 100 B.C. He was a native of Alexandria, where he attended the lectures of Aristarchus, and afterwards taught rhetoric in Rhodes and Rome. His fk\vri ypa.mj,a.Tuai, which we possess (though probably not in its original form) , begins with the defini- tion of grammar and its functions. Dealing next with accent, punctuation marks, sounds and syllables, it goes on to the different parts of speech (eight in number) and their inflections. No rules of syntax are given, and nothing is said about style. The authorship of Dionysius was doubted by many of the early middle- age commentators and grammarians, and in modern times its origin has been attributed to the oecumenical college founded by Constantine the Great, which continued in existence till 730. But there seems no reason for doubt; the great grammarians of imperial times (Apollonius Dyscolus and Herodian) were acquainted with the work in its present form, although, as was natural considering its popularity, additions and alterations may have been made later. The rexyrj was first edited by J. A. Fabricius from a Hamburg MS. and published in his Bibliolheca Graeca, vi. (ed. Harles). An Armenian translation, belonging to the 4th or 5th century, containing five additional chapters, was published with the Greek text and a French version, by M. Cirbied (i 830) . Dionysius also contributed much to the criticism and elucidation of Homer, and was the author of various other works — amongst them an account of Rhodes, and a collection of MeXerat (literary studies), to which the considerable fragment in the Stromala (v. 8) of Clement of Alexandria probably belongs. Editions, with scholia, by I. Bekker in Anecdota Graeca, ii. and G. Uhlig (1884), reviewed exhaustively by P. Egenolff in Bursian's Jahresbericht, vol. xlvi. (1888); Scholia, ed. A. Hilgard (1901); see also W. Horschelmann, De Dionysii Thracis interpretibus veteribus (1874) ; J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Classical Scholarship, i. (1906). DIONYSUS (probably = " son of Zeus," from Ai6s and vvaos, a Thracian word for " son "), in Greek mythology, originally a nature god of fruitfulness and vegetation, especially of the vine; hence, distinctively, the god of wine. The names Bacchus (Bdfcxos, in use among the Greeks from the sth 2 See the studies by Siegfried and Gelzer, Eusebii canonum epitome ex Dionysii Telmaharensis chronico petita (Leipzig, 1884). and von Gutschmid, Untersuchungen iiber die syrische Epitome der Eusebischen Canones (Stuttgart, 1886). 8 Text and translation by J.-B. Chabot (Paris, 1895). DIONYSUS 287 century), Sabazius, and Bassareus, are also Thracian names of the god. The two first (like lacchus, Bromius and Euios) have been connected with the loud " shout " ( = /3df ew = eiidfeo') of his worshippers, Bassareus with (laaaapai, the fox-skin garments of the Thracian Bacchanals. It has been suggested (J. E. Harriscn Prolegomena to Greek Religion) that Sabazius and Bromius= " beer-god," " god of a cereal intoxicant " (cf. Illyrian sabaia, and modern Greek PPU/J.L, " oats "), while W. Ridgeway (Classical Review, January 1896), comparing Apollo Smintheus, interprets Bassareus as " he who keeps away the foxes from the vineyards " (for various interpreta- tions of these and other cult-titles, see O. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, ii. pp. 1408, 1532, especially the notes). In Homer, notwithstanding the frequent mention of the use of wine, Dionysus is never mentioned as its inventor or introducer, nor does he appear in Olympus; Hesiod is the first who calls wine the gift of Dionysus. On the other hand, he is spoken of in the Iliad (vi. 130 foil., a passage belonging to the latest period of epic), as " raging," an epithet that indicates that in those comparatively early times the orgiastic character of his worship was recognized. In fact, Dionysus may be regarded under two distinct aspects: that of a popular national Greek god of wine and cheerfulness, and that of a foreign deity, worshipped with ecstatic and mysterious rites introduced from Thrace. Accord- ing to the usual tradition, he was born at Thebes — originally the local centre of his worship in Greece — and was the son of Zeus, the fertilizing rain god, and Semele, the daughter of Cadmus, a personification of earth. Before the child was mature, Zeus appeared to Semele at her request in his majesty as god of lightning, by which she was killed, but the infant was saved from the flames by Zeus (or Hermes). The epithet vepua6vi.os, originally referring to an ivy-crowned, pillar-shaped fetish of the god, afterwards gave rise to the legend of a miraculous growth of ivy " round the pillars " of the royal palace, whereby the infant Dionysus was preserved from the flames. Zeus took him up, enclosed him within his own thigh till he came to maturity, and then brought him to the light, so that he was twice born; it was to celebrate this double birth that the dilhyrambus (also used as an epithet of the god) was sung (see Elym. Mag. s.v.). It has been suggested that this is an allusion to the couvade of certain barbarous tribes, amongst whom it is customary, when a child is born, for the husband to take to his bed and receive medical treat- ment, as if he shared the pains of maternity (see COUVADE, and references there). Dionysus was then conveyed by Hermes to be brought up by the nymphs of Nysa, a purely imaginary spot, afterwards localized in different parts of the world, which claimed the honour of having been the birthplace of the god. As soon as Dionysus was grown up, he started on a journey through the world, to teach the cultivation of the vine and spread his worship among men. While so engaged he met with opposition, even in his own country, as in the case of Pentheus, king of Thebes, who opposed the orgiastic rites introduced by Dionysus among the women of Thebes, and, having been discovered watch- ing one of these ceremonies, was mistaken for some animal of the chase, and slam by his own mother (see A. G. Bather, Journ. Hell. Studies, xiv. 1894). A similar instance is that of Lycurgus, a Thracian king, from whose attack Dionysus saved himself by leaping into the sea, where he was kindly received by Thetis. Lycurgus was blinded by Zeus and soon died, or became frantic and hewed down his own son, mistaking him for a vine. At Orchomenus, the three daughters of Minyas refused to join the other women in their nocturnal orgies, and for this were trans- formed into birds (see AGRIONIA). These and similar stories point to the vigorous resistance offered to the introduction of the mystic rites of Dionysus, in places where an established religion already existed. On the other hand, when the god was received hospitably he repaid the kindness by the gift of the vine, as in the case of Icarius of Attica (see ERIGONE). The worship of Dionysus was actively conducted in Asia Minor, particularly in Phrygia and Lydia. Here, as Sabazius, he was associated with the-Phrygian goddess Cybele, and was followed in his expeditions by a thiasos (retinue) of centaurs and satyrs, with Pan and Silenus. In Lydia his triumphant return from India was celebrated by an annual festival on Mount Tmolus; in Lydia he assumed the long beard and long robe which were after- wards given him in his character of the " Indian Bacchus," the conqueror of the East, who, after the campaigns of Alexander, was reported to have advanced as far as the Ganges. The other incidents in which he appears in a purely triumphal character are his transforming into dolphins the Tyrrhene pirates who attacked him, as told in the Homeric hymn to Dionysus and represented on the monument of Lysicrates at Athens, and his part in the war of the gods against the giants. The former story has been connected with the sailors' custom of hanging vine leaves, ivy and bunches of grapes round the masts of vessels in honour of vintage festivals. The adventure with the pirates occurred on his voyage to Naxos, where he found Ariadne abandoned by Theseus. At Naxos Ariadne (probably a Cretan goddess akin to Aphrodite) was associated with Dionysus as his wife, by whom he was the father of Oenopion (wine-drinker), Staphylus (grape), and Euanthes (blooming}, and their marriage was annually celebrated by a festival. Having compelled all the world to recognize his divinity, he descended to the underworld to bring up his mother, who was afterwards worshipped with him under the name of Thycne ("the raging"), he himself being called after her Thyoneus. Another phase in the myth of Dionysus originated in observing the decay of vegetation in winter, to suit which he was supposed to be slain and to join the deities of the lower world. This phase of his character was developed by the Orphic poets, he having here the name of Zagreus (" torn in pieces "), and being no longer the Theban god, but a son of Zeus and Persephone. The child was brought up secretly, watched over by Curetes; but the jealous Hera discovered where he was, and sent Titans to the spot, who, finding him at play, tore him to pieces, and cooked and ate his limbs, while Hera gave his heart to Zeus. The tearing in pieces is referred by some to the torture experienced by the grape (Naturschmerz) when crushed for making into wine (cf . Burns's John Barleycorn) ; but it is better to refer it to the tearing of the flesh of the victim at sacrifices at which the deity or the sacred animal was slain, and sacramentally eaten raw (cf. the title &/j.T]ffrfis given to Dionysus in certain places, probably point- ing to human sacrifice.) To connect this with the myth of the Theban birth of Dionysus, it is said that Zeus gave the child's heart to Semele, or himself swallowed it and gave birth to the new Dionysus (called lacchus from his worshippers' cry of rejoicing), who was cradled and swung in a winnowing fan (Xki'os; see J. E. Harrison, Journ. Hellenic Studies, xxiii.), the swinging being supposed to act as a charm in awakening vegetation from its winter sleep. The conception of Zagreus, or the winter Dionysus, appears to have originated in Crete, but it was accepted also in Delphi, where his grave was shown, and sacrifice was secretly offered at it annually on the shortest day. The story is in many respects similar to that of Osiris. According to others, Zagreus was originally a god of the chase, who became a hunter of men and a god of the underworld, more akin to Hades than to Dionysus (see also TITANS). Dionysus further possessed the prophetic gift, and his oracle at Delphi was as important as that of Apollo. Like Hermes, Dionysus was a god of the productiveness of nature, and hence Priapus was one of his regular companions, while not only in the mysteries but in the rural festivals his symbol, the phallus, was carried about ostentatiously. His symbols from the animal kingdom were the bull (perhaps a totemistic attribute and identified with him), the panther, the lion, the tiger, the ass, the goat, and sometimes also the dolphin and the snake. His personal attributes are an ivy wreath, the thyrsus (a staff with pine cone at the end), the laurel, the pine, a drinking cup, and sometimes the horn of a bull on his forehead. Artistically he was represented mostly either as a youth of soft, nearly feminine form, or as a bearded and draped man, but frequently also as an infant, with reference to his birth or to his bringing up in " Nysa." His earliest images were of wood with the branches still attached in parts, whence he was called Dionysus Dendrites, an allusion to his 288 DIOPHANTUS— DIOPSIDE protection of trees generally (according to Pherecydes in C. W. Miiller, Frag. Hist. Grace, iv. p. 637, the word vvcra signified " tree "). It is suggested that the cult of Dionysus absorbed that of an old tree-spirit. He was figured also, like Hermes, in the form of a pillar or term surmounted by his head. For the connexion of Dionysus with Greek tragedy see DRAMA. See Farnell, Culls of the Greek Slates, v. (1910) ; also O. Rapp, Beziehungen dcs Dicnysuskultus zu Thrakien (1882); O. Ribbeck, Anfdnge und Entwickelung des Dionysuskultes in Attica (1869); A. Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religion, ii. p. 241 ; L. Dyer, The Gods in Greece (1891); J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of G.'eek Religion (1903); J. G. Frazcr, The Golden Bough, ii (1900), pp. 160, 291, who regards the bull and goat form of Dionysus as expressions of his proper character as a deity of vegetation; F. A. Voigt in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie; L. Preller, Gricchische Mythologie (4th ed. by C. Robert) ; F. Lenormant (s.v. " Bacchus ") in Darem- berg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites ; O. Kern in Pauly- Wissowa's Realencyclopadie (with list of cult titles); W. Pater, Greek Studies (1895); E. Rohde, Psyche, ii., who finds the origin of the Hellenic belief in the immortality of the soul ii: the " enthusi- astic " rites of the Thracian Dionysus, which lifted persons out of themselves, and exalted them to a fancied equality with the gods; O. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte. ii. (1907), who considers Boeotia, not Thrace, to have been the original home of Dionysus; P. Foucart, " Le Culte de Dionysos en Attique " in Memoires de I'Inslitut national de France, xxxvii. (1906), who finds the prototype of Dionysus in Egypt. The Great Dionysiak Myth (1877-1878) by R. Brown contains a wealth of material, but is weak in scholarship. For a striking survival of Dionysiac rites in Thrace (Bizye), see Dawkins, in J.H.S. (1906), p. 191. DIOPHANTUS, of Alexandria, Greek algebraist, probably flourished about the middle of the 3rd century. Not that this date rests on positive evidence. But it seems a fair inference from a passage of Michael Psellus (Diophantus, ed. P. Tannery, ii. p. 38) that he was not later than Anatolius, bishop of Laodicea from A.D. 270, while he is net quoted by Nicomachus (fl. c. A.D. 100), nor by Theon of Smyrna (c. A.D. 130), nor does Greek arithmetic as represented by these authors and by lamblichus (end of 3rd century) show any trace of his influence, facts which can only be accounted for by his being later than those arith- meticians at least who would have been capable of understanding him fully. On the other hand he is quoted by Theon of Alexandria (who observed an eclipse at Alexandria in A.D. 365); and his work was the subject of a commentary by Theon's daughter Hypatia (d . 4 1 5) . The A rithmetica, the greatest treatise on which the fame of Diophantus rests, purports to be in thirteen Books, but none of the Greek MSS. which have survived contain more than six (though one has the same text in seven Books). They contain, however, a fragment of a separate tract on Polygonal Numbers. The missing books were apparently lost early, for there is no reason to suppose that the Arabs who translated or commented on Diophantus ever had access to more of the work than we now have. The difference in form and content suggests that the Polygonal Numbers was not part of the larger work. On the other hand the Porisms, to which Diophantus makes three references (" we have it in the Porisms that . . . "), were probably not a separate book but were embodied in the Arithmelica itself, whether placed all together or, as Tannery thinks, spread over the work in appropriate places. The " Porisms " quoted are interesting propositions in the theory of numbers, one of which was clearly that the difference between two cubes can be resolved into the sum of two cubes. Tannery thinks that the solution of a complete quadratic promised by Diophantus himself (I. def. n), and really assumed later, was one of the Porisms. Among the great variety of problems solved are problems leading to determinate equations of the first degree in one, two, three or four variables, to determinate quadratic equations, and to inde- terminate equations of the first degree in one or more variables, which are, however, transformed into determinate equations by arbitrarily assuming a value for one of the required numbers, Diophantus being always satisfied with a rational, even if fractional, result and not re- quiring a solution in integers. But the bulk of the work consists of problems leading to indeterminate equations of the second degree, and these universally take the form that one or two (and never more) linear or quadratic functions of one variable x are to be made rational square numbers by finding a suitable value for X. A few problems lead to indeterminate equations of the third and fourth degrees, an easy indeterminate equation of the sixth degree being also found. The general type of problem is to find two, three or four numbers such that different expressions involving them in the first and second, and sometimes the third, degree are squares, cubes, partly squares and partly cubes, &c. E.g. To find three numbers such that the product of any two added to the sum of those two gives a square (III. 15, ed. Tannery); To find four numbers such that, if we take the square of their sum =*= any one of them singly, all the resulting numbersare squares (III. 22) ; To find two numbers such that their product ± their sum gives a cube (IV. 29) ; To find three squares such that their continued product added to any one of them gives a square (V. 21). Book VI. contains problems of finding rational right-angled triangles such that different functions of their parts (the sides and the area) are squares. A word is necessary on Diophantus' notation. He has only one symbol (written somewhat like a final sigma) for an unknown quantity, which he calls dpitfjuos (defined as " an undefined number of units ") ; the symbol may be a contraction of the initial letters ap, as Ar, K*', AKA, &c., are for the powers of the unknown (SWOMIS, square ; KU/SOS, cube; SwaMoSwaM's, fourth power, &c.). The only other algebraical symbol is /f» for minus ; plus being expressed by merely writing terms one after another. With one symbol for an unknown, it will easily be understood what scope there isforadroitassumptions, for the required numbers, of expressions in the one unknown which are at once seen to satisfy some of the conditions, leaving only one or two to be satisfied by the particular value of x to be determined. Often assumptions are made which lead to equations in * which cannot be solved " rationally," i.e. would give negative, surd or imaginary values; Diophantus then traces how each element of the equation has arisen, and formulates the auxiliary problem of de- termining how the assumptions must be corrected so as to lead to an equation (in place of the " impossible " one) which can be solved rationally. Sometimes his x has to do duty twice, for different unknowns, in one problem. In general his object is to reduce the final equation to a simple one by making such an assumption for the side of the square or cube to which the expression in * is to be equal as will make the necessary number of coefficients vanish. The book is valuable also for the propositions in the theory of numbers, other than the " porisms," stated or assumed in it. Thus Diophantus knew that no number of the form 8n+7 can be the sum of three squares. He also says that, if 2» + i is to be the sum of two squares, " n must not be odd " (i.e. no number of the form 4n+3, or 4n— I, can be the sum of two squares), and goes on to add, practically, the condition stated by Fermat, " and the double of it [n] increased by one, when divided by the greatest square which measures it, must not be divisible by a prime number of the form 471 — 1," except for the omission of the words " when divided . . . measures it." AUTHORITIES. — The first to publish anything on Diophantus in Europe was Rafael Bombelli, who embodied in his Algebra (1572) all the problems of Books L— IV. and some of Book V., interspersing them with his own problems. Next Xylander (Wilhelm Holzmann) published a Latin translation (Basel, 1575), an altogether meri- torious work, especially having regard to the difficulties he had with the text of his MS. The Greek text was first edited by C. G. Bachet (Diophanti Alexandrini arilhmelicorum libri sex, et de numeris multangulis liber unus, nunc primum graece et laline editi atque absolutissimis commentaries illustrate . . . Lutetiae Parisiorum . . . MDCXXI.). A reprint of 1670 is only valuable because it contains P. de Fermat's notes; as far as the Greek text is concerned it is much inferior to the other. There are two German translations, one by Otto Schulz (1822) and the other by G. Wertheim (Leipzig, 1890), and an English edition in modern notation (T. L. Heath, Diophantos of Alexandria: A Study in the History of Greek Algebra (Cambridge, 1885). The Greek text has now been definitively edited (with Latin translation, Scholia, &c.) by P. Tannery (Teubner, vol. i., 1893; vol. ii., 1895). General accounts of Diophantus' work are to be found in H. Hankel and M. Cantor's histories of mathematics, and more elaborate analyses are those of Nesselmann (Die Algebra der Gricchen, Berlin, 1842) and G. Loria (Le Scienze esatte nell' antica Grecia, libra v., Modena, 1902, pp. 95-158). (T. L. H.) DIOPSIDE, an important member of the pyroxene group of rock-forming minerals. It is a calcium-magnesium metasilicate, CaMg (Si03)2, and crystallizes in the monoclinic system. Usually some iron is present replacing magnesium, and when this pre- dominates there is a passage to hedenbergite, CaFo(SiO3)2, a closely allied variety of monoclinic pyroxene. These are distin- guished from augite by containing little or no aluminium. Diopside is colourless, white, pale green to dark green or nearly black in colour, the depth of the colour depending on the amount of iron present. The specific gravity and optical constants also vary with the chemical composition; the sp. gr. of diopside is 3-2, increasing to 3-6 in hedenbergite, and the angle of optical extinction in the plane of symmetry varies between 38° and 47° in the two extremes of the series. Crystals are usually prismatic in habit with a rectangular cross-section as shown in the figure: the angle between the prism faces m, parallel to which there are perfect cleavages, is 92° .50'. DIOPTASE— DIP 289 pyroxene-granites, the characteristic Several varieties, depending on differences in structure and chemical composition, have been distinguished, viz. coccolite (from KOK.XOS, a grain), a granular variety; salite or sahlite, from Sala in Sweden; malacolite; diallage; violane, a lamellar variety of a dark violet-blue colour; chrome-diopside, a bright green variety containing a small amount of chromium; and many others. Belonging to the same series with diopside and hedenbergite is a manganese pyroxene, known as schefferite, which has the composition (Ca, Mg) (Fe, Mn) (SiO3)2. Diopside is the characteristic pyroxene of metamorphic rocks, occurring especially in crystalline limestones, and often in association with garnet and epidote. It is also an essential constituent of some diorites and a few other igneous rocks, but pyroxene of this class of rocks is augite. Fine transparent crystals of a pale green colour occur, with crystals of yellowish-red garnet (hessonite) and chlorite, in veins traversing serpentine in the Ala valley near Turin in Piedmont: a crystal of this variety (" alalite ") is represented in the accompanying figure. These, as well as the long, transparent, bottle-green crystals from the Zillerthal in the Tyrol, have occasionally been cut as gem-stones. Good crystals have been found also at Achmatovsk near Zlatoust in the Urals, Traversella near Ivrea in Piedmont (" traversellite "), Nordmark in Sweden, Monroe in New York, Burgess in Lanark county, Ontario, and several other places: at Nordmark the large, rectangular black crystals occur with magnetite in the iron mines. (L. J. S.) DIOPTASE, a rare mineral species consisting of acid copper orthosilicate, H2CuSiO4, crystallizing in the parallel-faced hemi- hedral class of the rhombohedral system. The degree of sym- metry is the same as in the mineral phenacite, there being only an axis of triad symmetry and a centre of symmetry. The crystals have the form of a hexagonal prism m terminated by a rhombohedron r, the alter- nate edges between these being sometimes re- placed by the faces of a rhombohedron s. The faces are striated parallel to the edges between r, s and m. There are perfect cleavages parallel to the faces of a rhombohedron which truncate the polar edges of r: from the cleav- age cracks internal reflections are often to be seen in the crystal, and it was on account of this that the mineral was named dioptase, by R. J. Hatiy in 1797, from Bio-n-Tevtiv, " to see into." The crystals vary from transparent to translucent with a vitreous lustre, and are bright emerald-green in colour; they thus have a certain resemblance to emerald, hence the early name emerald-copper (German, Kupfer-Smaragd). Hardness 5; sp. gr. 3-3. The mineral is decomposed by hydrochloric acid with separation of gelatinous silica. At a red heat it blackens and gives off water. The fine crystals from Mount Altyn-Tube on the western slopes of the Altai Mountains in the Kirghiz Steppes, Asiatic Russia, line cavities in a compact limestone; they were first sent to Europe in 1785 by Achir Mahmed, a Bucharian merchant, after whom the mineral has been named archirite. More recently, in 1890, good crystals of similar habit, but rather darker in colour, have been found with quartz and malachite near Komba in the French Congo. As drusy crystalline crusts it has been found at Copiapo in Chile and in Arizona. Dioptase has occasionally been used as a gem-stone, especially in Russia and Persia; it has a fine colour, but a low degree of hardness and the transparency is imperfect. (L. J. S.) DIORITE (from the Gr. Siopi^iv to distinguish, from Sid through, opos, a boundary), in petrology, the name given by Hatty to a family of rocks of granitic texture, composed of plagioclase felspar and hornblende. As they are richer in the dark VIII. IO coloured ferromagnesian minerals they are usually grey or dark grey, and h'ave a higher specific gravity than granite. They also rarely show visible quartz. But there are diorites of many kinds, as the name applies rather to a family of rocks than tota single species. Some contain biotite, others augite or hypersthene; many have a small amount of quartz. Orthoclase is rarely entirely absent, and when it is fairly common the rock becomes a tonalite; in this way a transition is furnished between diorites and granites. It is rare to find the pure types of " hornblende- diorite," " augite-diorite," &c., but in most cases the rocks contain two or more ferromagnesian silicates, and such combina- tions as " hornblende-biotite-diorite " are commonest in nature. The felspar of the diorites ranges in composition from oligoclase to labradorite, and is often remarkably zonal, the external layers being more alkaline than the internal. Small fluid enclosures and black grains, probably iron oxides, often occur in it in great numbers. Weathering produces epidote, calcite, sericite and kaolin. The biotite is always brown or yellow; the hornblende usually green, but sometimes brown or yellowish brown in those diorites which have affinities to lamprophyres. The ailgite is nearly always green but sometimes has a reddish tinge; bronzite and hypersthene have their usual green and brown shades. Apatite, iron oxides and zircon are almost invariably present; sphene, garnet and orthite are occasionally observed; calcite, chlorite, muscovite, kaolin, epidote and bastite are secondary. The structure is not essentially different from that of granite. The ferromagnesian minerals crystallize comparatively early and have some idiomorphism; the felspar usually follows and only in part shows good crystalline outlines. Orthoclase and quartz, if present, are last to separate out, and fill the spaces between the other minerals; often they interpenetrate to form micropegmatite. In many diorites the plagioclase felspar has crystallized before the hornblende, which consequently has less perfect outlines and forms irregular plates which enclose sharply formed individuals of felspar. This produces the ophitic structure (very common also in the dolerites). More rarely biotite and augite exhibit the same relations to the plagioclase. Orbicular structure also occasionally appears in these rocks; in fact the orbicular diorite of Corsica (also called " Napoleonite " or " Corsite ") was for a long time the best-known example of this structure. The rock seems composed of spheroids, about an inch in diameter, surrounded by a smaller amount of dark-coloured dioritic matrix. The spheroids have a radiate structure and often show concentric dark and pale shells. These consist of hornblende (dark green) and basic plagioclase felspar, labradorite and bytownite (grey or nearly white). Occasionally diorites have a parallel banded or foliated structure, but these must not be confounded with the epidiorites, -which are metamorphic rocks and also have a conspicuous foliation. Diorites must also be distinguished from hornblendic gabbros, which contain more basic felspars, rarely quartz and occasionally olivine; but the boundary lines between diorites and gabbros are admittedly somewhat vague, e.g. some authors would call rocks gabbro which others would regard as augite-diorite. The horn- blendites differ from the diorites in containing little felspar, and consist principally of hornblende. Among varietal designations given to rocks of the diorite family are " banatite " for an augite- diorite with or without quartz (from the Schemnitz district), " granodiorite " for a quartz-hornblende-diorite (essentially the same as tonalite) from California, &c., " adamellite " for the quartz-mica-diorite or tonalite of Monte Adamello (Alps), " ornite " for a hornblende-diorite rich in felspar, from Sweden. (J. S. F.) DIP (Old Eng. dyppan, connected with the common Teutonic root seen in " deep "), the angle which the magnetic needle makes with the horizon. A freely suspended magnetic needle will not maintain a horizontal position except at the magnetic equator. Over the N. magnetic pole the north-seeking end of the needle points directly downwards and dips at an intermediate angle at intermediate distances between the magnetic poles and equator. There are secular progressive variations of dip as well as of declination and the maxima are independent of each other. In 5 290 DIPHENYL— DIPHTHERIA 1576 the dip at London was 71° 50', 'in 1720 (max.) 74° 42', in 1900 67° 9'. (For Dip Circle see INCLINOMETER.) DIPHENYL (phenyl benzene), CeHs.CeHs, a hydrocarbon found in that fraction of the coal-tar distillate boiling between 240-300° C., from which it may be obtained by warming with sulphuric acid, separating the acid layer and strongly cooling the undissolved ofl. It may be artificially prepared by passing benzene vapour through a red-hot tube; by the action of sodium on brombenzene dissolved in ether; by the action of stanncus chloride on phenyldiazonium chloride; or by the addition of solid phenyldiazonium sulphate to warm benzene (R. Mohlau, Berichle, 1893, 26, 1997) C6H5N2-HSO4+C6H6=H2SO4-r-N2+C6H5-C6Hr,. L. Gattermann (Berichte, 1890, 23, 1226) has also prepared it by the decomposition of a solution of phenyldiazonium sulphate with alcohol and copper powder. It crystallizes in plates (from alcohol) meltingat 70-71° C. and boiling at 2 S4°C. It is oxidized by chromic acid in glacial acetic acid solution to benzoic acid, dilute nitric acid and chromic acid mixture being without effect. It is not reduced by hydriodic acid and phosphorus, but sodium in the presence of amyl alcohol reduces it to tetrahydrodiphenyl Many substitution derivatives are known: the monosubstitntion derivatives being capable of existing in three isomeric forms. Of the disubstitution derivatives the most important are those derived from diparadiaminodiphenyl or benzidine (q.v.). NH2 _ L. Orthoaminodiphenyl, <^ _ ^>~, is prepared by the action of bromine and caustic soda on orthophenylbenzamide (R. Hirsch, Berichte, 1892, 25, 1974); when its vapour is passed over heated lime, carbazol (q.v.) is formed. NH2 NH2 _l I Diorthodiaminodiphenyl,<^ _ ^> — <^ _ ^>,isobtainedbythereduc- tion of the corresponding nitro compound (obtained by the action of ethyl nitrite at o° C. on metadinitrobenzidine hydrpchloride). Its tetrazo compound on reduction gives a hydrazine which, on warming with hydrochloric acid at 150° C., decomposes into ammonium N = N chloride and phenazone,<^~^> — (Ci2H8N2). One of the most important derivatives of diphenyl, from the theoretical point of view, is diphenic acid or diorthodiphenyl carboxylic acid, which can be obtained from_ diparadiaminodiphenyldiorthocarboxylic acid, ~ NH2,orfromphenanthrene(2.t).), the consti- H2N <^~ HOOC CO See BENZIDINE for diparadiamino- OOH tution of which it determines. diphenyl. DIPHILUS, of Sinope, poet of the new Attic comedy and contemporary of Menander (342-291 B.C.). Most of his plays were written and acted at Athens, but he led a wandering life, and died at Smyrna. He was on intimate terms with the famous courtesan Gnathaena (Athenaeus xiii. pp. 579, 583). He is said to have written 100 comedies, the titles of fifty of which are preserved. He sometimes acted himself. To judge from the imitations of Plautus. (Casino from the KXij/MUjuepot, Asinaria from the 'Ovaj6s, Rttdens from some other play), he was very skilful in the construction of his plots. Terence also tells us that he introduced into the Adelphi (ii. i) a scene from the ~2vva.iro6vr)- (TKovres, which had been omitted by Plautus in his adaptation (Commorientes) of the same play. The style of Diphilus was simple .and natural, and his language on the whole good Attic; he paid great attention to versification, and was supposed to have invented a peculiar kind of metre. The ancients were undecided whether to class him among the writers of the New or Middle comedy. In his fondness for mythological subjects (Hercules, Theseus) and his introduction on the stage (by a bold ana- chronism) of the poets Archilochus and Hipponax as rivals of Sappho, he approximates to the spirit of the latter. Fragments in H. Koch, Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta, ii. ; see J. Denis, La Comedie grecque (1886), ii. p. 414; R. W. Bond in Classical Review (Feb. 1910, with trans, of Emporos fragm.). DIPHTHERIA (from 5i6fpa, a skin or membrane), the term applied to an acute infectious disease, which is accompanied by a membranous exudation on a mucous surface, generally on the tonsils and back of the throat or pharynx. In general the symptoms at the commencement of an attack of diphtheria are comparatively slight, being those commonly accompanying a cold, viz. chilliness and depression. Sometimes more severe phenomena usher in the attack, such as vomiting and diarrhoea. A slight feeling of uneasiness in the throat is ex- perienced along with some stiffness of the back of the neck. When looked at the throat appears reddened and somewhat swollen, particularly in the neighbourhood of the tonsils, the soft palate and upper part of pharynx, while along with this there is tender- ness and swelling of the glands at the angles of the jaws. The affection of the throat spreads rapidly, and soon the character- istic exudation appears on the inflamed surface in the form of greyish- white specks or patches, increasing in extent and thickness untilayellowish-looking false membrane isformed. This deposit is firmly adherent to the mucous membrane beneath or in- corporated with it, and if removed leaves a raw, bleeding, ulcerated surface, upon which it is reproduced in a short period. The appearance of the exudation has been compared to wet parchment or washed leather, and it is more or less dense in texture. It may cover the whole of the back of the throat, the cavity of the mouth, and the posterior nares, and spread down- wards into the air-passages on the one hand and into the ali- mentary canal on the other, while any wound on the surface of the body is liable to become covered with it. This membrane is apt to be detached spontaneously, and as it loosens it becomes decomposed, giving a most offensive and characteristic odour to the breath. There is pain and difficulty in swallowing, but unless the disease has affected the larynx no affection of the breathing. The voice acquires a snuffling character. When the disease invades the posterior nares an acrid, fetid discharge, and some- times also copious bleeding, takes place from the nostrils. Along with these local phenomena there is evidence of constitutional disturbance of the most severe character. There may be no great amount of fever, but there is marked depression and loss of strength. The pulse becomes small and frequent, the countenance pale, the swelling of the glands of the neck increases, which, along with the presence of albumen in the urine, testifies to a condition of blood poisoning. Unless favourable symptoms emerge death takes place within three or four days or sooner, either from the rapid extension of the false membrane into the air-passage, giving rise to asphyxia, or from a condition of general collapse, which is sometimes remarkably sudden. In cases of recovery the change for the better is marked by an arrest in the extension of the false membrane, the detachment and expectoration of that already formed, and the healing of the ulcerated mucous membrane beneath. Along with this there is a general improvement in the symptoms, the power of swallowing returns, and the strength gradually increases, while the glandular enlargement of the neck diminishes, and the albumen disappears from the urine. Recovery, however, is generally slow, and it is many weeks before full convalescence is established. Even, however, where diphtheria ends thus favourably, the peculiar sequelae already mentioned are apt to follow, generally within a period of two or three weeks after all the local evidence of the disease has dis- appeared. These secondary affections may occur after mild as well as after severe attacks, and they are principally in the form of paralysis affecting the soft palate and pharynx, causing difficulty in swallowing with regurgitation of food through the nose, and giving a peculiar nasal character to the voice. There are, how- ever, other forms of paralysis occurring after diphtheria, especially that affecting the muscles of the eye, which produces a loss of the power of accommodation and consequent impairment of vision. There may be, besides, paralysis of both legs, and occasionally also of one side of the body (hemiplegia). These symptoms, however, after continuing for a variable length of time, almost always ultimately disappear. Under the name of the Malum Egyptiacum, Aretaeus in the 2nd century gives a minute description of a disease which in all its essential characteristics corresponds to diphtheria. In the i6th, 1 7th and i8th centuries epidemics of diphtheria appear to have DIPHTHERIA 291 frequently prevailed in many parts of Europe, particularly in Holland, Spain, Italy, France, as well as in England, and were described by physicians belonging to those countries under various titles; but it is probable that other diseases of a similar nature were included in their descriptions, and no accurate account of this affection had been published till M. Bretonneau of Tours in 1821 laid his celebrated treatise on the subject before the French Academy of Medicine. By him the term La Diphtlterite was first given to the disease. Great attention has been paid to diphtheria in recent years, with some striking results. Its cause and nature have been definitely ascertained, the conditions which influence its pre- valence have been elucidated, and a specific " cure " has been found. In the last respect it occupies a unique position at the present time. In the case of several other zymotic diseases much has been done by way of prevention, little or nothing for treat- ment; in the case of diphtheria prevention has failed, but treat- ment has been revolutionized by the introduction of antitoxin, which constitutes the most important contribution to practical medicine as yet made by bacteriology. The exciting cause of diphtheria is a micro-organism, identified by Klebs and Loffler in 1883 (see PARASITIC DISEASES). It Causation ^as ^een sh°wn by experiment that the symptoms of diphtheria, including the after-effects, are produced by a toxin derived from the micro-organisms which lodge in the air- passages and multiply in a susceptible subject. The natural history of the organism outside the body is not well understood, but there is some reason to believe that it lives in a dormant condition in suitable soils. Recent research does not favour the theory that it is derived from defective drains or " sewer gas," but these things, like damp and want of sunlight, probably promote its spread, by lowering the health of persons exposed to them, and particularly by causing an unhealthy condition of the throat, rendering it susceptible to the contagion. Defective drainage, or want of drainage, may also act, by polluting the ground, and so providing a favourable soil for the germ, though it is to be noted that " the steady increase in the diphtheria mortality has coincided, in point of time, with steady improve- ment in regard of such sanitary circumstances as water supply, sewerage, and drainage " (Thome Thorne). Cats and cows are susceptible to the diphtheritic bacillus, and fowls, turkeys and other birds have been known to suffer from a disease like diphtheria, but other domestic animals appear to be more or less resistant or immune. In human beings the mere presence of the germ is not sufficient to cause disease; there must also be susceptibility, but it is not known in what that consists. Indi- viduals exhibit all degrees of resistance up to complete immunity. Children are far more susceptible than adults, but even children may have the Klebs-Loffler bacillus in their throats without showing any symptoms of illness. Altogether there are many obscure points about this micro-organism, which is apt to assume a puzzling variety of forms. Nevertheless its identification has greatly facilitated the diagnosis of the disease, which was previ- ously a very difficult matter, often determined in an arbitrary fashion on no particular principles. Diphtheria, as at present understood, may be defined as sore throat in which the bacillus is found; if it cannot be found, the illness is regarded as something else, unless the clinical symptoms are quite unmistakable. One result of this is a large transference of registered mortality from other throat affections, and particu- larly from croup, to diphtheria. Croup, which never had a well- defined application, and is not recognized by the College of Physicians as a synonym for diphtheria, appears to be dying out from the medical vocabulary in Great Britain. In France the distinction has never been recognized. Diphtheria is endemic in all European and American countries, and is apparently increasing, but the incidence varies greatly. It is far more prevalent .on the continent than in England, and still more so in the United States and Canada. The following table, compiled from figures collected by Dr Newsholme, shows how London compares with some foreign cities. The figures give the mean death-rate from Mean Death-Rales from Diphtheria and Croup per Million living. New York 1610 Munich . 990 Chicago 1400 Milan Buenos Aires 1360 Florence . 830 Trieste 1300 Vienna . 770 Dresden . 1290 Stockholm 720 Berlin IIOO St Petersburg 650 Boston 1160 Moscow . 640 Marseilles . 1130 Paris 630 Christiania 1090 Hamburg 490 Budapest . 1880 London . 386 Preva- lence. diphtheria and croup for the term of years during which records have been' kept. The period varies in different cases, and there- fore the comparison is only a rough one. There is comparatively little diphtheria in India and Japan, but in Egypt, the Cape and Australasia it prevails very extensively among the urban populations. The mortality varies greatly from year to year in all countries and cities. In Berlin, for instance, it has oscillated between a maximum of 2420 in 1883 and a minimum of 340 in 1896; in New York between 2760 in 1877 and 680 in 1868; in Christiania between 3290 in 1887 and 170 in 1871. In some American ci ties still higher maxima have been recorded. In other words, diphtheria, though always endemic, exhibits at times a great increase of activity, and becomes epidemic or even pandemic. The following table for 1850-99 shows fairly well the periodical rise and fall in England and Wales. Diphtheria and croup are given both separately and together, showing the increasing transference from one to the other of late years. Diphtheria was first entered separately in the year 1859. Deaths from Diphtheria and Croup per Million living in England and Wales. Years. Diphtheria. Croup. Diphtheria and Croup. 1859 517 286 803 i860 261 220 481 1861-70 185 246 431 1871-80 121 1 68 289 1881-90 163 144 3°7 1891-95 254 70 324 1896-97 269 43 312 1898 244 27 271 1899 293 32 325 The combined figures for diphtheria and croup in later years are : — (1900) 316; (1901) 296; (1902) 255; (1903) 195; (1904) 184; (1905) !74: (1906) 190; (1907) 175; (1908) 166. Several facts are roughly indicated by the table. It begins with an extremely severe epidemic, which has not been ap- proached since. Then follows a fall extending over twenty years. On the whole this diminution was progressive, though not in reality so steady as the decennial grouping makes it appear, being interrupted by smaller oscillations in single years and groups of years. Still the main fact holds good. After 1880 an opposite movement began, likewise interrupted by minor oscillations, but on the whole progressive, and culminating in the year 1893 with a death-rate of 389, the highest recorded since 1865. After 1896 a marked fall again took place. This is partly accounted for by the use of antitoxin, which only began on a considerable scale in 1895, and did not become general until a year or two lateral least. Its effects were only then fully felt. The registrar- general's returns record mortality, not prevalence — that is to say, the number of deaths, not of cases. On the whole, we get clear evidence of an epidemic rise and fall, which may serve to dispose of some erroneous conceptions. The belief, held until recently, that diphtheria is steadily increasing in Great Britain was obviously premature; it did rise over a series of years, but has now ebbed again. Moreover, the general prevalence during the last thirty years has been notably less than in the previous twelve years. Yet it is during years since 1870 that compulsory education has been in existence and main drainage chiefly carried out. It follows that neither school attendance nor sewer gas exercises such an important influence over the epidemicity of diphtheria as some other conditions. 292 DIPHTHERIA What are those conditions ? Dr Newsholme has advanced the theory, based on an elaborate examination of statistics in various countries, that the activity of diphtheria is connected with the rainfall, and he lays down the following general induction from the facts: " Diphtheria only becomes epidemic in years in which the rainfall is deficient, and the epidemics are on the largest scale when three or more years of deficient rainfall follow each other." He points out that the comparative rarity of diphtheria in tropical climates, which are characterized by excessive rainfall, and its greater prevalence in continental than in insular countries, confirm his theory. His observations seem quite contrary to the view laid down by various authorities, and hitherto accepted, that wet weather favours diphtheria. The two, however, are not irreconcilable. The key to the problem — and possibly to many other epidemiological problems — may perhaps be found in the movements of the subsoil water. It has been suggested by different observers, and particularly by Mr M. A. Adams, who has for some years made a study of the subsoil water at Maidstone, that there is a definite connexion between it and diphtheria. In England the underground water normally reaches its lowest level at the end of the summer; then it gradually rises, fed by percola- tion from the winter rains, reaching a maximum level about the end of March, after which it gradually sinks. This maximum level Mr Adams calls the annual spring cleaning of the soil, and his observations go to show that when the normal movement is arrested or disturbed, diphtheria becomes active. Now that is what happens in periods of drought. The underground water does not rise to its usual level, and there is no spring cleaning. The hypothesis, then, is this: The diphtheria bacillus lives in the soil, but is " drowned out " in wet periods by the subsoil water. In droughty ones it lives and nourishes in the warm, dry soil; then when rain comes, it is driven out with the ground air into the houses. This process will continue for some time, so that epidemic outbreaks may well seem to be associated with wet. But they begin in drought, and are stopped by long-continued periods of copious rainfall. This is quite in keeping with the observed fact that diphtheria is a seasonal disease, always most prevalent in the last quarter of the year. The summer develops the poison in the soil, the autumnal rains bring it out. The fact that the same cause does not produce the same effect in tropical countries may perhaps be explained by the extreme violence of the alternations, which are too great to suit this particular micro-organism, or possibly the regularity of the rainfall prevents its development. The foregoing hypothesis is supported by a good deal of evidence, and notably by the concurrence of the great epidemic or pandemic prevalence in Great Britain, culminating in 1859, witha prolonged period of exceptionallydeficient rainfall. Again, the highest death-rate registered since 1865 was in 1893, a year of similarly exceptional drought. But it is no more than an hypothesis, and the fate of former theories is a warning against drawing conclusions from statistics and records extending over too short a period of time. The warning is particularly necessary in connexion with meteorological conditions, which are apt to upset all calculations. As it happens, a period of deficient rain- fall even greater than that of 1854-18-58 has recently been experienced. It began in 1893 and culminated in the extra- ordinary season of 1899. The dry years were 1893, 1895, 1896, 1898 and 1899, and the deficiency of rainfall was not made good by any considerable excess in 1894 and 1897. It surpassed all records at Greenwich; streams and wells ran dry all over the country, and the flow of the Thames and Lea was reduced to the lowest point ever recorded. There should be, according to the theory, at least a very large increase in the prevalence of diphtheria. To a certain extent it has held good. There was a marked rise in 1893-1896 over the preceding period, though not so large as might have been expected, but it was followed by a decided fall in 1897-1898. The experience of 1898 contradicts, that of 1899 supports, the theory. Further light is therefore required; but perhaps the failure of the recent drought to produce results at all comparable with the epidemic of the 'fifties may be due to variations in the resistance of the disease, which differs widely in different years. It may also be due in part to improved sanitation, to the notification of infectious diseases, the use of isolation hospitals, which have greatly developed in quite recent years, and, lastly, to the beneficial effects of antitoxin. If these be the real explanations, then scientific and administrative work has not been thrown away after all in combating this very painful and fatal enemy of the young. The conditions governing the general prevalence of diphtheria, and its epidemic rise and fall, which have just been discussed, do not touch the question of actual dissemination. The contagion is spread by means which are in constant operation, whether the general amount of disease is great or small. Water, so important in some epidemic diseases, is believed not to be one of them, though a negative proof based on absence of evidence cannot be accepted as conclusive. On the other hand, milk is undoubtedly a means of dissemination. Several outbreaks of an almost explosive character, besides minor extensions of disease from one place to another, have been traced to this cause. Milk may be contaminated in various ways — at the dairy, for instance, or on the way to customers, — but several cases, investigated by the officers of the Local Government Board and others, have been thought to point to infection from cows suffering from a diphtheritic affection of the udder. The part played by aerial convection is undetermined, but there is no reason to suppose that the infecting material is conveyed any distance by wind or air currents. Instances which seem to point to the contrary may be explained in other ways, and particularly by the fact, now fully demonstrated, that persons suffering from minor sore throats, not recognized as diphtheria, may carry the disease about and introduce it into other localities. Human intercourse is the most important means of dissemination, the contagion passing from person to person either by actual contact, as in kissing, or by the use of the same utensils and articles, or by mere proximity. In the last case the germs must be supposed to be air-borne for short distances, and to enter with the breath. Rooms appear liable to become infected by the presence of diphtheritic cases, and so spread the disease among other persons using them. At a small outbreak which occurred at Darenth Asylum in 1898 the infection clung obstinately to a particular ward, in spite of the prompt removal of all cases, and fresh ones continued to occur until it had been thoroughly disinfected, after which there were no more. The part played by human inter- course in fostering the spread of the disease suggests that it would naturally be more prevalent in urban communities, where people congregate together more, than in rural ones. This is at variance with the conclusion laid down by some authorities, that in this country diphtheria used to affect chiefly the sparsely populated districts, and though tending to become more urban, is still rather a rural disease. That view is based upon an analysis of the distribution by counties in England and Wales from 1855 to 1880, and it has been generally accepted and repeated until it has become a sort of axiom. Of course the facts of distribution are facts, but the general inference drawn from them, that diphtheria peculiarly affects the country and is changing its habitat, may be erroneous. Dr Newsholme, by taking a wider basis of experience, has arrived at the opposite conclusion, and finds that diphtheria does not, in fact, flourish more in sparsely-peopled districts. " When a sufficiently long series of years is taken," he says, " it appears clear that there is more diphtheria in urban than in rural communities." The rate for London has always been in excess of that for the whole of England and Wales. Its distribution at any given time is determined by a number of circumstances, and by their incidental co-operation, not by any property or predilection for town or country inherent in the disease. There are the epidemic conditions of soil and rainfall, previously discussed, which vary widely in different localities at different times; there is the steady influence of regular intercourse, and the accidental element of special distribution by various means. These things may combine to alter the incidence. In short, accident plays too great a part to permit any general conclusion to be drawn from distribution, except from a very wide basis of experience. The variations are very great and sometimes very sudden. For instance, the county of London for some years headed the list, DIPHTHERIA 293 having a far higher death-rate than any other. In 1 898 it dropped to the fifth place, and was surpassed by Rutland, a purely rural county, which had the lowest mortality of all in the previous year and very nearly the lowest for the previous ten years. Again, South Wales, which had had a low mortality for some years, suddenly came into prominence as a diphtheria district, and in 1898 had the highest death-rate in the country. Staffordshire and Bedfordshire show a similar rise, the one an urban, the other a rural, county. All the northern counties, both rural and urban, — namely, Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, Westmorland, Lancashire, Yorkshire, Cheshire and Lincolnshire, — had a very- high rate in 1861-1870, and a low one in 1896-1898. It is obviously unsafe to draw general conclusions from distribution data on a small scale. Diphtheria appears to creep about very slowly, as a rule, from place to place, and from one part of a large town to another; it forsakes one district and appears in another; occasionally it attacks a fresh locality with great energy, pre- sumably because the local conditions are exceptionally favourable, which may be due to the soil or, possibly, to the susceptibility of the inhabitants, who are, so to speak, virgin ground. But through it all personal infection is the chief means of spread. The acceptance of this doctrine has directed great attention to the practical question of school influence. There is no doubt whatever that it plays a very considerable part, in spreading diphtheria. The incidence of the disease is chiefly on children, and nothing so often and regularly brings large numbers together in close contact under the same roof as school attendance. Nothing, in fact, furnishes such constant and extensive oppor- tunities for personal infection. Many outbreaks have definitely been traced to schools. In London the subject has been very fully investigated by Sir Shirley Murphy, the medical officer of health to the London County Council, and by Dr W. R. Smith, formerly medical officer of health to the London School Board. Sir Shirley Murphy has shown that a special incidence on children of school age began to manifest itself after the adoption of compulsory education, and that the summer holidays are marked by a distinct diminution of cases, which is succeeded by an increase on the return to school. Dr W. R. Smith's observations are directed rather to minimizing the effect of school influence, and to showing that it is less important than other factors; which is doubtless true, as has been already remarked. It appears that the heaviest incidence falls upon infants under school age, and that liability diminishes progressively after school age is reached. But this by no means disposes of the importance of school influence, as the younger children at home may be infected by older ones, who have picked up the contagion at school, but, being less susceptible, are less severely affected and exhibit no worse symptoms than a sore throat. From a practical point of view the problem is a difficult one to deal with, as it is virtually impossible to ensure the exclusion of all infection, on account of the deceptively mild forms it may assume; but considering how very often outbreaks of diphtheria necessitate the closing of schools, it would probably be to the advantage of the authorities to discourage, rather than to compel, the attendance of children with sore throats. A fact of some interest revealed by statistics is that in the earliest years of life the incidence of diphtheria is greater upon male than upon female children, but from three years onwards the position is reversed, and with every succeeding year the relative female liability becomes greater. This is prob- ably due to the habit of kissing maintained among females, but more and more abandoned by boys from babyhood onwards. All these considerations suggest the importance of segregating the sick in isolation hospitals. Of late years this preventive measure has been carried out with increasing efficiency, owing to the better provision of such hospitals and the greater willingness of the public to make use of them; and probably the improve- ment so effected has had some share in keeping down the prevalence of the disease to comparatively moderate proportions. Unfortunately, the complete segregation of infected persons is hardly possible, because of the mild symptoms, and even absence of symptoms, exhibited by some individuals. A further difficulty arises with reference to the discharge of patients. It has been proved that the bacillus may persist almost indefinitely in the air-passages in certain cases, and in a considerable proportion it does persist for several weeks after convalescence. On returning home such cases may, and often do, infect others. Since the antitoxin treatment was introduced in 1894 it has overshadowed all other methods. We owe this drug originally to the Berlin school of bacteriologists, and particularly freatment. to Dr Behring. The idea of making use of serum arose about 1890, out of researches made in connexion with Mechnikov's theory of phagocytosis, by which is meant the action of the phagocytes or white corpuscles of the blood in destroying the bacteria of disease. It was shown by the German bacteriologists that the serum or liquid part of the blood plays an equally or more important part in resisting disease, and the idea of combating the toxins produced by pathogenic bacteria with resistant serum injected into the blood presented itself to several workers. The idea was followed up and worked out independently in France and Germany, so successfully that by the year 1894 the serum treat- ment had been tried on a considerable scale with most encourag- ing results. Some of these were published in Germany in the earlier part of that year, and at the International Hygienic Congress, held in Budapest a little later, Dr Roux, of the Institut Pasteur, whose experience was somewhat more extensive than that of his German colleagues, read a paper giving the result of several hundred cases treated in Paris. When all allowance for errors had been made, they showed a remarkable and even astonishing reduction of mortality, fully confirming the con- clusions drawn from the German experiments. This consensus of independent opinion proved a great stimulus to further trial, and before long one dinique after another told the same tale. The evidence was so favourable that Professor Virchow — the last man to be carried away by a novelty — declared it " the imperative duty of medical men to use the new remedy " (The Times, igih October 1894). Since then an enormous mass of facts has accumulated from all quarters of the globe, all testifying to the value of antitoxin in the treatment of diphtheria. The experience of the hospitals of the London Metropolitan Asylums Board for five years before and after antitoxin may be given as a particularly instructive illustration; but the subsequent reduction in the rate of mortality (12 in 1900, 11-3 in 1901, 10-8 in 1902, 9-3 in 1903, and an average of 9 in 1904-1908) added further confirmation. Annual Case Mortality in Metropolitan Asylums Board's Hospitals. Before Antitoxin. Mortality Year. per cent. 1890 33-55 30-61 29-51 30-42 1891 1892 1893 1894 29-29 After Antitoxin. Mortality Year. per cent. 1895 . 22-85 1896 . 21-20 1897 . 17-79 1898 . 15-37 1899 - 15-95 The number of cases dealt with in these five antitoxin years was 32,835, or an average of 6567 a year, and the broad result is a reduction of mortality by more than one-half. It is a fair inference that the treatment saves the lives of about 1000 children every year in London alone. This refers to all cases. Those which occur in the hospitals as a sequel to scarlet fever, and consequently come under treatment from the commencement, show very much more striking results. The case mortality, which was 46-8% in 1892 and 58-8% in 1893, has been reduced to 3-6% since the introduction of antitoxin. But the evidence is not from statistics alone. The beneficial effect of the treatment is equally attested by clinical observation. Dr Roux's original account has been confirmed by a cloud of witnesses year after year. " One may say," he wrote, " that the appearance of most of the patients is totally different from what it used to be. The pale and leaden faces are scarcely seen in the wards; the expression of the children is brighter and more lively." Adult patients have described the relief afforded by inoculation; it acts like a charm, and lifts the deadly feeling of oppression off like a cloud in the course of a few hours. Finally, the counteracting effect of antitoxin in preventing the disintegrating action of the 294 DIPLODOCUS— DIPLOMACY CO 1 diphtheritic toxin on the nervous tissues has been demonstrated pathologically. There are some who still affect scepticism as to the value of this drug. They cannot be ac- quainted with the evi- dence, for if the efficacy of antitoxin in the treat- ment of diphtheria has not been proved, then neither can the efficacy of any treatment for anything be said to be proved. Prophylactic properties are also claimed for the serum; but protection is neces- sarily more difficult to demonstrate than cure, and though there is some evidence to sup- port the claim, it has not been fully made out. AUTHORITIE s. — Adams, Public Health, vol. vii. ; Thorne Thome, Milroy Lectures (1891); Newsholme, Epidemic Diphtheria ; W. R. Smith, Harben Lectures (1899); M urphy ,Report toLondon County Council (1894); Sims Woodhead, Report to Metropolitan Asylums Board (1901). DIPLODOCUS, a gigantic extinct land reptile discovered in rocks of Upper JuYassic age in western North America, the best- known example of a Sauropodous Dinosaur. The first scattered re- mains of a skeleton were found in 1877 by Prof. S. W. Williston near Canon City, Colorado; and the tail and hind- limb of this specimen were described in the following year by Prof. O. C. Marsh. He noticed that in the part of the tail which dragged on the ground, each chevron bone below the vertebral column con- sisted of a pair of bars; and as so peculiar an arrangement for the protection of the artery and vein beneath the tail had not previously been observed in any animal, he proposed the name Diplodocus (" double beam " or " double bar ") for the new reptile, adding the specific name longus in allusion to the elongated shape of the tail vertebrae. In 1884 Prof. Marsh described the head, vertebrae and pelvis of the same skeleton, which is now in the National Museum, Washington. In 1897 the next important specimen, a tail associated with other fragments, apparently of Diplodocus longus, was obtained by the American Museum of Natural History, New York, from Como Bluffs, Wyoming. In 1899-1000 large parts of two skeletons of another species, in a remarkable state of preservation, were disinterred by Messrs J. L. Wortman, O. A. Peterson and J. B. Hatcher in Sheep Creek, Albany county, Wyo., and these are now exhibited with minor discoveries in the Carnegie Museum, Pittsburg. There are also other specimens in New York, Chicago and the Uni- versity of Wyoming. In 1901 Mr J. B. Hatcher studied the new species at Pittsburg, named it Diplodocus carnegii, and published the first restored sketch of a complete skeleton. Shortly after- wards plaster casts of the finest specimens were prepared under the direction of Mr J. B. Hatcher and Dr W. J. Holland, and these were skilfully combined to form the cast of a completely reconstructed skeleton, which was presented to the British Museum by Andrew Carnegie in 1905. This reconstruction is based primarily on a well-preserved chain of vertebrae, extending from the second cervical to the twelfth caudal, associated with the ribs, pelvis and several limb-bones. The tail is completed from two other specimens in the Carnegie Museum, having caudals 13 to 36 and 37 to 73 respectively in apparently unbroken series. Prof. Marsh's specimen in Washington supplied the greater part of the skull; and the fore-foot is copied from a specimen in New York. The cast of the reconstructed skeleton of Diplodocus carnegii measures 84 ft. in length and 12 ft. 9 in. in maximum height at the hind-limbs. It displays the elongated neck and tail and the relatively small head so characteristic of the Sauropodous Dinosaurs. The skull is inclined to the axis of the neck, denot- ing a browsing animal; while the feeble blunt teeth and flat expanded snout suggest feeding among succulent water-weeds. The large narial opening at the highest point of the head probably indicates an aquatic mode of life, and there seems to have been a soft valve to close the nostrils when under water. The diminutive brain-cavity, scarcely large enough to contain a walnut, is noteworthy. There are 104 vertebrae, namely, 15 in the neck, n in the back, 5 in the sacrum and 73 in the tail. The presacral vertebrae are of remarkably light construction, the plates and struts of bone being arranged to give the greatest strength with the least weight. The end of the tail is a flexible lash, which would probably be used as a weapon, like the tail of some existing lizards. The feet, notwithstanding the weight they had to support, are as unsymmetrical as those of a crocodile, with claws only on the three inner toes. There is no external armour. See O. C. Marsh, Amer. Journ. Sci. ser. 3, vol. xvi. (1878), p. 414, pi. viii., and loc. cit. vol. xxvii. (1884), p. 161, pis. iii., iv. ; H. F. Osborn, Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. vol. i. pt. v. (1899); J. B. Hatcher, Mem. Carnegie Mus. vol. i. No. I (1901), and vol. ii. No. i (1903); W. J. Holland, Mem. Carnegie Mus. vol. ii. No. 6 (1906). (A. S. Wo.) . DIPLOMACY (Fr. diplomatic), the art of conducting inter- national negotiations. The word, borrowed from the French, has the same derivation as Diplomatic (q.ii.), and, according to the New English Dictionary, was first used in England so late as 1796 by Burke. Yet there is no other word in the English language that could supply its exact sense. The need for such a term was indeed not felt; for what we know as diplomacy was long regarded, partly as falling under the Jus gentium or international law, partly as a kind of activity morally somewhat suspect and incapable of being brought under any system. Moreover, though in a certain sense it is as old as history, diplomacy as a uniform system, based upon generally recognized rules and directed by a diplomatic hierarchy having a fixed international status, is of quite modern growth even in Europe. It was finally established only at the congressesof Vienna (1815) and Aix-la-Chapelle (1818), while its effective extension to the great monarchies of the East, beyond the bounds of European civilization, was comparatively an affair of yesterday. So late as 1876 it was possible for the DIPLOMACY 295 writer on this subject in the gih edition of the Encyclopaedia Brilannica to say that " it would be an historical absurdity to suppose diplomatic relations connecting together China, Burma and Japan, as they connect the great European powers." Principles. — Though diplomacy has been usually treated under the head of international law, it would perhaps be more consonant with the facts to place international law under diplomacy. The principles and rules governing the intercourse of states, denned by a long succession of international lawyers, have no sanction save the consensus of the powers, established and maintained by diplomacy (see BALANCE OF POWER) ; m so far as they have become, by international agreement, more than mere pious opinions of theorists, they are working rules established for mutual convenience, which it is the function of diplomacy to safeguard or to use for its own ends. In any case they by no means cover the whole field of diplomatic activity; and, were they swept away, the art of diplomacy, developed through long ages of experience, would survive. This experience may perhaps be called the science, as distinct from the art, of diplomacy. It covers not only the province of international law, but the vast field of recorded experience which we know as history, of which indeed international law is but a part; for, as Bielfeld in his Institutions politiques (La Haye, 1760, 1. 1. ch. ii. § 13) points out, " public law is founded on facts. To know it we must know history, which is the soul of this science as of politics in general." The broad outlook on human affairs implied in " historical sense " is more necessary to the diplomatist under modern conditions than in the i8th century, when inter- national policy was still wholly under the control of princes and their immediate advisers. Diplomacy was then a game of wits played in a narrow circle. Its objects too were narrower; for states were practically regarded as the property of their sovereigns, which it was the main function of their " agents " to enlarge or to protect, while scarcely less important than the preservation or rearrangement of territorial boundaries was that of precedence and etiquette generally, over which an incredible amount of time was wasted. The haute diplomatic thus resolved itself into a process of exalted haggling, conducted with an utter disregard of the ordinary standards of morality, but with the most exquisite politeness and in accordance with ever more and more elaborate rules. Much of the outcome of these dead debates has become stereotyped in the conventions of the diplomatic service; but the character of diplomacy itself has undergone a great change. This change is threefold: firstly, as the result of the greater sense of the community of interests among nations, which was one of the outcomes of the French Revolution; secondly, owing to the rise of democracy, with its expression in parliamentary assemblies and in the press; thirdly, through the alteration in the position of the diplomatic agent, due to modern means of communication. The first of these changes may be dated to the circular of Count Kaunitz of the tyth of July 1791, in which, in face of the Revolu- tion, he impressed upon the powers the duty of making common cause for the purpose of preserving " public peace, the tran- quillity of states, the inviolability of possessions, and the faith of treaties." The duty of watching over the common interests of Europe, or of the world, was thus for the first time officially recognized as a function of diplomacy, since common action could only be taken as the result of diplomatic negotiations. It would be easy to exaggerate the effective results of this idea, even when it had crystallized in the Grand Alliance of 1814 and been pro- claimed to the world in the Holy Alliance of the 26th of September 181 sand the declaration of Aix-la-Chapelle. The cynical picture given by La Bruyere of the diplomatist of the i8th century still remained largely true : " His talk is only of peace, of alliances, of the public tranquillity, and of the public interests; in reality he is thinking only of his own, that is to say, of those of his master or of his republic." 1 The proceedings of the congress of Vienna proved how little the common good weighed unless reinforced by particular interests; but the conception of " Europe " as a political entity none the Jess survived. The congresses, notably 'La Bruyere, Caracteres, ii. 77 (ed. P. Jouast, Paris, 1881). the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (q.v.) in 1818, were in a certain sense European parliaments, and their ostensible object was the furtherance of common interests. Had the imperial dreamer Alexander I. of Russia had his way, they would have been permanently established on the broad basis of the Holy Alliance, and would have included, not the great powers only, but re- presentatives of every state (see ALEXANDER I. and EUROPE: History). Whatever the effective value of that " Concert of Europe " which was the outcome of the period of the congresses, it certainly produced a great effect on the spirit and the practice of diplomacy. In the congresses and conferences diplomacy assumes international functions both legislative and admini- strative. The diplomat is responsible, not only to his own government, but to " Europe." Thus Castlereagh was accused of subordinating the interests of Great Britain to those of Europe; and the same charge was brought, perhaps with greater justice, against Metternich in respect of Austria. Canning's principle of " Every nation for itself and God for us all!" prevailed, it is true, over that of Alexander's " Confederation of Europe "; yet, as one outcome of the congresses, every diplomatic agent, though he represents the interests of his own state, has behind him the whole body of the treaties which constitute the public law of the world, of which he is in some sort the interpreter and the guardian. Parallel with this development runs the second process making for change: the increasing responsibility of diplomacy to public opinion. To discuss all the momentous issues involved in this is impossible; but the subject is too important to be altogether passed over, since it is one of the main problems of modern international intercourse, and concerns every one who by his vote may influence the policy of the state to which he belongs. The question, broadly speaking, is: how far has the public discussion of international affairs affected the legitimate functions of diplomacy for better or for worse? To the diplomatist of the old school the answer seems clear. For him diplomacy was too delicate and too personal an art to survive the glare and confusion of publicity. Metternich, the last representative of the old haute diplomatie, lived to moralize over the ruin caused by the first manifestations of the " new diplomacy," the outcome of the rise of the power of public opinion. He had early, from his own point of view, unfavourably contrasted the " limited " constitutional monarchies of the west with the " free " autocracies of the east of Europe, free because they were under no obligation to give a public account of their actions. He himself was a master of the old diplomatic art, of intrigue, of veiling his purpose under a cloud of magniloquence, above all, of the art of personal fascination. But public opinion was for him only a, dangerous force to be kept under control; and, even had he realized the necessity for appeal- ing to it, he had none of the qualities that would have made the appeal successful. In direct antagonism to him was George Canning, who may be called the great prototype of the " new diplomacy," and to Metternich was a " malevolent meteor hurled by divine providence upon Europe." Canning saw clearly the immense force that would be added to his diplomatic action if he had behind him the force of public opinion. In answer to Metternich's complaint of the tone of speeches in parliament and of the popular support given in England to revolutionary move- ments, he wrote, " Our influence, if it is to be maintained abroad, must be secure in its sources of strength at home: and the sources of that strength are in the sympathy between the people and the government; in the union of the public sentiment with the public counsels; in the reciprocal confidence of the House of Commons and the crown."2 It would be a mistake to jump to the conclusion that Canning was wholly right and Metternich wholly wrong. The conditions of the Habsburg monarchy were not those of Great Britain,3 and even if it had been possible to speak of a public opinion in the Austrian empire at all, it certainly possessed no such organ as the British parliament. But the argument may be carried yet 2 To Wellesley, in Stapleton's Canning, i. 374. 3 For the motives of Metternich's foreign policy see AUSTRIA- HUNGARY: History (iii. 332-333). 296 DIPLOMACY further. In the abstract the success of the policy of a minister in a democratic state must ultimately rest upon the support of public opinion; yet the necessity for this support has in the conduct of foreign affairs its peculiar dangers. In the difficult game of diplomacy a certain reticence is always necessary. Secret sources of information would be dried up were they to be lightly revealed; a plain exposition of policy would often give an undue advantage to the other party to a negotiation. Thus, even in Great Britain, the diplomatic correspondence laid before parlia- ment is carefully edited, and all governments are jealous of granting access to their modern archives. Yet a representative assembly is apt to be resentful of such reservations. Its members know little or nothing of the conditions under which foreign affairs are conducted, and they are not unnaturally irritated by explanations which seem to lack candour or completeness. Canning himself had experience of this in the affair of the capture of the Danish fleet at Copenhagen; and Castlereagh's diplomacy was hampered by the bitter attacks of an opposition which accused him, with little justice, of pursuing a policy which he dared not reveal in its full scope to parliament. Moreover, the appeal to public opinion may be used as a diplomatic weapon for ends no less " selfish " than any aimed at by the old diplomacy. Bismarck, whose statesmanship was at least as cynical as that of Metternicb, was a master of the art of taking the world into his confidence — when it suited him to do so; and the " reptile press," hired to give a seemingly independent support to his policy, was one of his most potent weapons. So far the only necessary consequence of the growth of the power of public opinion on the art of diplomacy has been to extend the sphere of its application; it is but one more factor to be dealt with; and experience has proved that it is subject to the wiles of a skilful diplomatist no less than were the princes and statesmen with whom the old diplomacy was solely concerned. The third factor making for change — the revolution in the means of communication which has brought all the world into closer touch — remains to be discussed. It is obvious that before the invention of the telegraph, the diplomatic agent was in a far more responsible position than he is now, when he can, in most cases, receive immediate instructions from his government on difficult questions as they arise. When communication was still slow there was often no time to await instructions, or the instruc- tions when they arrived were not seldom already out of date and had to be set aside on the minister's own responsibility. It would, however, be easy to exaggerate the importance of this change as affecting the character and status of diplomatic agents. It is true that the tendency has been for ministers of foreign affairs to hold the threads of diplomacy in their own hands to a far greater extent than was formerly the case; but they must still depend for information and advice on the " man on the spot," and the success of their policy largely depends upon his qualities of discretion and judgment. The growth of democracy, moreover, has given to the ambassador a new and peculiar importance; for he represents not only the sovereign to the sovereign, but the nation to the nation; and, as a succession of notable American ambassadors to Great Britain has proved, he may by his personal qualities do a large amount to remove the prejudices and ignorances which stand as a barrier between the nations. It marks an immense advance in the comity of international intercourse when the representatives of friendly powers are no longer regarded as " spies rather than ambassadors," to be " quickly heard and dismissed," as Philippe de Commines would have them, but as agreeable guests to be parted from with regret. As to the qualifications for an ambassador, it is clearly im- possible to lay down a general rule, for the same qualities are obviously not required in Washington as in Vienna, nor in Paris as in Pekin. Yet the effort to depict the ideal ambassador bulks largely in the works of the earlier theorists, and the demands they make are sufficiently alarming. Ottaviano Maggi, himself a diplomatist of the brilliant age of the Renaissance, has left us in his De legato (Hanoviae, 1596) his idea of what an ambassador should be. He must not only be a good Christian but a learned theologian; he must be a philosopher, well versed in Aristotle and Plato, and able at a moment's notice to solve in correct dialectical form the most abstruse problems; he must be well read in the classics, and an expert in mathematics, architecture, music, physics and civil and canon law. He must not only know how to write and speak Latin with classical refinement, but he must be a master of Greek, Spanish, French, German and Turkish. He must Have a sound knowledge of history, geography and the science of war; but at the same time is not to neglect the poets, and never to be without his Homer. Add to this that he must be well born, rich and of a handsome presence, and we have a portrait of a diplomatist whose original can hardly have existed even in that age of brilliant versatility. The Dutchman Frederikus de Marselaer, in his KijpvKtiov sive legationum insigne (Antwerp, 1618), is scarcely less exacting than the Venetian. His ideal ambassador is a nobleman of fine presence and in the prime of life, famous, rich, munificent, abstemious, not violent, nor quarrelsome, nor morose, no flatterer, learned, eloquent, witty without being talkative, a good linguist, widely read, prudent and cautious, but brave and — as he adds somewhat superfluously — many-sided. With these theoretical perfections one or two instances of the qualifications demanded by the exigencies of practical politics may be cited by way of illuminating contrast. At the court of the empress Elizabeth of Russia good looks were a surer means of diplomatic success than all the talents and virtues, and the princess of Zerbst (mother of the empress Catherine II.) wrote to Frederick of Prussia advising him to replace his elderly am- bassador by a handsome young man with a good complexion; and the essential qualification for an ambassador to Switzerland, Germany, Poland, Denmark and Russia used to be that he should be able to drink the native diplomatists, seasoned from babyhood to strong liquors, under the table. History. — In its widest sense the history of diplomacy is that of the intercourse between nations, in so far as this has not been a mere brute struggle for the mastery;1 in a narrower sense, with which the present article is alone concerned, it is that of the methods and spirit of diplomatic intercourse and of the character and status of diplomatic agents. Earlier writers on the office and functions of ambassadors, such as Gentilis or Archbishop Germonius, conscientiously trace their origin to God himself, who created the angels to be his legates; and they fortify their arguments by copious examples drawn from ancient history, sacred and profane. But, whatever the influence upon it of earlier practice, modern diplomacy really dates from the rise of permanent missions, and the consequent development of the diplomatic hierarchy as an international institution. Of this the first beginnings are traceable to the isth century and to Italy. There had, of course, during the middle ages been embassies and negotiations; but the embassies had been no more than tem- porary missions directed to a particular end and conducted by ecclesiastics or nobles cf a dignity appropriate to each occasion; there were neither permanent diplomatic agents nor a professional diplomatic class. To the evolution of such a class the Italy of the Renaissance, the nursing-ground of modern statecraft, gave the first impetus. This was but natural; for Italy, with its numerous independent states, between which there existed a lively inter- course and a yet livelier rivalry, anticipated in miniature the modern states' system of Europe. In feudal Europe there had been little room for diplomacy; but in northern and central Italy feudalism had never taken root, and in the struggles of the peninsula diplomacy had early played a part as great as, or greater than, war. Where all were struggling for the mastery, the existence of each depended upon alliances and counter-alliances, of which the object was the maintenance of the balance of power. In this school there was trained a notable succession of men of affairs. Thus, in the isth and i4th centuries Florence counted among her envoys Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, and later on could boast of agents such as Capponi, Vettori, Guicciardini and Machiavelli. Papal Rome, too, as was to be expected, had always been a fruitful nursing-mother of diplomatists; and some 1 e.g. A History of Diplomacy in the International Development oj Europe, by D. J. Hill (London and New York, 1905). DIPLOMACY 297 authorities have traced the beginnings of modern diplomacy to a conscious imitation of her legatine system.1 It is, however, in Venice, that the origins of modern diplomacy are to be sought.2 So early as the I3th century the republic, with a view to safeguarding the public interests, began to lay down a series of rules for the conduct of its ambassadors. Thus, in 1 236, envoys to the court of Rome are forbidden to procure a benefice for anyone without leave of the doge and little council ; in 1268 ambassadors are commanded to surrender on their return any gifts they may have received, and by another decree they are compelled to take an oath to conduct affairs to the honour and advantage of the republic. About the same time it was decided that diplomatic agents were to hand in, on their return, a written account of their mission; in 1288 this was somewhat expanded by a law decreeing that ambassadors were to deposit, within fifteen days of their return, a written account of the replies made to them during their mission, together with anything they might have seen or heard to the honour or in the interests of the republic. These provisions, which were several times renewed, notably in 1296, 1425 and 1533, are the origin of the famous reports of the Venetian ambassadors to the senate, which are at once a monu- ment to the political genius of Venetian statesmen and a mine of invaluable historical material.3 These are but a few examples of a long series of regulations, many others also dating to the I3th century, by which the Venetian government sought to systematize its diplomatic service. That permanent diplomatic agencies were not estab- lished by it earlier than was the case is probably due to the distrust of its agents by which most of this legislation of the republic is inspired. In the i3th century two or three months was considered over-long a period for an ambassador to reside at a foreign court; in the isth century the period of residence was extended to two years, and in the i6th century to three. This latter rule continued till the end of the republic; the embassy had become permanent, but the ambassador was changed every three years. The origin of the change from temporary to permanent missions has been the subject of much debate and controversy. The theory that it was due, in the first instance, to the evolution of the Venetian consulates (bajulats) in the Levant into permanent diplomatic posts, and that the idea was thence transferred to the West, is disproved by the fact that Venice had established other permanent embassies before the baylo (q.v.) at Constantinople was transformed into a diplomatic agent of the first rank. Nor is the first known instance of the appointment of a permanent ambassador Venetian. The earliest record4 is contained in the announcement by Francesco Sforza, duke of Milan, in 1455, of his intention to maintain a permanent embassy at Genoa5; and in 1460 the duke of Savoy sent Eusebio Margaria, archdeacon of Vercelli, as his permanent representative to the Curia.6 Though, however, the early records of such appointments are rare, the practice was probably common among the Italian states. Its extension to countries outside Italy was a somewhat later develop- ment. In 1494 Milan is already represented in France by a permanent ambassador. In 1495 Zacharia Contarini, Venetian ambassador to the emperor Maximilian, is described by Sanuto (Diarii, i. 294) as stato ambasciatore; and from the time of 1 For this see Hinschius, Kirchenrecht, i. p. 498. 2 The Venetians, however, in their turn, doubtless learned their diplomacy originally from the Byzantines, with whom their trade expansion in the Levant early brought them into close contact. For Byzantine diplomacy see ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER: Diplomacy. * See Eugenio Alberi, Le Relazioni degli ambasciatori Veneti al senato, 15 vols. (Florence, 1839-1863). 4 The apocrisiarii (awoKpiviapioi) or responsales should perhaps be mentioned, though they certainly did not set the precedent for the modern permanent missions. They were resident agents, practically legates, of the popes at the court of Constantinople. They were established by Pope Leo I., and continued until the Iconoclastic controversy broke the intimate ties between East and West. See Luxardo, Das vordekretalische Gesandtschaftsrecht der Papste (Inns- bruck, 1878) ; also Hinschius, Kirchenrecht, i. 501. 6 N. Bianchi, Le Materie politiche relative all' estero degli archivi di stato piemontese (Bologna, Modena, 1875), p. 29. 6 Ib. Note 2, teneamus et deputemus ibidem continue mansurum. Charles V. onwards the succession of ambassadors of the republic at the imperial court is fairly traceable. In 1496 " as the way to the British Isles is very long and very dangerous," two merchants resident in London, Pietro Contarini and Luca Valaressa, were appointed by the republic subambasciatores; and in June of the same year Andrea Trevisano arrived in London as permanent ambassador at the court of Henry VII.7 Florence, too, from 1498 onwards, was represented at the courts of Charles V. and of France by permanent ambassadors. During the same period the practice had been growing up among the other European powers. Spain led the way in 1487 by the appointment of Dr Roderigo Gondesalvi de Puebla as ambassador in England. As he was still there in 1500, the Spanish embassy in London may be regarded as the oldest still surviving post of the new permanent diplomacy. Other states followed suit, but only fitfully; it was not till late in the i6th century that permanent embassies were regarded as the norm. The precarious relations between the European powers during the 1 6th century, indeed, naturally retarded the development of the system. Thus it was not till after good relations had been established with France by the treaty of London that, in 1519, Sir Thomas Boleyn and Dr West were sent to Paris as resident English ambassadors, and, after the renewed breach between the two countries, no others were appointed till the reign of Elizabeth. Nine years before, Sir Robert Wingfield, whose simplicity earned him the nickname of " Summer-shall-be-green," had been sent as ambassador to the court of Charles V., where he remained from 1510 to 1517; and in 1520 the mutual appointment of resident ambassadors was made a condition of the treaty between Henry VIII. and Charles V. In 1517 Thomas Spinelly, who had for some years represented England at the court of the Netherlands, was appointed " resident ambassador to the court of Spain," where he remained till his death on the 22nd of August 1522. These are the most important early instances of the new system. Alone of the great powers, the emperor remained permanently unrepresented at foreign courts. In theory this was the result of his unique dignity, which made him superior to all other potentates; actually it was because, as emperor, he could not speak for the practically independent princes nominally his vassals. It served all practical purposes if he were represented abroad by his agents as king of Spain or archduke of Austria. All the evidence now available goes to prove that the establish- ment of permanent diplomatic agencies was not an unconscious and accidental development of previous conditions, but de- liberately adopted as an obvious convenience. But, while all the powers were agreed as to the convenience of maintaining such agencies abroad, all were equally agreed in viewing the repre- sentatives accredited to them by foreign states with extreme suspicion. This attitude was abundantly justified by the peculiar ethics of the new diplomacy. The old " orators " of the Summer-shall-be-green type could not long hold their own against the new men who had studied in the school of Italian statecraft, for whom the end justified the means. Machiavelli had gathered in The Prince and The Discourses on Livy the principles which underlay the practice of his day in Italy; Francis I., the first monarch to establish a completely organized diplomatic machinery, did most to give these principles a European extension. By the close of the 1 6th century diplomacy had become frankly " Machiavellian," and the ordinary rules of morality were held not to apply to the intercourse between nations. This was admitted in theory as well as in practice. Germonius, after a vigorous denunciation of lying in general, argues that it is permissible for the safety or convenience (commodo) of princes, since solus populi suprema lex, and quod non permittit naturalis ratio, admiUit civilis; and he adduces in support of this principle the answer given by Ulysses to Neoptolemus, in the Ajax of Sophocles, and the examples of Abraham, Jacob and David. Paschalius, while affirming that an ambassador must study to speak the truth, adds that he is not 7 The first ambassador of Venice to visit England was Zuanne da Lezze, who came in 1319 to demand compensation for the plundering of Venetian ships by English pirates. 298 DIPLOMACY such a " rustic boor " as to say that an " official lie " (officiosum mendacium) is never to be employed, or to deny that an ambassador should be, on occasion, splendide mendax.1 The situation is summed up in the famous definition of Sir Henry Wotton, which, though excused by himself as a jest, was held to be an indiscreet revelation of the truth: " An ambassador is an honest man sent to lie abroad for the good of his country."2 The most successful liar, in fact, was esteemed the most successful diplomatist. " A prime article of the catechism of ambassadors," says Bayle in his Dictionnaire critique (1699), " whatever their religion, is to invent falsehoods and to go about making society believe them." So universally was this principle adopted that, in the end, no diplomatist even expected to be believed; and the best way to deceive was — as Bismarck cynically avowed — to tell the truth. But, in addition to being a liar ex officio, the ambassador was also " an honourable spy." " The principal functions of an envoy," says Francois de Callieres, himself an ex-ambassador of Louis XIV., " are two; the first is to look after the affairs of his own prince; the second is to discover the affairs of the other." A clever minister, he maintains, will know how to keep himself informed of all that goes on in the mind of the sovereign, in the councils of ministers or in the country; and for this end " good cheer and the warming effect of wine " are excellent allies.3 This being so, it is hardly to be wondered at that foreign ambassadors were commonly regarded as perhaps necessary, but certainly very unwelcome, guests. The views of Philippe de Commines have already been quoted above, and they were shared by a long series of theoretical writers as well as by men of affairs. Gentilis is all but alone in his protest against the view that all ambassadors were exploratores magis quam oratores, and to be treated as such. So early as 1481 the government of Venice had decreed the penalty of banishment and a heavy fine for any one who should talk of affairs of state with a foreign envoy, and though the more civilized princes did not follow the example of the sultan, who by way of precaution locked the ambassador of Ferdinand II., Jerome Laski, into " a dark and stinking place without windows," they took the most minute precautions to prevent the ambassadors of friendly powers from penetrating into their secrets. Charles V. thought it safest to keep them as far away as possible from his court. So did Francis I. ; and, when affairs were critical, he made his frequent changes of residence and his hunting expeditions the excuse for escaping from their presence. Henry VII. forbade his subjects to hold any intercourse with them, and, later on, set spies upon them and examined their correspondence — a practice by no means confined to England. If the system of permanent embassies survived, it is clear that this was mainly due to the belief of the sovereigns that they gained more by maintaining " honourable spies " at foreign courts than they lost by the presence of those of foreign courts at their own. It was purely a question of the balance of advantage. Neither among statesmen nor among theorists was there any premonition of the great part to be played by the permanent diplomatic body in the development and maintenance of the concert of Europe. To Paschalius the permanent embassies were " a miserable outgrowth of a miserable age."4 Grotius himself condemned them as not only harmful, 1Germonius, De le.gatis principum et populorum libri tres (Rome, 1627), chap. vi. p. 164; Paschalius, Legatus (Rouen, 1598), p. 302. fitienne Dolet, who had been secretary to Cardinal Jean du Bellay, and was burned for atheism in 1546, in his De officio legati (1541) advises ambassadors to surround themselves with taciturn servants, to employ vigilant spies, and to set afoot all manner of fictions, especially when negotiating with the court of Rome or with the Italian princes. 2 See Pearsall Smith, Sir Henry Wotton, pp. 49, 126 et seq. 3 Frangois de Callieres, De la maniere de negocier aiiec les souverains (Brussels, 1716). See also A. Sorel, Recueil des instructions donnees aux ambassadeurs et ministres de France (Paris, 1884), e.g. vol. Autriche, pp. 77, 88, 102, 112. 4 " Nova res est, quod sciam, et infelicis hujus aetatis infelix partus. . . . Hinc orin securitatem universorum, hinc stabiliri pacem gentium. Quae utinam tarn vere dicerentur, quam speciose. Ego quidem, ne quid dissimulem, ab istis seorsum sentio. Nimirum, effoeta virtutis, foecunda fraudis haec saecula video peperisse but useless, the proof of the latter being that they were unknown to antiquity.6 Development of the Diplomatic Hierarchy. — The history of the diplomatic body 6 is, like that of other bodies, that of the progressive differentiation of functions. The middle ages knew no classification of diplomatic agents; the person sent on mission is described indifferently as legatus, orator, nuntius, ablegatus, commissarius, procurator, mandatarius, agens or ambaxator (ambassator, &c.). In Gundissalvus, De legato (1485), the oldest printed work on the subject, the word ambasiator, first found in a Venetian decree of 1268, is applied to any diplomat. Florence was the first to make distinction; the orator was appointed by the council of the republic; the mandatorio, with inferior powers, by the Council of Ten. In 1500 Machiavelli, who held only the latter rank, wrote from France urging the Signoria to send ambasiadori. This was, however, rather a question of powers than of dignity. But the causes which ultimately led to the elaborate differentiation of diplomatic ranks were rather ques- tions of dignity than of functions.7 The breakdown of feudalism, with the consequent rise of a series of sovereign states or of states claiming to be sovereign, of very various size and importance, led to a certain confusion in the ceremonial relation between them, which had been unknown to the comparatively clearly defined system of the middle ages. The smaller states were eager to assert the dignity of their actual or practical independence; the greater powers were equally bent on "keeping them in their place." If the emperor, as has been stated above, was too exalted to send ambassadors, certain of the lesser states were soon esteemed too humble to be represented at the courts of the great powers save by agents of an inferior rank. By the second half of the i6th century, then, there are two classes of diplomatists, ambassadors and residents or agents, the latter being accounted ambassadors of the second class.8 At first the difference of rank was determined by the status of the sovereign by whom or to whom the diplomatic agent was accredited; but early in the i6th century it became fairly common for powers of the first rank to send agents of the second class to represent them at courts of an equal status. The reasons were various, and not unamusing. First and foremost came the question of expense. The am- bassador, as representing the person of his sovereign, was bound by the sentiment of the age to display an exaggerated magnifi- cence. His journeys were like royal progresses, his state entries surrounded with every circumstance of pomp, and it was held to be his duty to advertise the munificence of his prince by boundless largesses. Had this munificence been as unlimited in fact as in theory, all might have been well, but, in that age of vaulting ambitions, depleted exchequers were the rule rather than the exception in Europe; the records are full of pitiful appeals from ambassadors for arrears of pay, and appointment to an embassy often meant ruin, even to a man of substance. To give but one example, Sir Richard Morison, Edward VI.'s ambassador in Germany, had to borrow money to pay his debts before he could leave Augsburg (Cal. State Pap. Edio. VI., No. 467), and later on he writes from Hamburg (April 9, 1552) that he could buy nothing, because everyone believed that he had packed up in spissata haec imperia, sive summas potestates, unde, ut e vomitariis, hae legationes undatim se fundunt." Paschalius, Legatus (1598), p. 447. So too Felix de la Mothe Le Vayer (1547-1625), in his Legatus (Paris, 1579), says " Legates tune primum aut npn multura post institutes fuisse cum Pandora malorum omnium semina in hunc mundum . . . demisit." 6 De jure belli et pacis (Amsterdam, 1621), ii. c. 18, § 3, n. 2. 6 The term corps diplomatique originated about the middle of the l8th century. " The Chancellor Fiirst," says Ranke (xxx. 47, note), " does not use it as yet in his report (1754) but he knows it," and it would appear that it had just been invented at Vienna. " Corps diplomatique, nom qu'une dame donna un jour a ce corps nombreux de ministres etrangers a Vienne." 7 So too Pradier-Fodere, vol. i. p. 262. 8 Thus Charles V. would not allow the representatives of the duke of Mantua, Ferrara, &c., to style themselves " ambassadors," on the ground that this title could be borne only by the agents of kings and of the republic of Venice, and not by those of states whose sovereignty was impaired by any feudal relation to a superior power. (See Krauske, p. 155.) DIPLOMACY 299 readiness to flit secretly, for " How must they buy things, where men know their stuff is ready trussed up, and they fleeting every day? " (ib. No. 544). But the dignity of ambassador carried another drawback besides expense; his function of " honourable spy " was seriously hampered by the trammels of his position. He was unable to move freely in society, but lived a ceremonial existence in the midst of a crowd of retainers, through whom alone it was proper for him to communicate with the world outside. It followed that, though the office of ambassador was more dignified, that of agent was more generally useful. Yet a third cause, possibly the most immediately potent, encouraged the growth of the lesser diplomatic ranks: the question of precedence among powers theoretically equal. Modern diplomacy has settled a difficulty which caused at one time much heart-burning and even bloodshed by a simple appeal to the alphabet. Great Britain feels no humiliation in signing after France, if the reason be that her name begins with G; had she not been Great, she would sign before. The vexed question of the precedence of ambassadors, too, has been settled by the rule, already referred to above, as to seniority of appointment. But while the question remained unsettled it was obviously best to evade it; and this was most easily done by sending an agent of inferior rank to a court where the precedence claimed for an ambassador would have been refused. Thus set in motion, the process of differentiation continues until the system is stereotyped in the igth century. It is un- necessary to trace this evolution here in any detail. It is mainly a question of names, and diplomatic titles are no exception to the general rule by which all titles tend to become cheapened and therefore, from time to time, need to be reinforced by fresh verbal devices. The method was the familiar one of applying terms that had once implied a particular quality in a fashion that implied actually nothing. The ambassador extraordinary had originally been one sent on an extraordinary mission; for the time and purpose of this mission his authority superseded that of the resident ambassador. But by the middle of the I7th century the custom had grown up of calling all ambassadors " extraordinary," in order to place them on an equality with the others. The same process was extended to diplomatists of the second rank; and envoys (envoy e for ablegatus) were always " extraordinary," and as such claimed and received precedence over mere " residents," who in their day had asserted the same claim against the agents — all three terms having at one time been synonymous. Similarly a " minister plenipotentiary " had originally meant an agent armed with full powers (plein-pouwir) ; but, by a like process, the combination came to mean as little as " envoy extraordinary " — though a plenipotentiary tout simple is still an agent, of no ceremonially defined dignity, despatched with full powers to treat and conclude. Finally, the evolution of the title of a diplomatist of the second rank is crowned by the high- sounding combination, now almost exclusively used, of " envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary." The ultimate fate of the simple title " resident " was the same as that of " agent." Both had been freely sold by needy sovereigns to all and sundry who were prepared to pay for what gave them a certain social status. The " agent " fell thus into utter discredit, and those "residents" who were still actual diplomatic agents became " ministers resident " to distinguish them from the common herd. The classification of diplomatic agents was for the first time definitively included in the general body of international law by the Reglement of the igth of March 1815 at Vienna1; and the whole question was finally settled at the congress of Aix-la- Chapelle (November 21, 1818) when, the proposal to establish precedence by the status of the accrediting powers having wisely been rejected, diplomatic agents were divided into four classes: (i) Ambassadors, legates, nuncios; (2) Envoys extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary, and other ministers accredited direct to the sovereign; (3) Ministers resident; (4) Charges d'affaires. With a few exceptions (e.g. Turkey), this settlement was accepted by all states, including the United States of America. 1 See Pradier-Fodere, i. 265. Rights and Privileges of Diplomatic Agents. — These are partly founded upon immemorial custom, partly the result of negotia- tions embodied in international law. The most important, as it is the most ancient, is the right of personal inviolability extended to the diplomatic agent and the members of his suite. This inviolability is maintained after a rupture between the two governments concerned, and even after the outbreak of war. The habit of the Ottoman government of imprisoning in the Seven Towers the ambassador of a power with which it quarrelled was but an exception which proved the rule. The second im- portant right is that of exterritoriality (.) which necessarily deal with the subject of diplomacy, a vast mass of treatises on diplomatic agents exists. The earliest printed work is the Tractatus de legato (Rome, 1485) of Gundissalvus (Gonsalvo de Villadiego), professor of law at Salamanca, auditor for Spain at the 1 See Zeller. » A. O. Meyer, p. 22. * See the amusing account of the methods of these agents in Morysine to Cecil (January 23, 1551-1552), Col. Staff, Pap. Edw. VI., No. 530. Roman court of the Rota, and bishop of Oviedo ; but the first really systematic writer on the subject was Albericus Gentilis,J9e legationibus hbriiii. (London, 1583, 1585, Hanover, 1596, 1607, 1612). For a full bibliography of works on ambassadors see Baron Diedrich H. L.von Ompteda, Litteratur des gesammten sowohl natiirlichen als positiven Volkerrechts (Regensburg, 1785), p. 534, &c., which was completed and continued by the Prussian minister Karl Albert von Kamptz, in Neue Literaiur des Volkerrechts seit_ dem Jahre 1784. (Berlin, 1817), p. 231. A list of writers, with critical and biographical remarks, is also given in Ernest Nys's " Les Commencements de la diplomatic et le droit d'ambassade jusqu'4 Grotius," in the Revue de droit inter- national, vol. xvi. p. 167. Other useful modern works on the history of diplomacy are: E. C. Grenville-Murray, Embassies and Foreign Courts, a History of Diplomacy (2nd ed., 1856) ; I. Zeller, La Diplo- matie franc,aise yers le milieu du XVI' siecle (Paris, 1881); A. O. Meyer, Die englische Diplomatie in Deutschland zur Zeit Eduards VI. und Mariens (Breslau, 1900) ; and, above all, Otto Krauske, Die Entwickelung der standgien Diplomatie vom fiinfzehnten Jahrhundett bis zu den Beschlussen von 1815 und 1818, in Gustav Schmoller's Staats- und socialwissenschaftliche Forschungen,yo\.\. (Leipzig, 1885). To these may be added, as admirably illustrating in detail the early developments of modern diplomacy, Logan Pearsall Smith's Life and Letters of Sir Henry Wotton (Oxford, 1907). Gf works on modern diplomacy the most important are the Guide diplomatique of Baron Charles de Martens, new edition revised by F. H. Geffcken, 2 yols. (Leipzig, 1866), and P. Pradier-Fodere, Cours de droit diplomatique, 2 vols. (Paris, 1881). (W. A. P.) DIPLOMATIC, the science of diplomas, founded on the critical study of the " diplomatic " ' sources of history: diplomas, charters, acts, treaties, contracts, judicial records, rolls, chartu- laries, registers, &c. The employment of the word " diploma," as a general term to designate an historical document, is of com- paratively recent date. The Roman diploma, so called because it was formed of two sheets of metal which were shut together (Gr. 8nr\ovv, to double) like the leaves of a book, was the pass- port or licence to travel by the public post; also, the certificate of discharge, conferring privileges of citizenship and marriage on soldiers who had served their time; and, later, any imperial grant of privileges. The word was adopted, rather pedantically, by the humanists of the Renaissance and applied by them to important deeds and to acts of sovereign authority, to privileges granted by kings and by great personages; and by degrees the term became extended and embraced generally the documents of the middle ages. History of the Study. — The term " diplomatic," the French diplomatique, is a modern adaptation of the Latin phrase res diplomatica employed in early works upon the subject, and more especially in the first great text-book, the De re diplomatica, issued in 1681 by the learned Benedictine, Dom Jean Mabillon, of the abbey of St Germain-des-Pres. Mabillon's treatise was called forth by an earlier work of Daniel van Papenbroeck, the editor of the Ada Sanctorum of the Bollandists, who, with no great knowledge or experience of archives, undertook to criticize the historical value of ancient records and monastic documents, and raised wholesale suspicions as to their authenticity in his Propylaeum antiquarium circa veri ac falsi discrimen in vetustis membranis, which he printed in 1675. This was a rash challenge to the Benedictines, and especially to the congregation of St Maur, or confraternity of the Benedictine abbeys of France, whose combined efforts produced great literary works which still remain as monuments of profound learning. Mabillon was at that time engaged in collecting material for a great history of his order. He worked silently for six years before producing the work above referred to. His refutation of Papenbroeck's criticisms was complete, and his rival himself accepted Mabillon's system of the study of diplomatic as the true one. The De re diplomatica established the science on a secure basis; and it has been the foundation of all subsequent works on the subject, although the immediate result of its publication was a flood of controversial writings between the Jesuits and the Benedictines, which, how- ever, did not affect its stability. In Spain, the Benedictine Perez published, in 1688, a series of dissertations following the line of Mabillon's work. In Eng- land, Madox's Formulare Anglicanum, with a dissertation con- cerning ancient charters and instruments, appeared in 1702, and in 1705 Hickes followed with his Linguarum septentrionalium thesaurus, both accepting the principles laid down by the learned DIPLOMATIC 301 Benedictine. In Italy, Maffei appeared with his Istoria diplo- matica in 1727, and Muratori, in 1740, introduced dissertations on diplomatic into his great work, the Antiquilales Italicae. In Germany, the first diplomatic work of importance was that by Bessel, entitled Chronicon Gotu-icense and issued in 1732; and this was followed closely by similar works of Baring, Eckhard and Heumann. France, however, had been the cradle of the science, and that country continued to be the home of its development. Mabillon had not taken cognizance of documents later than the I3th century. Arising out of a discussion relative to the origin of the abbey of St Victor en Caux and the authenticity of its archives, a more comprehensive work than Mabillon's was compiled by the two Benedictines, Dom Toustain and Dom Tassin, viz. the Nouveau Traite de diplomatique, in six volumes, 1750-1765, which embraced more than diplomatic proper and extended to all branches of Latin palaeography. With great industry the compilers gathered together a mass of details; but their arrange- ment is faulty, and the text is broken up into such a multitude of divisions and subdivisions that it is tediously minute. However, its more extended scope has given the Nouveau Traite an ad- vantage over Mabillon's work, and modern compilations have drawn largely upon it. As a result of the Revolution, the archives of the middle ages lost in France their juridical and legal value; but this rather tended to enhance their historical importance. The taste for historical literature revived. The Academic des Inscriptions fostered it. In 1821 the Ecole des Charles was founded; and, after a few years of incipient inactivity, it received a further impetus, in 1829, by the issue of a royal ordinance re-establishing it. Thenceforth it has been an active centre for the teaching and for the encouragement of the study ol diplomatic throughout the country, and has produced results which other nations may envy. Next to France, Germany and Austria are distinguished as countries where activity has been displayed in the systematic study of diplomatic archives, more or less with the support of the state. In Italy, too, diplomatic science has not been neglected. In England, after a long period of regrettable indifference to the study of the national and municipal archives of the country, some effort has been made in recent years to remove the reproach. The publications of the Public Record Office and of the department of MSS. in the British Museum are more numerous and are issued more regularly than in former times; and an awakened interest is manifested by the foundation in the universities of a few lectureships in diplomatic and palaeography, and by the attention which those subjects receive in such an institution as the London School of Economics, and in the publications of private literary societies. But such efforts can never show the systematic results which are to be attained by a special institution of the character of the French Ecole des Chartes. Extent of the Science. — The field covered by the study of diplomatic is so extensive and the different kinds of documents which it takes into its purview are so numerous and various, that it is impossible to do more than give a few general indications of their nature. No nation can have advanced far on the path of civilization before discovering the necessity for documentary evidence both in public and in private life. The laws, the constitutions, the decrees of government, on the one hand, and private contracts between man and man, on the other, must be embodied in formal documents, in order to ensure permanent record. In the case of a nation advancing independently from a primitive to a later stage of civilization we should have to trace the origin of its documentary records and examine their develop- ment from a rudimentary condition. But in an inquiry into the history of the documents of the middle ages in Europe we do not begin with primitive forms. Those ages inherited the docu- mentary system which had been created and developed by the Romans; and, imperfect and limited in number as are the earliest surviving charters and diplomas of European medieval history, they present themselves to us fully developed and cast in the mould and employing the methods and formulae of the earlier tradition. Based on this foundation the chanceries of the several countries of Europe, as they came into existence and were organized, reduced to method and rule on one general system the various documents which the exigencies of public and of private life from time to time called into existence, each individual chancery at the same time following its own line of practice in detail, and evolving and confirming particular formulas which have become characteristic of it. Classification of Documents. — If we classify these documents under the two main heads of public and private deeds, we shall have to place in the former category the legislative, adminis- trative, judicial, diplomatic documents emanating from public authority in public form: laws, constitutions, ordinances, privileges, grants and concessions, proclamations, decrees, judicial records, pleas, treaties; in a word, every kind of deed necessary for the orderly government of a civilized state. In early times many of these were comprised under the general term of " letters," litterae, and to the large number of them which were issued in open form and addressed to the community the specific title of " letters patent," litterae patentes, was given. In contradistinction those public documents which were issued in closed form under seal were known as " close letters," litterae ciausae. Such public documents belong to the state archives of their several countries, and are the monuments of administrative and political and domestic history of a nation from one generation to another. In no country has so perfect a series been preserved as in our own. Into the Public Record Office in London have been brought together all the collections of state archives which were formerly stored in different official repositories of the kingdom. Beginning with the great survey of Domesday, long series of enrolments of state documents, in many instances extending from the times of the Angevin kings to our own day in almost unbroken sequence, besides thousands of separate deeds of all descriptions, are therein preserved (see RECORD). Under the category of private documents must be included, not only the deeds of individuals, but also those of corporate bodies representing private interests and standing in the position of individual units in relation to the state, such as municipal bodies and monastic foundations. The largest class of documents of this character is composed of those numerous conveyances of real property and other title deeds of many descriptions and dating from early periods which are commonly described by the generic name of" charters," and which are to be found in thousands, not only in such public repositories as the Public Record Office and the British Museum, but also in the archives of municipal and other corporate bodies throughout the country and in the muniment-rooms of old families. There are also the records of the manorial courts preserved in countless court-rolls and registers; also the scattered muniments of the dissolved monasteries represented by the many collections of charters and the valuable chartularies, or registers of charters, which have fortunately survived and exist both in public and in private keeping. It will be noticed that in this enumeration of public and private documents in England reference is made to rolls. The practice of entering records on rolls has been in favour in England from a very early date subsequent to the Norman Conquest; and while in other countries the comprehensive term of " charters " (literally " papers ": Gr. \ii.pnft) is employed as a general description of documents of the middle ages, in England the fuller phrase " charters and rolls " is required. The master of the rolls, the Magisler Rotulorum, is the official keeper of the public records. From the great body of records, both public and private, many fall easily and naturally into the class in which the text takes a simpler narrative form; such as judicial records, laws, decrees, proclamations, registers, &c., which tell their own story in formulae and phraseology early developed and requiring little change. These we may leave on one side. For fuller description we select those deeds which, conferring grants and favours and privileges, conform more nearly to the idea of the Roman diploma and have received the special attention of the chanceries in the 302 DIPLOMATIC of medie- val The Invo- cation. development and arrangement of their formulae and in their methods of execution. All such medieval deeds are composed of certain recognized members or sections, some essential, others special and peculiar to the most elaborate and solemn documents. A deed of Structure tj^e raore elaborate character is made up of two principal divisions: I. the TEXT, in which is set out the object of the deed, the statement of the considerations and circum- ' stances which have led to it, and the declaration of the will and intention of the person executing the deed, together with such protecting clauses as the particular circumstances of the case may require; 2. the PROTOCOL (originally, the first sheet of a papyrus roll; Gr. irpwros, first, and roXXai', to glue), consisting of the introductory and of the concluding formulae: superscription, address, salutation, &c., at the beginning, and date, formulae of execution, &c., at the end, of the deed. The latter portion of the protocol is sometimes styled the eschatocol (Gr. foxaros, last, and KO\\S.V, to glue). While the text followed certain formulae which had become fixed by common usage, the protocol was always special and varied with the practices of the several chanceries, changing in a sovereign chancery with each successive reign. The different sections of a full deed, taking them in order under the heads of Initial Protocol, Text and Final Protocol or Eschatocol, are as follows: — -The initial protocol consists of the Invocation, the Superscription, the Address and the Salutation. I. The INVOCATION, lending a character of sanctity to the pro- ceedings, might be either verbal or symbolic. The verbal invocation consisted usually of some pious ejaculation, such as In nomine Dei, In nomine domini nostri Jesu Chnsti; from the 8th cen- tury, In nomine Sanctoe el individuae Trinilaiis ; and later, In nomine Patris et Filii et Spiritus Sancti. The symbolic form was usually the chrismon, or monogram composed of the Greek initials XP of the name of Christ. In the course of the loth and nth centuries this symbol came to be so scrawled that it had probably lost all meaning with the scribes. From the gth century the letter C (initial of Christus) came gradually into use, and in German imperial diplomas it superseded the chrismon. Stenographic signs of the system known as Tironian notes were also sometimes added to this symbol down to the end of the loth century, expressing such a phrase as Ante omnia Chrisius, or Christus, or Amen. From the Merovingian period, too, a cross was often used. The symbol gradually died out after the I2th century for general use, surviving only in notarial instruments and wills. 2.The SUPERSCRIPTION (super -scriptio,intilulalio) expressed the name and titles of the grantor or person issuing the deed. 3. The ADDRESS. As diplomas were originally in epistolary form the address was then a While in Merovingian deeds the old pattern was adhered to, in the Carolingian period the address was sometimes omitted. From the 8th century it was not considered neces- sary, and a distinction arose in the case of royal acts, those having the address being styled letters, and those omitting it, charters. The general form of address ran in phrase as- Omnibus Christi fidelibus presenteslitlerasinspecturis. SALUTATION was expressed in such words as Salutem; Salutem et dilectionem; Salutem et apostolicam benedictionem, but it was not essential. Then follows the text in five sections : the Preamble, the Notifica- tion, the Exposition, the Disposition and the Final Clauses. 5. The PREAMBLE (prologus, arenga) : an ornamental introduction genera."y composed of pious or moral sentiments, a prefatio ad captandam benevolentiam which facit ad ornamentum, degenerating into tiresome platitudes. It became stereotyped at an early age: in the loth and nth centuries it was a most ornate performance; in tlie I2th century it was cut short; in the Ijth century it died out. 6. The NOTIFICATION (notificatio, promulgalio) the publication of the purport of the deed introduced by such a phrase as notum sit, &c. 7. The EXPOSITION set out the motives influencing the issue of the deed. 8. The DISPOSITION described the object of the deed and the will and intention of the grantor. 9. The FINAL CLAUSES en- sured the fulfilment of the terms of the deed; guarded against infringement, by comminatory anathemas and im- precations, not infrequently of a vehement description, or by penalties; guaranteed the validity of the deed ; enumerated the formalities of subscription and execution ; reserved rights, &c. Next comes the final protocol or eschatocol comprising: the Date, the Appreciation, the Authentication. It was particularly in this portion of the deed that the varying practices of the several chanceries led to minute and intricate distinctions at different periods. 10. The DATE. By the Roman law every act must be dated by the day and the year of execution. Yet in the middle ages, from the 9th to the I2th century, a large proportion of deeds bears no date. In the most ancient charters the date clause was frequently separated from the body of the deed and placed in an isolated position at the foot of the_ sheet. From the I2th century it commonly followed the text immediately. Certain classes of documents, such as decrees of councils, notarial deeds, &c., began with The Super- scription. necessity. The Address. The Salu- tation. The Preamble. The Noti- fication. was The Ex- position. The Dis- position. The Final Clauses. The Date. the date. The usual formula was data, datum, actum, foclum, scrip- turn. In the Carolingian period a distinction grew up between datum and actum, the former applying to the time, the latter to the place, of date. In the papal chancery from an early period down to the I2th century the use of a double date prevailed, the first following the text and being inserted by the scribe when the deed was written (scriptum), the second being added at the foot of the deed on its execution (actum), by the chancellor or other high functionary. From the Roman custom of dating by the consular year arose the medieval practice of dating by the regnal year of emperor, king or pope. Special dates were sometimes employed, such as the year of some great historical event, battle, siege, pesti- lence, &c. II. The APPRECIATION. The feliciter of the The Au- thentica- tion. Romans became the medieval feliciter in Domino, or In Dei nomine feliciter, or the more simple Deo gratias cla"oa- or the still more simple Amen, for the auspicious closing of a deed. In Merovingian and Carolingian diplomas it follows the date; in other cases it closes the text. In the greater papal bulls it appears in the form of a triple Amen. Benevalete was also employed as the appreciation in early deeds; but in Merovingian diplomas and in papal bulls this valedictory salutation becomes a mark of authentica- tion, as will be noticed below. 12. The AUTHENTICATION was a solemn proceeding which was discharged by more than one act. _ The most important was the subscription or subscriptions of the person or persons from whom the deed emanated. The laws of the late Roman empire required the subscriptions and the impressions of the signet seals of the parties and of the witnesses to the deed. The subscription (subscriptio) com- prised the name, signature and description of the person signing. The impression of the signet (not the signature) was the sign-urn, sometimes signaculum, rarely sigillum. The practice of subscribing with the autograph signature obtained in the early middle ages, as appears from early documents such as those of Ravenna. But from the 7th century it began to decline, and by the I2th century it had practically ceased. In Roman deeds an illiterate person affixed his mark, or signum manuale, which was attested. The cross being an easy form for a mark, it was very commonly used and naturally became connected with the Christian symbol. Hence, in course of time, it came to be attached very generally to subscriptions, auto- graph or otherwise. Great personages who were illiterate required something more elaborate than a common mark. Hence arose the use of the monogram, the caracter nominis, composed of the letters of the name. The emperor Justin, who could not write, made use of a monogram, as did also Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths. Those Merovingian kings, likewise, who were illiterate, had their individual monograms; and at length Charlemagne adopted the monogram as his regular form of signature. From his reign down to that of Philip the Fair the monogram was the recognized sign manual of the sovereigns of France (see AUTOGRAPHS). It was employed by the German emperors down to the reign of Maximilian I. The royal use of the monogram was naturally imitated by great officers and ecclesiastics. But another form of sign manual also arose out of the subscription. The closing word (usually subscripsi), written or abbreviated as sub., or M. or s., was often finished off with flourishes and interfacings, sometimes accompanied with Tironian notes, the whole taking the shape of a domed structure to which the French have given the name of ruche or bee-hive. Thus in the early middle ages we have deeds authenticated by the subscription, usually autograph, giving the name and titles of the person executing, and stating the part taken by him in the deed, and closing with the subscripsi, often in shape of the ruche and constituting the signum manuale. If not autograph, the subscription might be impersonal in such foitn as signum (or signum manus) + N. In the Carolingian period, while phrases were constantly used in the body of the deed implying that it was executed by autograph subscription, it did not necessarily follow that such subscription was actually written in person. The ruche was also adopted by chancellors, notaries and scribes as their official mark. While autograph subscriptions continued to be employed, chiefly by ecclesiastics, down to the begin- ning of the I2th century, the monogram was perpetuated from the loth century by the notaries. Their marks, simple at first, became so elaborate from the end of the I3th century that they found it necessary to add their names in ordinary writing, or also to employ a less complicated design. This was the commencement of the modern practice of writing the signature which first came into vogue in the I4th century. To lend further weight and authority to the subscription, certain symbols and forms were added at different periods. Imitating the corroborative Legi of the Byzantine quaestor and the Legimus of the Eastern emperors, the Prankish chancery in the West made use of the same form, notably in the reign of Charles the Bald, in some of whose diplomas the Legimus appears written in larger letters in red. The valedictory Benevalete, employed in early deeds as a form of appreciation (see above), appears in Merovingian and in _ early Carolingian royal diplomas, and also in papal bulls, el as an authenticating addition to the subscription. In the ' diplomas it was written in cursive letters in two lines, Bene valetf, just to the right of the incision cut in the sheet to hold fast the seal, which sometimes even covered part of the word. In the mostancient papal bulls it was written by the pope himself at the foot of the deed, DIPLOMATIC 303 in two lines, generally in larger capital or uncial characters, placed between two crosses. From the beginning of the nth century it became the fashion to link the letters ; and, dating from the time of Leo IX., A.D. 1048-1054, the Benevalete was inscribed in fprm of a monogram. During Leo's pontificate it was also accompanied with a flourish called the Komma, which was only an exaggeration of the mark of punctuation (periodus) which from the 9th to the nth century closed the subscription and generally resembled the modern semicolon. Leo's successors abandoned the Komma, but the mono- grammatic Benevalele continued, invariable in form, but from time to time varying in size. In Leo IX.'s pontificate also was introduced the Rota. This sign, when it had received its final shape in the The Rota. IItn century, was in form of a wheel, composed of two concentric circles, in the space between which was written the motto or device of the pope (signum papae), usually a short sentence from one of the Psalms or some other portion of Scripture; preceded by a small cross, which the pontiff himself sometimes inscribed. The central space within the wheel was divided (by cross lines) into four quarters, the two upper ones being occupied by the names of the apostles St Peter and St Paul, and the two lower ones by the name of the pope. The Rota was placed on the left of the subscription, the monogrammatic Benevalete on the right. The two signs were likewise adopted by certain ecclesiastical chanceries and by feudal lords, particularly in the 1 2th century. From the same period also the Spanish and Portuguese monarchs adopted the Rota, the signo rodado, which is so conspicuous in the royal charters of the Peninsula. Besides the subscription, an early auxiliary method of authentica- tion was by the impression of the seal which, as noticed above, was Seating. required by the Roman law. But the general use of the signet gradually failed, and by the 7th century it had ceased. Still it survived in the royal chanceries, and the sovereigns both of the Merovingian and of the Carolingian lines had their seals; and, in the 8th century, the mayors of the palace like- wise. It is interesting to find instances of the use of antique intaglios for the purpose by some of them. In England too there is proof that the Mercian kings Offa and Coenwulf used seals, in imitation of the Prankish monarchs. In the 7th century, and still more so in the 8th and gth centuries, the royal seals were of exaggerated size : the precursors of the great seals of the later sovereigns of western Europe. The waxen seals of the early diplomas were in all cases en placard: that is, they were attached to the face of the document and not sus- pended from it, being held in position by a cross-cut incision in the material, through which the wax was pressed and then flattened at the back. On the cessation of autograph signatures in subscriptions, the general use of seals revived, beginning in 'the loth century and becoming the ordinary method of authentication from the I2th to the 1 5th century inclusive. Even when signatures had once again become universal, the seal continued to hold its place; and thus sealing is, to the present day, required for the legal execution of a deed. The attachment en placard was discontinued, as a general practice, in the middle of the nth century; and seals thenceforward were, for the most part, suspended, leathern thongs being used at first, and afterwards silken and hempen cords or parchment labels. In documents of minor importance it was sometimes the custom to impress the seal or seals on one or more strips of the parchment of the deed itself, cut, but not entirely detached, from the lower margin, and left to hang loose. Besides waxen impressions of seals, im- pressions in metal, bearing a device on both faces, after the fashion of a coin, and suspended, were employed from an early period. The most widely known instances are the bullae attached to papal docu- ments, generally of lead. The earliest surviving papal bulla is one of Pope Zacharias, A.D. 746, but earlier examples are known from drawings. The papal bulla was a disk of metal stamped on both sides. From the time of Boniface V. to Leo IV., A.D. 617-855, the name of the pontiff, in the genitive case, was impressed on the obverse, and his title as pope on the reverse, e.g. Bonifati/ papae. After that period, for some time, the name was inscribed in a circle round a central ornament. Other variations followed; but at length in the pontificate of Paschal II., A.D. 1099, the bulla took the form which it afterwards retained: on the obverse, the heads of the apostles St Peter and St Paul; on the reverse, the pope's name, title and number in succession. In the period of time between his election and consecration, the pope made use of the half-bull, that is, the obverse only was impressed. It should be mentioned that, in order to conform to modern conditions and for convenience of despatch through the post, Leo XIII., in 1878, substituted for the leaden bulla a red ink stamp bearing the heads of the two apostles with the name of the pope inscribed as a legend. The Carolingian monarchs also used metal bullae. None of Charlemagne's have survived, but there are still extant leaden ex- amples of Charles the Bald. The use of lead was not persisted in either in the chancery of France or in that of Germany. Golden bullae were employed on special occasions by both popes and temporal monarchs ; for example, they were attached to the confirmations of the elections of the emperors vn the I2th and I3th centuries; the bull of Leo X. conferring the title of Defender of the Faith on Henry VIII. in 1524, and the deed of alliance between Henry and Francis I. in 1527, had golden bullae ; and other examples could be cited. But lead has always been the common metal to be thus employed. In the southern countries of Europe, where the warmth of the climate renders wax an undesirable material, leaden bullae have been in ordinary use, not only in Italy but also in the Peninsula, in southern France, and in the Latin East (see SEALS). The necessity of conforming to exact phraseology in diplomas and of observing regularity in expressing formulas naturally led to the compilation of formularies. From the early middle ages Formti- the art of composition, not only of charters but also of iaries general correspondence, was commonly taught in the monasteries. The teacher was the dictator, his method of teaching was described by the verb dictare, and his teaching was dictamen or the ars dictaminis. For the use of these monastic schools, formularies and manuals comprising formulas and models for the composition of the various acts and documents soon became indispensable. At a later stage such formularies developed into the models and treatises for epistolary style which have had their imitations even in modern times. The widespread use of the formularies had the advantage of imposing a certain degree of uniformity on the phrasing of documents of the western nations of Europe. Those compilations which are of an earlier period than the I Ith century have been systematically examined and are published ; those of more recent date still remain to be thoroughly edited. The early formularies are of the simpler kind, being collections of formulas without dissertation. The Formulae Marculfi, compiled by the monk Marculf about the year 650, was the most important work of this nature of the Merovingian period and became the official formulary of the time; and it con- tinued in use in a revised edition in the early Carolingian chancery. Of the same period there are extant formularies compiled at various centres, such as Angers, Tours, Bourges, Sens, Reichenau, St Gall, Salzburg, Passau, Regensburg, Cordova, &c. (see Giry, Manuel de diplomatique, pp. 482-488). The Liber diurnus Romanorum Pontificum was compiled in the 7th and 8th centuries, and was em- ployed in the papal chancery to the end of the I ith century. Of the more developed treatises and manuals of epistolary rhetoric which succeeded, and which originated in Italy, the earliest example was the Breviarium de dictamine of the monk Alberic of Monte Cassiro, compiled about the year 1075. Another well-known work, the Rationes dictandi, is also attributed to the same author. Of later date was the Ars dictaminis of Bernard of Chartres of the 12th century. (Among special works on formularies are: E. de Roziere, Recueil general des formules usitees dans V empire des Francs (3 vols., Paris, 1861-1871); K. Zeumer, Formulae Merovingici et Karolini aevi (Hanover; 1886); and L. Rockinger, Brief steller und Formelbiicher des n bis. 14 Jahrhunderts (Munich, 1863-1864). Organization. — The formalities observed by the different chanceries of medieval Europe, which are to be learned from a study of the documents issued by them, are so varied and often so minute, that it is impossible to give a full account of them within the limits of the present article. We can only state some of the results of the investigations of students of diplomatic. The chancery which stands first and foremost is the papal chancery. On account of its antiquity and of its steady develop- ment, it has served as a model for the other chanceries of Europe. Organized in remote times, it adopted for cftam»iy. the structure of its letters a number of formulas and rules which developed and became more and more fixed and precise from century to century. The Apostolic court being organized from the first on the model of the Roman imperial court, the early pontiffs would naturally have collected their archives, as the emperors had done, into scrinia. Pope Julius I., A.D. 337-353, reorganized the papal archives under an official schola nolariorum, at the head of which was a primicerius notariorum. Pope Damasus, A.D. 366-384, built a record office at the Lateran, archiirium sanctae Romanae ecdesiae, where the archives were kept and registers of them compiled. The collec- tion and orderly arrangement of the archives provided material for the establishment of regular diplomatic usages, and the science of formulae naturally followed. For the study of papal documents four periods have been defined, each successive period being distinguished from its predecessor by some particular development of forms and procedure. The first period is reckoned from the earliest times to the accession of Leo IX., A.D. 1048. For almost the whole of the first eight centuries no original papal documents have survived. But copies are found in canonical works and registers, many of them false, and others probably not transcribed in full or in the original words; but still of use, as showing the growth of formulas. The earliest original document is a fragment of a letter of Adrian I., A.D. 788. From that date there is a series, but the documents are rare to the beginning of the nth century, all down to that period being written on papyrus. The latest existing 304 DIPLOMATIC papyrus document in France is one of Sergius IV., A.D. ion; in Germany, one of Benedict VIII., A.D. 1022. The earliest docu- ment on vellum is one of John XVIII., A.D. 1005. The nomencla- ture of papa! documents even at an early period is rather wide. In their earliest form they are Letters, called in the documents themselves, lilterae, epistola, pagina, scriptum, sometimes decretum. A classification, generally accepted, divides them into: i. Letters or Epistles: the ordinary acts of correspondence with persons of all ranks and orders; including constitutions (a later term) or decisions in matters of faith and discipline, and encyclicals giving directions to bishops of the whole church or of individual countries. 2. Decrees, being letters promulgated by the popes of their own motion. 3. Decretals, decisions on points of ecclesiastical administration or discipline. 4. Rescripts (called in the originals preceptum, auctoritas, privilegium) , granting requests to petitioners. But writers differ in their terms, and such sub- divisions must be more or less arbitrary. The comprehensive term " bull " (the name of the leaden papal seal, bulla, being transferred to the document) did not come into use until the i3th century. Copies of papal deeds were collected into registers or bullaria. Lists showing the chronological sequence of documents are catalogues of acts. When into such lists indications from narrative sources are introduced they become regesta (res gestae) : a term not to be confused with " register." Clearness and conciseness have been recognized as attributes of early papal letters; but even in those of the 4th century certain rhythmical periods have been detected in their composition which became more marked under Leo the Great, A.D. 440-461, and which developed into the cursus or prose rhythm of the pontifical chancery of the nth and i2th centuries. In the most ancient deeds the pope styles himself Episcopus, sometimes Episcopus Catholicae Ecclesiae, or Episcopus Romanae Ecclesiae, rarely Papa. Gregory I., A.D. 590, was the first to adopt the form Episcopus, servus servorum Dei, which became general in the pth century, and thenceforth was invariable. The second period of papal documents extends from Leo IX. to the accession of Innocent III., A.D. 1048-1 198. At the beginning of the period formulae tended to take more definite shape and to become fixed. In the superscription of bulls a distinction arose : those which conferred lasting privileges employing the words in perpetuum to close this clause; those whose benefaction was of a transitory character using the form of salutation, salutem et apostolicam benedictionem. But it was under Urban II., A.D. 1088-1099, that the principal formulae became stereotyped. Then the distinction between documents of lasting, and those of transitory, value became more exactly defined; the former class being known as greater bulls, bullae majores (also called primlegia) , the latter lesser bulls, bullae minores. The leading characteristics of the greater bulls were these: The first line containing the superscription and closing with the words in perpetuum (or, some- times, ad perpetuam, or aeternam, rei memoriam) was written in tall and slender ornamental letters, close packed; the final clauses of the text develop with tendency to fixity; the pope's subscription is accompanied with the rota on the left and the benevalete monogram on the right; and certain elaborate forms of dating are punctiliously observed. The introduction of subscriptions of cardinals as witnesses had gradually become a practice. Under Victor II., A.D. 1055-1057, the practice became more confirmed, and after the time of Innocent II., A.D. 1130- 1145, the subscriptions of the three orders were arranged accord- ing to rank, those of the cardinal bishops being placed in the centre under the papal subscription, those of the priests under the rota on the left, and those of the deacons under the benevalete on the right. In the lesser bulls simpler forms were employed; there was no introductory line of stilted letters; the salutation, salutem et apostolicam benedictionem, closed the superscription; the final clauses were shortened; there was neither papal sub- scription, nor rota, nor benevalete; the date was simple. From the time of Adrian I., A.D. 772-795, the system of double dating was followed in the larger bulls. The first date was written by the scribe of the document, scriptum per manum N. with the month (rarely the day of the month) and year of the indiction. The second, the actual date of the execution of the deed, was entered (ostensibly) by some high official, data, or datum, per manum N., and contained the day of the month (according to the Roman calendar), the year of indiction, the year of pontificate (in some early deeds, also the year of the empire and the post- consulate year), and the year of the Incarnation, which, however, was gradually introduced and only became more common in the course of the 1 1 th century. For example, a common form of a full date would run thus: Datum Laterani, per manum N., sanctae Romanae ecdesiae diaconi cardinalis, xiiii. kl. Mali, indictione V., anno dominicae Incarnationis mxcni.,pontijicatus autem domini papae Urbani secundi X°. The simpler form of the date of a lesser bull might be: Datum Laterani, iii. non. Jan., pontificalus nostri anno iiii. By degrees the use of the lesser bulls almost entirely superseded that of the greater bulls, which became exceptional in the i3th century and almost ceased after the migration to Avignon in 1309. In modern times the greater bulls occasionally reappear for very solemn acts, as bullae consistoriales, executed in the consistory. The third period of papal documents extends from Innocent III. to Eugenius IV., A.D. 1198-1431. The pontificate of Innocent III. was a most important epoch in the history of the development of the papal chancery. Formulas became more exactly fixed, definitions more precise, the observation of rules and precedents more constant. The staff of the chancery was reorganized. The existing series of registers of papal documents was then com- menced. The growing use of lesser bulls for the business of the papal court led to a further development in the i3th century. They were now divided into two classes : Tituli and Mandamenta. The former conferred favours, promulgated precepts, judgments, decisions, &c. The latter comprised ordinances, commissions, &c., and were executive documents. There are certain features which distinguish the two classes. In the tituli, the initial letter of the pope's name is ornamented with openwork and the other letters are stilted. In the mandamenta, the initial is filled in solid and the other letters are of the same size as the rest of the text. In the tituli, enlarged letters mark the beginnings of the text and of certain clauses; but not in the mandamenta. In the former the mark of abbreviation is a looped sign; in the latter it is a horizontal stroke. In the former the old practice of leaving a gap between the letters s and t, and c and t, whenever they occur together in a word (e.g. is te, sane lus), and linking them by a coupling stroke above the line is continued; in the latter it disappears. The leaden bulla attached to a litulus (as a permanent deed) is suspended by cords of red and yellow silks; while that of a mandamentum (a temporary deed) hangs from a hempen cord. In the fourth period, extending from 1431 to the present time, the tituli and mandamenta have continued to be the ordinary documents in use; but certain other kinds have also arisen. Briefs (brevia), or apostolic letters, concerning the personal affairs of the pope or the administration of the temporal dominion, or conceding indulgences, came into general use in the I3th century in the pontificate of Eugenius IV. They are written in the italic hand on thin white vellum; and the name of the pope with his style as papa is written at the head of the sheet, e.g. Eugenius papa iiii. They are closed and sealed with Seal of the Fisher- man, sub anulo Piscatoris. Briefs have almost superseded the mandamenta. The documents known as Signatures of the court of Rome or Latin letters, and used principally for the expedition of indulgences, were first introduced in the 1 5th century They were drawn in the form of a petition to the pope, which he granted by the words fiat ut petatur written across the top. They were not sealed; and only the pontifical year appears in the date. Lastly, the documents to which the name of Motu proprio is given are also without seal and are used in the administration of the papal court, the formula placet et ita motu proprio mandamus being signed by the pope. The character of the handwriting employed by the papal chancery is discussed in the article PALAEOGRAPHY. Here it will be enough to state that the early style was derived from the Lombardic hand, and that it continued in use down to the beginning of the i2th century; but that, from the loth century, DIPLOMATIC 305 owing to the general adoption of the Caroline minuscule writing, it began to fail and gradually became so unfamiliar to the un- initiated, that, whileit still continued in use for papal bulls, it was found necessary to accompany them with copies written in the more intelligible Caroline script. The intricate, fanciful character, known as the Liiera sancti Petri, was invented in the time of Clement VIII., A.D. 1592-1605, was fully developed under Alexander VIII., 1689-1691, and was only abolished at the end of the year 1878 by Leo XIII. Of the chancery of the Merovingian line of kings as many as ninety authentic diplomas are known, and, of these, thirty-seven are originals, the earliest being of the year 625. The vto£/afl most ancient examples were written on papyrus, vellum chancery, superseding that material towards the end of the 7th century. All these diplomas are technically letters, having the superscription and address and, at the foot, close to the seal, the valedictory benevalete. They commence with a monogrammatic invocation, which, together with the superscrip- tion and address written in fanciful elongated letters, occupies the first line. The superscription always runs in the form, N. rex Francorum. The most complete kinds of diplomas were authenticated by the king's subscription, that of the referendarius (the official charged with the custody of the royal seal), the impression of the seal, and exceptionally by subscriptions of prelates and great personages. The royal subscription was usually autograph; but, if the sovereign were too young or too illiterate to write, a monogram was traced by the scribe. The referendary, if he countersigned the royal subscription, added the word opfulit to his own signature; if he subscribed independently, he wroce recognovit et subscripsit, the end of the last word being usually lost in flourishes forming a ruche. The date gave the place, day, month and year of the reign. The Merovingian royal diplomas are of two classes: (i) Precepts, conferring gifts, favours, immunities and confirmations, entitled in the documents themselves as praeceptum, praeceplio, auctoritas; some drawn up in full form, with preamble and ample final clauses; others less precise and formal. (2) Judgments (indicia), which required no preamble or final clauses as they were records of the sovereign's judicial decisions; they were subscribed by the referendary and were sealed with the royal seal. Other classes of documents were the cartae de, mundeburde, taking persons under the royal pro- tection, and indiculi or letters transmitting orders or notifying decisions; but no examples have survived. The diplomas of the early Carolingians differed, as was natural, but little from those of their predecessors. As mayors of the palace, Charles Martel and Pippin took the style of wr inluster. On becoming king, Pippin retained it; chancery. Pippinus, vir Muster, rex Francorum, and it continued to be part of the royal title till Charlemagne became emperor. The royal subscription was in form of a sign-manual or mark; but Charlemagne elaborated this into a monogram of the letters of his name built up on a cross. In 775 the royal title of Charlemagne became Carolus, gratia Dei rex Francorum et Langobardorum, ac patricius Romanorum, the last words being assumed on his visit to Rome in 774. On becoming emperor in 800, he was styled Imperator, Romanum gubernans imperium, rex Francorum et Langobardorum. It is to be noticed that thenceforth his name was spelt with initial K (as it was on the monogram), having previously been written with C in the deeds. Most of his diplomas were authenticated by the subscription of the chancellor and impression of the seal. A novelty in the form of dating was also introduced, two words, datum (for time) and actum (for place), being now employed. The character of the writing of the diplomas, founded on the Roman cursive hand, which had become very intricate under the Merovingians, improved under their successors, yet the reform which was introduced into the literary script hardly affected the cursive writing of diplomatic until the latter part of Charlemagne's reign. The archaic style was particularly maintained in judgments, which were issued by the private chancery of the palace, a department more con- servative in its methods than the imperial chancery. It was in the reign of Louis Debonair, A.D. 814-840, that the Carolingian diploma took its final shape. A variation now appears in the monogram, that monarch's sign-manual being built up, not on a cross as previously, but on the letter H., the initial of his name Hludovicus, and serving as the pattern for successive monarchs of the name of Louis. In the Carolingian chancery the staff was exclusively ecclesi- astical ; at its head was the chancellor, whose title is traced back to the cancellarius, or petty officer under the Roman empire, stationed at the bar or lattice (cancelli) of the basilica or other law court and serving as usher. As keeper of the royal archives his subscription was indispensable for royal acts. The diplomas were drawn up by the notaries, an important body, upon whom devolved the duty of maintaining the formulae and traditions of the office. It has been observed that in the 9th century the documents were drawn carefully, but that in the loth century there was a great degeneration in this respect. Under the early Capetian kings there was great confusion and want of uniformity in their diplomas; and it was not until the reign of Louis VI., A.D. 1 108, that the formulae were again reduced to rules. The acts of the imperial chancery of Germany followed the patterns of the Carolingian diplomas, with little variation down to the reign of Frederick Barbarossa, A.D. 1152-1190. The sovereign's style was N. divina favente dementia rex; after coronation at Rome he became imperator chancery. augustus. At the end of the icth century, Otto III. developed the latter title into Romanorum imperator augustus. Under Henry III., and regularly from the time of Henry V., A.D. 1106-1125, the title before coronation has been Romanorum rex. The royal monogram did not necessarily contain all the letters of the name; but, on the other hand, from the year 976, it became more complicated and combined the imperial title with the name. For example, the monogram of Henry II. combines the words Henricus Romanorum imperator augustus. The flourished ruches also, as in the Prankish chanceries, were in vbgue. Eventually they were used by certain of the chancellors as a sign-manual, and took fanciful shapes, such as a building with a cupola, or even a diptych. They disappear early in the I2th century, the period when in other respects the chancery of the Holy Roman Empire largely adopted a more simple style in its diplomas.. Lists of witnesses, in support of the royal and official subscriptions, were sometimes added in the course of the nth century, and they appear regularly in documents a hundred years later. For the study of diplomatic in England, material exists in two distinct series of documents, those of the Anglo-Saxon period, and those subsequent to the Norman Conquest. The Anglo- Saxon kings appear to have borrowed, partially, the style of their diplomas from the chanceries of their England. Prankish neighbours, introducing at the same time modifications which give those documents a particular character marking their nationality. In some of the earlier examples we find that the lines of the foreign style are followed more or less closely; but very soon a simpler model was adopted which, while it varied in formulas from reign to reign, lasted in general con- struction down to the time of the Norman Conquest. The royal charters were usually drawn up in Latin, sometimes in Anglo- Saxon, and began with a preamble or exordium (in some instances preceded by an invocation headed with the chrismon or with a cross), in the early times of a simple character, but, later, drawn out not infrequently to great length in involved and bombastic periods. Then immediately followed the disposing or granting clause, often accompanied with a few words explaining the motive, such as, for the good of the soul of the grantor; and the text was closed with final clauses of varying extent, protecting the deed against infringement, &c. In early examples the dating clause gave the day and month (often according to the Roman calendar) and the year of the indiction; but the year of the Incarnation was also immediately adopted; and, later, the regnal year also. The position of this clause in the charter was subject to variation. The subscriptions of the king and of the personages witnessing the deed, each preceded by a cross, but all written by the hand of the scribe, usually closed the charter. A peculiarity was the introduction, in many instances, either in the body of the charter, 306 DIPOENUS— DIPPEL or in a separate paragraph at the end, of the boundaries of the land granted, written in the native tongue. The sovereigns of the several kingdoms of the Heptarchy, as well as those of the United Kingdom, usually styled themselves rex. But from the time of ^Ethelstan, A.D. 825-840, they also assumed fantastic titles in the text of their charters, such as: rexet primicerius, rex et rector, gubernator el rector, monarchus, and particularly the Greek basileus, and basileus industrius. At the same time the name of Albion was also frequently used for Britain. A large number of documents of the Anglo-Saxon period, dating from the 7th century, has survived, both original and copies entered in chartularies. Of distinct documents there are nearly two hundred; but a large proportion of these must be set aside as copies (both contemporary and later) or as spurious deeds. Although there is evidence, as above stated, of the use of seals by certain of the Mercian kings, the method of authentication of diplomas by seal impression was practically unknown to the Anglo-Saxon sovereigns, save only to Edward the Confessor, who, copying the custom which obtained upon the continent, adopted the use of a great seal. With the Norman Conquest the old tradition of the Anglo- Saxons disappeared. The Conqueror brought with him the practice of the Roman chancery, which naturally followed the Capetian model; and his diplomas of English origin differed only from those of Normandy by the addition of his new style, rex Anglorum, in the superscription. But even from the first there was a tendency to simplicity in the new English chancery, not improbably suggested by the brief formalities of Anglo-Saxon charters, and, side by side with the more formal royal diplomas, others of shorter form and less ceremony were issued, which by the reign of Henry II. quite superseded the more solemn docu- ments. These simpler charters began with the royal superscrip- tion, the address, and the salutation, e.g. Willelmus, Dei gratia rex Anglorum, N. episcopo et omnibus baronibus et fidelibus suis Francis et Anglis salutem. Then followed the notification and the grant, e.g. Sciatis me concessisse, &c., generally without final clauses, or, if any, brief clauses of protection and warranty; and, at the end, the list of witnesses and the date. The regnal year was usually cited; but the year of the Incarnation was also sometimes given. The great seal was appended. To some of the Conqueror's charters his subscription and those of his queen and sons are attached, written by the scribe, but accompanied with crosses which may or may not be autograph. By the reign of John the simpler form of royal charters had taken final shape, and from this time the acts of the kings of England have been classified under three heads: viz. (i) Charters, generally of the pattern described above; (2) Letters patent, in which the address is general, Universis presenles litteras inspecturis, &c.; the cor- roborative clause describes the character of the document, In cujus rei testimonium has literas nostras fieri fecimus patentes; the king himself is his own witness, Tesie me ipso; and the great seal is appended; (3) Close letters, administrative documents convey- ing orders, the king witnessing, Teste me ipso. The style of the English kings down to John was, with few exceptions, Rex Anglorum; thenceforward, Rex Angliae. Henry II. added the feudal titles, dux Normannorum et Aquitanorum et comes Andegavorum, which Henry III. curtailed to dux Aquitaniae. John added the title dominus Hibernme; Edward III., on claim- ing the crown of France, styled himself rex Angliae et Franciae, the same title being borne by successive kings down to the year 1801; and Henry VIII., in 1521, assumed the title of fidei defensor. The formula Dei gratia does not consistently accompany the royal title until the reign of Henry II., who adopted it in 1173 (see L. Delisle, Memoire sur la chronologic des chartes de Henri II., in the Bibl. de I' Ecole des Chartes, Ixvii. 361-401). The forms adopted in the royal chanceries were naturally imitated in the composition of private deeds which in all countries form the mass of material for historical and diplomatic research. The student of English diplomatic will soon remark how readily the private charters, especially conveyances of real property, fall into classes, and how stereotyped the phraseology and formulae of each class become, only modified from time to time by particular acts of legislation. The brevity of the early conveyances is maintained through successive generations, with only moderate growth as time progresses through the I2th> I3th and I4th centuries. The different kinds of deeds which the requirements of society have from time to time called into existence must be learned by the student from the text-books. But a particular form of document which was especially in favour in England should be mentioned. This was the chirograph (Gr. ydp, a hand, ypcKfrav, to write), which is found even in the Anglo-Saxon period, and which got its name from the word chirographum, cirographum or cyrographum being written in large letters at the head of the deed. At first the word was written, presumably, at the head of each of the two authentic copies which the two parties to a transaction would require. Then it became the habit to use the word thus written as a tally, the two copies of the deed being written on one sheet, head to head, with the word between them, which was then cut through longitudinally in a straight, or more commonly waved or indented (in modum dentium) line, each of the two copies thus having half of the word at the head. Any other word, or a series of letters, might thus be employed; and more than two copies of a deed could thus be made to tally. The chirograph was the precursor of the modern indenture, the commonest form of English deeds, though no longer a tally. In other countries, the notarial instrument has performed the functions which the chirograph and indenture have discharged for us. AUTHORITIES. — General treatises, handbooks, &c., areJ.Mabillon, De re diplomatica (1709); Tassin and Toustain, Nouyeau Traite de diplomatique (1750-1765) ; T. Madpx, Fprmulare Anglicanum (1702) ; G. Hickes, Linguarum septentrionalium thesaurus (1703-1705); F. S.Maffei, Istoria diplomatica (1727) ; G. Marini, I Papiri diplo- matici (1805); G. Bessel, Chronicon Gotwicense (De diplomatibus imperatorum ac regum Germaniae) (1732); A. Fumagalli, Dette istituzioni diplomatiche (1802); M. F. Kopp, Palaeographia crilica (1817-1829); K. T. G. Schonemann, Versuch eines vollstandigen Systems der Diplomatik (1818); T. Sickel, Lehre von den Vrkunden der ersten Karolinger (1867); J. Ficker, Beitrage zur Urkundenlehre (1877—1878); A. Gloria, Compendia dette lezioni di paleografia e diplomatica (1870); C. Paoli, Programma scolastico di paleografia Lalina e di diplomatica (1888-1890); H. Bresslau, Handbuch der Urkundenlehre fur Deutschland und Italien (1889); A. Giry, Manuel de diplomatique (1894); F. Leist, Urkundenlehre (1893); E. M. Thompson, Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography, cap. xix. (1906); J. M. Kemble, Codex diplomaticus aevi Saxonici (1839— 1848); W. G. Birch, Cartularium Saxonicum (1885-1893); J. Mufioz y Rivero.Afanwe/ de paleografia diplomatica Espanola (1890); M. Russi, Paleografia e diplomatica de' documenti dette provincie Napolitane (1883). Facsimiles are given in J. B. Silvestre, Paleo- graphie universelle (English edition, 1850); and in the Facsimiles, &c., published by the Palaeographical Society (1873-1894) and the New Palaeographical Society (1903, &c.); and also in the following works: — A. Champollion-Figeac, Chartes et manuscrits sur papyrus (1840); J. A. Letronne, Diplomes et chartes de I'epoque mero- vingienne (1845-1866); J. Tardif, Archives de I'Empire: Facsimile de chartes et diplomes merovingiens et carlovingiens (1866); G. H. Pettz, Schrifttafeln zum Gebrauch bei diplomatischen Vorlesungen (1844-1869) ; H. von Sybel and T. Sickel, Kaiser- urkunden in Abbildungen (1880-1891); J. von Pflugk-Harttung, Specimina selecta chartarum Pontificum Romanorum (1885-1887); Specimina palaeographica regestorum Romanorum pontificum (1888); Recueil de joe-similes a V usage de V Ecole des Charles (not published) (1880, &c.) ; J. Mufioz y Rivero, Chrestomathia palaeographica: scripturae Hispanae veteris Specimina (1890); E. A. Bond, Fac- similes of Ancient Charters in the British Museum (1873-1878).' W. B. Sanders, Facsimiles of Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts (charters) (1878-1884); G. F. Warner and H. J. Ellis, Facsimiles of Royal and other Charters in the British Museum (1903). (E. M. T.) DIPOENUS and SCYLLIS, early Greek sculptors, who worked together, and are said to have been pupils of Daedalus. Pliny assigns to them the date 580 B.C., and says that they worked at Sicyon, which city from their time onwards became one of the great schools of sculpture. They also made statues for Cleonae and Argos. They worked in wood, ebony and ivory, and apparently also in marble. It is curious that no inscription bearing their names has come to light. DIPPEL, JOHANN KONRAD (1673-1734), German theologian and alchemist, son of a Lutheran pastor, was born at the castle of Frankenstein, near Darmstadt, on the loth of August 1673. He studied theology at Giessen. After a short visit to Wittenberg DIPSOMANIA— DIPTERA 307 he went to Strassburg, where he lectured on alchemy and chiro- mancy, and occasionally preached. He gained considerable popularity, but was obliged after a time to quit the city, owing to his irregular manner of living. He had up to this time espoused the cause of the orthodox as against the pietists; but in his two first works, published under the name " Christianus Democritus," Orlhodoxia Orthodoxorum (1697) and Papismus vapulans Pro- testantium (1698), he assailed the fundamental positions of the Lutheran theology. He held that religion consisted not in dogma but exclusively in love and self-sacrifice. To avoid persecution ' he was compelled to wander from place to place in Germany, Holland, Denmark and Sweden. He took the degree of doctor of medicine at Leiden in 1711. He discovered Prussian blue, and by the destructive distillation of bones prepared the evil- smelling product known as Dippel's animal oil. He died near Berleburg on the 25th of- April 1734. An enlarged edition of Dippel's collected works was published at Berleburg in 1743. See the biographies by J. C. G. Ackermann (Leipzig, 1781), H. V. Hoffmann (Darmstadt, 1783), K. Henning (1881) and W. Bender (Bonn, 1882) ; also a memoir by K. Bucher in' the Historisches Taschenbuch for 1858. DIPSOMANIA (from Gr. 3i\l/a, thirst, and fiavia, madness), a term formerly applied to the attacks of delirium (. Sometimes a kind of quoit, spherical in form, was used, through a hole in which a thong was passed to assist the athlete in throwing it. The sport of throwing the discus was common in the time of Homer, who mentions it repeatedly. It formed a part of the pentathlon, or quintuple games, in the ancient Olympic Games. Statius, in Thebais, 646-721, fully describes the use of the discus. In the British Museum there is a restored copy of a statue by Myron (see GREEK ART, Plate IV. fig. 68) of a discus-thrower (discobolus) in the act of hurling the missile; but the investigations of N. E. Norman Gardiner show that a wrong attitude has been adopted by the restorer. Throwing the discus was introduced as an event in modern athletics at the revived Olympic Games, first held at Athens in 1896, and since that time it has become a recognized event in the athletic championship meetings of several European nations, as well as in the United States, where it has become very popular. According to the American rules the discus must be of a smooth, hard-wood body without finger-holes, weighted in the centre with lead disks and capped with polished brass disks, with a steel ring on the outside. Its weight must be 4^ Ib, its outside diameter 8 in. and its thickness at the centre 2 in. It must be thrown from a 7-ft. circle, which may not be overstepped in throwing, and the throw is measured from the spot where the discus first strikes the ground to the point in the circumference of the circle on a line between the centre and the point of striking. DISINFECTANTS, substances employed to neutralize the action of pathogenic organisms, and prevent the spread of contagious or infectious disease. The efficiency of any disinfectant is due to its power of destroying, or of rendering inert, specific poisons or disease germs. Therefore antiseptic substances generally are to this extent disinfectants. So also the deodorizers, which act by oxidizing or otherwise changing the chemical constitution of volatile substances disseminated in the air, or which prevent noxious exhalations from organic substances, are in virtue of these properties effective disinfectants in certain diseases. A knowledge of the value of disinfectants, and the use of some of the most valuable agents, can be traced to very remote times ; and much of the Levitical law of cleansing, as well as the origin of numerous heathen ceremonial practices, are clearly based on a perception of the value of disinfection. The means of disinfection, and the substances employed, are very numerous, as are the classes and conditions of disease and contagion they are designed to meet. Nature, in the oxidizing influence of freely circulating atmospheric air, in the purifying effect of water, and in the powerful deodorizing properties of common earth, has provided the most potent ever-present and acting disinfecting media. Of the artificial disinfectants employed or available three classes may be recognized : — ist, volatile or vaporizabie substances, which attack impurities in the air; 2nd, chemical agents, for acting on the diseased body or on the infectious discharges therefrom; and 3rd, the physical agencies of heat and cold. In some of these cases the destruction of the contagium is effected by the formation of new chemical compounds, by oxidation, deoxidation or other reaction, and in others the conditions favourable to life are removed or life is destroyed by high temperature. Among the first class, aerial or gaseous disinfectants, formic aldehyde has of late years taken foremost place. The vapour is a powerful disinfectant and deodorant, and for the surface disinfection of rooms, fulfils all requirements when used in sufficient amount. It acts more rapidly than equal quantities of sulphurous acid, and it does not affect colours. It is non-poisonous, though irritating to the eyes and throat. With the exception of iron and steel it does not attack metals. It can be obtained in paraform tabloids, and with a specially constructed spirit lamp disinfection can be carried out by any one. Twenty tabloids must be employed for every 1000 cubic ft. of space. Disinfection by sulphurous acid fumes is of great antiquity, and is still in very general use; for the purpose of destroying vermin it is more powerful than formic aldehyde. Camphor and some volatile oils have also been employed as air disinfectants, but their virtues lie chiefly in masking, not destroying, noxious effluvia. In the 2nd class — non-gaseous disinfecting compounds — all the numerous antiseptic substances may be reckoned; but the substances principally em- ployed in practice are oxidizing agents, as potassium manganates and permanganates, " Condy's fluid," and solutions of the so- called " chlorides of lime," soda and potash, with the chlorides of aluminium and zinc, soluble sulphates and sulphites, solutions of sulphurous acid, and the tar products — carbolic, cresylic and DISMAL— DISPENSATION salicylic acids. Of the physical agents heat and cold, the latter, though a powerful natural disinfectant, is not practically available by artificial means; heat is a power chiefly relied on for purifying and disinfecting clothes, bedding and textile substances generally. Different degrees of temperature are required for the destruction of the virus of various diseases; but as clothing, &c., can be exposed to a heat of about 250° Fahr. without injury, provision is made for submitting articles to nearly that temperature. For the thorough disinfection of a sick-room the employment of all three classes of disinfectants, for purifying the air, for destroying the virus at its point of origin, and for cleansing clothing, &c., may be required. DISMAL, an adjective meaning dreary, gloomy, and so a name given to stretches of swampy land on the east coast of the United States, as the Dismal Swamp in Virginia and North Carolina. The derivation has been much discussed. In the early examples of the use the word is a substantive, especially in the expres- sion " in the dismal," i.e. in the dismal time or days. Later it became adjectival, especially in combination with " days." It has been connected with " decimal," med. Latin decimalis, belonging to a tithe or tenth, and thus the " dismal days " are the unpleasant days connected with the extortion and oppression of exacting payment of tithes. According to the New English Dictionary, quoting Professor W. W. Skeat, " dismal " is derived, through an Anglo-Fr. dis mal, from the Lat. dies mali, evil or unpropitious days. This Anglo-French expression, explained as les mal jours, is found in a MS. of Rauf de Linham's Art de Kalender, 1256. These days of evil omen were known as Dies Aegyptiaci (Du Cange, Glossarium, s.ii.) or Egyptian days, either as having been instituted by Egyptian astrologers or with refer- ence to the " ten plagues "; so Chaucer, " I trowe hit was in the dismal, That were the ten woundes of Egipte " (Book of the Duchesse, 1206). There were two such days in each month. See Skeat, Trans. Philol. Soc. (1888), p. 2, and note on the line in the " Book of the Duchesse," The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer, vol. i. (1894). DISORDERLY HOUSE, in law, a house in which the conduct of its inmates is such as to become a public nuisance, or a house where persons congregate to the probable disturbance of the public peace or other commission of crime. In England, by the Dis- orderly Houses Act 1751, the term includes common bawdy houses or brothels,1 common gaming houses, common betting houses and disorderly places of entertainment. The keeping of such is a misdemeanour punishable by fine or imprisonment, and in the case of a brothel also punishable on summary conviction by the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885; the letting out for gain for indiscriminate prostitution of a room or rooms in a house will make it as much a brothel in law as if the whole house were let out for the purpose. Where, however, a woman occupies a house or room which is frequented by men for the purpose of committing fornication with her, she cannot be convicted of keeping a dis- orderly house. See also PROSTITUTION. DISPATCH, or DESPATCH, to send off immediately, or by express; particularly in the case of the sending of official messages, or of the immediate sending of troops to their destina- tion, or the like. The word is thus used as a substantive of written official reports of events, battles and the like, sent by ambassadors, generals, &c., by means of a special messenger, or of express correspondence generally. From the primary meaning of the prompt sending of a message, &c., the word is used of the quick disposal of business, or of the disposal of a person by violence; hence the word means to execute or murder. The etymology of the word has been obscured by the connexion with the Fr. depecher, and depeche, which are in meaning the equivalents of 1 The etymology of this word has been confuted by the early adoption into English usage of the O. Fr. bordel. The two words are in origin quite distinct. Brothel is an O. Eng. word for a person, not a place. It meant an abandoned vagabond, one who had gone to ruin (abreothan). Bordel, on the contrary, is a place, literally a small hut or shelter, especially for fornication, Med. Lat. bordellum, diminutive of the Late Lat. borda, board. The words were early confused, and brothel-house, bordel-house, bordel or brothel, are all used for a disorderly house, while bordel was similarly misused, and, like brothel in its proper meaning, was applied to a disorderly person. the Eng. verb and substantive. The Fr. word is made up of the prefix de-, Lat. dis-, and the root which appears in empecher, to embarrass, and means literally to disentangle. The Lat. origin of depecher and empecher is a Low Lat. pedicare, pedica, a fetter. The Fr. word came into Eng. as depeach, which was in use from the i sth century until " despatch " was introduced. This word is certainly direct from the Ital. dispacciare, or Span, despachar, which must be derived from the Lat. root appearing in pactus, fixed, fastened, from pangere. The New English Dictionary finds the earliest instance of " dispatch " in a letter to Henry VIII. from Bishop Tunstall, commissioner to Spain in 1516-1517. DISPENSATION, a term with two main applications, (i) to the action of administering, arranging or dealing out, and (2) to the action of allowing certain things, rules, &c., to be done away with, relaxed. Of these two meanings the first is to be derived from the classical Latin use of dispensare, literally, to weigh out, hence to distribute, especially of the orderly arrangement of a household by a steward; thus dispensatio was, in theology, the word chosen to translate the Greek olKovo/j.la, economy, i.e. divine or religious systems, as in the Jewish, Mosaic, Christian dispensa- tions. Dispensation in law is, strictly speaking, the suspension by competent authority of general rules of law in particular cases. Its object is to modify the hardships often arising from the rigorous application of general laws to particular cases, and its essence is to preserve the law by suspending its operation, i.e. making it non-existent, in such cases. It follows, then, that dis- pensation, in its strict sense, is anticipative, i.e. it does not absolve from the consequences of a legal obligation already contracted, but avoids a breach of the law by suspending the obligation to conform to it, e.g. a dispensation or licence to marry within the prohibited degrees, or to hold benefices in plurality. The term is, however, frequently used of the power claimed and exercised by the supreme legislative authority of altering or abrogating in particular cases conditions established under the existing law and of releasing individuals from obligations incurred under it, e.g. dispensations granted by the pope ex plenitudine potestatis from the obligation of celibacy, from religious and other vows, from malrimonium ratum, non consummatum, &c. i. Ecclesiastical Law. — In the theory of the canon law the dispensing power is the corollary of the legislative, the authority \hat makes laws, and no other, having power to suspend them. It follows that the law of nature (jus naturae) and a fortiori the law of God (jus dimnum) are not subject to dispensation of any earthly authority, and that it is only the disciplinary laws made by the Church that the Church is empowered to suspend or to abrogate. Thus, not even the pope could grant a dispensation for a marriage between persons related in the direct line of ascent or descent, e.g. father and daughter, or between brother and sister, while dispensations are granted for marriages within other prohibited degrees, e.g. uncle and niece. The dispensing power, like the legislative authority, was formerly invested in general councils and even in provincial synods; but in the West, with the gradual centralization of authority at Rome, it became ultimately vested in the pope as the supreme lawgiver of the Church. Subject, however, to the supreme jurisdiction of the pope, the power of dispensation con- tinued to reside in the other organs of the Church in exact proportion to their legislative capacities, i.e. in provincial synods in respect of regional rules laid down by them, and in bishops in respect of rules laid down by them for their dioceses. According to Du Cange, the earliest record of the use of the word dispensatio in this connexion is in the letter of Pope Gelasius I. of the i ith of March 494, to the bishops of Lucania (in Jaffe, Reg. Pont. Rom., ed. 2, torn. i. no. 636): necessaria rerum Dispensatione con- stringimur, ... sic canonum paternorum decreta librare, . . . ut quae praesentium necessitas temporum restaurandis Ecclesiis relaxanda deposcit, adhibita consideratione diligenti, quantum fieri potest temperemus.2 Dispensations from the observance ! In this quotation the word dispensatio still has its meaning of " economy " : " we are bound by the necessary economy of things." Possibly its use by the pope in this connexion may have led to the technical meaning of the word dispensatio in the medieval canon law. 3*4 DISPENSATION of traditional rules were, however, during the early centuries exceedingly rare, and there are more instances of the popes repudiating than of their exercising the power to grant them. Thus Celestine I. (d. 432) wrote: " The rules govern us, not we the rules: we are subject to the canons, since we are the servants of the precepts of the canons " (Epist. 3 ad Episcopos Illyrici) ; and Pope Zozimus wrote even more strongly: " This see possesses no authority to make any concession or change; for with us abides antiquity firmly rooted (inconvulsis radicibus), reverence for which the decrees of the Fathers enjoined." As time went on, however, and the Church expanded, this rigidly con- servative attitude proved impossible to maintain, and the principle of " tempering " the law when forced to do so " by the exigencies of affairs or of the times " (rerum iiel temporum angustia), as laid down by Gelasius, was adopted into the canon law itself. The principle was, of course, singularly open to abuse. In theory it was laid down from the first that dispensations were only to be granted in cases of urgent necessity and in the highest interests of the Church; in practice, from the nth century onwards, the power of dispensation was used by the popes as one of the most potent instruments for extending their influence. Dispensations to hold benefices in plurality formed, with pro- visions and the papal claim to the right of direct appointment, a powerful means for extending the patronage of the Holy See and therefore its hold over the clergy, and from the i3th century onwards this abuse assumed vast proportions (Hinschius iii. p. 250). Even more scandalous was the almost unrestrained traffic in licences and dispensations at Rome, which grew up, at least as early as the I4th century, owing to the fees charged for such dispensations having come to be regarded by the Curia as a regular source of revenue (Woker, Das kirchliche Finanzwesen der Pdpste, Nordlingen, 1878, pp. 75, 160). Loud complaints of these abuses were raised in the reforming councils of Constance and Basel in the i5th century, but nothing was done effectually to check them. The actual practice'of the Roman Catholic Church is based upon the decisions of the council of Trent, which left the medieval theory intact while endeavouring to guard against its abuses. The proposal put forward by the Gallican and Spanish bishops to subordinate the papal power of dispensation to the consent of the Church in general council was rejected, and even the canons of the council of Trent itself, in so far as they affected reformation of morals or ecclesiastical discipline, were decreed " saving the authority of the Holy See " (Sess. xxv. cap. 21, de ref.). At the same time it was laid down in respect of all dispensations, whether papal or other, that they were to be granted only for just and urgent causes, or in view of some decided benefit to the Church (urgens justaque causa et major quandoque utilitas), and in all cases gratis. The payment of money for a dispensation was ipso facto to make the dispensation void (Sess. xxv. cap. 18, de re/.). Though verbal dispensations are valid, papal dispensations are given in writing. Before the constitution Sapienti of Pius X. (1908) all dispensations inforo externo, especially in matrimonial causes, were dealt with by the Dataria Apostolica, those in foro interno by the Penitentiary, which latter also possessed in foro externo the right to grant dispensations in matrimonial causes to poor people. Since 1908 the Dataria only deals with dispensa- tions in matters concerning benefices, dispensations in matri- monial matters having been transferred to the new Congregation on the discipline of the sacraments (see CURIA ROMANA). The regular form of dispensation is the forma commissaria (Trid. Sess. xxii. cap. 5, de ref.), i.e. a mandate to the bishop to grant the dispensation, after due inquiry, in the pope's name. In exceptional cases, e.g. sovereigns or bishops, the dispensation is sent direct to the petitioner (forma gratiosa). Dispensations are nominally gratuitous; but the officials are entitled to fees for drawing them up, and there are customary " compositions " (compositiones) which are destined for charitable objects in Rome. These fees were and are regulated according to the capacity of the petitioners to pay, the result being that the abuses which the council of Trent had sought to abolish continued to flourish. In the 1 7th century a specially privileged class of bankers (banquiers expedilionnaires) existed at Rome whose sole business was obtaining dispensations on commission, and one of these, named Pelletier, published at Paris in 1677, under the royal imprimatur, a regular tariff of the sums for which in any given case a dis- pensation might be obtained. That the " urgent and just cause " was, in the circumstances, a very minor consideration was to be expected, and the enlightened pope Benedict XIV., himself a canon lawyer of eminence, complained " Dispensationem non raro concedi in Dataria, sine causa, nempe ob eleemosynam quae praestatur " (Inst. 87, No. 26). It may be added that the worst abuses of this system have long since disappeared. The bishops have their own correspondents at Rome, and one of the duties of the diplomatic representatives of foreign states at the Curia is to see that their nationals receive their dispensations without overcharge. Bishops are by right (jure ordinario) competent to dispense in all cases expressly reserved to them by the canon law, e.g. in the matter of publication of banns of marriage. They possess besides special powers delegated to them by the pope and renewed every five years (facilitates quinquennales) , or by virtue of faculties granted to them personally (facultates extraordinariae) , e.g. to dispense from rules of abstinence, from simple vows, and with some exceptions from the prohibition of marriage within pro- hibited degrees. Church of England. — By 2 5 Henry VIII. cap. 21. sec. 2 (1534), it was enacted that neither the king, his successors, nor any of his subjects should henceforth sue for licences, dispensations, &c., to the see of Rome, and that the power to issue such licences, dispensations, &c., " for causes not being contrary or repugnant to the Holy Scriptures and laws of God," should be vested in the archbishop of Canterbury for the time being, who at his own discretion was to issue such dispensations, &c., under his seal, to the king and his subjects. The power of dispensation thus vested in the archbishops partly fell obsolete, partly has been curtailed by subsequent statutes, e.g. the Pluralities Act of 1838. It is now confined to granting dispensations for holding two benefices at .once, to issuing licences for non-residence, and in matrimonial cases to the issuing of special licences. The dispens- ing power of bishops in the Church of England survives only in the right to grant marriage licences, i.e. dispensations from the obligation to publish the banns. Though, however, these licences and dispensations are given under the archiepiscopal and episcopal seals, they are actually issued by the commissaries of faculties and vicars-general (chancellors) , independently, in virtue of the powers conferred on them by their patents. This has led, since the pass- ing of the Divorce Acts and the Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister Act, to a curiously anomalous position, licences for the remarriage of divorced persons having been issued under the bishop's seal, while the bishop himself publicly protested that such marriages were contrary to " the law of God," but that he himself had no power to prevent his chancellor licensing them. See Hinschius, Kirchenrecht (Berlin, 1883), iii. 250, &c. ; article " Dispensation" by Hinschius in Herzog-Hauck, Rsalencyklopddie (Leipzig, 1898); article "Dispensation" in Wetzer and Welte's Kirchenlexikon (2nd ed. Freiburg im Breisgau, 1882-1901); F. Lichtenberger, Encyclopedic des sciences religieuses (Paris, 1878), s.v. " Dispense " ; Phillimore, Reel. Law. 2. Constitutional Law. — The power of dispensation from the operation of the ordinary law in particular cases is, of course, everywhere inherent in the supreme legislative authority, how- ever rarely it may be exercised. Divorce (in Ireland) by act of parliament may be taken as an example which still actually occurs. On the other hand, the dispensing power once vested in the crown in England is now merely of historical interest, though of great importance in the constitutional struggles of the past. This power possessed by the crown of dispensing with the statute law is said to have been copied from the dispensations or non obstanle clauses granted by the popes in matters of canon law;' the parallel between them is certainly very striking, and there can be no doubt that the principles of the canon law influenced the decisions of the courts in the matter. It was, for instance, very generally laid down that the king could by dispensation make it lawful to do what was malum prohibitum but not to do what was DISPERSION malum in se, a principle of the canon law, but one difficult to reconcile with English legal principles, since no act is legally malum unless forbidden by law. This was pointed out by Chief Justice Vaughan in the celebrated judgment in the case of Thomas v. Sorrell, when he rejected the distinction between mala in se and mala prohibita as confusing, and attempted to define the dispens- ing power of the crown by limiting it to cases of individual breaches of penal statutes where no third party loses a right of action, and where the breach is not continuous, at the same time denying the power of the crown to dispense with any general penallaw. This judgment, asSir William Anson points out, only showed the extreme difficulty of limiting the power ascribed to the crown, a standing grievance from the time that parliament had risen to be a constituent part of the state. So long as the legal principle by which the law was " the king's law " survived there was in fact no theoretical basis for such limitation, and the matter resolved itself into one of the great constitutional questions between crown and parliament which issued in the Revolution of 1688. The supreme crisis came owing to the use made by James II. of the dispensing power. His action in dispensing with the Test Act, in order to enable Roman Catholics to hold office under the crown, was supported by the courts in the test case of Godden v. Hales, but it made the Revolution inevitable. By the Bill of Rights the exercise of the dispensing power was forbidden, except as might be permitted by statute. At the same time the legality of its exercise in the past was admitted by the clause maintaining the validity of dispensations granted in a certain form before the 23rd of October 1689. See Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, part i. " Parlia- ment," jrd ed. pp. 311-319; F. W. Maitland, Const. Hist, of England (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 302, &c. ; Stubbs, Const. Hist. ss. 290, 291. (W. A. P.) DISPERSION (from Lat. dispergere, to scatter), the act or process of separation and distribution. Apart from the technical use of the term, especially in optics (see below), the expression particularly applied to the settlements of Jews in foreign countries outside Palestine. These were either voluntary, for purposes of trade and commerce, or the results of conquest, such as the captivities of Assyria and Babylonia. The word diaspora (Gr. 5ia.o"iropa) is also used of these scattered communities, but is usually confined to the dispersion among the Hellenic and Roman peoples, or to the body of Christian Jews outside Palestine (see JEWS). DISPERSION, in OPTICS. When a beam of light which is not homogeneous in character, i.e. which does not consist of simple vibrations of a definite wave-length, undergoes refraction at the surface of any transparent medium, the different colours corre- sponding to the different wave-lengths become separated or dispersed. Thus, if a ray of white light AO (fig. i ) enters obliquely into the surface of a block of glass at O, it gives rise to the divergent system of rays ORV, varying con- tinuously in colour from red to violet, the red ray OR being least refracted and the violet ray OV most so. The order of the successive colours in all colourless transparent media is red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. Dispersion is therefore due to the fact that rays of different colours possess dif- ferent refrangibilities. Air Glass FIG. i. The simplest way of showing dispersion is to refract a narrow beam of sunlight through a prism of glass or prismatic vessel containing water or other clear liquid. As the light is twice refracted, the dispersion is increased, and the rays, after trans- mission through the prism, form a divergent system, which may be allowed to fall on a sheet of white paper, forming the well- known solar spectrum. This method was employed by Sir Isaac Newton, whose experiments constitute the earliest systematic investigation of the phenomenon. Let O (fig. 2) represent a small hole in the shutter of a darkened room, and OS a narrow FIG. 2. beam of sunlight which is allowed to fall on a white screen so as to form an image of the sun at S. If now the prism P be interposed as in the figure, the whole beam is not only refracted up- ward, but also spread out into the spectrum RV, the horizontal breadth of the band of colours being the same as that of the original image S. In an experiment similar to that here represented, Newton made a small hole in the screen and another small hole in a second screen placed behind the first. By slightly turning the prism P, the position of the spectrum on the first screen could be shifted sufficiently to cause light of any desired colour to pass through. Some of this light also passed through the second hole, and thus he obtained a narrow beam of practically homogeneous light in a fixed direction (the line joining the apertures in the two screens) . Operating on this beam with a second prism, he found that the homogeneous light was not dispersed, and also that it was more refracted the nearer the point from which it was taken approached to the violet end of the spectrum R V. This confirmed his previous conclusion that the rays increase in refrangibility from red to violet. Newton also made use of the method of crossed prisms, which has been found of great use in studying dispersion. The prism P (fig. 3) refracts upwards, while the prism Q, which has its refract- ing edge perpendicular to that of P, refracts towards the right. The combined effect of the two is to pro- duce a spectrum sloping up from left to right. The spectrum will be straight if the twoprismsaresimilar in dispersive property, but if one of them is con- FlG- 3-— Method of Crossed Prisms, structed of a material which possesses any peculiarity in this respect it will be revealed by the curvature of the spectrum. The coloured borders seen in the images produced by simple lenses are due to dispersion. The explanation of the colours of the rainbow, which are also due to dispersion, was given by Newton, although it was known previously to be due to refraction in the drops of rain (see RAINBOW). According to the wave-theory of light, refraction (q.v.) is due to a change of velocity when light passes from one medium to another. The phenomenon of dispersion shows that in dispersive media the velocity is different for lights of different wave-lengths. In free space, lightof all wave-lengths is propagated with the same velocity, as is shown by the fact that stars, when occulted by the moon or planets, preserve their white colour up to the last moment of disappearance, which would not be the case if one colour reached the eye later than another. The absence of colour changes in variable stars or in the appearance of new stars is further evidence of the same fact. All material media, however, are more or less dispersive. In air and other gases, at ordinary pressures, the dispersion is very small, because the refractivity is small. The dispersive powers of gases are, however, generally comparable with those of liquids and solids. pispersive Power. — In order to find the amount of dispersion caused by any given prism, the deviations produced by it on two rays of any definite pure colours may be measured. The angle of difference between these deviations is called the dispersion for those rays. For this purpose the C and F lines in the spark-spectrum of hydrogen, situated in the red and blue respectively, are usually employed. . If 6r and 8c are the angular deviations of these rays, then ST — &C is called the mean dispersion of the prism. If the refracting angle of the prism is small, then the ratio of the dispersion to the mean deviation of the two rays is the dispersive power of the material of the prism. Instead of the mean deviation, J (Sp+Sc), it is more usual to take the deviation of some intermediate ray. The exact position of the selected ray does not matter much, but the yellow D line of sodium 316 DISPERSION is the most convenient. If we denote its deviation by SD, then we may put Dispersive power = (SF-SC) /So • • • (!)• This quantity may readily be expressed in terms of the refractive indices for the three colours, for if A is the angle of the prism (sup- posed small) where nc, I'D, MF are the respective indices of refraction. This gives at once Dispersive power = (/«F-MC)/(M>-I) • • • (2). The second of these two expressions is generally given as the definition of dispersive power. It is more useful than (i), as the refractive indices may be measured with a prism of any convenient angle. By studying the dispersion of colours in water, turpentine and crown glass Newton was led to suppose that dispersion is pro- portional to refraction. He concluded that there could be no refraction without dispersion, and hence that achromatism was impossible of attainment (see ABERRATION). This conclusion was proved to be erroneous when Chester M. Hall in 1733 constructed achromatic lenses. Glasses can now be made differing considerably both in refractivity and dispersive power. Irrationality of Dispersion. — If we compare the spectrum produced by refraction in a glass prism with that of a diffraction grating, we find not only that the order of colours is reversed, but also that the same colours do not occupy corresponding lengths on the two spectra, the blue and violet being much more extended in the refraction spectrum. The refraction spectra for different media also differ amongst themselves. This shows that the connexion between the refrangibility of light and its wave-length does not obey any simple law, but depends on the nature of the refracting medium. This property is referred to as the " irrationality of dispersion." In a diffraction spectrum the diffraction is proportional to the wave- length, and the spectrum is said to be normal." If the increase of the angle of refraction were proportional to the diminution of wave-length for a prism of any material, the resulting spectrum would also be normal. This, however, is not the case with ordinary refracting media, the refrangibility generally increasing more and more rapidly as the wave-length diminishes. The irrationality of dispersion is well illustrated by C.Christiansen's experiments on the dispersive properties of white powders. If the powder of a transparent substance is immersed in a liquid of the same refractive index, the mixture becomes transparent and a measure- ment of the refractive index of the liquid gives the refractivity of the powder. Christiansen found, in an investigation of this kind, that the refractivity of the liquid could only be got to match that of the powder for mono-chromatic light, and that, if white light were used, brilliant colour effects were obtained, which varied in a remarkable manner when small changes occurred in the refractive index of the liquid. These effects are due to the difference in dis- persive power of the powder and the liquid. If the refractive index is, for instance, the same for both in the case of green light, and a source of white light is viewed through the mixture, the green com- , ponent will be completely transmitted, while the other colours are more or less scattered by multiple reflections and refractions at the surfaces of the powdered substance. Very striking colour changes are observed, according to R. W. Wood, when white light is trans- mitted through a paste made of powdered quartz and a mixture of carbon bisulphide with benzol haying the same refractive index as the quartz for yellow light. In this case small temperature changes alter the refractivity of the liquid without appreciably affecting the quartz. R. W. Wood has studied the iridescent colours seen when a precipitate of potassium silicofluoride is produced by adding silico- fluoric acid to a solution of potassium chloride, and found that they are due to the same cause, the refractive index of the minute crystals precipitated being about the same as that of the solution, which fatter can be varied by dilution. Anomalous Dispersion. — In some media the usual order of the colours is changed. This curious phenomenon was noticed by W. H. Fox Talbot about 1840, but does not seem to have become generally known. In 1860 F. P. Leroux discovered that iodine vapour refracted the red rays more than the violet, the intermediate colours not being transmitted; and in 1870 Christiansen found that an alcoholic solution of fuchsine refracted the violet less than the red, the order of the successive colours being violet, red, orange, yellow; the green being absorbed and a dark interval occurring between the violet and red. A. Kundt found that similar effects occur with a large number of substances, in particular with all those which possess the property of " surface colour," i.e., which strongly reflect light of a definite colour, as do many of the aniline dyes. Such bodies show strong absorption bands in those colours which they reflect, while of the transmitted light that which is of a slightly greater wave-length than the absorbed light has an abnormally great refrangibility, and that of a slightly shorter wave-length an abnormally small refrangibility. The name given to this pheno- menon,— " anomalous dispersion " — is an unfortunate one, as it has been found to obey a regular law. In studying the dispersion of the aniline dyes, a prism with a very small refracting angle is made of two glass plates slightly inclined to each other and enclosing a very thin wedge of the dye, which is either melted between the plates, or is in the form of a solution retained in position by surface-tension. Only very thin layers are sufficiently transparent to show the dispersion near or within an absorption band, and a large refracting angle is not required, the dispersion usually being very considerable. Another method, which has been used by R. W. Wood and C. E. Magnusson, is to introduce a thin film of the dye into one of the optical paths of a Michelson interferometer, and to determine the consequent displace- ment of the fringes. E. Mach and J. Arbes have used a method depending on total reflection (Drude's Theory of Optics, p. 394). A very remarkable example of anomalous dispersion, which was first observed by A. Kundt, is that exhibited by the vapour of sodium. It has not been found practicable to make a prism of this vapour in the ordinary way by enclosing it in a glass vessel of the required shape, as sodium vapour attacks glass, quickly rendering it opaque. A. E. Becquerel, however, investigated the character of the dis- persion by using prism-shaped flames strongly coloured with sodium. But the best way of exhibiting the effect is by making use of a remarkable property of sodium vapour discovered by R. W. Wood and employed for this purpose in a very ingenious manner. He found that when sodium is heated in a hard glass tube, the vapour which is formed is extraordinarily cohesive, only slowly spreading out in a cloud with well-defined borders, which can be rendered visible by placing the tube in front of a sodium flame, against which the cloud appears black. If a long glass tube with plane ends, and containing some pellets of sodium is heated in the middle by a row of burners, the cool ends remain practically vacuous and do not become obscured. The sodium vapour in the middle is very dense on the heated side, the density diminishing rapidly towards the upper part of the tube, so that, although not prismatic in form, it refracts like a prism owing to the variation in density. Thus if a horizontal slit is illuminated by an arc lamp, and the light — rendered parallel by a collimating lens — is transmitted through the sodium tube and focused on the vertical slit of a spectroscope, the effect of the sodium vapour is to produce its refraction spec- trum vertically on the slit. The image of this seen through the glass prism of the spectroscope will appear as in fig. 4. The whole of the FIG. Violet 4-Anomalous Dispersion of bourhood of the D lines is Sodlum VaP°ur- practically undeviated, so that it illuminates only a very short piece of the slit and is spread out into the ordinary spectrum. But the light of slightly greater wave-length than the D lines, being refracted strongly downward by the sodium vapour, illuminates the bottom of the slit; while that of slightly shorter wave-length is refracted upward and illuminates the top of the slit. Fig. 4 represents the in- verted image seen fn the telescope. The light corre- sponding to the D lines and the space between them is absorbed, as evi- denced by the dark inter- ' val. If the sodium is only gently heated, so as to produce a comparatively rarefied vapour, and a grat- ing spectroscope employed, the spectrum obtained is like that shown in fig. 5, which was the effect noticed by Becquerel with the sodium flame. Here the light corresponding to the space between the D lines is transmitted, being strongly refracted upward near Di, and downward near D2. The theory of anomalous dispersion has been applied in a very interesting way by W. H. Julius to explain the " flash spectrum " seen during a solar eclipse at the moment at which totality occurs. The conditions of this phenomenon have been imitated in the laboratory by Wood, and the corresponding effect obtained. Theories of Dispersion. — The first attempt at a mathematical theory of dispersion was made by A. Cauchy and published in 1835. This was based on the assumption that the medium in which the light is propagated is discontinuous and molecular in character, the molecules being subject to a mutual attraction. Thus, if one mole- cule is disturbed from its mean position, it communicates the disturbance to its neighbours, and so a wave is propagated. The formula arrived at by Cauchy was n being the refractive index, X the wave-length, and A, B, C, &c., constants depending on the material, which diminish so rapidly that only the first three as here written need be taken into account. If suitable values are chosen for these constants, the formula can be made to represent the dispersion of ordinary transparent media within the visible spectrum very well, but when extended to the infra-red region it often departs considerably from the truth, and it fails altogether in cases of anomalous dispersion. There are also grave theoretical objections to Cauchy's formula. D'ISRAELI The modern theory of dispersion, the foundation of which was laid by W. Sellmeier, is based upon the assumption that an interaction takes place between ether and matter. Sellmeier adopted the elastic-solid theory of the ether, and imagined the molecules to be attached to the ether surrounding them, but free to vibrate about their mean positions within a limited range. Thus the ether within the dispersive medium is loaded with molecules which are forced to perform oscillations of the same period as that of the transmitted wave. It can be shown mathematically that the velocity of propa- gation will be greatly increased if the frequency of the light-wave is slightly greater, and greatly diminished if it is slightly less than the natural frequency of the molecules ; also that these effects become less and less marked as the difference in the two frequencies increases. This is exactly in accordance with the observed facts in the case of substances showing anomalous dispersion. Sellmeier's theory did not take account of absorption, and cannot be applied to calculate the dispersion within a broad absorption band. H. von Helmholtz, working on a similar hypothesis, but with a frictional term intro- duced into his equations, obtained formulae which are applicable to cases of absorption. A modified form of Helmholtz's equation, due to E. Ketteler and known as the Ketteler-Helmholtz formula, has been much used in calculating dispersion, and expresses the facts with remarkable accuracy. P. Drude has obtained a similar formula based on the electromagnetic theory, thus placing the theory of dispersion on a much more satisfactory basis. The fundamental assumption is that the medium contains positively and negatively charged ions or electrons which are acted on by the periodic electric forces which occur in wave propagation on Maxwell's theory. The equations finally arrived at are -, | DgX* where X is the wave-length in free ether of light whose refractive index is n, and Xm the wave-length of light of the same period as the electron, K is a coefficient of absorption, and D and g are constants. The sign of summation 2 is used in cases where there are several absorption bands, and consequently several similar terms on the right-hand side, each with a different value of Xra. This would occur if there were several kinds of ions, each with its own natural period. In a region where there is no absorption, we have /t = o and therefore g = o, and we have only one equation, namely, which is identical with Sellmeier's result. As X^ is a wave-length corresponding to an absorption band, this formula can be used to find values of Xm which satisfy the observed values of n within the region of transparency, and so to determine where the absorption bands are situated. In this way the existence of bands in the infra- red part of the spectrum has been predicted in the case of quartz and detected by experiments on the selective reflection of the material. References. — For the theory of dispersion see P. Drude, Theory of Optics (Eng. trans.) ; R. W. Wood, Physical Optics; and A. Schuster, Theory of Optics. For descriptive accounts, see Wood's Physical Optics, T. Preston's Theory of Light, E. Edser's Light. The last work contains an elementary treatment of Sellmeier's theory. (J. R. C.) D'ISRAELI (or DISRAELI), ISAAC (1766-1848), English man of letters, father of the earl of Beaconsfield (q.v.) , was born at Enfield in May 1 766. He belonged to a Jewish family which, having been driven by the Inquisition from Spain, towards the end of the 1 5th century, settled as merchants at Venice, and assumed the name which has become famous; it was generally spelt D 'Israeli until the middle of the igth century. In 1748 his father, Benjamin D'IsraeJi, then only about eighteen years of age, removed to England, where, before passing the prime of life, he amassed a competent fortune, and retired from business. He belonged to the London congregation of Spanish and Portuguese Jews, of which his son also remained a nominal member until after Benjamin D'Israeli died at the end of 1816. The strongly marked characteristics which determined Isaac D'Israeli's career were displayed to a singular degree even in his boyhood. He spent his time over books and in long day- dreams, and evinced the strongest distaste for business and all the more bustling pursuits of life. These idiosyncrasies met with no sympathy from either of his parents, whose ambitious plans for his future career they threatened to disappoint. When he was about fourteen, in the hope of changing the bent of his mind, his father sent him to live with his agent at Amsterdam, where he worked under a tutor for four or five years. Here he studied Bayle and Voltaire, and became an ardent disciple of Rousseau. Here also he wrote a long poem against commerce, which he produced as an exposition of his opinions when, on his return to England, his father announced his intention of placing him in a commercial house at Bordeaux. Against such a destiny D'Israeli's mind strongly revolted; and he carried his poem, with a letter earnestly appealing for advice and assistance, to Samuel Johnson; but when he called again a week after to receive an answer, the packet was returned unopened — the great Doctor was on his death-bed. He also addressed a letter to Dr Vicesimus Knox, master of Tonbridge Grammar School, begging to be received in to his family, that he might enjoy the benefit of his learning and experience. How this application was answered we do not know. The evident firmness of his resolve, however, was not without effect. His parents gave up their purpose for a time. He was sent to travel in France, and allowed to occupy himself as he wished; and he had the happiness of spending some months in Paris, in the society of literary men, and devoted to the literary pursuits in which he delighted. In the beginning of 1 788 he returned home, and in the next year he attacked Peter Pindar (John Wolcot) in The Gentleman's Magazine in a poem in the manner of Pope, " On the Abuse of Satire." The authorship of the poem was much debated, and it was attributed by some to William Hayley, upon whom it was actually avenged, with characteristic savageness, by its victim. It is greatly to Wolcot's credit that, on learning his mistake, he sought the acquaintance of his young opponent, whose friend he remained to the end of his life. Through the success of this satire D'Israeli made the acquaintance of Henry James Pye, who helped to persuade his father that it would be a mistake to force him into a business career, and introduced him into literary circles. D'Israeli dedicated his first book, A Defence of Poetry, to Pye in 1 790. Henceforth his life was passed in the way he best liked — in quiet and almost uninterrupted study. In 1802 he married Maria Basevi, by whom he had five children, of whom Benjamin (after- wards Lord Beaconsfield and Prime Minister of England) was the second. He was able to maintain his strenuous habits of study till he reached the advanced age of seventy-two, when he was forced, by paralysis of the optic nerve, to give up work almost entirely. He lived ten years longer, and died at his seat at Braden- ham House, Buckinghamshire, on the igth of January 1848. Isaac D'Israeli is most celebrated as the author of the Curiosities of Literature (1791, subsequent volumes in 1793, 1817, 1823 and 1834). It is a miscellany of literary and historical anecdotes, of original critical remarks, and of interesting and curious information of all kinds, animated by genuine literary feeling, taste and enthusiasm. With the Curiosities of Literature may be classed D'Israeli's Miscellanies, or Literary Recreations (1796), the Calamities of Authors (1812-1813), and theQuarrels of A uthors (1814). Towards the close of his life D 'Israeli projected a continuous history of English literature, three volumes of which appeared in 1841 under the title of the Amenities of Literature. But of all his works the most delightful is his Essay on the Literary Character (1795), which, like most of his writings, abounds in illustrative anecdotes. In the famous " Pope controversy " he supported Byron and Campbell against Bowles and Hazlitt by a defence of Pope in the form of a criticism of Joseph Spence's Anecdotes contributed to the Quarterly Review (July 1820). In 1797 D'Israeli published three novels; one of these, Mejnoun and Leila, the Arabian Petrarch and Laura, was said to be the first oriental romance in English. His last novel , Despotism, or the Fall of the Jesuits, appeared in 1811, but none of his romances was popular. He also published a slight sketch of Jewish history, and especially of the growth of the Talmud, entitled the Genius of Judaism (1833). He was the author of two historical works — a brief defence of the literary merit and personal and political character of James I. (1816), and a learned Commentary on the Life and Reign of King Charles I. (1828-1831). This was recognized by the University of Oxford, which conferred upon the author the honorary degree of D.C.L. As an historian D'Israeli is distinguished by two characteristics. In the first place, he had small interest in politics, and no sympathy with the passionate fervour, or adequate appreciation of the importance, of political struggles. And, secondly, with a laborious zeal then less common than now among DISS— DISTILLATION historians, he sought to bring to light fresh historical material by patient search for letters, diaries and other manuscripts of value which had escaped the notice of previous students. Indeed, the honour has been claimed for him of being one of the founders of the modern school of historical research. Of the amiable personal character and the placid life of Isaac D'Israeli a charming picture is to be found in the brief memoir prefixed to the 1849 edition of Curiosities of Literature, by his son Lord Beaconsfield. DISS, a market town in the southern parliamentary division of Norfolk, England; near the river Waveney (the boundary with Suffolk), 95 m. N.E. by N. from London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3745. The town lies pleasantly upon a hill rising above a mere, which drains to the Waveney, having its banks laid out as public gardens. The church of St Mary exhibits Decorated and Perpendicular stone and flint work. There is a corn exchange and the agricultural trade is con- siderable; brushes and matting are manufactured. The poet and satirist, John Skelton (d. 1529), was rector here in the later part of his life, and is doubtfully considered a native. DISSECTION (from Lat. dissecare, to cut apart), the separation into parts by cutting, particularly the cutting of an animal or plant into parts for the purpose of examination or display of its structure. DISSENTER (Lat. dis-sentire, to disagree), one who dissents or disagrees in matters of opinion, belief, &c. The term " dis- senter " is, however, practically restricted to the special sense of a member of a religious body in England which has, for one reason or another, separated from the Established Church. Strictly, the term includes the English Roman Catholics, who in the original draft of the Relief Act of 1791 were styled " Protest- ing Catholic Dissenters." It is in practice, however, restricted to the " Protestant Dissenters " referred to in sec. ii. of the Toleration Act of 1688. The term is not applied to those bodies who dissent from the Established Church of Scotland ; and in speaking of members of religious bodies which have seceded from established churches abroad it is usual to employ the term " dissidents " (Lat. dissidere, to dissent). In this connotation the terms •" dissenter " and " dissenting," which had acquired a somewhat contemptuous flavour, have tended since the middle of the igth century to be replaced by " nonconformist," a term which did not originally imply secession, but only refusal to conform in certain particulars (e.g. the wearing of the surplice) with the authorized usages of the Established Church. Still more recently the term " nonconformist " has in its turn, as the political attack on the principle of a state establishment of religion developed, tended to give place to the style of " Free Churches " and " Free Churchman." All three terms are now in use, "nonconformist" being the most usual, as it is the most colourless. (See CONGREGATIONALISM, &c.) DISSOCIATION, a separation or dispersal, the opposite of association. In chemistry the term is given to chemical reactions in which a substance decomposes into two or more substances, and particularly to cases in which associated mole- cules break down into simpler molecules. Thus the reactions NH4Cl^NH3-|-HCl,andPCl5^PCl3+Cl2are instances of the first type; N204^2NO2, of the second (see CHEMICAL ACTION). Electrolytic or ionic dissociation is the separation of a substance in solution into ions (see ELECTROLYSIS; SOLUTION). DISSOLUTION (from Lat. dissolve™, to break up into parts), the act of dissolving or reducing to constituent parts, especially of the bringing to an end an association such as a partnership . or building society, and particularly of the termination of an assembly. A dissolution of parliament in England is thus the end of its existence, brought about by the efflux of time in accordance with the Septennial Act 1716, or by an exercise of the royal prerogative. This is done either in person, or by commission, if parliament is sitting; if prorogued, then by proclamation. The word is used as a synonym for end or death. DISTAFF, in the early forms of spinning, the " rock " or short stick round one end of which the flax, cotton or wool is loosely wound, and from which it is spun off by the spindle. The word is derived from the Old English dislaef, the first part of which is connected with dizen, in modern English seen in " bedizen," to deck out or embellish, originally " to equip the distaff with flax, &c.," cf. the German dialectal word Diesse, flax. The last part of the word is " staff." '' Distaff " from early times has been used to symbolize woman's work (cf. the use of " spinster " for an unmarried woman) ; thus the " distaff " or " spindle " side of a family refers to the female branch, as opposed to the " spear " or male branch. The 7th of January, the day after Epiphany, was formerly known as St Distaff's day, as women then began work again after the Christmas holiday. DISTILLATION (from the Lat. distillare, more correctly destillare, to drop or trickle down), an operation consisting in the conversion of a substance or mixture of substances into vapours which are afterwards condensed to the liquid form ; it has for its object the separation or purification of substances by taking advantage of differences in volatility. The apparatus consists of three parts: — the " retort " or " still," in which the substance is heated; the " condenser," in which the vapours are condensed; and the " receiver," in which the condensed vapours are collected. Generally the components of a mixture will be vaporized in the order of their boiling-points; consequently if the condensates or " fractions " corresponding to definite ranges of temperature be separately collected, it is obvious that a more or less partial separation of the components will be effected. If the substance operated upon be practically pure to start with, or the product of distillation be nearly of constant composition, the operation is termed "purification by distillation " or "rectification" ; the latter term is particularly used in the spirit industry. If a complex mixture be operated upon, and a separation effected by collect- ing the distillates in several portions, the operation is termed " fractional distillation." Since many substances decompose eitherat,or below, their boiling-points underordinary atmospheric pressure, it is necessary to lower the boiling-point by reducing the pressure if it be desired to distil them. This variation is termed " distillation under reduced pressure or in a vacuum." The vaporization of a substance below its normal boiling-point can also be effected by blowing in steam or some other vapour; this operation is termed "distillation with steam." "Dry distilla- tion" is the term used when solid substances which do not liquefy on heating are operated upon; " sublimation " is the term used when a solid distils without the intervention of a liquid phase. Distillation appears to have been practised at very remote times. The Alexandrians prepared oil of turpentine by distilling pine-resin; Zosimus of Panopolis, a voluminous writer of the 5th century A.D., speaks of the distillation of a " divine water " or " panacea " (probably from the complex mixture of calcium polysulphides, thiosulphate, &c., and free sulphur, which is obtained by boiling sulphur with lime and water) and advises " the efficient luting of the apparatus, for otherwise the valuable properties would be lost." The Arabians greatly improved the earlier apparatus, naming one form the alembic (q.v.); they discovered many ethereal oils by distilling plants and plant juices, alcohol by the distillation of wine, and also distilled water. The alchemists gave great attention to the method, as is shown by the many discoveries made. Nitric, hydrochloric and sulphuric acids, all more or less impure, were better studied; and many ethereal oils were discovered. Prior to about the i8th century three forms of distillation were practised: (i) destillatio per ascensum, in which the retort was heated from the bottom, and the vapours escaped from the top; (2) destillalio per latus, in which the vapours escaped from the side; (3) destillatio per descensum, in which the retort was heated at the top, and the vapours led off by a pipe passing through the bottom. According to K. B. Hoffmann the earliest mention of destillatio per descensum occurs in the writings of Aetius, a Greek physician who flourished at about the end of the 5th century. In modern times the laboratory practice of distillation was greatly facilitated by the introduction of the condenser named after Justus von Liebig; A. Kolbe and E. Frankland introduced the " reflux condenser," i.e. a condenser so placed that the condensed vapours return to the distilling flask, a device per- mitting the continued boiling of a substance with little loss; W. DISTILLATION Dittraar and R. Anschiitz, independently of one another, intro- duced " distillation under reduced pressure "; and " fractional distillation " was greatly aided by the columns of Wurtz (1855), E. Linnemann (1871), and of J. A. Le Bel and A. Henninger (1874). In chemical technology enormous strides have been made, as is apparent from the coal-gas, coal-tar, mineral oil, spirits and mineral acids industries. The subject is here treated under the following subdivisions: (i) ordinary distillation, (2) distillation under reduced pressure, (3) fractional* distillation, (4) distillation with steam, (5) theory of distillation, (6) dry distillation, (7) distillation in chemical technology and (8) commercial distillation of water. i. Ordinary Distillation. — The apparatus generally used is shown in fig. i. The substance is heated in a retort a, which consists of a large bulb drawn out at the top to form a long neck; it may also FIG. i. be provided with a tubulure, or opening, which permits the charging of the retort, and also the insertion of a thermometer b. The retort may be replaced by a distilling flask, which is a round-bottomed flask (generally with a lengthened neck) provided with an inclined side tube. The neck of the retort, or side tube of the flask, is con- nected to the condenser c by an ordinary or rubber cork, according to the nature of the substance distilled; ordinary corks soaked in paraffin wax are very effective when ordinary or rubber corks cannot be used. Sometimes an " adapter " is used ; this is simply a tapering tube, the side tube being corked into the wider end, and the condenser on to the narrower end. The thermometer is placed so that the bulb is near the neck of the retort or the side tube of the distilling flask. It generally happens that much of the mercury column is outside the flask and consequently at a lower temperature than the bulb, hence a correction of the observed temperature is necessary. If N be the length of the unheated mercury column in degrees, t the temperature of this column (generally determined by a small thermometer placed with its bulb at the middle of the column), and T the temperature recorded by the thermometer, then the corrected temperature of the vapour is T+O-OOOI43 (T-/) N (T. E. Thorpe, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1880, p. 159). The mode of heating varies with the substance to be distilled. For highly volatile liquids, e.g. ether, ligroin, &c., immersion of the flask in warm water suffices; for less volatile liquids a directly heated water or sand bath is used; for other liquids the flask is heated through wire gauze or asbestos board, or directly by a Bunsen. The condensing apparatus must also be conditioned by the volatility. With difficulty volatile substances, e.g. nitrobenzene, air cooling of the retort neck or of a straight tube connected with the distilling flask will suffice; or wet blotting-paper placed on the tube and the receiver immersed in water may be used. For less volatile liquids the Liebig condenser is most frequently used. In its original form, this consists of a long tube surrounded by an outer tube so arranged that cold water circulates in the annular space between the two. The vapours pass through the inner tube, and the cold water enters at the end farthest from the distilling flask. For more efficient condensation — and also for shortening the apparatus — the central tube may be flattened, bent into a succession of V's, or twisted into a spiral form, the object in each case being to increase the condensing surface. Of other common types of condenser, we may notice the " spiral " or " worm " type, which con- sists of a glass, copper or tin worm enclosed in a vessel in which water circulates; and the ball condenser, which consists of two concentric spheres, the vapour passing through the inner sphere and water circulating in the space between this and the outer (in another form the vapour circulates in a shell, on the outside and inside of which water circulates). A very effective type is shown in fig. 2. The condensing water enters at the top and is conducted to the bottom of the inner tube, which it fills and then flows over the FIG. 2. outside of the outer tube; it collects in the bottom funnel and is then led off. The vapours pass between the inner and outer tubes. Practically any vessel may serve as a receiver — test tube, flask, beaker, &c. If noxious vapours come over, it is necessary to have an air-tight connexion between the condenser and receiver, and to pro- vide the latter with an outlet tube leading to an absorption column or other contrivance in which the vapours are taken up. If the substances operated upon decompose when heated in air, as, for example, the zinc alkyls which inflame, the air within the apparatus is replaced by some inert gas, e.g. nitrogen, carbon dioxide, &c., which is led in at the distilling flask before the process is started, and a slow current maintained during the operation. 2. Distillation under Reduced Pressure. — This method is adopted for substances which decompose at their boiling-points under ordinary pressure, and, generally, when it is desirable to work at a lower temperature. The apparatus differs very slightly from that employed in ordinary distillation. The " receiver must be con- nected on the one side to the condenser, and on the other to the exhaust pump. A safety vessel and a manometer are generally interposed between the pump and receiver. For the purpose of collecting the distillates in fractions, many forms of receivers have been devised. Briihl's is one of the simplest. It consists of a number of tubes mounted vertically on a horizontal circular disk which rotates about a vertical axis in a cylindrical vessel. This vessel has two tubulures: through one the end of the condenser projects so as to be over one of the receiving tubes ; the other leads to the pump. By rotating the disk the tubes may be successively brought under the end of the condenser. Boiling under reduced pressure has one very serious drawback, viz. the liquid boils ir- regularly or " bumps.' W. Dittmar showed that this may be avoided by leading a fine, steady stream of dry gas — air, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, &c., according to the substance operated upon — through the liquid by means of a fine capillary tube, the lower end of which reaches to nearly the bottom of the flask. " Bumping " is common in open boiling when the liquid is free from air bubbles and the interior of the vessel is very smooth. It may be diminished by introducing clippings of platinum foil, pieces of porcelain, glass beads or garnets into the liquid. " Frothing " is another objection- able feature with many liquids. When cold, froth can be immediately dissipated by adding a few drops of ether. In boiling liquids its formation may be prevented by adding paraffin wax; the wax melts and forms a ring on the surface of the liquid, which boils tranquilly in the centre. 3. Fractional Distillation. — By fractional distillation is meant the separation of a mixture having components which boil at neighbour- ing temperatures. The distilling flask has an elongated neck so that Wurtz. Linnemann. Le Bel-Henninger. Glynsky. Young. Kreusler. FIG. 3. the less volatile vapours are condensed and return to the flask, while the more volatile component passes over. The success of the operation depends upon two factors : (i) that the heating be careful, slow and steady, and (2) that the column attached to the flask be efficient to sort out, as it were, the most volatile vapour. Three types of columns are employed: (i) the elongation is simply a straight or bulb tube; (2) the column, properly termed a " depnlegmator," is so constructed that the vapours have to traverse a column of previously condensed vapour; (3) the column is encircled by a jacket through which a liquid circulates at the same temperature as the boiling-point of the most volatile component. To the first type belongs the simple straight tube, and the Wurtz tube (see fig. 3), which is simply a series of bulbs blown on a tube. These forms are not of much value. Several forms of the second type are in use. In the Linnemann column the condensed vapours temporarily collect on platinum gauzes (a) placed at the constrictions of a bulbed tube. In the Le Bel-Henninger form a series of bulbs are connected con- secutively by means of syphon tubes (b) and having platinum gauzes (a) at the constrictions, so that when a certain amount of liquid collects in any one bulb it syphons over into the next lower bulb. The Glynsky form is simpler, having only one syphon tube; at the constrictions it is usual to have a glass bead. The " rod-and-disk " form of Sidney Young is a series of disks mounted on a central spindle and surrounded by a slightly wider tube. The " pear- shaped " form of the same author consists of a series of pear-shaped bulbs, the narrow end of one adjoining the wider end of the next jower one. In this class may also be placed the Hempel tube, which is simply a straight tube filled with glass beads. Of the third type is the Warren column consisting of a spiral kept at a constant temperature by a liquid bath. Improved forms were devised by 320 DISTILLATION F. D. Brown. Kreusler's form is easily made and manipulated. A tube closed at the bottom is traversed by an open narrower tube, and the arrangement is fitted in the neck of the distilling flask. Water is led in by the inner tube, and leaves by a side tube fused on the wider tube. Many comparisons of the effectiveness of dephlegmating columns have been made (see Sidney Young, Fractional Distillation, 1903). The pear-shaped form is the most effective, second in order is the Le Bel-Henninger, which, in turn, is better than the Glynsky. The main objection to the Hempel is the retention of liquid in the beads, and the consequent inapplicability to the distillation of small quantities. 4. Distillation with Steam. — In this process a current of steam, which is generated in a separate boiler and superheated, if necessary, by circulation through a heated copper worm, is led into the dis- tilling vessel, and the mixed vapours condensed as in the ordinary processes. This method is particularly successful in the case of substances which cannot be distilled at their ordinary boiling-points (it will be seen in the following section that distilling with steam implies a lowering of boiling-point), and which can be readily separated from water. Instances of its application are found in the separation of ortho-and para-nitrophenol, the o-compqund distilling and the p- remaining behind ; in the separation of aniline from the mixture obtained by reducing nitrobenzene ; of the naphthols from the melts produced by fusing the naphthalene monosulphonic acids with potash; and of quinoline from the reaction between aniline, nitrobenzene, glycerin, and sulphuric acid (the product being first steam distilled to remove any aniline, nitrobenzene, or glycerin, then treated with alkali, and again steam distilled when quinoline comes over). With substances prone to discolorization, as, for example, certain amino compounds, the operation may be conducted in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide, or the water may be saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen. Liquids other than water may be used : thus alcohol separates a-pipecoline and ether nitropropylene. 5. Theory of Distillation. — The general observation that under a constant pressure a pure substance boils at a constant temperature leads to the conclusion that the distillate which comes over while the thermometer records only a small variation is of practically constant composition. On this fact depends " rectification or purification by distillation. " A liquid boils when its vapour pressure equals the superincumbent pressure (see VAPORIZATION); con- sequently any process which diminishes the external pressure must also lower the boiling-point. In this we have the theory of " dis- tillation under reduced pressure." The theory of fractional distilla- tion, or the behaviour of liquid mixtures when heated to their boiling-points, is more complex. For simplicity we confine ourselves to mixtures of two components, in which experience shows that three cases are to be recognized according as the components are (i) completely immiscible, (2) partially miscible, (3) miscible in all proportions. When the components are completely immiscible, the vapour pressure of the one is not influenced by the presence of the other. The mixture consequently distils at the temperature at which the sum of the partial pressures equals that of the atmosphere. Both components come over in a constant proportion until one disap- pears; it is then necessary to raise the temperature in order to distil the residue. The composition of the distillate is determinate (by Avogadro's law) if the molecular weights and vapour pressure of the components at the temperature of distillation be known. If MI, M2, and Pi, P2 be the molecular weights and vapour pressures >of the components A and B, then the ratio of A to B in the distillate is MiPi/M2P2. Although, as is generally the case, one liquid (say A) is more volatile than the other (say B), i.e. Pi greater than P2, if the molecular weight of A be much less than that of B, then it is obvious that the ratio M1Pi/M2P2 need not be very great, and hence the less volatile liquid B would come over in fair amount. These con- ditions pertain in cases where distillation with steam is successfully practised, the relatively high volatility of water being counter- balanced by the relatively high molecular weight of the other component ; for example, in the case of nitrobenzene and water the ratio is I to 5. In general, when the substance to be distilled has a vapour pressure of only 10 mm. at 100° C., distillation with steam can be adopted, if the product can be subsequently separated from the water. When distilling a mixture of partially miscible components a distillate of constant composition is obtained so long as two layers are present, i.e. A dissolved in B and B dissolved in A, since both of these solutions emit vapours of the same composition (this follows since the same vapour must be in equilibrium with both solutions, for if it were not so a cyclic system contradicting the second law of thermodynamics would be realizable). The composition of the vapour, however, would not be the same as that of either layer. As the distillation proceeded one layer would diminish more rapidly than the other until only the latter would remain ; this would then distil as a completely miscible mixture. The distillation of completely miscible mixtures is the most common practically and the most complex theoretically. A co- ordination of the results obtained on the distillation of mixtures of this nature with the introduction of certain theoretical considerations led to the formation of three groups distinguished by the relative solubilities of the vapours in the liquid components. (i.) If the vapour of A be readily soluble in the liquid B, and the vapour of B readily soluble in the liquid A, there will exist a mixture of A and B which will have a lower vapour pressure than any other mixture. The vapour pressure composition curve will be convex to the axis of compositions, the maximum vapour pressures corre- sponding to pure A and pure B, and the minimum to some mixture of A and B. On distilling such a mixture under constant pressure, a mixture of the two components (of variable composition) will come over until there remains in the distilling flask the mixture of minimum vapour pressure. This will then distil at a constant temperature. Thus nitric acid, boiling-point 68°, forms a mixture with water, boiling point 100°, which boils at a constant temperature of 126°' and contains 68% of acid. Hydrochloric acid forms a similar mixture which boils at 1 10° and contains 20-2 % of acid. Another mixture of this type is formic acid and water. (ii.) If the vapours be sparingly soluble in the liquids there will exist a mixture having a greater vapour pressure than that of any other mixture. The vapour pressure-composition curve will now be concave to the axis of composition, the minima corresponding to the pure components. On distilling such a mixture, a mixture of constant composition will distil first, leaving in the distilling flask one or other of the components according to the composition of the mixture. An example is propyl alcohol and water. At one time it was thought that these mixtures of constant boiling-point (an ex- tended list is given in Young's Fractional Distillation) were definite compounds. The above theory, coupled with such facts as the variation of the composition of the constant boiling-point fraction with the pressure under which the mixture is distilled, the pro- portionality of the density of all mixtures to their composition, &c., shows this to be erroneous. (iii.) If the vapour of A be "readily soluble in liquid B, and the vapour of B sparingly soluble in liquid A, and if the vapour pressure of A be greater than that of B, then the vapour pressures of mixtures of A and B will continually diminish as one passes from ioo%A to 100% B. The vapour tension may approximate to a linear function of the composition, and the curve will then be practically a straight line. On distilling such a mixture pure A will come over first, followed by mixtures in which the quantity of B continually increases; consequently by a sufficient number of distillations A and B can be completely separated. Examples are water and methyl or ethyl alcohol. Van't Hoff (Theoretical and Physical Chemistry, vol. i. p. 51) illustrates the five cases on one diagram. In fig. 4 let AB be the axis of composition, AP be the vapour pressure of pure A, BQ the vapour pressure of pure B. For immiscible liquids the vapour pressure curve is the hori- zontal line ab, described so that aP = QB and 6Q = AP. For partially miscible liquids the curve is PfliiiQ. The hori- zontal line a\ b\ corresponds to the two layers of liquid, and the inclined .lines F and of A in B. FIG. 4. Qbt to solutions of B in A The curves Pa^Q, having a minimum at at, Pa3Q, having a maximum at 03, and Pa6Q, with neither a maximum nor minimum, correspond to the types i., ii., iii. of completely miscible mixtures. 6. Dry Distillation. — In this process the substance operated upon is invariably a solid, the vapours being condensed and collected as in the other methods. When the substance operated upon is of uncertain composition, as, for example, coal, wood, coal-tar, &c., the term destructive distillation is employed. A more general designa- tion is " pyrogenic processes," which also includes such operations as leading vapours through red-hot tubes and condensing the products. We may also consider here cases of sublimation wherein a solid vaporizes and the vapour condenses without the occurrence of the liquid phase. Dry distillation is extremely wasteful even when definite sub- stances or mixtures, such as calcium acetate which yields acetone, are dealt with, valueless by-products being obtained and the condensate usually requiring much purification. Prior to 1830, little was known of the process other than that organic compounds generally yielded tarry and solid matters, but the discoveries of Liebig and Dumas (of acetone from acetates), of Mitscherlich (of benzene from benzoates) and of Persoz (of methane from acetates and lime) brought the opera- tion into common laboratory practice. For efficiency the operation must be conducted with small quantities; caking may be prevented by mixing the substance with sand or powdered pumice, or, better, with iron filings, which also renders the decomposition more regular by increasing the conductivity of the mass. The most favourable retort is a shallow iron pan heated in a sand bath, and provided with a screwed-down lid bearing the delivery tube. Sidney Young has suggested conducting the operation in a current of carbon dioxide which sweeps out the vapours as they are evolved, and also heating in a vapour bath, e.g. of sulphur. One of the earliest red-hot tube syntheses of importance was the formation of naphthalene from a mixture of alcohol and ether vapours. Such condensations were especially studied by M. P. E. Berthelot, and shown to be very fruitful in forming hydrocarbons. DISTILLATION 321 Sometimes reagents are placed in the combustion tube, for example lead oxide (litharge), which takes up bromine and sulphur. In its simplest form the apparatus consists of a straight tube, made of glass, porcelain or iron according to the temperature required and the nature of the reacting substances, heated in an ordinary com- bustion furnace, the mixture entering at one end and the vapours being condensed at the other. Apparatus can also be constructed in which the unchanged vapours are continually circulated through the tube. Operating in a current of carbon dioxide facilitates the process by preventing overheating. 7. Distillation in Chemical Technology. — In laboratory practice use is made of a fairly constant type of apparatus, only trifling modifications being generally necessary to adapt the apparatus for any distillation or fractionation ; in technology, on the other hand, itiany questions have to be considered which generally demand the adoption of special constructions for the economic distillation of different substances. The modes of distillation enumerated above all occur in manufacturing practice. Distillation in a vacuum is practised in two forms: — if the pump draws off steam as well as air it is termed a " wet " air-pump; if it only draws off air, it is a " dry " air-pump. In the glycerin industry the lyes obtained by saponifying the fats are first evaporated with " wet vacuum " and finally distilled with closed and live steam and a " dry vacuum." Two forms of steam distillation may be distinguished: — in one the still is simply heated by a steam coil wound inside or outside the still — this is termed heating by dry steam; in the other steam is injected into the mass within the still — this is the distillation with live steam of laboratory practice. The details of the plant — the material and fittings of the still, the manner of heating, the form of the condensing plant, receivers, &c. — have to be determined for each substance to be distilled in order to work with the maximum economy. For the distillation of liquids the retort is usually a cylindrical pot placed vertically; cast iron is generally employed, in which case the bottom is frequently incurved and thicker than the sides in order to take up the additional wear and tear. Sometimes linings of enamelled iron or other material are employed, which when worn can be replaced at a far lower cost than that of a new still. Glass stills heated by a sand bath are sometimes employed in the final distillation of sulphuric acid; platinum, and an alloy of platinum and iridium with a lining of gold rolled on (a discovery due to Heraeus), are used for the same purpose. Cast iron stills are pro- vided with a hemispherical head or dome, generally attached to the body of the still by bolts, and of sufficient size to allow for any frothing. It is invariably provided with an opening to carry off the vapours produced. In its more complete form a still has in addition the following fittings: — Theb dome is provided with openings to admit (l) the axis ofthe stirring gear (in some stills the stirring gear rotates on a horizontal axis which traverses the side and not the head of the still), (2) the inlet and outlet tubes of a closed steam coil, (3) a tube reaching to nearly the bottom of the still to carry live steam, (4) a tube to carry a thermometer, (5) one or more manholes for charging purposes, (6) sight-holes through which the operation can be watched, and (7) a safety valve. The body of the still is provided with one or more openings at different heights to serve for the discharge of the residue in the still, and sometimes with a glass gauge to record the quantity of matter in the still. For dry dis- tillations the retorts are generally horizontal cylinders, the bottom or lower surface being sometimes flattened. Iron and fireclay are the materials commonly employed; wrought iron is used in the manufacture of wood-spirit, fireclay for coal-gas (see GAS : Manu- facture), phosphorus, zinc, &c. The vertical type, however, is employed in the manufacture of acetone and of iodine. Several modes of heating are adopted. In some cases, especially in dry distillations, the furnace flames play directly on the retorts, in others, such as in the case of nitric acid, the whole still comes under the action of the furnace gases to prevent condensation on the upper part of the still, while in others the furnace gases do not play directly on the base or upper portion of the still but are conducted around it by a system of flues (see COAL-TAR). Steam heating, dry or live, is employed alone and also as an auxiliary to direct firing. _The condensing plant varies with the volatility of the distillate. Air cooling is adopted whenever possible. For example, in the less modern methods for manufacturing nitric acid the vapours were conducted directly into double-necked bottles (bombonnes) immersed in water. A more efficient arrangement consists of a stack of vertical pipes standing up from a main or collecting trough and connected at the top in consecutive pairs by a cross tube. By an arrangement of diaphragms in the lower trough the vapours are circulated through the system. As an auxiliary to air cooling the stack may be cooled by a slow stream of water trickling down the outside of the pipes, or, in certain cases, cold water may be injected into the condenser in the form of a spray, where it meets the ascend- ing vapours. Horizontal air-cooling arrangements are also employed. A common type of condenser consists of a copper worm placed in a water bath; but more generally straight tubes of copper or cast iron which cross and recross a rectangular tank are employed, since this form is more readily repaired and cleansed. Wood-spirit, petroleum and coal-tar distillates are condensed in plant of the latter type. In cases where the condenser is likely to become plugged there is a vrn. ii pipe by means of which live steam can be injected into the condenser. The supply of water to the condenser is regulated according to the volatility of the condensate. When the vapours readily condense to a solid form the condensing plant may take the form of large chambers; such conditions prevail in the manufacture of arsenic, sulphur and lampblack: in the latter case (which, however, is not properly one of distillation) the chamber is hung with sheets on which the pigment collects. Large chambers are also used in the condensation of mercury. Dephlegmation of the vapours arising from such mixtures as coal- tar fractions, petroleum and the " wash " of the spirit industry, is very important, and many types of apparatus are employed in order to effect a separation of the vapours. The earliest form, invented by C. B._ Mansfield to facilitate the fractionation of paraffin and coal- tar distillates, consisted in having a pipe leading from the inclined delivery tube of the still to the still again, so that any vapour which condensed in the delivery tube was returned to the still. Of really effective columns Coupler's was one of the earliest. The vapours rising from the still traverse a tall vertical column, and are then conveyed through a series of bulbs placed in a bath kept at the boiling-point of the most volatile constituent. The more volatile vapours pass over to the condensing plant, while the less volatile ones condense in the bulbs and are returned to the column at varying heights by means of connecting tubes. The French column is similar in action. The Coffey still is one of the most effective and is employed in the spirit, ammonja, coal-tar and other industries. It consists of a vertical column divided into a number of sections by horizontal plates, which are perforated so that the ascending vapours have to traverse a layer of liquid. Above this '' separator is a reflux condenser, termed the cooler," maintained at the correct temperature so that only the more volatile component passes to the receiver. The success of the operation chiefly depends upon the proper management of the cooler. 8. Commercial Distillation of Water. — Distilled water, i.e. water free from salts and to some extent of the dissolved gases which are always present in natural waters, is of indispensable value in many operations both of scientific and industrial chemistry. The ap- paratus and process for distilling ordinary water are very simple. The body of the still is made of copper, with a head and worm, or condensing apparatus, either of copper or tin. The still is usually fed continuously by the heated water from the condenser. The first portion of the distillate brings over the gases dissolved in the water, ammonia and other volatile impurities, and is consequently rejected; scarcely two-fifths of the entire quantity of water can be safely used as pure distilled water. Apparatus for the economic production of a potable water from sea-water is of vital importance in the equipment of ships. The simple distillation of sea-water, and the production thereby of a certain proportion of chemically fresh water, is a very simple problem; but it is found that water which is merely evaporated and recondensed has a very disagreeable flat taste, and it is only after long exposure to pure atmospheric air, with continued agitation, or repeated pouring from one vessel to another, that it becomes sufficiently aerated to lose its unpleasant taste and smell and become drinkable. The water, moreover, till it is saturated with gases, readily absorbs noxious vapours to which it may be exposed. For the successful preparation of potable water from sea-water, the following conditions are essential: — 1st, aeration of the distilled product so that it may be immediately available for drinking pur- poses; 2nd, economy of coal to obtain the maximum of water with the minimum expenditure of fuel; and 3rd, simplicity of working parts, to secure the apparatus from breaking down, and enable unskilled attendants to work it with safety. The problem is a com- paratively old one, for we find that R. Fitzgerald patented a process in 1683 having for its purpose the " sweetening of sea-water." A history of early attempts is given in S. Hales s Philosophical Ex- periments, published in 1739. Among the earlier of the modern forms of apparatus which came into practical adoption are the inventions of Dr Normandy and of Chaplin of Glasgow, the apparatus of Rocher of Nantes, and that patented by Galle and Mazelineof Havre. Normandy's apparatus, although economical and producing water of good quality, is very complex in its structure, consisting of very numerous working parts, with elaborate arrangements of pipes, cocks and other fittings. It is consequently expensive and requires careful attention for its working. It was extensively adopted in the British navy, the Cunard line and many other important emigrant and mercantile lines. Chaplin's apparatus, which was invented and patented later, has also since 1 865 been sanctioned for use on emigrant, troop and passenger vessels. The apparatus possesses the great merit of simplicity and compactness, in consequence of which it is comparatively cheap and not liable to derangement. It was adopted by many important British and continental shipping companies, among others by the Peninsular & Oriental, the Inman, the North German Lloyd and the Hamburg American companies. The modern distilling plant consists of two main parts termed the evaporator and condenser; in addition there must be a boiler (sometimes steam is run off the main boilers, but this practice has several disadvantages), pumps for circulating cold water in the condenser and for supplying salt water to the evaporator, and a filter through which the aerated water passes. The evaporator 322 DISTRACTION— DISTRESS consists of a cylindrical vessel having in its lower half a horizontal copper coil connected to the steam supply. The cylindrical vessel is filled to a certain level with salt water and the steam turned on. The water vaporizes and is led from the dome of the evaporator to the head of the condenser. The water level is maintained in the evaporator until it contains a certain amount of salt. It is then run off, and replaced by fresh sea-water. The condenser consists of a vertical cylinder having manifolds at the head and foot and through which a number of tubes pass. In some types, e.g. the Weir, the condensing water circulates upwards through the tubes; in others, e.g. the Quiggins, the water circulates around the tubes. Various forms of the tubes have been adopted. In the Pape-Henneberg condenser, which has been adopted in the German navy, they are oval in section and tend to become circular under the pressure of the steam; this alteration in shape makes the tubes self-scaling. In the Quiggins condenser, which has been widely adopted, e.g. in the " Lusitania," the steam traverses vertical copper coils tinned inside and outside ; the coils are crescent-shaped, a form which gives a greater condensing surface and makes the coils self-scaling. The aeration of the water is effected by blowing air into the steam before it is condensed; as an auxiliary, the storage tanks have a false bottom perforated by fine holes so that if air be injected below it, the water is efficiently aerated by the air which traverses it in fine streams. After condensation the water is filtered through charcoal. The filter is either a separate piece of plant, or, as in the Quiggins form, it may be placed below the coils in the same outer vessel. In this plant the aeration is conducted by blowing in air at the base of the condenser. After filtration the water is pumped to the storage tanks. Many types of distilling plant are in use in addition to those mentioned above, for example the Rayner, Kirkaldy, Merlees, Normand ; the United States navy has adopted a form designed by the Bureau of Engineering. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The general practice of laboratory distillation is discussed in all treatises on practical organic chemistry; reference may be made to Lassar-Cohn, Manual of Organic Chemistry (1896), and Arbeilsmethoden fur organisch-chemische Laboratorien (1901); Hans Meyer, Analyse und Konstitutiomrmittlung organischer Verbindungen (1909). The theory of distillation finds a place in all treatises on physical chemistry. Of especial importance is Sidney Young, Fractional Distillation (1903). The history of distillation is to be studied in E. Gildemeister and F. Hoffmann, Die atherischen Ole (Berlin, 1899; Eng. tr. by E. Kremers, Milwaukee Press, 1900). The technology of distillation is best studied in relation to the several industries in which it is employed; reference should be made to the articles COAL-TAR, GAS, PETROLEUM, SPIRITS, NITRIC ACID, &c. (C. E.*) DISTRACTION (from Lat. distrahere, to pull asunder), a draw- ing away or apart; a word now used generally of a state of mind, to mean a diversion of attention, or a violent emotion amounting almost to madness. DISTRESS (from the O. Fr. deslrece, destresse, from the past participle of the Lat. dislringere, to pull apart, used in Late Lat. in the sense of to punish, hence to distrain), pressure, especially of sorrow, pain or ill-fortune. As a legal term, the action of distraining or distraint, the right which a landlord has of seizing the personal chattels of his tenant for non-payment of rent. Cattle damage feasant (doing damage or trespassing upon a neigh- bour's land) may also be distrained, i.e. may be detained until satisfaction be rendered for injury they have done. The cattle or other animals thus distrained are a mere pledge in the hands of the injured person, who has only power to retain them until the owner appear to make satisfaction for the mischief they have done. " Distress damage feasant " is also applicable to inanimate things on the land if doing damage thereto or to its produce; things in actual use, however, are exempt. Such distress must be made during the actual trespass, and by whoever is aggrieved by the damage. Distress for rent was also at one time regarded as a mere pledge or security; but the remedy, having been found to be speedy and efficacious, was rendered more perfect by enact- ments allowing the thing taken to be sold. Blackstone notes that the lawof distresses in this respect " has been greatly altered within a few years last past." The legislature, in fact, converted an ancient right of personal redress into a powerful remedy for the exclusive benefit of a single class of creditors, viz. landlords. Now that the relation of landlord and tenant in England has come to be regarded as purely a matter of contract, the language of the law-books seems to be singularly inappropriate. The defaulting tenant is a " wrong-doer," the landlord is the " injured party,"; any attempt to defeat the landlord's remedy by carry- ing off distrainable goods is denounced as " fraudulent and knavish." The operation of the law has, as we shall point out, been mitigated in some important respects, but it still remains an almost unique specimen of one-sided legislation.- At common law distress was said to be incident to rent service, and by particular reservation to rent charges; but by 4 Geo. II. c. 28 it was extended to rent seek, rents of assize and chief rents (see RENT). It is therefore a general remedy for rent certain in arrear. All personal chattels are distrainable with the following exceptions: — (i) things in which there can be no property, as animals ferae naturae; (2) ledgers, daybooks, title-deeds, &c.; (3) things delivered to a person following a public trade, as a horse sent to be shod, &c.; (4) things already in the custody of the law; (5) things which cannot be restored in as good a plight as when distrained, that is, perishable articles; (6) fixtures; (7) beasts of the plough and instruments of husbandry while there is other sufficient distress to be found; (8) instruments of a man's trade or profession in actual use at the time the distress is made. If not in actual use they are only privileged in case there is other sufficient distress upon the premises. These exceptions, it will be seen, imply that the thing distrained is to be held as a pledge merely — not to be sold. They also imply that in general any chattels found on the land in question are to be available for the benefit of the landlord, whether they belong to the tenant or not. This principle worked with peculiar harshness in the case of lodgers, whose goods might be seized and sold for the payment of the rent due by their landlord to his superior landlord. By the Lodgers' Goods Protection Act 1871, however, where a lodger's goods have been seized by the superior landlord the lodger may serve him with a notice stating that the intermediate landlord has no interest in the property seized, but that it is the property or in the lawful possession of the lodger, and setting forth the amount of the rent due by the lodger to his immediate landlord. On pay- ment or tender of such rent the landlord cannot proceed with the distress against the goods in question. By the Law of Distress Amendment Act 1908 this protection was extended to under tenants liable to pay rent by equal quarterly instalments, as well as to any person whatsoever who is not a tenant of the premises or any part thereof nor has any beneficial interest therein. The act, however, excludes certain goods, particularly goods belonging to the husband or wife of the tenant whose rent is in arrear, goods comprised in any bill of sale, hire purchase agreement or settle- ment made by the tenant, goods in the possession or disposition of a tenant by the consent and permission of the true owner under such circumstances as to make the tenant reputed owner, goods of the partner of an immediate tenant, and goods (not being goods of a lodger) upon premises where any trade or business is carried on in which both the immediate tenant and the under tenant have an interest. The act does not apply where an under tenancy has been created in breach of a covenant or agreement between the landlord and his immediate tenant. The Law of Distress Amendment Act 1888 also absolutely exempted from distress the tools and implements of trade and wearing apparel and bedding of a tenant and his family to the value of five pounds, and the Law of Distress Amendment Act 1895 gave power to a court of summary jurisdiction to direct that such goods, when distrained upon, should be restored if not sold, or, if sold, to order their value to be paid by the persons who levied the distress or directed it to be levied. Originally the landlord could only seize things actually on the premises, so that the remedy might be defeated by the things being taken away. But by an act of 1710 , and by the Distress for Rent Act 1737, he may follow things fraudulently or clandestinely removed off the premises within thirty days after their removal, unless-they have been in the meantime bona fide sold for a valuable consideration. The sixth exception mentioned above was held to extend to sheaves of corn; but by an act of 1690 corn, when reaped, as well as hay, was made subject to distress. That act was modified by the Landlord and Tenant Act 1851, under which growing crops seized by the sheriff and sold under an execution are liable to distress for rent which becomes due after the seizure and sale, if there is no other sufficient distress on the premises. Excessive or disproportionate distress exposes the distrainer to an action, and any irregularity formerly made the proceedings DISTRIBUTION— DITHYRAMBIC POETRY 323 void ab initio, so that the remedy was attended with considerable risk. The Distress for Rent Act 1737, before alluded to, in the interests of landlords, protected distresses for rent from the consequences of irregularity. In all cases of distress for rent, if the owner do not within five days (by the Law of Distress Amend- ment Act 1888, fifteen days, if the tenant make a request in writing to the person levying the distress and also give security for any additional cost that may be occasioned by such extension of time) replevy the same with sufficient security, the thing dis- trained may be sold towards satisfaction of the rent and charges, and the surplus, if any, must be returned to the owner. To " replevy " is when the person distrained upon applies to the proper authority (the registrar of the county court) to have the thing returned to his own possession, on giving security to try the right of taking it in an action of replevin. Duties and penalties imposed by act of parliament (e.g. pay- ment of rates and taxes) are sometimes enforced by distress. DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out), a term used in various connexions with the general meaning of spreading out. In law, the word is used for the division of the personal estate of an intestate among the next-of-kin (see INTESTACY). The important scientific question as to the distribution of plants and animals on the earth is treated under PLANTS: Distribution, and ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION. In economics the word is used generally for the transference of commodities from person to person or from place to place, or the dividing up of large quantities of commodities into smaller quantities; and in a more technical sense, for the division of the product of industry amongst the various members or classes of the community. The theory of economic distribution, i.e. the causes which determine rent, wages, profits and interest, forms an important subject-matter in all text-books. Among recent works, see E. Cannan's History of Theories of Production and Distribution, 1776-1848 (1893), J. R. Common's Distribution of Wealth (1893), and H. J. Davenport's Value and Distribution (Chicago, 1908). DISTRICT, a word denoting in its more general sense, a tract or extent of a country, town, &c., marked off for administrative or other purposes, or having some special and distinguishing characteristics. The medieval Latin districtus (from distringere, to distrain) is defined by Du Cange as Territorium feudi, seu tractus, in quo Dominus vassallos et lenentes suos distringere potest; and as justitiae exercendae in eo tractu facultas. It was also used of the territory over which the feudal lord exercised his juris- diction generally. It may be noted that distringere had a wider significance than " to distrain " in the English legal sense (see DISTRESS). It is defined by Du Cange as compellere ad aliquid faciendum per mulctam, poenam, vel capto pignore. In English usage, apart from its general application in such forms as postal district, registration district and the like, " district " has specific usages for ecclesiastical and local government purposes. It is thus applied to a division of a parish under the Church Building Acts, originally called a " perpetual curacy," and the church serving such a division is properly a " district chapel." Under the Local Government Act of 1894 counties are divided for the purposes of the act into urban and rural districts. In British India the word is used to represent the zillah, an administrative subdivision of a province or presidency. In the United States of America the word has many administrative, judicial and other applications. In South Carolina it was used instead of " county " for the chief division of the state other than in the coast region. In the Virginias, Tennessee, Georgia, Kentucky and Maryland it answers to " township " or precinct, elsewhere the principal subdivision of a county. It is used for an electoral "division," each state be- ing divided into Congressional and senatorial districts; and also for a political subdivision ranking between an unorganized and an organized Territory — e.g., the District of Columbia and Alaska. DISTYLE (from Gr. Si-, two, and Air.distributing ar. D> Cylinders. rahVd JTnon to rangement, for one E, Pressure gauges. diver or two divers. F, Nozzles to which perlorm either in g Watef . fc d; , . ; wrtPer.°rAnoheWrC'Sr- a"d di" are attached." ' most useful type charge valves. is a two-cylinder double-acting pump (figs. I and 2), which is designed to supply two divers working simultaneously in moderate depths of water, or one diver only in deep water. An air-distributing arrangement is fitted, whereby, when it is desired to send two men DIVERS AND DIVING APPARATUS down together, each cylinder supplies air independently of the other; and when it is required to send one diver into deep water, the two cylinders are connected and the full volume of air from both is delivered to the one man. The same duty is also performed by a four-cylinder single-acting pump. Smaller pumps, having one double-acting or two single-acting cylinders, are also used for shallow water work. In most cases these air pumps are worked by manual power; this method of working is rendered necessary by the fact that the machines are usually placed in small boats from which the divers work and on which other motive power is not available. In cases, however, where steam or electric power is available the pumps are sometimes worked by their means — more particularly on harbour and dock works. In such instances the air is not delivered direct from the pump to the diver, but is delivered into an intermediate steel receiver to which the diver's air pipe is connected, the object FIG. 2. — Pump in chest, ready for work. being to ensure a reserve supply of air in case of a breakdown of the pump. Some of these combinations of pumps and motors are so arranged that, in the event of an accident to the motor, the pump can be thrown out of gear with it, and be immediately worked by hand power. Each pump is fitted with a gauge (or gauges), indi- cating not only the pressure of air which the pump is supplying, but also the depth of water at which the diver is working. The cylinders are water-jacketed to ensure the air delivered to the diver being cool, the water being drawn in and circulated round the cylinders by means of a small metal pump worked from an eccentric on the mam crank-shaft. Filters are sometimes attached to the suction and delivery sides of the pumps to ensure the inlet of air being free from dirt, and the discharge of air free from dirt and oil. Helmet. — The helmet and breastplate (fig. 3) are made from highly planished tinned copper, with gun-metal valves and other fittings. The helmet is provided with a non-return air inlet valve to which the diver's air pipe is connected; the air when it lifts the inlet valve passes through three conduits — one having its outlet over the front glass, the others their outlets over the side glasses. In this way the diver gets the air fresh as it enters the helmet, and at the same time it prevents condensation of his breath on the glasses and keeps them clear. There is a regulating air outlet valve by which the diver adjusts his supply of airaccording to his requirements in different depths of water; the valve is usually made to be adjusted by hand, but sometimes it is so constructed as to be operated by the diver knocking his head against it, the spindle being extended through to the inside of the helmet and fitted at its inner extremity with a button or disk. By unscrewing the valve, the diver allows air to escape, and thus the dress is deflated; by screwing it up the air is retained and the dress inflated. Thus the diver can control his specific gravity and rise or sink at will. In case by any chance the diver should inflate the dress inadvertently, and wish to ge't rid of the superfluous air quickly, he can do so by opening an emergency cock, which is fitted on the helmet. Plate glasses in gun-metal frames are also fitted to the helmet, two, one on each side, being permanently fixed, while one in front is made either to screw in and out, or to work on a hinged joint like a ship's scuttle; the side glasses are usually protected by metal cross-bars, as is also sometimes the front glass. Some divers prefer unprotected glasses at the side of the helmet, instead of protected oval ones. The breastplate is fitted on its outer edge with metal screws and bands. The disposition of the screws corresponds with that of the holes in the india-rubber collar of the diving dress described below. There are other methods of making a watertight joint between the diver's breastplate and the diving dress, but, as these are only mechanical differences, it will suffice to describe the Siebe-Gorman apparatus, as exclusively adopted by the British government. Whatever the shape or design of the helmet or dress, Siebe's principle is the one in universal use to-day. The metal tabs are for carrying the diver's lead weights, which are fitted with suitable clips; the hooks — one on each side of the helmet — are for keeping the ropes attached to the back weight in position. The helmet and breastplate are fitted at their lower and upper parts respectively with gun-metal segmental neck rings, which make it possible to connect these two main parts together by one-eighth of a turn, a catch at the back of the helmet preventing any chance of unscrewing. The small eyes at the top of the helmet are for securing the diver's air pipe and life line in position and preventing them from swaying. Front view of Helmet. A, Helmet. B, Breastplate. F, Emergency cock. G, Glasses in frames. H, Metal screws and bands. I, Metal tabs. J, Hooks for keeping weight ropes in position. L, Eyes to which air pipe and life line are secured. Side sectional view of Helmet. K, Segmental neck rings. D, Air conduits. M, Telephone receiver. N, Transmitter. O, Contact piece to ring bell. n G n J_ Back view of Helmet. C, E, G, L, P, FIG. 3. Plan of Helmet. Air inlet valve. Regulating outlet valve. Glasses in frames. Eyes to which air pipe and life line are secured. Connexion for telephone cable. The Diving Dress is a combination suit which envelops the whole body from feet to neck. It is made of two layers of tanned twill with pure rubber between, and is fitted at the neck with a vulcanized india-rubber collar, or band, with holes punched in it corresponding to the screws in the breastplate. This collar, when clamped tightly between the bands and the breastplate by means of the nuts, ensures a watertight joint. The sleeves of the dress are fitted with vulcanized india-rubber cuffs, which, fitting tightly round the diver's wrists, prevent the ingress of water at these parts also. Boots. — These are generally made with leather uppers, beechwcod inner soles and leaden outer soles, the latter being secured to the others by copper rivets. Heavy leather straps with brass buckles secure the boot to the foot. Each boot weighs about 1 6 Ib. Sometimes the main part of the boot-golosh, toe and heel, are in one brass casting, with leather upper part, heavy straps and brass buckles. Lead Weights. — These weigh 40 Ib each, and the diver wears one on his back, another on his chest. These weights and the heavy boots ensure the diver's equilibrium when under water. Belt and Knife and Small Tools. — Every diver wears a heavy waist-belt in which he carries a strong knife in metal case, and some- times other small tools. Air Pipe. — The diver's air pipe is of a flexible, non-collapsible description, being made of alternate layers of strong canvas and vulcanized india-rubber, with steel or hard drawn metal wire em- bedded. At the ends are fitted gun-metal couplings, for connecting the pipe with the diver's pump and helmet. DIVERS AND DIVING APPARATUS 329 Signal Line. — The diver's signal line (sometimes called life line) consists of a length of reverse laid Manila rope. In cases where the telephone apparatus is not used, the diver gives his signals by means of a series of pulls on the signal line in accordance with a prearranged code. Telephonic Apparatus. — Without doubt one of the most useful adjuncts to the modern diving apparatus is the loud-sounding telephone (fig. 4), introduced by Siebe, Gorman & Co., which enables the diver to communicate viva voce with his attendant, and vice versa. In the British navy the type of submarine telephonic apparatus used is the Graham-Davis system. This is made on two plans, (i) a single set of instruments, for communication between one diver and his attendant direct, (2) an intercommunication set which is used where two divers are employed. With this type the attendant can speak to No. I or No. 2 diver separately, or with both at the same time, and yice versa ; and No. I can be put in communi- cation with No. 2 whilst they are under water, the attendant at the surface being able to hear what the men are saying. The advantages of such a system are obvious. It is more particularly useful where two divers are working one either side of a ship, or where the divers may be engaged upon the same piece of work, but out of sight of one another, or out of touch. It would prove its utility in a marked degree in cases where a diver got into difficulties; a second diver sent down to his assistance could receive and give verbal directions and thus greatly expedite the work of rescue. The telephone instruments in the helmet consist of one or more loud-sounding receivers placed either in the crown of the helmet, or one on each side in close proximity to the diver's ears. A trans- mitter of a special watertight pattern is placed between the front glass and one of the side glasses, and a contact piece, which, when the diver presses his chin against it, rings a bell at the surface, is fitted immediately below the front glass. A buzzer is sometimes fixed in the helmet to call the diver's attention when the attendant wishes to speak, but as a rule the voice is transmitted so loudly that this device is unnecessary. A connexion, through which the insulated wires connecting the instruments pass, terminates in contact pieces, and the telephone cable, embedded in the diver's signal line, is connected with it. The other end of the signal line is connected to a battery box at the surface. This box contains, besides the cells, a receiver and transmitter for the attendant, an electric bell, a ter- minal box, and a special switch, by means of which vari- ous communications Q between diver, or divers, and attend- ant are made. If, as is sometimes the case, the diver hap- pens to be somewhat deaf, he can, whilst he is taking a mes- sage, stop the vibra- tion of the outlet FIG. 4. — Diver's Telephone Communication with the Surface. Q, Battery, with switch and bell in case. R. Attendant's receiver and transmitter. valve and the noise made by the escaping air, by merely pressing his finger on a spindle which passes through the disk of the valve, and thus momentarily ensure absolute silence. Speaking Tube. — The rubber speaking tube which was the fore- runner of the telephonic apparatus is now practically obsolete, though it is still used in isolated cases. Submarine Electric Lamps. — Various forms of submarine lamps are used, from a powerful arc light to a self-contained hand lamp, the former giving about 2000 or 3000 candle-power, and requiring a steam-driven dynamo to supply the necessary current, the latter (fig- 5) giving a light of about ip candle-power and haying its own batteries, so that the diver carries both the light and its source in his hand. These submarine lamps are all constructed on the same principle, having the incandescent lamps, or carbons as the case may be, enclosed in a strong glass globe, the mechanism and con- nexions being fitted in a metal case above the globe, which is flanged and secured watertightly to the case. Self-contained Diving Dress. — The object of the self-contained diving dress is to make the diver independent of air supply from the surface. The dress, helmet, boots and weights are of the ordinary pattern already described, but instead of obtaining his air supply by means of pumps and pipes, the diver is equipped with a knapsack consisting of a steel cylinder containing oxygen compressed to a pressure of 120 atmospheres ( = about 1800 ft)) to the square inch, and chambers containing caustic soda or caustic potash. The helmet is connected to the chambers by tubes, and the oxygen cylinder is similarly connected to the chambers. The breath exhaled by the diver passes through a valve into the caustic soda, which absorbs the carbonic acid, and it is then again inhaled through another valve. This process of regeneration goes on automatically, the requisite amount of oxygen being restored to the breathed air in its passage through the chambers. This type of apparatus has been used for shallow water work, but the great majority of divers prefer the apparatus using pumps as the source of the air supply. An emergency dress, using this self-contained system for breathing, has been designed by Messrs Fleuss and Davis, of the firm of Siebe, Gorman & Co., primarily as a life-saving apparatus, for enabling men to escape from disabled submarine boats. The helmet diver is indispensable in connexion with harbour and dock construction, bridge-building, pearl and sponge fishing, wreck FIG. 5.— Submarine Electric Lamp, with and without Reflector. A, Metal case containing C, Stand, which also pro- electrical fittings. tects the globe. B, Glass globe and incan- D, Ring for suspending lamp. descent lamp. E, Reflector. raising and the recovery of sunken cargo and treasure. Every ship in the British navy carries one set or more of diving apparatus, for use in case of emergency, for clearing fouled propellers, cleaning valves or ship's hull below the water line, repairing hulls if necessary, and recovering lost anchors, chains, torpedoes, &c. Greatest Depths attained. — The greatest depth at which useful work has been performed by a diver is 182 ft. From this depth a Spanish diver, Angel Erostarbe, recovered £9000 in silver bars from the wreck of the steamer " Skyro," sunk off Cape Finisterre; Alexander Lambert succeeded in salving £70,000 from the Spanish mail steamer " Alphonso XII," sunk in 162 ft. of water off Las Palmas, Grand Canary; W. Ridyard recovered £50,000 in silver dollars from the " Hamilton Mitchell," sunk off Leuconna Reef, China, in 150 ft. There are individual cases where much larger sums have been recovered, but those mentioned are particularly notable by reason of the great depth involved and stand out as the greatest depths at which good work has been done. The sponge fishers of the Mediterranean work at a maximum depth of about 150 ft., and the pearl divers of Australia at 120 ft. But submarine operations on the great majority of the harbour and dock works of the world are conducted at a depth of from 30 to 60 ft. The weighted tools employed by divers differ very little from those used by the workmen on terra firma. Pneumatic tools, worked by compressed air conveyed from the surface through flexible tubes, are great aids, particularly in rock removal work. With the rock drill the diver bores a number of holes to a given depth, inserts in these the charges of dynamite or other explosive used, attaches one end of a wire to a detonator which is inserted in the charge, and then comes to the surface. The boat from which he works is then moved away from the scene of operations, paying out the wire attached to the detonators, and when at a safe distance the free end of the wire is connected to a magneto exploding machine, which is then set in motion. A complete set of diving apparatus costs from £75 to £200, varying with the depth of water for which it is required. The pay of a diver depends upon the nature of the work upon which he is engaged, and also upon the depth of the water. On harbour and dock work the average wage is 25. to zs. 6d. per hour ; on wreck work from 33. to 55. an hour, according to depth; on treasure and cargo recovery so much per day, with a percentage on the value recovered, generally about 5 %. The pearl fishers of Australia get so much per ton of shell, and the sponge fishers are also paid by results. 330 DIVERS AND DIVING APPARATUS A problem which has been exercising the minds of those engaged in submarine work is the greatest depth at which it is possible to work, for, as is well known, many a fine vessel with valuable cargo and treasure is lying out of reach of the diver owing to the pressure which he would have to sustain were he to attempt to reach her. Mr Leonard Hill, and Drs Greenwood and J. J. R. Macleod conducted experiments in conjunction with Messrs Siebe, Gorman & Co., with a view to solving this problem, and their efforts have been attended with some considerable success. Dr J. S. Haldane has also carried out practical experiments for the British Admiralty, and under his supervision two naval officers have succeeded in reaching the unprecedented depth of 210 ft., at which depth the pressure is about 90 ft) to the square inch. Dh-ing Bells. — Every one is familiar with the experiment of placing an inverted tumbler in a bowl of water, and seeing the water excluded from the tumbler by the air inside it. Perhaps it was to some such experiment as this that the conception of the diving bell was due. As is well known, the pressure of water increases with the depth, and for all practical purposes this pressure can be taken at 4$ ft) to every 10 ft. The following table shows the pressure at different depths below the surface of the water: — Dept 20 f 40 80 120 160 200 h. t. . . .81 Pres Ibto sure. the sq. in. I7J 34 52: 69; 8? If a diving bell be sunk to a depth of, say, 33 ft., the air inside it will be compressed to about half its original volume, and the bell itself will be about half filled with water. But if a supply of air be maintained at a pressure equal to the depth of water at which the bell is submerged, not only will the water be kept down to the cutting edge, but the bell will be ventilated and it will be possible for its occupants to work for hours at a stretch. Tradition gives Roger Bacon, in 1250, the credit for being the originator of the diving bell, but actual records are lost in antiquity. Of the records preserved to us, probably one of the most trustworthy is an account given in Kaspar Schott's work, Technica curiosa, published in the year 1664, which quoted from one John Taisnier, who was in the service of Charles V. This account describes an experiment which took place at Toledo, Spain, in the year 1538, before the emperor and some thousands of spectators, when two Greeks descended into the water in a large " kettle," suspended by ropes, with its mouth downwards. The "kettle" was equipoised by lead fixed round its mouth. The men came up dry, and a lighted candle, which they had taken down with them, was still burning. Francis Bacon, in the Novum Organum, lib. ii., makes the following reference to a machine, or reservoir, of air to which labourers upon wrecks might resort whenever they required to take breath: — " A hollow vessel, made of metal, was let down equally to the surface of the water, and thus carried with it to the bottom of the sea the whole of the air which it contained. It stood upon three feet — like a tripod — which were in length something less than the height of a man, so that the diver, when he was no longer able to contain his breath, could put his head into the vessel, and having filled his lungs again, return to his work." But it was to Dr Edmund Halley, secretary of the Royal Society, that undoubtedly the honour is due of having invented the first really practical diving bell. This is described in the Philosophical Transactions, 1717, in a paper on " The Art of Living Under Water by means of furnishing air at the bottom of the sea in any ordinary depth." Halley 's bell was constructed of wood, and was covered with lead, which gave it the necessary sinking weight, and was so distributed as to ensure that it kept a perpendicular position when in the water. It was in the form of a truncated cone, 3 ft. in diameter at the top, 5 ft. at the bottom and 8 ft. high. In the roof a lens was introduced for admitting light, and also a tap to let out the vitiated air. Fresh air was supplied to the bell by means of two lead-lined barrels, each having a bung-hole in the top and bottom. To the hole in the top was fixed a leathern tube, weighted in such a manner that it always fell below the level of the bottom of the barrel so that no air could escape. When, however, the tube was turned up by the attendant in the bell, the pressure of the water rising through the hole in the bottom of the barrel, forced the air through the tube at the top and into the diving bell. These barrels were raised and lowered alternately, with such success that Halley says that he, with four others, remained at the bottom of the sea, at a depth of 9 to 10 fathoms, for an hour and a half at a time without inconvenience of any sort. This type of bell was used by John Smeaton in repairing the foundations of Hexham Bridge in 1778, but instead of weighted FIG. 6. — Ordinary Diving Bell. barrels, he introduced a force pump for supplying the necessary air. To Smeaton too we are indebted for the first diving bell plant in the form with which we are familiar to-day, that cele- brated engineer having designed a square bell of iron, for use on the Ramsgate harbour works, in 1 788. This bell, which measured 4! ft. in length, 3 ft. in width and 4! ft. in height, and weighed 2 1 tons, was made sufficiently heavy to sink by its own weight. It afforded room enough for two men to work, and was supplied with air by a force pump worked from a boat at the surface. Though the diving bell has been largely superseded by the modern diving apparatus, it is still used on certain classes of work the magnitude of which justifies the expense entailed, for it is not only a question of the cost of the bell, but of the powerful steam-driven crane which is needed to lower and raise it, and also of the gantry on which the crane travels. Sometimes a barge or other vessel is used for working the bell. At the present day, two types of diving bell are employed — the ordinary bell, and the air-lock bell, which, however, is not so largely used. On the new national harbour works at Dover, four large diving bells of the ordinary type (fig. 6) were employed. These bells, in each of which from four to six men descended at a time, consisted of steel chambers, open at the bottom, measuring 17 ft. long by ioj ft. wide by 7 ft. high, and each weighed 35 tons. The ballast, which at once gives the necessary sinking weight to the bell and maintains its equilibrium, consisted of slabs of cast iron bolted to the walls of the bell, inside. Each bell was fitted with loud-sounding telephonic apparatus, by means of which the occupants could com- municate either with the men attending the crane or the men looking after the air compressors at the surface. Electric lamps, supplied with current by a dynamo in the compressor room, gave the neces- sary light inside the bell. Seats and foot rails were provided for the men, and there were racks and hooks for the various tools. Sus- pended from the roof was an iron skip into which the men threw the DIVES-SUR-MER— DIVIDEND excavated material, which was emptied out when the bell was brought to the surface. Air was supplied to the bells by means of steam- driven compressors worked in a house erected on the gantry. The air was delivered into a steel air receiver, and thence it passed through a flexible tube connected to a gun-metal inlet valve in the roof of the diving bell ; the pressure of air was regulated according to the depth at which the bell happened to be working. The maximum depth on the Dover works was between 60 and 70 ft.,=about 25-30 Ib to the square inch. A bell was lowered by means of powerful steam- driven cranes, travelling on a gantry, to within a few feet of the water, and the men entered it from a boat. The bell then continued its descent to the bottom, where the men, with pick and shovel, levelled the sea bed ready to receive the large concrete blocks, weighing from Fig. 7. — Air-lock Diving Bell. A, Working chamber. E, Tackles suspended from roof B, Air-lock. for raising and lowering C, Pulleys and wire ropes for objects. lowering and raising bell. F, Air supply pipe. D, Iron ladder. 30 to 42 tons apiece. Having completed one section, the bell was moved along to another. The concrete blocks were then lowered and placed in position by helmet diyers. The bell divers, clad in thick woollen suits and watertight thigh boots, worked in shifts of about three hours each, and were paid at the rate of from is. to I5d. per hour. The cost of an ordinary diving bell, including air compressor, telephonic apparatus and electric light, is from £600 to £1500, according to size. The Air-lock Diving Bell (fig. 7) comprises an iron or steel working chamber similar to the ordinary diving bell, but with the addition of a shaft attached to its roof. At the upper end of the shaft is an air- tight door, and about 8 ft. below this is another similar door. When the bell divers wish to enter the bell, they pass through the first door and close it after them, and then open a cock or valve and gradually let into the space between the two doors compressed air from the working chamber in order to equalize the pressure ; they then open the second door and pass down into the working chamber, closing the door after them. When returning to the surface they reverse the operation. It can readily be imagined that, owing to its unwieldy character, the employment of the air-lock bell is resorted to onjy in those cases where the nature of the sea bed necessitates its remaining on a given spot for some considerable time, as for instance in the excavation of hard rock to a given depth. An air-lock bell supplied to the British Admiralty, for use in connexion with the laying of moorings at Gibraltar, has a working chamber measuring 15 ft. long by lof ft. wide, by 7J ft. high, and a shaft 37$ ft. high by 3 ft. in diameter. It is built of steel plates, with cast-iron ballast, and its total weight is about 46 tons. The bell is electrically lighted, and is fitted with telephonic apparatus com- municating with the air-compressor room and lifting-winch room. It is worked through a well in the centre of a specially constructed steel barge 85 ft. long by 40 ft. beam, having a draught of 7 ft. 6 in. The wire ropes, for lowering and raising the bell, work over pulleys which are carried on a superstructure erected over the well. Two sets of air compressors are fitted on the barge — one set for supplying air to the bell, the other set for working a pneumatic rock drift inside the bell. The greatest depth at which this particular bell will work is 40 ft. The cost of the whole plant, including barge, was about £14,000. The diving dress has, however, to a great extent supplanted the diving bell. This is due not only to the heavier cost of the latter, but more particularly to the greater mobility of the helmet diver. Bell divers are naturally limited to the area which their bell for the time being covers, whereas helmet divers can be distributed over different parts of a contract and work entirely independently of one another. The use of the diving bell is, therefore, practically limited to the work of levelling the sea bed, and the removal of rock. See also the article CAISSON DISEASE as regards the physiological effects of compressed air. (R. H. D.*) DIVES-SUR-MER, a small port and seaside resort of north- western France on the coast of the department of Calvados, on theDives, ism. N.E.of Caenbyroad. Pop. (1906) 3286. Dives is celebrated as the harbour whence William the Conqueror sailed to England in 1066. In the porch of its church (i4th and isth centuries) a tablet records the names of some of his companions. The town has a picturesque inn, adapted from a building dating partly from the i6th century, and market buildings dating from the i4th to the i6th centuries. The coast in the vicinity of Dives is fringed with small watering-places, those of Cabourg (to the west) and of Beuzeval and Houlgate (to the east) being practically united with it. There are large metallurgical works with electric motive power close to the town. DIVIDE, a word used technically as a noun in America and the British colonies for any high ridge between two valleys, forming a water-parting; a dividing range. For special senses of the verb " to divide " (Lat. di-videre, the latter part of the word coming from a root seen in Lat. vidua, Eng. " widow "), meaning generally to split up in two or more parts, see DIVISION. In a parliamentary sense, to divide (involving a separation into two sides, Aye and No) is to take the sense of the House by voting on the subject before it. DIVIDEND (Lat. dividendum, a thing to be divided), the net profit periodically divisible among the proprietors of a joint- stock company in proportion to their respective holdings of its capital. Dividend is not interest, although the word dividend is frequently applied to payments of interest; and a failure to pay dividends to shareholders does not, like a failure to pay interest on borrowed money, lay a company open to being declared bankrupt. In bankruptcy a dividend is the proportionate share of the proceeds of the debtor's estate received by a creditor. In England, the Companies Act 1862 provided that no dividend should be payable except out of the profits arising from the busi- ness of the company, but, in the case of companies incorporated by special act of parliament for the construction of railways and other public works which cannot be completed for a considerable time, it is sometimes provided that interest may during construc- tion be paid to the subscribers for shares out of capital. Dividends (excluding occasional distributions in the form of shares) are ordinarily payable in cash. Most companies divide their capital into at least two classes, called " preference " shares and " ordinary " shares, of which the former are entitled out of the profits of the company to a preferential dividend at a fixed rate, and the latter to whatever remains after payment of the preferential dividend and any fixed charges. Before, however, a dividend is paid, a part of the profits is often carried to a " reserve 332 DIVIDIVI— DIVINATION fund." The dividend on preference shares is either " cumulative " or contingent on the profits of each separate year or half year. When cumulative, if the profits of any one year are insufficient to pay it in full, the deficiency has to be made good out of subse- quent profits. A cumulative preferential dividend is sometimes said to be " guaranteed," and preferential dividends payable by all English companies registered under the Companies Acts 1862 to 1 908 are cumulative unless stipulated to be otherwise. Certain public companies are forbidden by parliament to pay dividends in excess of a prescribed maximum rate, but this restriction has been happily modified in some instances, notably in the case of gas companies, by the institution of a sliding scale, under which a gas company may so regulate the price of gas to be charged to consumers that any reduction of an authorized standard price entitles the company to make a proportionate increase of the authorized dividend, and any increase above the standard price involves a proportionate decrease of dividend. Dividends are usually declared yearly or half-yearly; and before any dividend can be paid it is., as a rule, necessary for the directors to submit to the shareholders, at a general meeting called for the purpose, the accounts of the company, with a report by the directors on its position and their recommendation as to the rate of the proposed dividend. The articles of association of a company usually provide that the shareholders may accept the director's recom- mendation as to dividend or may declare a lower one, but may not declare a higher one than the directors recommend. Directors frequently have power to pay on account of the dividend for the year, without consulting the shareholders, an "interim dividend," which on ordinary shares is generally at a much lower rate than the final or regular dividend. An exceptionally high dividend is often distributed in the shape of a dividend at the usual rate supplemented by an additional dividend or " bonus." Payment of dividends is made by means of cheques sent by post, called " dividend warrants." All dividends are subject to income-tax, and by most companies dividends are paid " less income-tax," in which case the tax is deducted from the amount of dividend payable to each proprietor. When paid without such deduction a dividend is said to be " free of income-tax." In the latter case, however, the company has to make provision for payment of the tax before declaring the dividend, and the amount of its divisible profits and the rate of dividend which it is able to declare are consequently to that extent reduced. In respect of consols and certain other securities, holders of amounts of less than £1000 may instruct the Bank of England or Bank of Ireland to receive and invest their dividends. With few exceptions, the prices of securities dealt in on the London Stock Exchange include any accruing dividend not paid up to the date of purchase. At a certain day, after the dividend is declared, the stock or share is dealt in on the Stock Exchange, as ex dividend (or "x. d."), which means that the current dividend is paid not to the buyer but to the previous holder, and the price of the stock is lower to that extent. The expression " cum dividend " is used to signify that the price of the security dealt in includes a dividend which, in the absence of any stipulation, might be supposed to belong to the seller of the security. On the New York Stock Exchange the invariable practice is to sell stock with the " dividend on " until the company's books are closed, after which it is usually sold " ex dividend." (S. D. H.) DIVIDIVI, the native and commercial name for the astringent pods of Caesalpinia coriaria, a leguminous shrub of the suborder Caesalpinieae, which grows in low marshy tracts in the West Indies and the north of South America. The plant is between 20 and 30 ft. in height, and bears white flowers. The pods are flattened, and curl up in drying; they are about f in. broad, from 2 to 3 in. long and of a rich brown colour. Dividivi was first brought to Europe from Caracas in 1 768. It contains about 30 % of ellagitannic acid, whence its value in leather manufacture. DIVINATION, the process of obtaining knowledge of secret or future things by means of oracles, omens or astrology. The root of the word, deus (god) or divus, indicates the supposed source of the soothsayer's information, just as the equivalent Greek term, ffi, indicates the spiritual source of the utterances of the seer, pavns. In classical times the view was, in fact, general, as may be seen by Cicero's De divinatione, that not only oracles but also omens were signs sent by the gods; even the astrologer held that he gained his information, in the last resort, from the same source. On the side of the Stoics it was argued that if divination was a real art, there must be gods who gave it to mankind; against this it was argued that signs of future events may be given without any god. Divination is practised in all grades of culture; its votaries range from the Australian black to the American medium. There is no general agreement as to the source of the information; commonly it is held that it comes from the gods directly or indirectly. In the Bornean cult of the hawk it seems that the divine bird itself was regarded as having a foreknowledge of the future. Later it is regarded as no more than a messenger. Among the Australian blacks, divination is largely employed to discover the cause of death, where it is assumed to be due to magic; in some cases the spirit of the dead man is held to give the information, in others the living magician is the source of the knowledge. We find moreover as emi-scientific conception of the basis of divination; the whole of nature is linked together; just as the variations in the height of a column of mercury serve to foretell the weather, so the flight of birds or behaviour of cattle may help to prognosticate its changes; for the uncultured it is merely a step to the assumption that animals know things which are hidden from man. Haruspication, or the inspection of entrails, was justified on similar grounds, and in the case of omens from birds or animals, no less than in astrology, it was held that the facts from which inferences were drawn were themselves in part the causes of the events which they foretold, thus fortifying the belief in the possibility of divination. From a psychological point of view divinatory methods may be classified under two main heads: (A) autoscopic, which depend simply on some change in the consciousness of the soothsayer; (B) heteroscopic, in which he looks outside himself for guidance and perhaps infers rather than divines in the proper sense. (A) Autoscopic methods depend on (i.) sensory or (ii.) motor automatisms, or (iii.) mental impressions, for their results, (i.) Crystal-gazing (q.i>.) is a world-wide method of divining, which is analogous to dreams, save that the vision is voluntarily initiated, though little, if at all, under the control of the scryer. Corre- sponding to crystal-gazing we have shell-hearing and similar methods, which are, however, less common; in these the informa- tion is gained by hearing a voice, (ii.) The divining rod (q.v.) is the best-known example of this class; divination depending on automatic movements of this sort is found at all stages of culture; in Australia it is used to detect the magician who has caused the death of a native; in medieval and modern times water-divining or dowsing has been largely and successfully used. Similar in principle is coscinomancy, or divining by a sieve held suspended, which gives indications by turning; and the equally common divination by a suspended ring, both of which are found from Europe in the west to China and Japan in the east. The ordeal by the Bible and key is equally popular; the book is suspended by a key tied in with its wards between the leaves and supported on two persons' fingers, and the whole turns round when the name of the guilty person is mentioned. Confined to higher cultures on the other hand, for obvious reasons, is divination by automatic writing, which is practised in China more especially. The sand divination so widely spread in Africa seems to be of a different nature. Trance speaking, on the other hand, may be found in any stage of culture and there is no doubt that in many cases the procedure of the magician or shaman induces a state of auto- hypnotism; at a higher stage these utterances are termed oracles and are believed io be the result of inspiration (q.v.). (iii.) An- other method of divination is by the aid of mental impressions; observation seems to show that by some process of this sort, akin to clairvoyance (q.v.), fortunes are told successfully by means of palmistry or by laying the cards; for the same " lie " of the cards may be diversely interpreted to meet different cases. In other cases the impression is involuntary or less consciously sought, as in dreams (?.».), which, however, are sometimes induced, for DIVINING-ROD 333 purposes of divination, by the process known as incubation or temple sleep. Dreams are sometimes regarded as visits to or from gods or the souls of the dead, sometimes as signs to be interpreted symbolically by means of dream-books, which are found not only in Europe but in less cultured countries like Siam. (B) In heteroscopic divination the process is rather one of inference from external facts. The methods are very various, (i.) The casting of lots, sortilege, was common in classical antiquity; the Homeric heroes prayed to the gods when they cast lots in Agamemnon's leather cap, and Mopsus divined with sacred lots when the Argonauts embarked. Similarly dice are thrown for purposes of sortilege; the astragali or knucklebones, used in children's games at the present day, were implements of divination in the first instance. In Polynesia the coco-nut is spun like a teetotum to discover a thief. Somewhat different are the omens drawn from books; in ancient times the poets were often consulted, more especially Virgil, whence the name sortes virgUianae, just as the Bible is used for drawing texts in our own day, especially in Germany, (ii.) In haruspication, or the inspec- tion of entrails, in scapulomancy or divination by the speal-bone or shoulder-blade, in divination by footprints in ashes, found in Australia, Peru and Scotland, the voluntary element is prominent, for the diviner must take active steps to secure the conditions necessary to divination, (iii.) In the case of augury and omens, on the other hand, that is not necessary. The behaviour and cries of birds, and angang or meeting with ominous animals, &c., may be voluntarily observed, and opportunities for observation made; but this is not necessary for success, (iv.) In astrology we have a method which still finds believers among people of good education. The stars are held, not only to prog- nosticate the future but also to influence it; the child born when Mars is in the ascendant will be war-like; Venus has to do with love; the sign of the Lion presides over places where wild beasts are found, (v.) In other cases the tie that binds the subject of divination with the omen-giving object is sympathy. The name of the life-index is given to a tree, animal or other object believed to be so closely united by sympathetic ties to a human being that the fate of the latter is reflected in the condition of the former. The Polynesians set up sticks to see if the warriors they stood for were to fall in battle; on Hallowe'en in our own country the behaviour of nuts and other objects thrown into the fire is held to prognosticate the lot of the person to whom they have been assigned. Where, as in the last two cases, the sympathetic bond is less strong, we find symbolical interpretation playing an important part. Sympathy and symbolism, association of ideas and analogy, together with a certain amount of observation, are the explana- tion of the great mass of heteroscopic divinatory formulae. But where autoscopic phenomena play the chief part the question of the origin of divination is less simple. The investigations of the Society for Psychical Research show that premonitions, though rare in our own day, are not absolutely unknown. Pseudo- premonitions, due to hallucinatory memory, are not unknown; there is also some ground for holding that crystal-gazers are able to perceive incidents which are happening at a distance from them. Divination of this sort, therefore, may be due to observa- tion and experiment of a rude sort, rather than to the unchecked play of fancy which resulted in heteroscopic divination. See also the articles AUGURS, ORACLE, ASTROLOGY, OMEN, &c. AUTHORITIES. — Bouche Leclercq, Histpire de la divination dans Vantiquite; Tylor, Primitive Culture, passim; Maury, " La Magie et 1'astrologie," Journ. Anlh. Inst. i. 163, v. 4.36; Folklore, iii. 193; Ellis, Tshi-speaking Peoples, p. 202; Dictionnaire encyclopedique des sciences medicales, xxx. 24-96; Journ. of Philology, xiii. 273, xiv. 113; Deubner, De incubatione; Lenormant, La Divination, et la science de presages chez les Chaldeens; Skeat, Malay Magic; J. Johnson, Yoruba Heathenism (1899). (N. W. T.) DIVINING - ROD. As indicated in the article MAGIC, Rhabdomancy, or the art of using a divining-rod for discovering something hidden, is apparently of immemorial antiquity, and the Roman mrgula diiiina, as used in taking auguries by means of casting bits of stick, is described by Cicero and Tacitus (see also DIVINATION) ; but the special form of mrgula furcata, or forked twig of hazel or willow (see also HAZEL), described by G. Agricola (De re metallica, 1546), and in Sebastian Munster's Cosmography in the early part of the i6th century, used specially for discovering metallic lodes or water beneath the earth, must be distinguished from the genera] superstition. The " dowsing " or divining-rod, in this sense, has a modern interest, dating from its use by prospectors for minerals in the German (Harz Mountains) mining districts; the French chemist M. E. Chevreul1 assigns its first mention to Basil Valentine, the alchemist of the late 1 5th century. On account of its supposed magical powers, it may be taken perhaps as an historical analogue to such fairy wands as the caauceus of Mercury, the golden arrow of Herodotus's " Abaris the Hyperborean," or the medieval witch's broomstick. But the existence of the modern water-finder or dowser makes the divining-rod a matter of more than mythological or superstitious interest. The Schlagruthe (striking-rod), or forked twig of the German miners, was brought to England by those engaged in the Cornish mines by the merchant venturers of Queen Elizabeth's day. Professor W. F. Barrett, F.R.S., the chief modern in- vestigator of this subject, regards its employment, dating as it does from the revival of learning, as based on the medieval doctrine of " sympathy," the drooping of trees and character of the vegetation being considered to give indications of mineral lodes beneath the earth's surface, by means of a sort of attrac- tion; and such critical works as Robert Boyle's (1663), or the Mineralogia Cornubiensis of Pryce (1778), admitted its value in discovering metals. But as mining declined in Cornwall, the use of the dowser for searching for lodes almost disappeared, and was transferred to water-finding. The divining-rod has, however, also been used for searching for any buried objects. In the south of France, in the i7th century, it was employed in tracking criminals and heretics. Its abuse led to a decree of the Inquisition in 1701, forbidding its employment for purposes of justice. In modern times the professional dowser is a " water-finder," and there has been a good deal of investigation into the possibility of a scientific explanation of his claims to be able to locate under- ground water, where it is not known to exist, by the use of a forked hazel-twig which, twisting in his hands, leads him by its directing-power to the place where a boring should be made. Whether justified or not, a widespread faith exists, based no doubt on frequent success, in the dowser's power; and Professor Barrett (The Times, January 21, 1905) states that "making a liberal allowance for failures of which I have not heard, I have no hesitation in saying that where fissure water exists and the discovery of underground water sufficient for a domestic supply is a matter of the utmost difficulty, the chances of success with a good dowser far exceed mere lucky hits, or the success obtained by the most skilful observer, even with full knowledge of the local geology." Is this due to any special faculty in the dowser, or has the twig itself anything to do with it ? Held in balanced equilibrium, the forked twig, in the dowser's hands, moves with a sudden and often violent motion, and the appearance of actual life in the twig itself, though regarded as mere stage-play by some, is popularly associated with the cause of the water- finder's success. The theory that there is any direct connexion (" sympathy " or electrical influence) between the divining-rod and the water or metal, is however repudiated by modern science. Professor Barrett, who with Professor Janet and others is satisfied that the rod twists without any intention or voluntary deception on the part of the dowser, ascribes the phenomenon to " motor- automatism " on the part of the dowser (see AUTOMATISM), a reflex action excited by some stimulus upon his mind, which may ae either a subconscious suggestion or an actual impression [obscure in its nature) from an external object or an external nind; both sorts of stimulus are possible, so that the dowser limself may make false inferences (and fail) by supposing that :he stimulus is an external object (like water). The divining-rod aeing thus " an indicator of any sub-conscious suggestion or mpression," its indications, no doubt, may be fallacious; but Professor Barrett, basing his conclusions upon observed successes and their greater proportion to failures than anything that 1 La Baguette divinatoire (Paris, 1845). 334 DIVISION— DIVORCE chance could produce, advances the hypothesis that some persons (like the professional dowsers) possess " a genuine super-normal perceptive faculty," and that the mind of a good dowser, possess- ing the idiosyncrasy of motor-automatism, becomes a blank or tabula rasa, so that " the faintest impression made by the object searched for creates an involuntary or automatic motion of the indicator, whatever it may be." Like the " homing instinct " of certain birds and animals, the dowser's power lies beneath the level of any conscious perception; and the function of the forked twig is to act as an index of some material or other mental disturbance within him, which otherwise he could not interpret. It should be added that dowsers do not always use any rod. Some again use a willow rod, or withy, others a hazel-twig (the traditional material), others a beech or holly twig, or one from any other tree; others even a piece of wire or watch-spring. The best dowsers are said to have been generally more or less illiterate men, usually engaged in some humble vocation. Sir W. H. Preece (The Times, January 16, 1005), repudiating as an electrician the theory that any electric force is involved, has recorded his opinion that water-finding by a dowser is due to " mechanical vibration, set up by the friction of moving water, acting upon the sensitive ventral diaphragm of certain exception- ally delicately framed persons." Another theory is that water- finders are " exceptionally sensitive to hygroraetric influences." In any case, modern science approaches the problem as one concerning which the facts have to be accepted, and explained by some natural, though obscure, cause. See for further details Professor Barrett's longer discussion in parts 32 (1897) and 38 (1900) of the Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research. DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate) , a general term for the action of breaking up a whole into parts. Thus, in political economy, the phrase " division of labour " implies the assignment to particular workmen of the various portions of a whole piece of work; jn mathematics division is the process of finding how many times one number or quantity, the " divisor," is contained in another, the " dividend " (see ARITHMETIC and ALGEBRA); in the musical terminology of the 1 7th and i8th centuries, the term was used for rapid passages consisting of a few slow notes amplified into a florid passage, i.e. into a larger number of quick ones. The word is used also in concrete senses for the parts into which a thing is divided, e.g. a division of an army, an administrative or electoral division; similarly, a "division" is taken in a legislative body when votes are recorded for and against a proposed measure. In logic, division is a technical term for the process by which a genus is broken up into its species. Thus the genus " animal " may be divided, according to the habitat of the various kinds, into animals which live on land, those which live in water, those which live in the air. Each of these may be subdivided according to whether their constituent members do or do not possess certain other qualities. The basis of each of these divisions is called the fundamenlum divisionis. It is clear that there can be no division in respect of those qualities which make the genus what it is. The various species are all alike in the possession of the generic attributes, but differ in other respects; they are " variations on the same theme " (Joseph, Introduction to Logic, 1906); each one has the generic, and also certain peculiar, qualities (differentiae), which latter distinguish them from other species of the same genus. The process of division is thus the obverse of classification (?.».); it proceeds from genus to species, whereas classification begins with the particulars and rises through species to genus. In the exact sciences, and indeed in all argument both practical and theoretical, accurate division is of great importance. It is governed by the following rules, (i) Division must be exhaustive; all the members of the genus must find a place in one or other of the species; a captain who selects for his team skilful batsmen and bowlers only is guilty of an incomplete division of the whole function of a cricket team by omitting to provide himself with good fielders. Rectilinear figures cannot be divided into triangles and quadrilaterals because there are rectilinear figures which have more than four sides. On the other hand, triangles can be divided into equilateral, isosceles and scalene, since no other kind of triangle can exist, (a) Division must be exclusive, that is, each species must be complete in itself and not contain members of another species. No member of a genus must be included in more than one of the species. (3) In every division there must be but one principle (fundamentum divisionis). The members of a genus may differ from one another in many respects, e.g. books may be divided according to external form into quarto, octavo, &c., or according to binding into calf, cloth, paper-backed and so on. They cannot, however, be divided logically into quarto, paper- backed, novels and remainders. When more than one principle is used in a division it is called " cross division." (4) Division must- proceed gradually (" Divisio non facit saltum "), i.e. the genus must be resolved into the next highest (" proximate ") species. To go straight from a summum genus to very small species is of no scientific value. It is to be observed that logical division is concerned exclusively with universals or concepts; division is of genus and species, not of particulars. Two other kinds of division are recognized: — metaphysical division, the separation in thought of the various qualities possessed by an individual thing (a piece of lead has weight, colour, &c.), and physical division or partition, the breaking up of an object into its parts (a watch is thought of as being composed of case, dial, works, &c.). Logical division is closely allied with logical definition (5 387 434 Presented by wives . 326 376 365 345 34° 410 Speaking generally, it may be said that about 70 % of the petitions presented are successful and result in decrees. This percentage has a tendency, however, to rise. Attempts have been made to ascertain the classes which supply the petitioners for divorce, but this cannot be done with such certainty as to warrant any but the most general conclusions. It may, however, safely be said that while all classes, professions and occupations are represented, it is certainly not those highest in the scale that are the largest contributors. The principles of the act ol 1857 have beyond question been justified by the relief required by and afforded to the general community. OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES We may now turn to the law of divorce as administered in the other countries of the modern world. On the main question whether marriage is to be considered indissoluble they will be found to range themselves on one side or the other according to the influence upon them of the Church of Rome and its canon law. In Scotland it has long been the law that marriage can be dis- solved at the instance of either party by judicial sentence on the grounds of adultery or of desertion, termed non-adherence, and the spouses could in such case remarry, except with the paramour, — at all events if the paramour was named in the decree (and the name is sometimes omitted for that reason). A divorce a mensa et thoro could also be granted for cruelty. By the Court of Session Act 1830, the jurisdiction in divorce was transferred from a body of commissaries to the court of session. By the law of Holland complete divorce could be granted by judicial sentence on the grounds of adultery or of wilful and malicious desertion, to which were added unnatural offences and imprisonment for life, and such divorce gave the power of re- marriage, except with the person with whom adultery was proved to have been committed, but there would seem to be a doubt whether this power extended to the guilty party (Voet, De divortiis, lit. 24, tit. 2). Divorce a mensa et thoro could be granted on the grounds allowed by the canon law. The Code of Prussia of 1794 contained elaborate provisions which gave great facility of divorce. A complete divorce could be obtained by judicial sentence for the following causes: — (i) Adultery or unnatural offences; and adultery by a husband formed no bar to his obtaining a divorce against his wife for adultery; and even an illicit intimacy, from which a presumption of adultery might arise, was held sufficient for a divorce. (2) Wil- ful desertion. (3) Obstinate refusal of the rights of marriage, which was considered as equivalent to desertion. (4) Incapacity to perform the duties of marriage, even if arising subsequent to the marriage; and the same effect was assigned to other incur- able bodily defects that excited disgust and horror. (5) Lunacy, if after a year there was no reasonable hope of recovery. (6) An attempt on the life of one spouse by the other, or gross and unlawful attack on the honour or personal liberty. (7) Incom- patibility of temper and quarrelsome disposition, if rising to the height of endangering life or health. (8) Opprobrious crime for which either spouse has suffered imprisonment, or a knowingly false accusation of such crime by one spouse of the other. (9) If either spouse by unlawful transactions endangers the life, honour, office or trade of the other, or commences an ignominious em- ployment. ( 10) Change of religion. In addition to these causes, marriages, when there were no children, could be dissolved by mutual consent if there be no reason to suspect levity, precipita- tion or compulsion; and a judge had also power to dissolve a marriage in cases in which a strongly rooted dislike appeared to him to exist. In all cases of divorce, but sometimes subject to the necessity of obtaining a licence, remarriage was permissible (see Burge, Commentaries on Colonial and Foreign Law, vol. i. 649). Before 1876 only a divorce a vinculo could be obtained in some of the German states, especially if the petitioner were a Roman Catholic. The only relief afforded was a " perpetual separation." By the Personal Status Act 1875 perpetual separa- tion orders were abolished and divorce decrees allowed in cases where the petitioners would, under the former law, have been entitled to a perpetual separation order. However, two Drafting Commissions under the act declined to alter the new rule, but under pressure from the Roman Catholic party the Reichstag passed a law introducing a modified separation order, termed " dissolution of the conjugal community " (Aufhebung der ehelichen Gemeinschaft). This order can be converted into a dissolution of the marriage at the option of either party. Under the Civil Code of 1900 a petitioner can obtain a divorce or judicial OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES] DIVORCE 343 separation on " absolute " or " relative " grounds. In the former case if the facts are established the petitioner is entitled to the relief prayed for; in the latter case, it is left to judicial discretion. The absolute grounds are adultery, bigamy, sodomy, an attempt against the petitioner's life or wilful desertion. The relative grounds are (a) such grave breach of marital duty or dishonourable or immoral conduct as would disturb the marital relation to such an extent that the marriage could not reasonably be expected to continue; (b) insanity, continued for more than three years during the marriage, and of so severe a nature that intellectual community between the parties has ceased and is not likely to be re-established. A divorced wife, if not exclusively the guilty party, may retain her husband's name; but if ex- clusively guilty, her former husband may compel her to resume her maiden name. By the law of Denmark, according to the Code of King Christian the Fifth, complete divorce could be obtained for incest; for leprosy, whether contracted before or after marriage; for trans- portation for crime or flight from justice, after three years, though not for crime itself; and for exile not arising from crime, after seven years. In Sweden complete divorce is granted by judicial sentence for adultery, and in Russia for that cause and also for incompati- bility of temper (Ayliffe, Par. 49). On the other hand, in Spain marriage is indissoluble, and the ecclesiastical courts have retained their exclusive cognizance of matrimonial causes. In Italy certain articles of the Civil Code deal with separation, voluntary and judicial, but divorce is not allowed in any form. In France the law of divorce has had a chequered history. Before the Revolution the Roman canon law prevailed, marriage was considered indissoluble, and only divorce a mensa et thoro, known as la separation d' habitation, was permitted; though it would appear that in the earliest age of the monarchy divorce a vinculo malrimonii was allowed. La separation d1 habitation was granted at the instance of a wife for cruelty by her husband or false accusation of a capital crime, or for habitual treatment with contempt before the inmates of the house; but a wife could not obtain a separation for adultery by her husband, although he had his remedy in case of adultery by his wife. In every case the sentence of a judicial tribunal, which took precautions against collusion, was necessary. But the Revolution may be said to have swept away marriage among the institutions which it over- whelmed, and by the law of the 2oth of September 1792 so great facility was given for divorce a vinculo matrimonii as practically to terminate the obligations of marriage. A reaction came with the Code Napoleon, yet even under that system of law divorce remained comparatively easy. Mutual consent, expressed in the manner and continued for a period specified by the law, was cause for a divorce (the principle of the Roman law being adopted on this point), but such consent could not take place unless the husband was twenty-five years of age and the wife twenty-one, unless they had been married for two years, nor after twenty years of marriage, nor after the wife had completed her forty-fifth year; and further, the approval of the parents of both parties was required. In case of divorce by consent, the law required that a proper agreement should be made for the maintenance of the wife and the custody of the children. A husband could obtain a divorce a vinculo matrimonii for adultery, but the wife had no such power unless the husband had brought his mistress to the home. Both husband and wife could claim divorce on the ground of outrage, or grievous bodily injury, or condemnation for an infamous crime. If the divorce was for adultery, the erring party could not marry the partner of his or her guilt. A divorce a mensa et thoro could be obtained on the same grounds as a divorce a vinculo, but not by mutual consent; and if the divorce a mensa et thoro continued in force for three years, the defendant party could claim a divorce a vinculo. On the restoration of royalty in 1816 divorce a vinculo was abolished, and pending suits for divorce a vinculo were converted into suits for separation only. Divorce in France, after the repeal of the provisions respecting it in the Code Napoleon in 1816, was re-enacted by a law of the 27th of July 1884, the provisions of which were simplified by laws of 1886 and 1907. But a wide departure was made by these laws from the terms of the Code Napoleon. Divorce by consent disappeared, and the following became the causes for which divorce Was allowed: (i) Adultery by either party to the marriage at the suit of the other, without, in the case of adultery by the husband, the aggravation of introduction of the concubine into the home required by the Cede; (2) violence (exces) or cruelty (sevices); (3) injures graves; and (4) peine afflictive et infamante. Exces is defined by Lode as " a generic expression comprising all acts tending to compromise the safety of the person, without distinction as to their object or motive, pre- meditation as well as furious anger, attempts upon life as well as serious woundings." Sevices are acts of ill-treatment less grave in character, which, while not endangering life, render existence in common intolerable (Kelly's French Law of Marriage, p. 122). Injures graves, as to which the courts have considered themselves entitled to exercise a wide discretion, have been defined as acts, writings or words which reflect upon the honour or the reputation of the party against whom they are directed. The courts have held that retraction at the trial does not relieve the party from the consequences of an injure grave, and that publicity is an aggra- vating but not a necessary element. A letter from one spouse to the other may constitute an injure and the courts have further held themselves at liberty to consider letters written after divorce proceedings have been commenced. Injures graves have also been considered to include material injuries, and among these have been classed habitual and groundless refusal of matrimonial rights, communication of disease and refusal to consent to a religious ceremony of marriage. Habitual but not occasional drunkenness has also been held to fall within the definition of an injure grave. Peine afflictive et infamante signifies a legal punishment involving corporal confinement and moral degradation.1 In addition to its recognition of full divorce, the French law recognizes separation of two kinds, one separation de biens and the other separation de corps. The effect of separation de biens is merely to put an end to the community of goods between the spouses. It necessarily follows, but may be decreed independently of separation de corps. The grounds of separation de corps are the same as those for a divorce; and if a separation de corps has existed for three years, it may be turned into a divorce upon the application of either party to the court. Until 1893 a wife siparfe de corps obtained only the capacity attaching to a concomitant separation de biens; that is to say, she recovered the enjoyment and management of her separate property, but could not deal with real property, nor take legal proceedings, without the sanction of her husband or of the court. But by a law of the 6th of February 1893 a wife stparte de corps obtains "the full exercise of her civil capacity, so that she shall not need to resort to the authority of her husband or of the court." In case of reconciliation, the wife returns to the limited capacity of a wife separee de biens, and after the prescribed notification of such change of status it becomes binding on third persons. The provisions of French law with regard to the custody of the children of a dissolved marriage, and with regard to property, do not differ materially from those prescribed by the English acts. The custody of children is given to the party who has obtained the divorce, unless the court, on the application of the family, or the ministere public, consider it better, in the interests of the children, that custody should be given to the other party or a third person; but in every case the right of both father and mother to supervise the maintenance and education of the children, and their liability to contribute to their support, are continued. 1 It is interesting to observe how, according to the latest decisions of the House of Lords, cruelty, according to English law, includes some but not others of the forms of injury for which, under the term of injures graves, the French law affords a remedy. It may well be doubted whether the view taken by the minority of the peers in Russell v. Russell, which would have included in the definition of cruelty all, or nearly all, of that which the French law deems either sevices or injures graves, would not have better satisfied both the principles of English jurisprudence and the feelings of modern life. 344 DIVORCE [UNITED STATES The law in France as to property on a divorce has been accurately stated as follows : — " Divorce in France effects a dissolution of the matrimonial regime of property as well as of the marriage itself. The decree appoints a notary, who is charged with the settlement of the pecuniary interests of the parties. By a stereotyped form of procedure the appointment is made invariably for the purpose of liquidating la communaute ayant existe entre les epoux, irrespective of whether the regime really was that of community or another. In the case of aliens, therefore, married under the rule of separate property, it is necessary carefully to set this out in the notarial deed of liquidation, in order to defeat the presumption which might be raised by the wording of the decree that a community really did exist. The party against whom the divorce has been pronounced loses the benefit of all settlements made upon him or her by the other party, either by the marriage contract or since the marriage. On the other hand, the party in whose favour the divorce has been pronounced preserves the benefit of all settle- ments made in his or her favour by the unsuccessful party. If no such settlements were made, or if those made appear inadequate to ensure the subsistence of the successful party, the court may grant him or her permanent alimony out of the property of the other party, not to exceed one-third of the income, and revocable in case it ceases to be necessary " (Kelly, p. 130). On a divorce both parties are at liberty to remarry. The husband could remarry at once; but the wife (art. 296 of the Code) was only allowed to remarry after an interval of ten months. By the act of 1907, this article was abolished, and the wife allowed to remarry as soon as the judgment or decree granting the divorce has been entered, providing 300 days have elapsed since the first judgment was pronounced. A divorced husband may remarry his divorced wife, but if he does so, he cannot be again divorced, except on the ground of a sentence to a peine afflictive et infamante passed on one of them since their remarriage. There is, however, this limitation on the power of remarriage of divorced persons, that the party to the marriage against whom the decree has been pronounced is not allowed to marry the person with whom his or her guilt has been established. Such person, however, has no such rights as are recognized in him or her according to English law, and cannot take any part in the proceedings. But his or her name is referred to in the proceed- ings only by an initial; and French law goes even further in the avoidance of publicity, inasmuch as the publication of divorce proceedings in the press is forbidden, under heavy penalties. By a law of the 6th of February 1893 French jurisprudence, more complete at least, and perhaps wiser, than English, dealt with a matter previously in controversy, and decided that after a divorce the wife shall resume her maiden name, and may not continue to use the name of her divorced husband; nor may the husband, for business or other purposes, continue to use the name of his wife. By the law of 1886 the special procedure in divorce previously in force under the Code and under the law of 1884 was abolished, and it was provided that matrimonial causes should be tried according to the ordinary rules of procedure. The action there- fore, when brought, follows the methods of procedure common to other civil proceedings. But there still remain certain neces- sary preliminaries to an action of divorce. A petition must be presented by a petitioner in person to the president of the court sitting in chambers, with the object of a reconciliation being effected. This is known as the premiere comparation. If the petitioner still determines to proceed, there follows the seconds comparation, on which occasion both parties appear before the president. If the president fails to effect a reconciliation, he makes an order permitting the petitioner to proceed, and deals with the matters necessary to be dealt with pendente lite, such matters being (i) separate residence, (2) alimony, (3) possession of personal effects, (4) custody of children. As regards residence, the wife is compelled to adhere during the proceedings to the residence assigned to her, but no similar restriction is placed on the husband. [Alimony pendente lite is in the discretion of the court, having regard to the means of the parties, and includes a proper provision for costs. As regards the custody of children, the Code and the law of 1884 gave it to the husband, unless the court otherwise orders, but the law of 1886 leaves the matter wholly in the discretion of the court. There are certain technical rules of evidence on the trial of a divorce action. It is a general principle of the French law of evidence that documentary evidence is the best evidence, and oral testimony only secondary. In divorce cases adultery flagrante delicto can be proved by the official certificate of the commissary of police. Letters between the husband and wife are admissible in evidence. As to letters between the parties and third persons, the law, which has been doubtful, now appears to be that the wife may produce only such letters from third parties to her husband as have come into her possession accidentally, and without any ruse or artifice on her part; but the husband may put in evidence any letters written to or by his wife which he has obtained by any, short of criminal, means. If the documents put in evidence are not sufficient to satisfy the court, there follows an investigation by means of witnesses, termed an enquete. A schedule of allega- tions is drawn up, and a judge, termed a juge-commissaire, is specially appointed to conduct the inquiry. Relatives and ser- vants, though not competent witnesses in ordinary civil actions, are so in divorce proceedings. Cross petitions may be entered; the substantiation of a cross petition, however, does not have the effect, in some cases given to it by English law, of barring a divorce, but a divorce may be, and often is, granted in favour of and against both parties pour torts reciproques. When a case comes on for trial, it is in the power of the court to order an adjournment for a period not exceeding six months, which is termed a temps d'epreme, in order to afford an opportunity for reconcilia- tion. It is said, however, that this power is seldom exercised. An appeal may be brought against a decree of divorce within two months; and a decree made on appeal is subject to revision by the court of cassation within two months. Both references to the court of appeal and the court of cassation operate as a stay of execution. A decree must, by the law of 1886, be transcribed on the register of marriages within two months from its date, and failing this transcription, the decree is void. The transcription must be made at the place of celebration of the marriage, or, if the parties are married abroad, at the place where the parties were last domiciled in France. If the parties, after having married abroad, return to France, it has been provided, by a circular of the Procureur de la Republique in 1887, that the transcription may be made at the place of their actual domicile at the time of action brought, a rule which has been held to apply to the divorce of aliens in France. The effect of transcription does not relate back to the date of the decree. Opinions may differ as to the relative merits of the English and French law relating to divorce. But it cannot be denied that the French law presents a singularly complete and well-considered system, and one which, obviously with the English system in view, has endeavoured to graft on it provisions supplementing its omissions, and modifying certain of its terms in accordance with the light afforded by experience and the changed feelings of the modern world. The effect of the laws of 1884 and 1886 in France has been great. The act of 1907 dealing with divorce, coupled with that of the 2 1st of July of the same year dealing with marriage, may also be said to mark an epoch in the laws relating to women. During the five years from 1884 to 1888 the courts granted divorces in 21,064 cases, rejecting applications for divorce in 1524. In addition, there were 12,242 applications for judicial separation, of which 10,739 were granted. A distinguished French writer, the author of a work of singular completeness and accuracy on the judicial system of Great Britain has compared these figures with the corresponding result of the English act of 1857. His conclusion is expressed in these words: " On voit qu'en cinq annees nos tribunaux ont prononce trois fois plus de divorces que la haute cour d'Angleterre n'en a prononce en trente ans. Je n'insiste pas sur les conclusions morales a tirer de ce rapprochement " (Comte de Franqueville, Le Systeme judiciaire_ de la Grande-Bretagne, ii. p. 171). It is, however, practically impossible to compare the number of divorces in France and in England with exact justice, because, as will have been seen above, the causes of divorce in France materially exceed those recognized by English law; and the absence in France of any official performing the functions assigned to the king's proctor in England cannot but have great influence on the number of applications for divorce, as well as on their results. (Sx H.) UNITED STATES According to American practice, divorce is the termination by proper legal authority, sometimes legislatively but usually judicially, of a marriage which up to the time of the decree was legal and binding. It is to be distinguished from a decree of UNITED STATES] DIVORCE 345 nullity of marriage, which is simply a legal determination that no legal marriage has ever existed between the two parties. It is also to be distinguished from a decree of separation, which permits or commands the parties to live apart, but does not completely and for all purposes sever the marriage tie. The matrimonial law of England, as at the time of the declaration of independence, forms part of the common law of the United States. But as no ecclesiastical courts have ever existed there, the law must be considered to have been inoperative. There is no Federal jurisdiction in divorce, and it is a question for the law of each separate state; and though it is competent to Congress to authorize divorces in the Territories, still it appears that this subject like others is usually left to the territorial legislature. In the different states, and in England, divorces were at first granted by the legislatures, whether directly or by granting special authority to the tribunals to deal with particular cases. This practice fell into general disrepute, and by the constitution of some states such divorces are expressly prohibited. Upon the subject of divorce in the United States, and, to some extent, in foreign countries, a careful investigation was made by the American Bureau of Labour, and its report covered the years 1867 to 1886; a further report for the period 1887 to 1906 has also been published by the Federal Census Bureau. The number of divorces was in 1886 over 25,000, and in 1906 was over 72,000, about double the number reported for that year from all the rest of the Christian world. As divorce presupposes a legal marriage, the amount of divorce, or the divorce-rate, is best stated as the ratio between the number of divorces decreed during a year and the number of subsisting marriages or married couples. The usual basis is 100,000 married couples. In 1898-1002 the divorce- rate was 200 divorces (400 people) to 100,000 married couples. This is equivalent to more than one divorce annually to each 1400 people. The several states differ in divorce-rate, from South Carolina, with no provision for legal divorce, to Montana and Washington, where the rate is two and a half times the average for the country. In general the rate is about the same in the North as in the South, but greater in the Central states than in the East, and in the Western than in the Central states; but to this rule the New England states, Louisiana, New Mexico and Arizona are exceptions. The New England states have a higher rate than their geographical position would lead one to expect, and the other three, owing doubtless, in part at least, to the influence of the Roman Catholic Church, have a lower rate than the states about them. The several state groups had in 1900 the following divorce-rates per 100,000: South Atlantic, 196; North Atlantic, 200; South Central, 558; North Central, 510; Western, 712. The divorce-rate in the United States increased rapidly and steadily in forty years from 27 in 1867 to 86 in 1906. But distinct tendencies are traceable in different regions. In the North Atlantic group the rate rose by 58 %, in the North Central by 1 58 %, in the Western by 2 23 %, in the South Atlantic by 43 7 %, and in the South Central by 685 %. The great increase in the South was mainly due to the spread of divorce among the emancipated negroes. Each state determines for itself the causes for which divorce may be granted, and no general statement is therefore possible. The ground pleaded for a divorce is seldom an index to the motives which caused the suit to be brought. This is determined by the character of the law rather than by the state of mind of the parties; and so far as the individuals are concerned, the ground alleged is thus a cloak rather than a clue or revelation. Still those causes which have been enacted into law by the various state legislatures do indicate the pleas which have been endorsed by the social judgment of the respective communities. In the United States exclusive of Alaska and the recent insular accessions there are forty-nine different jurisdictions in the matter of divorce. Six out of every seven allow divorce for desertion, adultery or cruelty; and of the 945,625 divorces reported with their causes during the twenty years 1887-1906 nearly 78% were granted for some one of these three causes, viz. 39% for desertion, 22% for adultery, and 16% for cruelty. Probably nearly 9% more were for some combination of these causes. Three other grounds for divorce are admitted as legal in many or most American states, viz. imprisonment in 39, habitual drunkenness in 38, and neglect to provide in 22. About 98 % of American divorces are granted on some one or more of these six grounds. In general the legislation on the subject of the causes allowed for divorce is most restrictive in the states on the Atlantic coast, from New York to South Caro- lina inclusive, and is least so in the Western states. The slight expense of obtaining a divorce in many of the states, and the lack of publicity which is given to the suit, are also important reasons for the great number of decrees issued. The importance of the former consideration is reflected in the fact that the divorce-rate for the United States as a whole shows clearly, in its fluctuations, the influences of good and bad times. When times are good and the income of the working and industrial classes likely to be assured, the divorce-rate rises. In periods of industrial depression it falls, fluctuating thus in the same way and probably for the same reason that the marriage-rate in industrial communities fluctuates. In two-thirds of the divorce suits the wife is the plaintiff, and the proportion slightly increased in the forty years. In the Northern states the percentage issued to wives (1887-1906) was 71, while in the Southern states it was only 56. But where both parties desire a decree, and each has a legal ground to urge, a jury will usually listen more favourably to a woman's suit. Divorce is probably especially frequent among the native population of the United States, and among these probably more common in the city than in the country. This statement cannot be established absolutely, since statistics afford no means of distinguishing the native from the foreign-born applicants. It is, however, the most obvious reason for explaining the fact that, while in Europe the city divorce-rate is from three to five times as great as that of the surrounding country, the difference in the United States between the two regions is very much less. In other words, the great number of foreigners in American cities probably tends to obscure by a low divorce-rate the high rate of the native population. Divorce is certainly more common in the New England states than in any others on the Atlantic coast north of Florida, and it is not unlikely that wherever the New England families have gene divorce is more frequent than else- where. For example, it is much more common in the northern counties of Ohio settled largely from New England than in the southern counties settled largely from the Middle Atlantic states. There are two statements frequently made regarding divorce in the United States which do not find warrant in the statistics on the subject. The first is, that the real motive for divorce with one or both parties is the desire for marriage to a third person. The second is, that a very large proportion of divorces are granted to persons who move from one jurisdiction to another in order to avail themselves of lax divorce laws. On the first point the American statistics are practically silent, since, in issuing a marriage licence to parties one or both of whom have been previously divorced, no record is generally made of the fact. In Connecticut, however, for a number of years this information was required; and, if the statements were trustworthy, the number of persons remarrying each year was about one-third the total number of persons divorcing, which is probably a rate not widely different from that of widows and widowers of the same age. Foreign figures for Switzerland, Holland and Berlin indicate that in those regions the proportion of the divorced who remarry speedily is about the same as that of widows and widowers. What statistical evidence there is on the subject therefore tends to discredit this popular opinion. The evidence on the second point is more conclusive, and has gone far towards decreasing the demand for a constitutional amendment allowing a federal marriage and divorce law. About four-fifths of all the divorces granted in the United States were issued to parties who were married in the state in which the decree of divorce was later made; and when from the remaining one-fifth are deducted those in which the parties migrated for other reasons than a desire to obtain an easy divorce, the remainder would constitute a very small, almost a negligible, fraction of the total number. It is difficult, perhaps impossible, to say how far the frequency of divorce in the United States has been or is a social injury; how far it has weakened or undermined the ideal of marriage as a lifelong DIWANIEH— DIX union between man and woman. In this respect the question is very like that of illegitimacy; and as the most careful students of the latter subject agree that almost no trustworthy inference regarding the moral condition of a community can be derived from the proportion of illegitimate children born, so one may say regarding the prevalence of divorce that from this fact almost no inferences are warranted regarding the moral or social condition of the population. It is by no means impossible, for example, that the spread of divorce among the negro population in the South marks a step in advance from the condition of largely unregulated and illegal unions characteristic of the race im- mediately after the war. The prevalence of divorce in the United States among the native population, in urban communities, among the New England element, in the middle classes of society, and among those of the Protestant faith, indicates how closely this social phenomenon is interlaced with much that is character- istic and valuable in American civilization. In this respect, too, the United States perhaps represent the outcome of a tendency which has been at work in Europe at least since the Reformation. Certainly the divorce-rate is increasing in nearly every civilized country. Decrees of nullity of marriage and decrees of separation not absolutely terminating the marriage relation are relatively far less prevalent than they were in the medieval and early modern period, and many persons who under former conditions would have obtained relief from unsatisfactory unions through one or the other of these avenues now resort to divorce. The increasing proportion of the community who have an income sufficient to pay the requisite legal fees is also a factor of great importance. The belief in the family as an institution ordained of God, decreed to continue " till death us do part," and in its relations typifying and perpetuating many holy religious ideas, probably became weakened in the United States during the igth century, along with a weakening of other religious conceptions; and it is yet to be determined whether a substitute for these ideas can be developed under the guidance of the motive of social utility or individual desire. In this respect the United States is, as Mr Gladstone once wrote, a tribus praerogativa, but one who knows anything of the family and home life of America will not readily despond of the outcome. The great source of American statistical information is the governmental report of over 1000 pages, A Report on Marriage and Divorce in the United States 1867 to 1886, including an Appendix relating to Marriage and Divorce in Certain Countries of Europe, by Carroll D. Wright, Commissioner of Labour; together with the further report for 1887 to 1906. The statistics contained in the former volume have been analysed and interpreted in W. F. Willcox's The Divorce Problem: A Study in Statistics (Columbia University, New York, 1891, 1897). Further interpretations are contained in an article in the Political Science Quarterly for March 1893, entitled " A Study in Vital Statistics." The best legal treatise is probably Bishop on Marriage, Divorce, and Judicial Separation. See also I. P. Lichtenberger, Divorce: A Study in Social Causation (New York, 1909). (W. F. W.) DIWANIEH, a small town in Turkish Asia, about 40 m. below Hillah, on both banks of the Euphrates (31° 58' 47" N., 44° 58' 18" E.), which is here spanned by a floating bridge. Formerly a military post for the control of the Affech territory, and a telegraph station, it was in 1893 made the capital of the sanjak, instead of Hillah, on account of its more strategical position. This transfer of the seat of government represented a step in the development of Turkish control over the central regions of Irak. DIX, DOROTHEA LYNDE (1802-1887), American philan- thropist, was born at Hampden, Maine, on the 4th of April 1802. Her parents were poor and shiftless, and at an early age she was taken into the home in Boston of her grandmother, Dorothea Lynde, wife of Dr Elijah Dix. Here she was reared in a dis- tinctly Puritanical atmosphere. About 1821 she opened a school in Boston, which was patronized by the well-to-do families; and soon afterwards she also began teaching poor and neglected children at home. But her health broke down, and from 1824 to 1830 she was chiefly occupied with the writing of books of devotion and stories for children. Her Conversations on Common Things (1824) had reached its sixtieth edition by 1869. In 1831 she established in Boston a model school for girls, and conducted this successfully until 1836, when her health again failed. In 1841 she became interested in the condition of gaols and alms- houses, and spent two years in visiting every such institution in Massachusetts, investigating especially the treatment of the pauper insane. Her memorial to the state legislature dealing with the abuses she discovered resulted in more adequate provision being made for the care and treatment of the insane, and she then extended her work into many other states. By 1847 she had travelled from Nova Scotia to the Gulf of Mexico, and had visited 18 state penitentiaries, 300 county gaols and houses of correction, and over 500 almshouses. Her labours resulted in the establishment of insane asylums in twenty states and in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, and in the founding of many additional gaols and almshouses conducted on a reformed plan. In 1853 she secured more adequate equipment for the life-saving service on Sable Island, then rightly called " the graveyard of ships." In 1854 she secured the passage by Congress of a bill granting to the states 12,250,000 acres of public lands, to be utilized for the benefit of the insane, deaf, dumb and blind; but the measure was vetoed by President Pierce. After this dis- appointment she went to England for rest, but at once became interested in the condition of the insane in Scotland, and her report to the home secretary opened the way for sweeping reforms. She extended her work into the Channel Islands, and then to France, Italy, Austria, Greece, Turkey, Russia, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Holland, Belgium and a part of Germany. Her influence over Arinori Mori, the Japanese charge d'affaires at Washington, led eventually to the establishment of two asylums for the insane in Japan. At the outbreak of the Civil War she offered her services to the Federal government and was appointed superintendent of women nurses. In this capacity she served throughout the war, without a day's furlough; and her labours on behalf of defectives were continued after the war. After a lingering illness of six years she died at Trenton, New Jersey, on the I7th of July 1887. See Francis Tiffany, Life of Dorothea Lynde Dix (Boston, 1892). DIX, JOHN ADAMS (1798-1879), American soldier and political leader, was born at Boscawen, New Hampshire, on the 24th of July 1798. He studied at Phillips Exeter Academy in 1810-1811 and at the College of Montreal in 1811-1812, and as a boy took part in the War of 1812, becoming a second lieutenant in March 1814. In July 1828, having attained the rank of cap- tain, he resigned from the army, and for two years practised law at Cooperstown, New York. In 1830-1833 he was adjutant- general of New York. He soon became prominent as one of the leaders of the Democratic party in the state, and for many years was a member of the so-called " Albany Regency," a group of Democrats who between about 1820 and 1850 exercised a virtual control over their party in New York, dictating nomina- tions and appointments and distributing patronage. From 1833 to 1839 he was secretary of state and superintendent of schools in New York, and in this capacity made valuable reports con- cerning the public schools of the state, and a report (1836) which led to the publication of the Natural History of the State of New York (1842-1866). In 1842 he was a member of the New York assembly. In 1841-1843 he was editor of The Northern Light, a literary and scientific journal published in Albany. From 1845 to 1849 he was a United States senator from New York; and as chairman of the committee on commerce was author of the warehouse bill passed by Congress in 1846 to relieve merchants from immediate payment of duties on imported goods. In 1848 he was nominated for governor of New York by the Free Soil party, but was defeated by Hamilton Fish. His acceptance of the nomination, however, earned him the enmity of the southern Democrats, who prevented his appointment by Pierce as secretary of state and as minister to France in 1853. In this year Dix was for a few weeks assistant U.S. treasurer in New York city. In May 1860 he became postmaster of New York city, and from January until March 1861 he was secretary of the treasury of the United States, in which capacity he issued (January 29, 1861) to a revenue officer at New Orleans a famous order containing the words, " if any one attempts to haul down the American flag, DIXON, G.— DIXON 347 shoot him on the spot." He rendered important services in hurrying forward troops in 1861, was appointed major-general of volunteers in June 1861, and during the Civil War commanded successively the department of Maryland (July i86i-May 1862), Fortress Monroe (May 1862- July 1863), and the department of the East (July 1863- July 1865). He was minister to France from 1866 to 1869, and in 1872 was elected by the Republicans governor of New York, but was defeated two years later. He had great energy and administrative ability, was for a time president of the Chicago & Rock Island and of the Mississippi & Missouri railways, first president of the Union Pacific in 1863-1868, and for a short time in 1872 president of the Erie. He died in New York city on the 2ist of April 1879. Among his publications are A Winter in Madeira and a Summer in Spain and Florence (1850), and Speeches and Occasional A ddr esses ( 1 864) . He wrote excellent English versions of the Dies irae and the Stabat mater. His son, MORGAN Dix (1827-1908), graduated at Columbia in 1848 and at the General Theological Seminary in 1852, and was ordained deacon (1852) and priest (1853) in the Protestant Episcopalian church. In 1855-1859 he was assistant minister, and in 1859-1862 assistant rector, of Trinity Church, New York city, of which he was rector from 1862 until his death. He published sermons and lectures; A History of the Parish of Trinity Church, New York City (4 vols., 1898-1905); and a biography of his father, Memoirs of John Adams Dix (2 vols., New York, 1883). DIXON, GEORGE (1755 ?-i8oo), English navigator. He served under Captain Cook in his]third expedition, during which he had an opportunity of learning the commercial capabilities of the north-west coast of North America. After his return from Cook's expedition he became a captain in the royal navy. In the autumn of 1785 he sailed in the " Queen Charlotte," in the service of the King George's Sound Company of London, to explore the shores of the present British Columbia, with the special object of developing the fur trade. His chief discoveries were those of Queen Charlotte's Islands and Sound (the latter only partial), Port Mulgrave, Norfolk Bay, and Dixon's Entrance and Archi- pelago. After visiting China, where he disposed of his cargo, he returned to England (1788), and published (1799) A Voyage round the World, but more particularly to the North-West Coast of America, the bulk of which consists of descriptive letters by William Beresford, his supercargo. His own contribution to the work included valuable charts and appendices. He is usually, though not with absolute certainty, identified with the George Dixon who was author of The Navigator's Assistant (1791) and teacher of navigation at Gosport. DIXON, HENRY HALL (1822-1870), English sporting writer over the nom de plume " The Druid," was born at Warwick Bridge, Cumberland, on the i6th of May 1822, and was educated at Rugby and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1846. He took up the profession of the law, but, though called to the bar in 1853, soon returned to sporting journalism, in which he had already made a name for himself, and began to write regularly for the Sporting Magazine, in the pages of which appeared three of his novels, Post and Paddock (1856), Silk and Scarlet (1859), and Scott and Sebright (1862). He also published a legal compendium entitled The Law of the Farm (1858), which ran through several editions. His other more important works were Field and Fern (1865), giving an account of the herds and flocks of Scotland, and Saddle and Sirloin (1870), treating in the same manner those of England. He died at Kensington on the i6th of March 1870. See Hon. Francis Lawley, Life and Times of" The Druid " (London, 1895)- DIXON, RICHARD WATSON (1833-1900), English poet and divine, son of Dr James Dixon, a Wesleyan minister, was born on the 5th of May 1833. He was educated at King Edward's school, Birmingham, and on proceeding to Pembroke College, Oxford, became one of the famous " Birmingham group " there who shared with William Morris and Burne- Jones in the Pre- Raphaelite movement. He took only a second class in modera- tions in 1854, and a third in Lilerae Humaniores in 1856; but in 1858 he won the Arnold prize for an historical essay, and in 1863 the English Sacred Poem prize. He was ordained in 1858, was second master of Carlisle high school, 1863—1868, and successively vicar of Hayton, Cumberland, and Warkworth, Northumberland. He became minor canon and honorary librarian of Carlisle in 1868, and honorary canon in 1874, he was proctor in convocation (1890-1894), and received the honorary degree of D.D. from Oxford in 1899. He died at Warkworth on the 23rd of January 1900. Canon Dixon's first two volumes of verse, Christ's Company and Historical Odes, were published in 1861 and 1863 respectively; but it was not until 1883 that he attracted conspicuous notice with Mono, an historical poem in tersa rima, which was enthusiastically praised by Mr Swinburne. This success he followed up by three privately printed volumes, Odes and Eclogues (1884), Lyrical Poems (1886), and The Story «/ Eudocia (1888). Dixon's poems were during the last fifteen years of his life recognized as scholarly and refined exercises, touched with both dignity and a certain severe beauty, but he never attained any general popularity as a poet, the appeal of his poetry being directly to the scholar. A great student of history, his studies in that direction colour much of his poetry. The romantic atmosphere is remarkably preserved in Mono, a successful metrical exercise in the difficult terza rima. His typical poems have charm and melody, without introducing any new note or variety of rhythm. He is contemplative, sober and finished in literary workmanship, a typical example of the Oxford school. Pleasant as his poetry is, however, he will probably be longest remembered by the work to which he gave the best years of his life, his History of the Church of England from the Abolition of the Roman Jurisdiction (1878-1902). At the time of his death he had completed six volumes, two of which were published posthumously. This fine work, covering the period from 1529 to 1570, is built upon elaborate research, and presents a trustworthy and unprejudiced survey of its subject. Dixon's Selected Poems were published in 1909 with a memoir of the author by Robert Bridges. DIXON, WILLIAM HEPWORTH (1821-1879), English author and traveller, was born at Great Ancoats, Manchester, on the 3oth of June 1821, a member of an old Lancashire family. Beginning life as a clerk at Manchester, he decided, in 1846, to take up literature as a career. After gaining some journalistic experience at Cheltenham he settled in London, on the recom- mendation of Douglas Jerrold, and contributed to the Athenaeum and Daily News. His series of papers — " The Literature of the Lower Orders " — in the last-named journal, and a further series, " London Prisons," were widely noticed. In 1849 appeared his John Howard and the Prison World of Europe, which proved a great popular success. These were followed by a Life of William Penn (1851), in which he replied to Macaulay's attack on Penn; Life of Blake (1852); and Personal History of Lord Bacon (1861), supplemented by The Story of Lord Bacon's Life (1862). From 1853 to 1869 he was editor of the Athenaeum. In 1863 he visited the East, and on his return helped to found the Palestine Exploration Fund, and published (1865) The Holy Land. In 1866 he travelled through the United States, publishing, in 1867, New America, and, the following year, Spiritual Wives, two supple- mentary volumes. In the autumn of 1867 he journeyed through the Baltic Provinces, publishing an account of his trip in Free Russia (1870). In 1871 he was in Switzerland, and in 1872 in Spain, where he wrote the greater part of his History of Two Queens. In 1874 he revisited the United States, giving the impressions of his tour in The White Conquest (1875). His other works, besides some fiction, were British Cyprus (1879) and Royal Windsor. He died on the 26th of December 1879. His daughter, Ella N. Hepworth Dixon, became known as a journalist and novelist. DIXON, a city and the county seat of Lee county, Illinois, U.S.A., on the Rock river, in the N.W. part of the state. Pop. (1890) 5161; (1900) 7917 (879 foreign-born); (1910) 7216. It is served by the Chicago & North-Western and the Illinois Central railways, and is connected with Sterling by an electric line; freight is shipped over the Hennepin Canal. The city DIZFUL— DMITRIEV has two parks of 159 and 6 acres respectively, and there is a Chautauqua Park, where an annual Chautauqua Assembly is held. Dixon is the seat of the Northern Illinois normal school (incorporated in 1884), and of the Rock River military academy. The river furnishes water power for the street railways, electric lighting and a number of manufacturing establishments. Among the manufactures are condensed milk, boxes, wire screens and wire cloth, lawn mowers, gas engines, cement, agricultural implements, shoes and wagons. The place was laid out in 1835 by John Dixon (1784-1876), the first white settler of Lee county. A bronze tablet in the Howells Building, at the inter- section of First and Peoria Streets, marks the site of his cabin, and in the city cemetery a granite shaft has been erected to his memory. Dixon was chartered as a city in 1859. DIZFUL, or Diz-PuL (" fort-bridge "), a town of Persia, in the province of Arabistan, 36 m. N.W. of Shushter, in 32° 25' N., 48° 28' E. Pop. about 25,000. It has post and telegraph offices. It is situated on the left bank of the Dizful river, a tributary of the Karun, crossed by a fine bridge of twenty-two arches, 430 yds. in length, constructed on ancient foundations. Dizful is the chief place of a small district of the same name and the residence of the governor of Arabistan during the winter months. The district has twelve villages and a population of about 35,000 (5000 Arabs of the Ali i Kethir tribe), and pays a yearly tribute of about £6000. The city was formerly known as Andamish, and in its vicinity are many remains of ancient canals and buildings which afford conclusive proof of former importance. 16 m. S.W. are the ruins of Susa, and east of them and half-way between Dizful and Shushter stood the old city of Junday Shapur. DJAKOVO (sometimes written Djakovar, Hungarian Diakovar) , a city of Croatia-Slavonia, Hungary; in the county of Virovitica, 100 m. E. by S. of Agram. Pop. (1900) 6824. Djakovo is a Roman Catholic episcopal see, whose occupant bears the title " Bishop of Bosnia, Slavonia and Sirmium." During the life of Bishop Strossmayer (1815-1905) it was one of the chief centres of religious and political activity among the Croats. The cathedral, a vast basilica built of brick and white stone, with a central dome and two lofty spires above the north entrance, was founded in 1866 and consecrated in 1882. Its style is Romanesque, chosen by Strossmayer as symbolical of the position of his country midway between east and west. The interior is magnificently decorated with mosaics, mural paintings and statuary, chiefly the work of local artists. Other noteworthy buildings are the nunnery, ecclesiastical seminary and episcopal palace. Djakovo has a thriving trade in agricultural produce. Many Roman remains have been discovered in the neighbourhood, but the earliest mention of the city is in 1244, when Bela IV. of Hungary confirmed the title-deeds of its owners, the bishops of Bosnia. For a full description of the cathedral, in Serbo-Croatian and French, see the finely illustrated folio Stolna Crkva u Djakovu, pub- lished by the South Slavonic Academy (Agram, 1900). DLUGOSZ, JAN [JOHANNES LONGINUS] (1415-1480), Polish statesman and historian, was the son of Jan Dlugosz, burgrave of Bozeznica. Born in 1415, he graduated at the university of Cracow and in 1431 entered the service of Bishop Zbygniew Olesnicki (1389-1455), the statesman and diplomatist. He speedily won the favour of his master, who induced him to take orders and made him his secretary. His preferment was rapid. In 1436 we find him one of the canons of Cracow and the ad- ministrator of Olesnicki's vast estates. In 1 440, on returning from Hungary, whither his master had escorted King Wladislaus II., Dlugosz saved the life of Olesnicki from robbers. The prelate now employed Dlugosz on the most delicate and important political missions. Dlugosz brought Olesnicki the red hat from Rome in 1449, and shortly afterwards was despatched to Hungary to mediate between Hunyadi and the Bohemian condottiere Giszkra, a difficult mission which he most successfully ac- complished. Both these embassies were undertaken contrary to the wishes of King Casimir IV., who was altogether opposed to Olesnicki's ecclesiastical policy. B ut though he thus sacrificed his own prospects to the cardinal's good pleasure, Dlugosz was far too sagacious to approve of the provocative attitude of Olesnicki, and frequently and fearlessly remonstrated with him on his conduct. In his account, however, of the quarrel between Casimir and Olesnicki concerning the question of priority between the cardinal and the primate of Poland he warmly embraced the cause of the former, and even pronounced Casimir worthy of dethronement. Such outbursts against Casimir IV. are not infrequent in Dlugosz's Hisloria Polonica, and his strong personal bias must certainly be taken into consideration in any critical estimate of that famous work. Yet as a high-minded patriot Dlugosz had no sympathy whatever with Olesnicki's opposition to Casimir's Prussian policy, and steadily supported the king during the whole course of the war with the Teutonic knights. When Olesnicki died in 1455 he left Dlugosz his principal executor. The office of administering the cardinal's estate was a very ungrateful one, for the family resented the liberal benefactions of their kinsman to the Church and the univesity, and accused Dlugosz of exercising undue influence, from which charge he triumphantly vindicated himself. It was in the year of his patron's death that he began to write his Historia Polonica. This great book, the first and still one of the best historical works on Poland in the modern sense of the word, was only undertaken after mature consideration and an exhaustive study of all the original sources then available, some of which are now lost. The principal archives of Poland and Hungary were ransacked for the purpose, and in his account of his own times Dlugosz's intimate acquaintance with the leading scholars and statesmen of his day stood him in good stead. The style is modelled on that of Livy, of whom Dlugosz was a warm admirer. As a proof of the thoroughness and conscientiousness of Dlugosz it may be mentioned that he learned the Cyrillic alphabet and took up the study of Ruthenian, " in order that this our history may be as plain and perfect as possible." The first of the numerous imprints of the Historia Polonica appeared in 1614, the first complete edition in 1711. Dlugosz's literary labours did not interfere with his political activity. In 1467 the generous and discerning Casimir IV. entrusted Dlugosz with the education of his sons, the eldest of whom, Wladislaus, at the urgent request of the king, he ac- companied to Prague when in 1471 the young prince was elected king of Bohemia. Dlugosz refused the archbishopric of Prague because of his strong dislike of the land of the Hussites; but seven years later he accepted the archbishopric of Lemberg. His last years were devoted to his history, which he completed in 1479. He died on the igth of May 1480, at Piatek. See Aleksander Semkowicz, Critical Considerations of the Polish Works of Dlugosz (Pol.; Cracow, 1874); Michael Bqbrzynski and Stanislaw Smolka, Life of Dlugosz and his Position in Literature (Pol. ; Cracow, 1893). (R. N. B.) DMITRIEV, IVAN IVANOVICH (1760-1837), Russian states- man and poet, was born at his father's estate in the government of Simbirsk. In consequence of the revolt of Pugachev the family had to flee to St Petersburg, and there Ivan was entered at the school of the Semenov Guards, and afterwards obtained a post in the military service. On the accession of Paul to the imperial throne he quitted the army with the title of colonel; and his appointment as procurator for the senate was soon after renounced for the position of privy councillor. During the four years from 1810 to 1814 he served as minister of justice under the emperor Alexander; but at the close of this period he retired into private life, and though he lived more than twenty years, he never again took office, but occupied himself with his literary labours and the collection of books and works of art. In the matter of language he sided with Karamsin, and did good service by his own pen against the Old Slavonic party. His poems include songs, odes, satires, tales, epistles, &c., as well as the fables— partly original and partly translated from Fontaine, Florian and Arnault — on which his fame chiefly rests. Several of his lyrics have become thoroughly popular from the readiness with which they can be sung; and a short dramatico-epic poem on Yermak, the Cossack conqueror of Siberia, is well known. His writings occupy three volumes in the first five editions; in the 6th (St Petersburg, "1823) there are only two. His memoirs, to which he devoted the last years of his life, were published at Moscow in 1866. DNIEPER— DOBBS FERRY 349 DNIEPER, one of the most important rivers of Europe (the Borysthenes of the Greeks, Danapris of the Romans, Uz i or Uzu of the Turks, Eksi of the Tatars, Elice of Visconti's map (1381), Lerene of Contarini (1437), Luosen of Baptista of Genoa (1514), and Lussem in the same century). It belongs entirely to Russia, and rises in the government of Smolensk, in a swampy district (alt. 930 ft.) at the foot of the Valdai Hills, not far from the sources of the Volga and the Dvina, in 55° 52' N. and 33° 41' E. Its length is about 1410 m. and it drains an area of 202, 140 sq. m. In the first part of its course, which may be said to end at Dorogobuzh, it flows through an undulating country of Carbon- iferous formation; in the second it passes west to Orsha, south through the fertile plain of Chernigov and Kiev, and then south- east across the rocky steppe of the Ukraine to Ekaterinoslav. About 45 m. S. of this town it has to force its way across the same granitic offshoot of the Carpathian mountains which interrupts the course of the Dniester and the Bug, and for a distance of about 25m. rapid succeeds rapid. The fall of the river in that distance is 155 ft. The Dnieper, having got clear of the rocks, continues south-west through the grassy plains of Kherson and Taurida, and enters the Black Sea, or rather a liman or bay of the Black Sea, by a considerable estuary in 46° 30' N. and 32° 20"' E. On this ramifying liman, into which the Bug also pours its waters, stand Nikolaiev and the fortified town of Ochakov. Navigation extends as far up as Dorogobuzh, where the depth is about 12 ft., and rafts are floated down from the higher reaches. The banks are generally high, more particularly the left bank. About the town of Smolensk the breadth is 455 ft., at the confluence of the Pripet 1400, and in some parts of the Ekaterinoslav district more than 1 1 m. In the course above the rapids the channel varies very greatly in nature and depth, and it is not infrequently interrupted by shallows. The rapids, or porogs, form a serious obstacle to navigation; it is only for a few weeks when the river is in flood that they are passable, and even then the venture is not without risk and can only be undertaken with the assistance of special pilots. It is from these falls that the Cossacks of the Ukraine came to be known as Zaporogian Cossacks. As early as 1732 an attempt was made to improve the channel. A canal, which ultimately proved too small for use, was constructed at Nenasitets in 1780 at private expense; blastings were carried out in 1798 and 1799 at various parts; in 1805 a canal was formed at Kaindatski, and the channel straightened at Sursk; by 1807 a new canal was completed at Nenasitets; in 1833 a passage was cleared through the Staro-kaindatski porog; and in the period 1843 to 1853 numerous ameliorations were effected. The result has been not only to diminish greatly the dangers of the natural channel, but also to furnish a series of artificial canals by which vessels can make their way when the river is low. Of the tributaries of the Dnieper the following are navigable, — the Berezina and the Pripet from the right, and the Sozh and the Desna from the left. By means of the Dnieper-Bug (King's) canal, and the Berezina and Oginski canals, this river has a sort of water connexion with the Baltic Sea. In the estuary the fisheries give employment to large numbers of people* At Kiev the river is free from ice on an average of 234 days in the year, at Ekaterinoslav 270 and at Kherson 277. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) DNIESTER (Tyras and Danaster or Danastris of classical authors, Nislrul of the Rumanians, and Turin of the Turks), a river of south-eastern Europe belonging to the basin of the Black Sea. It rises on the northern slope of the Carpathian mountains in Austrian Galicia, and belongs for the first 350 m. of its course to Austrian, for the remaining 515 m. to Russian, territory. It drains an area of 29,670 sq. m., of which 16,500 sq. m. belong to Russia. It is excessively meandering, and the current in most parts even during low water is decidedly rapid as compared with Russian rivers generally, the mean rate being calculated at i-frm. per hour. The average width of the channel is from 500 to 750 ft., but in some places it attains as much as 1400 ft.; the depth is various and changeable. The principal interruption in the navigable portion of the river, besides a sprinkling of rocks in the bed and the somewhat extensive shallows, is occasioned by a granitic spur from the Carpathians, which gives rise to the Yampol Rapids. For ordinary river craft the passage of these rapids is rendered possible, but not free from danger, by a natural channel on the left side, and by a larger and deeper artificial channel on the right; for steamboats they form an insuperable barrier. The river falls into the sea by several arms, passing through a shallow liman or lagoon, a few miles S.W. of Odessa. There are two periodical floods, — the earlier and larger caused by the breaking up of the ice, and occurring in the latter part of February or in March; and the later due to the melting of the snows in the Carpathians, and taking place about June. The spring flood raises the level of the water 20 ft., and towards the mouth of the river submerges the gardens and vineyards of the adjacent country. In some years the general state of the water is so low that navigation is possible only for three or four weeks, while in other years it is so high that navigation continues without interruption; but in recent years considerable improvements have been effected at government expense. In consequence the traffic has increased, the Dniester tapping regions of great productiveness, especially in cereals and timber, namely, Galicia, Podolia and Bessarabia. Steamboat traffic was introduced in the lower reaches in 1840. The fisheries of the lower course and of the estuary are of considerable importance; and these, together with those of the lakes which are formed by the inundations, furnish a valuable addition to the diet of the people in the shape of carp, pike, tench, salmon, sturgeon and eels. Its tributaries are numerous, but not of individual importance, except perhaps the Sereth in Galicia. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) DOAB, DUAB or DOOAB, a name, like the Greek Mesopotamia, applied in India, according to its derivation (do, two, and ab, river), to the stretch of country lying bet ween any two rivers, as the Bari Doab between the Sutlej and the Ravi, the Rechna Doab between the Ravi and the Chenab, the Jech Doab between the Chenab and Jhelum, and the Sind Sagar Doab between the Jhelum and the Indus, but frequently employed, without any distinctive adjunct, as the proper name for the region between the Ganges and its great tributary the Jumna. In like manner the designation of Doab canal is given to the artificial channel which breaks off from the Jumna near Fyzabad, and flows almost parallel with the river till it reunites with it at Delhi. DOANE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1799-1859), American churchman, Protestant Episcopal bishop of New Jersey, was born in Trenton, New Jersey, on the 27th of May 1799. He graduated at Union College, Schenectady, New York, in 1818, studied theology and, in 1821, was ordained deacon and in 1823 priest by Bishop Hobart, whom he assisted in Trinity church, New York. With George Upfold (1796-1872), bishop of Indiana from 1849 to 1872, Doane founded St Luke's in New York City. In 1824- 1828 he was professor of belles-lettres in Washington (now Trinity) College, Hartford, Connecticut, and at this time he was one of the editors of the Episcopal Watchman. He was assistant in 1828-1830 and rector in 1830-1832 of Christ church, Boston, and was bishop of New Jersey from October 1832 to his death at Burlington, New Jersey, on the 27th of April 1859. The diocese of New Jersey was an unpromising field, but he took up his work there with characteristic vigour, especially in the foundation of St Mary's Hall (1837, for girls) and Burlington College (1846) as demonstrations of his theory of education under church control. His business management of these schools got him heavily into debt, and in the autumn of 1852 a charge of lax administration came before a court of bishops, who dismissed it. The schools showed him an able and wise disciplinarian, and his patriotic orations and sermons prove him a speaker of great power. He belonged to the High Church party and was a brilliant controversialist. He published Songs by the Way (1824), a volume of poems; and his hymns beginning " Softly now the light of day " and " Thou art the Way " are well known. See Life and Writings of George Washington Doane (4 vols., New York, 1860-1861), edited by his son, William Croswell Doane (b. 1832), first bishop of Albany. DOBBS FERRY, a village of Westchester county, New York, on the E. bank of the Hudson river 2 m. N. of Yonkers. Pop. (1890) 2083; (1900) 2888; (1910 U. S. census) 3455. Dobbs 350 DOBELL— DOBEREINER Ferry is served by the Hudson River division of the New York Central railway. There are many fine country places, two private schools — the Mackenzie school for boys and the Misses Masters' school for girls — and the children's village (with about thirty cottages) of the New York juvenile asylum. The name of the village was derived from a Swede, Jeremiah Dobbs, whose family probably moved hither from Delaware, and who at the begin- ning of the last quarter of the i8th century had a skiff ferry, which was kept up by his family for a century afterwards. Because Dobbs Ferry had been a part of Philipse Manor all lands in it were declared forfeit at the time of the War of American Independence (see YONKERS), and new titles were derived from the commissioners of forfeitures. The position of the village opposite the northernmost end of the Palisades gave it importance during the war. The region was repeatedly raided by camp followers of each army; earthworks and a fort, commanding the Hudson ferry and the ferry to Paramus, New Jersey, were built; the British army made Dobbs Ferry a rendezvous, after the battle of White Plains, in November 1776, and the conti- nental division under General Benjamin Lincoln was here at the end of January 1777. The American army under Washington encamped near Dobbs Ferry on the 4th of July 1781, and started thence for Yorktown in the following month. In the Van Brugh Livingston house on the 6th of May 1783, Washington and Governor George Clinton met General Sir Guy Carleton, after- wards Lord Dorchester, to negotiate for the evacuation by the British troops of the posts they still held in the United States. In 1873 the village was incorporated as Greenburgh, from the township of the same name which in 1788 had been set apart from the manor of Phillipsburgh; but the name Dobbs Ferry was soon resumed. DOBELL, SYDKEY THOMPSON (1824-1874), English poet and critic, was born on the sth of April 1824 at Cranbrook, Kent. His father was a wine merchant, his mother a daughter of Samuel Thompson (1766-1837), a London political reformer. The family moved to Cheltenham when Dobell was twelve years old. He was educated privately, and never attended either school or university. He refers to this in some lines on Cheltenham College in imitation of Chaucer, written in his eighteenth year. After a five years' engagement he married, in 1844, Emily Fordham, a lady of good family. An acquaintance with Mr (subsequently Sir James) Stansfeld and with the Birmingham preacher-politician, George Dawson (1821-1876), which afterwards led to the foundation of the Society of the Friends of Italy, fed the young enthusiast's ardour for the liberalism of the day. Meanwhile, Dobell wrote a number of minor poems, instinct with a passionate desire for political reform. The Roman appeared in 1850, under the nom de plume of " Sydney Yendys." Next year he travelled through Switzerland with his wife; and after his return he formed friendships with Robert Browning, Philip Bailey, George MacDonald, Emanuel Deutsch, Lord Houghton, Ruskin, Holman Hunt, Mazzini, Tennyson and Carlyle. His second long poem, Balder, appeared in 1854. The three following years were spent in Scotland. Perhaps his closest friend at this time was Alexander Smith, in company with whom he published, in 1855, a number of sonnets on the Crimean War, which were followed by a volume on England in Time „/ War. Although by no means a rich man he was always ready to help needy men of letters, and it was through his exertions that David Gray's poems were published. In 1869 a horse, which he was riding, fell and rolled over with him. His health, which had for several years necessitated his wintering abroad, was seriously affected by this accident, and he was from this time more or less of an invalid, until his death on the 22nd of August 1874. As a poet Dobell belongs to the " spasmodic school," as it was named by Professor Aytoun, who parodied its style in Firmilian. The epithet, however, was first applied by Carlyle to Byron. The school includes George Gilfillan, Philip James Bailey, John Stanyan Bigg (1826-1865), Dobell, Alexander Smith, and, according to some critics, Gerald Massey. It was characterized by an under-current of discontent with the mystery of existence, by vain effort, unrewarded struggle, sceptical unrest, and an uneasy straining after the unattainable. It thus faithfully reflected a certain phase of ipth century thought. The pro- ductions of the school are marked by an excess of metaphor and a general extravagance of language. On the other hand, they exhibit freshness and originality often lacking in more conventional writings. Dobell's poem, The Roman, dedicated to the interests of political liberty in Italy, is marked by pathos, energy and passionate love of freedom, but it is over- laid with monologue, which is carried to a dreary excess in Balder, relieved though the latter is by fine descriptive passages, and by some touching songs. Dobell's suggestive, but too ornate prose writings were collected and edited with an intro- ductory note by Prof essor J. Nichol ( Thoughts on Art, Philosophy and Religion) in 1876. In his religious views Dobell was a Christian of the Broad Church type; and socially he was one of the most amiable and true-hearted of men. His early interest in the cause of oppressed nationalities, shown in his friendship with Kossuth, Emanuel Deutsch and others, never lessened, although his views of home politics underwent some change from the radical opinions of his youth. In Gloucestershire Dobell was well known as an advocate of social reform, and he was a pioneer in the application of the co-operative system to private enterprise. The standard edition of his poems (1875) by Professor Nichol includes a memoir. DOBELN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on the (Freiberg) Mulde, two arms of which embrace the town as an island, 35m. S.E. from Leipzig by rail, and at the junction of lines to Dresden, Chemnitz, Riesa and Oschatz. Pop. (1905) including the garrison, 18,907. It has two Evangelical churches, of which the Nikolai-kirche, dating in its present form from 1485, is a handsome edifice; a medieval town hall, a former Benedictine nunnery and a monument to Luther. There are an agricultural and a commercial school. The industries include wool-spinning, iron-founding, carriage, agricultural implement, and metal- printing and stamping works. DOBERAN, or DOBBERAN, a town of Germany, in the grand- duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, about 2 m. from the shores of the Baltic and 7 W. of Rostock by rail. Pop. 5000. Besides the ruins of a Cistercian abbey founded by Pribislaus, prince of Mecklenburg, in 1173, and secularized in 1552, it possesses an Evangelical Gothic church of the i4th century, one of the finest in north Germany, a grand-ducal palace, a theatre, an exchange and a concert hall. Owing to its delightful situation amid beech forests and to its chalybeate waters, Doberan has become a favourite summer resort. Numerous villa residences have been erected and promenades and groves laid out. In 1793 Duke Frederick Francis caused the first seaside watering-place in Germany to be established on the neighbouring coast, 4 m. distant, at the spot where the Heiligen-Damm, a great bank of rocks about 1000 ft. broad and 15 ft. high, stretches out into the sea and forms an excellent bathing ground. Though no longer so popular as in the early part of the igth century, it is still frequented, and is connected with Doberan by a tramway. DflBEREINER, JOHANN WOLFGANG (1780-1849), German chemist, was born near Hof in Bavaria on the isth of December 1780. After studying pharmacy at Miinchberg, he started a chemical manufactory in 1803, and in 1810 was appointed professor of chemistry, pharmacy and technology at Jena, where he died on the 24th of March 1849. The Royal Society's Catalogue enumerates 171 papers by him on various chemical topics, but his name is best known for his experiments on platinum in a minute state of division and on the oxidation products of alcohol. In 1822 he showed that when a mass of platinum black, supplied with alcohol by a wick is enclosed in a jar to which the air has limited access, acetic acid and water are produced; this experiment formed the basis of the Schiit- zenbach Quick Vinegar Process. A year later he noticed that spongy platinum in presenceof oxygen canbringabout the ignition of hydrogen, and utilized this fact to construct his " hydrogen lamp," the prototype of numerous devices for the self -ignition of coal-gas burners. He studied the formation of aldehyde from DOBREE— DOBRUDJA alcohol by various methods, also obtaining its crystalline com- pound with ammonia, and he was the discoverer of furfurol. An early observation of the diffusion of gases was recorded by him in 1823 when he noticed the escape of hydrogen from a cracked jar, attributing it to the capillary action of fissures. His works included treatises on pneumatic chemistry (1821-1825) and the chemistry of fermentation (1822). A correspondence which he carried on with Goethe and Charles August, grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar, was collected and published at Weimar by Schade in 1856. DOBREE, PETER PAUL (1782-1825), English classical scholar and critic, was born in Guernsey. He was educated at Reading school under Richard Valpy and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was elected fellow. He was appointed regius professor of Greek in 1823, and died in Cambridge on the 24th of September 1825. He was an intimate friend of Person, whom he took as his model in textual criticism, although he showed less caution in conjectural emendation. After Person's death (1808) Dobree was commissioned with Monk and Blomfield to edit his literary remains, which had been bequeathed to Trinity College. Illness and a subsequent journey to Spain delayed the work until 1820, when Dobree brought out the Plutus of Aristophanes (with his own and Person's notes) and all Person's Aristophanica. Two years later he published the Lexicon of Photius from Person's transcript of the Gale MS. in Trinity College library, to which he appended a Lexicon rhetoricum from the margin of a Cambridge MS. of Harpocration. James Scholefield, his successor in the Greek professorship, brought out selections from his notes (Adversaria, 1831-1833) on Greek and Latin authors (especially the orators), and a reprint of the Lexicon rhetoricum, together with notes on inscriptions (1834-1835). The latest edition of the Adversaria is by William Wagner (in Bohn's Collegiate Series, 1883). An appreciative estimate of Dobree as a scholar will be found in J. Bake's Scholica hypomnemata, ii. (1839) and in the Philological Museum, i. (1832) by J. C. Hare. DOBRENTEI, 6ABOR [GABRIEL] (1786-1851), Hungarian philologist and antiquary, was born at Nagyszollos in 1786. He completed his studies at the universities of Wittenberg and Leipzig, and was afterwards engaged as a tutor in Transylvania. At this period he originated and edited the Erdelyi Muzeum, which, notwithstanding its important influence on the develop- ment of the Magyar language and literature, soon failed for want of support. In 1820 Dobrentei settled at Pest, and there he spent the rest of his life. He held various official posts, but continued zealously to pursue the studies for which he had early shown a strong preference. His great work is the Ancient Monuments of the Magyar Language (Regi Magyar Nyehemlekek), the editing of which was entrusted to him by the Hungarian Academy. The first volume was published in 1838 and the fifth was in course of preparation at the time of his death. Dobrentei was one of the twenty-two scholars appointed in 1825 to plan and organize, under the presidency of Count Teleki, the Hungarian Academy. In addition to his great work he wrote many valuable papers on historical and philological subjects, and many biographical notices of eminent Hungarians. These appeared in the Hungarian translation of Brockhaus's Conversations-Lexikon. He translated into Hungarian Macbeth and other plays of Shakespeare, Sterne's letters from Yorick to Eliza (1828), several of Schiller's tragedies, and Moliere's A tare, and wrote several original poems. Dobrentei does not appear to have taken any part in the revolutionary movement of 1848. He died at his country house, near Pest, on the 28th of March 1851. DOBRITCH, or HAJIOLUPAZARJIK, the principal town in the Bulgarian Dobrudja. Pop. (1901) 13,436. The town is noted for its panair or great fair, chiefly for horses and cattle, held annually in the summer, which formerly attracted a large concourse from all parts of eastern Europe, but has declined in importance. DOBRIZHOFFER, MARTIN (1717-1791), Austrian Roman Catholic missionary, was born at Gratz, in Styria. He joined the Society of Jesus in 1736, and in 1749 proceeded to Paraguay, where for eighteen years he worked devotedly first among the Guaranis, and then among the Abipones. Returning to Europe on the expulsion of the Jesuits from South America, he settled at Vienna, obtained the friendship of Maria Theresa, survived the extinction of his order, composed the history of his mission, and died on the tythof July 1791. The lively if rather garrulous book on which his title to remembrance rests, appeared at Vienna in 1784, in the author's own Latin, and in a German translation by Professor Krail of the university of Pest. Of its contents some idea may be obtained from its extended title : — Historic, de A biponibus, Equestri Bellicosaque Paraguariae Natione, locupletala Copiosis Barbararum Gentium, Urbium, Fluminum, Ferarum, Amphibi- orum, Insectorum, Serpenlium praecipuorum, Piscium, Avium, Arborum, Plantarumaliarumqueejusdem Provincial Proprietatum Obsenationibus. In 1822 there appeared in London an anony- mous translation sometimes ascribed to Southey, but really the work of Sara Coleridge, who had undertaken the task to defray the college expenses of one of her brothers. A delicate compli- ment was paid to the translator by Southey in the third canto of his Tale of Paraguay, the story of which was derived from the pages of Dobrizhoffer's narrative. — " And if he could in Merlin's glass have seen By whom his tomes to speak our tongue were taught, The old man would have felt as pleased, I ween, As when he won the ear of that great Empress Queen." DOBROWSKY, JOSEPH (1753-1829), Hungarian philologist, was born of Bohemian parentage at Gjermet, near Raab, in Hungary. He received his first education in the German school at Bischofteinitz, made his first acquaintance with Bohemian at the Deutschbrod gymnasium, studied for some time under the Jesuits at Klattau, and then proceeded to the university of Prague. In 1772 he was admitted among the Jesuits at Briinn; but on the dissolution of the order in 1773 he returned to Prague to study theology. After holding for some time the office of tutor in the family of Count Nostitz, he obtained an appointment first as vice-rector, and then as rector, in the general seminary at Hradisch; but in 1790 he lost his post through the abolition of the seminaries throughout Austria, and returned as a guest to the house of the count. In 1792 he was commissioned by the Bohemian Academy of Sciences to visit Stockholm, Abo, Petersburg and Moscow in search of the manuscripts which had been scattered by the Thirty Years' War; and on his return he accompanied Count Nostitz to Switzerland and Italy. His reason began to give way in 1795, and in 1801 he had to be confined in a lunatic asylum; but by 1803 he had completely recovered. The rest of his life was mainly spent either in Prague or-at the country seats of his friends Counts Nostitz and Czernin; but his death took place at Briinn, whither he had gone in 1828 to make investigations in the library. While his fame rests chiefly on his labours in Slavonic philology his botanical studies are not without value in the history of the science. The following is a list of his more important works, Fragmentum Pragense evangelii S. Marci, vulgo autographi (1778); a periodical for Bohemian and Moravian Literature (1780-1787); Scriptures rerum Bohemicarum (2 vols., 1783); Geschichte der bohm. Sprache und altern Literatur (1792) ; Die Bildsamkeit der slaw. Sprache (1799) ; a Deutsch-bohm. Worterbuch compiled in collaboration with Leschka- Puchmayer and Hanka (1802-1821) ; Entwurf eines Pflanzensystems nach Zahlen und Verhdltnissen (1802); Glagolitica (1807); Lehr- gebdude der bohm. Sprache (1809) ; Institutions linguae slavicae dia- lecti veteris (1822); Entwurf zu einem allgemeinen Etymologikon der slaw. Sprachen (1813); Slowanka zur Kenntniss der slaw. Literatur (1814); and a critical edition of Jordanes, De rebus Geticis, for Pertz's Monumenta Germaniae historica. See Palacky, J. Dobrowskys Leben undgelehrtes Wirken (1833). DOBRUDJA (Bulgarian Dobritch, Rumanian Dobrogea), also written DOBEUDSCHA, and DOBRUJA, a region of south-eastern Europe, bounded on the north and west by the Danube, on the eastby the Black Sea, and on the south by Bulgaria. Pop. (1900) 267,808; area, 6000 sq. m. The strategic importance of this territory was recognized by the Romans, who defended it on the south by " Trajan's Wall," a double rampart, drawn from Constantza, on the Black Sea, to the Danube. In later times it was utilized by Russians and Turks, as in the wars of 1828, 1854 352 DOBSINA— DOBSON, H. A. and 1878, when it was finally wrested from Turkey. By the treaty of Berlin, in 1878, the Russians rewarded their Rumanian allies with this land of mountains, fens and barren steppes, peopled by Turks, Bulgarians, Tatars, Jews and other aliens; while, to add to the indignation of Rumania, they annexed instead the fertile country of Bessarabia, largely inhabited by Rumans. After 1 880, however, the steady decrease of aliens, and the development of the Black Sea ports, rendered the Dobrudja a source of prosperity to Rumania. DOBSINA (Ger. Dobschau) , a, town of Hungary, 165 m. N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 5109. It is situated in the county of Gb'mor, at the foot of the Radzim (3200 ft. high) in the central Carpathians, and lies to the south of the beautiful Straczena valley, watered by the river Gollnitz, and enclosed on all sides by mountains. In the vicinity are mines of iron, cobalt, copper and mercury, some of them being very ancient. But the most remarkable feature is a large cavern some 3$ m. N.W., in which is an icefield nearly 2 acres in extent, containing formations which are at once most curious and strikingly beautiful. This cavern, which lies in the above-mentioned Straczena valley, was discovered in 1870. The place was founded in the first half of the I4th century by German miners. DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN (1840- ), English poet and man of letters, was born at Plymouth on the i8th of January 1840, being the eldest son of George Clarisse Dobson, a civil engineer, and on his grandmother's side of French descent. When he was about eight years old the family moved to Holyhead, and his first school was at Beaumaris, in the Isle of Anglesea. He was afterwards educated at Coventry, and the Gymnase, Strassburg, whence he returned at the age of sixteen with the intention of becoming a civil engineer. He had a taste for art, and in his earlier years at the office continued to study it at South Kensington, at his leisure, but without definite ambition. In December 1856 he entered the Board of Trade, gradually rising to a principalship in the harbour department, from which he with- drew in the autumn of 1901. He married in 1868 Frances Mary, daughter of Nathaniel Beardmore of Broxbourne, Herts, and settled at Baling. His official career was industrious though uneventful, but as poet and biographer he stands among the most distinguished of his time. The student of Mr Austin Dobson's work will be struck at once by the fact that it contains nothing immature: there are no juvenilia to criticize or excuse. It was about 1864 that Mr Dobson first turned his attention to composi- tion in prose and verse, and some of his earliest known pieces remain among his best. It was not until 1868 that the appearance of St Paul's, a magazine edited by Anthony Trollope, afforded Mr Dobson an opportunity and an audience; and during the next six years he contributed to its pages some of his favourite poems, including " Tu Quoque," " A Gentleman of the Old School," " A Dialogue from Plato," and " Une Marquise." Many of his poems in their original form were illustrated — some, indeed, actually written to support illustrations. By the autumn of 1873 Mr Dobson had produced sufficient verse for a volume, and put forth his Vignettes in Rhyme, which quickly passed through three editions. During the period of their appearance in the magazine the poems had received unusual attention, George Eliot, among others, extending generous encouragement to the anonymous author. The little book at once introduced him to a larger public. The period was an interesting one for a first appearance, since- the air was full of metrical experiment. Swinburne's bold and dithyrambic excursions into classical metre had given the clue for an enlargement of the borders of English prosody; and, since it was hopeless to follow him in his own line without necessary loss of vigour, the poets of the day were looking about for fresh forms and variations. It was early in 1876 that a small body of English poets lit upon the French forms of Theodore de Banville, Marot and Villon, and determined to introduce them into English verse. Mr Austin Dobson, who had already made successful use of the triolet, was at the head of this movement, and in May 1876 he published in The Prodigals the first original ballade written in English. This he followed by English versions of the rondel, rondeau and villanelle. An article in the Cornhill Magazine by Mr Edmund Gosse, " A Plea for Certain Exotic Forms of Verse," appearing in Julyi877, simultaneously with Mr Dobson's second volume, Proverbs in Porcelain, drew the general eye to the possibilities and achievements of the movement. The experiment was extremely fortunate in its introduction. Mr Dobson is above all things natural, spontaneous and unaffected in poetic method; and in his hands a sheaf of metrical forms, essentially artificial and laborious, was made to assume the colour and bright profusion of a natural product. An air of pensive charm, of delicate sensibility, pervades the whole of these fresh revivals; and it is perhaps this personal touch of humanity which has given something like stability to one side of a movement other- wise transitory in influence. The fashion has laded, but the flowers of Mr Dobson's French garden remain bright and scented. In 1883 Mr Dobson published Old-World Idylls, a volume which contains some of his most characteristic work. By this time his taste was gradually settling upon the period with which it has since become almost exclusively associated; and the spirit of the i8th century is revived in " The Ballad of Beau Brocade " and in " The Story of Rosina," as nowhere else in modern English poetry. In " Beau Brocade," indeed, the pictorial quality of his work, the dainty economy of eloquent touches, is at its very best: every couplet has its picture, and every picture is true and vivacious. The touch has often been likened to that of Randolph Caldecott, with which it has much in common; but Mr Dobson's humour is not so " rollicking," his portraiture not so broad, as that of the illustrator of " John Gilpin." The appeal is rather to the intellect, and the touches of subdued pathos in the " Gentleman " and " Gentlewoman of the Old School " are addressed directly to the heart. We are in the i8th century, but see it through the glasses of to-day; and the soft intercepting sense of change which hangs like a haze between ourselves and the subject is altogether due to the poet's sympathy and sensi- bility. At the Sign of the Lyre (1885) wasthenextof Mr Dobson's separate volumes of verse, although he has added to the body of his work in a volume of Collected Poems (1897) . At the Sign of the Lyre contains examples of all his various moods. The admirably fresh and breezy " Ladies of St James's " has precisely the qualities we have traced in his other 18th-century poems; there are baMades and rondeaus, with all the earlier charm; and in " A Revolutionary Relic," as in " The Child Musician " of the Old-World Idylls, the poet reaches a depth of true pathos which he does not often attempt, but in which, when he seeks it, he never fails. At the pole opposite to these are the light occasional verses, not untouched by the influence of Praed, but also quite individual, buoyant and happy. But the chief novelty in At the Sign of the Lyre was the series of " Fables of Literature and Art," founded in manner upon Gay, and exquisitely finished in scholarship, taste and criticism. It is in these perhaps, more than in any other of his poems, that we see how with much felicity Mr Dobson interpenetrates the literature of fancy with the literature of judgment. After 1885 Mr Dobson was engaged principally upon critical and biographical prose, by which he has added very greatly to the general knowledge of his favourite i8th century. His biographies of Fielding (1883), Bewick (1884), Steele (1886), Goldsmith (1888), Walpole (1890) and Hogarth (1879-1898) are studies marked alike by assiduous research, sympathetic pre- sentation and sound criticism. It is particularly noticeable that Mr Dobson in his prose has always added something, and often a great deal, to our positive knowledge of the subject in question, his work as a critic never being solely aesthetic. In Four French- women (1890), in the three series of Eighteenth-Century Vignettes (1892-1894-1896), and in The Paladin of Philanthropy (1899), which contain unquestionably his most delicate prose work, the accurate detail of each study is relieved by a charm of expression which could only be attained by a poet. In 1901 he collected his hitherto unpublished poems in a volume en- titled Carmina Voliva. Possessing an exquisite talent of defined range, Mr Austin Dobson may be said in his own words to have " held his pen in trust for Art " with a service sincere and distinguished. DOBSON, W.— DOCK 353 DOBSON, WILLIAM (1610-1646), English portrait and historical painter, was born in London. His father was master of the alienation office, but by improvidence had fallen into reduced circumstances. The son was accordingly bound an apprentice to a stationer and picture dealer in Holborn Bridge; and while in his employment he began to copy the pictures of Titian and Van Dyck. He also took portraits from life under the advice and instruction of Francis Cleyn, a German artist of considerable repute. Van Dyck, happening to pass a shop in Snow Hill where one of Dobson's pictures was exposed, sought out the artist, and presented him to Charles I., who took Dobson under his protec- tion, and not only sat to him several times for his own portrait, but caused the prince of Wales, Prince Rupert and many others to do the same. The king had a high opinion of his artistic ability, styled him the English Tintoretto, and appointed him Serjeant- painter on the death of Van Dyck. After the fall of Charles, Dobson was reduced to great poverty, and fell into dissolute habits. He died at the early age of thirty-six. Excellent examples of Dobson's portraits are to be seen at Blenheim, Chatsworth and several other country seats throughout England. The head in the " Decollation of St John the Baptist " at Wilton is said to be a portrait of Prince Rupert. DOCETAE, a name applied to those thinkers in the early Christian Church who held that Christ, during his life, had not a real or natural, but only an apparent (dontiv, to appear) or phantom body. Other explanations of the SiKTjats or appear- ance have, however, been suggested, and, in the absence of any statement by those who first used the word of the grounds on which they did so, it is impossible to determine between them with certainty. The name Docetae is first used by Theodoret (Ep. 82) as a general description, and by Clement of Alexandria as the designation of a distinct sect,1 of which he says that Julius Cassianus was the founder. Docetism, however, undoubtedly existed before the time of Cassianus. The origin of the heresy is to be sought in the Greek, Alexandrine and Oriental philosophiz- ing about the imperfection or rather the essential impurity of matter. Traces of a Jewish Docetism are to be found in Philo ; and in the Christian form it is generally supposed to be combated in the writings of John,2 and more formally in the epistles of Ignatius.3 It differed much in its complexion according to the points of view adopted by the different authors. Among the Gnostics and Manichaeans it existed in its most developed type, and in a milder form it is to be found even in the writings of the orthodox teachers. The more thoroughgoing Docetae assumed the position that Christ was born without any participation of matter; and that all the acts and sufferings of his human life, including the crucifixion, were only apparent. They denied accordingly, the resurrection and the ascent into heaven. To this class belonged Dositheus, Saturninus, Cerdo, Marcion and their followers, the Ophites, Manichaeans and others. Marcion, for example, regarded the body of Christ merely as an " umbra," a " phantasma." His denial (due to his abhorrence of the world) that Jesus was born or subjected to human development, is in striking contrast to the value which he sets on Christ's death on the cross. The other, or milder school of Docetae, attributed to Christ an ethereal and heavenly instead of a truly human body. Amongst these were Valentinus, Bardesanes, Basilides, Tatian and their followers. They varied considerably in their estimation of the share which this body had in the real actions and sufferings of Christ. Clement and Origen, at the head of the Alexandrian school, took a somewhat subtle view of the Incarnation, and Docetism pervades their controversies with the Monarchians. Hilary especially illustrates the prevalence of naive Docetic views as regards the details of the Incarnation. Docetic tendencies I Not a distinct sect, but a continuous type of Christology. Hippo- lytus, however (Fhilosophumena, viii. 8-1 1), speaks of a definite party who called themselves Docetae. I 1 Ep. iv. 2, ii. 22, v. 6, 20; 2 Ep. 7, cf. Jerome (Dial. adv. Lucifer. § 23 " Apostolis adhuc in saeculo superstitibus, adhuc apud Judaeam Christ! sanguine recenti, phantasma Domini corpus asserebatur "). 'Ad Trail. 9 f., Ad Smyrn. 2, 4, Ad Ephes. 7. Cf. Polycarp, Ad Phil. 7. vni. 12 have also been developed in later periods of ecclesiastical history, as for example by the Priscillianists and the Bogomils, and also since the Reformation by Jacob Boehme, Menno Simons and a small fraction of the Anabaptists. Docetism springs from the same roots as Gnosticism, and the Gnostics generally held Docetic views (see GNOSTICISM). DOCHMIAC (from Gr. dox^, a hand's breadth), a form of verse, consisting of rfoc/wm or pentasyllable feet(usually O._0-). DOCK, a word applied to (i) a plant (see below), (2) an artificial basin for ships (see below), (3) the fleshy solid part of an animal's tail, and (4) the railed-in enclosure in which a prisoner is placed in court at his trial. Dock (i) in O.E. is docce, represented by Ger. Dockea-blatter, O.Fr. docque, Gael. dogha; Skeat compares Gr. SauKos, a kind of parsnip. Dock (2) appears in Dutch (dok) and English in the i6th century; thence it was adopted into other languages. It has been connected with Med.Lat. doga,ca,p, Gr. Soxy, receptacle, from 5ex«^<", to receive. Dock (3), especially used of a horse or dog, appears in English in the I4th century; a parallel is found in Icel. docke, stumpy tail, and Ger. Docke, bundle, skein, is also connected with it. This word has given the verb " to dock," to cut short, curtail, especially used of the shortening of an animal's tail by severing one or more of the vertebrae. The English Kennel Club (Rules, 1905, revised 1907) disqualifies from prize-winning dogs whose tails have been docked; several breeds are, however, excepted, e.g. varieties of terriers and spaniels, poodles, &c., and such foreign dogs as may from time to time be determined by the club. The prisoners' dock (4) is apparently to be referred to Flem. dok, pen or hutch. It was probably first used in thieves' slang; according to the New English Dictionary it was known after 1610 in " bail-dock," a room at the corner of the Old Bailey left open at the top, " in which during the trials are put some of the malefactors " (Scots. Mag., 1753). DOCK, in botany, the name applied to the plants constituting the section Lapathum of the genus Rumex, natural order Polygon- aceae. They are biennial or perennial herbs with a stout root- stock, and glabrous linear-lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate leaves with a rounded, obtuse or hollowed base and a more or less wavy or crisped margin. The flowers are arranged in more or less crowded whorls, the whole forming a denser or looser panicle; they are generally perfect, with six sepals, six stamens and a three-sided ovary bearing three styles with much-divided stigmas. The fruit is a triangular nut enveloped in the three enlarged leathery inner sepals, one or all of which bear a tubercle. In the common or broad-leaved dock, Rumex obtusifolius, the flower- stem is erect, branching, and 18 in. to 3 ft. high, with large radical leaves, heart-shaped at the base, and more or less blunt; the other leaves are more pointed, and have shorter stalks. The whorls are many-flowered, close to the stem and mostly leafless. The root is many-headed, black externally and yellow within. The flowers appear from June to August. In autumn the whole plant may become of a bright red colour. It is a troublesome weed, common by roadsides and in fields, pastures and waste places throughout Europe. The great water dock, R. hydro- lapatltum, believed to be the herba britannica of Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxv. 6), is a tall-growing species; its root is used as an anti- scorbutic. Other British species are R. crispus; R. conglomerates, the root of which has been employed in dyeing; R. sanguineus (bloody dock, or bloodwort); R. paluslris; R. pulcher (fiddle dock), with fiddle-shaped leaves; R. maritimus; R. aquaticus; R. pratensis. The naturalized species, R. alpinus, or " monk's rhubarb," was early cultivated in Great Britain, and was ac- counted an excellent remedy for ague, but, like many ether such drugs, is now discarded. DOCK, in marine and river engineering. Vessels require to lie afloat alongside quays provided with suitable appliances in sheltered sites in order to discharge and take in cargoes con- veniently and expeditiously; and a basin constructed for this purpose, surrounded by quay walls, is known as a dock. The term is specially applied to basins adjoining tidal rivers, or close to the sea-coast, in which the water is maintained at a fairly uniform level by gates, which are closed when the tide begins to 354 DOCK fall, as exemplified by the Liverpool and Havre docks (figs, i and 2). Sometimes, however, at ports situated on tidal rivers near their tidal limit, as at Glasgow (fig. 3), Hamburg and Low-lying land adjoining a tidal river or estuary frequently provides suitable sites for docks; for the position, being more or less inland, is sheltered ; the low level reduces the excavation SCALE 2 0,OOO. FIG. I. — Liverpool Docks, North End. Rouen, and at some ports near the sea-coast, such as Southampton (fig. 4) and New York, the tidal range is sufficiently moderate for dock gates to be dispensed with, and for open basins and river quays to serve for the accommodation of vessels. For ports SCALE 50000. FIG. 2. — Havre Docks and Outer Harbour. established on the sea-coast of tideless seas, such as the Medi- terranean, on account of the rivers being barred by deltas at their outlets, like the Rhone and the Tiber, ana thus rendered inaccessible, open basins, provided with quays and protected by required for forming the docks, and enables the .excavated materials to be utilized in raising the ground at the sfteg ^ sides for quays; and the river furnishes a sheltered Docks. approach channel. Notable instances of these are the docks of the ports of London, Liver- pool, South Wales, Southampton, Hull, Belfast, St Nazaire, Rotter- dam, Antwerp and Hamburg. Some- times docks are partially formed on foreshores reclaimed from estuaries, as at Hull, Grimsby, Cardiff, Liver- pool, Leith and Havre; whilst at Bristol, a curved portion of the river Avon was appropriated for a dock, and a straight cut made for the river. By carrying docks across sharp bends of tidal rivers, upper and lower en- trances can be provided, thereby con- veniently separating the inland and sea-going traffic; and of this the London, Surrey Commercial, West India, and Victoria and Albert docks are examples on the Thames and Chatham dockyard on the Medway. Occasionally, when a small tidal river has a shallow entrance, or an estuary exhibits signs of silting up, SCALE 20,000. FIG. 3. — Glasgow Docks. breakwaters, furnish the necessary commercial requirements for sea-going vessels, as for example at Marseilles (fig. 5), Genoa, Naples and Trieste. These open basins, however, are precisely the same as closed docks, except for the absence of dock gates; and the accommodation for shipping at the quays round basins in river ports is so frequently supplemented by river quays, that closed docks, open basins and river quays are all naturally included in the general consideration of dock works. SCALE 20,000. FIG. 4. — Southampton Docks and River Quays. docks alongside, formed on foreshores adjoining the sea-coast, are provided with a sheltered entrance direct from the sea, DOCK 355 as exemplified by the Sunderland docks adjacent to the mouth of the river Wear, and the Havre docks at the outlet of the Seine estuary (fig. 2). Some old ports, originally estab- lished on sandy coasts where a creek, maintained by the influx and efflux of the tide from low-lying spaces near the shore, afforded some shelter and an outlet to the sea across the beach, have had their access improved by parallel jetties and dredging; and docks have been readily formed in the low-lying land only of suction dredgers in sand (see DREDGE), together with the increasing draught of vessels, has resulted in a considerable increase being made in the available depth of rivers and channels leading to docks, and has necessitated the making of due allowance for the possibility of a reasonable improvement in determining the depth to be given to a new dock. On the other hand, there is a limit to the deepening of an approach channel, depending upon its length, the local conditions as regards SCALE FIG. 5. — Port of Marseilles. Basins and Extensions. separated by sand dunes from the sea, as ,at Calais, Dunkirk (fig. 6) and Ostend (see HARBOUR). In sheltered places on the sea-coast, docks have sometimes been constructed on low- lying land bordering the shore, with direct access to the sea, as at Barrow and Hartlepool; whilst at Mediterranean ports open basins have been formed in the sea, by establishing quays along the foreshore, from which wide, solid jetties, lined with quay walls, are carried into the sea at intervals at right angles to the shore, .being sheltered by an outlying break- water parallel to the coast, and reached at each end through the openings left between the projecting jetties and the breakwater, as at Marseilles (fig. 5) and Trieste, and at the extensions at Genoa (see HARBOUR) and Naples. Where, however, the basins are formed within the partial protection of a bay, as in the old ports of Genoa and Naples, the re-, quisite additional shelter has been provided by converging breakwaters across the opening of the bay; and an entrance to the port is left between the breakwaters. The two deep arms of the sea at New York, known as the Hudson and East rivers, are so protected by Staten Island and Long Island that it has been only necessary to form open basins by projecting wide jetties or quays into them from the west and east shores of Manhattan Island, and from the New Jersey and Brooklyn shores, at in- tervals, to provide adequate accommodation for Atlantic liners and the sea-going trade of New York. The accessibility of a port depends upon the depth of its approach channel, which also determines the depth of the docks A or basins to which it leads; for it is useless to give a channels, depth to a dock much in excess of the depth down to which there is a prospect of carrying the channel by which it is reached. The great augmentation, however, in the power and capacity for work of modern dredgers, and especially silting, and the resources and prospects of trade of the port, for every addition to the depth generally involves a corresponding increase in the cost of maintenance. At tidal ports the available depth for vessels should be reckoned from high water of the lowest neap tides, as the standard which is certain to be reached at high tide; and the period during which docks can be entered at each tide depends upon the nature of the approach channel, the extent of the tidal range and u 10 o 50,000. FIG. 6. — Dunkirk Docks and Jetty Channel. the manner in which the entrance to the docks is effected. Thus where the tidal range is very large, as in the Severn estuary, the approach channels to some of the South Wales ports are nearly dry at low water of spring tides, and it would be impossible to make these ports accessible near low tide; whereas at high water, even of neap tides, vessels of large draught can enter their docks. At Liverpool, with a rise of 31 ft. at equinoctial spring tides, owing to the deep channel between Liverpool and Birkenhead and into the outer estuary of the Mersey in Liverpool 356 DOCK Bay, maintained by the powerful tidal scour resulting from the filling and emptying of the large inner estuary, access to the river by the largest vessels has been rendered possible, at any state of the tide, by dredging a channel through the Mersey bar; but the docks cannot be entered till the water has risen above half -tide level, and the gates are closed directly after high water. A large floating landing-stage, however, about half a mile in length, in front of the. centre of the docks, connected with the shore by several hinged bridges and rising and falling with the tide, enables Atlantic liners to come alongsideand tXN^^^^v \ 1 take on board or ^^-O^AW'-N^, W disembark their Y"~~-~3^y^-' ^^V/ passengers at any V / .. ....... >/ time. Comparatively small tidal rivers offer the best opportunity of a considerable im- provement in the approach channel to a port; for they can be converted into artificially deep channels by dredging, and their necessary maintenance is somewhat aided by the increased influx and efflux of tidal water due to the lowering of the low-water line by the outflow of the ebb tide being facili- tated by the deepening. Thus systematic, continuous dredging THAMES. SCALE 20POO. FlG. 7. — Tilbury Docks SCALE 20,000 CHANNEL. FIG. 8. — Barry Docks. in the Tyne and the Clyde has raised the Tyne ports and Glasgow into first-class ports. In large tidal rivers and estuaries, docks should be placed alongside a concave bank which the deep navigable channel hugs, as effected at Hull and Antwerp, or close to a permanently deep channel in an estuary, such as chosen for Garston and the entrance to the Manchester ship canal at Eastham in the inner Mersey estuary, and for Grimsby and the authorized Illingham dock in the Humber estuary; for a channel carried across an estuary to deep water requires constant dredging to maintain its depth. Occasionally, extensive draining works and dredging have to be executed to form an adequately deep channel through a shifting estuary and shallow river to a port, as for instance on the Weser to Bremerhaven and Bremen, on the Seine to Honfleur and Rouen, on the Tees to Middlesborough and Stockton, on the Kibble to Preston, on the Maas to Rotterdam and on the Nervion to Bilbao (see RIVER ENGINEERING) . South- ampton possesses the very rare combination of advantages of a well-sheltered and fairly deep estuary, a rise of only 12 ft. at spring tides, and a position at the head of Southampton Water at the confluence of two rivers (fig. 4), so that, with a moderate amount of dredging and the construction of quays along the lower ends of the river with a depth of 35 ft. in front of them at low water, it is possible for vessels of the largest draught to come alongside or leave the quays at any state of the tide. This circumstance has enabled Southampton to attract some of the Atlantic steamers formerly running to Liverpool. Ports on tideless seas have to be placed where deep water approaches the shore, and where there is an absence of littoral drift. The basins of such ports are always accessible for vessels of the draught they provide for; but they require most efficient protection, and, unlike tidal ports, they are not able to ex- ceptional occasions to admit a vessel of larger draught than the basins have been formed to accommodate. Occasionally, an old port whose approach channel has become inadequate for modern vessels, or from which the sea has receded, has been provided with deep access from the sea by a ship canal, as exemplified by Amsterdam and Bruges; whilst Manchester has become a sea- port by similar works (see MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL). In such cases, however, perfectly sheltered open basins are formed inland at the head of the ship canal, in the most convenient available site; and the size of vessels that can use the port depends wholly on the dimensions and facility of access of the ship canal. Docks require to be so designed that they may provide the maximum length of quays in proportion to the water area consistent with easy access for vessels to the quays; but often the space available does not admit of the adoption of the best forms, and the design has £„;_„ ol to be made as suitable as practi- cable under the existing conditions. On this account, and owing to the small size of vessels in former times, the docks of old ports present a great variety in size and arrangement, being for the most part narrow and small, forming a sort of string of docks communicating with one another, and pro- vided with locks or entrances at suitable points for their common use, as noticeable in the older London and Liverpool docks. Though narrow timber jetties were introduced in some of the wider London docks for in- creasing the length of quays by placing vessels alongside them, no definite arrange- ment of docks was adopted in carrying out the large Victoria and Albert docks between 1850 and 1880; whilst the Victoria dock was made wide with solid quays, provided with warehouses, projecting from the northern quay wall, thereby affording a large accom- modation for vessels lying end on to the north quay, the Albert dock subsequently constructed was given about half the width of the earlier dock, but made much longer, so that vessels lie alongside the north and south quays in a long line. This change of form, however, was probably dictated by the advantage of stretching across the remainder of the wide bend, in order to obtain a second entrance in a lower reach of the river. The Tilbury docks, the latest and lowest docks on the Thames, were constructed on the most approved modern system, consisting of a series of branch docks separated by wide, well-equipped solid quays, and opening straight into a main dock or basin communicating with the entrance lock, in which vesa can turn on entering or leaving the docks (fig. 7). The mos recently constructed Liverpool docks, also, at the northern e have been given this form; and the older docks adjoining them to the south have been transformed by reconstruction into a similar series of branch docks opening into a dock alongside the river wall, leading to a half-tide basin or river entrances (ng. I}. DOCK 357 Tldalaad halt-tide basins. The Manchester and Salford docks were laid out on a precisely similar system, which was also adopted for the most recent docks at Dunkirk (fig. 6) and Prince's dock at Glasgow (fig. 3), and at some of the principal Rhine ports; whilst the Alexandra dock at Hull resembles it in principle. The basins in tideless seas have naturally been long formed in accordance with this system (fig. 5). The Barry docks furnish an example of the special arrangements for a coal-shipping port, with numerous coal-tips served by sidings (fig. 8). Tidal basins, as they are termed, are generally interposed in the docks of London between the entrance locks and the docks, with the object of facilitating the passage of vessels out of and into the docks before and after high water, by lowering the water in the basin as soon as the tide has risen sufficiently, and opening the lock gates directly a level has been formed with the tide in the river. Then the vessels which have collected in the basin, when level with the dock, are readily passed successively into the river. The incoming vessels are next brought into the basin, and the gates are closed ; and the water in the basin having been raised to the level in the dock, the gates shutting off the basin from the dock when the water was lowered are opened, and the vessels are admitted to the dock. In this manner, by means of an inner pair of gates, the basin can be used as a large lock without unduly altering the water-level in the dock, and saves the delay of locking most of the vessels out and in, the lock being only used for the smaller vessels leaving early or coming in late on the tide. Similar tidal basins have also been provided at Cardiff .Penarth, Barry (fig. 8) , Sunderland, Antwerp and o_ther docks. The large half-tide docks introduced at the most modern Liverpool docks (fig. i) serve a similar purpose as tidal basins; but being much larger, and approached by entrances instead of locks, the exit and entrance of vessels are effected by lowering their water-level on a rising tide, and opening the gates, which are then closed at high water to prevent the lowering of the water-level in the dock, and to avoid closing the gates against a strong issuing current. The tidal basins outside the locks at Tilbury and Barry are quite open to the tide, and have been carried down to 24 ft. and 16 ft. respectively below low water of spring tides, in order to afford vessels a deep sheltered approach to the lock in each case, available at or near low water (figs. 7 and 8). Such basins, however, open to a considerable tidal range where the water is densely charged with silt, are exposed to a large deposit in the fairly still water, and their depth has to be constantly maintained by sluicing or dredging. Where the range of tide is moderate, or on large inland rivers, docks or basins are usefully supplemented by river quays, which though subject to changes in the water-level, and exposed to currents in the river, are very convenient for access, quays. an(j are sometimes very advantageously employed in regulating a river and keeping up its banks when deepened by dredging. Generally 10 to 12 ft. is the limit of the tidal range con- venient for the adoption of open basins and river quays; but the banks of the Tyne have been utilized for quays, jetties and coal- staiths, with a somewhat larger maximum tidal range; and a long line of quays stretching along the right bank of the Scheldt in front of Antwerp, constructed so as to regulate this reach of the river, accommodates a large sea-going traffic, with a rise at spring tides of 15 ft. When a dock has to be formed on land, the excavation is effected by men with barrows and powerful steam navvies, loading into wagons drawn in trains by locomotives to the place of ^v*' deposit, usually to raise the land at the sides for forming locks"' <1uays- Directly the underground water-level is reached, the water has to be removed from the excavations by pumps raising the inflowing water from sumps, lined with timber, sunk down below the lowest foundations at suitable positions, so that the lower portions of the dock walls and sills of the lock or entrance maybe built out of water. A cofferdam has to be constructed extending out from the bank of the river or approach channel in front of the site of the proposed entrance or lock, so that the excavations for the entrance to the dock may be pushed forwards, and the lock or entrance built under its protection. Sometimes the lowest portion of the excavation for the dock can be accomplished economically by dredging, after the dock walls and lock have been completed and the water admitted. Where a dock is partially or wholly constructed on reclaimed land, the reclamation bank for enclosing the site and excluding the tide has to be undertaken first by tipping an embankment from each end with wagons, protected and consolidated along its outer toe by rubble stone or chalk. When the ends of the embankments are approaching one another, it is essential to connect them by a long low bank of selected materials brought up gradually in successive layers, and retaining the water in the enclosure to the level of this bank, so that the influx and efflux of the tide, filling and emptying the reclaimed area, may take place over a long length, and in smaller volume as the low bank is raised. In this way a reduction is effected of the tidal current in and out, which in the case of a large enclosure d a considerable tidal range, would create such a scour in the narrowing gap between two high embankments as to wash away their ends and prevent the closing of the gap. Occasionally the final closure is effected by lowering timber panels in grooves between a series of piles driven down at intervals across the gap. On the closing of the reclamation bank the water is pumped out; and the excavation is carried on in the ordinary manner. It is very important that such an embankment should be carried well above the level of the highest tide which might be raised by a high wind ; and in exposed sites, the outer slope of the bank should be protected by pitching from the action of waves, for any overtopping or erosion of the bank might result in a large breach through it, and the flooding of the works inside. Docks are generally surrounded by walls retaining the quays, alongside which vessels lie for discharging and taking in cargoes. In order to ascertain the nature of the strata upon which these walls have to be founded, borings are taken at the Foun°a" outset to the requisite depth at intervals near the line *JO/I* or of the walls, but inside the dock area if the piercing of aot* waus- quicksand is anticipated, as in excavating for the foundations, these holes might give rise to the outflow, under pressure, of underlying quicksand into the foundations. As docks are generally formed near rivers or estuaries, these strata are commonly alluvial; but being situated at some depth below the surface, they are usually fairly hard. When they consist of gravel, clay or firm sand, the walls can be founded on the natural bottom excavated a few feet below the bottom of the dock, their weight being somewhat distributed by making them rest on a broad bed of concrete filling up the excava- tion at the bottom. When, however, fine sand or silt charged with water, or quicksand is met with at the required depth, the necessary pumping and excavation for the foundations might occasion the influx of sand or silt with the water into the excavations, leading to settlement and slips; or the soft stratum might be too thick to remove. The wall may then be founded on bearing piles driven down to a solid stratum, and having their tops joined together by walings and planking, or by a layer of concrete, upon which the wall is built. Or the soft stratum can be enclosed with a double row of sheet piling along the front and back of the line of wall, by which it sometimes becomes sufficiently confined and consolidated to sustain the weight of the wall on a broad foundation of concrete ; or it can be excavated without any danger of sand or silt running in from outside; whilst the sheet piling at the back relieves the wall to some extent from the pressure of the earth behind it, and in front retains the wall from sliding forwards. Firmer foundations have been obtained by sinking brick, concrete or masonry wells through soft ground to a solid stratum, upon which the dock wall is built. Clusters of small concrete cylinders, in sets of three in front, and a line of double cylinders at the back, were used for the foundations of the walls of Prince's dock at Glasgow. Wells of rubble masonry were sunk in the silty fore- shore of the Seine estuary for the walls of the Bellot docks at Havre ; and they served as piers, connected by arches, for the foundations of a continuous dock wall above, being carried down to a considerable depth through alluvium at the St Nazaire, Bordeaux and Rochefort docks. These well foundations, derived from the old Indian system, are built up upon a curb, sometimes furnished with a cutting edge underneath, and gradually sunk by excavating inside; and eventu- ally the central hollow is filled up solid with concrete or masonry. The walls round a dock serve as retaining walls to keep up the quays; and though they have the support of the water in front of them when the docks are in use, they have to sustain the full pressure of the filling at the back on the completion of the dock before the water is admitted. They have, accordingly, to be increased in thickness downwards to support the pressure increasing with the depth. This pressure, with perfectly dry material, would be represented by the weight of half the prism of walls. filling between the natural slope of the material behind and the back of the wall ; but the pressure is often increased by the accumulation of water at the back, which, with fine silty backing, is liable to exert a sort of fluid pressure against the wall proportionate to the density of the mixture of silt and water. The increase of thickness towards the base used formerly to be effected by a batter on the face, as well as by steps put at the back ; but the vertical form now given to the sides of large vessels necessitates a corresponding fairly vertical face for the wall, to prevent the upper part of the vessel being kept unduly away from the quay. Examples of the most modern types of dock walls are given in figs. 9 to 12. The height of a dock wall depends upon the depth of water always available for vessels, at tideless sea-ports and at ports removed from tidal influences, such as Man- chester, Bruges and the ports on the Rhine ; SCALE 400. FIG. 9. — Havre Bellot Dock Wall. this depth should not be less than 28 to 30 ft. for large sea-going vessels, together with a margin of 5 to 8 ft. above the normal water- level for the quays, and the foundations below. At tidal ports, however, an addition has to be made equal to the difference in height between the high- water levels of spring and neap tides; so that at ports with a large tidal range, such as the South Wales ports on the Severn estuary and Liverpool, specially high dock walls are necessary. Under normal conditions, a dock wall should 358 DOCK be given a width at a height half-way between dock-bottom and quay-level, equal to one-third of its height above dock-bottom, and a width of half this height at dock-bottom. Dock walls are constructed of masonry, brickwork or concrete, or of concrete with a facing of masonry or brickwork. Masonry is adopted where large stone quarries are readily accessible, in the form of rubble masonry with dressed stone on the face, as for instance at the Hull and Barry docks, and forms a very durable wall; but strong overhead staging carrying powerful gantries is necessary for laying large blocks. Brickwork has been often used where bricks are the ordinary building material of the district or can be made on the works, and requires only ordinary scaffolding; and harder or pressed bricks are employed for the facework. Concrete is very commonly resorted to now where sand and stones are readily procured; and where clean, sharp sand and gravel are found in thick layers in the excavations for a dock, as in the alluvial strata bordering the Thames, dock walls can ^e constructed cheaply and economically with concrete deposited within timber framing, dispensing with regular scaffolding and skilled FIG. 10. _ Liverpool Dock Wall. labour. Such walls require to be given a facing of stronger con- crete, or of blue bricks, as at Tilbury, to guard against abrasion by vessels, chains and ropes; and dock walls are commonly pro- vided at the top with granite or other hard stone coping where the wear is greatest. The foundations for dock walls are excavated in a trench below dock- bottom, only lined . ...-^_ - with timbering where the faces of the T'"mt - v'llJr* trench cannot stand for a short time • •IVr*^" without support, and with sheet piling ' ' through very unstable silt or sand ; and the trench is conveniently filled up solid withconcrete.carriedoutinshortlengths in untrustworthy ground. To reduce the amount of filling behind the wall.the excavation at the back above dock- bottom, preparatory for the trench, is given as steep a slope as practicable, __^_ supported sometimes towards the base '-' >~ , ,'. • '|T^ by timbering and struts ; but occasion- f y^- aa-° •*-* ?^ ally the walj is built within a timbered -== r«-r. • ' '. • • 'i'f-r- trench carried down to the required depth, before the excavation for the dock in front of it has been executed, as effected at Tilbury. The filling at the back is thus reduced to a minimum, and the lower portion of the excavation can be accomplished by dredging, if expedi- ent, after the admission of the water, the dock wall in this way being exposed to the least possible pressure behind. The walls of open basins are often constructed out of water precisely like dock walls, as in the case of the basins forming the Manchester, Bruges and Glasgow docks; and basin walls open to the tide, as at Glasgow and in the tidal basin outside Tilbury docks (fig. 7), differ only from dock walls in being exposed to variations in the pressure at the back resulting from the lowering of the water-level in front, which is, indeed, shared to some extent by the walls round closed docks where the difference in the high- water levels of springs and neaps is considerable. The walls, however, round basins in tideless seas, such as Jiilf^?! Marseilles, occasionally those inside ^harbours, and especially quay walls ..along rivers and round open basins ^alongside rivers, have to be constructed ^" 'under water. At Marseilles, the simple expedient was long ago adopted of constructing the quay walls lining the basins formed in the sea, by depositing tiers of large concrete blocks on a rubble foundation, one on top of the other, till they SCALE FIG. ii. — Tilbury Basin Wall. ' LIAS SHALE. SCALE 400. FIG. 12. — Barry Dock Wall. reached sea-level, and then building a solid masonry quay wall _ . . out of water on the top up to quay-level, faced with ashlar art ^' !3)> the wall being backed by rubble for some distance behind up to the water-level. The same system was em- ployed for the quay walls at Trieste, and at Genoa and other Italian ports. A quay wall inside Marmagao har- bour, on the west coast of India, was erected on a founda- tion layer of rubble by the sloping-block system, to provide against unequal settlement on the soft bottom (see BREAK- WATER). The quay walls alongside the river Liffey, and round the quay walls founded under water. adjacent basins below Dublin, were erected under water by building rubble-concrete blocks of 360 tons on staging carried out into the water, from which they were lifted one by one by a powerful floating derrick, which conveyed the block to the site, and deposited it on a levelled bottom at low tide in a depth of 28 ft., raising the wall a little above low water. After a row of these blocks had been laid, and connected together by filling the grooves formed at the sides and the interstices between the blocks with concrete, a continuous masonry wall faced with ashlar was built on the top out of water. A quay wall was built up to a little above low water on SCALE FIG. 13. — Marseilles Quay Wall. a similar principle at Cork, with three smaller blocks as a founda- tion, in lengths of 8 ft. Cylindrical well foundations have been extensively used for the foundations of the quay walls along the Clyde, formerly made of brick, but subsequently of concrete, sunk through a considerable variety of alluvial strata, but mostly sand and gravel fully charged with water. Compressed air in bottomless caissons has been increas- ingly employed in recent years for carrying down the subaqueous founda- tions of river quay walls, through allu- vial deposits, to a solid stratum. About 1880, a long line of river quays - was commenced in '~ front of Antwerp, extending in the central portion a considerable dis- tance out into the Scheldt, with the object of regulating the width of the river simultaneously 5CAUE 4OO« of deS%ryVsSf°onr F^ ^-Antwerp Quay Wall, founded by sea-going vessels; compressed air. and the quay wall was erected, out of water, on the flat tops of a series of wrought-iron caissons, 82 ft. long and 2f)\ ft. wide, con- structed on shore, floated out one by one to their site in the river between two barges, and gradually lowered as the wall was built up inside a plate-iron enclosure round the roof of the caisson, which was eventually sunk by aid of compressed air through the bed of the river to a compact stratum (fig. 14). The weight of the wall counteracted the ten- dency of the caisson and the enclosure above it to float; and the caisson, furnished with seven circular wrought - iron shafts, provided with air-locks at the top for the ad- mission of men and materials and for the removal of the excava- tions, was gradually SCALE aoo. FIG. 15. — Caracciolo Jetty Quay Genoa. Wall, was carried down by ex- cavating inside the working chamber at the bottom, d\ ft. high, till a good foundation was reached. The working chamber was then filled with concrete through some of the shafts, the plate-iron sides of the upper enclosure were removed to be used for another length of wall, the shafts were drawn out and the hollows left by them filled with concrete, the apertures between adjacent lengths were closed at each face with wooden panels and filled with concrete, and a continuous quay wall was completed above. The most recent quay walls constructed in the old harbour DOCK 359 at Genoa were founded under water on a rubble mound in a similar manner by the aid of compressed air (fig. 15). Quay walls also on the Clyde have been founded on caissons, consisting of a bottom- less steel structure, surmounted by a brick superstructure having hollows filled with concrete, in lengths of 80 ft. and 27 ft., and widths of 1 8 ft. and 21 ft. respectively, carried down by means of compressed air from 54 to 70 ft. below quay-level, on the top of which a continuous wall of concrete, faced with brickwork, d having a granite coping, was built up from near low -water level (fig. 1 6). In many cases where soft strata extend to considerable depths, river quays and basin walls have been constructed by building a light quay wall upon a series of bearing and raking piles driven into, and SCALE FIG. 16. — Glasgow River Quay Wall. the walls along the Seine, and round the basins at Rouen, were built upon bearing piles carried down through the alluvial bed of the river to the chalk. The lower portion of the quay wall was constructed of concrete faced with brickwork within water-tight timber caissons, resting upon the piles at a depth of 9! ft. below low water; and upon this a rubble wall faced with bricks was erected from low water to quay-level, backed by rubble stone laid on a timber flooring sup- ported by piles, together with chalk, to form a quay right back to the top of the slope of the bank of the deepened river (fig. 17). The quay walls of the open basins bord e r i n g the Hudson river at New York have had, in cer- tain parts, to be founded on bearing piles com- bined with raking piles, driven into a thick bed of soft silt where no firm stratum could be reached, and where, therefore, the weight could only be borne by the adherence of the long piles in the silt. Before driving the piles, however, the silt round the upper part of the piles and under the quay wall was consoli- dated by depositing small stones in a trench dredged to a depth of 30 ft. below low water; the piles were driven through these stones, and were further kept in place by a long toe of rubble stone in front and a backing of rubble stone behind carried nearly up to quay-level, behind which a light filling of ashes and earth was raised to quay-level. The slight quay wall resting upon the front rows of bearing piles was carried up under water by 7O-ton concrete blocks deposited by means of a floating derrick; and the upper part of the wall was built of concrete faced with ashlar masonry (fig. 18). The basin and quay walls at Bremen, Bremerhaven and Hamburg were built on a series of bearing and raking piles driven down to a firm stratum, the wall being begun a few feet below low water. At Southampton, ferro-concrete piles were employed in constructing the deep quays; and a wharfing of timber pilewqrk has been frequently used for river quays. Where the increase of trade is moderate and the conditions of the traffic permit, and also at coal-shipping ports, economy in construc- tion is obtained by giving sloping sides to a portion of a dock in place of dock walls, the slope being pitched where necessary with stone; and the length of the slope projecting into a dock is sometimes reduced by substituting sheet piling for the slope at the toe up to a certain height. By this arrangement jetties can be carried out across the slope_as required, enabling vessels to lie against their ends; and coal-tips are very conveniently extended out across the slope at suitable intervals (fig. 8). As dock walls, especially before the admission of water into the dock, constitute high retaining walls, not infrequently founded upon soft or slippery strata, and backed up with the excavated materials Failures f 'rom a"uvial beds, into which water is liable to percolate, dock wall* tney are natura"y exposed under unfavourable conditions to the danger of failure. A dock wall erected on un- satisfactory foundations is liable, where the bottom is soft, to FIG. 17. — Rouen Quay Wall. settle down at its toe, owing to the pressure at the back, and to fall forwards into the dock, as occurred at Belfast; or where the silty bottom slips forward under the weight of the backing, the wall may follow the slip at the bottom and settle down at the back, falling to some extent backwards, as exemplified by the failure of the Empress basin wall at Southampton. The most common form, however, of failure is the sliding forwards of a dock wall, with little or no subsidence, on a silty or slippery stratum under the pressure imposed by the backing. Thus the Kidderpur dock walls furnish an instance of sliding forwards on muddy silt, and part of the South West India dock walls on two underlying, detached, slippery seams of London clay. To avoid these failures with untrustworthy foundations, great care has to be exercised in selecting the best hard material available, unaffected by water, for the backing, which should be brought up in thin, horizontal layers carefully consolidated; and where there is a possibility of water accumulating at the back, pipes should be introduced at intervals near the bottom right through the wall in building it, and rubble stone deposited close to the back of the wall, so as to carry off any water from behind, these pipes being stopped up just before the water is let into the dock. These precautions, more- over, are assisted by reducing the amount of backing to a minimum in the construction of the wall, best effected by building the wall inside a timbered trench. The liability to slide forwards can be obviated by carrying down the foundations of the wall sufficiently below dock-bottom to provide an efficient buttress of earth in front of the wall, and also by making the base of the wall slope down SCALE lls' pied foreshores of an estuary, as adopted for extensions of the ports of Liverpool, Hull and Havre. At ports on the sea-coast of tideless seas, it is only necessary to extend the outlying break- water parallel to the shore line, and form additional basins under its shelter, as at Marseilles (fig. 5) and Genoa (see HARBOUR). Quays also along rivers furnish very valuable opportunities of readily extending the accommodation of ports. Ports, however, established inland like Manchester, though extremely serviceable in converting an inland city into a seaport, are at the disadvantage of having to acquire very valuable land for any extensions that may be required ; but, nevertheless, some compensation is afforded by the complete shelter in which the extensions can be carried out, when compared with Liverpool, where the additions to the docks can only be effected by troublesome reclamation works along the foreshore to the north, in increasingly exposed situations. Dock Entrances and Locks. — The size of vessels which a port can admit depends upon the depth and width of the entrance to the docks; for, though the access of vessels is also governed by the depth of the approach channel, this channel is often capable of being further deepened to some extent by dredging; whereas the entrance, formed of solid masonry or concrete, cannot be adapted, except by troublesome and costly works sometimes amounting to reconstruction, to the increasing dimensions of vessels. Accordingly, in designing new dock works with entrances and locks, it is essential to look forward to the possible future requirements of vessels. The necessity for such forethought is illustrated by the rapid increase which has taken place in the size of the largest ocean liners. Thus the " City of Rome," launched in 1881, is 560 ft. long, and 52 } ft. beam, and has a maximum recorded draught of 27^ ft. ; the " Campania " and " Lucania," in 1893, measure 600 ft. by 65 ft. ; the " Oceanic," in 1899, 685^ ft. by 68} ft., with a maximum draught of 31 J ft; the " Baltic," in 1903, 709 ft. by 75 ft., with a maximum draught of 3iJ ft.; and the " Lusitania " and " Mauretania," launched in 1906, 787 J ft. by 88 ft. The width and depth of access to docks are of more importance than the length of locks; for docks which are reached through entrances with a single pair of gates have to admit Dlmea. vessels towards high water when the water-level in the sioas of dock is the same as in the approach channel, or through entrance* a half-tide basin drawn down to the level of the water andlock*- outside, and are therefore accessible to vessels of any length, provided the width of the entrance and depth over the sill are adequate; whilst at docks which are entered through locks, vessels which are longer than the available length of the lock can get in at high water when both pairs of gates of the lock are open. Open basins are generally given an ample width of entrance, and river quays also are always accessible to the longest and broadest vessels; but in a tidal river the available depth has to be reckoned from the lowest low water of spring tides, instead of from the lowest high water of neap tides, if the vessels in the open basins and alongside the river quays have to be always afloat. Many years ago the Canada lock at Liverpool, the outer North lock at Birkenhead, the Ramsden lock and entrance at Barrow- in-Furness, and the Eure entrance at Havre, were given a width of 100 ft. Probably this was done with the view of admitting paddle steamers, since subsequent entrances at Liverpool were given widths of 80 and 65 ft.; whereas none of the locks in the port of London has been made wider than 80 ft., which has been the standard maximum width since the completion of the Victoria dock in 1866. The widest locks at Cardiff are 80 ft., and tHe entrance to the Barry docks is the same; but the lock of the Alexandra dock, Hull, opened in 1885, was made 85 ft. wide. At Liverpool, where the access to the docks is mainly through entrances, on account of the small width between the river and the high ground rising at the back, and where ample provision has to be made for the largest Atlantic liners, though the entrances to the Langton dock, completed in 1881, leading to the latest docks at the northern end were made 65 ft. wide, with their sills 3 ft. below low water of spring tides and 2oJ ft. below high water of the lowest neap tides, the two new entrances to the deepened Brunswick dock near the southern end, giving access to the adjacent reconstructed docks, completed in 1906, were made 80 and loo ft. wide, with sills 28 ft. below high water of the lowest neap tides. Moreover, the three new entrances to the new Sandon half- tide dock, completed in 1906, communicating( with the reconstructed line of docks to the south of the Canada'basin, and with the latest northern extensions of the Liverpool docks, were made 40 ft. wide with a depth over the sill of 24^ ft., and 80 and 100 ft. wide on each end of the central entrance, with sills 29 ft. below high water of the lowest neap tides, each entrance being provided with two pairs of gates, in case of any accident occur- ring to one pair, according to the regular custom at Liverpool. Powers were also obtained in 1906 for the construction of a half- tide dock and two branch docks to the north of the Hornby dock, which are to be reached from the river by two entrances designed to be 130 ft. wide, with sills 38^ ft. below high water of the lowest neap tides, so as to meet fully the assumed future increase in the beam and draught of the largest vessels; whilst the authorized extension of the river wall northwards will enable additional docks to be constructed in communication with these entrances when required. Though, with the exception of Southampton and Dover, other British ports do not aim, like Liverpool, at accommodating the largest Atlantic liners at all times, the depths of the sills at the principal ports have been increased in the most recent extensions. Thus at the port of London the sills of the first lock of the Albert dock were 265 ft. below high water of neap tides, and of the second lock adjoining, 325 ft. deep; whilst the sills of the lock of the Tilbury docks are 405 ft. below high water of neap tides. Moreover, in spite of the great range of tide at the South Wales ports on the Severn estuary, the available depth at high water of neap tides of 23 ft. at the Roath lock, Cardiff, was increased DOCK 361 in the lock of the new dock to 31^ ft.; the depth at the entrance to the Barry docks, opened in 1889, was 29! ft., but at the lock opened in 1896 was made 41 £ ft.; whilst a depth of 34 ft. has been proposed for the new lock of the Alexandra dock extension at Newport, nearly 10 ft. deeper than the existing lock sills there. Similar improvements in depth have also been made or designed at other ports to provide for the increasing draught of vessels. The length of locks has also been increased, from 550 ft. at the Albert dock, to 700 ft. at Tilbury in the port of London, from 300 ft. to 550 ft. at Hull, and from 350 ft. to 660 ft. at Cardiff. The lock at the Barry docks is 647 ft. long, though only 65 ft. wide. A lock constructed in connexion with the improvement works at Havre, carried out in 1896-1907, was given an available length of 805 ft. and a width of 98! ft., with a depth over the sills of 34$ ft. at high water of neap tides. Entrances with a single pair of gates, closing against a raised sill at the bottom and meeting in the centre, have to be made long 1 i -THHHKKHHHlfHKKKHHHl 1 SCALE 400. FIG. 19. — Barry Docks, Entrance. enough to provide a recess in each side wall at the back to receive the gates when they are opened, and to form a buttress in front on each side to bear the thrust of the gates when closed a" *CCS aSamst a head of water inside. A masonry floor is laid on the bottom in continuation of the sill, serving as an apron against erosion by water leaking between or under the gates, and by the current through the sluiceways in the gates, when opened for scouring the entrance channel or to assist in lowering the water in a half-tide dock for opening the gates (fig. 19). A sluice- way in each side wall, closed by a vertical sluice-gate, generally provided in duplicate in case of accidents and worked by a machine actuated by hydraulic pressure, enables the half-tide basin to be brought down to the level of the approach channel outside with a rising tide, so that vessels may be brought into or passed out of the basin towards high water. The advantages of these entrances are, that they occupy comparatively little room where the space is limited, and are much less costly than locks; whilst in conjunction with a half-tide basin they serve the same purpose as a lock with a rising tide. Vessels also pass more readily through the short entrances than through locks; and as entrances are only used towards high water, their sills need not be placed so low as the outer sills of locks to accommodate vessels of large draught. On the other hand, they are accessible for a more limited period at each tide than locks; and they do not allow of the exclusion of silt-bearing tidal water, and therefore necessitate a greater amount of dredging in the docks, and especially in half-tide basins, for maintenance. Entrances, however, at large ports are frequently supplemented by the addition of a lock at some convenient site, rendering the ports accessible for the smaller class of vessels for some time before and after high water, as for instance at Liverpool, Barry, Havre and St Nazaire. A small basin with an entrance at each end — an arrangement often adopted — is in reality, for all practical purposes, a lock with a very large lock-chamber. An entrance or passage with gates has also to be provided at the inner end of a large half-tide basin like the basins adopted at Liverpool, to shut off the half-tide basin from the docks to which it gives access, and maintain their water-level when the water is drawn down in the basin to admit vessels before high tide. Reverse gates pointing outwards are sometimes added in passage; to docks and at entrances, to render the water-level in one set of docks independent of adjacent docks, to exclude silty tidal water and very high tides, and also to protect the gates of outer entrances in exposed situations from swell, which might force them open slightly and lead to a damaging shock on their closing again. Locks differ from entrances in having a pair of gates with ar- rangements similar to an entrance at each end, separated from one another by a lock-chamber, which should be large enough to receive the longest and broadest vessel coming regularly ~L to the port. These dock locks are similar in principle to locks on canals and canalized rivers, but are on a much larger scale. The lock-chamber has its water raised or lowered in proportion to the difference in level between the water-level in the dock and the water in the entrance channel, by passing water, when the gates are closed at both ends, from the dock into the lock-chamber or from the lock-chamber into the entrance channel, through large sluiceways in the side walls, controlled, as at entrances, by vertical sluice-gates. In this way the vessel is raised or lowered in the chamber, till, when a level has been reached, the intervening pair of gates is opened and the vessel is passed into the dock or out to the channel. Gener- ally the upper and lower sills of a lock are at the same level, a foot or two higher than dock-bottom; and the depth at which they are laid is governed by the same considerations as the sill of an entrance. Vessels longer than the available length between the two pairs of gates can be admitted close to high water, when the water in the dock and outside is at the same level, and both pairs of gates can be opened. When the range of tide at a port is large, and the depth in the approach channel is sufficient to allow vessels to come up or go out some time before and after high water, and also where the water in the dock is kept up to a high level from an inland source to exclude very silty tidal water, it is expedient to reduce the cost of construc- tion by limiting the depth of the excavations for the dock, and consequently also the height of the dock walls, to what is necessary to provide a sufficient depth of water below high water of the lowest neap tides, or below the water-level to which the water in the dock is always maintained, for the vessels of largest draught frequenting the port, or those which may be reasonably expected in the near future. The upper sill of the lock is then determined by the level of dock- bottom ; but the lower sill is taken down approximately to the depth of the bottom of the approach channel, or to the depth to which it can be carried by dredging, so as to enable the lock to admit or let out at any time all vessels which can navigate the approach channel. Thus, for instance, the outer and intermediate sills of the lock at the Barry docks are 9 ft. lower then the upper sill. The foundations for the sill and side walls at each end of a lock, and also for the side walls and invert commonly enclosing the lock- chamber at the sides and bottom, are generally constructed simul- taneously with the dock works, under shelter of a cofferdam across the entrance channel, and in the excavations kept dry by means of pumps. The foundations under the sills and adjacent side walls are carried down to a lower level than the rest, and if possible to a water- tight stratum, to prevent infiltration of water under them owing to the water-pressure on the upper side of the gates; or sometimes one or two rows of sheet piling have been driven across the lock under the sills to an impermeable stratum, to stop any flow. The foundations for the sills consist usually of concrete deposited in a trench extended out under the adjoining side walls. The sill, projecting generally about 2 ft. above the adjacent gate floor over which the gates turn, is built of granite ; and the same material is also used for the hollow quoins in which the heelpost, or pivot, of the dock gates turns, and which, together with the sills, are exposed to considerable wear. The side walls of the lock-chamber are very similar in construction to the dock walls; but they are strengthened against the loss of water-pressure in front of them when the water is lowered in the chamber by an inverted arch of masonry, brickwork or concrete, termed an " invert," laid across the bottom of the chamber along its whole length, against which the toe of each side wall abuts and effectually prevents any forward movement. The side walls also, alongside the gates at each end, abut against a thick level gate floor and apron, and, moreover, are considerably widened to provide space for the sluiceways and gate machinery. The new Florida lock (fig. 20), forming the main entrance through the new approach harbour and tidal harbour to the Eure dock and other docks of the port of Havre, is the largest lock hitherto con- structed. It has an available length of chamber between the gates of 805 ft., a width of 98! ft., and depths over the sills of 15! Ft. at the lowest low water of spring tides, 23^ ft. at low water of neap tides, 35 ft. at high water of neap tides, and 40^ ft. at high water of spring tides. Owing to the alluvial stratum at the site of the lock close to the Seine estuary, of which it doubtless at one time formed part, the foundations for the sill and side walls or heads at each end of the lock were executed by aid of compressed air. The foundations for these heads were carried down to an impermeable stratum by means of two bottomless caissons, filled eventually with concrete, 213$ ft. 362 DOCK long across the lock and 105 ft. wide in the line of the lock at the upper eno, and 2o6J ft. long and I i6J ft. wide at the lower end, to a depth of 18 ft. below the sill at the upper end, and 41 ft. at the lower end, owing to the dip down seawards and southward of the water-tight stratum. These caissons were provided for their sinkage with temporary dams of masonry closing the opening of the lock at the extremities of each caisson, enabling the gates to be subsequently erected under their shelter. The junctions between the foundations the side walls, 6yJ ft. apart, and provide for the filling and emptying of the chamber. The gates closing the entrances and locks at docks are made of wood or of iron. In iron gates, the heelpost, or a vertical closing strip attached to the outer side of the gate close to the heelpost, the meeting-post at the end of each gate closing against each other when the gates are shut, and the sill piece fitting against the sill are generally made of wood. Wooden gates consist of D t Longitudinal Section, Lower End. Cross Section on AB. Longitudinal Section, Upper End. IL TT JL T JL —— ===.-±^--±'i r±= ==±*!=^J-*=-!a=l=^-=-±?S= — -. -kJ- 3oo FZ FIG. 20. — Florida Lock, Havre Docks, Sections and Plan. of the heads and the adjacent foundations were effected by small movable caissons carried down in recesses provided in the buried caissons. The connexions with the adjacent quay walls were ac- complished by two supplementary side caissons at the end of each head ; and the north side wall of the lock was founded by means of seven bottomless caissons sunk by aid of compressed air, on account of the proximity of the tidal harbour on that side. The south side wall was founded for a length of about 200 ft. at its western end in an excavated trench kept dry by pumping; but the greater portion a series of horizontal framed beams, made thicker and put closer to- gether towards the bottom to resist the water-pressure increasing with the depth, fastened to the heelpost and meeting-post at the two ends and to intermediate uprights, and supporting water-tight planking on the inner face (fig. 21). Iron gates have generally an outer as well as an inner skin of iron plates braced vertically and horizontally by plate- iron ribs, the horizontal ribs being placed nearer together and the plates made thicker towards the bottom (figs. 22 and 23). Green- heart is the wood used fjr gates exposed to salt water, as it resists the attack of the teredo in temperate climates. As cellular iron gates are made water-tight, and have to be ballasted with enough water to prevent their flotation, or are provided with air chambers below and are left open to the rising tide on the outer side above, the gates are light in the water and are easily moved; whereas greenheart gates with their fastenings are considerably heavier than water, so that a considerable weight has to be moved when the water is somewhat low in the dock and the gates therefore only partially immersed. On the other hand, wooden gates are less liable than iron gates to be seriously damaged if run into by a vessel. Dock gates are sometimes made straight, closing against a straight sill (figs. 20 and 23) ; and occasionally they are made segmental with the inner faces forming a continuous circular arc and closing against a sill corresponding to the outer curves of the gates (fig. 22), or by means of a projecting sill piece against a straight sill (fig. 21). More frequently the gates, curved on both faces, meet at an angle SCALE F7.10 5 O I I I I I I I I I I I 50F.T FIG. 21. — Wooden Dock Gate. FIG. 22. — Iron Segmental Dock Gate. was founded in a dredged trench in which bearing piles were driven under water, on which the masonry was built in successive layers, about 3J ft. thick, in a movable caisson 93! ft. long and 37 j ft. wide; whilst a bottomless caisson, left in the work, was^ employed for founding about 100 ft. of wall at the eastern end. The bed of con- crete also, 10 ft. thick, forming the floor of the chamber, was_ carried out for 82 ft. at the western end in the open air, and the remainder in the same movable caisson as used for the south wall. Two sluiceways on each side running the whole length of the lock, differing^ 6J ft. in level, communicate with the lock-chamber through openings in forming a Gothic arch in plan, and close by aid of a projecting piece against a straight sill, which in the Barry entrance gates is modified by making the outer faces nearly straight (fig. 19), giving an unusual width to the centre of the gates. The pressures produced by a head of water against these gates when closed depends not only on the form of the gates, but also upon the projection given to the angle of the sill in proportion to the width of the lock, which is known as the rise, and is generally placed at a distance along the centre line of the lock, from a line joining the centres of the heel-posts, of about one-fourth the width. With straight gates, the stresses consist, first of a transverse stress due to the water-pressure against the gate, which increases with the head of water and length of the gate; and secondly, of a compressive stress along the gate, resulting from the pressure of the other gate against its meeting-post, which is equal to half the water-pressure on the gate multiplied by the tangent of half the angle between the closed gates, varying inversely with the rise. Though an increase in the rise reduces this stress, it increases the length of the gate and the trans- verse stress, and also the length of the lock. By curving the gates FIG. 23.— Straight Iron Dock Gate. DOCK 363 suitably, the transverse stress is reduced and the longitudinal com- pressive stress is augmented, till at last, when the gates form a horizontal segmental arch, the stresses become wholly compressive and uniform in each horizontal section, increasing with the depth; LW.o.51; SCALE 200. FlG. 24. — Sliding Caisson. FlG. 25. — Ship Caisson. B B and the total stress is equal to the pressure on a unit of surface multiplied by the radius of curvature. Though the water-pressure is most uniformly and economically borne by cylindrical gates, they are longer, and encroach more upon the lines of quay with their curved recesses than straighter gates; and, consequently, Gothic- arched gates are often preferred. Straight gates afford the greatest simpli- city in construction. Gates in wide entrances or locks are generally sup- ported towards their outer end by a roller running along a cast- iron roller-path on the gate floor (figs. 19, 21 and 22), as well as by the heel- post, fitted over a steel pivot at the j Zeebrugge lock, at the entrance to the Bruges ship canal, are drawn across the lock or into their chamber by electricity in two minutes. A caisson is specially useful in cases where there may be a head of water on either side, as then it takes the place of two pairs of gates pointing in opposite directions, or for closing an entrance against a current. A caisson, however, requires a much larger amount of material than a pair of dock gates, and a considerable width on one side for its chamber, so that under ordinary conditions gates are generally used at docks. A ship caisson, so called from its presenting some resemblance in section to the hull of a vessel, occupies too much time in being towed, floated into position, and sunk into grooves at the bottom and sides of an entrance for closing it, and then refloated and towed away for opening the entrance again, to be used at entrances and locks to docks (fig. 25). Being, however, simple in construction, taking up little space, and requiring no chamber or machinery for moving it, this form of caisson is generally used for closing the entrance to a graving dock, where it remains for several days in place during the execution of repairs to a vessel in the dock. A ship caisson only requires the admission of sufficient water to sink it when in position across the entrance to a graving dock; and this water has to be pumped put before it can be floated, and removed to some vacant position in the neighbouring dock till it is again required. Like a sliding or rolling caisson, it prov'.des a bridge for crossing over the entrance of the graving dock when in position. Graving Docks. — Provision has to be made at ports for the repairs of vessels frequenting them. The simplest arrangement is a timber gridiron, on which a vessel settles with a falling tide, and can then be inspected and slightly cleaned and repaired till the tide floats it again. Inclined slipways are sometimes provided, up which a vessel resting in a cradle on wheels can be drawn out of the water; and they are also used for shipbuilding, the vessel when ready for launching being allowed to slide down them into the water. Graving or dry docks, however, opening out of a dock, are the usual means provided for enabling the cleaning and repairs of vessels to be carried out. A graving dock consists of an enclosure, surrounded by side walls stepped on the face, and paved at the bottom with a thick floor SCALE 2.000. FIG. 26. — Plan of Southampton Graving Dock. bottom, and tied back against the hollow quoins at the top by anchor straps and bolts, on which the gate turns. In some cases, by placing the water ballast in iron gates close to the heelpost, a roller has been dispensed with, even, for instance, at the wide entrance at Havre (fig. 23). The gates are opened and closed, either by an opening and a closing chain for each gate, fastened on either side and worked from opposite side walls by hydraulic power, or by a single hydraulic piston or bar hinged to the inner side of each gate (figs. 19 and 20). The latter system has the advantages of being simpler and occupying less space in the side walls, of avoiding the slight loss of available depth over the sill due to the two closing chains crossing on the sill when the gates are open, and especially of keeping the gates closed against a swell in exposed sites. ' A sliding or rolling caisson is occasionally placed across ' each end of a lock in place of a pair of dock gates, being Caissons drawn back into a recess at the side for opening tor docks. tne '°ck. As a caisson chamber has to be covered over to provide a continuous quay or roadway on the top, a lowering platform is supplied to enable the caisson to pass under the small girders spanning the top of the chamber, or the caisson is sunk down sufficiently (fig. 24). The caisson is furnished with an air chamber to give it flotation, which is adjusted by ballast according to the depth of water. The advantages of a caisson, as compared with a pair of gates, are that the gate recesses, gate floor, hollow quoins and arrangements for working in the side walls are dispensed with, so that the lock can be made shorter, and the work at each head is rendered less complicated. The caisson itself also serves as a very strong movable bridge, and therefore is often preferred at dockyards to dock gates. By improvements in the hauling machinery, a caisson can open or close a lock as quickly as dock gates; the caissons at sloping slightly down from the centre to drains along the sides, long enough to receive the longest vessel likely to come to the port. Its entrance, at the end adjoining the dock, is just wide enough to admit the vessel of greatest beam, and deep enough over the sill to receive the vessel of greatest draught, when light, at the lowest water-level of the dock (figs. 26 and 27). Graving docks are constructed of ft I25..0 i n S0 *•%_ ^ l«^-f SCALE eoo. FIG. 27. — Cross Section of Southampton Graving Dock. masonry, brickwork or concrete, or formerly in America of timber; they should be founded on a solid impervious stratum, or, where that is impracticable, they should be built upon bearing piles and enclosed within sheet piling, to prevent settlement and the infiltra- tion of water under pressure below the dock. Keel blocks are laid along the centre line of the dock, for the keel of the vessel to rest on when the water is pumped out; and the vessel is further supported on each side by timber shores supported on the steps or " altars " of the side walls, which are lined with granite or other hard stone, or DOCKET— DOCKYARDS blue bricks, or, when constructed of concrete, with a facing of stronger concrete, to enable these altars to withstand the wear and shocks to which they are subjected. Steps and slides are provided at con- venient places at the sides to give access for men and materials to the bottom of the dock; and culverts and drains lead the water to pumps for removing the water from the dock when the entrance has been closed, and to keep it dry whilst a vessel is under repair. Culverts in the side walls of the entrance enable water to be admitted for filling the dock to let the vessel out. Graving docks are generally closed by ship caissons; but where they open direct on to a tidal river, and there is some exposure, gates are adopted, or sometimes sliding caissons. The dimensions of graving docks vary considerably with the nature of the trade and the date of construction; and sometimes an intermediate entrance is provided to accommodate two smaller .vessels. The sizes of some of the largest graving docks are as follows : Liverpool, Canada dock, 9255 ft. long, QSe/ca, twelve, and tdpa, a face or base) , in geometry, a solid enclosed by twelve plane faces. The " ordinary dodecahedron " is one of the Platonic solids (see POLYHEDRON) . The Greeks discovered that if a line be divided in extreme and mean proportion, then the whole line and the greater segment are the lengths of the edge of a cube and dodecahedron inscriptible in the same sphere. The '' small stellated dode- cahedron," the " great dodecahedron " and the " great stellated dodecahedron " are Kepler-Poinsot solids; and the " truncated " and " snub dodecahedra " are Archimedean solids (see POLY- HEDRON). In crystallography, the regular or ordinary dode- cahedron is an impossible form since the faces cut the axes in irrational ratios; the " pentagonal dodecahedron " of crystal- lographers has irregular pentagons for faces, while the geometrical solid, on the other hand, has regular ones. The " rhombic dodecahedron," one of the geometrical semiregular solids, is an important crystal form. Many other dodecahedra exist as crystal forms, for which see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. DODECASTYLE (Gr. 5oo5eca, twelve, and orDXos, column), the architectural term given to a temple where the portico has twelve columns in front, as in the portico added to the temple of Demeter at Eleusis, designed by Philo, the architect of the arsenal at the Peiraeus. DODERLEIN, JOHANN CHRISTOPH WILHELM LUDWIG (1791-1863), German philologist, was born at Jena on the igth of December 1791. His father, Johann Christoph Doderlein, professor of theology at Jena, was celebrated for his varied learning, for his eloquence as a preacher, and for the import- ant influence he exerted in guiding the transition movement from strict orthodoxy to a freer theology. Ludwig Doderlein, after receiving his preliminary education at Windsheim and Schulpforta (Pforta), studied at Munich, Heidelberg, Erlangen and B erlin. He devoted his chief attention to philology under the instruction of such men as F. Thiersch, G. F. Creuzer, J. H. Voss, F. A. Wolf, August Bockh and P. K. Buttmann. In 1815, soon after completing his studies at Berlin, he accepted the appoint- ment of ordinary professor of philology in the academy of Bern. In 1819 he was transferred to Erlangen, where he became second professor of philology in the university and rector of the gymnasium. In 1827 he became first professor of philology and rhetoric and director of the philological seminary. He died on the gth of November 1 863. Doderlein's most elaborate workasa philologist was marred by over-subtlety, and lacked method and clearness. He is best known by his Lateinische Synonymen und Etymologien (1826-1838), and his Homerisches Glossarium (1850-1858). To the same class belong his Lateinische Wort- bildung (1838), Handbuch der lateinischen Synonymik (1839), and the Handbuch der lateinischen Etymologic (1841), besides various works of a more elementary kind intended for the use of schools and gymnasia. Most of the works named have been translated into English. To critical philology Doderlein con- tributed valuable editions of Tacitus (Opera, 1847; Germania, with a German translation) and Horace (Epistolae, with a German translation, 1856-1858; Satirae, 1860). His Reden und Aufsiilze (Erlangen, 1843-1847) and Offentliche Reden (1860) consist chiefly of academic addresses dealing with various subjects in paedagogy and philology. DODGE, THEODORE AYRAULT (1842-1909), American soldier and military writer, was born at Pittsfield, Massachusetts, on the 28th of May 1842. He received a military education in Germany and subsequently studied at Heidelberg and London University, returning to the United States in 1861. At the out- break of the Civil War he at once enlisted in the federal army, and he soon rose to commissioned rank. He served in the Army of the Potomac until Gettysburg, where he lost a leg. Incapacitated for further active service, he continued to be employed in admini- strative posts to the end of the war, and for several years there- after he served at army headquarters, becoming captain in 1866 and brevet lieutenant-colonel in 1867. He retired in 1870. His works include The Campaign of Chancellor sville (1881), A Bird's Eye View of our Civil War (1882, later edition 1897), a complete, accurate and remarkably concise account of the whole war, Patroclusand Penelope, aChatinthe Saddle (1883), Great Captains (1886), a series of lectures, Riders of Many Lands (1893), and a series of large illustrated volumes entitled A History of the A rt of War, being livesof " Great Captains, " including Alexander ( 2 vols. , 1888), Hannibal (2 vols., 1889), Caesar (2 vols., 1892), Gustavus Adolphus (2 vols., 1896) and Napoleon (4 vols., 1904-1907). He died in France, at Versailles, on the 26th of October 1909. DODGSON, CHARLES LUTWIDGE ["LEWIS CARROLL"] (1832-1898), English mathematician and author, son of the Rev. Charles Dodgson, vicar of Daresbury, Cheshire, was born in that village on the 27th of January 1832. The literary life of " Lewis Carroll " became familiar to a wide circle of readers, but the private life of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson was retired and practic- ally uneventful. After four years' schooling at Rugby, Dodgson matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford, in May 1850; and from 1852 till 1870 held a studentship there. He took a first class in the final mathematical school in 1854, and the following year was appointed mathematical lecturer at Christ Church, a post he continued to fill till 1881. In 1861 he was ordained deacon, but he never took priest's orders, possibly because of a stammer which prevented reading aloud. His earliest publications, beginning with A Syllabus of Plane Algebraical Geometry (1860) and The Formulae of Plane Trigonometry (1861), were exclusively mathe- matical; but late in the year 1865 he published, under the pseudonym of " Lewis Carroll," Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, a work that was the outcome of his keen sympathy with the imagination of children and their sense of fun. Its success was immediate, and the name of " Lewis Carroll " has ever since been a household word. A dramatic version of the " Alice " books by Mr Savile Clarke was produced at Christmas, 1886, and has since enjoyed many revivals. Mr Dodgson was always very fond of children, and it was an open secret thiit the original of " Alice " was a daughter of Dean Liddell. Alice was followed (in the " Lewis Carroll " series) by Phantasmagoria, in 1869; Through the Looking-Glass, in 1871; The Hunting of the Snark (1876); Rhyme and Reason (1883); A Tangled Tale (1885); and Sylvie and Bruno (in two parts, 1889 and 1893). He wrote skits on Oxford subjects from time to time. The Dynamics of a Particle was written on the occasion of the contest between Gladstone and Mr Gathome Hardy (afterwards earl of Cranbrook) ; and The New Belfry in ridicule of the erection put up at Christ Church for the bells that were removed from the Cathedral tower. While " Lewis Carroll " was delighting children of all ages, C. L. Dodgson periodically published mathe- matical works — An Elementary Treatise on Determinants (1867); 370 DODO Euclid, Book V., proved Algebraically (1874); Euclid and his Modern Rivals (1879), the work on which his reputation as a mathematician largely rests; and Curiosa Malhematica (1888). Throughout this dual existence Mr Dodgson pertinaciously refused to acquiesce in being publicly identified with " Lewis Carroll." Though the fact of his authorship of the " Alice " books was well known, he invariably stated, when occasion called for such a pronouncement, that " Mr Dodgson neither claimed nor acknowledged any connexion with the books not published under his name." He died at Guildford, on the I4th of January 1898. His memory is appropriately kept green by a cot in the Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London, which was endowed perpetually by a public subscription. See S. D. Collingwood, Life and Letters of Lewis Carroll (1898). DODO (from the Portuguese D6udo, a simpleton), a large bird formerly inhabiting the island of Mauritius, but now extinct — the Didus ineptus of Linnaeus. When, in 1507, the Portuguese discovered the island which we now knowas Mauritius they named it Ilha do Cerne, from a notion that it must be the island of that name mentioned by Pliny; but most authors have insisted that it was known to the seamen of that nation as Ilha do Cisne — perhaps but a corruption of Cerne, and brought about by their finding it stocked with large fowls, which, though not aquatic, they likened to swans, the most familiar to them of bulky birds. In 1598 the Dutch, under Van Neck, took possession of the island and renamed it Mauritius. A narrative of this voyage was published in 1601, if not earlier, and has been often reprinted. Here we have birds spoken of as big as swans or bigger, with large heads, no wings, and a tail consisting of a few curly feathers. The Dutch called them Walgvogels (the word is variously spelled), i.e. nauseous birds, either because no cooking made them palatable, or because this island-paradise afforded an abundance of fare so much superior. De Bry gives two admirably quaint prints of the doings of the Hollanders, and in one of them the Walgvogel appears, being the earliest published representation of its un- wieldy form, with a footnote stating that the voyagers brought an example alive to Holland. Among the company there was a draughtsman, and from a sketch of his, Clusius, a few years after, gave a figure of the bird, which he vaguely called " Gallinaceus Callus peregrinus," but described rather fully. Meanwhile two other Dutch fleets had visited Mauritius. One of them had rather an accomplished artist on board, and his drawings fortunately still exist (see article BIRD). Of the other a journal kept by one of the skippers was subsequently published. This in the main corroborates what has been before said of the birds, but adds the curious fact that they were now called by some Dodaarsen and by others Dronten.1 Henceforth Dutch narrators, though several times mentioning the bird, fail to supply any important fact in its history. Their navigators, however, were not idle, and found work for their naturalists and painters. Clusius says that in 1605 he saw at Pauw's House in Leyden a dodo's foot,2 which he minutely describes. In a copy of Clusius's work in the high school of Utrecht is pasted an original drawing by Van de Venne super- scribed " Vera effigies huius avis Walghvogel (quae & a nautis Dadaers propter foedam posterioris partis crassitiem nuncupatur), qualis viua Amsterodamum perlata est ex insula Mauritii. Anno M.DC.XXVI." Now a good many paintings of the dodo drawn from life by Roelandt Savery (1576-1639) exist; and the paint- ings by him at Berlin and Vienna — dated 1626 and 1628 — as 1 The etymology of these names has been much discussed. That of the latter, which has generally been adopted by German and French authorities, seems to defy investigation, but the former has been shown by Prof. Schlegel (Versl. en Mededeel. K. Akad. Wetensch. ii. pp. 255 et seq.) to be the homely name of the dabchick or little grebe (Podiceps minor), of which the Dutchmen were reminded by the round stern and tail diminished to a tuft that characterized the dodo. The same learned authority suggests that dodo is a corruption of Dodaars, but, as will presently be seen, we herein think him mistaken. 1 What has become of the specimen (which may have been a relic of the bird brought home by Van Neck's squadron) is not known. Broderip and Dr Gray have suggested its identity with that now in the British Museum, but on what grounds is not apparent. well as the picture by Goiemare, belonging to the duke of Northumberland, dated 1627, may be with greater plausibility than ever considered portraits of a captive bird. It is even probable that this was not the first example painted in Europe. In the private library of the emperor Francis I. of Austria was a series of pictures of various animals, supposed to be by the Dutch artist Hoefnagel, who was born about 1545. One of these represents a dodo, and, if there be no mistake in Von Frauenfeld's ascription, it must almost certainly have been painted before 1626, while there is reason to think that the original may have been kept in the vivarium of the emperor Rudolf II., and that the portion of a dodo's head, which was found in the museum at Prague about 1850, belonged to this example. The other pictures by Roelandt Savery, like those in the possession of the Zoological Society of London and others, are undated, but were probably all painted about the same time — 1626-1628. The large picture in the British Museum, once belonging to Sir Hans Sloane, by an unknown artist, but supposed to be by Roelandt Savery, is also undated; while the still larger one at Oxford (considered to be by the younger Savery) bears a much later date, 1651. Undated also is a picture in Holland said to be by Pieter Holsteyn. In 1628 we have the evidence of the first English observer of the bird — one Emanuel Altham, who mentions it in two letters written on the same day from Mauritius to his brother at home (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, pp. 447-449). In one he says: " You shall receue ... a strange fowle: which I had at the Hand Mauritius called by ye portingalls a Do Do: which for the rare- ness thereof I hope wilbe welcome to you." The passage in the other letter is to the same effect, with the addition of the words " if it Hue." In the same fleet with Altham sailed Sir Thomas Herbert, whose Travels ran through several editions. It is plain that he could not have reached Mauritius till 1629, though 1627 has been usually assigned as the date of his visit. The fullest account he gives of the bird is in his edition of 1638: " The Dodo comes first to a description: here, and in Dygarrois* (and no where else, that ever I could see or heare of) is generated the Dodo (a Portuguize name it is, and has reference to her simpleness,) a Bird which for shape and rareness might be call'd a Phoenix (wer't in Arabia:) " &c. Herbert was weak as an etymologist, but his positive statement, corroborated as it is by Altham, cannot be set aside, and hence we do not hesitate to assign a Portuguese derivation for the word.4 Herbert also gave a figure of the bird. Proceeding chronologically we next come upon a curious bit of evidence. This is contained in a MS. diary kept between 1626 and 1640, by Thomas Crossfield of Queen's College, Oxford, where, under the year 1634, mention is casually made of one Mr Gosling " who bestowed the Dodar (a blacke Indian bird) vpon ye Anatomy school." Nothing more is known of it. About 1638, Sir Hamon Lestrange tells us, as he walked London streets he saw the picture of a strange fowl hung out on a cloth canvas, and going in to see it found a great bird kept in a chamber "somewhat bigger than the largest Turky cock, and so legged and footed, but shorter and thicker." The keeper called it a dodo and showed the visitors how his captive would swallow " large peble stones ... as bigge as nutmegs." In 1651 Morisot published an account of a voyage made by Francois Cauche, who professed to have passed fifteen days in Mauritius, or " 1'isle de Saincte Apollonie," as he called it, in 1638. According to De Flacourt the narrative is not very trustworthy, and indeed certain statements are obviously inaccurate. Cauche says he saw there birds bigger than swans, which he describes so as to leave no doubt of his meaning dodos; but perhaps the most important facts (if they be facts) that he * i-e. Rodriguez ; an error. 4 Hence we venture to dispute Prof. Schlegel's supposed origin of " Dodo." The Portuguese must have been the prior nomenclators, and if, as is most likely, some of their nation, or men acquainted with their language, were employed to pilot the Hollanders, we see at once how the first Dutch name Walghvogel would give way. The meaning of Doudo not being plain to the Dutch, they would, as is the habit of sailors, convert it into something they did understand. Then Dodaers would easily suggest itself. DODO 371 relates are that they had a cry like a gosling (" il a un cry comme 1'oison "), and that they laid a single white egg (" gros comme un pain d'un sol ") on a mass of grass in the forests. He calls them " oiseaux de Nazaret," perhaps, as a marginal note informs us, from an island of that name which was then supposed to lie more to the northward, but is now known to have no existence. In the catalogue of Tradescant's Collection of Rarities, preserved at South Lambeth, published in 1656, we have entered among the FIG. i. — Skeleton of a Dodo, Didus ineptus. Museum of Zoology, Cambridge, and cast of a Head in Oxford. " Whole Birds," a " Dodar from the island Mauritius; it is not able to flie being so big." This specimen may well have been the skin of the bird seen by Lestrange some eighteen years before, but anyhow we are able to trace the specimen through Willughby, Edward Llwyd and Thomas Hyde, till it passed in or before 1684 to the Ashmolean collection at Oxford. In 1755 it was ordered to be destroyed, but, in accordance with the original orders of Ashmole, its head and right foot were preserved, and still orna- ment the museum of that university. In the second edition of a Catalogue of many Natural Rarities, &c., " to be seen at the place formerly called the Music House, near the West End of St Paul's Church," collected by one Hubert alias Forbes, and published in 1665, mention is made of a " legge of a Dodo, a great heavy bird that cannot fly; it is a Bird of the Mauricius Island." This is supposed to have subsequently passed into the possession of the Royal Society. At all events such a specimen is included in Crew's list of their treasures which was published in 1681. This was afterwards transferred to the British Museum. It is a left foot, without the integuments, but it differs sufficiently in size from the Oxford specimen to forbid its having been part of the same individual. In 1666 Olearius brought out the Gottorffische Kunst Kammer, wherein he describes the head of a Walghvb'gel, which some sixty years later was removed to the museum at Copenhagen, and is now preserved there, having been the means of first leading zoologists, under the guidance of Prof. J. Th. Reinhardt, to recognize the true affinities of the bird. We have passed over all but the principal narratives of voyagers or other notices of the bird. A compendious bibliography, up to the year 1848, will be found in Strickland's classical work,1 and the list was continued by Von Frauenfeld 2 for twenty years later. ' The Dodo and its Kindred, by H. E. Strickland and A. G. Melville (London, 1848, 4to). 2 Neu aufeefundene Abbildung des Dronte, by Georg Ritter von Frauenfeld (Wien, 1868, fol.). The last evidence we have of the dodo's existence is furnished by a journal kept by Benj. Harry, and now in the British Museum (MSS. Addit. 3668. 1 1. D). This shows its survival till 1681, but the writer's sole remark upon it is that its " fflesh is very hard." The successive occupation of the island by different masters seems to have destroyed every tradition relating to the bird, and doubts began to arise whether such a creature had ever existed. Dr Henry Duncan, Scottish minister and journalist, in 1828, showed how ill-founded these doubts were, and some ten years later William John Broderip with much diligence collected all the available evidence into an admirable essay, which in its turn was succeeded by Strickland's monograph just mentioned. But in the meanwhile little was done towards obtaining any material advance in our knowledge, Prof. Reinhardt's determination of its affinity to the pigeons (Columbae) excepted ; and it was hardly until George Clark's discovery in 1865 of a large number of dodos' remains in the mud of a pool (the Mare aux Scnges) that zoologists generally were prepared to accept that affinity without question. The examination of bone after bone by Sir R. Owen (Trans. Zool. Soc. vi. p. 49) confirmed the judgment of the Danish naturalist. In 1889 Th. Sauzier, acting for the government of Mauritius, sent a great number of bones from the same swamp to Sir Edward Newton.3 From these the first correctly restored and properly mounted skeleton was prepared and sent to Paris, to be forwarded to the museum of Mauritius. Good specimens are in the British Museum, at Paris and at Cambridge, England. The huge blackish bill of the dodo terminated in a large, horny hook; the cheeks were partly bare, the stout, short legs yellow. The plumage was dark ash - coloured, with whitish breast and tail, yellowish white wings (incapable of flight). The short tail formed a curly tuft. The dodo is said to have inhabited forests and to have laid one large white egg on a mass of grass. Besides man, hogs and other imported animals seem to have exter- minated it. But the dodo is not the only member of its family that has vanished. The little island which has successively borne the name of Mas- caregnas, England's Forest, Bourbon and Reunion, and lies to the southward of Mauritius, had also an allied bird, now dead and gone. Of this not a relic has been handled by any natur- alist Thp latp«t HP FlG- 2- — The Solitaire of Rodriguez . ' . l " (Pezophaps solitarius). From Leguat's scnption of it, by Du figure. Bois in 1674, is very meagre, while Bontekoe (1646) gave a figure, apparently intended to represent it. It was originally called the " solitaire," but this name was also applied to Pezophaps solitarius of Rodriguez by the Huguenot exile Leguat, who described and figured it about 1691. The solitaire, Did us solitarius of Gmelin, referred by Strickland to. a district genus Pezophaps, is supposed to have lingered in the »E. Newton and H. Gadow, Trans. Zool. Soc. xiii. (1893) pp. 281-302, pis. 372 DODONA island of Rodriguez until about 1761. Leguat1 has given a delightful description of its quaint habits. The male stood about 2 ft. g in. high; its colour was brownish grey, that of its mate more inclined to brown, with a whitish breast. The wings were rudimentary, the tail very small, almost hidden, and the thigh feathers were thick and curled " like shells." A round mass of bone, " as big as a musket ball," was developed on the wings of the males, and they used it as a weapon of offence while they whirled themselves about twenty or thirty times in four or five minutes, making a noise with their pinions like a rattle. The mien was fierce and the walk stately, the birds living singly or in pairs. The nest was a heap of palm leaves a foot high, and contained a single large egg which was incubated by both parents. The food consisted of seeds and leaves, and the birds aided digestion by swallowing large stones; these were used by the FIG. 3. — Skeleton of a male Solitaire, Pezophaps solitarius, Museum of Zoology, Cambridge. Dutch sailors to sharpen their knives with. One of these stones, nearly an inch and a half in length, of extremely hard volcanic rock, is in the Cambridge museum. The fighting knobs mentioned above, are very interesting, large exostoses on one of the wrist- bones of either wing; they were undoubtedly covered with a thick, callous skin. Thousands of bones of this curious flightless pigeon were collected through Sir E. Newton's2 exertions, and by H. H. Sclater on behalf of the Royal Society of London. The results are several almost complete skeletons of both sexes, composed however out of the enormous mass of the dissociated bones. (A.N.; H.F.G.) DODONA, in Epirus, the seat of the most ancient and venerable of all Hellenic sanctuaries. Its ruins are at Dramisos, near Tsacharovista. In later times the Greeks of the south looked on the inhabitants of Epirus as barbarians; nevertheless for Dodona they always preserved a certain reverence, and the temple there was the object of frequent missions from them. This temple was dedicated to Zeus, and connected with the temple was an oracle 1 Voyage et aventures de Fran(ois Leguat, &c. (2 vols., London, 1708). An English translation, edited with many additional illus- trations by Captain Oliver, has been published by the Hakluyt Society (2 vols., 1891). 1 E. Newton and J. W. Clark, Phil. Trans, clix. (1869), pp. 327-362 ; clxviii. (1879), pp. 448-451. which enjoyed more reputation in Greece than any other save that at Delphi, and which would seem to date from earlier times than the worship of Zeus; for the normal method of gathering the responses of the oracle was by listening to the rustling of an old oak tree, which was supposed to be the seat of the deity. We seem here to have a remnant of the very ancient and widely diffused tree-worship. Sometimes, however, auguries were taken n other manners, being drawn from the moaning of doves in the aranches, the murmur of a fountain which rose close by, or the resounding of the wind in the brazen caldrons which formed circle all round the temple. Croesus proposed to the oracle lis well-known question; Lysander sought to obtain from it a sanction for his ambitious views; the Athenians frequently appealed to its authority during the Peloponnesian War. But ;he most frequent votaries were the neighbouring tribes of the Acarnanians and Aetolians, together with the Boeotians, who claimed a special connexion with the district. Dodona is not unfrequently mentioned by ancient writers. It is spoken of in the Iliad as the stormy abode of Selli who sleep on the jround and wash not their feet, and in the Odyssey an imaginary visit of Odysseus to the oracle is referred to. A Hesiodic fragment rives a complete description of the Dodonaea or Hellopia, which is called a district full of corn-fields, of herds and flocks and of shepherds, where is built on an extremity (iir' kaxo.rl'fi) Dodona, where Zeus dwells in the stem of an oak (^yos). The priestesses were called doves (ireXeieu) and Herodotus tells a story which he learned at Egyptian Thebes, that the oracle of Dodona was founded by an Egyptian priestess who was carried away by the Phoenicians, but says that the local legend sub- stitutes for this priestess a black dove, a substitution in which be tries to find a rational meaning. From inscriptions and later writers we learn that in historical times there was worshipped, together with Zeus, a consort named Dione (see further ZEUS; ORACLE; DIONE). The ruins, consisting of a theatre, the walls of a town, and some other buildings, had been conjectured to be those of Dodona by Wordsworth in 1832, but the conjecture was changed into ascertained fact by the excavations of Constantin Carapanos. In 1875 he made some preliminary investigations; soon after, an extensive discovery of antiquities was made by peasants, digging without authority; and after this M. Carapanos made a system- atic excavation of the whole site to a considerable depth. The topographical and architectural results are disappointing, and show either that the site always retained its primitive simplicity, or else that whatever buildings once existed have been very completely destroyed. To the south of the hill, on which are the walls of the town, and to the east of the theatre, is a plateau about 200 yds. long and 50 yds. wide. Towards the eastern end of this terrace are the scanty remains of a building which can hardly be anything but the temple of Zeus; it appears to have consisted of pronaos, naos or cella, and opisthodomus, and some of the lower drums of the internal columns of the cella were still resting on their founda- tions. No trace of any external colonnade was found. The temple was about 130 ft. by 80 ft. It had been converted into a Christian church, and hardly anything of its architecture seems to have survived. In it and around it were found the most interest- ing products of excavation — statuettes and decorative bronzes, many of them bearing dedications to Zeus Nams and Dione, and inscriptions, including many small tablets of lead which contained the questions put to the oracle. Farther to the west, on the same terrace, were two rectangular buildings, which M. Carapanos conjectures to have been connected with the oracle, but which show no distinguishing features. Below the terrace was a precinct, surrounded by walls and flanked with porticoes and other buildings; it is over 100 yds. in length and breadth, and of irregular shape. One of the buildings on the south-western side contained a pedestal or altar, and is identified by M. Carapanos as a temple of Aphrodite, on the insufficient evidence of a single dedicated object; it does not seem to have any of the characteristics of a temple. In front of the porticoes are rows of pedestals, which once bore statues and DODS— DODSWORTH 373 other dedications. At the southern corner of the precinct is a kind of gate or propylaeum, flanked with two towers, between which are placed two coarse limestone drums. If these are in situ and belong to the original gateway, it must have been of a very rough character; it does not seem probable that they carried, as M. Carapanos suggests, the statuette and bronze bowl by which divinations were carried on. The chief interest of the excavation centres in the smaller antiquities discovered, which have now been transferred from M. Carapanos's collection to the National Museum in Athens. Among the dedications, the most interesting historically are a set of weapons dedicated by King Pyrrhus from the spoils of the Romans, including characteristic specimens of the pilum. The leaden tablets of the oracle contain no certain example of a response, though there are many questions, varying from matters of public policy or private enterprise to inquiries after stolen goods. The temple of Dodona was destroyed by the Aetolians in 219 B.C., but the oracle survived to the times of Pausanias and even of the emperor Julian. See C. Wordsworth, Greece (1839), p. 247; Constantin Carapanos, Dodone et ses mines (Paris, 1878). For the oracle inscriptions, see E. S. Roberts in Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. i. p. 228. (E. G-R.) DODS, MARCUS (1834-1909), Scottish divine and biblical scholar, was born at Belford, Northumberland, the youngest son of Rev. Marcus Dods, minister of the Scottish church of that town. He was trained at Edinburgh Academy and Edinburgh Univer- sity, graduating in 1854. Having studied theology for five years he was licensed in 1858, and in 1864 became minister of Renfield Free Church, Glasgow, where he worked for twenty-five years. In 1889 he was appointed professor of New Testament Exegesis in the New College, Edinburgh, of which he became principal on the death of Dr Rainy in 1907. He died in Edinburgh on the 26th of April 1 9(59. Throughout his life, both ministerial and professorial, he devoted much time to the publication of theological books. Several of his writings, especially a sermon on Inspiration delivered in 1878, incurred the charge of unorthodoxy, and shortly before his election to the Edinburgh professorship he was summoned before the General Assembly, but the charge was dropped by a large majority, and in 1891 he received the honorary degree of D.D. from Edinburgh University. He edited Lange's Life of Christ in English (Edinburgh, 1864, 6 vols.), Augustine's works (1872-1876), and, with Dr Alexander Whyte, Clark's " Handbooks for Bible Classes " series. In the Expositor's Bible series he edited Genesis and i Corinthians, and he was also a contributor to the 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica and Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible. Among other important works are: The Epistle to the Seven Churches (1865) ; Israel's Iron Age (1874); Mohammed, Buddha and Christ (1877); Handbook on Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi (1879); The Gospel according to St John (1897), in the Expositor's Greek Testament; The Bible, its Origin and Nature (1904), the Bross Lectures, in which he gave an able sketch of the use of Old Testament criticism, and finally set forth his Theory of Inspiration. Apart from his great services to Biblical scholarship he takes high rank among those who have sought to bring the results of technical criticism within the reach of the ordinary reader. DODSLEY, ROBERT (1703-1764), English bookseller and miscellaneous writer, was born in 1703 near Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, where his father was master of the free school. He is said to have been apprenticed to a stocking-weaver in Mansfield, from whom he ran away, taking service as a footman. In 1729 Dodsley published his first work, Servitude; a Poem . . . written by a Footman, with a preface and postscript ascribed to Daniel Defoe; and a collection of short poems, A Muse in Livery, or the Footman's Miscellany, was published by subscription in 1732, Dodsley 's patrons comprising many persons of high rank. This was followed by a satirical farce called The Toyshop (Covent Garden, 1735), in which the toyman indulges in moral observa- tions on his wares, a hint which was probably taken from Thomas Randolph's Conceited Pedlar. The profits accruing from the sale of his works enabled Dodsley to establish himself with the help of his friends — Pope lent him £100 — as a bookseller at the " Tully's Head " in Pall Mall in 1735. His enterprise soon made him one of the foremost publishers of the day. One of his first publica- tions was Dr Johnson's London, for which he gave ten guineas in 1738. He published many of Johnson's works, and he suggested and helped to finance the English Dictionary. Pope also made over to Dodsley his interest in his letters. In 1738 the publica- tion of Paul Whitehead's Manners, voted scandalous by the Lords, led to a short imprisonment. Dodsley published for Edward Young and Mark Akenside, and in 1751 brought out Thomas Gray's Elegy. He also founded several literary periodicals: The Museum (1746-1767, 3 vols.); The Preceptor containing a general course of education (1748, 2 vols.), with an introduction by Dr Johnson; The World (1753-1756, 4 vols.); and The Annual Register, founded in 1758 with Edmund Burke as editor. To these various works, Horace Walpole, Akenside, Soame Jenyns, Lord Lyttelton, Lord Chesterfield, Burke and others were contributors. Dodsley is, however, best known as the editor of two collections: Select Collection of Old Plays (12 vols., 1744; 2nd edition with notes by Isaac Reed, 12 vols., 1780; 4th edition, by W. C. Hazlitt, 1874-1876, 15 vols.); and A collection of Poems by Several Hands (1748, 3 vols.), which passed through many editions. In 1737 his King and the Miller of Mansfield, a " dramatic tale " of King Henry II., was produced at Drury Lane, and received with much applause; the sequel, Sir John Cockle at Court, a farce, appeared in 1 738. In 1745 he published a collection of his dramatic works, and some poems which had been issued separately, in one volume under the modest title of Trifles. This was followed by The Triumph of Peace, a Masque occasioned by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapette (1749); a fragment, entitled Agriculture, of a long tedious poem in blank verse on Public Virtue (1753); The Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green (acted at Drury Lane 1739, printed 1741); and an ode, Melpomene (1757). His tragedy of Cleone (1758) had a long run at Covent Garden, 2000 copies being sold on the day of publication, and it passed through four editions within the year. Lord Chesterfield is, however, almost certainly the author of the series of mock chronicles of which The Chronicle of the Kings of England by " Nathan ben Saddi " (1740) is the first, although they were included in the Trifles and " ben Saddi " was received as Dodsley's pseudonym. The Economy of Human Life ( 1 7 50) , a collection of moral precepts frequently reprinted, is also by Lord Chesterfield. In 1759 Dodsley retired, leaving the conduct of the business to his brother James (1724-1797), with whom he had been many years in partnership. He published two more works, The Select Fables of Aesop translated by R. D. (1764) and the Works of William Shenstone (3 vols., 1764-1769). He died at Durham while on a visit to his friend the Rev. Joseph Spence, on the 23rd of September 1764. See also Shadows of the Old Booksellers, by Charles Knight (1865), pp. 189-216; " At Tully's Head " in Eighteenth Century Vignettes, 2nd series, by Austin Dobson (1894); E. Solly in The Bibliographer, y. (1884) pp. 57-61. Dodsley's poems are reprinted with a memoir in A. Chalmers's Works of English Poets, vol. xv. (1810). DODSWORTH, ROGER (1585-1654), English antiquary, was born near Oswaldkirk, Yorkshire. He devoted himself early to antiquarian research, in which he was greatly assisted by the fact that his father, Matthew Dodsworth, was registrar of York cathedral, and could give him access to the records preserved there. He married the widow of Laurence Rawsthorne of Hutton Grange, where he subsequently resided till his death in August 1654. At various times in his life he was enabled to study the records in the library of Sir Robert Cotton, in Skipton Castle, and in the Tower of London. He collected a vast store of materials for a history of Yorkshire, a Monasticon Anglicanum, and an English baronage. The second of these was published with considerable additions by Sir William Dugdale (2 vols., 1655 and 1661). The MSS. were left to Thomas, third Lord Fairfax, who by his will bequeathed them (160 volumes in all) to the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Portions have been printed by the Yorkshire Archaeological Society (Dodsworth's Yorkshire Notes, 1884) and the Chetham Society (copies of Lancashire post- mortem inquisitions, 1875-1876). 374 DODWELL— DOG DODWELL, EDWARD (1767-1832), English traveller and writer on archaeology. He belonged to the same family as Henry Dodwell the theologian, and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. He travelled from 1801 to 1806 in Greece, and spent the rest of his life for the most part in Italy, at Naples and Rome. He died at Rome on the 1 3th of May 1832, from the effects of an illness contracted in 1830 during a visit of explora- tion to the Sabine Mountains. His widow, a daughter of Count Giraud, thirty years his junior, subsequently became famous as the " beautiful " countess of Spaur, and played a considerable r61e in the political life of the papal city. He published A Classical and Topographical Tour through Greece (1819), of which a German translation appeared in 1821; Views in Greece, thirty coloured plates (1821); and Views and Descriptions of Cyclopian or Pelasgic Remains in Italy and Greece (London and Paris, with French text, 1834). DODWELL, HENRY (1641-1711), scholar, theologian and controversial writer, was born at Dublin in October, 1641. His father, having lost his property in Connaught during the rebellion, settled at York in 1648. Here Henry received his preliminary education at the free school. In 1654 he was sent by his uncle to Trinity College, Dublin, of which he subsequently became scholar and fellow. Having conscientious objections to taking orders he relinquished his fellowship in 1666, but in 1688 he was elected Camden professor of history at Oxford. In 1691 he was deprived of his professorship for refusing to take the oath of allegiance to William and Mary. Retiring to Shottesbrooke in Berkshire, and living on the produce of a small estate in Ireland, he devoted himself to the study of chronology and ecclesiastical polity. Gibbon speaks of his learning as " immense," and says that his " skill in employing facts is equal to his learning," although he severely criticizes his method and style. DodwelFs works on ecclesiastical polity are more numerous and of much less value than those on chronology, his judgment being far inferior to his power of research. In his earlier writings he was regarded as one of the greatest champions of the non-jurors; but the doctrine which he afterwards promulgated, that the soul is naturally mortal, and that immortality could be enjoyed only by those who had received baptism from the hands of one set of regularly ordained clergy, and was therefore a privilege from which dissenters were hopelessly excluded, did not strengthen his reputation. Dodwell died at Shottesbrooke on the 7th of June 1711. His chief works on classical chronology are: A Discourse concerning Sanchoniathon's Phoenician History (1681); Annales Thucydidei et Xenophontei (1702); Chronologia Graeco- Romana pro hypothesibus Dion. Halicarnassei (1692); Annales Velleiani, Quinlilianei, Statiani (1698); and a larger treatise entitled De veleribus Graecorum Romanorumque Cyclis (1701). His eldest son Henry (d. 1784) is known as the author of a pamphlet entitled Christianity not founded on Argument, to which a reply was published by his brother William (1709- 1785), who was besides engaged in a controversy with Dr Conyers Middleton on the subject of miracles. See The Works of H. D. . . . abridg'd with an account of his life, by F. Brokesby (2nd ed., 1723) and Thomas Hearne's Diaries. . DOG, the English generic term for the quadruped of the domesticated variety of Canis (Fr. Men) . The etymology of the word is unknown; " hound " represents the common Teutonic term (Ger. Hund), and it is suggested that the " English dog " — for this was a regular phrase in continental European countries — represented a special breed. Most canine experts believe that the dog is descended from the wolf, although zoologists are less certain (see CARNIVORA); the osteology of one does not differ materially from that of the other: the dog and the wolf breed with each other, and the progeny thus obtained will again breed with the dog. There is one circumstance, however, which seems to mark a difference between the two animals: the eye of the dog of every country and species has a circular pupil, but the position or form of the pupil is oblique in the wolf. W. Youatt says there is also a marked difference in the temper and habits of the two. The dog is generally easily managed, and although H. C. Brooke of Welling, Kent, succeeded in making a wolf fairly tractable, the experience of others has been the reverse of encouraging. G. Cuvier gives an interesting account of a young wolf which, having been trained to follow his master, showed affection and submission scarcely inferior to the domesticated dog. During the absence from home of his owner the wolf was sent to a menagerie, but pined for his master and would scarcely take any food for a considerable time. At length, however, he became attached to his keepers and appeared to have forgotten his former associate. At the end of eighteen months his master returned, and, the moment his voice was heard, the wolf recog- nized him and lavished on him the most affectionate caresses. A still longer separation followed, but the wolf again remembered his old associate and showed great affection upon his return. Such an association proves that there is very little difference between the dog and the wolf in recognition of man as an object of affection and veneration. H. C. Brooke succeeded in training his wolf so well that it was no uncommon sight to see the latter following his master like a dog. The wolf did not like strangers, however, and was very shy in their presence. In the Old and New Testaments the dog is spoken of almost with abhorrence; it ranked amongst the unclean beasts: traffic in it was considered as an abomination, and it was forbidden to be offered in the sanctuary in the discharge of any vow. Part of the Jewish ritual was the preservation of the Israelites from the idolatry which at that time prevailed among every other people. Dogs were held in considerable veneration by the Egyptians, from whose tyranny the Israelites had just escaped; figures of them appeared on the friezes of most of the temples, and they were regarded as emblems of the divine being. Herodotus, speaking of the sanctity in which some animals were held by the Egyptians, says that the people of every family in which a dog died shaved themselves — their expression of mourning — adding that this was a custom of his own time. The cause of this attachment to and veneration for the dog is. however, explained in a far more probable and pleasing way than by many of the fables of ancient mythology. The prosperity of Lower Egypt, and almost the very subsistence of its inhabitants, depended upon the annual overflowing of the Nile; and they looked for it with the utmost anxiety. Its approach was an- nounced by the appearance of a certain star, Sirius, and as soon as that star was seen above the horizon the people hastened to remove their flocks to the higher ground and abandoned the lower pastures to the fertilizing influence of the stream. They hailed it as their guard and protector; and, associating with its apparent watchfulness the well-known fidelity of the dog, they called it the " dog-star " and worshipped it. It was in far later periods and in other countries that the appearance of the dog- star was regarded as the signal of insufferable heat or prevalent disease. In Ethiopia, not only was great veneration paid to the dog, but the inhabitants used to elect a dog as their king. It was kept in great state, and surrounded by a numerous train of officers and guards: when it fawned upon them it was supposed to be pleased with their proceedings; when it growled, it dis- approved of the manner in which their government was con- ducted. Such indications of will were implicitly obeyed, or were translated by the worshippers as their own caprice or interest indicated. Even 1000 years after this period, the dog was highly esteemed in Egypt for its sagacity and other excellent qualities; for when Pythagoras, after his return from Egypt, founded a new sect in Greece, and at Croton in southern Italy, he taught, with the Egyptian philosophers, that at the death of the body the soul entered into that of various animals. After the death of any of his favourite disciples he would hold a dog to the mouth of the man in order to receive the departing spirit, saying that there was no animal which could perpetuate his virtues better than that quadruped. It was in order to preserve the Israelites from errors and follies of this kind, and to prevent the possibility of such idolatry being established, that the dog was afterwards regarded with utter abhorrence amongst the Jews, and this feeling prevailed during the continuance of the Israelites in Palestine. DOG PLATE I. GREAT DANE. DALMATIAN. MASTIFF. COLLIE. CHOW. SAINT BERNARD OLD ENGLISH SHEEP DOG NEWFOUNDLAND. '^flfc fl POODLE. VIII. 374. BULL DOG. FRENCH BULL DOG. (From Photos by Bowden Bros.) TYPICAL NON-SPORTING DOGS. From "Country Life in America* BOSTON TERRIER. PLATE II. DOG ENGLISH SETTER. IRISH SETTER. FLAT-COATED RETRIEVER. IRISH TERRIER. POINTER. LABRADOR RETRIEVER. IRISH WOLF-HOUND. DACHSHUND. ROUGH-COATED FOX TERRIER. (From Photos by Bowden Bros.) TYPICAL SPORTING DOGS. FIELD SPANIEL. DOG 375 The Hindus also regard the dog as unclean, and submit to various purifications if they accidentally come in contact with it, believing that every dog is animated by a wicked and malignant spirit condemned to do penance in that form for crimes committed in a previous state of existence. In every Mahommedan and Hindu country the most scurrilous epithet bestowed on a Euro- pean or a Christian is " a dog," and that accounts for the fact that in the whole of the Jewish history there is not a single allusion to hunting with dogs. Mention is made of nets and snares, but the dog does not seem to have been used in the pursuit of game. In the early periods of the history of other countries this seems to have been the case even where the dog was esteemed and valued, and had become the companion, the friend and the defender of man and his home; and in the and century of the Christian era Arrian wrote that " there is as much difference between a fair trial of speed in a good run, and ensnaring a poor animal without an effort, as between the secret piratical assaults of robbers at sea and the victorious naval engagements of the Athenians at Artemisium and at Salamis." The first hint of the employment of the dog in the pursuit of other animals is given by Oppian in his Cynegelica, who attributes it to Pollux about 200 years after the promulgation of the Levitical law. The precise species of dog that was cultivated in Greece at that early period cannot be affirmed, although a beautiful piece of sculpture in the possession of Lord Feversham at Buncombe Hall, representing the favourite dog of Alcibiades, differs but little from the New- foundland dog of the present day. In the British Museum is another piece of early sculpture from the ruins of the villa of Antoninus, near Rome. The greyhound puppies which it repre- sents are identical with a brace of saplings of the present day. In the early periods of their history the Greeks depended too much on their nets to capture game, and it was not until later times that they pursued their prey with dogs, and then not with greyhounds, which run by sight, but with beagles, the dwarf hound which is still very popular. Later, mention is made of large and ferocious dogs which were employed to guard sheep and cattle, or to watch at the door of the house, or even to act as a companion, and G. Cuvier expresses the opinion that the dog exhibits the most complete and the most useful conquest that man has made. Each individual is entirely devoted to his master, adopts his manners, distinguishes and defends his property, and remains attached to him even unto death; and all this springs not from mere necessity nor from constraint, but simply from gratitude and true friendship. The swiftness, the strength and the highly developed power of scent in the dog, have made it a powerful ally of man against the other animals; and perhaps these qualities in the dog were necessary to the establishment of society. Instances of dogs having saved the lives of their owners by that strange intuition of approaching danger which they appear to possess, or by their protection, are innumerable: their attachment to man has inspired the poet and formed the subject of many notable books, while in Daniel's Rural Sports is related a story of a dog dying in the fulness of joy caused by the return of his master after a two years' absence from home. It is not improbable that all dogs sprang from one common source, but climate, food and cross-breeding caused variations of form which suggested particular uses, and these being either designedly or accidentally perpetuated, the various breeds of dogs arose, and became numerous in proportion to the progress of civilization. Among the ruder or savage tribes they possess but one form; but the ingenuity of man has devised many inventions to increase his comforts; he has varied and multiplied the characters and kinds of domestic animals for the same purpose, and hence the various breeds of horses, cattle and dogs. The parent stock it is now impossible to trace; but the wild dog, wherever found on the continent of Asia, or northern Europe, has nearly the same character, and bears no inconsiderable resem- blance to the British dog of the ordinary type; while many of those from the southern hemisphere can scarcely be distinguished from the cross-bred poaching dog, the lurcher. Dogs were first classified into three groups: — (i) Those having the head more or less elongated, and the parietal bones of the skull widest at the base and gradually approaching towards each other as they ascend, the condyles of the lower jaw being on the same line with the upper molar teeth. The greyhound and all its varieties belong to this class. (2) The head moderately elongated and the parietals diverging from each other for a certain space as they rise upon the side of the head, enlarging the cerebral cavity and the frontal sinus. To this class belong most of the useful dogs, such as the spaniel, the setter, the pointer and the sheepdog. (3) The muzzle more or less shortened, the frontal sinus enlarged, and the cranium elevated and diminished in capacity. To this class belong some of the terriers and most of the toy dogs. Later, however, "Stonehenge" Q. H. Walsh), in British Rural Sports, classified dogs as follows: — (a) Dogs that find game for man, leaving him to kill it himself — the pointer, setters, spaniels and water spaniels, (b) Dogs which kill game when found for them — the English greyhound, (c) Dogs which find and also kill their game — the bloodhound, the foxhound, the harrier, the beagle, the otterhound, the fox terrier and the truffle dog. (d) Dogs which retrieve game that has been wounded by man — the retriever, the deerhound. (e) Useful companions of man — the mastiff, the Newfoundland, the St Bernard dog, the bulldog, the bull terrier, terriers, sheepdogs, Pomeranian or Spitz, and Dalmatian dogs. (/) Ladies' toy dogs — King Charles spaniel, the Blenheim spaniel, the Italian greyhound, the pug dog, the Maltese dog, toy teniers, toy poodles, the lion dog, Chinese and Japanese spaniels. In 1894 Modern Dogs (Rawdon B. Lee) was issued, the simple classification of sporting and non-sporting dog — terriers and toy dogs, being adopted; but although there had been an understanding since 1874, when the first volume of the Kennel Club Stud Book (Frank C. S. Pearce) was issued, as to the identity of the two great divisions of dogs, an incident at Altrincham Show in September 1900 — an exhibitor entering a Russian wolfhound hi both the sporting and non-sporting com- petitions— made it necessary for authoritative information to be given as to how the breeds should be separated. Following petitions to the Kennel Club from exhibitors at the club's own show at the Crystal Palace, and also at the show of the Scottish Kennel Club in Edinburgh during the autumn of 1900, the divisions were decided upon as follows: — Sporting. — Bloodhound, otterhound, foxhound, harrier, beagle, basset hound (smooth and rough), dachshund, greyhound, deerhound, Borzoi, Irish wolfhound, whippet, pointer, setter (English, Irish and black and tan), retriever (flat-coated, curly- coated and Labrador), spaniel (Irish water, water other than Irish, Clumber, Sussex, field, English springer, other than Clumber, Sussex and field: Welsh springer, red and white and Cocker); fox terriers (smooth- and wire-coated) ; Irish terrier, Scotch terrier, Welsh terrier, Dandie Dinmont terrier, Skye terrier (prick-eared and drop-eared), Airedale terrier and Bedlington terrier. Non-Sporting. — Bulldog, bulldog (miniature), mastiff, Great Dane, Newfoundland (black, white and black, or other than black), St Bernard (rough and smooth), Old English sheepdog, collie (rough and smooth), Dalmatian, poodle, bull terrier, white English terrier, black and tan terrier, toy spaniel (King Charles or black and tan, Blenheim, ruby or red and tricolour), Japanese, Pekingese, Yorkshire terrier, Maltese, Italian greyhound, chow- chow, black and tan terrier (miniature), Pomeranian, pug (fawn and black), Schipperke, Griffon Bruxellois, foreign dogs (bouledogues francais, elk-hounds, Eskimos, Lhasa terriers, Samoyedes and any other varieties not mentioned under this heading). On the 4th of May 1898 a sub-committee of the Kennel Club decided that the following breeds should be classified as "toy dogs ": — Black and tan terriers (under 7 Ib), bull terriers (under 8 Ib), griffons, Italian greyhounds, Japanese, Maltese, Pekingese, poodles (under 15 in.), pugs, toy spaniels, Yorkshire terriers and Pomeranians. All these varieties were represented at the annual show of the DOG Kennel Club in the autumn of 1903, and at the representative exhibition of America held under the management of the West- minster Kennel Club in the following spring the classification was substantially the same, additional breeds, however, being Boston terriers — practically unknown in England, — Chesapeake Bay dogs, Chihuahuas, Papillons and Roseneath terriers. The latter were only recently introduced into the United States, though well known in Great Britain as the West Highland or Poltalloch terrier; an application which was made (1900) by some of their admirers for separate classification was refused by the Kennel Club, but afterwards it was granted, the breed being classified as the West Highland white terrier. The establishment of shows at Newcastle-on-Tyne in June 1859 secured for dogs attention which had been denied them up to that time, although sportsmen had appreciated their value for centuries and there had been public coursing meetings since the reign of Charles I. Lord Orford, however, established the first club at Marham Smeeth near Swaffham, where coursing is still carried on, in 1776. The members were in number confined to that of the letters in the alphabet; and when any vacancy happened it was filled up by ballot. On the decease of the founder of the club, the members agreed to purchase a silver cup to be run for annually, and it was intended to pass from one to the other, like the whip at Newmarket, but before starting for it, in the year 1792, it was decided that the winner of the cup should keep it and that one should be annually purchased to be run for in November. At the formation of the club each member assumed a colour, and also a letter, which he used as the initial of his dog's name. The Newcastle dog show of 1859 was promoted by Mr Pape — a local sporting gunmaker — and Mr Shorthose, and although only pointers and setters were entered for in two classes immense interest was taken in the show. But neither the promoters nor the sportsmen who supported it could have had the faintest idea as to how popular dog shows would become. The judges at that historic gathering were: Messrs J. Jobling (Morpeth), T. Robson (Newcastle-on-Tyne) and J. H. Walsh (London) for pointers, and E. Foulger (Alnwick), R. Brailsford (Knowsley) and J. H. Walsh for the setters. Sixty dogs were shown, and it was said that such a collection had not been seen together before; while so even was the quality that the judges had great difficulty in making their awards. The prizes were sporting guns made by Mr Pape and presented by him to the promoters of the show. So great a success was scored that other shows were held in the same year at Birmingham and Edinburgh; while the Cleveland Agricultural Society also established a show of foxhounds at Redcar, the latter being the forerunner of that very fine show of hounds which is now held at Peterborough every summer and is looked upon as the out-of-season society gathering of hunting men and women. Mr Brailsford was the secretary of the show at Birmingham, and he had classes for pointers, English and Irish setters, retrievers and Clumber spaniels. Another big success was scored, and the National Dog Show Society was established for the purpose of holding a show of sporting dogs in Birmingham every winter. Three years later proposals were made in The Field to promote public trials of pointers and setters over game, but it was not until the i8th of April 1865 that a further step was taken in the recognition of the value of the dog by the promotion of working trials. They were held at Southill, near Bedford, on the estate of S. Whitbread, M.P., and they attracted great interest. The order of procedure at the early field trials was similar to what it is to-day, only the awards were given in accordance with a scale of points as follows: nose, 40; pace and range, 30; temperament, 10; staunchness before, 10; behind, 10. Style of working was also taken into consideration. In 1865 a show was held in Paris, and after the National Dog Club — not the Birmingham society — had failed, as the result of a disastrous show at the Crystal Palace, a further exhibition was arranged to be held in June 1870 under the management of G. Nutt and a very strong committee, among whom were many of the most noted owners of sporting dogs of that time. The details of the show were arranged by S. E. Shirley and J. H. Murchison, but the exhibition, although a most interesting one, was a failure, and the guarantors had to face a heavy loss. A second venture proved to be a little more encouraging, although again there was a loss; but in April 1873, the Kennel Club, which is now the governing body of the canine world, was founded by S. E. Shirley, who, after acting as its chairman for many years, was elected the president, and occupied that position until his death in March 1904. His successor was the duke of Connaught and Strathearn; the vice-presidents including the duke of Portland, Lord Algernon Gordon Lennox, J. H. Salter and H. Richards. The progress of the club has been remarkable, and that its formation did much to improve the conditions of the various breeds of dogs, to encourage their use in the field by the promotion of working trials, and to check abuses which were common with regard to the registration of pedigrees, &c., cannot be denied. The abolition of the cropping of the ears of Great Danes, bull terriers, black and tan terriers, white English terriers, Irish terriers and toy terriers, in 1889 gained the approval of all humane lovers of dogs, and although attempts have been made to induce the club to modify the rule which prohibits the exhibition of cropped dogs, the practice has not been revived; it is declared, however, that the toy terriers and white English terriers have lost such smartness by the retention of the ears that they are becoming extinct. The club has control over all the shows held in the United Kingdom, no fewer than 519 being held in 1905, the actual number of dogs which were entered at the leading fixtures being: Kennel Club show 1789, Cruft's 1768, Ladies' Kennel Association 1306, Manchester 1190, Edinburgh 896 and Birmingham 892. In 1906, however, no fewer than 1956 dogs were entered at the show of the Westminster Kennel Club, held in Madison Square Garden, New York; a fact proving that the show is as popular in America as it is in the United Kingdom, the home of the move- ment. The enormous sum of £i 500 has been paid for a collie, and 1000 guineas for a bulldog, both show dogs pure and simple; while £500 is no uncommon price for a fox terrier. Excepting for greyhounds, however, high prices are rarely offered for sporting dogs, 300 guineas for the pointer " Coronation " and 200 guineas for the retriever " High Legh Blarney " being the best reported prices for gun dogs during the last few years. The foreign and colonial clubs which are affiliated to the Kennel Club are: the Guernsey Dog Club, the Italian Kennel Club, the Jersey Dog Club, La Societe Centrale (Paris), Moscow Gun Club of the Emperor Alexander II., New South Wales Kennel Club, Nimrod Club (Amsterdam), Northern Indian Kennel Association, Royal St Hubert's Society (Brussels) and the South African Kennel Club (Cape Town). Its ramifications therefore extend to all parts of the world; while its rules are the basis of those adopted by the American Kennel Club, the governing body of the " fancy " in the United States. A joint conference between representatives of the two bodies, held in London in 1900, did much towards securing the uniformity of ideas which is so essential between associations having interests in common. Most of the leading breeds have clubs or societies, which have been founded by admirers with a view to furthering the interests of their favourites; and such combinations as the Bulldog Club (incorporated), the London Bulldog Society, the British Bulldog Club, the Fox Terrier Club, the Association of Bloodhound Breeders — under whose management the first man-hunting trials were held,— the Bloodhound Hunt Club, the Collie Club, the Dachshund Club, the Dandie Dinmont Terrier Club, the English Setter Club, the Gamekeepers' Association of the United Kingdom, the International Gun Dog League, the Irish Terrier Club, the Irish Wolfhound Club, the St Bernard Club, the National Terrier Club, the Pomeranian Club, the Spaniel Club, the Scottish Terrier Club and the Toy Bulldog Club have done good work in keeping the claims of the breeds they represent before the dog- owning public and encouraging the breeding of dogs to type. Each club has a standard of points; some hold their own shows; while others issue club gazettes. All this has been brought about by the establishment of a show for sporting dogs at Newcastle- on-Tyne in the summer of 1859. America can claim a list of over twenty specialist clubs, and in both countries women exhibitors have their independent DOG 377 associations, Queen Alexandra having become one of the chief supporters of the Ladies' Kennel Association (England). There is a ladies' branch of the Kennel Club, and the corresponding clubs in America are the Ladies' Kennel Association of America and the Ladies' Kennel Association of Massachusetts. The Gazette is the official organ of the Kennel Club. The Field, however, retains its position as the leading canine journal, the influence of J. H. Walsh (" Stonehenge "), who did so much towards establishing the first dog shows and field trials, having never forsaken it: the work he began was carried on by its kennel editor, Rawdon B. Lee (d. 1908), whose volumes on Modern Dogs (sporting, non-sporting and terriers) are the standard works on dogs. Our Dogs, The Kennel Magazine, and The Illustrated Kennel News are the remaining canine journals in England. Several weekly papers published on the continent of Europe devote a considerable portion of their space to dogs, and canine journals have been started in America, South Africa and even India: while apart from Lee's volumes and other carefully compiled works treating on the dog in general, the various breeds have been written about, and the books or monographs have large sales. At the end of 1905 E. W. Jaquet wrote The Kennel Club: a History and Record of its Work, and an edition de luxe of Dogs is edited by Mr Harding Cox; Mr Sidney Turner, the chairman of the Kennel Club committee, edited The Kennel Encyclopaedia, the first number of which was issued in 1907. Dog lovers are now numbered by their tens of thousands, and in addition to shows of their favourites, owners are also liberally catered for in the shape of working trials, for during the season competitions for bloodhounds, pointers, setters, retrievers, spaniels and sheepdogs are held. Breeds of Dog. Nothing is known with certainty as to the origin of the vast majority of breeds of dogs, and it is an unfortunate fact that the progressive changes which have been made within comparatively recent times by fanciers have not been accurately recorded by the preservation, in museums or collections, of the actual specimens considered typical at different dates. No scientific classification of the breeds of dogs is at present possible, but whilst the division already given into " sporting " and " non-sporting " is of some practical value, for descriptive purposes it is convenient to make a division into the six groups: — wolf dogs, greyhounds, spaniels, hounds, mastiffs and terriers. It is to be remembered, however, that all these types interbreed freely, and that many intermediate, and forms of wholly doubtful position, occur. Wolfhounds. — Throughout the northern regions of both hemispheres there are several breeds of semi-domesticated dogs which are wolf-like, with erect ears and long woolly hair. The Eskimo dog has been regarded as nothing more than a reclaimed wolf, and the Eskimo are stated to maintain the size and strength of their dogs by crossing them with wolves. The domestic dogs of some North American Indian tribes closely resemble the coyote; the black wolf dog of Florida resembles the black wolf of the same region; the sheepdogs of Europe and Asia resemble the wolves of those countries, whilst the pariah dog of India is closely similar to the Indian wolf. The Eskimo dog has small, upright ears, a straight bushy tail, moderately sharp muzzle and rough coat. Like a wolf , it howls but does not bark. It occurs through- out the greater part of the Arctic regions, the varieties in the old and new world differing slightly in colour. They are fed on fish, game and meat. They are good hunters and wonderfully cunning and enduring. Their services to their owners and to Arctic explorers are well known, but Eskimo dogs are so rapacious that it is impossible to train them to refrain from attacking sheep, goats or any small domesticated animals. The Hare Indian dog of the Great Bear Lake and the Mackenzie river is more slender, gentle and affectionate than the Eskimo dog, but is impatient of restraint, and preserves many of the characters of its wild ally, the coyote, and is practically unable to bark. The Pomeranian dog is a close ally of the Eskimo breed and was formerly used as a wolfdog, but has been much modified. The larger variety of the race has a sharp muzzle, upright pointed ears, and a bushy tail generally carried over the back. It varies in colour from black through grey to reddish brown and white. The smaller variety, sometimes known as the Spitz, was formerly in some repute as a fancy dog, a white variety with a black tip to the nose and a pure black variety being specially prized. Pomeranians have been given most attention in Germany and Belgium, while the so-called Spitz has been popular in England and America. The sheepdogs and collies are still further removed from the wolf type, and have the tip of the ear pendent. The tail is thick and bushy, the feet and legs particularly strong, and there is usually a double dew-claw on each hind limb. The many varieties found in different countries have the same general characters. The bark is completely dog-like, and the primitive hunting instincts have been cultivated into a marvellous aptitude for herding sheep and cattle. The training takes place during the first year, and the work is learned with extreme facility. The Scotch collie is lighter and more elegant, and has a sharper muzzle. Since it became popular as a pet dog, its appearance has been greatly improved, and whilst it has lost its old sullen concentration, it has retained unusual intelligence and has become playful and affectionate. The wolfdogs all hunt chiefly by scent. Greyhounds. — These are characterized by slight build, small ears falling at the tips, elongated limbs and tails and long narrow muzzles. They hunt entirely by sight, the sense of smell being defective. The English greyhound is the most conspicuous and best-known member of the group, and has been supposed to be the parent of most of the others. The animal is thoroughly adapted for extreme speed, the long, rat-like tail being used in balancing the body in quick turns. The favourite colour is a uniform sandy, or pale grey tone, but characters directly related to capacity for speed have received most attention. The Italian greyhound is a miniature greyhound, still capable of considerable speed but so delicate that it is almost unable to pull down even a rabbit, and is kept simply as a pet. The eyes are large and soft, and a golden fawn is the colour most prized. The Scotch deer- hound is a larger and heavier variety of the English greyhound, with rough and shaggy hair. It has been used both for deer stalking and for coursing, and several varieties exist. The Irish wolfhound is now extinct, but appears to have been a powerful race heavier than the deerhound but similar to it hi general characters. Greyhounds have been bred from time immemorial in Eastern Europe and Western Asia, while unmistakable representatives are figured on the monuments of ancient Egypt. The existing Oriental varieties are in most cases characterized by silky hair. The hairless dogs of Central Africa are greyhounds employed chiefly in hunting antelopes, and there are somewhat similar varieties in China, Central and South America. The whippet is a local English dog, used chiefly in rabbit coursing and racing, and is almost certainly a cross between greyhounds and terriers. The lurcher is a dog with the general shape of a greyhound, but with a heavier body, larger ears and rougher coat. Lurchers are cross-bred dogs, greyhounds and sheepdogs, or deerhounds and collies, being the parents. Spaniels are heavily built dogs with short and very wide skulls rising suddenly at the eyes. The brain is relatively large and the intelligence high. The muzzle is short, the ears large and pendent, the limbs relatively short and heavy, and the coat thick and frequently long. It is supposed, from their name, that they are of Spanish origin. They may be divided into field spaniels, water spaniels and the smaller breeds kept as pets. Field spaniels are excellent shooting dogs, and are readily trained to give notice of the proximity of game. The Clumber, Sussex, Norfolk and Cocker breeds are the best established. The Clumber is long, low and heavy. It is silent when hunting, and has long ears shaped like vine leaves. The ground colour of the coat is white with yellow spots. The Sussex is a lighter, more noisy animal, with a wavy, golden coat. The Cockers are smaller spaniels, brown, or brown-and-white in the Welsh variety, black in the more common modern English form. The head is short, DOG and the coat silky and wavy. Of the water spaniels the Irish breeds are best known. They are relatively large dogs, with broad splay feet, and silky oily coats. The poodle is probably derived from spaniels, but is of slighter, more graceful build, and is pre-eminent even among spaniels for intelligence. The best known pet spaniels are the King Charles and the Blenheim, small dogs with fine coats, probably descended from Cockers. Setters owe their name to their having been trained originally to crouch when marking game, so as to admit of the net with which the quarry was taken being drawn over their heads. Since the general adoption of shooting in place of netting or bagging game, setters have been trained to act as pointers. They are pre-eminently dogs for sporting purposes, and special strains or breeds adapted to the peculiarities of different kinds of sporting have been produced. Great Britain is probably the country where setters were first produced, and as early as the iyth century spaniels were used in England as setting dogs. It is probable that pointer blood was introduced in the course of shaping the various breeds of setter. The English setter should have a silky coat with the hair waved but not curly; the legs and toes should be hairy, and the tail should have a bushy fringe of hairs hanging down from the dorsal border. The colour varies much, ranging according to the strains, from black-and-white through orange-and-white and liver-and-white to pure white, whilst black, white, liver, and red or yellow self-coloured setters are common. The Irish setter is red without trace of black, but occasionally flecked with white. The Gordon setter, the chief Scottish variety, is a heavier animal with coarser hair, black-and- tan in colour. The Russian setter has a woolly and matted coat. The retriever is a large dog used for retrieving game on land, as a water spaniel is used for the same purpose in water. The breed is almost certainly derived from water-spaniels, with a strong admixture of Newfoundland blood. The colour is black or tan, and the hair of the face, body and tail is close and curly, although wavy-coated strains exist. The Newfoundland is simply an enormous spaniel, and shows -its origin by the facility with which it takes to water and the readiness with which it mates with spaniels and setters. It has developed a definite instinct to save human beings from drown- ing, this probably being an evolution of the retrieving instinct ef the original spaniels. The true Newfoundland is a very large dog and may reach 31 in. in height at the shoulder. The coat is shaggy and oily, and is preferred with as little white as possible, but the general black coloration may have rusty shades. The eyes and ears are relatively small, and the forehead white and dome-shaped, giving the face the well-known appear- ance of benignity and intelligence. Although these dogs were originally brought to Great Britain from Newfoundland and are still bred in the latter country, greater size, perfection and intelligence have been attained in England, where Newfound- lands for many years have been the most popular large dogs. They are easily taught to retrieve on land or water, and their strength, intelligence and fidelity make them specially suitable as watchdogs or guardians. The Landseer Newfoundland is a black and white variety brought into notice by Sir Edwin Landseer, but the exact ancestry of which is unknown. The Labrador Newfoundland is a smaller black variety with a less massive head. It occurs both in Newfoundland and England, and has been used largely in producing crosses, being almost certainly one parent of the retriever. The St Bernard is a large breed taking its name from the monastery of Mount St Bernard in the Alps, and remarkable for high intelligence and use in rescuing travellers from the snow. The origin of the breed is unknown, but undoubtedly it is closely related to spaniels. The St Bernard attains as great a size as that of any other breed, a fine specimen being between 60 and 70 in. from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail. The colour varies, but shades of tawny-red and white are more frequent than in Newfoundlands. In the rough-haired breed the coat is long and wavy, but there exists a smooth breed with a nearly smooth coat. Hounds. — These are large dogs, hunting by smell, with massive structure, large drooping ears, and usually smooth coats, without fringes of hair on the ears, limbs or tail. The bloodhound is probably the stock from which all the English races of hounds have been derived. The chief character is the magnificent head, narrow and dome-like between the huge pendulous ears, and with transverse puckers on the forehead and between the eyes. The prevailing colour is tan with large black spots. Blood- hounds, or, as they are sometimes termed, sleuthhounds, have been employed since the time of the Romans in pursuing and hunting down human beings, and a small variety, known as the Cuban bloodhound, probably of Spanish origin, was used to track fugitive negroes in slaveholding times. Bloodhounds quest slowly and carefully, and when they lose the scent cast backwards until they recover the original trail and make a fresh attempt to follow it. Staghounds are close derivatives of the bloodhound, and formerly occurred in England in two strains, known respectively as the northern and southern hounds. Both breeds were large and heavy, with pendulous ears and thick throats with dewlaps. These strains seem to be now extinct, having been replaced by foxhounds, a large variety of which is employed in stag-hunting. The modern English foxhound has been bred from the old northern and southern hounds, and is more lightly built, having been bred for speed and endurance. The favourite and most common colour is black-white-and-tan. The ears are usually artificially clipped so as to present a rounded lower margin. Their dash and vigour in the chase is much greater than that of the bloodhound, foxhounds casting forwards when they have lost the trail. Harriers are a smaller breed of foxhounds, distinguished by their pointed ears, as it is not the custom to trim these. They are used in the pursuit of hares, and, although they are capable of very fast runs, have less endurance than foxhounds, and follow the trail with more care and deliberation. Otterhounds are thick, woolly harriers with oily underfur. They are savage and quarrelsome, but are naturally excellent water-dogs. Beagles are small foxhounds with long bodies and short limbs. They have a full bell-like cry and great cunning and perseverance in the tracking of hares and rabbits. They are relatively slow, and are followed on foot. Turnspits were a small, hound-like race of dogs with long bodies, pendulous ears, out-turned feet and generally black-and-tan coloration. They were employed as animated roasting jacks, turning round and round the wire cage in which they were confined, but with the employment of mechanical jacks their use ceased and the race appears to be extinct. Basset hounds are long and crooked-legged dogs, with pendu- lous ears. They appear to have been produced in Normandy and the Vendee, where they were employed for sporting purposes, and originally were no very definite breed. In comparatively recent times they have been adopted by English fanciers, and a definite strain with special points has been produced. The dachshund, or badger hound, is of German origin, and like the basset hound was originally an elongated distorted hound with crooked legs, employed in baiting and hunting badgers, but now greatly improved and made more definite by the arts of the breeder. The colour is generally black-and-tan or brownish, the body is extremely long and cylindrical; the ears are large and pendulous, the legs broad, thick and twisted, with everted paws. The coat is short, thick and silky, and the tail is long and tapering. The pointers, of which there are breeds slightly differing in most European countries, are descendants of the foxhound which have been taught to follow game by general body scent, not by tracking, nose to the ground, the traces left by the feet of the quarry, and, on approaching within sight of the game, to stand rigid, " pointing " in its direction. The general shape is like that of the foxhound, but the build is lighter and better knit, ajid the coat is soft, whilst white and spotted colorations are preferred. Pointers are employed to mark game for guns, and are especially useful in low cover such as that afforded by turnip fields. DOG PLATE III. BORZOI. GREYHOUND. DEERHOUND. BLOODHOUND. FOX HOUND. HARRIER. OTTER HOUND. AUSTRALIAN TERRIER. VIII. 378- SKYE TERRIER. SCOTCH TERRIER. (From Photos by Bowden Bros.) TYPICAL SPORTING DOGS. BEDLINGTON TERRIER. PLATE IV. DOG Photo, Bowden Bros. POMERANIAN. Plwto, Thus. Fall. ITALIAN GREYHOUND. Photo, Birwden Bros. TOY BULL TERRIER. Photo, Bowden Bros. TOY SPANIEL. I Photo, Walter. BLENHEIM. Photo, Thos. Fall. PAPILLON. Photo, Bowden Bros. SCHIPPERKE. Photo, Bowden Bros. MALTESE. Photo, Thos. Fall. TOY BLACK AND TAN. Photo, Bowden Bros. YORKSHIRE TERRIER. Photo, Bowden Bros. PUG. Photo, Bowden Bros. GRIFFON. Photo, Bowden Bros. JAPANESE. Photo, Bowden Bros. PEKINGESE. TYPICAL TOY DOGS. DOGE 379 The Dalmatian or coach dog (sometimes called the plum- pudding dog) is a lightly built pointer, distinguished by its spotted coloration, consisting of evenly disposed circular black spots on a white ground. The original breed is said to have been used as a pointer in the country from which it takes its name, but has been much modified by the fancier's art, and almost certainly the original strain has been crossed with bull-terriers. Mastiffs are powerful, heavily built dogs, with short muzzles, frequently protruding lower jaws, skulls raised above the eyes, ears erect or pendulous, pendulous upper lips, short coats and thin tails. The English mastiff is a huge and powerful dog with pendent ears but short and silky coat. Fawn and brindle are the colours preferred. The Tibetan mastiff is equally powerful, but has still larger pendent ears, a shaggy coat and a long brush-like tail. Mastiffs are employed for fighting or as watchdogs, and for the most part are of uncertain temper and not high intelligence. The bulldog is a small, compact but extremely heavily built animal of great strength, vigour and tenacity. The lower jaw should be strongly protruding, the ears should be small and erect, the forehead deeply wrinkled with an indentation between the eyes, known as the " stop." The coat should be thick, short and very silky, the favourite colours being white and white marked with brindle. Bulldogs were formerly employed in bull-baiting, and the tenacity of their grip is proverbial. Their ferocious appearance, and not infrequently the habits of their owners, have given this breed a reputation for ferocity and low intelli- gence. As puppies, however, bulldogs are highly intelligent and unusually docile and affectionate, and if well trained retain throughout life an unusual sweetness of disposition, the universal friendliness of which makes them of little use as guardians. The German boarhound is one of the largest races of dogs, originally used in Germany and Denmark for hunting boars or deer, but now employed chiefly as watchdogs. The build is rather slighter than that of the English mastiff, and the ears are small and carried erect. The Great Dane is somewhat similar in general character, but is still more gracefully built, with slender limbs and more pointed muzzle. The ears, naturally pendent at the tips, are always cropped. It is probable that the strain contains greyhound blood. The bull-terrier, as its name implies, is a cross between the bulldog and the smooth terrier. It is a clever, agile and powerful dog, extremely pugnacious in disposition. The pugdog is a dwarf race, probably of mastiff origin, and kept solely as a pet. The Chinese pug is slender legged, with long hair and a bushy tail. Terriers are small dogs of agile and light build, short muzzles, and very highly arched skulls. The brains are large, and the intelligence and educability extraordinarily high. The number of breeds is very large, the two extreme types being the smooth fox-terrier with compact shape, relatively long legs, and the long- bodied, short-legged Skye terrier, with long hair and pendent ears. All the well-known breeds of dogs are highly artificial and their maintenance requires the constant care of the breeder in mating, and in rejecting aberrant progeny. The frequency with which even the most highly cultivated strains produce degenerate offspring is notorious, and is probably the reason for the profound belief in telegenic action asserted by most breeders. When amongst the litter of a properly mated, highly bred fox-terrier, pups are found with long bodies and thick short legs and feet, breeders are disposed to excuse the result by the supposition that the bitch has been contaminated by some earlier mating. There is ample evidence, however, that such departures from type are equally frequent when there was no possibility of earlier mismating (see TELEGONY). Glossary of Points of the Dog. Apple Head. A rounded head, instead of flat on top. Blaze. A white mark up the face. Brisket. The part of body in front of the chest. Brush. The tail, usually applied to sheepdogs. Butterfly Nose. A spotted nose. Button Ear. Where the tip falls over and covers the orifice. Cat Foot. A short round foot, knuckles high and well developed. Cheeky. When the cheek bumps are strongly defined. Chest. Underneath a dog from brisket to belly. Chops. The pendulous lip of the bulldog. Cobby. Well ribbed up, short and compact in proportion. Couplings. Space between tops of shoulder blades and tops of hip joints. Cow Hocks. Hocks that turn in. Dew Claw. Extra claw, found occasionally on all breeds. Dewlap. Pendulous skin under the throat. Dish Faced. When nose is higher than muzzle at the stop. Dudley Nose. A yellow or flesh-coloured nose. Elbow. The joint at the top of the forearm. Feather. The hair at the back of the legs and under the tail. Flag. A term for the tail, applied to a setter. Flews. The pendulous lips of the bloodhound and other breeds. Forearm. Part of foreleg extending from elbow to pastern. Frill. A mass of hair on the chest, especially on collies. Hare Foot. A long narrow foot, carried forward. Haw. Red inside eyelid, shown in bloodhounds and St Bernards. Height. Measured at the shoulder, bending head gently down. Hocks. The hock joints. Hucklebones. Tops of the hip joints. .Knee. The joint attaching fore-pastern and forearm. Leather. The skin of the ear. Occiput. The projecting bone or bump at the back of the head. Overshot. The upper teeth projecting beyond the under. Pastern. Lowest section of leg, below the knee or hock. Pig Jaw. Exaggeration of overshot. Pily. A term applied to soft coat. Rose Ear. Where the tip of ear turns back, showing interior. Septum. The division between the nostrils. Smudge Nose. A nose which is not wholly black, but not spotted. Stifles. The top joints of the hind legs. Stop. The indentation below the eyes, most prominent in bulldogs. Tulip Ear. An erect or pricked ear. Undershot. The lower teeth projecting in front of the upper ones. (W. B.; P. CM.) DOGE (a modified form of the Ital. duca, Lat. dux, a leader, or duke), the title of the chief magistrate in the extinct republics of Venice and Genoa. In Venice the office of doge was first instituted about 700. John the Deacon, referring to this incident in his Chronicon Venetum, written about 1000, says " all the Venetian cities (omnes Venetiae) determined that it would be more honourable henceforth to be under dukes than under tribunes." The result was that the several tribunes were replaced by a single official who was called a doge and who became the head of the whole state. The first doge was Paolo Lucio Anafesto, and some authorities think that the early doges were subject to the authority of the emperors of Constantinople, but in any case this subordination was of short duration. The doge held office for life and was regarded as the ecclesiastical, the civil and the military chief; his duties and prerogatives were not defined with precision and the limits of his ability and ambition were practically the limits of his power. About 800 his independence was slightly diminished by the appointment of two assistants for judicial work, but these officers soon fell into the background and the doge acquired a greater and more irresponsible authority. Concurrently with this process the position was entrusted to members of one or other of the powerful Venetian families, while several doges associated a son with themselves in the ducal office. Matters reached a climax after the fall of the Orseole family in 1026. In 1033, during the dogeship of Dominico Flabianico, this tendency towards a hereditary despotism was checked by a law which decreed that no doge had the right to associate any member of his family with himself in his office, or to name his successor. It was probably at this time also that two councillors were appointed to advise the doge, who must, moreover, invite the aid of prominent citizens when discussing important matters of state. In 1172 a still more important change was introduced. The ducal councillors were increased in number from two to six; universal suffrage, which theoretically still existed, was replaced by a system which entrusted the election of the doge to a committee of eleven, who were chosen by a great council of 480 members, the great council being nominated annually by twelve persons. When a new doge was chosen he was presented to the people with the formula "this is your doge, if it please you." Nominally the citizens confirmed the election, thus maintaining as a constitutional fiction the right of the whole people to choose their chief magistrate. Five years 38o DOG-FISH—DOGGER BANK later this committee of eleven gave way to a committee of forty who were chosen by four persons selected by the great council. After the abdication of Doge Pietro Ziani in 1229 two com- missions were appointed which obtained a permanent place in the constitution and which gave emphatic testimony to the fact that the doge was merely the highest servant of the community. The first of these commissions consisted of five Correttori della promissione ducale, whose duty was to consider if any change ought to be made in the terms of the oath of investiture (promissione) administered to each incoming doge, this oath, which was prepared by three officials, being a potent factor in limiting the powers of the doge. The second commission con- sisted of three inquisitori sopra il doge defunto, their business being to examine and pass judgment upon the acts of a deceased doge, whose estate was liable to be mulcted in accordance with their decision. In consequence of a tie at the election of 1 2 29 the number of electors was increased from forty to forty-one. The official income of the doge was never large, and from early times many holders of the office were engaged in trading ventures. One of the principal duties of the doge was to celebrate the symbolic marriage of Venice with the sea. This was done by casting a precious ring from the state ship, the " Bucentaur," into the Adriatic. In its earlier form this ceremony was instituted to commemorate the conquest of Dalmatia by Doge Pietro Orseole II. in looo, and was celebrated on Ascension day. It took its later and more magnificent form after the visit of Pope Alexander III. and the emperor Frederick I. to Venice in 1177. New regulations for the elections of the doge were introduced in 1268, and, with some modifications, these remained in force until the end of the republic. Their object was to minimize as far as possible the influence of the individual families, and this was effected by a very complex machinery. Thirty members of the great council, chosen by lot, were reduced, again by lot, to nine; the nine chose forty and the forty were reduced by lot to twelve, who chose twenty-five. The twenty-five were reduced by lot to nine and the nine elected forty-five. Then the forty-five were reduced by lot to eleven, and the eleven chose the forty-one, who actually elected the doge. As the oligarchical element in the con- stitution developed, the more important functions of the ducal office were assigned to other officials, or to administrative boards, and he who had once been the pilot of the ship became little more than an animated figurehead, properly draped and garnished. On state occasions he was surrounded by an increasing amount of ceremonial, and in international relations he had the status of a sovereign prince of the first rank. But he was under the strictest surveillance. He must wait for the presence of other officials before opening despatches from foreign powers; he was for- bidden to leave the city and was not allowed to possess any property in a foreign land. To quote H. F. Brown, " his pomp was splendid, his power limited; he appears as a symbol rather than as a factor in the constitution, the outward and visible sign of the impersonal oligarchy." The office, however, was main- tained until the closing days of the republic, and from time to time it was held by men who were able to make it something more than a sonorous title. The last doge was Lodovico Manin, who abdicated in May 1797, when Venice passed under the power of Napoleon. In Genoa the institution of the doge dates from 1339. At first he was elected without restriction and by popular suffrage, holding office for life; but after the reform effected by Andrea Doria in 1528 the term of his office was reduced to two years. At the same time plebeians were declared ineligible, and the appoint- ment of the doge was entrusted to the members of the great and the little councils, who employed for this purpose a machinery almost as complex as that of the later Venetians. The Napoleonic Wars put an end to the office of doge at Genoa. See Cecchetti, // Doge di Venezia (1864); Musatti, Storia della promissione ducale (Padua, 1888); and H. F. Brown, Venice: a Historical Sketch (1893). DOG-FISH, a name applied to several species of the smaller sharks, and given in common with such names as hound and beagle, owing to the habit these fishes have of pursuing or hunt- ing their prey in packs. The small-spotted dog-fish or rough hound (Scyllium canicula) and the large-spotted or nurse hound (Scyllium catulus) are also known as ground-sharks. They keep near the sea bottom, feeding chiefly on the smaller fishes and Crustacea, and causing great annoyance to the fishermen by the readiness with which they take bait. They differ from the majority of sharks, and resemble the rays in being oviparous. The eggs are enclosed in semi-transparent horny cases, known on the British coasts as " mermaids' purses," and these have tendril- like prolongations from each of the four corners, by means of which they are moored to sea-weed or some other fixed object near the shore, until the young dog-fish is ready to make its exit. The larger of these species attains a length of 4 to 5 ft., the smaller rarely more than 30 in. The picked dog-fish (Acanthias vulgaris, formerly known as Squalus acanthias) is pre-eminently the dog- fish. It is the most abundant of the British sharks, and occurs in the temperate seas of both northern, and southern hemispheres. It attains a length of 4 ft., but the usual length is 2 to 3 ft., the female, as in most sharks, being larger than the male. The body is round and tapering, the snout projects, and the mouth is placed ventrally some distance from the end of the snout. There are two dorsal fins, each of which is armed on its anterior edge with a sharp and slightly curved spine, hence its name " picked." This species is viviparous, the female producing five to nine young at a birth; the young when born are 9 to 10 in. long and quite similar to the parents in all respects except size. It is gregarious, and is abundant at all seasons everywhere on the British coasts. In 1858 an enormous shoal of dog-fish, many square miles in extent, appeared in the north of Scotland, when, says J. Couch, " they were to be found floating in myriads on the surface of every harbour." They are the special enemies of the fisherman, injuring his nets, removing the hooks from his lines, and spoiling his fish for the market by biting pieces out of them as they hang on his lines. They are however eaten, both fresh and salted, by fishermen, especially on the west coast of England, and they are sold regularly in the French markets. DOGGER BANK, an extensive shoal in the North Sea, about 60 m. E. of the coast of Northumberland, England. Over its most elevated parts there is a depth of only about six fathoms, but the depth is generally from ten to twenty fathoms. It is well known as a fishing ground. The origin of the name is obscure ; but the middle Dutch dogger signifies a trawling vessel, and was formerly applied generally to the two-masted type of vessel employed in the North Sea fisheries, and also to their crews (doggermen) and the fish taken (dogger-fish). Off the south end of the bank an engagement took place between English and Dutch fleets in 1781. On the night of the 2ist of October 1904 during the Russo- Japanese War, some British trawlers of the Hull fishing fleet were fired upon by vessels of the Russian Baltic fleet under Admiral Rozhdestvensky on its voyage to the Far East, one trawler being sunk, other boats injured, two men killed and six wounded. This incident created an acute crisis in the relations between Russia and England for several days, the Russian version being that they had seen Japanese torpedo-boats, but on the 28th Mr Balfour, the English prime minister, announced that the tsar had expressed regret and that an international commission would investigate the facts with a view to the punishment of any responsible parties. The terms were settled on 25th November, the com- mission being composed of five officers (British, Russian, American and French, and one selected by them) , to meet in Paris. On the 22nd of December the four original members, Vice-admiral Sir Lewis Beaumont, Vice-admiral Kaznakov (afterwards replaced by Vice-admiral Dubassov), Rear-admiral Davis and Vice-admiral Fournier, met and chose Admiral Baron von Spaun (Austria- Hungary) as the fifth. Their report was issued on the 25th of February 1905. While recognizing that the information received as to a possible attack led the admiral to mistake the trawlers for theenemy, the majorityof thecommissioners held Rozhdestvensky responsible for the firing and its results, and " being of opinion that there were no torpedo-boats either among the trawlers nor anywhere near " concluded that " the opening of fire was not justifiable," though they absolved him and his squadron from DOGGETT— DOGMA discredit either to their " military qualities " or their " humanity." The affair ended in compensation being paid by the Russian government. DOGGETT (or DOGGET), THOMAS (d. 1721), English actor, was born in Dublin, and made his first appearance in London in 1691 as Nincompoop in D'Urfey's Love for Money. In this part, and as Solon in the same author's Marriage-hater matched, he gained the favour of the public. He followed Betterton to Lincoln's Inn Fields, creating the part of Ben, especially written for him, in Congreve's Love for Love, with which the theatre opened (1695); and next year played Young Hobb in his own The Country Wake. He was associated with Gibber and others in the management of the Haymarket and Drury Lane, and he continued to play comedy parts at the former until his retirement in 1713. Doggett is highly spoken of by his contemporaries, both as an actor and as a man, and is frequently referred to in The Taller and Spectator. It was he who in 1715 founded the prize of " Doggett's Coat and Badge " in honour of the house of Hanover, " in commemoration of his Majesty King George's happy Accession to the Brittish Throne." The prize was a red coat with a large silver badge on the arm, bearing the white horse of Hanover, and the race had to be rowed annually on the ist of August on the Thames, by six young watermen who were not to have exceeded the time of their apprenticeship by twelve months. Although the first contest took place in 1715, the names of the winners have only been preserved since 1791. The race is still rowed each year, but under modified conditions. See Thomas Doggett, Deceased (London, 1908). DOGMA (Gr. doyfta, from SOKUV, to seem; literally " that which seems, sc. good or true or useful " to any one), a term which has passed through many senses both general and technical, and is now chiefly used in theology. In Greek constitutional history the decision of — " that which seemed good to " — an assembly was called a 56-yna (i.e. decree), and throughout its history the word has generally implied a decision, or body of decisions or opinions, officially adopted and regarded by those who make it as possess- ing authority. As a technical term in theology, it has various shades of meaning according to the degree of authority which is postulated and the nature of the evidence on which it is based. Thus it has been used broadly of all theological doctrines, and also in a narrower sense of fundamental beliefs only, confession of which is insisted upon as a term of church communion. By sceptics the word " dogma " is generally used contemptuously, for an opinion grounded not upon evidence but upon assertion; and this attitude is so far justified from the purely empirical standpoint that theological dogmas deal with subjects which, by their very nature, are not susceptible of demonstration by the methods of physical science. Again, popularly, an unproved ex cathedra statement of any kind is called " dogmatic," with perhaps an insinuation that it is being obstinately adhered to without, or beyond, or in defiance of, obtainable evidence. But again to " dogmatize " may mean simply to assert, instead of hesitating or suspending judgment. Three pre-Christian or extra-ecclesiastical usages are recorded by a half-heretical churchman, Marcellus of Ancyra (in Eusebius of Caesarea, Contra Marcellum, i. 4); — words which Adolf Harnack has placed on the title-page of his larger History of Dogma. First there is a medical usage — empirical versus dogmatic medicine. On this old-world technical controversy we need not dwell. Secondly, there is a philosophical usage (e.g. Cicero, Seneca and others). First principles — speculative or practical- are Soynara, Lat. decreta, scita or placita. The strongest state- ment regarding the inviolability of such dogmas is in Cicero's Academics, ii. chap. 9. But we have to remember that this is dialogue; that the speaker, Hortensius, represents a more dogmatic type of opinion than Cicero's own; that it is the maxims of " wisdom," not of any special school, which are described as unchangeable.1 Marcellus's third type of dogma is 1 Sextus Empiricus (c. A.D. 240) denounces all forms of dogmatism, even perhaps the scepticism of definite denial. Blaise Pascal and Immanuel Kant, among others, have Sextus's grouping in mind when they oppose themselves to "dogmatism" and "scepticism" legal or political, the decree (says Marcellus) of the legislative assembly; but it might also be of the emperor (Luke ii. i; Acts xvii. 7), or of a church gathering (Acts xvi. 4), or of Old Testa- ment law; so especially in Philo the Jew, and in Flavius Josephus (even perhaps at Contra Apionem, i. 8). While the New Testament knows only the political usage of , the Greek Fathers follow one which is more in keeping with philosophical tradition. With few and early exceptions, such as we may note in the Epistle of Barnabas, chap, i., they confine the word to doctrine. Either dogma (sing.) or dogmas (plural) may be spoken of. Actually, as J. B. Lightfoot points out, the best Greek com- mentators among the Fathers are so dominated by this new usage, that they misinterpret Col. ii. 14 (20) and Eph. ii. 15 of Christian doctrines. Along with this goes the fundamental Catholic view of " dogmatic faith " — the expression is as old as Cyril of Jerusalem (died 386), if not older — according to which it consists in obedient assent to the voice of authority. All doctrines are " dogmas " to the Greek Fathers, not simply the central teachings of their system, as with the philosophers. Very noteworthy is Cyril of Jerusalem's fourth Catechetical Discourse on the " Ten Dogmas " (we might render " Ten Great Doctrines "). The figure ten may be taken from the commandments,2 as in Gregory Nazianzen's later, and more incidental, decalogue of belief. In any case, Cyril marks out the way for the subsequent division of the creeds into twelve or fourteen " articles " or heads of belief (see below). In saying that all doctrines rank as " dogmas " during the Greek period, we ought to add a qualification. They do so, in so far as they are held to be of authority. Clement of Alexandria or Origen would not call his speculations dogmas. Yet these audacious spirits start from a basis of authority, and insist upon bpOoTOn'ia doyfiaruv (Stromata, vii. 763). The " dogma " or " dogmas " of heretics are frequently mentioned by orthodox writers. There can be no question of confining even orthodox " dogma " to conciliar decisions in an age when definition is so incomplete; still, we do meet with references to the Nicene " dogma " (e.g. letter in Theodoret, H.E. ii. 15). But dogma is not yet technical for what is Christian or churchly. The word which emerges in Greek for that purpose is " orthodox," " orthodoxy," as in John of Damascus (d. 760), or as in the official title still claimed by the Holy Orthodox Church of the East. Latin Fathers borrow the word " dogma," though sparingly, and employ it in all the Greek usages. Something novel is added by Jerome's phrase (in the De viris illustribus, cc. xxxi., cix.) ecclesiastica dogmata, — found again in the title of the treatise now generally ascribed to Gennadius, and occurring once more in another writer of southern Gaul.3 The phrase is a serviceable one, contrasting church teachings with heretical " dogmas." But the main Latin use of dogma in patristic times is found in Vincent of Lerins (d. c. 450) in his brief but influential Commonitorium; again from southern Gaul. Thereafter the usage gradually drops. In Thomas Aquinas 4 it does not once occur. On the other hand •*fed/eva/ Thomas has his own technical name — doctrine (sing.) or rather sacra doctrina; and this expression holds its ground, though the usage of Abelard, Theologia, was destined to an even more important place (see THEOLOGY). Another medieval usage of importance is the division of the creed into twelve articles corresponding to the number of the apostles, who, according to a legend already found in Rufinus (d. 410) On the Apostles' Creed, composed that formula by contributing each a single sentence. alike. A new shade of condemnation for dogmas as things merely assumed comes to be noticeable here, especially in Kant. 2 But there is a variant reading — eleven — supported by a different arrangement. 3 Quoted by C. H. Turner in Journal of Theol. Studies (Oct. 1906, and cf. Oct. 1905). G. Elmenhorst's statement, that Musanus and Didymus in an earlier age wrote treatises with the name De ecclesi- asticis dogmatibus, seems a plain blunder, if we compare Jerome's Latin with Eusebius's Greek. * " So viel uns bekannt "— J. B. Heinrich, " Dogma," in Wetzer and Welte's (Catholic) Kirchenlexikon. 382 DOGMA The division is found applied also to the " Nicene-Constantino- politan " creed, both in East and West. Sometimes fourteen articles are detected (in either creed), 7+7; the sacred number twice over.1 The Reformation set up a new idea of faith, or recurred to one of the oldest of all. Faith was not belief in authoritative teach- ings; it was trust in the promises of God and in Jesus format/on. Christ as their fulfilment. But the Protestant view was apt to seem intangible, and the influence of the learned tradition was strong — for a time, indeed, doctrine was more cultivated among Protestants than in the Church of Rome. The result was a structure which is well named the Protestant scholasticism. The new view of faith is bracketed with the old, and practically neutralized by it; as was already the case in Melanchthon's theological definitions in the 1552-1553 edition of Loci Communes, also printed in other works by him. This brings back again the Catholic view of " dogmatic faith." The word " article " for a time holds the field. Pope Leo X. in 1520 condemns among other propositions of Martin Luther's the twenty-seventh — " Cerium est in manu Papae, out ecclesiae, prorsus non esse statuere articulos fidei (imo nee leges morum seu bonorum operum)." The Augsburg Confession (1530) is divided into numerous "articles," while Luther's Lesser Catechism gathers Christianity under three " articles " — Creation, Redemption, Sanctification. Where moderns would speak of the " doctrine " of this or that, Lutherans especially, but also churchmen of other communions, wrote upon this or that " article." Nikolaus Hunnius (Sider/ce^is, &c., 1626), A. Quenstedt (c. 1685) and others — in a controversial interest, to blacken the Calvinists still more— distinguished which articles were " fundamental." Modern Lutheranism (G. Thomasius, Dogmengeschichte, 1874-1876, influenced by T. F. D. Kliefoth 1839) speaks rather of "central dogmas";2 and the Roman Catholic J. B. Heinrich3 is willing to speak of "fundamental dogmas," those which must be known for salvation; those for which " implicit " faith does not suffice. When Addis and Arnold's Catholic Dictionary denounces the conception of central dogmas, what they desire to exclude as uncatholic is the belief that dogmas lying upon the circumference may be questioned or perhaps denied.4 This suggests the great ambiguity both in Roman Catholic and Protestant writers of the I7th century as to the relation between " articles " and " dogmas." Many writers in each communion felt that an "article" is a higher thing. Others, in each communion, made the identification absolute. Perhaps the Roman theologians of that age were more concerned than the Protestants to draw a line round necessary truths. This attempt was made by Dr Henry Holden (Div. Fidei Analysis, 1652) in connexion with the word " articles.5" Another term to be considered is decretum, the old Latin equivalent for 66-y/m- Another of Luther's assertions branded Decreta ^7 t^6 P°Pe in I52° — the twenty-ninth — claimed liberty judicandi conciliorum decreta. On the other hand, the Augsburg Confession protests its loyalty to the decretum of Nice. What Protestantism saw in the distant past, Trent naturally recognized in the present. Every one of its own find- ings is a decretum — except five, among the sacramental chapters, each of which is headed doctrina. Holden again quotes the (indefinite) decretum of the Council of Basel regarding the Immaculate Conception. The word " dogma " was however to revive, and, with more or less success, to differentiate itself from " doctrine." Early writers of the modern period, Protestant or Roman Catholic, use 1 See G. Hoffmann, Fides implicita, vol. i. (1903), pp. 82, &c. ; and cf. the 17th-century creed of Bishop Mogilas adopted by the whole Greek Church. _2A. Schweizer's Protestant Central Dogmas (1854-1856) was an historical study of Reformed, i.e. Calvinist-Zwinglian theology. " Dogma,' &c., in Wetzer and Welte's Kirchenlexikon. 4 The distinction^ of pure and mixed articles — those of revelation and those taught in common by revelation and natural theology -^reappears in modern Roman Catholic theology as a distinction between pure and mixed dogmas. * Luther's Schmalkalden Articles and the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England should also be mentioned. in revived use. it frequently of heretics; thus the Augsburg Confession protests that the Protestants have carefully avoided nova dogmata. A Roman Catholic writer, Jan Driedo of Louvain, revives the reference to Ecclesiaslica dogmata — De D°zmat* ecclesiasticis scripturis el dogmatibus (1533) — using the word, though not exclusively yet emphatically, of teachings extra canonem scripturae sacrae. Philip Melanchthon's preface to his Loci communes (ed. 1535) protests that he has not expressed himself de ullo dogmate — on any point of doctrine — without careful consideration of what has been said before him. Richard Hooker (d. 1600) in bk. viii. of Eccl. Polity (pub. 1648 or perhaps 1651) quotes Thomas Stapleton, the Roman Catholic (De principiis doctrinalibus fidei, 1579), on the royal right or duty to enforce " dogmas," and adds a gloss of his own — " very articles of the faith," — a surprising and probably isolated usage. Many identified Dogmas and Articles by levelling down or broadening out; but Hooker levels up. The statement of the Council of Trent (1545-1562) may be quoted here. The Council will rely chiefly upon Scripture * in reformandls dogmatibus et instaurandis in ecclesia moribus; the Roman reply to the two sets of articuli of Augsburg, and the Roman counterpart to the (later) Protestant assertion that the Bible7 is the "only rule of faith and practice." At Trent, therefore, once more, dogma means doctrine. It still means " doctrine " when the collected decreta of Trent bear on their title-page (1564) reference to an Index dogmatum et reformations; but here " dogma " is already verging towards the narrower and more precise sense — truth de- fined by church authority. In other words, it is already edging away from its identification with (all or any) doctrines. On the Protestant side the identity is still clear in the Lutheran Formula of Concord (1577). This creed formulates its relation to Scripture over and over, as the one regula by which all dogmata are to be tried. That characteristic Protestant assertion had been still earlier pushed to the front in " Reformed " creeds, e.g. the First Helvetic Confession (1536), and more notably in the Second (1566). Protestant creeds had clearly affirmed that nothing possessed authority which was not in Scripture: in a short time, Protestant theologians — following an impulse common to all Christian communions — define more sharply the identity of what is authoritative with the letter of Scripture, and call these entire contents dogmas. Here then, under Protestant scholasticism (Lutheran and Reformed), we have the first perfectly definite conception of dogma, and the most definite ever reached. Dogma is the whole text of the Bible, doctrinal, historical, scientific, or what not. Thus dogma is revealed and is infallibly true. Dogma is doctrine, viz. that body of doctrines and related facts which God Himself has propounded for dogmatic faith. Every true dogma, says Johann Gerhard 8 — the most representative figure of Lutheran scholasticism — occurs in plain terms somewhere in Scripture. Over against these sweeping assumptions and deductions, the Roman Catholic Church had to build up its own statement of the basis of belief. Its early controversialists — like Driedo or Cardinal Bellarmine — meet assertions such as Gerhard's with a flat denial. The great dogmas are not, literally and verbally, in the Bible. Along with the Bible we must accept unwritten traditions; the Council of Trent makes this perfectly clear. But not any and every tradition; only such as the church stamps with her approval. And that raises the question whether the church has not a further part to play? A. M. Fairbairn holds that D. Petavius's great work De theologicis dogmatibus (especially the ist vol., 1644) made the word " dogma " current for doctrines which were authoritative as formulated by the church. We must keep in mind, however, that the question is not simply one as to the meaning of a word. The equation holds, more firmly than ever; dogma = the contents of 6 That seems to be what is meant. 7 Early Protestantism lived too much in the thought of j ustification to mark out the boundaries of creed with this scholastic precision. 8 Loci communes (1610-1622), on Interpretation of Sacred Scripture, ix. 149. Definition In Pro- testaat scholas- ticism. replies. DOGMA 383 faith. It has to be established on the Roman Catholic side that faith (or dogma; the two are inseparable) deals with divine truths historically revealed long ago but now administered with authority, according to God's will, by the church. The English- man Henry Holden (see above), the Frenchman Veronius (Francois Veron, S.J., 1575-1649) in his Regie generate de la foy catholique (1652), the German Philipp Neri Chrismann,1 in his Regulafidei catholicae et collectio dogmalum credendorum (1792),* all work at this task. Dogmas or articles of faith (taken as synonymous) depend upon revelation in Scripture or tradition, as confirmed by the church whether acting in general councils or through the pope (in some undefined way; Holden) — in general councils or by universal consent (Chrismann; of bishops ? the definite Gallican theory?). Veronius is willing to waive the difficult point of church infallibility as the Council of Trent did not define it. Holden insists strongly upon infallibility. Church traditions are infallible; and church dogmas reach us (from the original revelation) through an infallible medium, the Catholic Church, which the Protestants sadly lack. In Chrismann the word " dogma " has superseded the word " article "; Holden uses both, though " article " has the preponderance. All three writers seek to draw a sharp line round what is " of faith." Hence in Chrismann (who is in other respects the most definite of the three) we have a view of dogma almost as clear-cut as that of the Protestant schoolmen. Dogmas are revealed; dogmas are infallible; the church is infallible on dogmas (for this statement he cites Muratori) and on nothing else. This whole period of theology, Protestant and Roman Catholic, is statical. Men are defining and protecting the positions they have inherited; they do not think of progress. And yet the Roman Catholic Church had upon its hands one great unsettled question — the thesis of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin. This became the standing type of an assertion which, while favoured by the church and on the very verge of dogma, was yet not a dogma3 — till the definition came through Pius IX. in 1854. Here then the frontier of dogma had unquestionably moved forward. Its conception must become dynamic; there was need of some theory of development like J. H. Newman's (1845). It does not happen, however, that the papal definition of 1854 employs the word " dogma "; that honour was withheld from the word until the Vatican decrees of 1870 affirmed the personal infallibility of the pope as divinitus revclalum dogma. With this, one line of tendency in Roman Catholic doctrine reached its climax; the pope and the council use " dogma " in a distinctive sense for what is definitely formulated by authority. But there is another line of tendency. The same council defines not indeed dogma but faith — inseparable from dogma — as4 (1) revealed, (a) in Scripture or (6) in unwritten tradition, and (2) taught by the church, (a) in formulated decrees, or (6) in her ordinary magisterium. This is a correction of Chrismann. Not only does the correction involve the substitution of papal authority for a universal consent of " pastors " and " the faithful "; it also deliberately ranks the unformulated teachings of the church on points of doctrine as no less de fide than those formulated. This amounts to a serious warning against trying to draw a definite line round dogma. The modern Roman Catholic temper must be eager to believe and eager to submit. New dogmas have been precipitated more than once during the igth century; there may still be others held in solution in the church's teaching. If so, these are likely one day to crystallize into full dogmas; and, even while not yet " declared," they have the same claim upon faith. Thus there seems to be a measure of uncertainty as to what the Church of Rome now calls " dogma " — only in part relieved by 1 Three writers mentioned in Wetzer's and Welte's Kirchenlexikon. 'Also quoted as having appeared 1745, but that is an error; he quotes F. A. Blau, On the Rule of Faith (Mainz, 1780). See further the sketch of Chrismann in Allgemeine deutsche Biographic, supple- ment. * G. Perrone, e.g. De immaculate B. V. Mariae conceptu; an dogmatico decreto definiri possil? (1847). 4 These divisions and subdivisions are not numbered in the Decrees, as for clearness they have been numbered above. the distinction between " dogmas strictly " and mere " dogmatic truths." Again, the assertion that the church is infallible upon some questions, not belonging to the area of revelation (properly so-called in Roman Catholic theology), destroys the identification of " dogmas " with " infallible certainties " which we noted both in the Protestant schoolmen and in Chrismann. The identifica- tion of dogma with revelation remains, with another distinction in support of it, between " material dogmas " (all scriptural or traditional truth) and " formal " or ecclesiastically formulated dogmas.6 On the other hand, there is absolute certainty on a point long disputed. Questions about church authority are henceforth questions about the pope's authority. What he calls heresy, under the sanction of excommunication or that more formal excommunication known as anathema, is heresy. What he finds it necessary to condemn even in milder terms as bad doctrine is infallibily condemned; that is certain, Roman Catholic theologians tell us, though not yet de fide. Finally we have to glance at a new list of definitions which perhaps in some cases seek more or less to formulate modern Protestant ideas, but which in general represent rather the world of disinterested historical scholarship. That world of the learned offers us non-dogmatic definitions, drawn up from the outside; definitions which do not share the root assumptions either of Catholicism or of post-Reformation Protestant orthodoxy. It might have been best to surrender the term " dogma " to the dogmatists; but few scholars have consented to do so. 1. We may brush aside the view6 for which J. C. Doderlein, J. A. A. Tittmann, and more recently C. F. A. Kahnis are quoted. According to this definition, " dogma " means the opinion of some individual theologian of distinction. That might be a conceivable development of usage. It has been said that persons who dislike authority often show great devotion to " authorities "; and the word dogma might make a similar transition. But, in its case, such a usage would constitute a violent break with the past. 2. Though there is no formal definition in the passage, it is worth recording that, towards the end of his Chief End of Revela- tion (1881), A. B. Bruce sharply contrasts " dogmas of theology " with "doctrines of faith."7 While he manifests no wholesale dislike to doctrine, such as is seen in the Broad Church school, Bruce inverts the Catholic estimate. Dogma stands lowest, not highest. It seems hardly better than a cap-ut mortuum, out of relation to the original faith or the original facts that are held to have given it birth. There is more than a touch of Matthew Arnold in this; though, while Arnold held nothing in religious experience beyond morality to be objectively genuine, Bruce believed in God's " gracious " purpose. 8 3. Much more like Chrismann's view is the " generally accepted position " among Protestant scholars, as its leading representative to-day, F. Loofs, has called it;9 the doctrine enforced within any one church community is dogma. This definition is significant. It means that historians recognize the peculiar importance of those beliefs which are constitutive of church agreement; and it finds some support from the philo- sophical and political associations of ancient " dogma." Also Roman Catholic writers could accept the definition in so far as 6 Three zones apparently (i) the church's formal decrees, (2) the church's general teaching, (3) points of revelation which the church may not yet have overtaken. Per contra, much that was only " implicit ' in the deposit of faith has become " explicit " in dogma. (The reader must note that " implicit " is used here in a different sense from that referred to earlier in this article. Here, church dogma has explicated what was implicit in revelation. There, the un- learned accept by implication, i.e. by a general acceptance of church belief and teaching, dogmas they perhaps have never heard of. Both usages are current in Roman Catholic theology.) 6 Or the view of D. Schenkel, that dogma is what is enforced by civil and criminal law. 7 Cf. also preface to 2nd ed. pp. ix., x. 8 Cf. pp. 279, 280; the undogmatic words of religious emotion are " thrown out," not at " a cloud mistaken for a mountain," but at a " majestic " and " veritable mountain range." 9 See art. " Dogmengeschichte " in Herzog-Hauck's Realencykl. fiir prot. Theol. Cf. also Prof. Loofs's Leitfaden zum Studium der Dogmengeschichte. DOGMATIC THEOLOGY their own church's authoritative teachings are concerned. But can a historian separate the opinions which rose to authority in the church from the other opinions which succumbed? Or the accepted modifications of a theory from those which were rejected? Again, can we substitute church authority for that which is always the background of " dogma " as interpreted from inside — divine authority?1 Or, again, can we say definitely which doctrines are " enforced " in Protestant communions and so are " dogmas "? It has even been asserted by A. Schweizer (Chrislliche Glaubenslehre nach prot. Grundsatzen, 1863-1872) that Protestantism ought not to speak of dogmas at all, except as things of its imperfect past. * And historically it seems plain that — since the age of Protestant scholasticism — there has been nothing in Protestant church life to which the name " dogma " can be assigned, without dropping a good deal of its original connotation. Dogma is no longer3 held to be of immediate divine authority. Hence Catholic, and scientific or historical, definitions of dogma are on different planes. They never properly meet.4 4. A. Harnack varies in his usage. He is not prepared to exclude the great medieval pronouncements, or the modern Roman Catholic definitions, from the list of dogmas; but on the whole he prefers to keep in view " one historical species " — Loofs suggests that he ought perhaps rather to say one individual type — that greatest group of Christian dogmas which " was created by the Greek spirit upon the soil of the gospel " (Hist, of Dogma, Eng. tr., vol. i. pp. 17, 21, 22). Thus Harnack agrees with Catholic theologians in holding that, in the fullest sense, there is no dogma except the Catholic. He differs, of course, in holding dogma to be obsolete now. While Protestants, he thinks, have undermined it by a deeper conception of faith,6 Roman Catholics have come to attach more value to obedience and " implicit belief " than to knowledge; and even the Eastern Church lives to-day by the cultus more than by the vision of supernatural truth. Again, Harnack gravely differs from Catholic dogmatists in assigning a historical origin to what in their view is essentially divine — supernatural in origin, supernatural even in its declaration by the church. If they do not deny that Greek philosophy has entered into Christian doctrine, they consider it a colourless medium used in fixing the contents of revelation. In all this, Harnack speaks from a point of view of his own. He is no friend of Catholicism or of dogma. Perhaps his detachment makes for clearness of thought; Loofs's friendliness towards dogma, but in a much humbler sense than the Catholic, involves the risk of confusion. Both Loofs and Harnack contrast with " dogma " the work of individual thinkers, calling the latter " theology." Hence they and other authorities wish to see " History of Dogma " supplemented by " Histories of Theology." Our usual English phrase " History of Doctrine " ignores that distinction. 5. A place must be made for the definition proposed by a philosopher, J. M. E. McTaggart. In Some Dogmas of Religion (1906), he uses " dogma " of affirmations, whether supported by reasoning or merely asserted, if they claim " metaphysical " value, metaphysics being defined as " the systematic study of the ultimate nature of reality." Briefly, a dogma is what claims ultimate, not relative, truth. This agrees with one feature in ordinary literary usage — the contrast between " dogmatizing " and suspending judgment, or taking refuge in conjecture. But it 1 It should be noted that Loofs does not speak merely as a historian. He places himself in a sense within the dogmatic circle by his declara- tion that guidance is to be expected from developments — in a " free Protestant evangelical spirit "-^-out of the old confessions of the Protestant churches. This belief may be called what Loofs has called Harnack's definition of dogma — individuell berechtigt, and perhaps nur individuell. Others, who hold no less strongly to theological progress by evolution, not revolution, will hesitate to grant that the line of advance passes through the symbolical books. * Cf. DOGMATIC THEOLOGY, and the footnote above. * Unless in certain confined circles. 4 When Loofs declares (art. "Dogmengeschichte " in Herzog- Hauck's Realencykl., 1898) that dogma is historically equivalent to regula fidei, he is in flat contradiction to the " dogma " of his own church as stated in the Formula of Concord. See above. 6 Here perhaps Harnack speaks from inside his own type of religious faith ; but not from inside dogma. ignores another quality marked out in common speech — that in respect of which " dogmatism " is opposed to proof. Also it omits the political or social reference so much insisted on by Loofs and others. There are materials for misunderstanding here. 6. A very different view is implied in the symbolo-fideisme of Athanase Sabatier and some other French Protestants: religious dogma consists of symbols in contrast to a scientific gnosis of reality. This is a radical version of the early Protestant idea of faith, and yields a theory of what in English we call " doctrine." More precisely, it is a theory of what doctrine ought to be, or a deeper analysis of its nature; it is not a statement of what doctrine has been held to be in the past. And therefore the definition does not proceed from historical scholarship. Nor yet does it throw light upon " dogma," if dogma is to be distinguished — somehow — from doctrine. LITERATURE. — Matthew Arnold's Literature, and Dogma (1873)13 important for literary usage: cf. A. B. Bruce, op.cit. Classical and early Christian usages, E. Hatch, Hibbert Led. (1888), pp. 119. 120; J. B. Lightfoot on Colossians ii. 14 (20); W. Schmidt, Dogmatik, vol. i. (1895) — many quotations in extenso; C. Stange, Das Dogma und seine Beurleilung in der neueren Dogmengeschichte (1898) — a pamphlet protesting against what Loofs terms the " generally accepted view." Articles in the (Roman Catholic) Kirchenlexikon of WetzerandWelte.znded; (by Hergenrother and Kaulen), 1882-1901, Arts. " Dogmatik " (J. KSstlin), " Dogmengeschichte " (F. Loofs) in Herzog-Hauck's Encykl. f. prot. Theol. (vol. iv., 1898). Art. " Glaubensartikel " in previous ed. (Herzog-Plitt, vol. v., 1879) by C. F. Kline; and L. F. Schoeberlein. For works on the history of dogma see THEOLOGY. See also DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. (R. MA.) DOGMATIC THEOLOGY, the name usually given in modern times to the systematic study of Christian doctrine or of dogma in the widest sense possible (see DOGMA). Among the many terms used in the early days of Protestant theology to denote the great systems, three deserve special notice — Thetic Theology, Positive Theology, Dogmatic Theology. " Thetic theology " is connected with academic life. It recalls the literal and original meaning of graduation " theses," also Martin Luther's memorable theses and the replies made to him. " Thetic theology," a name now obsolete, naturally included the whole of doctrine, i.e. what- ever would be argued for or against; and " dogmatic theology " came into use absolutely as a synonymous expression. " Positive theology " is also a term employed by Petau (De theologicis dogmatibus, 1644-1650), and more or less current even to-day in Roman Catholic scholarship (e.g. Joseph Turmel, Histoire de la theologie positive, 1906). " Dogmatic theology " proved to have most vitality in it. After some partial precedents of early date (e.g. F. Turrianus — one of the papal theologians at the Council of Trent, — Dogmaticus (liber?) de Justification, 1557), the title was used in 1659 by the Lutheran Lukas Friedrich Reinhard (1623- 1688), professor of theology at Altdorf (Synopsis theologiae dogmaticae, eds. 1659, 1660, 1661), and his influence is already seen on the Reformed theologian Andreas van Essen (Essenius, 1618-1677), who, in 1659, published his Systematis theologiae pars prior, the tomus secundus in 1661, but Systematis dogmalici tomus tertius et ultimus in 1665. The same author published a shorter Compendium theologiae dogmaticum in 1669. A. M. Fairbairn holds that it was the fame of Petau which gave currency to the new coinage " dogmatic theology "; and though the same or kindred phrases had been used repeatedly by writers of less influence since Reinhard and Essenius, F. Buddeus (Instiluliones theol. dogmat., 1723; Compendium, 1728) is held to have given the expression its supremacy. Noel Alexandre, the Gallican divine, possibly introduced it in the Roman Catholic Church (1693; Theologia dogmatica et moralis). Both Roman Catholic and Protestant authorities agree that the expression was con- nected with the new habit of distinguishing dogmatics from Christian ethics or moral theology, though A. Schweizer denies this of Reinhard. In another direction dogmas and dogmatic theology were also contrasted with truths of reason and natural theology.6 F. E. D. Schleiermacher, in his Kurze Darstellung des theologischen Stadiums, and again in his great System, Der chrislliche Glaube . . . dargestellt, ingeniously proposed to treat dogmatic as an historical statement, or report, of beliefs held in 6 For " mixed articles " see DOGMA. DOGRA— DOLABELLA 3»5 the writer's communion at the time of writing. He also insisted, however, upon personal conviction in writers on dogmatic. The expression Glaubenslehre — doctrine of faith — which he did much to bring into a wider currency, and which Schweizer, the most loyal of all his disciples, holds to be alone fitted for Protestant use, emphasizes the latter requirement. But " dogmatic " has also continued in use among Protestant theologians of the Left no less than among the orthodox. When we consider the different attitude towards dogma of Roman Catholicism, we feel con- strained to question whether the expression " dogmatic theology " can be equally suitable for both communions. Roman theologians may properly define dogmatic as the scientific study of dogmas; Protestant scholars have come to use " dogma " hi ways which make that impossible. Indeed, many of them bid us regard " dogmatic " as falling under the history of theology and not of dogma (see DOGMA). Still, usage is decisive. It will be im- possible to uproot the phrase " dogmatic theology " among Protestants. When A. Harnack1 praises Schbiermacher's description of dogmatic as " historical," he rather strains the meaning of the remark, and creates fresh confusion. Harnack's point is that " dogmatic theology " ought to be used in a sense corresponding to what he regards as the true meaning of " dogma " — Christian belief in its main traditional outlines. This claim is an innovation, and finds no precedent in Schleiermacher. The latter regarded dogmatic as stating in scientific connexion "the doctrine prevailing in a (single) Christian church at a given time " — as " not merely historical (geschichtlich) ," but containing an " apologetic element " — as " not confined to the symbolical books, but " including all — even local expressions of the common faith which produce no breach of harmony — and as having for its " very business and task " to "purify and perfect" doctrine (Der christliche Glattbe, § 19). The one merit which " dogmatic " may claim as a term in Protestant theology is that it contrasts positive statements of belief with mere reports (e.g. Biblical theology; history of doctrine) of what has been taught in the past. (See DOGMA; and THEOLOGY.) DOGRA, a race of Hill Rajputs in India, inhabiting Kashmir and the adjacent valleys of the Himalayas. They form the ruling race in Kashmir. " Dogra " is the name given to the country round Jammu, and is said to be derived from a word meaning the " two lakes," as the original home of the Dogra people was situated between the lakes of Siroensar and Mansar. There are numerous castes in the Dogra country, and the Hindu, Mahom- medan and Sikh religions are represented. All, whether Hindus or Mahommedans, whether high-born Rajputs of the Maharaja's caste or low-born menials, are known as Dogras. At the time of the first Sikh War the Dogras had a great reputation as soldiers, which they have worthily maintained in the ranks of the Indian native army. They are classed as fighting men with the Sikh and Punjabi Mahommedan. They distinguished themselves in the Hunza Nagar Expedition and the affair at Chilas in 1891, and in the Tirah campaign of 1897-98. DOGS, ISLE OF, a district of London, England, on the north bank of the Thames, which surrounds it on three sides. It falls within the metropolitan borough of Poplar. It is occupied by docks, riverside works and poor houses. The origin of the name is not known. The suggestion that it is corrupted from the Isle of Docks falls to the ground on the question of chronology; another, that there were royal kennels here, is improbable, though they were situated at Deptford in the i7th century. (See POPLAR.) DOG-TOOTH (the French dent-de-scie) , in architecture, an ornament found in the mouldings of medieval work of the commencement of the I2th century, which is thought to have been introduced by the Crusaders from the East. The earliest example is found in the hall at Rabbath-Ammon in Moab (c. A.D. 614) built by the Sassanians, where it decorates the arch mould- ing of the blind arcades and the string courses. In the apse of the church at Murano, near Venice, it is similarly employed. In the i zth and I3th centuries it was further elaborated with carving, losing therefore its primitive form, but constituting a 1 Hist, of Dogma; Eng. trans, i. p. 21, footnote, vni. 13 most beautiful decorative feature. In Elgin cathedral the dog- tooth ornament in the archivolt becomes a four-lobed leaf, and in Stone church, Kent, a much more enriched type of flower. The term has been supposed to originate in a resemblance to the dog-tooth violet, but the original idea of a projecting tooth is a sufficient explanation. DOGWOOD (i.e. wood of the dog-tree; referred by the New English Dictionary to " dog," apparently as indicating inferiority; but by others connected with " dag," " dagger," and by Prior with A.S. dole, a brooch-pin), the name applied to plants of the genus Cornus, of the natural order Cornaceae. The common dogwood, prick-wood, skewer-wood, cornel or dogberry, C. sanguined, is a shrub reaching a height of 8 or 9 ft., common in hedges, thickets and plantations in Great Britain. Its branches are dark red; the leaves egg-shaped, pointed, about 2 in. long by 15 broad, and turning red in autumn; the flowers are dull white, in terminal clusters. The berries are small, of a black- purple, bitter and one-seeded, and contain a considerable per- centage of oil, which in some places is employed for lamps, and in the manufacture of soap. The wood is white and very hard, and like that of other species of the genus is used for making ladder- spokes, wheel-work, skewers, forks and other implements, and gunpowder charcoal. The red berries of the dwarf species, C. suecica, of the Scottish Highlands, are eaten, and are reputed to be tonic in properties. C. mas, the Cornelian cherry, a native of Europe and Northern Asia, bears a pulpy and edible fruit, which when unripe contains much tannin. It is a good garden plant, as is also the North American speciesC.florida, one of the commonest trees of the deciduous forests of the middle and southern states. Professor C. S. Sargent (Silva of North America) describes it as " one of the most beautiful of the small trees of the American forests, which it enlivens in early spring with the whiteness of its floral leaves and in autumn with the splendour of its foliage and the brilliancy of its fruit. No tree is more desirable in the garden or park in regions where the summer's sun is sufficiently hot to ensure the production of its flowers through the perfect develop- ment of the branchlets." The Jamaica dogwood, the root-bark of which is poisonous, is the species Piscidia Erythrina, of the natural order Leguminosae. DOL, a town of north-western France, in the department of Ille-et-Vilaine, 36 m. N. of Rennes on the Western railway. Pop. (1906) 3543. Dol is situated to the south-west of the rich agri- cultural district known as the marsh of Dol, where market- gardening is especially flourishing. The streets are still rendered picturesque by houses of the i4th and isth centuries, which form deep arcades by the projection of their upper storeys: and, high above all, rises the grey granite of the cathedral, mainly of the I3th century, which in the middle ages ranked as the metropolitan church of all Brittany, and still keeps fresh the name of Bishop St Samson, who, having fled, as the legend tells, from the Saxon invaders of England, selected this spot as the site of his monastery. To the architect it is interesting for the English character of its design, and to the antiquarian, for its stained-glass windows of the I3th century, and for the finely sculptured tomb of Bishop Thomas James (d. 1504). About i^ m. from the town is the pierre de Champ Dolent, a menhir some 30 ft. in height; not far off stands the great granite rock of Mont Dol, over 200 ft. in height, surmounted by the statue and chapel of Notre-Dame de 1'Esperance. Dol has trade in grain, vegetables and fruit, tobacco is cultivated in the neighbourhood and there are salt- marshes. Tanning and leather-currying are carried on in the town. The town was unsuccessfully besieged by William the Conqueror, taken by Henry II. in 1164 and by Guy de Thouars in 1204. In 1793 it witnessed the defeat of the republican forces by the Vendeans who had taken refuge within its walls. The bishopric established in the 6th century was suppressed in 1790. DOLABELLA, PUBLIUS CORNELIUS, Roman general and son-in-law of Cicero, was born about 70 B.C. He was by far the most important of the Dolabellae, a family of the patrician gens Cornelia. In the civil wars he at first took the side of Pompey, but afterwards went over to Caesar, and was present at the battle of Pharsalus. To escape the urgent demands of his creditors, he 386 DOLBEN— DOLE introduced (as one of the tribunes) a bill proposing that all debts should be cancelled. This was strongly resisted by his colleagues, and led to serious disturbances in the city. Caesar, on his return from Alexandria, seeing the expediency of removing Dolabella from Rome, took him as one of his generals in the expedition to Africa and Spain. On Caesar's death Dolabella seized the insignia of the consulship (which had already been conditionally promised him), and, by making friends with Brutus and the other assassins, was confirmed in his office. When, however, M. Antonius offered him the command of the expedition against the Parthians and the province of Syria he changed sides at once. His journey to the province was marked by plundering, extortion and the murder of C. Trebonius, proconsul of Asia, who refused to allow him to enter Smyrna. He was thereupon declared a public enemy and superseded by C. Cassius(the murderer of Caesar), who attacked him in Laodicea. On the capture of the place, Dolabella ordered one of his soldiers to kill him (43). Throughout his life he was a profligate and a spendthrift. See Cicero's Letters (ed. Tyrrell and Purser) ; G. Boissier, Cicero and his Friends (Eng. trans., 1897); Orelli, Onomasticon Tullianum; Dio Cassius xli. 40, xlii. 29, xliii. 51, xliv. 22, xlvi. 40, xlvii. 30; Appian, Bell. civ. Hi. 7, iv. 60. DOLBEN, JOHN (1625-1686), English divine, was the son of William Dolben (d. 1631), prebendary of Lincoln and bishop- designate of Gloucester. He was educated at Westminster under Richard Busby and at Christ Church, Oxford. He fought on the royalist side at Marston Moor, 1644. Subsequently he took orders and maintained in private the proscribed Anglican service. At the Restoration he became canon of Christ Church (1660) and prebendary of St Paul's, London (1661). As dean of Westminster (1662-1683) he opposed an attempt to bring the abbey under diocesan rule. In 1666 he was made bishop of Rochester, and in 1683 archbishop of York; he distinguished himself by reforming the discipline of the cathedrals in these dioceses. His son John Dolben (1662-1710) was a barrister and politician; he was M.P. for Liskeard from 1707 to 1710 and manager of Sacheverell's impeachment in 1709. DOLCE, LUDOVICO, or LUIGI (1508-1568 or 1569), Italian writer, was a native of Venice, and belonged to a family of honourable tradition but decadent fortune. He received a good education, and early undertook the task of maintaining himself by his pen. Translations from Greek and Latin epics, satires, histories, plays and treatises on language and art followed each other in rapid succession, till the whole number amounted to upwards of seventy works. But he is now mainly memorable as the author of Marianna, a tragedy from the life of Herod, which was recast in French by Tristan and by Voltaire, and still keeps a place on the stage. Four licentious comedies, // Ragazzo (1541), 77 Capitano (1545), // Mariio (1560), // Kuffiano (1560), and seven of Seneca's tragedies complete the list of his dramatic efforts. In one epic — to translate the title-page — " he has marvellously reduced into otiava rima and united into one narrative the stories of the Iliad and the Aeneid "; in another he devotes thirty-nine cantos to a certain Primaleone, son of Palmerius; in a third he celebrates the first exploits of Count Orlando; and in a fourth he sings of the Paladin Sacripante. A life of the emperor Charles V. and a similar account of Ferdinand I., published respectively in 1560 and 1566, are his chief historical productions; and among his minor treatises it is enough to mention the Osservazioni sulla lingua wlgare (1550); the Dialogo della p'Mura (1557) ; and the Dialogo nel quale si ragiona del modo di accrescar la memoria (1552). DOLCI, CARLO, or CARLINO (1616-1686), Italian painter, was born in Florence in May 1616. He was the grandson of a painter on the mother's side, and became a disciple of Jacopo Vignali; and when only eleven years of age he attempted a whole figure of St John, and a head of the infant Christ, which received extra- ordinary approbation. He afterwards painted a portrait of his mother, and displayed a new and delicate style which brought him into notice, and procured him extensive employment at Florence (from which city he hardly ever moved) and in other parts of Italy. Dolci used his pencil chiefly in sacred subjects, and bestowed much labour on his pictures. In his manner of working he was remarkably slow. It is said that his brain was affected by seeing Luca Giordano, in 1682, despatch more business in four or five hours than he could have executed in as many months, and that he hence fell into a state of hypochondria, which compelled him to relinquish his art, and soon brought him to the grave. His works are not very numerous. He generally painted in a small size, although there are a few pictures by him as large as life. He died in Florence in January 1686, leaving a daughter (Agnese), who arrived at some degree of excellence in copying the works of her father. Carlo Dolci holds somewhat the same rank in the Florentine that Sassoferrato does in the Roman school. Without the possession of much genius, invention or elevation of type, both these artists produced highly wrought pictures, extremely attractive to some tastes. The works of Dolci are easily distinguishable by the delicacy of the composition, and by an agreeable tint of colour, improved by judicious management of the chiaroscuro, which gives his figures a striking relief; he affected the use of ultramarine, much loaded in tint. " His pencil," says Pilkington, " was tender, his touch inexpressibly neat, and his colouring transparent; though he has often been censured for the excessive labour bestowed on his pictures, and also for giving his carnations more of the appearance of ivory than the look of flesh." All his best productions are of a devout description; they frequently represent the patient suffering of Christ or the sorrows of the Mater Dolorosa. Dolci was, in fact, from early youth, exceedingly pious; it is said that during passion week every year he painted a half-figure of the Saviour. His sacred heads are marked with pathetic or at least strongly sentimental emotion. There is a want of character in his pictures, and his grouping lacks harmonious unison, but the general tone accords with the idea of the passion portrayed. Among the best works of this master are the " St Sebastian "; the " Four Evangelists," at Florence; " Christ Breaking the Bread," in the marquess of Exeter's collection at Burleigh; the " St Cecilia " in Dresden; an " Adoration of the Magi "; and in especial " St Andrew praying before his Crucifixion," in the Pitti gallery, his most important composition, painted in 1646; also several smaller pictures, which are highly valued, and occupy honourable places in the richest galleries. (W. M. R.) DOLDRUMS (a slang term, dol = dull; cf. tantrum), the region of calms near the equator where the trade- winds die away, a region of constant precipitation in which the weather is close, hot, vaporous and extremely dispiriting. In the old days of sailing vessels, a becalmed ship sometimes lay helpless for weeks. A letter from this region saying " we are in the doldrums " (" in the dumps ") seems to have been regarded as written from " The Doldrums," which thus became the name of this undesirable locality. DOLE, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Jura, 29 m. S.E. of Dijon on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 11,166. It occupies the slope of a hill over- looking the forest of Chaux, on the right bank of the Doubs, and of the canal from the Rhone to the Rhine which accompanies that river. The streets, which in general are steep and narrow, contain many old houses recalling, in their architecture, the Spanish occupation of the town. The principal buildings are the church of Notre Dame, a Gothic structure of the i6th century; the college, once a Jesuit establishment, which contains the library and a museum of paintings and has a chapel of the Renaissance period; the H6tel-Dieu and h6tel de ville, both 17th- century buildings; and the law court occupying an old convent of the Cordeliers. In the courtyard of the h6tel de ville there stands an old tower dating from the isth century. The birth of Louis Pasteur (1822) in the town is commemorated by a monument, and there is also a monument to Jules GreVy. D61e is the seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce and a communal college. Metal-founding and the manufacture of fire-pumps, kitchen-ranges and other iron goods, chemical products, machinery, leather, liqueurs and pastry, are among the industries. There is a good trade in agricultural produce and DOLE— DOLET 387 live stock, and in wood, iron, coal and the stone of the vicinity. Wine is largely grown in the district. D61e, the ancient Dola, was in Roman times the meeting place of several roads, and considerable remains have been found there; in the later middle ages and till 1648 it was the capital of Tranche Comt6 and seat of a parlement and a university; but in the year 1479 the town was taken by the forces of Louis XI., and so completely sacked that only the house of Jean Vurry, as it is still called, and two other buildings were left standing. It subsequently came into the hands of Maximilian of Austria, and in 1530 was fortified by Charles V. In 1668 and 1674 it was captured by the French and lost its parlement and its university, both of which were transferred by Louis XIV. to Besancon. DOLE (from Old Eng. dal, cf. mod. " deal "), a portion, a distribution of gifts, especially of food and money given in charity. The derivation from 0. Fr. doel, Late Lat. dolium, " grief," suggested by the custom of funeral doles, is wrong. In early Christian days, St Chrysostom says: " doles were used at funerals to procure the rest of the soul of the deceased, that he might find his judge propitious." The distribution of alms to the local poor at funerals was a universal custom in the middle ages. The amount of doles was usually stated in the will. Thus in 1399 Eleanor, duchess of Gloucester, ordered that fifteen poor men should carry torches at her funeral, " each having a gown and hood lined with white, breeches of blue cloth, shoes and a shirt, and twenty pounds amongst them." Later doles usually took the form of bequests of land or money, the interest or rent of which was to be annually employed in charity. Often the distribution took place at the grave of the donor. Thus one William Robinson of Hull at his death in 1 708 left money to buy annually a dozen loaves, costing a shilling each, to be given to twelve poor widows at his grave every Christmas. Lenten doles were also formerly common. A will of 1537 bade a barrel of white herrings and a case of red herrings be given yearly to the poor of Clavering, Essex, to help them tide over the fast. One or two London doles are still distributed, e.g. that of St Peter's, Walworth, where a Christmas dinner is each year served to 300 parish poor in the crypt. No one under sixty is eligible, and the dinner is unique in that it is cooked in the church. A pilgrim's dole of bread and ale can be claimed by all wayfarers at the Hospital of St Cross, Winchester. This is said to have been founded by William of Wykeham. Emerson, when visiting Winchester, claimed and received the dole. What were known as Scrambling Doles, so called because the meat and bread distributed were thrown among the poor to be scrambled for, were not uncommon in England. Such a dole existed at St Briavel's, Gloucestershire, baskets of bread and cheese cut into small squares being thrown by the churchwardens from the gallery into the body of the church on Whit Sunday. At Wath near Ripon a testator in 1810 ordered that forty penny loaves should be thrown from the church leads at midnight on every Christmas eve. The best known dole in the United States is the " Leake Dole of Bread." John Leake, a millionaire dying in 1792, left £1000 to Trinity Church, New York, the income to be laid out in wheaten loaves and distributed every Sabbath morning after service. The dole still survives, though the day has been altered to Saturday, each week sixty-seven loaves being given away. DOLERITE (from Gr. SoXepos, deceptive), in petrology, the name given by Haiiy to those basaltic rocks which are comparatively coarse grained and nearly, if not quite, holo- crystalline. As may be inferred from their highly crystalline state they are very often intrusive, and occur as dikes and sills, but many of them form lava flows. Their essential minerals are those of basalt, viz. olivine, augite and plagioclase felspar, while hornblende, ilmenite, apatite and biotite are their commonest accessory ingredients. The chemical and microscopic features of these minerals agree generally with those presented in the basalts, and only their exceptional pecuh'arities need be mentioned here. Many dolerites are porphyritic and carry phenocrysts of olivine, augite and plagioclase felspar (or of one or more of these) . Others, probably the majority, are non-porphyritic,and these are generally coarser grained than the ground-mass of the former group, though lacking their large conspicuous phenocrysts. The commonest type of structure in dolerite is the ophitic, which results from the felspar of the rock having crystallized before the augite; the latter mineral forms shapeless masses in which the idiomorphic felspars lie. The augite enclosing the felspars is well crystallized, though its continuity is interrupted more or less completely by the numerous crystals of felspar which it envelops, and in polarized light the former often behaves as a single individual over a considerable area, while the latter mineral consists of independent crystals. This structure may be so coarse as to be easily detected by the unaided eye, or so fine that it cannot be seen except in microscopic sections. Some of the porphyritic dolerites have ophitic ground-masses; in others this structure is imperfect (subophitic) ; while in many the augite, like the felspar, occurs as small and distinct individuals, which react differently on polarized light, and have the outlines of more or less perfectly shaped crystals. Ophitic structure is commonest in olivine-dolerites, though the olivine takes no part in it. The quartz-dolerites are an important group, hardly less common than the olivine-dolerites. They contain a small amount of quartz, and often micropegmatite, as the last element to consolidate, filling up little angular interspaces between the felspars and pyroxenes, which had previously crystallized. They rarely contain olivine, but pleochroic hypersthene is by no means rare in them (hypersthene-dolerites). Some contain larger in- dividuals of pale green, rather pleochroic augite (the so-called sahlite), and a little brown mica, and brownish-green hornblende may also be present. Allied to these are olivine-free dolerites with more or less of interstitial glassy base (tholeites, &c.). In the rocks of this group ophitic structure is typically absent, and the presence of an interstitial finely crystalline or amorphous material gives rise to the structure which is known as " intersertal." Transitions to the porphyritic dolerites and basalts arise by increase in the proportion of this ground-mass. The edges of dolerite sills and dikes often contain much dark brown glass, and pass into tachylytes, in which this material preponderates. Another interesting group of doleritic rocks contains analcite. They may be ophitic, though often they are not, and they usually contain olivine, while their augite has distinctly purple shades, and a feeble dichroism. Their characteristic feature is the presence of a small amount of analcite, which never shows crystalline outlines but fills up the interspaces between the other minerals. Some writers held that this mineral has resulted from the decomposition of nepheline; others regard it as a primary mineral. Usually it can be clearly shown to be secondary to some extent, but there is reason to suppose that it is really a pneumatolytic deposit. These rocks are known as teschenites, and have a wide distribution in England, Scotland, on the continent and in America. Often they are comparatively rich in brown hornblende. This last-named mineral is not usually abundant in dolerites, but in a special group, the proterobases, it to a large extent replaces the customary augite. A few dolerites contain much brown mica (mica-dolerites). Nepheline may appear in these rocks, as in the basalts. Typical nepheline-dolerites are scarce, and consist of idiomorphic augite, surrounded by nepheline. Examples are known from the Tertiary volcanic districts of the Rhine. Dolerites have a very wide distribution, as they are found wherever basalts occur in any number. It is superfluous to cite localities for them as they are among the commonest of igneous rocks. They are much employed for road-mending apd for kerb- stones, though their dark colour and the tendency they have to weather with a dingy brown crust make them unsuitable for the better classes of architectural work. (J. S. F.) DOLET, ETIENNE (1509-1546), French scholar and printer, was born at Orleans on the 3rd of August 1509. A doubtful tradition makes him the illegitimate son of Francis I.; but it is evident that he was at least connected with some family of rank and wealth. From Orleans he was taken to Paris about 1521; and after studying under Nicolas B6rauld, the teacher of Coligny, he proceeded in 1526 to Padua. The death of his friend and 388 DOLGELLEY— DOLICHOCEPHALIC master, Simon de Villanova, led him, in 1530, to accept the post of secretary to Jean de Langeac, bishop of Limoges and French ambassador to the republic of Venice; he contrived, however, to attend the lectures of the Venetian scholar Battista Egnazio, and found time to write Latin love poems to some Venetian Elena. Returning to France soon afterwards he proceeded to Toulouse to study law; but there he soon became involved in the violent disputes between the different " nations " of the uni- versity, was thrown into prison, and finally banished by a decree of the parlement. In 1535 he entered the lists against Erasmus in the famous Ciceronian controversy, by publishing through Sebastien Gryphe (Gryphius) at Lyons a Dialogus de imitatione Ciceroniana; and the following year saw the appearance of his two folio volumes Commentariorum linguae Latinae. This work was dedicated to Francis I., who gave him the privilege of print- ing during ten years any works in Latin, Greek, Italian or French, which were the product of his own pen or had received his supervision; and accordingly, on his release from an imprison- ment occasioned by his justifiable homicide of a painter named Compaing, he began at Lyons his typographical and editorial labours. That he was not altogether unaware of the dangers to which he was exposed from the bigotry of the time is shown not only by the tone of his mottoes — Preserve moi, Seigneur, des calomnies des hommes, and Durior est spectatae virtutis quam incognitae conditio — but also by the fact that he endeavoured first of all to conciliate his opponents by publishing a Goto christianus, or Christian moralist, in which he made profession of his creed. The catholicity of his literary appreciation, in spite of his ultra- Ciceronianism, was soon displayed by the works which proceeded from his press — ancient and modern, sacred and secular, from the New Testament in Latin to Rabelais in French. But before the term of his privilege expired his labours were interrupted by his enemies, who succeeded in imprisoning him (1542) on the charge of atheism. From a first imprisonment of fifteen months Dolet was released by the advocacy of Pierre Duchatel, bishop of Tulle; from a second (1544) he escaped by his own ingenuity; but, venturing back from Piedmont, whither he had fled in order that he might print at Lyons the letters by which he appealed for justice to the king of France, the queen of Navarre and the parlement of Paris, he was again arrested, branded as a relapsed atheist by the theological faculty of the Sorbonne, and on the 3rd of August 1546 put to the torture, strangled and burned in the Place Maubert. On his way thither he is said to have composed the punning pentameter — Non dolet ipse Dolet, sed pia turba dolet. Whether Dolet is to be classed with the representatives of Protestantism or with the advocates of anti-Christian rationalism has been frequently disputed; by the principal Protestants of his own time he was not recognized, and by Calvin he is formally condemned, along with Agrippa and his master Villanova, as having uttered execrable blasphemies against the Son of God; but, to judge by the religious character of a large number of the books which he translated or published, such a condemnation is altogether misplaced. His repeated advocacy of the reading of the Scriptures in the vulgar tongue is especially noticeable. A statue of Dolet was erected on the Place Maubert in 1889. See J. F. Nee de la Rochelle, Vie d'&tienne Dolet (1779); Joseph Boulmier, E. Dolet, so. vie, ses ceuvres, son martyre (1857) ; A. F. Didot, Etssai iur la typographic (1852) and article in the Nouvelle]Biographie generate; L. Michel. Dolet: sa statue, place Maubert: ses amis, ses ennemis (1889); R. C. Christie, fctienne Dolet, the Martyr of the Renaissance (2nd ed., 1889), containing a full bibliography of works published by him as author or printer; O. Galtier, tLtienne Dolet (Paris, 1908). The ptoces, or trial, of Dolet was published (1836) by A. H. Taillandier from the registers of the parlement of Paris. DOLGELLEY (Dolgellau, dale of hazels), a market town and the county town of Merionethshire, North Wales, situated on the streams Wnion and Aran at the north base of Cader Idris, on the Cambrian and Great Western railways, 232 m. from London. Pop. of urban district (1901) 2437. It consists of small squares and narrow streets, with a free grammar school (1665), market hall, assize hall, county gaol, &c. The . so-called parliament house (1404) of Owen Glendower's members has been demolished. There is some trade in coarse flannel and tweed. Glendower's treaty with Charles of France (Owinus D.G. princeps Walliae. . . Datum apitd Dolguelli . . . ) was dated here. The families of county rank in the neighbourhood include those of Nannau, Hengwrt (the famous Hengwrt Welsh MSS. are at Peniarth), Caerynwch, Fronwnion, Bron-y-gadair, Brynygwin, Brynadda, Abergwynnant, Garthangharad. The county family, Vaughan, claims descent from Rodric Fawr, king of North Wales, Glendower's kinsman and enemy lived at Nannau. Scott (Marmion. vi. canto, note) refers to the demon oak at Nannau in 1813. Among neighbouring hills are Moel OSrwm (or Orthrwm — of sacrifice or of oppression) and Moel Cynwch. DOLGORUKI, VASILY LUKICH, COUNT (1672-1739), Russian diplomatist and minister, was one of the first batch of young Russians whom Peter the Great sent abroad to be educated. From 1687 to 1700 he resided at Paris, where he learned thoroughly the principal European languages, acquired the superficial elegance of the court of Versailles, and associated with the Jesuits, whose moral system he is said to have appropriated. On his return home he entered the diplomatic service. From 1706 to 1707 he represented Russia in Poland; and from 1707 to 1720 he was her minister at Copenhagen, where he succeeded in persuading King Frederick IV. to join the second coalition against Charles XII. At the end of 1720 he was transferred to Versailles, in order to seek the mediation of France in the pro- jected negotiations with Sweden and obtain the recognition of Peter's imperial title by the French court. In 1 724 he represented Russia at Warsaw and in 1726 at Stockholm, the object of the latter mission being to detach Sweden from the Hanoverian alliance, in which he did not succeed. During the reign of Peter II. (1727-1730) Dolgoruki was appointed a member of the supreme privy council, and after procuring the banishment of Menshikov he appropriated the person of the young emperor, whom he would have forced to marry his niece Catherine but for Peter's untimely death. He then drew up a letter purporting to be the last will of the emperor, appointing Catherine Dolgoruki his successor, but shortly afterwards abandoned the nefarious scheme as impracticable, and was one of the first to support the election of Anne of Courland to the throne on condition that she first signed nine " articles of limitation," which left the supreme power in the hands of the Russian council. Anne, who repudiated the " articles " on the first opportunity, never forgave Dolgoruki for this. He was deprived of all his offices and dignities on the 1 7th of April 1730, and banished first to his country seat and then to the Solovetsky monastery. Nine years later the charge of forging the will of Peter II. was revived against him, and he was tortured and then beheaded at Novgorod on the 8th of November 1739- See Robert Nisbet Bain, The Pupils of Peter the Great (London, 1895). (R. N. B.) DOLHAIN, the most eastern town of Belgium, situated on the Vesdre, N. E. of Verviers and close to the Prussian frontier. Pop. (1904) 4757. It is quite a modern town, occupying the site of the lower town of the ancient city of Limburg, which was destroyed by Louis XIV. in 1675. On a rocky eminence above Dolhain are still to be seen the fine ruins of the old castle of Limburg, the cradle of the ancient family of that name from which sprang the Luxemburg family and several emperors of Germany. The Gothic church of St George of the i3th century has been restored. At a short distance from Dolhain is the famous dam of the Gileppe, the vast reservoir constructed to supply Verviers with water free from lime for its cloth manufactures. The aqueduct from Gileppe to Verviers is nearly 5^ m. in length. DOLICHOCEPHALIC (long-headed), a term invented by Andreas Retzius to denote (as opposed to " brachycephalic ") those skulls the diameter of which from side to side, or the transverse diameter, is small in comparison with the longitudinal diameter or that from front to back. Retzius, though inventing the term, did not define it precisely. Paul Broca applied it to skulls having a cephalic index of seventy-five and under, and this limit is generally adopted. Dolichocephaly, according to Retzius, was the distinctive cranial feature of the earliest inhabitants of Europe. To-day it is characteristic of the negro races, of the DOLL— DOLLAR 389 Papuans, the Polynesians and the Australians, though among the negritos and some of the pigmy races of Africa brachycephalic skulls are the rule. Of the yellow races the Eskimo is the most dolichocephalic. Of white races the Arabs and Kabyles of Algeria, and the Guanchos of the Canary Islands, are most notable for dolichocephalic tendency. Dolichocephaly is some- times frontal, as among adult whites, sometimes occipital or confined to the back of the head, as among inferior negro-races, Australians, Papuans and newly-born whites. DOLL, a child's plaything in the shape of a human figure or taken as representing one. The word " doll " was not in common use in the middle ages, " children's babies " and other terms being substituted for it; the commonly accepted view is that it is abbreviated from the name Dorothy (cf. Scottish "Doroty"). " Idol " has also been connected with it; but the accent is held to tell against this. Another derivation is from Norse da-ul (woman) , with which may be compared O.H.G. toccha, M.H.G. docke, a girl, doll, used also in the sense of butterfly, nightmare, &c., thus connecting the doll with magic and superstition. The same connexion is found in Asia Minor, South India, among the Pueblo peoples and in South Africa; philology apart, therefore, the derivation from " idol " has much to recommend it, and some side influence from this word may well have caused the selection of the form " doll." Dolls proper should be distinguished from (a) idols, (6) magical figurines, (c) votive offerings, (d) costume figures. The festival figures of Japan, like the bambino of Italy, given to the child only on certain saints' days, hardly come within the category of dolls. Dolls were known in ancient Egypt(XVIIIthDynasty)and Asia Minor; they were common both in Greece and Rome; Persius mentions that girls vowed them to Venus when they got married; dolls found in the catacombs are preserved in the Vatican and the Museum Carpegna. The vtvp6o-!raffTOi> (Lat. crepundia) of Greek finds of the 6th and later centuries B.C. was a marionette. Dolls were in use among the Arabs at the time of Mahomet, and the prophet's nine-year-old wife Ayesha is said to have induced him to join her in her play with them. Although Mahommedan- ism prohibits the making of figures in human shape, dolls do not seem to have disappeared from Mahommedan countries, though substitutes for them are perhaps more common there than elsewhere. Dolls are extremely common in Africa. There seem to be forms peculiar to different regions, such as the flat, spade-shaped figure on the Gold Coast. Among the Wasaramo the girls carry from the age of puberty till the birth of their first child an object indistinguishable from the ordinary doll; it is called mwana ya kiti (stool-child) because it is placed on a stool at home; it probably has a magical significance. The same may be said of the Australian figurines; others, made of cane, are undoubtedly children's dolls; excellently moulded wax figures are also found. In Asia dolls properly so-called are apparently rare; but there are specimens in museums from the Malay peninsula, Persia and South India, and in Asia Minor children use cushions, &c., as surrogates. They are found in Alaska among the Eskimo. Most Red Indian tribes had them; a mother who has lost her child carries its dolls and other playthings. Cortes is said to have found Montezuma and his court playing with elaborate dolls; they have been dug up from prehistoric Peruvian graves. In the Gran Chaco metacarpal bones of the rhea are in use, wrapped in a blanket when they represent male, in a petticoat when they are female. But little attention has been paid to the psychological side of dolls. Though many boys play with them, dolls are mainly confined to girls; and female dolls predominate in the proportion of twelve to one. The culmination of the doll instinct is between the age of eight and nine; but they are not entirely dropped till much later; in fact unmarried and childless women sometimes keep it up for years. In children it is said by Hall to be by no means always a manifestation of the maternal instinct; for dolls are not always regarded as children, and the proportion of adults increases with the age of the children. But the important point is whether the child regarded itself as older or younger than the doll. There is, on the other hand, a tendency to neglect dolls for babies and a reverse current of love of dolls which arises out of love of babies. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For a list of works see A. MacDonald, Man and Abnormal Man (U. S. Senate Document, 1905), vol. ix. No. 187, p. 275); see also Andree, Ethnogiaphische Parallelen N. F. ; Schlegel, Indische iBibliothek. i. 139; Brandenburgia, xi. 28; Delineator, Iviii. 927; Globus, Ixxv. 354, Ixxx. 205; Internal. Archiv f. Ethnog. vii. 45; Ladies' Home Journ. xvi. ; Weslermann's Monalshefte (Feb. 1899, &c.) ; Man (1903, No. 22). For the psycho- logical side see Paedagogical Seminary, iv. 129, discussed in Con- temporary Rev. Ixxv. 58; Mrs F. H. Burnett, "The One I know best of all "; Sully, Studies of Childhood; G. Sand, Histoire de ma vie. (N. W. T.) DOLLAR, a town of Clackmannanshire, Scotland, 6 m. N.E. of Alloa by the North British railway, not far from the Devon. Pop. (1901) 1619. The village, which is beautifully situated, contains several handsome stone villas occupied by families attracted to the town by its educational facilities. The academy, housed in a fine mass of buildings of the Grecian order (opened about 1819), was founded by Captain John McNab (1732-1802), a native who began life as a herdboy, and afterwards became a rich shipowner. From the burn of Dollar (or Dolour), which runs through the ravine of Dollar Glen, the town draws its water- supply. On an isolated hill above the junction of the parent streams, named Sorrow and Care, stands the ruin of Castle Campbell, known also as Gloom Castle, an old stronghold of the Argyll family. The castle was burned by the Macleans in 1644, in the interest of the marquess of Montrose, and not again restored. Although a ruin it is carefully preserved. The Rev. Dr James Aitken Wylie (1808-1890), the historian of Protestantism, was a minister in Dollar for several years. Patrick Gibson, the etcher and landscape-painter, was drawing-master at the academy from 1824 to 1829, and William Tennant, the author of Anster Fair, was a teacher of classics from 1819 till 1834, when he was appointed to the chair of Hebrew in St Andrews University. Harviestoun Castle, about midway between Dollar and Tillicoultry, once belonged to the Tait family, and here Archibald Campbell Tait, archbishop of Canterbury, spent some of his boyhood. DOLLAR, a silver coin at one time current in many European countries, and adopted under varying forms of the name else- where. The word " dollar " is a modified form of thaler, which, with the variant forms (daler, dalar, daalder, tallero, &c.), is said to be a shortened form of Joachimsthaler. This Joachimsthaler was the name given to a coin intended to be the silver equivalent of the gold gulden, a coin current in Germany from the i4th century. In 1516 a rich silver mine was discovered in Joachimsthal (Joachim's dale), a mining district of Bohemia, and the count of Schlitz, by whom it was appropriated, caused a great number of silver coins to be struck (the first having the date 1518), bearing an effigy of St Joachim, hence the name. The Joachimsthaler was also sometimes known as the Schlickenthaler. The first use of the word dollar in English was as applied to this silver coin, the thaler, which was current in Germany at various values from the i6th century onwards, as well as, more particu- larly, to the unit of the German monetary union from 1857 to 1873, when the mark was substituted for the thaler. The Spanish piece-of-eight (reals) was also commonly referred to as a dollar. When the Bank of England suspended cash payments in 1797, and the scarcity of coin was very great, a large number of these Spanish coins, which were held by the bank, were put into circulation, after having been countermarked at the Mint with a small oval bust of George III., such as was used by the Gold- smiths' Company for marking plate. Others were simply over- stamped with the initials G.R. enclosed in a shield. In 1804 the Maundy penny head set in an octagonal compartment was employed. Several millions of these coins were issued. These Spanish pieces-of-eight were also current in the Spanish-American colonies, and were very largely used in the British North American colonies. As the reckoning was by pounds, shillings and pence in the British- American colonies, great inconveniences naturally arose, but these were to some extent lessened by the adoption of a tariff list, by which the various gold and silver coins circulating 390 DOLLING— DOLLINGER were rated. In 1787 the dollar was introduced as the unit in the United States, and it has remained as the standard of value either in silver or gold in that country. For the history of the various changes in the weights and value of the coin see NUMISMATICS. The Spanish piece-of-eight was also the ancestor of the Mexican dollar, the Newfoundland dollar, the British dollar circulating in Hong Kong and the Straits Settlements, and the dollar of the South American republics, although many of them are now dollars only in name. DOLLING, ROBERT WILLIAM RADCLYFFE (1851-1902), English divine, known as Father Dolling, was born at Magheralin, Co. Down, and educated at Harrow and Cambridge. From 1878 to 1882 he was warden of one of the houses of the Postmen's League, started by Father Stanton of St Alban's, Holborn. He was ordained in 1 883 to a curacy at Corscombe, Dorset, but resided in London as head of St Martin's mission, Stepney. In 1885 a difficulty as to the relation of his mission to Holy Trinity parish, Stepney, led to his resignation, and he next accepted the charge of St Agatha's, Landport, the Winchester College mission. The remarkable reforms he accomplished there may be ascertained from his Ten years in a Portsmouth slum (London 1896). In 1885 he again resigned, owing to the bishop of Winchester's refusal to sanction the extreme ritual used in the service at St Agatha's. In 1897 he visited America, where his preaching made a great im- pression. He returned to England in the following year as vicar of St Saviour's, Poplar, and retained that living until his death. An account of Polling's person and missi'onary work among the poor is given in The Life of Father Dolling (London, 1903), by the Rev. C. E. Osborne. DOLLINGER, JOHANN JOSEPH IGNAZ VON (1799-1890), German theologian and church historian, was born at Bamberg, Bavaria, on the 28th of February 1799. He came of an in- tellectual stock, his grandfather and father having both been physicians of eminence and professors of one or other of the branches of medical science; his mother too belonged to a family not undistinguished in intellectual power. Young Dollinger was first educated in the gymnasium at Wiirzburg, and then began to study natural philosophy at the university in that city, where his father now held a professorship. In 1817 he began the study of mental philosophy and philology, and in 1818 turned to the study of theology, which he believed to lie beneath every other science. He particularly devoted himself to an independent study of ecclesiastical history, a subject very indifferently taught in Roman Catholic Germany at that time. In 1820 he became acquainted with Victor Aime Huber (1800-1869), a fact which largely influenced his life. On the sth of April 1822 he was ordained priest, after studying at Bamberg, and in 1 823 he became professor of ecclesiastical history and canon law in the lyceum at Aschaffenburg. He then took his doctor's degree, and in 1826 became professor of theology at Munich, where he spent the rest of his life. About this time Dollinger brought upon himself the animadversion of Heine, who was then editor of a Munich paper. The unsparing satirist described the professor's face as the " gloomiest " in the whole procession of ecclesiastics which took place on Good Friday. It has been stated that in his earlier years Dollinger was a pronounced Ultramontane. This does not appear to have been altogether the case; for, very early in his professorial career at Munich, the Jesuits attacked his teaching of ecclesiastical history, and the celebrated J. A, Mohler (q.v.) who afterwards became his friend, on being appealed to, pronounced on the whole in his favour. He also entered into relations with the well-known French Liberal Catholic Lamennais, whose views on the reconcilia- tion of the Roman Catholic Church with the principles of modern society had aroused much suspicion in Ultramontane circles. In 1832 Lamennais, with his friends Lacordaire and Montalembert, visited Germany, and obtained considerable sympathy in their attempts to bring about a modification of the Roman Catholic attitude to modern problems. Dollinger seems to have regarded favourably the removal, by the Bavarian government, in 1841, of Professor Kaiser from his chair, because he had taught the infallibility of the pope. On the other hand, he published a treatise in 1838 against mixed marriages, and in 1843 wrote strongly in favour of requiring Protestant soldiers to kneel at the consecration of the Host when compelled officially to be present at Mass. Moreover, in his works on The Reformation (3 vols. Regensburg, 1846-1848) and on Luther (1851, Eng, tr., 1853) he is very severe on the Protestant leaders, and he also accepts, in his earlier works, the Ultramontane view then current on the practical condition of the Church of England, a view which in later days he found reason to change. Meanwhile he had visited England, where he was well received; and he afterwards travelled in Holland, Belgium and France, acquainting himself with the condition and prospects of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1842 he entered into correspondence with the leaders of the Tractarian movement in England, and some interesting letters have been preserved which were exchanged between him and Pusey, Gladstone and Hope Scott. When the last-named joined the Church of Rome he was warmly congratulated by Dollinger on the step he had taken. He, however, much regretted the gradual and very natural trend of his new English allies towards extreme Ultramontane views, of which Archdeacon, afterwards Cardinal. Manning ultimately became an enthusiastic advocate. In 1845 Dollinger was made representative of his university in the second chamber of the Bavarian legislature. In 1847, in consequence of the fall from power of the Abel ministry in Bavaria, with which he had been in close relations, he was removed from his professorship at Munich, but in 1849 he was invited to occupy the chair of ecclesiastical history. In 1848, when nearly every throne in Europe was shaken by the spread of revolutionary sentiments, he was elected delegate to the national German assembly at Frankfort, — a sufficient proof that at this time he was regarded as no mere narrow and technical theologian, but as a man of wide and independent views. It has been said that his change of relations to the Papacy dated from the Italian war in 1859, but no sufficient reason has been given for this statement. It is more probable that, like Grosseteste, he had imbibed in early youth an enthusiastic sentiment of attachment to the Papacy as the only centre of authority, and the only guarantee for public order in the Church, but that his experience of the actual working of the papal system (and especially a visit to Rome in 1857) had to a certain extent convinced him how little correspondence there was between his ideal and the reality. He may also have been unfavourably impressed with the promulgation by Pius IX. in 1854 of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin. But what- ever may have been his reasons, he ultimately became the leader of those who were energetically opposed to any addition to, or more stringent definition of, the powers which the Papacy had possessed for centuries. In some speeches delivered at Munich in 1 86 1 he outspokenly declared his view that the maintenance of the Roman Catholic Church did not depend on the temporal sovereignty of the pope. His book on The Church and the Churches (Munich, 1861) dealt to a certain extent with the same question. In 1863 he invited 100 theologians to meet at Malines and discuss the question which Lamennais and Lacordaire had prematurely raised in France, namely, the attitude that should be assumed by the Roman Catholic Church towards modern ideas. His address to the assembled divines was " practically a declara- tion of war against the Ultramontane party." He had spoken boldly in favour of freedom for the Church in the Frankfort national assembly in 1848, but he had found the authorities of his Church claiming a freedom of a very different kind from that for which he had contended. The freedom he claimed for the Church was freedom to manage her affairs without the interference of the state; the champions of the papal monarchy, and notably the Jesuits, desired freedom in order to put a stop to the dis- semination of modern ideas. The addresses delivered in the Catholic congress at Malines were a declaration in the direction of a Liberal solution of the problem of the relations of Church and State. The pope for a moment seemed to hesitate, but there could be little doubt what course he would ultimately pursue, and after four days' debate the assembly was closed at his command. On the Sth of December 1864 Pius IX. issued DOLLINGER 391 the famous Syllabus, in which he declared war against modern science and progress (see SYLLABUS). It was in connexion with this question that Bellinger published his Past and Present of Catholic Theology (1863) and his Universities Past and Present (Munich, 1867). We now approach the critical period of Bellinger's life. It was about this time that some of the leading theologians of the Roman Catholic Church, conceiving that the best way of meeting present perils was to emphasize, as well as to define more clearly, the authority of the pope, advised him to make his personal infalli- bility a dogma of the Church, and urged strenuously on him the necessity of calling a council for that purpose. There was considerable opposition in various quarters. Many bishops and divines considered the proposed definition a false one. Others, though accepting it as the truth, declared its promulgation to be inopportune. But the headquarters of the opposition was Germany, and its leader was Bellinger, whose high reputation and vast stores of learning placed him far above any other member of the band of the theological experts who now gathered around him. Among them were his intimate friends Johann Friedrich (q.v.) and J. N. Huber, in Bavaria. In the rest of Germany he found many supporters, chiefly professors in the Catholic faculty of theology at Bonn: among these were the famous canonist von Schulte, Franz Heinrich Reusch, the ecclesiastical historian Joseph Langen, as well as J.H. Reinkens, afterwards bishop of the Old Catholic Church in Germany, Knoodt, and other distinguished scholars. In Switzerland, Professor Edward Herzog, who became Old (or, as it is sometimes called, Christ-) Catholic bishop in Switzerland, and other learned men supported the movement. Early in 1869 the famous Letters of Janus (which were at once translated into English; 2nd ed. Das Papsttum, 1891) began to appear. They were written by Bellinger in conjunction with Huber and Friedrich, afterwards professor at Munich. In these the tendency of the Syllabus towards obscurantism and papal despotism, and its incompatibility with modern thought, were clearly pointed out ; and the evidence against papal infallibility, resting, as the Letters asserted, on the False Becretals, and accepted without controversy in an age of ignorance, was ably marshalled for the guidance of the council. When, on the 8th of Becember 1869, it had actually assembled, the world was kept informed of what was going on in the Letters of Quirinus, written by Bellinger and Huber while the debates of the council were proceeding. Some of these letters appeared in the German newspapers, and an English translation was published by Rivington. Augustin Theiner, the librarian at the Vatican, then in disgrace with the pope for his outspoken Liberalism, kept his German friends well informed of the course of the discussions. The proceedings of the council were frequently very stormy, and the opponents of the dogma of infallibility complained that they were not unfrequently interrupted, and that endeavours were made to put them down by clamour. The dogma was at length carried by an overwhelming majority, and the dissentient bishops, who — with the exception of two — had left the council before the final division, one by one submitted (see VATICAN COUNCIL). Bollinger, however, was not to be silenced. He headed a protest by forty-four professors in the university of Munich, and gathered together a congress at Nuremberg, which met in August 1870 and issued a declaration adverse to theVatican decrees. An immense ferment took place. In Bavaria, where Bellinger's influence was greatest, the strongest determination to resist the resolutions of the council prevailed. But the authority of the council was held by the archbishop of Munich to be paramount, and he called upon Bollinger to submit. Instead of submitting, Bollinger, on the 28th of March 1871, addressed a memorable letter to the arch- bishop, refusing to subscribe the decrees. They were, he said, opposed to Holy Scripture, to the traditions of the Church for the first 1000 years, to historical evidence, to the decrees of the general councils, and to the existing relations of the Roman Catholic Church to the state in every country in the world. " As a Christian, as a theologian, as an historian, and as a citizen," he added, " I cannot accept this doctrine." The archbishop replied by excommunicating the disobedient professor. This aroused fresh opposition. Bollinger was almost unanimously elected rector-magnificus of the university of Munich, and Oxford, Edinburgh and Marburg universities conferred upon him the honorary degree of doctor of laws and Vienna that of philosophy. The Bavarian clergy invited Bishop Loos of the Jansenist Church in Holland, which for more than 150 years had existed independent of the Papacy and had adopted the name of " Old Catholic," to hold confirmations in Bavaria. The offer was accepted, and the bishop was received with triumphal arches and other demonstrations of joy. The three Butch Old Catholic bishops declared themselves ready to con- secrate a bishop, if it were desired. The momentous question was discussed at a meeting of the opponents of the Vatican decrees, and it was resolved to elect a bishop and ask the Butch bishops to consecrate him. Bollinger, however, voted against the proposi- tion, and withdrew from any further steps towards the promotion of the movement. This was the critical moment in the history of the resistance to the decrees. Had Bollinger, with his immense reputation as a scholar, as a divine and as a man, allowed himself to be consecrated bishop of the Old Catholic Church, it is impossible to say how wide the schism would have been. But he declined to initiate a schism. His refusal lost Bavaria to the movement; and the number of Bavarian sympathizers was still further reduced when the seceders, in 1878, allowed their priests to marry, a decision which Bollinger, as was known, sincerely regretted. The Old Catholic Communion, however, was formally constituted, with Reinkens at its head as bishop, and it still continues to exist (see OLD CATHOLICS). Bellinger's attitude to the new community was not very clearly defined. It may be difficult to reconcile the two declara- tions made by him at different times: " I do not wish to join a schismatic society; I am isolated," and " As for myself, I consider that I belong by conviction to the Old Catholic com- munity." The latter declaration was made some years after the former, in a letter to Pastor Widmann. The nearest approach to a reconciliation of the two statements would appear to be that while, at his advanced age, he did not wish to assume the responsibility of being head of a new denomination, formed in circumstances of exceptional difficulty, he was unwilling to condemn those who were ready to hazard the new departure. " By conviction " he belonged to the Old Catholics, but he never formally joined them. Yet at least he was ready to meet their leaders, to address them, and to discuss difficult problems with them. His addresses on the reunion of the Churches, delivered at the Bonn Conference of 1872, show that he was by no means hostile to the newly formed communion, in whose interests these conferences were held. In 1874 and again in 1875, he presided over the Reunion Conferences held at Bonn and attended by leading ecclesiastics from the British Isles and from the Oriental Church, among whom were Bishop Christopher Wordsworth of Lincoln; Bishop Harold Browne of Ely; Lord Plunket, arch- bishop of Bublin; Lycurgus, archbishop of Syros and Tenos; Canon Liddon; and Professor Ossinine of St Petersburg. At the latter of these two conferences, when Bollinger was seventy- six years of age, he delivered a series of marvellous addresses in German and English, in which he discussed the state of theology on the continent, the reunion question, and the religious condition of the various countries of Europe in which the Roman Catholic Church held sway. Not the least of his achievements on this occasion was the successful attempt, made with extraordinary tact, ability, knowledge and perseverance, to induce the Orientals, Anglicans and Old Catholics present to accept a formula of con- cord, drawn from the writings of the leading theologians of the Greek Church, on the long-vexed question of the Procession of the Holy Spirit. This result having been attained, he passed the rest of his days in retirement, emerging sometimes from his retreat to give addresses on theological questions, and also writing, in conjunction with his friend Reusch, his last book, Geschichte der Moralstreitigkeiten in der romisch-katholischen Kirche seit dem sechzehnten Jahrhundert mil Beitrdgen zur Geschichte und Charakteristik des Jesuitenordens (Nordlingen, 1889), in which he deals with the moral theology of St Alfonso de' Liguori. He died 392 DOLLOND— DOLOMIEU in Munich, on the I4th of January 1890, at the age of ninety-one. Even in articulo mortis he refused to receive the sacraments from the parish priest at the cost of submission, but the last offices were performed by his friend Professor Friedrich. In addition to the works referred to in the foregoing sketch, we may mention The Eucharist in the First Three Centuries (Mainz, 1826) ; a Church History (1836, Eng. trans. 1840); Hifpolytus and Callistus (1854, Eng. trans., 1876); First Age of Christianity (1860); Lectures en the Reunion of the Churches; The Vatican Decrees; Studies in European History (tr. M. Warre, 1890) ; Miscellaneous Addresses (tr. M. Warre, 1894). See Life by J. Friedrich (3 vols. 1899-1901); obituary notice in The Times, nth January 1890; L. von Kobell, Conversations of Dr DoUinger (tr. by K. Gould, 1892). (J. J. L.*) DOLLOND, JOHN (1706-1761), English optician, was the son of a Huguenot refugee, a silk-weaver at Spitalfields; London, where he was born on the loth of June 1706. He followed his father's trade, but found time to acquire a knowledge of Latin, Greek, mathematics, physics, anatomy and other subjects. In 1752 he abandoned silk- weaving and joined his eldest son, Peter Dollond (1730-1820), who in 1750 had started in business as a maker of optical instruments. His reputation grew rapidly, and hi 1761 he was appointed optician to the king. In 1738 he published an " Account of some experiments concerning the different refrangibility of light " (Phil. Trans., 1758), describing the experiments that led him to the achievement with which his name is specially associated, the discovery of a means of construct- ing achromatic lenses by the combination of crown and flint glasses. Leonhard Euler in 1 747 had suggested that achromatism might be obtained by the combination of glass and water lenses. Relying on statements made by Sir Isaac Newton, Dollond disputed this possibility (Phil. Trans., 1753), but subsequently, after the Swedish physicist, Samuel Klingenstjerna (1698-1765), had pointed out that Newton's law of dispersion did not harmonize with certain observed facts, he began experiments to settle the question. Early in 1757 he succeeded in producing refraction without colour by the aid of glass and water lenses, and a few months later he made a successful attempt to get the same result by a combination of glasses of different qualities (see TELESCOPE) . For this achievement the Royal Society awarded him the Copley medal in 1758, and three years later elected him one of its fellows. Dollond also published two papers on apparatus for measuring small angles (Phil. Trans., 1753, 1754). He died in London, of apoplexy, on the 3Oth of November 1761. An account of his life, privately printed, was written by the Rev. John Kelly (1750-1809), the Manx scholar, who married one of his granddaughters. DOLMAN (from Turk, dolaman), originally a long and loose garment left unfastened in front, and with narrow sleeves. It is worn generally by the Turks, and is not unlike a cassock in shape. The name was given to the uniform jacket, worn by hussars, and slung from the shoulders with the sleeves hanging loose; and it is also used for a similar garment worn by ladies, with wide cape- like arrangements instead of sleeves. DOLNJA TUZLA, or DONJI Sou, the capital of the Dolnja Tuzla district, in Bosnia, beautifully situated on the Jala or Julia, a small stream flowing into the Spreia, which joins the Bosna at Doboj, 39 m. W.N.W.; and on a branch railway from Doboj. Pop. (1895) 10,227; almost all, including a permanent colony of gipsies, being Moslems. Dolnja Tuzla is the seat of a district court and an Orthodox bishop; with several churches, many mosques, a hospital, gymnasium and commercial school. Besides large alkali works, it has a vigorous trade in grain, livestock, timber and coal, from the surrounding hills, where there is a colony of Hungarian miners; while the salt springs, owned by the state both at Dolnja, or Lower, and Gornja, or Upper Tuzla, 6 m. E., are without a rival in the Balkan Peninsula. Dolnja Tuzla was called by the Romans Ad Salinas. Constantine Porphyrogenitus mentions it, in the loth century, as Salenes; in other medieval documents it appears as Sou, Sow or Soli. Its modern name is derived from the Turkish tuz, " salt." In 1690 the Austrians routed the Turks at Gornja Tuzla, and removed the Franciscan friars, with about 3000 other Roman Catholics, into Slavonia. DOLOMIEU, DEODAT GUY SILVAIN TANCREDE GRATET DE (1750-1801), French geologist and mineralogist, was born at Dolomieu, near Tour-du-Pin,in the department of Isere in France, on the 24th of June 1 7 50. He was admitted in his infancy a mem- ber of the Order of Malta. In his nineteenth year he quarrelled with a knight of the galley on which he was serving, and in the duel that ensued killed him. He was condemned to death for his crime, but in consideration of his youth the grand master granted him a pardon, which, at the instance of Cardinal Torrigiani, was confirmed by Pope Clement XIII., and after nine months' imprisonment he was set at liberty. Throughout that period he had solaced himself with the study of the physical sciences, and during his subsequent residence at Metz he continued to devote himself to them. In 1775 he published his Recherches sur la pesanteur des corps a differences distances du centre de la terre, and two Italian translations of mineralogical treatises by A. F. Cronstedt (1702-1765) and T. O. Bergman (1735-1784). These works gained for him the honour of election as a corresponding member of the Academic des Sciences at Paris. To obtain leisure to follow his favourite pursuits Dolomieu now threw up the commission which, since the age of fifteen, he had held in the carabineers, and in 1777 he accompanied the bailli (afterwards Cardinal L. R. E.) de Rohan to Portugal. In the following year he visited Spain, and in 1780 and 1781 Sicily and the adjacent islands. Two months of the year 1782 were spent in examining the geological structure of the Pyrenees, and in 1783 the earth- quake of Calabria induced him to go to Italy. The scientific results of these excursions are given in his Voyage aux ties de Lipari (1783); Memoire sur le tremblement de terre de la Calabre (1784); Memoire sur les ties Ponces, et catalogue raisonni des produits de I' Etna (1788) and other works. In 1789 and 1790 he busied himself with an examination of the Alps, his observations on which form the subject of numerous memoirs published in the Journal de physique. The mineral dolomite, which was named after him, was described by Dolomieu in 1791. He returned to France in that year, bringing with him rich collections of minerals. On the i4th of September 1792 the due de la Roche- foucauld, with whom he had been for twenty years on terms of the closest intimacy, was assassinated at Forges, and Dolomieu retired with the widow and daughter of the duke to their estate of Roche Guyon, where he wrote several important scientific papers. The events of^the 9th Thermidor (July 27, 1794) having restored the country to some tranquillity, Dolomieu recommenced his geological tours, and visited various parts of France with which he had been previously unacquainted. He was in 1 796 appointed engineer and ptofessor at the school of mines, and was chosen a member of the Institute at the time of its formation. At the end of 1797 he joined the scientific staff which in 1798 accompanied Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt. He had proceeded up the Nile as far asCairo when ill-health made his return toEurope necessary, and on the 7th of March 1799 he set sail from Alexandria. His ship proving unseaworthy put into Taranto, and as Naples was then at war with France, all the French passengers were made prisoners. On the 2 2nd of May they were carried by ship to Mes- sina, whence, with the exception of Dolomieu, they embarked for the coast of France. Dolomieu had been an object of the hatred of the Neapolitan court since 1783, when he revealed to the grand master of his order its designs against Malta, and the calumnies of his enemies on that island served now as a pretext for his detention. He was confined in a pestilential dungeon, where, clothed in rags, and having nothing but a little straw for a bed, he languished during twenty-one months. Dolomieu, however, did not abandon himself to despair. Deprived of writing materials, he made a piece of wood his pen, and with the smoke of his lamp for ink he wrote upon the margins of a Bible, the only book he still possessed, his treatise Sur la philosophic mintralogique et sur I'espece minerale (1801). Friends entreated, but in vain, for his liberty; it was with difficulty that they succeeded in furnishing him with a little assistance, and it was only by virtue of a special clause in the treaty between France and Naoles that, on the isth of March 1801, he was released. On his arrival in France he commenced the duties of the chair of mineralogy at the museum DOLOMITE 393 of natural history, to which, after the death of Daubenton, he had been elected in January 1800. His course of lectures concluded, he revisited Switzerland. Returning thence he reached the residence of his brother-in-law at Chateau-Neuf, in the department of Sa6ne-et-Loire, where he was seized with a fever, to which in a few days he succumbed, on the 26th of November 1801. Dolomieu's geological theories are remarkable for originality and boldness of conception. The materials constituting the primordial globe he held to have arranged themselves according to their specific gravities, so as to have constituted a fluid central sphere, a solid crust external to this, next a stratum of water, and lastly the atmosphere. Where water penetrated through the crust, solidification took place in the underlying fluid mass, which enlarging in consequence produced rifts in the superincumbent rocks. Water rushing down through the rifts became decom- posed, and the resulting effervescence occasioned submarine volcanoes. The crust of the earth he believed to be continually increasing in thickness, owing to the deposition of aqueous rocks, and to the gradual solidification of the molten interior, so that the volcanic eruptions and other geological phenomena of former must have been of far greater magnitude and frequency than those of recent times. See Lac£p£de, " filoge historique de Dolomieu," in Memoires de la classe des sciences de I'Institut (1806) ; Thomson, in Annals of Philo- sophy, vol. xii. p. 161 (1808). . DOLOMITE, a mineral species consisting of calcium and magnesium carbonate, CaMg (COa)2, and occurring as rhombo- hedral crystals or large rock-masses. Analyses of most well- crystallized specimens correspond closely with the above formula, the two carbonates being present in equal molecular proportions (CaCO3,S4-35; MgCO3,4S-65%). Normal dolomite is thus not an isomorphous mixture of calcium and magnesium carbonates, but a double salt; and any variations in composition are to be explained by the isomorphous mixing of this double salt with carbonates of calcium, iron, magnesium, manganese, and rarely of zinc and cobalt. In crystalline form dolomite is very similar to calcite, belonging to the same group of rhombohedral carbonates; the primitive ^--~.^ rhombohedron, r (100), parallel to ./^/"^^^ tne faces of which there are perfect ^r I \^ cleavages, has interfacial angles of I r I r >73° 4S'> t^le an8te °f tne cleavage / [^ /'rhombohedron of calcite being 74° [ jS ^-^^ / 55'. A specially characteristic feature \/ r ^^~^/ is that this rhombohedron is fre- ^^-•^^ ^^ quently the only form present on the ^^vv^ crystals (in calcite it is rare except FIG. i. in combination with other forms); the faces are also usually curved (fig. i ), sometimes to an extraordinary degree giving rise to saddle- shaped crystals (fig. 2). Crystals with plane faces are usually twinned, there being an interpenetration of two rhombohedra with the vertical axes parallel. The secondary twin-lamination, parallel to the obtuse rhombohedron e (no), so common in calcite, does not exist in dolomite. In the degree of symmetry possessed by the crystals there is, however, an important difference be- tween calcite and dolomite; the former has the full number of planes and axes of symmetry of a rhombohedral crystal, whilst the latter is hemihedral with parallel faces, having only an axis of triad symmetry and a centre of sym- metry. This lower degree of symmetry, which is the same as that of dioptase and phenacite, is occasionally shown by the presence of an obliquely placed rhombohedron, and also by the want of symmetry in the etching and elasticity figures on the faces of the primitive rhombohedron. Dolomite is both harder (H. = 3|-4) and denser (sp. gr. 2-85) than calcite. The two minerals may also be readily distinguished FIG. 2. by the fact that dolomite is not acted upon by cold, dilute acids (see below, Dolomite Rock). Crystals of dolomite vary from transparent to translucent, and often exhibit a pearly lustre, especially when the faces are curved; the colour is usually white or yellowish. The crystallized mineral was first examined chemically by P. Woulfe in 1779, and was named compound-spar by R. Kirwan in 1784; other early names are bitter-spar, rhomb-spar and pearl-spar (but these included other rhombohedral carbonates). The name dolomite (dolomie of N. T. de Saussure, 1792) is in honour of the French geologist, D. G. Dolomieu, who in 1791 noted that certain Tyrolese calcareous rocks and Italian marbles effervesce only slightly in contact with acid; this name was for many years applied to the rock only, but was later extended to the crystallized mineral, first in the form dolomite-spar. In the white crystalline dolomite-rock of the Binnenthal near Brieg in Switzerland beautiful water-clear crystals of dolomite are found; and crystallized masses occur embedded in serpentine, talc-schist and other magnesian silicate rocks. The best crystal- lized specimens are, however, usually found in metalliferous deposits; for example, in the iron mines of Traversella near Ivrea in Piedmont (as large twinned rhombohedra) and Cleator Moor in Cumberland; in the deposits of lead and zinc ores at Alston in Cumberland, Laxey in the Isle of Man, Joplin in Missouri; and in the silver veins of Schemnitz in Hungary and Guanajuato in Mexico. Several varieties of dolomite have been distinguished, depending on differences in structure and chemical composition. Miemite is a crystallized or columnar variety, of a pale asparagus-green colour, from Miemo near Volterra in Tuscany; taraspite is a similar variety from Tarasp in Switzerland. Gurhofite, from Gurhof near Aggsbach in Lower Austria, is snow-white, compact and porcellanous. Brossite, from the Brosso valley near Ivrea in Piedmont, and tharandite, f rom Tharand in Saxony, are crystal- lized varieties containing iron. Closely related is the species ankerite (q.v.). (L. J. S.) Dolomite Rock. — The rock dolomite, also known as dolomitic or magnesian limestone, consists principally of the mineral of the same name, but often contains admixture of other substances, such as calcite, quartz, carbonate and oxides of iron, argillaceous material, and chert or chalcedony. Dolomites when very pure and well crystallized may be snowy white (e.g. some examples from the eastern Alps), but are commonly yellow, creamy, brownish or grey from the presence of impurities. They tend to be crystalline, though on a fine scale, and appear under the microscope composed of small sharply angular rhombohedra, with a perfect cleavage and very strong double refraction. They can be often recognized by this, but are most certainly dis- tinguished from similar limestones or marbles by tests with weak acid. Dolomite dissolves only very slowly in dilute hydrochloric acid in the cold, but readily when the acid is warmed; limestones are freely attacked by the acid in either state. Magnesian lime- stones, which contain both dolomite and calcite, may be etched by exposing polished surfaces for a brief time to cold weak acid; the calcite is removed, leaving small pits or depressions. The distribution of the calcite may be rendered more clear by using ferric chloride solution. This is decomposed, leaving a yellow stain of ferric hydrate where the calcite occurred. Alternatively, a solution of aluminium chloride will serve; this precipitates gelautinous alumina on contact with calcite and the film can be stained with aniline dyes (Lemberg's solution). The dolomite is not affected by these processes. Dolomites of compact structure have a higher specific gravity than Kmestones, but they very often have a cavernous or drusy character, the walls of the hollows being lined with small crystals of dolomite with a pearly lustre and rounded faces. They are also slightly harder, and for these and other reasons they last better as building stones and wear better when used for paving or road- mending. Dolomites are rarely fossiliferous, as the process of dolomitization tends to destroy any organic remains originally present. As compared with limestones they are less frequently well bedded, but there are exceptions to this rule. Many 394 DOLOMITES— DOLPHIN dolomites, particularly those of the north of England, show a very remarkable concretionary structure. The beds look as if made up of rounded balls of all sizes from a foot or two in diameter down- wards. Often they are stuck together like piles cf shot or bunches of grapes. They are composed of fibrous radiate calcite crystals, which by some kind of concretionary action have segregated from the dolomitic material and grouped themselves together in this way. Other concretions from these beds resemble bunches of corals, tufts of plants, or present various strange imitative forms. Dolomite, unlike calcite, is not secreted by marine animals to build up the hard parts of their skeletons, and it is generally agreed also that dolomite is only very rarely and under excep- tional conditions deposited directly from solution in water. On the other hand, there is much evidence to show that limestones may absorb or be partly replaced by magnesium carbonate, and the double salt dolomite substituted for calcite by one of those processes which are described as " metasomatic." Thus the Carboniferous limestones of various parts of Britain pass into dolomites along lines of joint, fissure or fault, or occasionally along certain bedding planes. At the same time the rock becomes crystalline, its minute structure is altered, its fossils are effaced, and as dolomite has a higher specific gravity than limestone, contraction results and cavities are formed. The prevalence of crystalline, concretionary and drusy structures in dolomite can thus be simply explained. The process may actually be studied in many " magnesian limestones," in which by means of the microscope we may trace the gradual growth of dolomite crystals taking place simultaneously with the destruction of the original features of the limestone. Recent investigations in coral reefs show that these changes are going on at the present day at no considerable depths and in rocks which have not long con- solidated. All this goes to prove that the double carbonate of calcium and magnesium is under certain conditions a more stable salt than either of the simple carbonates, and that these conditions recur in nature with considerable frequency. Experiments have proved that at moderately high temperatures (100° to 200° C.) solutions of magnesium salts will convert calcite into dolomite in the laboratory, and that aragonite is even more readily affected than calcite. The analogy with dolomitization of limestones is strong but not complete, as the latter process must take place at ordinary temperatures and approximately under atmospheric pressures. No completely satisfactory explanation of the change, from the standpoint of the geologist, has as yet been advanced, though much light has been thrown upon the problem. Many limestones are rich in aragonite, but this in course of time tends to re- crystallize as calcite. Magnesium salts are abundant in sea- water, and in the waters of evaporating enclosed coral lagoons and of many bitter lakes. Calcite is more soluble than dolomite in water saturated with carbonic acid and would tend to be slowly removed from a limestone, while the dolomite increased in relative propor- tion. Dolomite also being denser than calcite may be supposed to replace it more readily when pressure is increased. These and many other factors probably co-operate to effect the transmuta- tion of limestones into dolomites. Examples of dolomitization may be obtained in practically every geological formation in which limestones occur. The oldest rocks are most generally affected, e.g. the Cambrian lime- stones of Scotland, but the change occurs, as has already been stated, even in the upraised coral reefs of the Indian and Pacific oceans which are very recent formations. It is very interesting to note that dolomites are very frequent among rocks which indicate that desert or salt-lake conditions prevailed at the time of their deposit. The dolomite or magnesian limestone of the English Permian is an instance of this. The explanation may be found in the fact that the waters of bitter lakes are usually rich in magnesium salts which, percolating through beds of limestone, would convert them into dolomite. Among the most famous dolomites are those of the Dolomite Alps of Tirol. They are of Triassic age and yield remarkably picturesque mountain scenery; it is believed that some were originally coral reefs; they are now highly crystalline and often contain interesting minerals and ores. The galena limestone of the North American Trenton rocks is mostly a dolomite. Dolomites furnish excellent building stones, and those of the north-east of England (Mansfield stone, &c.) have long been regarded with great favour on account of their resistance to decomposition. They vary a good deal in quality, and have not all proved equally satisfactory in practice. Part of the Houses of Parliament at Westminster is built of dolomite. (J. S. F.) DOLOMITES, THE, a mountain district in the South Tirolese Alps, though sometimes it is erroneously considered to form part of some other chain than the Alps. The distinguishing feature of this district is that it is composed of magnesian limestone, which rises in peaks of a most singular degree of sharpness and streaked by veins of the most startling colours. Nowadays it has become well known to tourists, who, however, keep mainly to a few great centres, though most of the more striking peaks were first ascended in the late sixties and early seventies of the ipth century by English mountaineers. Roughly speaking the Dolomite region lies between the Brenner railway from Franzensfeste to Trent (W.) and the road over the Monte Croce Pass from Innichen in the Drave valley by way of the Sexten glen and the Piave valley to Belluno and Feltre (E.). On the north it is limited by the railway line from Innichen to Franzenfeste, and on the south by the railway and road from Trent to Feltre. The highest summit is the Marmolata (10,972 ft.), but far more typical are the Sorapiss, the Cimon della Pala, the Langkofel, the Pelmo, the Drei Zinnen, the Sass Maor and the Rosengarten (see ALPS). Among the chief tourist resorts are St Ulrich (in the Groden valley), San Martino di Castrozza (near Primiero), Caprile and Cortina d'Ampezzo. Besides the Dolomites included in the above region there are several other Dolomite groups (though less extensive) in the Alps. N. W. of Trent rises the Tosa group, while in Switzerland there are the Piz d'Aela group, S.W. of Bergun on the Albula Pass route, and the curious little group N. of the village of Splugen, besides other isolated peaks between the St Gotthard and Lukmanier Passes. In Dauphine itself (the home of the geologist Dolomieu) the mountain districts of the Royannais, of the Vercors, and of the Devoluy (all S.W. of Grenoble) are more or less Dolomitic in character. See J. Gilbert and G. C. Churchill, The Dolomite Mountains (London, 1864); Miss L. Tuckett, Zigzagging among Dolomites (London, 1871); P. Grohmann, Wanderungen in den Dolomiten (Vienna, 1877) ; L. Sinigaglia, Climbing Reminiscences of the Dolo- mites (London, 1896); The Climbs of Norman-Neruda (London, 1899); V. Wolf von Glanvell, Dolomitenfuhrer (Vienna, 1898); J. Ball, Western Alps (new ed., London, 1898, section 9, Rte. P. French Dolomites). (W. A. B. C.) DOLPHIN, a name properly belonging to the common cetacean mammal known as Delphinus delphis, but also applied to a number of more or less nearly allied species. The dolphins, bottle-noses, or, as they are more commonly called, " porpoises," are found in abundance in all seas, while some species are inhabitants of large rivers, as the Amazon. They are among the The Common Dolphin (Delphinus delphis). smaller members of the cetacean order, none exceeding 10 ft. in length. Their food is chiefly fish, for the capture of which their long narrow beaks, armed with numerous sharp-pointed teeth, are well adapted, but some also devour crustaceans and molluscs. They are mostly gregarious, and the agility and grace of their movements in the water are themes of admiration to the spectators when a " school of porpoises " is playing round the bows of a vessel at sea. The type of the group is the common dolnhin (D. delphis) of the Mediterranean and Atlantic, which usually measures 6 to 8 ft. in length, and is thickest near the centre, whe/e the back fin rises to DOMAT— DOMBROWSKI 395 a height of 9 or 10 in., and whence the body tapers towards both extremities. The forehead descends abruptly to the base of the slightly flattened beak, which is about 6 in. long, and is separated from the forehead by a transverse depression. The mouth is armed with sharp, slightly curved teeth, of uniform size, varying in number from forty to fifty on each side of both jaws. The aper- ture of the ear is exceedingly minute; the eyes are of moderate size and the blow-hole is crescent-shaped. The colour of the upper surface is black, becoming lighter on the flanks, and perfectly white below. Dolphins are gregarious, and large herds oftenfollow ships. They exhibit remarkable agility, individuals having been known to leap to such a height out of the water as to fall upon the deck. Their gambols and apparent relish for human society have attracted the attention of mariners in all ages, and have probably given rise to the many fabulous stories told of dolphins. Their appearance at sea was regarded as a good omen, for although it presaged a tempest, yet it enabled the sailors to steer for a place of safety. The dolphin is exceedingly voracious, feeding on fish, cuttlefishes and crustaceans. On the south coast of England it lives chiefly on pilchard and mackerel, and when in pursuit of these is often taken in the nets. The female brings forth a single young one, which she nurses most carefully. Her milk is abundant and rich, and during the operation of suckling, the mother floats in a slightly sidelong position, so as to allow of the necessary respiration in herself and her young. The dolphin was formerly supposed to be a fish, and allowed to be eaten by Roman Catholics when the use of flesh was prohibited, and it seems to have been esteemed as a delicacy by the French. Among the seafaring population of Britain the name " dolphin " is most usually given to the beautifully coloured fish Coryphaena hippuris — the dorado of the Portuguese, and it is to the latter the poet is alluding when he speaks of " the dying dolphin's changing hues." Many other allied genera, such as Prodelphinus, Sieno, Lagenorhynchus, &c., are also included in the family Ddphinidae, some of which live wholly in rivers. Beside these there is another group of largely freshwater species, constituting the family Platanistidae, and typified by the susu (Platanista gangetica), extensively distributed throughout nearly the whole of the river-systems of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Indus, ascending as high as there is water enough to swim in, but never passing out to sea. It is about 8 ft. long, blind and feeds on small fish and crustaceans for which it gropes with its long snout in the muddy waters at the bottom. Into, geoffroyensis, the single species of its genus, frequents the Amazon, and reaches an extreme length of 8 ft. It is wholly pink or flesh-coloured, or entirely black, or black above and pink beneath. A third is the La Plata dolphin, Stenodelphis blainvillei, a species about 5 ft. in length. Its colour is palish brown, which harmonizes with the brown-coloured water of the estuary of the Rio de la Plata. See CETACEA. (R. L.*) DOMAT, or DAUMAT, JEAN (1625-1696), French jurisconsult, was born at Clermont in Auvergne, on the 3oth of November 1625. He was closely in sympathy with the Port-Royalists, was intimate with Pascal, and at the death of that celebrated philo- sopher was entrusted with his private papers. He is principally known from his elaborate legal digest, in three volumes 410, under the title of Lois civiles dans leur ordre naturd (1689), — an undertaking for which Louis XIV. settled on him a pension of 2000 livres. A fourth volume, Le Droit public, was published in 1697, a year after his death. This is one of the most important works on the science of law that France has produced. Domat endeavoured to found all law upon ethical or religious principles, his motto being L'komme estfait par Dieu et pour Dieu. Besides the Lois Civiles, Domat made in Latin a selection of the most common laws in the collections of Justinian, under the title of Legum ddectus (Paris, 1700; Amsterdam, 1703); it was sub- sequently appended to the Lois civiles. His works have been translated into English. Domat died in Paris on the I4th of March 1696. In the Journal des savants for 1843 are several papers on Domat by Victor Cousin, giving much information not otherwise accessible. DOMBES, a district of eastern France, formerly part of the province of Burgundy, now comprised in the department of Ain, and bounded W. by the Sa6ne, S. by the Rhone, E. by the Ain and N. by the district of Bresse. The region forms an undulating plateau with a slight slope towards the north-west, the higher ground bordering the Ain and the Rhone attaining an average height of about 1000 ft. The Dombes is characterized by an impervious surface consisting of boulder clay and other relics of glacial action. To this fact is due the large number of rain-water pools, varying for the most part from 35 to 250 acres in size which cover some 23,000 acres of its total area of 282,000 acres. These pools, artificially created, date in many cases from the isth century, some to earlier periods, and were formed by landed proprietors who in those disturbed times saw a surer source of revenue in fish-breeding than in agriculture. Disease and depopulation resulted from this policy and at the end of the 1 8th century the Legislative Assembly decided to reduce the area of the pools which then covered twice their present extent. Drainage works were continued, roads cut, and other improve- ments effected during the igth century. Large numbers of fish, principally carp, pike and tench are still reared profitably, the pools being periodically dried up and the ground cultivated. The Dombes (Lat. Dumbae) once formed part of the kingdom of Aries. In the 1 1 th century, when the kingdom began to break up, the northern part of the Dombes came under the power of the lords of Bauge, and in 1218, by the marriage of Marguerite de Bauge with Humbert IV. of Beaujeu, passed to the lords of Beaujeu. The southern portion was held in succession by the lords of Villars and of Thoire. Its lords took advantage of the excommunication of the emperor Frederick II. to assert their complete independence of the Empire. In 1400, Louis II., duke of Bourbon, acquired the northern part of the Dombes, together with the lordship of Beaujeu, and two years later bought the southern part from the sires de Thoire, forming the whole into a new sovereign principality of the Dombes, with Trevoux as its capital. The principality was confiscated by King Francis I. in 1523, along with the other possessions of the Constable de Bourbon, was granted in 1527 to the queen-mother, Louise of Savoy, and after her death was held successively by kings Francis I., Henry II. and Francis II., and by Catherine de' Medici. In 1561 it was granted to Louis, duke of Bourbon- Montpensier, by whose descendants it was held till, in 1682, " Mademoiselle," the duchess of Montpensier, gave it to Louis XIV.'s bastard, the duke of Maine, as part of the price for the release of her lover Lauzun. The eldest son of the duke of Maine, Louis Auguste de Bourbon (1700-1755), prince of Dombes, served in the army of Prince Eugene against the Turks (1717), took part in the War of the Polish Succession (1733-1734), and in that of the Austrian Succession (1742-1747). He was made colonel-general of the Swiss regiment, governor of Languedoc and master of the hounds of France. He was succeeded, as prince of Dombes, by his brother the count of Eu (q.i>.), who in 1762 surrendered the principality to the crown. The little principality of Dombes showed in some respects signs of a vigorous life; the prince's mint and printing works at Trevoux were long famous, and the college at Thoissey was well endowed and influential. See A. M. H. J. Stokvis, Manuel d'histoire (Leiden, 1889); Guichenon, Histoire de Dombes (1863, 1872) ; and various works by M. C. Guigue, including Bibliotheca Dumbensis (with Valentin Smith) (1856-1885). DOMBROWSKI, JAN HENRYK (1755-1818), Polish general, was born at Pierszowice in the palatinate of Cracow, on the 29th of August 1755. Brought up in Saxony, he served for some years in the Saxon army; but when, in 1791, the Polish diet recalled all Poles serving abroad, he returned to his native land. Under Poniatowski, he took part in the campaign of 1792 against the Russians. In 1794 he distinguished himself under Kosciusko in the defence of Warsaw. For two years thereafter he lived in retirement, declining the offers of high ranks in their armies made to him by Russia and Prussia. He then went to Paris, and in January 1797 was authorized by the government of the Cisalpine Republic to organize a Polish legion. This task he executed at 396 DOME Milan. In command of his legion he played an important part in the war in Italy, entered Rome in May 1798, and distinguished himself greatly at the Trebbia (June 19, 1799), and in other battles and combats of 1799-1801. After the peace of Amiens he passed, as general of division, into the service of the Italian republic. Summoned by Napoleon in 1806 to promote a rising in Poland, he organized several divisions of Poles, and distinguished himself at Danzig and at Friedland. In 1809 he served in the Polish campaign and in 1812 he commanded a Polish division in the Grande Armee, being wounded at the passage of the Beresina. He fought under Marmont at the battle of Leipzig (1813), and in the following year returned to Poland. He was one of the generals entrusted by the tsar with the reorganization of the Polish army, and was named in 1815 general of cavalry and senator palatine of the new kingdom of Poland. He retired, however, in the following year, to his estates in Posen. General Dombrowski died at his seat of Wina-Gora in Posen on the 26th of June 1818. He wrote several military historical works in the Polish language. DOME (Lat domus, house; Ital. duomo, cathedral), an archi- tectural term, derived from a characteristic feature of Italian cathedrals, correctly applied only to a spherical or spheroidal vault, the horizontal plan of which is always a circle. It may be supported on a circular wall, as in the Pantheon at Rome; or on a drum, as in the later Byzantine churches and generally so in the Renaissance styles; or be carried over a square or polygonal area, in which case the base of the dome is connected to the lines of the main wall by pendentives, squinches, corbels or a series of con- centric arches, or two of these combined. Its section may be semi- circular, pointed, ovoid or segmental; in the latter case it is usually termed a cupola, although the pendentives which carry it continue, on the diagonal lines, the complete spherical dome, as in the entrance vestibule on the south side of the Sanctuary at Jerusalem, attributed to Herod, or in those crowning the bays of the Golden Gateway by Justinian. The dome may be constructed in horizontal courses, as in the " beehive " tombs at Mycenae, with joints radiating to the centre, or a compromise between the two, in a series of small segments of circles, as in the Temple of Jupiter in Diocletian's palace at Spalato, or again with the lower portion in horizontal courses and the upper portion with arches, as in the Pantheon at Rome. The dome is probably one of the earliest forms of covering invented by man, but owing probably to its construction in ephemeral materials, such as the unburnt bricks in Chaldaea, there are no examples existing. But in a bas-relief (see ARCHI- TECTURE, fig. 10), brought by Layard from Kuyunjik, are representations of semicircular and ovoid domes, which show that the feature was well known in Assyria, and as they build domes of the same nature down to the present day and without centring of any kind, it suggests that they may have existed from the remotest ages. The most ancient examples in Europe are those of the " beehive " tombs at Mycenae and elsewhere in Greece, ascribed generally to the nth century B.C. In a sense, they are not true domes, because they are built in horizontal courses of stone, which act like the voussoirs of an arch in resist- ing the thrust of the earth at the back. This did not exist in the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates or other circular buildings in Greece, because their vertical sections were not portions of circles. For this reason, the conical vault of the Baths in Pompeii is not a dome. The circular Laconicon in the Baths of Titus (A. D. 72) may have been domed, and the great hemicycles in the Thermae must certainly have been roofed with semi-domes. The earliest Roman domes are those of the great circular halls at Baiae near Naples, described as temples, but really forming part of the immense bathing establishments there, the favourite place of resort of the Romans during the latter part of the Republic. The largest on the east side of the Lake of Avernus, known as the Temple of Apollo, is a circular hall with an internal diameter of looft. Those of Diana, Mercury and Venus at Baiae, were 96, 66 and 60 ft. respectively. The vaults were all built in tufa with horizontal courses in brick and cement. Half of the dome of the Temple of Mercury had fallen down, showing the section to have been nearly that of an equilateral arch. From the fact that there were pierced openings or windows in all these domes, they probably constituted the frigidaria of the baths. The first example still existing in Rome is that of the Pantheon (A.D.I 1 2), where a circular dome, 142 ft. in diameter, rests on a circular wall, its height being about equal to its diameter. The lower courses of this dome, built in the Roman brick or tile, were, up to the top of the third coffer, all laid in horizontal courses; above that, the construction is not known for certain; externally a series of small arches is shown, but they rested on a shell already built. The so-called Temple of Minerva Medica (now recognized as the Nymphaeum of the Baths of Gallienus, A. D. 366) is the next dated example. The Nymphaeum was decagonal on plan, so that small pendentives were required to carry the brick dome. The domed Laconicon of the Thermae of Diocletian (A.D. 302) still exists as the vestibule of the church of Santa Maria degli Angeli. Of Constantine's time there are two small domed examples in the tomb of S. Costanza and the Baptistery of the Lateran, both in Rome, and one in the tomb of Galla Placidia at Ravenna (c. A.D. 450). From these we pass to the Sassanian domes at Serbistan and Firuzabad, of the 4th and 5th centuries respectively. These were built in brick and rested on square pendentives. In section they were ovoid. In Syria, the dome over the octagonal church at Esra, built in stone and dated A.D. 515, is also ovoid, its height being equal to its diameter, i.e. 28 ft. This, as well as the Sassanian domes, was built without centring. The next example is that of the church of Sta Sophia at Constantinople, the finest example existing, both in its con- ception and execution. It was built by Justinian (537-552) f rom the designs of Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus. The dome is 104 ft. in diameter, and is carried on pendentives over a square area. The construction is of brick and stone in alternate courses, and the lower part of the dome is pierced with forty windows, which give it an extraordinary lightness. The height from the pavement of the church to the soffit of the dome is 179 ft. No dome of similar dimensions was ever again attempted by the Byzantine architects, and the principal difference in later examples was the raising of the dome on a circular drum pierced with windows. In order to lighten the dome erected over the church of San Vitale, at Ravenna, it was constructed with hollow cylindrical jars, fitted, the end of one into the mouth of the other; a similar contrivance was adopted in the tomb of the empress Helena (the Torre Pignatiara), the vaults of the Circus of Maxentius on the Via Appia, and the outer aisles of San Stefano, all at Rome, thus dispensing with the buttresses of Sta Sophia. The domes of the earlier mosques in Cairo were built on the model of Sta Sophia, with windows pierced round the base of the dome and external buttresses between them; these domes were all built in brick coated over with cement or stucco. At a later date, and when built in stone, the upper portion was raised in height and terminated with a point on which a finial was placed. These are the domes inside and outside Cairo, which are carved with an infinity of geometrical patterns interwoven with con- ventional floral decoration. The upper portion of the dome is very thin, so that there is little weight and comparatively no thrust, and it is to these facts that we probably owe their preservation. In India, in the " great mosque " of Jama Masjid (A.D. 1560) and the Gol Gumbaz, or tomb of Mahommed Adil Shah (A. D. 1 630) at Bijapur, the domes are carried on pendentives consisting of arches crossing one another and projecting inwards, and their weight counteracts any thrust there may be in the dome. It is possibly for a similar reason that in the Jama Masjid of Shah Jahan at Delhi (1632-1638) and the Taj Mahal (A.D. 1630) the domes assume a bulbous form, the increased thickness of the dome below the haunches by its weight served as a counterpoise to any thrust the upper part of the dome might exert. The form is not much to be admired, and when exaggerated, as it is in the churches of Russia, where it was introduced by the Tatars, at times it became monstrous. DOMENICHINO 397 From these we pass to the domes of Perigord and La Charente, the earliest of which date from the commencement of the nth century. Of the western dome of St Etienne at Perigueux (A.D. 14) only the pendentives remain, sufficient, however, with later examples, to show that these French domes were different from the Byzantine both in construction and form. The pendentives are built on horizontal courses of stone, and the voussoirs of the pointed arches which carried them form part of the pendentives ; a few feet above the top of the arches is a moulding and a ledge, above which the dome, ovoid in section, is built. The principal examples following St Etienne are those of S. Jean-de-Cole, Cahors, Souidac,Solignac,Angoule'me,Fontev- rault, and lastly St Front at Perigueux, built about 1150, in imitation of St Mark's at Venice. The domes of the latter church were introduced into the old basilica about 1063, and were based on the church of the Apostles at Constantinople, which was pulled down in the isth century, so that we have only the clear descrip- tion of Procopius to go by. The domes over the north and south transepts and the choir of St Mark's are smaller than those over the nave and crossing, because they had to be fitted in between more ancient structures. The construction of the domes of St Mark's is not known, but at St Front the general design only was copied, and they built them in the Perigordian manner. The masons from Perigord are also responsible for the domes of the Crusaders' churches in Palestine and for some of the early churches still remaining in Cyprus. The domes of San Cyriaco at Ancona and Sant' Antonio at Padua were based upon those of St Mark's at Venice. In central Italy we have the dome (elliptical in plan) of the cathedral of Pisa, and it was a favourite feature over the crossing of the churches throughout Italy, being generally carried on squinch pendentives. The domes of the baptisteries of Florence, Parma, Trieste and Piacenza, are only internal, being enclosed with vertical walls and a sloping roof. In Sicily, on account of the strong Saracenic influence, the squinches are simple versions of the stalactite pendentives described under ARCHITECTURE: Mahommedan (q.v.), the earliest example being found in the church of San Giovanni-dei-Leprosi (A.D. 1072), all the domes being ovoid in section. Except in Perigord and La Charente, domes are not found in the churches in France, but in Spain they were introduced over the crossing at Burgos, Tarragona and Salamanca cathedrals, and were made architectural features externally. This is rarely found in Germany, for although in the cathedrals of Worms, Spires and Mainz, and in the churches of St Martin and Sankt Maria im Capitol at Cologne, the crossings are covered by domes, always carried on squinch pendentives, externally they built lanterns round them. In the Renaissance styles, the dome was at once accepted as the principal characteristic feature, and its erection over the crossing of Santa Maria del Fiore at Florence was the first important work entrusted to Brunelleschi. The dome was begun in 1422, and finished in 1431, with the exception of the lantern, begun the year of his death in 1444, and completed in 1471. The dome, which is octagonal on plan, is 139 ft. in diameter, and is built with an inner and outer casing, concentric one with the other, tied together by ribs between them: the lower portion is stone, the upper part is brick. The double shell was also employed by Michelangelo in the dome of St Peter's at Rome, the outer shell being raised higher than the lower and connected by ribs one with the other. The diameter is 140 ft. and the construction in brick, similar to that at Florence, but the ribs are in stone from Tivoli. In both these cases the weight of the lantern was a very important considera- tion, and is responsible for the repeated repairs required and the introduction of additional ties. In this respect Sir Christopher Wren solved the difficulty at St Paul's cathedral, London, in another way: he provided three shells, the lower one with an eye in the centre forming the inner dome as seen from the interior; the middle one of conical form, and the outer one framed in timber and covered with lead. The conical shell carries the lantern, the weight of which is carried direct to the base, bound with iron ties, with such additional strength as may be given by the portico round. In all these cases these domes are built on lofty drums, so that externally they present quite a different appearance to those of the Pantheon at Rome, or Sta Sophia in Constantinople. Of other examples, the domes of the Invalides in Paris, by Mansard ( 1 706) , and of the Pantheon by Soufflot (1735), have each three shells, the former having a graceful outline. In Spain the dome of the cathedral at Granada (i 530) and the Escurial (i 563) ; in Italy those of Sta Maria della Salute at Venice, the small example of Bramante at Todi (1480) and of the Carignano at Genoa, are worth recording, as also the dome of the Suleimanie mosque at Constantinople (1550). See plates illustrating ARCHITECTURE; and INDIAN ARCHITECTURE. (R. P. S.) DOMENICHINO (or DOHENICO), ZAHPIERI (1581-1641), Italian painter, born at Bologna, on the zist of October 1581, was the son of a shoemaker. The diminutive form of Christian name by which he is constantly known indicates his short stature. He was placed, when young, under the tuition of Denis Calvart; but having been treated with great severity by that master, he left him, and became a pupil in the academy of the Caracci, under Agostino. Towards the beginning of the 1 7th century he went to Rome, at the invitation of his fellow- pupil and intimate Albani, and prosecuted his studies under Annibale Caracci. The faculty ot Domenichino was slow in its development. He was at first timid and distrustful of his powers ; while his studious, unready and reserved manners were mis- understood by his companions for dulness, and he obtained the nickname of the " Ox " (Bue). But Annibale Caracci, who observed his faculties with more attention, predicted that the apparent slowness of Domenichino's genius would in time produce what would be an honour to the art of pain ting. When his early productions had brought him into notice, he studied with extreme application, and made such advance as to raise his works into a comparison with those of the most admired masters of the time. From his acting as a continual censor of his own works, he became distinguished amongst his fellow-pupils as an accurate and expressive designer; his colours were the truest to nature; Mengs, indeed, found nothing to desire in his works, except a somewhat larger proportion of elegance. That he might devote his whole powers to the art, Domenichino shunned all society; or, if he occasionally sought it in the public theatres and walks, this was in order better to observe the play of the passions in the features of the people — those of joy, anger, grief, terror and every affection of the mind — and to commit them vividly to his tablets;thus, saysBellori, it was that he succeeded in delineating the soul, in colouring life, and calling forth heartfelt emotions, at which all his works aim. In personal character he is credited with temperance and modesty; but, besides his want of socia- bility, he became somewhat suspicious, and jealous of his master. In Rome, Domenichino obtained employment from Cardinals Borghese, Farnese and Aldobrandini, for all of whom he painted works in fresco. The distinguished reputation which he had acquired excited the envy of some of his contemporaries. Lanfranco in particular, one of his most inveterate enemies, asserted that his celebrated " Communion of St Jerome " (painted for the church of La Carita towards 1614, for a pittance of about ten guineas, now in the Vatican Gallery, and ordinarily, but most irrationally, spoken of as the second or third best oil picture in the world) was an imitation from Agostino Caracci; and he procured an engraving of this master's picture of the same subject (now in the Gallery of Bologna), copies of which were circulated for the purpose of proving that Domenichino was a plagiarist. There is in truth a very marked resemblance between the two compositions. The pictures which Zampieri painted immediately afterwards, representing subjects from the life of St Cecilia, only increased the alarm of his competitors, and redoubled their injustice and malignity. Disgusted with these cabals, he left Rome for Bologna, where he remained until he was recalled by Pope Gregory XV., who appointed him principal painter and architect to the pontifical palace. In this archi- tectural post he seems to have done little or nothing, although he 398 DOMESDAY BOOK •was not inexpert in the art. He designed in great part the Villa di Belvedere at Frascati, and the whole of the Villa Ludovisi, and some other edifices. From 1630 onwards Domenichino was engaged in Naples, chiefly on a series of frescoes (never wholly completed) of the life of St Januarius in the Cappella del Tesoro. He settled in that city with his family, and opened a school. There the persecution against him became far more shameful than in any previous instance. The notorious so-called " Cabal of Naples " — the painters Corenzio, Ribera and Caracciolo — leagued together as they were to exclude all alien competition, plagued and decried the Bolognese artist in all possible ways; for instance, on returning in the morning to his fresco work, he would find not infrequently that someone had rubbed out the performance of the previous day. Perpetual worry is believed to have brought the life of Domenichino to a close; contemporary suspicion did not scruple to speak broadly of poison, but this has remained unconfirmed. He died in Naples, after two days' illness, on the isth of April 1641. Domenichino, in correctness of design, expression of the passions, and simplicity and variety in the airs of his heads, has been considered little inferior to Raphael; but in fact there is the greatest gulf fixed between the two. Critics of the i8th century adulated the Bolognese beyond all reason or toleration; he is now regarded as commonplace in mind and invention, lacking any innate ideality, though undoubtedly a forcible, resolute and learned executant. " We must," says Lanzi, " despair to find paintings exhibiting richer or more varied draperies, details of costume more beautifully adapted, or more majestic mantles. The figures are finely disposed both in place and action, conducing to the general effect; whilst a light pervades the whole which seems to rejoice the spirit, growing brighter and brighter in the aspect of the best countenances, whence they first attract the eye and heart of the beholder. The persons delineated could not tell their tale to the ear more plainly than they speak it to the eye. The ' Scourging of St Andrew,' which he executed in competition with Guido Reni at Rome (a fresco in the church of San Gregorio), is a powerful illustration of this truthful expression, Of the two works of these masters, Annibale Caracci preferred that of Domenichino. It is said that in painting one of the executioners the artist actually wrought himself into a passion, using threatening words and actions, and that Annibale Caracci, surprising him at that moment, embraced him, exclaiming with joy, ' To-day, my dear Domenichino, thou art teaching me.' So novel, and at the same time so natural, it appeared to him that the artist, like the orator, should feel within himself all that he is representing to others." Domenichino is esteemed the most distinguished disciple of the Caracci, or second only to Guido Reni. Algarotti preferred him to the greatest masters; and Nicolas Poussin considered the painter of the " Communion of St Jerome " to be the first after Raphael. His pictures of " Adam and Eve," and the " Martyrdom of St Agnes," in the Gallery of Bologna, are amongst his leading works. Others of superior interest are his first known picture, a fresco of the " Death of Adonis, "in the Loggia of the Giardino Farnese, Rome; the " Martyrdom of St Sebastian," in Santa Maria degli Angeli; the " Four Evangelists," in Sant' Andrea della Valle; " Diana and her Nymphs," in the Borghese gallery; the " Assumption of the Virgin," in Santa Maria di Trastevere; and frescoes in the neighbouring abbey of Grotta Ferrata, lives of SS. Nilus and Bartholomew. His portraits are also highly reputed. It is admitted that in his compositions he often borrowed figures and arrangements from previous painters. Domenichino was potent in fresco. He excelled also in landscape painting. In that style (in which he was one of the earliest practitioners) the natural elegance of his scenery, his trees, his well-broken grounds, the character and expression of his figures, gained him as much public admiration as any of his other performances. See Bolognini, Life of Domenichino (1839); C. Landon, Works of Domenichino, with a Memoir (1823). (W. M. R.) DOMESDAY BOOK, or simply DOMESDAY, the record of the great survey of England executed for William the Conqueror. We learn from the English Chronicle that the scheme of this survey was discussed and determined in the Christmas assembly of 1085, and from the colophon of Domesday Book that the survey (descriptio) was completed in 1086. But Domesday Book (liber) although compiled from the returns of that survey, must be carefully distinguished from them; nor is it certain that it was compiled in the year in which the survey was made. (jFor the making of the survey each county was visited by a group of royal officers (legati), who held a public inquiry, probably in the great assembly known as the county court, which was attended by representatives of every township as well as of the local lords. The unit of inquiry was the Hundred (a subdivision of the county which had then an administrative entity), and the return for each Hundred was sworn to by twelve local jurors, half of them English and half Normans. What is believed to be a full tran- script of these original returns is preserved for several of the Cambridgeshire Hundreds, and is of great illustrative importance). ThelnquisitioEliensiSjthe " Exon Domesday " (so called from the preservation of the volume at Exeter) , and the second volume of Domesday Book, also all contain the full details which the original returns supplied. The original MS. of Domesday Book consists of two volumes, of which the second is devoted to the three eastern counties, while the first, which is of much larger size, comprises the rest of England except the most northerly counties. Of these the north- westerly portion, which had Carlisle for its head, was not con- quered till some years after the survey was made; but the omission of Northumberland and Durham has not been satis- factorily explained. There are also no surveys of London, Winchester and some other towns. \For both volumes the contents of the returns were entirely rearranged and classified according to fiefs. Instead of appearing under the Hundreds and townships they now appeared under the names of the local " barons," i.e. those who held the lands directly of the crown in fee. In each county the list opened with the holding of the king himself (which had possibly formed the subject of separate inquiry); then came those of the churchmen and religious houses; next were entered those of the lay tenants-in-chief (barones) ; and last of all those of women, of the king's Serjeants (servientes) , of the few English " thegns " who retained land, and so forth. In some counties one or more principal towns formed the subject of a separate section; in some the clamor es (disputed titles to land) were similarly treated apart. But this description applies more specially to the larger and principal volume; in the smaller one the system is more confused, the execution less perfect. The two volumes are distinguished even more sharply by the exclusion, in the larger one, of certain details, such as the enumeration of the live stock, which would have added greatly to its size. It has, indeed, been suggested that the eastern counties' volume represents a first attempt, and that it was found impossible, or at least inconvenient, to complete the work on the same scale.j For the object of the survey we have three sources of informa- tion: (i) the passage in the English Chronicle, which tells us why it was ordered, (2) the list- of questions which the jurors were asked, as preserved in the Inquisitio Eliensis, (3) the contents of Domesday Book and the allied records mentioned above. Although these can by no means be reconciled in every detail, it is now generally recognized that the primary object of the survey was to acertain and record the fiscal rights of the king. These were mainly (i) the national land-tax (geldum), paid on a fixed assessment, (2) certain miscellaneous dues, (3) the proceeds of the crown lands. After a great political convulsion such as the Norman conquest, and the wholesale confiscation of landed estates which followed it, it was William's interest to make sure that the rights of the crown, which he claimed to have inherited, had not suffered in the process. More especially was this the case as his Norman followers were disposed to evade the liabilities of their English predecessors. The Domesday survey therefore recorded the names of the new holders of lands and the assess- ments on which their tax was to be paid. But it did more than this; by the king's instructions it endeavoured to make a national valuation list, estimating the annual value of all the DOMESTIC RELATIONS— DOMFRONT 399 land in the country, (i) at the time of King Edward's death, (2) when the new owners received it, (3) at the time of the survey, and further, it reckoned, by command, the potential value as well. It is evident that William desired to know the financial resources of his kingdom, and probable that he wished to compare them with the existing assessment, which was one of considerable antiquity, though there are traces that it had been occasionally modified. /The great bulk of Domesday Book is devoted to the somewhat arid details of the assessment and valuation of rural estates, which were as yet the only important source of national wealth. After stating the assessment of the manor, the record sets forth the amount of arable land, and the number of plough- teams (each reckoned at eight oxen) available for working it, with the additional number (if any) that might be employed; then the river-meadows, woodland, pasture, fisheries (i.e. weirs in the streams), water-mills, saltpans (if by the sea) and other subsidiary sources of revenue; the peasants are enumerated in their several classes; and finally the annual value of the whole, past and present, is roughly estimated. It is obvious that, both in its values and in its measurements, the survey's reckoning is very crude/ / Apart from the wholly rural portions, which constitute its bulk, Domesday contains entries of interest concerning most of the towns, which were probably made because of their bearing on the fiscal rights of the crown therein. These include fragments of custumals, records of the military service due, of markets, mints, and so forth. From the towns, from the counties as wholes, and from many of its ancient lordships, the crown was entitled to archaic dues in kind, such as honey. The information of most general interest found in the great record is that on political, personal, ecclesiastical and social history, which only occurs sporadically and, as it were, by accident. Much of this was used by E. A. Freeman for his work on the Norman Conquest. Although unique in character and of priceless value to the student, Domesday will be found disappointing and largely unintelligible to any but the specialist. Even scholars are unable to explain portions of its language and of its system. This is partly due to its very early date, which has placed between it and later records a gulf that is hard to bridge,/ But in the Dialogus de scaccario (temp. Hen. II.) it is spoken of as a record from the arbitrament of which there was no appeal (from which its popular name of " Domesday " is said to be derived). In the middle ages its evidence was frequently in- voked in the law-courts; and even now there are certain cases in which appeal is made to its testimony. To the topographer, as to the genealogist, its evidence is of primary importance; for it not only contains the earliest survey of a township or manor, but affords in the majority of cases the clue to its subse- quent descent. The rearrangement, on a feudal basis, of the original returns (as described above) enabled the Conqueror and his officers to see with ease the extent of a baron's possessions; but it also had the effect of showing how far he had enfeoffed " under-tenants," and who those under-tenants were. This was of great importance to William, not only for military reasons, but also because of his firm resolve to make the under-tenants (though the " men " of their lords) swear allegiance directly to himself. As Domesday normally records only the Christian name of an under-tenant, it is vain to seek for the surnames of families claiming a Norman origin; but much has been and is still being done to identify the under-tenants, the great bulk of whom bear foreign names. /*T)omesday Book was originally preserved in the royal treasury at Winchester (the Norman kings' capital), whence it speaks of itself (in one later addition) as Liber de Wintonia. When the treasury was removed to Westminster (probably under Henry II.) the book went with it. Here it remained until the days of Queen Victoria, being preserved from 1696 onwards in the Chapter House, and only removed in special circumstances, as when it was sent to Southampton for photozincographic repro- duction. It was eventually placed in the Public Record Office, London, where it can be seen in a glass case in the museum. In 1869 it received a modern binding. The ancient Domes- day chest, in which it used to be kept, is also preserved in the building. The printing of Domesday, in " record type," was begun by government in 1773, and the book was published, in two volumes fol. in 1783; in 1811 a volume of indexes was added, and in 1816 a supplementary volume, separately indexed, containing (i) the " Exon Domesday " (for the south-western counties), (2) the Inquisitio Eliensis, (3) the Liber Winton (surveys of Winchester early in the I2th century), and (4) the Boldon Book — a survey of the bishopric of Durham a century later than Domesday. Photo- graphic facsimiles of Domesday Book, for each county separately, were published in 1861-1863, also by government. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The following are the more important works to be consulted: — R. Kelham, Domesday Book, illustrated (1788) ; H. Ellis, General Introduction to Domesday Book (1833), 2 vols., containing valu- able indexes to the names of persons ; N. E. S. A. Hamilton, Inquisitio Cantabrigiensis (1876), containing the only transcripts of the original returns and the text of the Inquisitio Eliensis ; E. A. Freeman, History of the Norman Conquest, vols. iv. and v. ; F. Seebohm, The English Village Community (1883); Domesday Studies, 2 vols. (1888, 1891), on the occasion of the Domesday Commemoration (1886), by various writers, witli bibliography to date; J. H. Round, Feudal England (1895); F. W. Maitland, Domesday Book and Beyond (1897); P. Vinogradoff, Villainage in England (1892) and Growth of the Manor; A. Ballard, The Domesday Boroughs (1904) and The Domes- day Inquest (1906), an excellent summary ; W. H. Stevenson, " A con- temporary description of the Domesday Survey " in The English Historical Review (the general index to which should be consulted) (1907). The Victoria County History contains a translation of the Domesday text, a map, and an explanatory introduction for each county. (J. H. R.) DOMESTIC RELATIONS, a term used to express the legal relations subsisting between the various units that comprise the family or domestic group. Those units which go to build up the domestic structure of modern society are parent, child, husband, wife, master and servant. The law which deals with the various relations subsisting between them is made up largely of the law of agency, of contract and of tort. See HUSBAND AND WIFE; MASTER AND SERVANT; CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO; INFANT. DOMETT, ALFRED (1811-1887), British colonial statesman and poet, was born at Camberwell Grove, Surrey, on the 2oth of May 1811. He entered St John's College, Cambridge, but left the university in 1833. He published one or two volumes of poetry and contributed several poems to Black-wood's Magazine, one of which, " A Christmas Hymn," attracted much admiring attention. For ten years he lived a life of ease in London, where he became the intimate friend of Robert Browning, of whose poem " Waring " he was the subject. An interesting account of the friendship between the two men appeared in The Con- temporary Review for January 1905, by W. H. Griffin. (See also Robert Browning and Alfred Domett, edited by F. G. Kenyon, 1906). In 1842 Domett emigrated to New Zealand where he filled many important administrative posts, being colonial secretary for New Munster in 1848, secretary for the colony in 1851, and prime minister in 1862. He returned to England in 1871, was created C.M.G. in 1880, and died on the 2nd of November 1887. Among his books of poetry, Ranolf and Amelia, a South Sea Day Dream, is the best known (1872), and Flotsam and Jetsam (1877) is dedicated to Browning. DOMFRONT, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Orne, 43 m. W.N.W. of Alengon by rail. Pop. (1906) of the town, 2215; of the commune, 4663. The town, which is picturesquely situated on a bluff over- looking the Varenne, has a church, Notre-Dame-sur-1'Eau, dating from the nth century. In the middle ages it was one of the chief strongholds in Normandy, and there still remain several towers of its ramparts, and ruins of the keep of its castle built in ion, rebuilt in the I2th century by Henry II., king of England, and dismantled at the end of the i6th century. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect, and has a tribunal of first instance and a communal college. Cloth is manufactured, and there are granite quarries in the vicinity. Domfront is said to have grown up in the 6th century round the oratory of the hermit St Front, and played an important part in the wars against the 400 DOMICILE English and the Religious Wars. In 1574 it was occupied by the Protestant leader Gabriel de Montgomery, who after a stubborn siege was forced to yield it to Jacques Goyon, count of Matignon. DOMICILE (Lat. domicilium, from domus, home), in law, a term which may be defined generally as the place of a man's permanent abode; a precise definition is a matter of acknowledged difficulty. Its use in Roman jurisprudence was to fix the jurisdiction to which a person was subject generally, not by reason of a par- ticular circumstance, as the place where a contract was made or where property is situate. Hence it was admitted that a person might have as many domiciles as he had residences possessing some degree of permanence. In the middle ages, when a great diversity of laws had arisen, questions concerning personal status, as the age of majority or the capacity to contract a given marriage, came naturally to depend on the law to which the person was subject by reason of the general jurisdiction over him; and questions relating to the various items of his movable property grouped together, as those of his testamentary capacity or of the succession on his intestacy, had to be considered from a similarly personal point of view. There resulted a general agreement that a man's legal character, so to speak, should be determined by his domicile, and this introduced a stricter notion of domicile, allowing each person to have but one. He might be subjected without great inconvenience to more than one jurisdiction, but not to more than one law. This is the position which domicile now holds in English jurisprudence. It is the criterion of the law appb'cable in a large class of cases, and it must be single for each person; and English courts have continually to struggle with the difficulty of selecting his domicile from among the various places in any of which he may be said to reside. Since the beginning of the igth century most of the leading continental states have unified their internal laws; and attach- ment to a province by domicile having thus become an un- necessary consideration, they have adopted political nationality as the criterion of the law to be applied in most of the questions which used to depend on domicile. Thus as between themselves they have greatly simplified the determination of those questions, but a similar elimination of domicile is impossible in what concerns British subjects, because the British empire continues to include a great variety of laws, as those of England, Scotland, the province of Quebec, the Cape Colony, &c. Within the British dominions domicile is the only available criterion of the legal character of a British subject, and all British courts continue to apply the same criterion to British subjects outside those dominions and to foreigners, so that, for example, the age of majority of a British subject or of a Frenchman domiciled in Germany would be referred by a British court to German law. Indeed so deeply is the principle of domicile seated in British law that only legislative action could allow a British court to substi- tute a new principle. And even a French, Italian or German court, applying political nationality as its new criterion to the legal character of a British subject, could obtain no definite result unless it supplemented that criterion by the old one, domicile, in order to connect the person in question with one of the legal systems existing in the British dominions. Again, so long as the change of the criterion has not become universal, a new question is introduced by its having been made in some countries only. Denmark being one of those European states which still adhere to the principle of domicile, we will take it as an example in order not to complicate the illustration by such differences of internal law as exist in the British dominions. Suppose that a Danish court has to decide on the age of majority of a Danish subject domiciled in France, Italy or Germany. Its rule refers the question to the law of the domicile, and the law of the domicile refers it back to the law of the political nationality. What is to be done? This and all other questions relating to the application of the principle of domicile, which has been only summarily indicated, are treated under INTERNATIONAL LAW (PRIVATE). Here we shall deal briefly with the determination of domicile itself. The Roman jurists defined domicile to be the place " ubi quis larem rerumque ac fortunarum summam constituit; unde rursus non sit discessurus si nihil avocet: unde cum profectus est, peregrinari videtur: quo si rediit peregrinari jam destitit." This makes that place the domicile which may be described as the headquarters of the person concerned; but a man's habits of life may point to no place, or may point equally to two places, as his headquarters, and the connexion of domicile with law requires that a man shall always have a domicile, and never more than one. The former of these difficulties is met in the manner described by Lord Westbury in Udny v. Udny (Law Reports, i House of Lords, Scottish Appeals). " It is," he said, " a settled principle that no man shall be without a domicile, and to secure this end the law attributes to every individual as soon as he is born the domicile of his father, if the child be legitimate, and the domicile of his mother, if the child be illegitimate. This is called the domicile of origin, and is involuntary. It is the creation of the law, not of the party. It may be extinguished by act of law, as for example by sentence of death or exile for life, which destroys the status civilis of the criminal; but it cannot be destroyed by the will and act of the party. Domicile of choice is the creation of the party. When a domicile of choice is acquired, the domicile of origin is in abeyance, but is not absolutely extinguished or obliterated. When a domicile of choice is abandoned, the domicile of origin revives, a special intention to revert to it not being necessary. A natural-born Englishman may domicile himself in Holland, but if he breaks up his establishment there and quits Holland, declaring that he will never return, it is absurd to suppose that his Dutch domicile clings to him until he has set up his tabernacle elsewhere." If to this we add that legitimate minors follow the changes of the father's domicile and a married woman follows the domicile of her husband, also that compulsory detention will not create a domicile, the outlines of involuntary domicile will have been sufficiently sketched. For the establishment of a domicile of choice there must be both animus saidfactum, intention and fact. The fact need not be more than arrival in the territory of the new domicile if there be the necessary intention, while any number of years' continuance there will not found a domicile if the necessary intention is absent. As the result of the most recent English and Scottish cases it may be laid down that the necessary intention is incompatible with the contemplation by the person in question of any event on the occurence of which his residence in the territory in question would cease, and that if he has not formed a fixed and settled purpose of settling in that territory, at least his conduct and declarations must lead to the belief that he would have declared such a purpose if the necessity of making an election between that territory and his former one had arisen. The word territory, meaning a country having a certain legal system, is used advisedly, for neither the intention nor the fact need refer to a locality. It is possible that a Scotsman or a foreigner may have clearly established a domicile of choice in England, although it may be impossible to say whether London, Brighton or a house in the country is his true or principal residence. What is here laid down has been gradually attained. In the older English cases an intention to return to the former domicile was not excluded, if the event on which the return depended was highly uncertain and regarded by the person in question as remote. Afterwards a tendency towards the opposite extreme was manifested by requiring for a domicile of choice the intention to associate oneself with the ideas and habits of the new territory — Quatenus in illo exuere patriam, not in the political sense, which it was never attempted to connect with change of domicile, but in the social and legal sense. At present it is agreed that the only intention to be considered is that of residence, but that, if the intention to reside in the territory be proved to amount to what has been above stated, a domicile will be acquired from which the legal consequences will follow, even defeating intentions about them so clearly expressed as, for instance, by making a will which by reason of the change of domicile is invalid. The two most important cases are Douglas v. Douglas, 1871, L. R. 12 Equity 617, before Vice-chancellor Wickens, and Winans v. Alt. Gen., 1904, Appeal Cases 287, before the House of Lords. When the circumstances of a person's life point to two territories DOMINIC 401 as domiciles, the selection of the one which alone can fill that character often leads to appeals even up to the highest court. The residence of a man's wife and family as contrasted with his place of business, his exercise of political or municipal functions, and any conduct which tends to connect his children with a given country, as by their education or the start given them in life, as well as other indications, are often cited as important; but none of them are in themselves decisive. The situation must be considered as a whole. When the question is between the domicile of origin and an alleged one of choice, its solution is rendered a little easier than it is when the question is between two alleged domiciles of choice, the burden of proof lying on the party which contends that the domicile of origin has been abandoned. In the state of the law which has been described it will not be found surprising that an act of parliament, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 121, recites that by the operation of the law of domicile the expectation and belief of British subjects dying abroad with regard to the distribution of their property are often defeated, and enacts that when a convention to that effect has been made with any foreign country, no British subject dying in such country shall be deemed to have acquired a domicile therein, unless he has been resident in such country for one year previous to death and has made a declaration in writing of his intention to become domiciled ; and that British subjects so dying without having so resided and made such declaration shall be deemed for all purposes of testate or intestate succession as to movables to retain the domicile they possessed at the time of going to reside in such foreign country. Similar exemptions are conferred on the subjects of the foreign state dying in Great Britain or Ireland. But the act does not apply to foreigners who have obtained letters of naturalization in any part of the British dominions. It has not been availed of, and is indeed an anachronism, ignoring as it does the fact that domicile has no longer a world-wide importance, owing to the substitution for it of political nationality as a test of private law in so many important countries. The United States of America is not one of those countries, but there the import- ance of domicile suffers from the habit of referring questions of capacity to the law of the place of contract instead of to any personal law. QNO. W.) DOMINIC, SAINT (1170-1221), founder of the Dominican Order of Preaching Friars, was born in 1170 at Calaroga in Old Castile. He spent ten or twelve years in study, chiefly theological, at Palencia, and then, about 1195, he was ordained and became a canon in the cathedral chapter of Osma, his native diocese. The bishop induced his canons to follow the Rule of St Augustine and thus make themselves Augustinian Canons (?.».); and so Dominic became a canon regular and soon the prior or provost of the cathedral community. The years from 1195 to 1203 have been filled up with fabulous stories of missions to the Moors; but Dominic stayed at Osma, preaching much in the cathedral, until 1 203, when he accompanied the bishop on an embassy in behalf of the king of Castile to " The Marches." This has commonly been taken as Denmark, but more probably it was the French or Italian Marches. When the embassy was over, the bishop and Dominic repaired to Rome, and Innocent III. charged them to preach among the Albigensian heretics in Languedoc. For ten years (1205-1215) this mission in Languedoc was the work of Dominic's life. The Albigenses (q.v.) have received much sympathy, as being a kind of pre-Reformation Protestants; but it is now recognized that their tenets were an extreme form of Manichaeism. They believed in the existence of two gods, a good (whose son was Christ) and an evil (whose son was Satan) ; matter is the creation of the evil principle, and therefore essentially evil, and the greatest of all sins is sexual intercourse, even in marriage; sinful also is the possession of material goods, and the eating of flesh meat, and many other things. So great was the abhorrence of matter that some even thought it an act of religion to commit suicide by voluntary starvation, or to starve children to death (see article " Neu-Manichaer " by Otto Zockler in .ed. 3 of Herzog's Redencyklop&die fiir proteslantische Theologie (1903); or c. iii. of Paul Sabatier's Life of St Francis) . Such tenets were destructive not only of Catholicism but of Christianity of any kind and of civil society itself ; and for this reason so unecclesiastical a person as the emperor Frederick II. tried to suppress the kindred sects in Italy. In 1208, after the murder of a papal legate, Innocent III. called on the Christian princes to suppress the Albigensian heresy by force of arms, and for seven years the south of France was devastated by one of the most bloodthirsty wars in history, the Albigenses being slaughtered by thousands and their property confiscated wholesale. During this time, it is the judgment of the most recent Protestant writer on St Dominic that, though keeping on good terms with Simon de Montfort, the leader, and praying for the success of the crusaders' arms during the battle of Muret, " yet, so far as can be seen from the sources, Dominic took no part in the crusade, but endeavoured to carry his spiritual activity on the same lines as before. The oldest trustworthy sources know nothing of his having exercised the office of Inquisitor during the Albigensian war " (Grutzmacher). This verdict of a fair-minded and highly competent Protestant church historian on the most controverted point of Dominic's career is of great value. His method was to travel over the country on foot and barefooted, in extreme poverty, simplicity and austerity, preaching and instructing in highways and villages and towns, and in the castles of the nobility, controverting and discussing with the heretics. He used often to organize formal disputations with Albigensian leaders, lasting a number of days. Many times plots were laid against his life. Though in his ten years of preaching a large number of converts were made, it has to be said that the results were not such as had been hoped for, and after it all, and after the crusade, the population still remained at heart Albigensian. A sense of failure appears in Dominic's last sermon in Languedoc : " For many years I have exhorted you in vain, with gentleness, preaching, praying and weeping. But according to the proverb of my country, ' where blessing can accomplish nothing, blows may avail.' We shall rouse against you princes and prelates, who, alas, will arm nations and kingdoms against this land . . . and thus blows will avail where blessings and gentleness have been powerless." The threat that seems to be conveyed in these words, of trying to promote a new crusade, was never carried out; the remaining years of Dominic's life were wholly given up to the founding of his order. The Order of Dominicans grew out of the little band of volunteers that had joined Dominic in his mission among the Albigenses. He had become possessed with the idea of addressing wider circles and of forming an order whose vocation should be to preach and missionize throughout the whole world. By 1214 the nucleus of such an institute was formed round Dominic and was known as the " Holy Preaching." In 1 215 the bishop of Toulouse, Dominic's great friend, established them in a church and house of the city, and Dominic went to Rome to obtain the permission of Innocent III. to found his order of preachers. The course of events is traced in the article DOMINICANS. After three years, in 1218, the full permission he desired was given by Honorius III. These last years of his life were spent in journeying backwards and forwards between Toulouse and Rome, where his abode was at the basilica of Santa Sabina on the Aventine, given to him by the pope; and then in extended journeys all over Italy, and to Paris, and into Spain, establishing friaries and organizing the order wherever he went. It propagated and spread with extraordinary rapidity, so that by Dominic's death in 1221, only five or six years after the first practical steps towards the execution of the idea, there were over 500 friars and 60 friaries, divided into 8 provinces embracing the whole of western Europe. Thus Dominic was at his death able to contemplate his great creation solidly established, and well launched on its career to preach to the whole world. It appears that at the end of his life Dominic had the idea of going himself to preach to the heathen Kuman Tatars on the Dnieper and the Volga. But this was not to be; he was worn out by the incessant toils and fatigues and austerities of his laborious life, and he died at his monastery at Bologna, on the 402 DOMINICA— DOMINICANS 6th of August 1221. He was canonized in 1234 by Gregory IX., who, as Cardinal Ugolino, had been the great friend and supporter both of Dominic and of Francis of Assisi. As St Dominic's character and work do not receive the same general recognition as do St Francis of Assisi 's, it will be worth while to quote from the appreciation by Prof. Griitzmacher of Heidelberg: — " It is certain that Dominic was a noble personality of genuine and true piety. . . . Only by the preaching of pure doctrine would he overcome heretics. ... He was by nature soft-hearted, so that he often shed tears through warm sympathy. ... In the purity of his intention and the earnestness with which he strove to carry out his ideal, he was not inferior to Francis." The chief sources for St Dominic's life are the account by Jordan of Saxony, his successor as master-general of the order, and the evidence of the witnesses at the Process of Canonization, — all in the Bollandists' Acta sanctorum, Aug. 4. Probably the best modern Life is that by Jean Guiraud, in the series Les Saints (translated into English by Katharine de Mattos, 1901); the bibliography contains a useful list of the chief sources for the history of St Dominic and the order, and of the best modern works thereon. See also the article " Dominicus " in ed. 2 of Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexicon, and Griitzmacher's excellent article " Dominikus," in ed. 3 of Herzog, Realencyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie, already referred to. (E. C. B.) DOMINICA, the largest of the five presidencies in the colony of the Leeward Islands, British West Indies. It lies in 15° 30' N. and 61° 20' W., between the French islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe, at a distance of about 25 m. from each, is 29 m. long, has a maximum breadth of 16 m. and an area of 291 sq. m. A range of lofty rugged mountains traverses the island from N. to S., broken in the centre by a narrow plain drained by the rivers Layou and Pagoua, flowing W. and E. respectively. The highest point is Morne Diablotin (5314 ft.), situated in the northern half of the range. Signs of volcanic activity abound in the shape of solfataras, subterranean vapours and hot springs; while in the south is the greatest natural curiosity, the renowned Boiling Lake. It lies on the mountain side, 2300 ft. above the sea, its banks are steep and its depth unknown, being more than 300 ft. at a short distance from the margin. Its seething waters are often forced 3 ft. above the normal level by the pressure of the escaping gases; and the fumes rising from the lake are occasionally poisonous. The island is botanically remarkable for its great number of peculiar species, offering in this respect a marked contrast to the poverty of the adjacent islands. The hills are covered with valuable timber, while coffee, limes, oranges, india-rubber trees, spices and all tropical fruits grow luxuriantly in the rich brown mould of the lowlands. There are some thirty streams of considerable size, besides numerous mountain torrents, and this abundance of water renders the island very fertile. The fisheries are pro- ductive, and honey and wax are furnished by wild bees, originally introduced from Europe. The temperature varies from 78° to 86° F. in the hot season from August to October, and from 72° to 84° in the cooler months; the rainfall varies in different parts from 50 to 162 in. per annum, but the porous soil soon absorbs the rain, rendering the atmosphere dry and invigorating. The manufactures include sugar, lime-juice and essential oils; the exports are coffee, cocoa, sugar, limes and lime-juice, essential oils and fruit of all kinds. The inhabitants in 1901 numbered 28,894. The majority are negroes; the whites are of French and British descent. There are also a few Caribs, the remnant of the aboriginal population. A French patois is the language of the peasantry, but English is generally understood. The capital, Roseau (5764), is a fortified town and a port; Portsmouth, the only other town, possesses the better harbour in Prince Rupert's Bay on the north-west. In religion the Roman Catholics predominate, and a bishop resides at Roseau, but there is no established church. Education is free and compulsory, and the Cambridge local examinations are held annually. Dominica was so named on its discovery by Columbus in 1493, in commemoration of the date, Sunday (Dies Dominica) the 3rd of November. Dominica was included in the grant of various islands in the Caribbean Sea made in 1627 by Charles I. to the earl of Carlisle, but the first Europeansettlers (1632) wereFrench. They brought with them negro slaves and lived on terms of friendship with the Caribs, who were then a numerous body. In 1660 a treaty appears to have been made between the French, British and the natives assigning St Vincent and Dominica to the Caribs, but shortly afterwards attempts were made by the British to gain a foothold in the island. These attempts failed,, and in 1748 it was once more agreed by France and Great Britain that Dominica should be left in the undisturbed possession of the natives. Nevertheless the French settlers increased, and the island came under the rule of a French governor. It was captured by the British in 1761 and formally ceded by France at the peace of Paris, 1763, French settlers being secured in their estates. In 1 7 78 a French force from Martinique seized the island. Rodney's victory over De Grasse in the neighbouring sea in 1782 was followed by the restoration of the island to Britain in 1783; in the interval the trade of Dominica had been ruined. In 1795 a force from Guadeloupe made an unsuccessful descent on the island, and in 1805 the French general La Grange, at the head of 4000 troops, took Roseau and pillaged the island — an event now remembered as the most memorable in its history. The French were, however, unable to make good their hold, and Dominica has remained since undisturbed in British possession. Its later history presents few features not common to the other British West Indian islands. Since 1872 Dominica has formed part of the colony of the Leeward Islands, but local affairs are in the hands of an adminis- trator, aided by an executive council of ten members. In 1898 the local legislature, in consideration of pecuniary assistance from Great Britain, passed an act abrogating the semi-elective constitution and providing for a legislative council of twelve nominated members, six of whom sit ex officio. DOMINICANS, otherwise called Friars Preachers, and in England Black Friars, from the black mantle worn over a white habit, an order of friars founded by St Dominic (q.v.) . Their first house was in Toulouse, where the bishop established them at the church of St Remain, 1215. Dominic at once went to Rome to obtain permission to found an order of preachers whose sphere of activity should be the whole world, but Innocent III. said they must adopt one of the existing rules. Dominic returned to Toulouse and it was resolved to take the Rule of St Augustine, Dominic himself having been an Augustinian canon at Osma (see AUGUSTINIAN CANONS). Dominic went again to Rome, and during the year 1216 he obtained from Honorius III. a series of confirmations of the community at Toulouse as a congregation of Canons Regular of St Augustine with a special mission to preach. Early in 1218 an encyclical bull was issued to the bishops of the whole Catholic world recommending to them the " Order of Friars Preachers," followed in 1221 by another ordering them to give to the friars faculties to preach and hear confessions in their dioceses. Already in 1217 Dominic had scattered the little band of seventeen over the world — to Paris, into Spain, and one he took with himself to Rome. Within a few months there were forty friars in Rome, at Santa Sabina on the Aventine, and thirty in Paris; and before Dominic's death in 1221 friaries had been established at Lyons, Limoges, Reims, Metz, Poitiers and Orleans; at Bologna, Milan, Florence, Verona, Piacenza and Venice; at Madrid, Palencia, Barcelona and Seville; at Friesach in Carinthia; at Cracow and Prague; and friars were on their way to Hungary and England. The order took definite shape at the two general chapters held at Bologna in 1220 and 1221. At first it had been but a congregation of canons regular and had worn the canons' black cassock with white linen rochet. But now a white woollen habit with a black cloak or mantle was assumed. The Rule of St Augustine was supplemented by a body of regulations, adopted mostly from those of the Premonstratensian canons. At the head of the order was the master-general, elected for life until recent times, when the term of office was limited to six and then to twelve years; he enjoys supreme power over the entire order, both houses and individuals, all of whom are directly subject to him. He dwells in Rome and is assisted by a council. The order is divided into provinces and over each is a provincial, elected for four years. Each friary has its prior, elected by the community DOMINIS 403 every four years. The friars belong not to the house or province in which they make their profession, but to the order; and it rests with the master-general to assign to each his place of residence. The manner of life was very austere — midnight office, perpetual abstinence from meat, frequent disciplines, prolonged fasts and silence. At St Dominic's suggestion, and under his strong pressure, but not without considerable opposition, the general chapter determined that the poverty practised in the order should be not merely individual, as in the monastic orders, but corporate, as among the Franciscans; so that the order should have no possessions, except the monastic buildings and churches, no property, no fixed income, but should live on charity and by begging. Thus, doubtless in imitation of the Franciscans, the Dominicans became a mendicant order. The extraordinarily rapid propagation of the institute suffered no diminution through the founder's death ; this was mainly due to the fact that his four immediate successors in the generalate were men of conspicuous ability and high character. In a few years the Dominicans penetrated into Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Prussia and Poland, preaching and missionizing in the still pagan districts of these countries; and soon they made their way to Greece and Palestine and thence to central Asia. St Hyacinth, a Pole received by St Dominic, during missionary journeys extend- ing over thirty-five years travelled over the north and east of Europe and into Tatary, Tibet and northern China. In 1252 the pope addressed a letter to the Dominicans who were preaching " among the Saracens, Greeks, Bulgarians, Kumans, Syrians, Goths, Jacobites, Armenians, Jews, Tatars, Hungarians." From the i4th century until the middle of thei7th the Dominicans had numerous missions in Persia, India and China, and in the northern parts of Africa. They followed the Spanish and Portuguese explorers and conquerors both to the East and to the West, converting, protecting and civilizing the aborigines. On these missionary enterprises great numbers of Dominicans laid down their life for the Gospel. Another conspicuous field of work of the Dominicans lay in the universities. It had been St Dominic's policy to aim at founding houses first of all in the great university towns— at Paris, Bologna, Palencia, Oxford. This policy was adhered to, and the Dominicans soon became a power in the universities, occupying chairs in those just named and in Padua, Cologne, Vienna, Prague and Salamanca. The scholastic doctors Albert the Great and Thomas Aquinas were the leaders in this side of Dominican activity, and the order's influence on the course of medieval theological development was exercised mainly by these doctors and by the Dominican school of theology, which to this day has maintained the principles and methods elaborated by St Thomas. The Dominican name is in an especial way associated with the Inquisition, the office of Inquisitor in all countries, including Spain, having usually been held by Dominicans. The vicissitudes of the order have been much like those of other orders — periods of relaxation being followed by periods of revival and reform; but there were not any reforms of the same historical importance as in most other orders, the policy having been to keep all such movements strictly within the organization of the order. In 1425 Martin V. relaxed for some houses the law of corporate poverty, allowing them to hold property, and to have fixed sources of income; and fifty years later Sixtus IV. extended this mitigation to the entire order, which thereby ceased to be mendicant. This change caused no troubles, as among the Franciscans, for it was felt that it did not touch St Dominic's fundamental idea. The Friars Preachers came to England and were established at Oxford in 1221, and by the end of the century fifty friaries were founded ail over England, usually in the towns, and several in Ireland and Scotland. In London they were first on the site of Lincoln's Inn, but in 1275 they migrated to that now occupied by Printing-house Square, and their name survives in Blackfriars Bridge. The only nunnery was at Dartford. At the Dissolution there were fifty-seven friaries (see lists in F. A. Gasquet's English Monastic Life, Catholic Dictionary and C. F. Palmer's Life of Cardinal Howard, where historical notes are added). In Mary's reign some of the scattered friars were brought together and established in Smithfield, and the remnant of the nuns were restored to Dartford. In 1559 these houses were suppressed and the nuns and two friars expatriated, and for a hundred years there was no English Dominican community. But throughout the reigns of Elizabeth and the early Stuarts there were usually some Dominicans, either Englishmen professed in foreign monasteries or foreigners, labouring on the English mission or attached to the foreign embassies. In 1658 Friar Thomas Howard (afterwards Cardinal) succeeded in establishing at Bornhem near Antwerp a house for the English friars. From that time there has always been an organized body of English Dominicans, again and again reduced almost to extinction, but ever surviving; it now has half a dozen thriving friaries. The Irish province also survived the days of persecution and possesses a dozen friaries. In 1840 Lacordaire restored the French province. In 1900 there were 43 50 Dominicans, including lay brothers, and 300 friaries, scattered all over the world. Missionary work still holds a prominent place in Dominican life; there are missions in Annam, Tongking and China, and in Mesopotamia, Mosul and Kurdistan. They have also a remarkable school for Biblical studies and research at Jerusalem, and the theological faculty in the Roman Catholic university at Fribourg in Switzerland is in their hands. There have been four Dominican popes: Innocent V. (t 1276), Benedict XI. (f 1304), Pius V. (t 1572), Benedict XIII. (t i73o). The friars form the " First Order " ; the nuns, or Dominicanesses, the " Second Order." The latter may claim to have chrono- logical precedence over the friars, for the first nunnery was established by St Dominic in 1206 at Prouille in the diocese of Toulouse, as a refuge for women converted from the Albigensian heresy. The second convent was at San Sisto in Rome, also founded by Dominic himself. From that time the institute spread widely. The rule resembled that of the friars, except that the nuns were to be strictly enclosed and purely contemplative ; in course of time, however, they undertook educational work. In 1909 there were nearly 100 nunneries of the Second Order, with some 1500 nuns. They have schools and orphanages in South Africa, especially in the Transvaal. A considerable number of other convents for women follow the Rule of the " Third Order." This rule was not written until the 1 5th century, and it is controverted whether, and in what sense, it can be held that the " Third Order " really goes back to St Dominic, or whether it grew up in imitation of the Franciscan Tertiaries. Besides the conventual Tertiaries, there are con- fraternities of lay men and women who strive to carry out this rule while living their family life in the world (see TERTIARIES). St Catharine of Siena was a Dominican Tertiary. See the authorities cited in the article DOMINIC, SAINT; also Helyot, Hist, des ordres religieux (1714), iii. cc. 24-29, and Max Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen (1896), §§ 86-91 ; and C. F. Palmer, Life of Cardinal Howard (1867), which gives a special account of the English Dominican province. (E. C. B.) DOMINIS, MARCO ANTONIO DE (1560-1624), Italian theo- logian and natural philosopher, was born of a noble Venetian family in 1560 in the island of Arbe, off the coast of Dalmatia. He was educated by the Jesuits in their colleges at Loreto and Padua, and is supposed by some to have joined their order; the more usual opinion, however, is that he was dissuaded from doing so by Cardinal Aldobrandini. For some time he was employed as a teacher at Verona, as professor of mathematics at Padua, and professor of rhetoric and philosophy at Brescia. In 1 596 he was appointed to the bishopric of Segnia (Zengg) in Dalmatia, and two years later was raised to the archbishopric of Spalato and primacy of Dalmatia and Croatia. His endeavours to reform the Church soon brought him into conflict with his suffragans; and the interference of the papal court with his rights as metropolitan, an attitude intensified by the quarrel between the papacy and Venice, made his position intolerable. This, at any rate, is the account given in his own apology — the Consilium profectionis — in which he also states that it was these troubles that led him to those researches into ecclesiastical law, church history and dogmatic theology, which, while confirming-him in his love for the ideal of " the true Catholic Church," revealed to him how far the 404 DOMINOES papal system was from approximating to it. After a visit to Rome, when he in vain attempted to gain the ear of Pope Paul V., he resigned his see in September 1616, wrote at Venice his Consilium profectionis, and then went by way of Switzerland, Heidelberg and Rotterdam to England, where he arrived in December. He was welcomed by the king and the Anglican clergy with great respect, was received into the Church of England in St Paul's cathedral, and was appointed master of the Savoy (1618) and dean of Windsor (1619); he subsequently presented himself to the living of West Ilsley, Berkshire. Contemporary writers give no pleasant account of him, describing him as fat, irascible, pretentious and very avaricious; but his ability was undoubted, and in the theological controversies of the time he soon took a foremost place. His published attacks on the papacy succeeded each other in rapid succession: the Papatus Romanus, issued anonymously (London, 1617; Frankfort, 1618), the Scogli del naufragio Christiana, written in Switzerland (London, (?) 1618), of which English, French and German translations also appeared, and a Sermon preached in Italian, &•<;., before the king. But his principal work was the De repuUica ecclesiastica, of which the first part — after revision by Anglican theologians — was published under royal patronage in London (1617), in which he set forth with a great display of erudition his theory of the church. In the main it is an elaborate treatise on the historic organization of the church, its principal note being its insistence on the divine prerogatives of the Catholic episcopate as against the encroach- ments of the papal monarchy. In 1619 Dominis published in London, with a dedication to James I., Paolo Sarpi's Historia del Concilia Tridentino, the MS. of which he had brought with him from Venice. It is characteristic of the man that he refused to hand over to Sarpi a penny of the money present given to him by the king as a reward for this work. Three years later the ex-archbishop was back again in Rome, doing penance for his heresies in St Peter's with a cord round his neck. The reasons for this sudden revolution in his opinions, which caused grave scandal in England, have been much debated ; it is probably no libel on his memory, however, to say that they were connected with the hopes raised by the elevation of his kinsman, Alessandro Ludovisi.to the papal throne as Gregory XV. (1621). It is said that he was enticed back to Rome by the promise of pardon and rich preferment. If so, he was doomed to bitter disappointment. He had barely time to publish at Rome (1623) his Sui reditus ex Angliae consilium, an abject repudiation of his anti-papal works as written " non ex cordis sinceritate, non ex bona conscientia, non ex fide," when Gregory died (July 1623). During the interregnum that followed, the proceedings of the Inquisition against the archbishop were revived, and they continued under Urban VIII. Before they were concluded, however, Dominis died in prison, on the 8th of September 1624. Even this did not end his trial, and on the zoth of December judgment was pronounced over his corpse in the church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva. By order of the Inquisition his body was taken from the coffin, dragged through the streets of Rome, and publicly burnt in the Campo di Fiore. By a strange irony of fate the publication of his Reditus consilium was subsequently forbidden in Venice because of its uncompromising advocacy of the supremacy of the pope over the temporal powers. As a theologian and an ecclesiastic Dominis was thoroughly dis- credited; as a man of science he was more happy. He was the first to put forward a true theory of the rainbow, in his De radiis visus et lucis in iiitris perspectives et iride (Venice, 1611). See the article by Canon G. G. Perry in the Diet. Nat. Biog., and that by Benrath in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie (ed. 1898), iv. p. 781, where a full bibliography is given. Also H. Newland, Life and Contemporaneous Church History of Antonio de Dominis (Oxford, 1859)- DOMINOES, a game unknown until the i8th century, and probably invented in Italy, played with twenty-eight oblong pieces, or dominoes, known also as cards or stones, having ivory faces backed with ebony; from this ebony backing, as resembling the cloak (usually black) called a domino (see MASK), the name is said to be derived. Cardboard dominoes to be held in the hand are also in use. The face of each card is divided into two squares by a black line, and in each square half the value of the card is indicated by its being either a blank or marked with one or more black pips, generally up to six, but some sets run as high as double-nine. There are various ways of playing dominoes described below. The Block and Draw Games. — The dominoes are shuffled face down- wards on the table. The lead is usually decided by drawing for the highest card, but it is sometimes held that any doublet takes pre- cedence. The cards are then reshuffled, and each player draws at random the number of cards required for the particular form of the game, usually seven. The cards left behind are called the stock. To play a card is known technically as to pose. The leader poses first, generally playing his highest domino, since at the end the player loses according to the number of pips in the cards he has left in his hand. By some rules, a player after playing a double may play another card which matches it: e.g. if he plays double-six he may play another card which has a six at one end. The second player has to match the leader's pose by putting one of his cards in juxta- position at one end, i.e. if the leader plays four-five, the second player has to play a card which contains either a four or a five, the five being applied to the five, or the four to the four. Doublets are placed a cheval (crosswise). If a player cannot match, he says " go," and his opponent plays, unless the Draw game — the usual game — is being played, in which case the player who cannot match draws from the stock (two cards must always be left in the stock) till he takes a card that matches. If a player succeeds in posing all his cards, he calls " Domino !" and wins the hand, scoring as many points as there are pips on the cards still held by his opponent. If neither E layer can match, that player wins who has the fewest pips left in is hand, and he scores as many points as are left in the two hands combined (sometimes only the excess held by his opponent); but when a player has called " Go!" his adversary must match if he can, in which case the other player may be able to match in turn. A game is generally loo points. All Fives (or Muggins). — Each player takes five cards. If the leader poses either double-five, six-four, five-blank, or three-two, he scores the number of pips that are on the card. If in the course of play a player can play such a card as makes the sum of the end pips, 5, 10, 15 or 20, he scores that number; e.g. if to two-four he can play double-four (d cheval) he scores 10; if to six-one he plays six-four he scores 5. He must pose if he can match; if he cannot, he draws till be can. Scores are called and taken immediately. At the point of domino, the winner scores in points the multiple of five which is nearest to the number of pips in his adversary's hand : e.g. he scores 25 if his adversary has 27 pips, 30 if he has 28. If neither hand can match, the lowest number of pips wins, and the score is taken as before, without addition or subtraction, according to the adversary's pips. All Threes is played in the same manner as Muggins, save that three or some multiple of three are aimed at. Threes-and- Fives is similar, but only one point is scored for each five or three made at the two ends, though they can be scored in combination. Thus A plays six-five; B six-one; B scores 2 points for 5-1 (two threes). A plays one-five; B double five; B now scores 8 more, 5 for five threes and 3 for three fives. Domino-Whist is played by four players. Partners are drawn for as at Whist, the player drawing the highest card leading. Each player takes seven cards. There are no tricks, trumps or honours. The cards are played as in ordinary dominoes, a hand being finished when one of the players plays his last card, or when both ends are blocked. Pips are then counted, and the holder or holders of the highest number score to their debit the aggregate number of points. The side that is first debited with 100 points loses the game. Strength in a suit is indicated by the lead; i.e. a lead of dpuble-blank or double-six implies strength in blanks or sixes respectively. Matador (from the Spanish word meaning " killer," i.e. of the bull in a bull-fight). This is a favourite and perhaps the most scientific form of the game. It is played on a different principle from the preceding variations, the object being not to match the end number, but to pose such a number, as, added to the end, will make seven; e.g. to a five a two must be played, to a three a four, &c. Seven dominoes are drawn and the highest double begins. When a player cannot make a seven on either end he must draw from the stock until he secures a card that will enable him to make seven, two cards remaining in the stock. As Matadoris played with dominoes no higher than six, a blank means the blocking of that end. In this case no further play can take place at that end excepting by posing a matador, which may be played at any time. There aie four matadors, the 6-1, 5-2, 4-3 and double-blank. It is often better to draw one or more fresh cards than to play one's last matador, as it may save the game at a critical juncture. In posing a double counts as a single number only, but in scoring the full number of pips is counted. When the game has been definitely blocked the player whose pips aggregate the lower number scores the number of the combined hands (sometimes only the excess in his opponent's hand), the game being usually ipo. Matador can be played by three persons, inwhichcase the two having the lowest scores usually combine against the threatening winner; and also by four, either each for himself or two on a side. DOMINUS— DON 405 Other varieties of the game not often played are the Bergen game, Sevastopol and Domino Loo. See Card and Table Games by Hoffmann (London, G. Routledge & Sons). DOMINUS (from an Indo-European root dam-, cf. Gr. Sa^dv, to subdue, and Eng. " tame "), the Latin word for master or owner. As a title of sovereignty the term under the republic at Rome had all the associations of the Greek rvpavvos; refused during the early principate, it finally became an official title of the Roman emperors under Diocletian. Dominus, the French equivalent being sieur, was the Latin title of the feudal (superior and mesne) lords, and also an ecclesiastical and academical title. The ecclesiastical title was rendered in English " sir," which was a common prefix before the Reformation for parsons, as in " Sir Hugh Evans " in Shakespeare's Merry Wives of Windsor. The academical use was for a bachelor of arts, and so is still used at Cambridge and other universities. The shortened form " dom " is used as a prefix of honour for ecclesiastics of the Roman Church, and especially for members of the Benedictine and other religious orders. The same form is also a title of honour in Portugal, as formerly in Brazil, used by members of the blood royal and others on whom it has been conferred by the sovereign. The Spanish form " don " is also a title, formerly applicable only to the nobility, and now one of courtesy and respect applied to any member of the better classes. The feminine form " donna " is similarly applied to a lady. The English colloquial use of " don" for a fellow or tutor of a college at a university is derived either from an application of the Spanish title to one having authority or position, or from the academical use of dominus. The earliest use of the word in this sense appears, according to the New English Dictionary, in South's Sermons (1660). An English corruption " dan " was in early use as a title of respect, equiva- lent to " master." The particular literary application to poets is due to Spenser's use of " Dan Chaucer, well of English undefyled " (Faery Queen, IV. ii. 32). DOMITIAN (TiTtis FLAVIUS DOMITIANUS), Roman emperor A.D. 81-96, the second son of Titus Flavius Vespasianus and Flavia Domitilla, twelfth of the Caesars, and third of the Flavian dynasty, was born at Rome on the 24th of October A.D. 51. When Vespasian was proclaimed emperor at Alexandria, Domitian escaped with difficulty from the temple of the Capitol, which had been set on fire by the Vitellians, and remained in hiding till his father's party proved victorious. After the fall of Vitellius he was saluted as Caesar, or prince imperial, by the troops, obtained the city praetorship, and was entrusted with the administration of Italy till his father's return from the East. But although in his father's lifetime he several times filled the office of consul, and after his death was nominally the partner in the empire with his brother Titus, he never took any part in public business, but lived in great retirement, devoting himself to a life of pleasure and of literary pursuits till he succeeded to the throne. The death of Titus, if not hastened by foul means, was at least eagerly welcomed by his brother. Domitian's succession (on the i3th of September 81) was unquestioned, and it would seem that he had intended, so far as his weak volition and mean abilities would allow, to govern well. Like Augustus, he attempted a reforma- tion of morals and religion. As chief pontiff he inquired rigorously in to the character of the vestal virgins, three of whom were buried alive; he enforced the laws against adultery, mutilation, and the grosser forms of immorality, and forbade the public acting of mimes. He erected many temples and public buildings (amongst them the Odeum, a kind of theatre for musical performances) and restored the temple of the Capitol. He passed many sumptuary laws, and issued an edict forbidding the over-cultivation of vines to the neglect of corn-growing. Finally, he took a personal share in the administration of justice at Rome, checked the activity of the informers (delatores), and exercised a jealous supervision over the governors of provinces. Such public virtues at first counter- balanced his private vices in the eyes of the people. Domitian was the first emperor who arrogated divine honours in his life- time, and caused himself to be styled Our Lord and God in public documents. Doubtless in the poems of writers like Martial this deification was nothing but fulsome flattery, but in the case of the provincials it was a sincere tribute to the impersonation of the Roman Empire, as the administrator of good government and the peacemaker of the world. Even when Rome and Italy smarted beneath his proscriptions and extortions, the provinces were undisturbed. Though he took the title of imperator more than twenty times, and enjoyed at least one triumph, Domitian's military achieve- ments were insignificant. He defeated the Chatti, annexed the dis- trict of the Taunus, and estabh'shed the Limes as a line of defence; but he suffered defeats at the hands of the Quadi, Sarmatae and Marcomanni; in Dacia he received a severe check, and was obliged to purchase peace (90) from Decebalus by the payment of a large sum of money and by guaranteeing a yearly tribute — the first instance in Roman history. His jealousy was provoked by the successes of Agricola in Britain, who was recalled to Rome (85) in the midst of his conquests, condemned to retirement, and perhaps removed by poison. The revolt of Antonius Saturninus, the commander of the Roman forces in Upper Germany (88 or 89) , marks the turning-point in his reign (on the date see H. Schiller, Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit, i. pt. 2, p. 524, note 2). It was speedily crushed; but from that moment Domitian's character changed. He got rid of all whom he disliked on the charge of having taken part in the conspiracy, and no man of eminence was safe against him. He was in constant fear of assassination and distrusted all around him. During the last three years of his life his behaviour was that of a madman. He sentenced to death his own cousin and nephew by marriage, Flavius Clemens, whose wife he banished for her supposed leaning towards Judaism (Christianity). A conspiracy among his own freedmen — set on foot, it is said, by his wife Domitia Longina, who knew her own life to be threatened — cut short his career. He was stabbed in his bedroom by a freedman of Clemens named Stephanus on the i8th of September 96. AUTHORITIES. Ancient. — Tacitus, Histories, Hi. iv. ; Suetonius, Domitian; Dio Cassius Ixvi., Ixvii. ; Tacitus, Agricola, 18-22. Modern accounts by A. Imhof, T. Flavius Domitianus (Halle, 1857), which, while not claiming any special originality, is based on a conscientious study of authorities; A. Halberstadt, De imperatoris Domitiani moribus et rebus (Amsterdam, 1877), an attempt to rehabilitate Domitian; S. Gsell, Essai sur le regne de I'empereur Domitien (1894), very complete in every respect; H. Schiller (as above), pp. 520-538; C. Meriyale, Hist, of the Romans under the Empire, ch. 61, 62. For Domitian's attitude towards Christianity see V. Schultze in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie fur protestan- tische Theologie, iv. (1898); Sir W. M. Ramsay, The Church in the Roman Empire (1903); E. G. Hardy, Christianity and the Roman Government (1894); J. B. Bury, Appendix 8 to vol. ii. of his edition of Gibbon. DOMR^MY-LA-PUCELLE, a village of eastern France, in the department of Vosges, on the left bank of the Meuse, 7 m. N. of Neufchateau by road. Pop. (1906) 233. Domremy was the birth- place of Joan of Arc, and the cottage in which she was born still stands. Above the door are the arms of France and of Joan of Arc and an inscription of 1481 reading " Vive labeur; vive le roi Louys." There are several monuments to the heroine, and a modern basilica has been erected in her honour on a neighbouring hill, where she is said to have heard the voices in obedience to which she took up the sword. The story of the heroine is annually celebrated by a play in which the villagers take part. DON (anc. Tanais), a river of European Russia, called Tuna or Duna by the Tatars, rising in Lake Ivan (580 ft. above sea-level) in the government of Tula, where it has communication with the Volga by means of the Yepifan Canal, which links it with the Upa, a tributary of the Oka, which itself enters the Volga. The Don, after curving east through the government of Ryazan, flows generally south through the governments of Tambov, Orel, Voronezh and the Don Cossacks territory, describing in the last- named a sweeping loop to the east, in the course of which it approaches within 48 m. of the Volga in 49° N. In the middle of the Don Cossacks territory it turns definitely south-west, and finally enters the north-east extremity of the Sea cf Azov, form- ing a delta 130 sq. m. in extent. Its total length is 1325 m., and its drainage area is calculated at 166,000 sq. m. The average fall 406 DON— DONATELLO of the river is about 5 J in. to the mile. In its upper course, which may be regarded as extending to the confluence of the Voronezh in 51° 40', the Don flows for the most part through a low-lying, fertile country, though in the government of Ryazan its banks are rocky and steep, and in some places even precipitous. In the middle division, or from the mouth of the Voronezh to the point where it makes its nearest approach to the Volga, the stream cuts its way for the most part through Cretaceous rocks, which in many places rise on either side in steep and elevated banks, and at intervals encroach on the river-bed. A short distance below the town of Rostov it breaks up into several channels, of which the largest and most southern retains the name of the river. Before it receives the Voronezh the Don has a breadth of 500 to 700, or even in a few places 1000 ft., while its depth varies from 4 to 20 ft. ; by the time it reaches its most eastern point the depth has increased to 8-50 ft., and the ordinary breadth to 700-1000 ft., with an occasional maximum of 1400 ft.; in the lowest division the depth is frequently 70 ft., and the breadth in many places 1870 ft. Generally speaking, the right bank is high and the left flat and low. Shallow reaches are not uncommon, and there are at least seven considerable shoals in the south-western part of the course; partly owing to this cause, and partly to the scarcity of ship-timber in the Voronezh government, the Don, although navigable as far up as Voronezh, does not attain any great importance as a means of communication till it reaches Kachalinskaya in the vicinity of the Volga. From that point, or rather from Kalach, where the railway (built in 1862) from the Volga has its western terminus, the traffic is very extensive. Of the tributaries of the river, the Voronezh, the Khoper, the Medvyeditsa and the Donets are navigable — the Donets having a course of 680 m., and during high water affording access to the government of Kharkov. The Manych, another large affluent on the left, marks the ancient line of water connexion between the Sea of Azov and the Caspian Sea. The lower section of the Don is subject to two annual floods, of which the earlier, known as the " cold water," is caused by the melting of the snow in the country of the Don Cossacks, and the later, or the " warm water," is due to the same process taking place in the region drained by the upper parts of the stream. About the beginning of June the river begins to subside with great rapidity; in August the water is very low and navigation almost ceases; but occasionally after the September rains the traffic with small craft is again practicable. Since the middle of the i8th century there have been five floods of extraordinary magnitude, — namely, in 1748, 1786, 1805, 1820 and 1845. The river is usually closed by ice from November or December to March or April, and at rare intervals it freezes in October. At Aksai, in the delta, it remains open on the average for 250 days in the year, at the mouth of the Medvyeditsa for 239, and at Novo-Cherkask, on another arm of the delta, for 246. This river supports a considerable fishing population, who despatch salt fish and caviare all over Russia. Salmon and herrings are taken in large numbers. (P. A. K.; J.T. BE.) DON, a river in the south of Aberdeenshire, Scotland, rising in peat-moss to the east of Glen Avon on the borders of Banffshire, at a height of nearly 2000 ft. above the sea. It follows a generally easterly course, roughly parallel with that of the Dee, and a few miles to the south of it, falling into the North Sea close to Old Aberdeen, after a run of 82 m. At the mouth the two rivers are only 2$ m. apart. Like its greater neighbour, the Don is an excellent salmon stream. On the left its chief affluents are the Ernan, Nochty, Bucket and Urie; on the right, the Conrie, Carvie, Deskry and Strow. The principal places of interest on its banks are Strathdon, Towie, Kildrummy, Alford, Keig, Monymusk, Inverurie, Kintore and Dyce. DON AGHADEE, a market town of Co. Down, Ireland, in the north parliamentary division, near the south of Belfast Lough, on the Irish Channel, 25 m. E. by N. of Belfast by a branch of the Belfast and Co. Down railway. Pop. (1901) 2073. It is the nearest port in Ireland to Great Britain, being 21^ m. S.W. of Portpatrick in Wigtownshire. Telegraph and telephone cables join these ports, but a regular passenger route does not exist owing to the unsuitability of Portpatrick. Donaghadee harbour admits vessels up to 200 tons. On the north-east side of the town there is a rath or encampment 70 ft. high, in which a powder magazine is erected. The parish church dates from 1626. There are two holy wells in the town. The town is frequented as a seaside watering-place in the summer months. DONALDSON, SIR JAMES (1831- ), Scottish classical scholar, educational and theological writer, was born at Aberdeen on the 26th of April 1831. He was educated at Aberdeen University and New College, London. In 1854 he was appointed rector of the Stirling high school, in 1866 rector of that of Edinburgh, in 1881 professor of humanity in the university of Aberdeen, and in 1890 principal of the university of St Andrews, by the Universities (Scotland) Act. His chief works are: Modern Greek Grammar (1853) ; Lyra Graeca (1854), specimens of Greek lyric poetry from Callinus to Soutsos; A Critical History of Christian Literature and Doctrine from the Death of the Apostles to the Niccne Council (i.-iii., 1864-1866; new ed. of i. as The Apostolical Fathers, 1874), a book unique of its kind in England at the time of its appearance and one which adds materially to the knowledge of Christian antiquities as deduced from the apostolic fathers; Lectures on the History of Education in Prussia and England (1874); The Westminster Confession of Faith and the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England (1905) ; Woman, her position and influence in ancient Greece and Rome (1907). He was knighted in 1907. DONALDSON, JOHN WILLIAM (1811-1861), English philo- logist and biblical critic, was born in London on the 7th of June 1811. He was educated at University College, London, and Trinity College, Cambridge, of which society he subsequently became fellow. In 1841 he was elected headmaster of King Edward's school, Bury St Edmunds. In 1855 he resigned his post and returned to Cambridge, where his time was divided between literary work and private tuition. He died on the loth of February 1861. He is remembered as a pioneer of philology in England, and as a great scholar in his day, though much of his work is now obsolete. The New Cratylus (1839), the book on which his fame mainly rests, was an attempt to apply to the Greek language the principles of comparative philology. It was founded mainly on the comparative grammar of Bopp, but a large part of it was original, Bopp's grammar not being completed till ten years after the first edition of the Cratylus. In the Varronianus (1844) the same method was applied to Latin, Umbrian and Oscan. His Jashar (1854), written in Latin as an appeal to the learned world, and especially to German theologians, was an attempt to reconstitute the lost biblical book of Jashar from the remains of old songs and historical records, which, according to the author, are incorporated in the existing text of the Old Testament. His bold views on the nature of inspiration, and his free handling of the sacred text, aroused the anger of the theologians. Of his numerous other works the most important are The Theatre of the Greeks; The History of the Literature of Ancient Greece (a translation and completion of C. O. M tiller's unfinished work) ; editions of the Odes of Pindar and the Antigone of Sophocles; a Hebrew, a Greek and a Latin Grammar. DONATELLO (diminutive of Donate) (c. 1386-1466), Italian sculptor, was the son of Niccolo di Betto Bardi, a member of the Florentine Woolcombers' Gild, and was born in Florence probably in 1386. The date is conjectural, since the scanty contemporary records of Donatello's life are contradictory, the earliest docu- mentary reference to the master bearing the date 1406, when a payment is made to him as an independent sculptor. That Donatello was educated in the house of the Martelli family, as stated by Vasari, and that he owed to them his introduction to his future friend and patron, Cosimo de' Medici, is very doubtful, in view of the fact that his father had espoused the cause of the Albizzi against the Medici, and was in consequence banished from Florence, where his property was confiscated. It is, however, certain that Donatello received his first training, according to the custom of the period, in a goldsmith's workshop, and that he worked for a short time in Ghiberti's studio. He was too young to enter the competition for the baptistery gates in 1402, from which Ghiberti issued victorious against Brunelleschi, Jacopo DONATELLO 407 della Quercia, Niccolo d'Arezzo and other rivals. But when Brunellcschi in his disappointment left Florence and went to Rome to study the remains of classic art he was accompanied by young Donatello. Whilst pursuing their studies and excavations on classic soil, which made them talked about amongst the Romans of the day as " treasure seekers," the two young men made a living by working at the goldsmiths' shops. This Roman sojourn was decisive for the entire development of Italian art in the i.sth century, for it was during this period that Brunelleschi undertook his measurements of the Pantheon dome and of other Roman buildings, which enabled hkn to construct the nobk cupola of S. Maria del Fiore in Florence, while Donatello acquired his knowledge of classic forms and ornamentation. The two masters, each in his own sphere, were to become the leading spirits in the art movement of the isth century. Brunelleschi 's buildings and Donatello's monuments are the supreme expression of the spirit of the early Renaissance in architecture and sculpture and exercised a potent influence upon the painters of that age. Donatello probably did not return to Florence before 1405, since the earliest works in that city that can be traced to his chisel are two small statues of " prophets " for the north door of the cathedral, for which he received payment in November 1406 andin the beginning of 1408. In the latter year he was entrusted with the important commissions for the marble " David," now at the Bargello, and for the colossal seated figure of " St John the Evangelist," which until 1 588 occupied a niche of theold cathedral facade, and is now placed in a dark chapel of the Duomo. We find him next employed at Or San Michele, where between 1340 and 1406 only four of the fourteen niches had been filled. As the result of a reminder sent by the Signory to the gilds who had undertaken to furnish the statues, the services of Ciuffagni,Nanni di Banco, Ghiberti and Donatello were enlisted, and Donatello completed between 1412 and 1415 the" St Peter," the "St George" (the original, now in the Bargello, has been replaced by a copy) and the " St Mark." He probably also assisted Nanni di Banco in his group of four saints. To this early period — in spite of Dr Bode's contention, who places it about twenty years later — belongs the wooden crucifix in S. Croce, the most striking instance of Donatello's realism in rendering the human form and his first attempt at carving the nude. It is said that this crucifix was executed in rivalry with Brunelleschi 's noble work at S. Maria Novella, and that Donatello, at the sight of his friend's work, exclaimed, " It has been left to you to shape a real Christ, whilst I have made a peasant." In this early group of statues, from the prophets for the cathedral door to the " St George," can be followed the gradual advance from Gothic stiffness of attitude and draping to a forceful rendering of the human form and of move- ment, which is a distinct approach to the classic ideal; from the massiveness of the heavily draped figure to easy poise and muscular litheness. All these figures were carved in marble and are admirably conceived in relation to their architectural setting. In fact, so strong is this tendency that the " St Mark," when inspected at the master's workshop, was disapproved of by the heads of the Gild of Linen- weavers, but aroused public enthusiasm when placed in situ, and at a later date received Michelangelo's unstinted admiration. Between the completion of the niches for Or San Michele and his second journey to Rome in 1433, Donatello was chiefly occupied with statuary work for the campanile and the cathedral, though from this period dates the bronze figure of the Baptist for the christening font of Orvieto Cathedral, which was never delivered and is now among the treasures of the Berlin museum. This, and the " St Louis of Toulouse," which originally occupied a niche at Or San Michele and is now badly placed at S. Croce, were the first works in bronze which owed their origin to the partnership of Donatello with Michelozzo, who undertook the casting of the models supplied by his senior. The marble statues for the campanile, which are either proved to be Donatello's by documentary evidence or can be recognized as his work from their style, are the " Abraham," wrought by the master in conjunction with Giovanni di Bartolo (il Rosso); the " St John the Baptist"; the so-called " Zuccone " (Jonah?); "Jeremiah"; " Habakuk " (?); the unknown "prophet" who is supposed to bear the features of the humanist Poggio Bracciolini; and possibly he may have had a share in the completion of the " Joshua " commenced by Ciuffagni in 1415. All these statues, and the " St John " at the Bargello, mark a bold departure from the statuesque balance of the " St Mark " and " St George " to an almost instantaneous impression of life. The fall of the draperies is no longer arranged in harmonious lines, but is treated in an accidental, massive, bold manner. At the same time the heads are no longer, as it were, impersonal, but almost cruelly realistic character portraits of actual people, just as the arms and legs and necks are faithfully copied from life with all their angularities and deviations from the lines of beauty. During this period Donatello executed some work for the baptismal font at S. Giovanni in Siena, which Jacopo della Quercia and his assistants had begun in 1416. Though the Florentine's share in it is confined to a relief which may have been designed, or even begun, by Jacopo, and a few statuettes, it is of considerable importance in Donatello's life-work, as it includes his first attempt at relief sculpture—except the marble relief on the socle of the " St George "—his first female figures,—" Faith " and " Hope," and his first putti. The relief, " Herod's Feast," shows already that power of dramatic narration and the skill of express- ing the depth of space by varying the treatment from plastic roundness to the finest stiacciato, which was to find its mature expression in the panels of the altar of S. Antonio in Padua and of the pulpit of S. Lorenzo in Florence. The casting of the pieces for the Siena font was probably done by Michelozzo, who is also credited with an important share in the next two monumental works, in the designing of which Donatello had to face a new problem — the tomb of John XXIII. in the baptistery (begun about 1425), and that of Cardinal Brancacci at S. Angelo a Nilo in Naples (executed in Pisa, 1427). The noble recumbent figure of the defunct on the former, the relief on the sarcophagus, and the whole architectural design, are unquestionably due to Donatello; the figure of the pope is the most beautiful tomb figure of the isth century, and served as the model on which Rossellino, Desiderio, and other sculptors of the following period based their treatment of similar problems. Donatello's share in the Naples monument is probably confined to the characteristic low relief of the " Ascension." The baptistery tomb shows how completely Donatello had mastered the forms of Renaissance architecture, even before his second visit to Rome. An earlier proof of his knowledge of classic art is his niche for the " St Louis " at Or S. Michele, now occupied by Verrocchio's " Christ and St Thomas." Similar in treatment to the " Ascension " relief is the " Charge to St Peter " at South Kensington, which is almost impressionistic in its suggestion of distance and intervening atmosphere expressed by the extreme slightness of the relief. Another important work of this period, and not, as Vasari maintains, of Donatello's youth, is the " Annunciation " relief, with its wealth of delicately wrought Renaissance motifs in the architectural setting. When Cosimo, the greatest art patron of his time, was exiled from Florence in 1433, Michelozzo accompanied him to Venice, whilst Donatello for the second time went to Rome to drink once more at the source of classic art. The two works which still testify to his presence in this city, the " Tomb of Giovanni Crivelli " at S. Maria in Aracoeli, and the " Ciborium " at St Peter's, bear the stamp of classic influence. Donatello's return to Florence in the following year almost coincides with Cosimo's. Almost immediately, in May 1434, he signed a contract for the marble pulpit on the facade of Prato cathedral, the last work executed in collaboration with Michelozzo, a veritable bacchan- alian dance of half-nude putti, pagan in spirit, passionate in its wonderful rhythmic movement — the forerunner of the " singing tribune " for Florence cathedral, at which he worked inter- mittently from 1433 to 1440, and which is now restored to its original complete form at the museum of the Opera del Duomo. But Donatello's greatest achievement of his "'classic period " is the bronze " David " at the Bargello, the first nude statue of the Renaissance, the first figure conceived in the round, independent of any architectural surroundings — graceful, well-proportioned, 408 DONATI— DONATION OF CONSTANTINE superbly balanced, suggestive of Greek art in the simplification of form, and yet realistic, without any striving after ideal pro- portions. The same tendencies are to be noted in the bronze putto at the Bargello. In 1443 Donatello was invited to Padua to undertake the decoration of the high altar of S. Antonio, but in the period preceding his departure he not only assisted Brunelleschi in the decoration of the sacristy of S. Lorenzo, towards which the bronze doors are his chief contribution, but found time to chisel, or model in wax or terra-cotta, for Cosimo and other private patrons, most of the portrait busts and small reliefs, which are now distributed over the museums of the world. His first work in Padua was the bronze crucifix for the high altar, a work immeasurably superior to the early wooden crucifix at S. Croce, both as regards nobility of expression and subtlety of form. In the very year when Donatello arrived in Padua the famous Condottiere Erasmo de' Narni, called Gattamelata, had died, and when it was decided to honour his memory with an equestrian statue, it was only natural that this master should be chosen to undertake a task from the difficulties of which all others may well have shrunk — had shrunk, indeed, since classic times. This commission, and the reliefs and figures for the high altar, kept Donatello in Padua for ten years, though during that time he visited Venice (where he carved the wooden " St John " at the Fran) and probably Mantua, Ferrara and Modena. At least, he was in communication with Borso d' Este of Modena about a project for an equestrian statue, and had to give expert opinion about two equestrian statues at Ferrara. In his workshop in Padua he gathered around him quite a small army of assistants, stone-carvers, metal-workers, painters, gilders and bronze-casters. The Gattamelata was finished and set up in 1453 — a work powerful and majestic in its very repose; there is no striving for dramatic effect, no exaggerated muscular action, but the whole thing is dominated by the strong, energetic head, which is modelled with the searching realism of the Zuccone and the Poggio heads. The high altar, for which Donatello executed twenty-two reliefs, seven statues and the crucifix, was completed in 1450, but had subsequently to undergo many changes, in the course of which the original disposition of the sculptures was entirely lost sight of, the present arrangement being due to Camillo Boi to ( 1 89 5) . The chief features of the altar are the wonderfully animated and dramatic bronze reliefs, four in number, of the " Miracles of St Anthony." With the exception of another visit to Siena in 1457, of which the bronze " St John " in the cathedral is a reminder, Donatello spent the remaining years of his life in Florence. Closely akin to the rugged " St John " at Siena, and therefore probably contemporaneous, is the repulsively ugly, emaciated "Magdalen" at the baptistery in Florence. The dramatic intensity of the " Judith " group in the Loggia de' Lanzi, which was originally placed in the court of the Medici Palace, marks it as belonging to the post-Paduan period of the master's life. His last work of importance was the bronze reliefs for the pulpit of S. Lorenzo, commissioned about 1460, and finished after Donatello's death by his pupil Bertoldo. The reliefs of the " Flagellation " and " Crucifixion " at the Victoria and Albert Museum are typical examples of the master's style at this closing period of his life. He died on the isth of December 1466. As happened subsequently to Velazquez and Frans Hals, Donatello, whose supreme mastery had been acknowledged by Michelangelo, Raphael and the other giants of the late Renais- sance, almost sank into oblivion during the i8th and early igth centuries, and only in comparatively recent times has he been restored to the eminent position which is his due in the history of art. The full power of his genius was only revealed to the world when, at the quincentenary celebration of his birth, the greater part of his life-work was brought together in Florence. The large hall at the Bargello has ever since been devoted to the display of his works, the numerous original bronzes and marbles and terra- cottas being supplemented by casts of works at other places, such as the colossal Gattamelata monument. AUTHORITIES. — Before the date of the Florence exhibition in 1886 the only books on the subject of Donatello — apart from references in jeneral histories of art — were Pastor's Donatella (Giessen, 1882) and temper's Donatello, seine Zeit und seine Schide (Vienna, 1875). Since then the great Florentine sculptor has received attention from many of the leading art writers, though England has only contributed a not very complete record of his life and work by Hope Rea, Donatello [London, 1900), and an excellent critical study by Lord Balcarres, Donatello (London, 1903), besides a translation of A. G. Meyer's :ully illustrated and exhaustive monograph in the Knackfuss series (London, 1904). Other notable books on the subject are: — Eugene Miintz, Donatello (Paris, 1885), and in the series of Les Artistes celebres (Paris, 1890); Schmarzow, Donatella (Breslau, 1886); Cava- lucci, Vita ed opere del Donatello (Milan, 1886) ; Tschudi, Donatello e la critica moderna (Turin, 1887); Reymond, Donatello (Florence, 1899); and Bode, Florentiner Btldhauer der Renaissance (Donatello als Architekt und Dekorator, Die Madcmnenreliefs Donatellos) (Berlin, 1902). (P. G. K.) DONATI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1826-1873), Italian astronomer, was born at Pisa on the i6th of December 1826. He entered the observatory of Florence as a student in 1852, became assistant to G. B. Amici in 1854, and was appointed in 1864 to succeed him as director. A new observatory at Arcetri near Florence, built under his supervision, was completed in 1872. During the ten years 1854-1864 Donati discovered six comets, one of which, first seen on the 2nd of June 1858, bears his name (see COMET). He observed the total solar eclipse of the i8th of July 1860, at Torreblanca in Spain, and in the same year began experiments in stellar spectroscopy. In 1862 he published a memoir, Intorno die strie degli spettri stellari, which indicated the feasibility of a physical classification of the stars; and on the sth of August 1864 discovered the gaseous composition of comets by submitting to prismatic analysis the light of one then visible. An investigation of the great aurora of the 4th of February 1872 led him to refer such phenomena to a distinct branch of science, designated by him " cosmical meteorology "; but he was not destined to prosecute the subject. Attending the International Meteorological Congress of August 1873 at Vienna, he fell ill of cholera, and died a few hours after his arrival at Arcetri, on the 2oth of September 1873. See Vierteljahrsschrift der astr. Gesellschaft (Leipzig), ix. 4; Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Society, xxxiv. 153; Memorie degli spettroscopisti italiani, ii. 125 (G. Cacciatore); Nature, viii. 556; &c. (A. M. C.) , DONATIO MORTIS CAUSA (grant in case of death), in law, a gift of personal property made in contemplation of death and intended either expressly or impliedly to take_complete effect only if the donor dies of the illness affecting him at the time of the gift. The conception as well as the name is borrowed from Roman law, and the definition given by Justinian (Inst. ii. 7. i) applies equally to a donatio mortis causa in Roman and English law. A distinction, however, has arisen between the English and civil codes; by English law delivery either actual or (when from the nature of the thing actual delivery is impossible) constructive is essential, and this delivery must pass not only the possession but the dominion of the thing given; by the civil law, in some cases at least, delivery of possession was not essential (see the judgment of Lord Chancellor Hardwicke in Ward v. Turner, 1751, 2 Ves. sen. 431, where the whole question is exhaustively discussed). A donatio mortis causa stands halfway between a gift inter vinos and a legacy, and has some of the characteristics of each form of disposition. It resembles a legacy in that (i) it is revocable during the donor's life, (2) it is subject to legacy and estate duty, and (3) it is liable to satisfy debts of the testator in default of other assets. On the other hand, it resembles a gift inter vivas in that it takes effect from delivery; therefore the consent of the executor is not necessary. Anything may be the subject of a donatio mortis causa, the absolute property in which can be made to pass by delivery after the donor's death either in law or equity; this will cover bankers' deposit notes, bills of exchange, and notes and cheques of a third person, but not promissory notes and cheques of the donor in favour of the donee, for the donor's signature is merely an authority for his banker to pay, which is revoked by his death. DONATION OF CONSTANTINE (Donatio Constantini), the supposed grant by the emperor Constantine, in gratitude for his conversion by Pope Silvester, to that pope and his successors. DONATION OF CONSTANTINE 409 for ever, not only of spiritual supremacy over the other great patriarchates and over all matters of faith and worship, but also of temporal dominion over Rome, Italy and " the provinces, places and civitates of the western regions." The famous document, known as the Constitutum Constantini and compounded of various elements (notably the apocryphal Vita S. Silvestri), was forged at Rome some time between the middle and end of the 8th century, was included in the pth century in the collection known as the False Decretals, two centuries later was incorporated in the Decretum by a pupil of Gratian, and in Gibbon's day was still " enrolled among the decrees of the canon law," though already rejected " by the tacit or modest censure of the advocates of the Roman church." It is now universally admitted to be a gross forgery.1 In spite, however, of Gibbon's characteristic scepticism on this point, it is certain that the Constitutum was regarded as genuine both by the friends and the enemies of the papal pretensions throughout the middle ages. 2 Though no use of it was made by the popes during the gth and loth centuries, it was quoted as authoritative by eminent ecclesiastics of the Prankish empire (e.g. by Ado of Vienne and Hincmar of Reims) , and it was employed by two Prankish popes, Gregory V. and Silvester II., in urging certain territorial claims. But not till 1050 was it made the basis of the larger papal claims, when another Prankish pope, Leo IX., used it in his controversy with the Byzantines. From this time forward it was increasingly used by popes and canonists in support of the papal pretensions, and from the 1 2th century onwards became a powerful weapon of the spiritual against the temporal powers. It is, however, as Cardinal Hergenrother points out, possible to exaggerate its importance in this respect; a charter purporting to be a grant by an emperor to a pope of spiritual as well as temporal jurisdiction was at best a double-edged weapon; and the popes generally preferred to base their claim to universal sovereignty on their direct commission as vicars of God. By the partisans of the Empire, on the other hand, the Donation was looked upon as the fans et origo malorum, and Constantine was regarded as having, in his new-born zeal, betrayed his imperial trust. The expression of this opinion is not uncommon in medieval literature (e.g.Walther von derVogelweide, Pfeiffer's edition, 1880, Nos. Ssand 164), the most famous instance being in the Inferno of Dante (xix. 115): " Ahi, Costantin, di questo mal fu matre Non la tua conversion, ma quella dote Che da te prese il primo ricco patre ! " The genuineness of the Constitutum was first critically assailed by Laurentius Valla in 1440, whose De falso credita et ementita Constantini donation* dedamatio opened a controversy that lasted until, at the close of the i8th century, the defence was silenced. In modern times the controversy as to the genuineness of the document has been succeeded by a debate scarcely less lively as to its date, its authorship and place of origin. The efforts of Roman Catholic scholars have been directed (since Baronius ascribed the forgery to the Greeks) to proving that the fraud was not committed at Rome. Thus Cardinal Hergenrother holds that it was written by a Frank in the 9th century, in order to prove that the Greeks had been rightfully expelled from Italy and that Charlemagne was legitimate emperor. This view, with variations, was maintained by the writer of an article in the Civiltd catlolicaia 1864 (Serie v. vol. x. pp. 303, &c.) and supported by Grauert, who maintains that the document was concocted at the abbey of St Denis, after 840. The evidence now available, however, confirms those who ascribe an earlier date to the forgery and place it at Rome. The view held by Gibbon and Dollinger among others,3 that the Constitutum is referred to in 1 Dr Hodgkin's suggestion (Italy and her Invaders, vii. p. 153) that the Constitutum may have been originally a mere pious romance, recognized as such by its author and his contemporaries, and laid up in the papal archives until its origin was forgotten, is wholly incon- sistent with the unquestioned results of the critical analysis of the text. 8 Leo of Vercelli, the emperor Otto III.'s chancellor, protested that the Constitutum^ was a forgery, but without effect. The attacks upon it by the heretical followers of Arnold of Brescia (1152) convinced neither the partisans of the pope nor those of the emperor. 3 So Langen (1883) and E. Mayer (1904). the letter of Pope Adrian I. to Charlemagne (778), is now indeed largely rejected; there is nothing in the letter to make such an assumption safe, and the same must be said of Friedrich's attempt to find such reference in the letter addressed in 785 by the same pope to Constantine VI., emperor of the East, and his mother Irene. Still less safe is it to ascribe the authorship of the forgery to any particular pope on the ground of its style; for papal letters were drawn up in the papal chancery and the style employed there was apt to persist through several pontificates. Friedrich's theory that the Constitutum is a composite document, part written in the 7th century, part added by Paul I. when a deacon under Stephen II., though supported by a wealth of learning, has been torn to tatters by more than one critic (G. Kriiger, L. Loening). On one point, however, a fair amount of agreement seems now to have been reached, a result due to the labour in collating documents of Scheffer-Boichorst, namely, that the style of the Constitutum is generally that of the papal chancery in the latter half of the 8th century. This being granted, there is room for plentiful speculation as to where and why it was concocted. We may still hold the opinion of Dollinger that it was intended to impress the barbarian Pippin and justify in his eyes the Frank intervention in favour of the pope in Italy; or we may share the view of Loening (rejected by Brunner, Rechtsgeschichte) that the forgery was a pious fraud on the part of a cleric of the Curia, committed under Adrian I.,4 with the idea of giving a legal basis to territorial dominion which that pope had succeeded in establishing in Italy. The donations of Pippin and Charlemagne established him as sovereign de facto; the donation of Constantine was to proclaim him as sovereign dejure. It is significant in this connexion that it was under Adrian (c. 774) that the papal chancery ceased to date by the regnal years of the Eastern emperor and substituted that of the pontificate. Dollinger's view is supported and carried a step further by H. Bohmer, who by an ingenious argument endeavours to prove that the Constitutum was forged in 753, probably by the notary Christophorus, and was carried with him by Pope Stephen II. to the court of Pippin, in 754, with an eye to the acquisition of the Exarchate. In support of this argument it is to be noted that the forged docu- ment first appears at the abbey of St Denis, where Stephen spent the winter months of 754. E. Mayer, on the other hand, denies that the Constitutum can have been forged before the news of the iconoclastic decrees of the council of Constantinople of 754 had reached Rome. He lays stress on the relation of the supposed confession of faith of Constantine, embodied in the forgery, to that issued by the emperor Constantine V., pointing out the efforts made by the Byzantines between 756 and the synod of Gentilly in 767 to detach Pippin from the cause of Rome and the holy images. The forgery thus had a double object: as a weapon against Byzantine heresy and as a defence of the papal patrimony. As the result of an exhaustive analysis of the text and of the political and religious events of the time, Mayer comes to the conclusion that the document was forged about 775, i.e. at the time when Charlemagne was beginning to reverse the policy by which in 774 he had confirmed the possession of the duchies of Spoleto and Benevento to the pope. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See Dollinger, Papstfabeln des Mittelalters (Munich, 1863; Eng. trans. A. Plummer, 1871); " Janus," Der Pabst und das Konzil (Munich, 1869; Eng. trans. 1869); Hergenrother, Catholic Church and Christian State (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1872; Eng. trans. 2 vols. 1876); W. Martens, Die romische Frage unter Pippin u. Karl d. Grossen (Stuttgart, 1881), with text; H. Grauert, " Die Konstantinische Schenkung " in Hist. Jahrb. der Gorres- Gesellsch. iii. (1882), iv. (1883); Langen, " Entstehung u. Tendenz der Konst. Schenkungsurkunde " in Sybel's Hist. Zeitschr. 1. (1883); L. Weiland, "Die Konst. Schenkung" in Zeitschr. f. Kirchenrecht, xxii. (1887-1888), maintains that the Constitutum was forged at Rome between 813 and 875, in connexion with the papal claim to crown the emperors; H. Brunner and K. Zeumer, Die Konstantinische Schenkungsurkunde (Berlin, 1888; Festgaben fur R. v. Gneist), with text ; Fnedrich, Die Konst.Schenkung (Nordlingen, 1889), with text; W. Martens, Die falsche Generalkonzession Kon- stantins des Grossen (Munich, 1889) ; P. Scheffer-Boichorst, " Neue 4 This is also W. Mayer's view in his later work. In his Die romische Frage (1881) he had placed the forgery in 805 or 806. DONATISTS Forschungen iiber die Konst. Schenkung," i. ii. (Mitteilungen des Instituts fur osterr. Geschichtsforschung, x. (1889), xi. (1890); G. Kriiger, " Die Frage der Entstehungszeit der Konst. Schenkung," in Theologische Literatnrzeitung, xiv. (1889); J. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, vol. vii. p. 135 (Oxford, 1899); article " Konstantinische Schenkung," G. H. Bohmer, in Herzog-Hauck, Realency> E. Mayer, " Die Schenkungen Konstantins und Pipms " in Deutsche Zeitschr. fur Kirchenrecht (Tubingen, 1904). Laurentius Valla's treatise was issued in a new edition, with French translation and historical introduction, by A. Bonneau, La Donation de Constantin (Lisieux, 1879). (W. A. P.) DONATISTS, a powerful sect which arose in the Christian church of northern Africa at the beginning of the 4th century.1 In its doctrine it sprang from the same roots, and in its history it had in many things the same character, as the earlier Novatians. The predisposing causes of the Donatist schism were the belief, early introduced into the African church, that the validity of all sacerdotal acts depended upon the personal character of the agent, and the question, arising out of that belief, as to the eligibility for sacerdotal office of the traditores, or those who had delivered up their copies of the Scriptures under the compulsion of the Diocletian persecution; the exciting cause was the election of a successor to Mensurius, bishop of Carthage, who died in 311. Mensurius had held moderate views as to the treatment of the traditores, and accordingly a strong fanatical party had formed itself in Carthage in opposition to him, headed by a wealthy and influential widow named Lucilla, and countenanced by Secundus of Tigisis, episcopus primae sedis in Numidia. There were thus two parties, each anxious to secure the succession to the vacant see. The friends of the late bishop fixed their choice on Caecilian, the archdeacon, and secured his election and his consecration by Felix, the bishop of Aptunga, before the other party were ready for action. It had been customary for the Numidian bishops to be present at the election and consecration of the bishop of Carthage, who as metropolitan of proconsular Africa occupied a position of primacy towards all the African provinces. Caecilian's party, however, had not waited for them, knowing them to be in sympathy with their opponents. Soon after Caecilian's consecra- tion, Secundus sent a commission to Carthage, which appointed an interventor temporarily to administer the bishopric which they regarded as vacant. Then Secundus himself with seventy of the Numidian bishops arrived at Carthage. A synod of Africa was formed, before which Caecilian was summoned; his con- secration was declared invalid, on the ground that Felix had been a traditor; and finally, having refused to obey the summons to appear, he was excommunicated, and the lector Majorinus, a dependant of Lucilla's, consecrated in his stead. This synod forbade the African churches to hold communion with Caecilian, the schism became overt, and in a very short time there were rival bishops and rival churches throughout the whole province. It was soon clear, by the exclusion of the " Pars Majorini " from certain privileges conferred on the African church, that the sympathies of Constantine were with the other party (Eusebius, Hist. eccl. x. 6, 7). To investigate the dispute an imperial commission was issued to five Gallic bishops, under the presidency of Melchiades, bishop of Rome. The number of referees was afterwards increased to twenty, and the case was tried at Rome in 3i3.2 Ten bishops appeared on each side, the leading re- presentative of the Donatists being Donatus of Casae Nigrae. The decision was entirely in favour of Caecilian, and Donatus was found guilty of various ecclesiastical offences An appeal was taken and allowed; but the decision of the synod of Aries in 314 not only confirmed the position of Caecilian, but greatly strengthened it by passing a canon that ordination was not 'There were three prominent men named Donatus connected with the movement — Donatus of Casae Nigrae ; Donatus surnamed Magnus, who succeeded Majorinus as the Donatist bishop of Carthage; and Donatus of Bagoi, a leader of the circumcelliones, who was captured and executed c. 350. The name of the sect was derived from the second of these. The Donatists themselves repudiated the designation, which was applied to them by their opponents as a reproach. They called themselves " Pars Maiorini " or Pars Donati." 2 The Donatist movement affords a valuable illustration of the new importance which the changed position of the church under Constantine gave to the synodal system of ecclesiastical legislation. invalid because performed by a traditor, if otherwise regular. Felix had previously been declared innocent after an examination of records and witnesses at Carthage. A further appeal to the emperor in person was heard at Milan in 3 16, when all points were finally decided in favour of Caecilian, probably on the advice of Hosius, bishop of Cordova. Henceforward the power of the state was directed to the suppression of the defeated party. Persistent Donatists were no longer merely heretics; they were rebels and incurred the confiscation of their church property and the forfeiture of their civil rights. The attempt to destroy the sect by force had the result of intensifying its fanaticism. Majorinus, the Donatist bishop of Carthage, died in 315, and was succeeded by Donatus, surnamed Magnus, a man of great force of character, under whose influence the schism gained fresh strength from the opposition it en- countered. Force was met with force; the Circumcelliones, bands of fugitive slaves and vagrant (circum cellas) peasants, attached themselves to the Donatists, and their violence reached such a height as to threaten civil war. In 321 Constantine, see- ing probably that he had been wrong in abandoning his usual policy of toleration, sought to retrace his steps by granting the Donatists liberty to act according to their consciences, and declaring that the points in dispute between them and the orthodox should be left to the judgment of God. Thiswise policy, to which he consistently adhered to the close of his reign, was not followed by his son and successor Constans, who, after repeated attempts to win over the sect by bribes, resorted to persecution. The renewed excesses of the Circumcelliones, among whom were ranged fugitive slaves, debtors and political malcontents of all kinds, had given to the Donatist schism a revolutionary aspect; and its forcible suppression may therefore have seemed to Constans even more necessary for the preservation of the empire than for the vindication of orthodoxy. The power which they had been the first to invoke having thus declared so emphatically and persistently against them, the Donatists revived the old world-alien Christianity of the days of persecution, and repeated Tertullian's question, " What has the emperor to do with the church ? " (Quid est imperatori cum ecclesia ?) Such an attitude aggravated the lawlessness of the Circumcellion adherents of the sect, and their outrages were in turn made the justification for the most rigorous measures against the whole Donatist party indiscriminately. Many of their bishops fell victims to the persecution, and Donatus (Magnus) and several others were banished from their sees. With the accession of Julian (361) an entire change took place in the treatment of the Donatists. Their churches were restored and their bishops reinstated (Parmenianus succeeding the deceased Donatus at Carthage), with the natural result of greatly increasing both the numbers and the enthusiasm of the party. A return to the earlier policy of repression was made under Valentinian I. and Gratian, by whom the Donatist churches were again closed, and all their assemblies forbidden. It was not, however, until the commencement of the 5th century that the sect began to decline, owing largely to the rise among them of a group of moderate and scholarly men like the grammarian Tychonius, who vainly strove to overcome the more fanatical section. Against the house thus divided against itself both state and church directed not unsuccessful assaults. In 405 an edict was issued by the emperor Honorius commanding the Donatists, under the severest penalties, to return to the Catholic church. On the other hand, Augustine, bishop of Hippo, after several years' negotiation, arranged a great conference between the Donatists and the orthodox, which was held under the authority of the emperor at Carthage in 411. There were present 286 Catholics and 279 Donatist bishops. Before entering on the proceedings the Catholics pledged themselves, if defeated, to give up their sees, while in the other event they promised to recognize the Donatists as bishops on their simply declaring their adherence to the Catholic church. The latter proposal, though it was received with scorn at the time, had perhaps ultimately as much influence as the logic of Augustine in breaking the strength of the schism. The discussion, which lasted for three days, Augustine DONATUS— DONCASTER 411 and Aurelius of Carthage being the chief speakers on the one side, and Primian and Petilian on the other, turned exclusively upon the two questions that had given rise to the schism — first, the question of fact, whether Felix of Aptunga who consecrated Caecilian had been a traditor; and secondly, the question of doctrine, whether a church by tolerance of unworthy members within its pale lost the essential attributesof purity andcatholicity. The Donatist position, like that of the Novatians, was that the mark of the true church is to guard the essential predicate of holiness by excluding all who have committed mortal sin; the Catholic standpoint was that such holiness is not destroyed by the presence of unworthy members in the church but rests upon the divine foundation of the church and upon the gift of the Holy Spirit and the communication of grace through the priesthood. In the words of Optatus of Milevi, sanctitas de sacramentis colligitur, non de superbia personarum pondera. And the much wider diffusion of the orthodox church was also taken as practical confirmation that it alone possessed what was regarded as the equally essential predicate of catholicity. The decision of Marcellinus, the imperial commissioner, was in favour of the Catholic party on both questions, and it was at once confirmed on an appeal to the emperor. The severest penal measures were enforced against the schismatics; in 414 they were denied all civil rights, in 415 the holding of assemblies was forbidden on pain of death. But they lived on, suffering with their orthodox brethren in the Vandal invasions of the sth century, and like them finally disappearing before the Saracen onslaught two centuries later. AUTHORITIES. — i. Contemporary sources: Optatus Milevitanus De Schismate Donatistarum adversus Parmenianum, written c. 368 (Dupin's ed., Paris, 1700), and several of the works of Augustine. 2. Modern : C. W. F. Walch, Entwurf einer vollstandigen Historie der Ketzereien (Leipzig, 1768); Hauck-Herzog, Realencyk. fur prot. Theol., art. " Donatismus " by N. Bonwetsch, who cites the literature very fully ; W. Moller, History of the Christian Church (vol. i. pp. 331 ff.t 445 ff.); D. Volter, Der Ursprung des Donatismus (Freiburg, 1883). DONATUS, AELIUS, Roman grammarian and teacher of rhetoric, flourished in the middle of the 4th century A.D. The only fact known regarding his life is that he was the tutor of St Jerome. He was the author of a number of professional works, of which there are still extant: — Ars grammatica; the larger portion of his commentary on Terence (a compilation from other com- mentaries), but probably not in its original form; and a few fragments of his notes on Virgil, preserved and severely criticized by Servius, together with the preface and introduction, and life of Virgil. The first of these works, and especially the section on the eight parts of speech, though possessing little claim to originality, and in fact evidently based on the same authorities which were used by the grammarians Charisius and Diomedes, attained such popularity as a school-book that in the middle ages the writer's name, like the French Calepin, became a common metonymy (in the form donet) for a rudimentary treatise of any sort. On the introduction of printing editions of the little book were multiplied to an enormous extent. It is extant in the form of an Ars Minor, which only treats of the parts of speech, and an Ars Major, which deals with grammar in general at greater length. Aelius Donatus is to be distinguished from Tiberius Claudius Donatus, the author of a commentary (Interpretaliones) on the Aeneid (of far less value than that of Servius), who lived about fifty years later. The best text of the Ars and the commentaries upon it by Servius and others is in H. Keil, Grammalici Latini, iv. ; of the commentary on Terence there is an edition by P. Wessner (1902, Teubner series), with bibliography and full account. of MSS. See generally E. A. Grafenhan, Geschichte der klassischen Philologie im Altertum, iv. (1850); P. Rosenstock, De Donate, Terenti . . . explicatore (1886); H. T. Karsten, De comm. Don. ad Terenti fabulas origine et com- postttone (Leiden, 1907). For the commentary of Tiberius Donatus see O. Ribbeck, Prolegomena to Virgil, Grafenhan (as above), and V. Burkas, De Tiberii Claudii Donati in Aeneidem commentario (1889). I he text will be found in G. Fabricius's edition of Virgil (1561), ed. by H. George, i. (1905 foil.). DONAUWORTH, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the left bank of the Danube, at the confluence of the Wornitz, 25 m. N. of Augsburg by rail and at the junction of lines to Ulm and Ingolstadt. Pop. 5000. It is an ancient town and has several medieval buildings of interest. Notable among its seven churches (six Roman Catholic) are the Kloster-Kirche (monasterial), a beautiful Gothic edifice with the sarcophagus of Maria of Brabant, and that of the former Benedictine abbey. Heilig-Kreuz, with a lofty tower. Remarkable among secular buildings are the Gothic town hall, and the so-called Tanz-haus, which now includes both a theatre and a school. The industries embrace machinery, brewing and saw-milling; the place is of some importance as a river port, and the centre of a considerable agricultural trade. Donauworth grew up in the course of the nth and i2th centuries under the protection of the castle of Mangoldstein, became in the i3th a seat of the duke of Upper Bavaria, who, however, soon withdrew to Munich to escape from the manes of his wife Maria of Brabant, whom he had there beheaded on an unfounded suspicion of infidelity. The town received the freedom of the Empire in 1308, and maintained its position in spite of the encroachments of Bavaria till 1607, when the interference of the Protestant inhabitants with the abbot of the Heilig-Kreuz called forth an imperial law authorizing the duke of Bavaria to inflict chastisement for the offence. In the Thirty Years' War it was stormed by Gustavus Adolphus (1632), and captured by King Ferdinand (1634). In the vicinity, on the Schellenberg, the Bavarians and French were defeated by Marlborough and Prince Louis of Baden on the 2nd of July 1704. The imperial freedom restored to the town by Joseph I. in 1705 was again lost by reincorporation with Bavaria in 1714. In the neighbourhood the Austrians under Mack were, on the 6th of October 1805, decisively defeated by the French under Soult. See Konigsdorfer, Geschichte des Klosters zum Heiligen Kreuz in Donauworth (1819-20). DON BENfTO, a town of western Spain, in the province of Badajoz; near the left bank of the river Guadiana, on the Madrid- Badajoz-Lisbon railway. Pop. (1900) 16,565. Don Benito is a thriving and comparatively modern town; for it dates only from the i sth century, when it was founded by refugees from Don Llorente, who deserted their own town owing to the danger of floods from the Guadiana. Besides manufactures of brandy, flour, oil, soap, linen and cloth, it has an active trade in wheat, wine and fruit, especially melons. DONCASTER, a market-town and municipal borough in the Doncaster parliamentary division of the West Riding of York- shire, England, 156 m. N. by W. from London. Pop. (1901) 28,932. It lies in a flat plain on the river Don, with slight hills rising westward. It is an important station on the Great Northern railway, whose principal locomotive and carriage works are here, and it is also served by the North Eastern, Great Eastern, Great Central, Lancashire & Yorkshire, and Midland railways. The Don affords intercommunication with Goole and the Humber. The parish church of St George, occupying the site of an older structure of the same name, destroyed by fire in 1853, was finished in 1858 under the direction of Sir G. G. Scott. It is a fine cruciform structure of Decorated character, with a central tower 170 ft. high, and contains a particularly fine organ. St James's church was erected, under the same architect and Lord Grimthorpe, by the Great Northern railway company. Other important build- ings are the town hall, mansion house, free library and art school, corn exchange and markets. The grammar school was founded in 1553 and reorganized in 1862. Doncaster race-meetings are widely famous. The racecourse lies i m. S.E. of the town. The old course is i m. 7 fur. 70 yds. in length, and the Sandall course of i m. was added in 1892. The grand stand was erected in 1777, but there are several additional stands. Races have long been held at Doncaster, and there was a stand on the course before the year 1615. The St Leger takes its name from Lieut.-General St Leger, who originated the race in 1776; but it was not so named till 1778. The meetings are held in the second week of September. A system of electric tramways connects the town with its principal suburbs. The agricultural trade is extensive, and there are iron, brass and agricultural machine works. Doncaster lies on the outskirts of a populous district extending 412 DON COSSACKS— DONEGAL up the valley of the Don. Two miles S.W. is the urban district of Balby-with-Hexthorpe (pop. 6781); and 7 m. S. is that of Tickhill, where there are remains of a Norman castle. Wheatley (3S79) lies 2 m- N.E. The borough of Doncaster is under a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors. Area, 1695 acres. History. — There was a Roman station here, and numerous remains of the Roman period have been found. In the reign of Edward the Confessor, Doncaster, as a berewic of the manor of Hexthorp, belonged to Earl Tostig; but before 1086 it had been granted to Robert, earl of Mortain, whose successor William was attainted for treason in the time of Henry I. The overlordship then fell to the crown,, and the families of Frossard, Mauley and Salvin successively held the manor as underlords. Doncaster was evidently a borough held of the crown for a fee farm rent before 1194, when Richard I. granted and confirmed to the burgesses their soke and town to hold by the ancient rent and by twenty- five marks yearly. The town was incorporated in 1467 by Edward IV., who granted a gild merchant and appointed that the town should be governed by a mayor and two serjeants-at-mace elected every year by the burgesses. Henry VII., while confirming this charter in 1505, granted further that the burgesses should hold their town and soke with all the manors in the soke on payment of a fee farm. He also by another charter in 1508 confirmed letters patent granted by Peter de Mauley in 1341, by which the latter renounced to the inhabitants of Doncaster all the manorial claims which he had upon them, with the " pernicious customs " which his ancestors claimed from bakejs, brewers, butchers, fishers and wind-fallen trees. In 1623 Ralph Salvin tried to regain the manor of Doncaster from the mayor and burgesses, who, fearing that the case would go against them, agreed to pay about £3000, in return for which he gave up his claim to all the manors in the soke. Charles II. in 1664 gave the town a new charter, granting that it should be governed by a mayor, twelve aldermen and twenty-four capital burgesses, but since this was not enrolled and was therefore of no effect the burgesses obtained another charter from James II. in 1684 by which the town was governed until the Municipal Corporation Act. In 1 200 a fair at Doncaster on the vigil and day of St James the Apostle was con- firmed to Robert de Turnham, who held the manor in right of his wife, with the addition of an extra day, for which he had to give the king two palfreys worth loos. each. By the charter of 1194 the burgesses received licence to hold a fair on the vigil, feast and morrow of the Annunciation, and this with the fair on St James's day was confirmed to them by Henry VII. in 1505. The fairs and markets are still held under these charters. See Victoria County History, Yorkshire; Edward Miller, The History and Antiquities of Doncaster (1828-1831); Calendar to the Records of the Borough of Doncaster, published by the Corporation. DON COSSACKS, TERRITORY OF THE (Russ. Donskaya Oblast), a government of S.E. Russia, bounded W. by the govern- ments of Voronezh, Kharkov and Ekaterinoslav, S.W. by the Sea of Azov, S. by the governments of Kuban and Stavropol, and E. by those of Astrakhan and Saratov. Area, 63,532 sq. m. Pop. 1,010,135 in 1867, 2,585,920 in 1897 and 3,125,400 (estimate) in 1906. It belongs almost entirely to the region of the South Russian steppes, but in the N., W. and S.W. presents more the aspects of elevated plains gapped with ravine-like river-courses, while in the S.E., towards the Manych depression, it passes over into the arid Aral-Caspian steppes (e.g. Zadonsk Steppe), dotted over with salt lakes. Geologically the region is made up of Carboniferous limestones, clay slates and sandstones, containing anthracite and coal; of Cretaceous marls, chalk, sandstone and greensands — chalk cliffs, in fact, accompany the Don for 200 m.; and of Miocene limestones and clays. The surface, especially W. of the Don, is the fertile black earth, intermingled here and there, especially in the Zadonsk Steppe, with clay impregnated with salt. The government is drained by the Don and its tributaries, of which the Donets, Chir and Mius enter from the right and the Khoper and Medvyeditsa from the left. The Don is navigable throughout the government, and at Kalach is connected by a railway, 45 m. long, with Tsaritsyn on the Volga, routes by which an enormous amount of heavy merchandise is transported. The climate is continental and dry, the average temperatures being — year 43° Fahr., January 13°, July 72° at Uryupina (in 50° 48' N.; alt. 92 ft.); and year 48°, January 21°, July 73° at Taganrog. The annual rainfall at the same two places is 13-4 and 17 -4 in. respectively. Foiests cover only 2 % of the area. Nearly one-half of the population are Cossacks, the other ethnological groups being (1897) 27,234 Armenians, 2255 Greeks, 1267 Albanians, 16,000 Jews and some 30,000 Kalmuck Tatars, who are Lamaists in religion. Nearly all the rest of the people, except the Jews and about 3000 Mahommedans, belong to the Orthodox Eastern Church. The Cossacks own nearly 30,000,000 acres of land. The government is well provided with schools, especially on the Cossack territory. Agriculture is the principal occupation, but the crops vary very greatly from year to year, owing to deficiency of rain. Vines are cultivated on a large scale, and tobacco is grown in the south. Cattle-breeding is important, and there are fine breeds of horses and large flocks of sheep. Productive fisheries are carried on at the mouth of the Don. Nearly 13,000 persons are engaged in coal-mining; the coalfields form part of the vast Donets coal basin (10,420 sq. m., with a total output of nearly 1 3 ,000,000 tons annually) . Some iron ore, gypsum, salt and limestone are also produced. The principal branches of manufacturing industry are flour-milling, potteries, ironworks and tobacco factories. The exports consist chiefly of cereals, cattle, horses, sheep, wine, fish and hides. The government is under the administration of the ministry of war, and is divided into nine districts — Donets (chief town, Kamenskaya with 23,576 inhabitants in 1897), First Don dis- trict (Konstantinovskaya, 8800), Second Don district (Nizhne- Chirskaya, 15,196), Rostov (Rostov-on-Don, 119,889), Salsky (Velikoknyazheskaya), Taganrog (Taganrog, 58,928 in 1900), Ust-medvyeditsa (Ust-medvyeditsa, 16,000), Khoper (Uryupina, 9600), Cherkasky (Novo-cherkassk, 52,005). The capital of the government is Novo-cherkassk. Many of the Cossack stanitsas (villages) are very populous. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) DONEGAL, a county in the extreme north-west of Ireland, in the province of Ulster, bounded N. and W. by the Atlantic Ocean, E. by Lough Foyle and the counties Londonderry and Tyrone, and S. by Donegal Bay and the counties Fermanagh and Leitrim. The area is 1,197,153 acres, or about 187 isq. m.,the county being the largest in Ireland after Cork and Mayo. This portion of the country possesses little natural wealth; its physical character- istics are against easy communications, and although its northern coast affords one or two good natural harbours, there is no commercial inducement to take advantage of them. The fine scenery and other natural attractions of Donegal thus remained practically unknown until late in the igth century, but an effort was then made by Lord George Hill to introduce wealth from without into the county, and to develop its resources in this, almost the only possible direction. The county possesses a large extent of sea-coast indented by numerous inlets. Ballyshannon harbour, the most southern of these, is small, and has a bar at its mouth, as has Donegal harbour farther north. Killybegs harbour is Veil sheltered, and capable of receiving large vessels. These, with Bruckles or M'Swiney's Bay, and Teelin harbour, suitable for small vessels, are arms of the fine inlet of Donegal Bay. The western shore is beautified by the indentations of Loughros Beg, Gweebarra, Trawenagh and Inishfree Bays. On the north is Sheephaven, within which is Dunfanaghy Bay, where the largest ships may lie in safety, as they may also in Mulroy Bay and Lough Swilly farther east. Lough Foyle, which divides Donegal from Londonderry, is a noble sheet of water, but is shallow and in part dry at ebb tide, contracted at its entrance, and encumbered with shoals. A few miles west of Malin Head, the most northerly point of the mainland of Ireland, the varied and extensive Lough Swilly runs far into the interior. From these two loughs much land has been reclaimed. Numerous islands and rocks stud the coast. The largest island is North Aran, about 15 m. in circumference, with a lofty hill in its centre, and a gradual declivity down to the sea. On the northern coast are Tory Island, and, farther east, Inishtrahull, the ultima Thule of Ireland. The inhabitants of these islands obtain a precarious DONEGAL 4*3 livelihood by fishing, kelp-burning and rude husbandry, but are often reduced to extreme destitution. Mountains and irregular groups of highlands occupy the whole interior of the county, and a considerable portion is bog and moor- land. Errigal mountain in the north-west attains an elevation of 2466 ft. and commands from its summit a fine view over a con- siderable portion of the country. In its vicinity, the Derryveagh mountains reach 2240 ft. in Slieve Snaght; Muckish is 2197 ft.; in the south Bluestack reaches 2219 ft.; and hi the Innishowen peninsula between Loughs Swilly and Foyle, another Slieve Snaght is 2019 ft. in elevation. At the western extremity of the north coast of Donegal Bay stands Slieve League, whose western flank consists of a mighty cliff, descending almost sheer to the Atlantic, exhibiting beautiful variegated colouring, and reaching an extreme height of 1972 ft. From these details it will appear that the scenery of the highlands and the sea-coast often attain a character of savage and romantic grandeur; whereas the eastern and southern portions are generally less elevated and more fertile, but still possess considerable beauty. A considerable portion of the surface, however, is occupied by bogs, and entirely destitute of timber. With the exception of the tidal river Foyle, which forms the boundary between this county and Tyrone and Londonderry, the rivers, though numerous, are of small size. The branches of the Foyle which rise in Donegal are the Derg, issuing from Lough Derg, and the Finn, rising in the beautiful little lake of the same name in the highlands, and passing through some of the best cultivated land in the county. The Foyle, augmented by their contributions, and by those of several other branches from the counties Tyrone and Londonderry, proceeds northward, dis- charging its waters into the southern extremity of Lough Foyle, at the city of Londonderry. It is navigable for vessels of large burden to this place, and thence by lighters of fifty tons as far as Lifford. Boats of fourteen tons can proceed up the Finn river as far as Castlefinn. The fine river Erne flows from Lough Erne through the southern extremity of the county into the southern extremity of Donegal Bay. Its navigation is prevented by a fall of 12 ft., generally called the Salmon Leap, in the neighbour- hood of Ballyshannon, and by rapids between Ballyshannon and Belleek, on the confines of Co. Fermanagh. The Gweebarra, the Owenea, and the Eask are the only other streams of any note. Lakes are very numerous in Donegal. The most remarkable, and also the largest, is Lough Derg, comprising within its waters several islets, on one of which, Station Island, is the cave named St Patrick's Purgatory, a celebrated place of resort for pilgrims and devotees. The circumference of the lake is about 9 m., and the extent of the island to which the pilgrims are ferried over is less than i acre. The landscape round Lough Derg is desolate and sombre in the extreme, barren moors and heathy hills surrounding it on all sides. Salmon, sea-trout and brown trout afford sport in most of the rivers and loughs, and Glen ties for the Owenea river, and Gweedore for the Clady, in the west; Killybegs for the Eanymore and Eask, in the south; and Rathmelton and Rosapenna for the Owencarrow and Leannan, in the north, may be mentioned as centres. Ballyshannon and Bundoran, in the extreme south, are centres for the Erne and other waters outside the county. Geology. — The dominant feature in the geology of this county is the north-east and south-west strike forced upon the older rocks during earth-movements that set in at the close of Silurian times. The granite that forms characteristically the core of the folds is probably of the same age as that of Leinster, or may possibly repre- sent older igneous masses, brought into a general parallelism during the main epoch of stress. The oldest recognizable series of rocks is the Dalradian, and its quartzites form the white summits of Muckish, Errigal and Aghla. The intruding granite, which pre- dominates in the north-west, has frequently united with the meta- morphic series to form composite gneiss. In the southern mass near Pettigo, once regarded as Archaean and fundamental, residual " eyes " of the hornblendic rocks that are associated with the Dalradian series remain floating, as it were, in the gneiss. North ol this, the country is wilder, consisting largely of mica-schist, through which a grand mass of unfoliated granite rises at Barnesmore. The course of the Gweebarra, or Glen Beagh, of the Glendowan mountains, and the Aghla ridge, have all been determined by the general strike imparted to the country. At Donegal Bay the Lower Carboniferous sandstone and limestone come in as a synclinal, and the limestone extends to Bundoran. Small Carboniferous outliers on the summits of the great cliff of Slieve League show the former extension of these strata. Bog iron-ore is raised as a gas-purifier; and talc-schist has been worked for steatite at Crohy Head. In most parts of the west the patches of glacial drift form the only agricultural 'and. The fine-grained sandstone of Mount Charles near Donegal is a well- known building stone, and the granites of the north-west have attracted much attention. Industries. — The modes of agriculture present little that is peculiar to the county, and the spade still supplies the place of the plough where the rocky nature of the surface prevents the application of the latter implement. The soil of the greater portion of the county, i.e. the granite, quartz and mica slate districts, is thin and cold, while that on the carboniferous lime- stone is warm and friable. Owing to the boggy nature of the soil, agriculture has not made much progress, although in certain districts (Gweedore, for instance) much land has been brought under cultivation through the enteiprise of the proprietors. Roughly speaking, however, about 45 % of the land is waste, 35 % pasture and 15 % tillage. Wheat and barley are quite an inconsiderable crop, and in this as well as in other respects Donegal is much behind the rest of Ulster in the extent of its crops. It bears, however, a more favourable comparison as regards its live stock, as cattle, sheep and poultry are extensively kept. In Donegal, as in other counties of Ulster, the linen manu- facture affords employment to a number of inhabitants, especially at Raphoe, while the manufacture of excellent homespun, woollen stockings and worked muslin is carried on pretty extensively. The trade in. these manufactures and in the domestic produce of the county finds its principal outlets through the port of Londonderry and the inland town of Strabane, Co. Tyrone. The deep-sea fisheries are important, and are centred at Killybegs, Gweedore and Rathmullen. The salmon fishery is also prose- cuted to a considerable extent, the principal seats of the trade being at Ballyshannon and Letterkenny. The railway system includes the County Donegal railway from Londonderry south-west to Donegal town and Killybegs, with branches to Glenties, a village near the west coast, and to Ballyshannon; and the Londonderry and Lough Swilly, serving Letterkenny, and continuing to Burtonport with a branch north to Buncrana, a watering-place on Lough Swilly, and Cardonagh in the Innishowen peninsula. From Letterkenny the line con- tinues to Dunfanaghy on the north coast, thence to Gweedore and Burtonport. Population and Administration. — The population (185,635 in 1891; 173,722 in 1901) decreases less seriously than in most Irish counties, though the proportion of emigrants is large. About 78 % of the population is Roman Catholic, and almost the whole is rural. The native Erse naturally dies out slowly in this remote county, and the Donegal dialect is said to be the purest in the Irish language. The towns are small in extent and importance. Lifford (pop. 446), the county town, is practically a suburb of Strabane, in the neighbouring Co. Tyrone. Ballyshannon (2359) on the river Erne, Letterkenny (2370) at the head of Lough Swilly, and Donegal (1214) at the head of the bay of that name, are the other principal towns. The principal watering-places are Moville on Lough Foyle, Buncrana and Rathmelton on Lough Swilly; while, following the coast from north to south, Rosapenna, Dunfanaghy, Gweedore, Dungloe and Ardara, with Bundoran in the extreme south, are seaside villages frequently visited. Resorts deserving mention for the attractive scenery for which they are centres, are — Ardara, on the Owenea river, where the cliffs of the neighbouring coast are particularly fine; Carrick, Malin Head, the beautiful land-locked bay of Mulroy, Narin on Boylagh Bay, Portsalon on Lough Swilly, and Stranorlar, a small market town near the fine mountain pass of Barnesmore. Donegal contains seven baronies and fifty parishes. Assizes are held at Lifford, and quarter sessions at Ballyshannon, Bun- crana, Donegal, Cardonagh, Glenties, Letterkenny and Lifford. The county is in the Protestant dioceses of Clogher and Deny, 414 DONEGAL— DONGOLA and the Roman Catholic dioceses of Raphoe, Clogher and Derry. The county returned twelve members to the Irish parliament; after the Union it returned two; but it is now divided into north, east, south and west divisions, each returning one member. History and Antiquities. — The greater part of Donegal was anciently called Tyrconnell ( tne two outer ones of which were - , by permission of presumably hung, the inner leaf folding on Chapman & Hall Ltd. Qne Qr tfae other; hinges connecting the folding leaves of a door have been found in Pompeii. In the tomb of Theron at Agrigentum there is a single four-panel door carved in stone. In the Blundell collection is a bas-relief of a temple with double doors, each leaf with five panels. Among existing examples, the bronze doors in the church of SS. Cosmas and Damiano, in Rome, are important examples of Roman metal work of the best period; they are in two leaves, each with two panels, and are framed in bronze. Those of the Pantheon are similar in design, with narrow horizontal panels in addition, at the top, bottom and middle. Two other bronze doors of the Roman period are in the Lateran Basilica. The doors of the church of the Nativity at Bethlehem (6th century) are covered with plates of bronze, cut out in patterns: those of Sta Sophia at Constantinople, of the 8th and gth cen- tury, are wrought in bronze, and the west doors of the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle (gth century), of similar manufacture, were probably brought from Constantinople, as also some of those in St Mark's, Venice. Of the nth and I2th centuries there are numerous examples of bronze doors, the earliest being one at Hildesheim, Germany (1015). Of others in South Italy and Sicily, the following are the finest: in Sant' Andrea, Amain (1060); Salerno (1099); Canosa (mi); Troja, two doors (1119 and 1124); Ravello (1179), by Barisano of Trani, who also made doors for Trani cathedral; and in Monreale and Pisa cathedrals, by Bonano of Pisa. In all these cases the hanging stile had pivots at the top and bottom. The exact period when the hinge was substituted is not quite known, but the change apparently brought about another method of strengthening and decorating doors, viz. with wrought-iron bands of infinite varieties of design. As a rule three bands from which the ornamental work springs constitute the hinges, which have rings outside the hanging stiles fitting on to vertical tenons run into the masonry or wooden frame. There is an early example of the 1 2th century in Lincoln; in France the metal work of the doors of Notre Dame at Paris is perhaps the most beautiful in execution, but examples are endless throughout France and England. Returning to Italy, the most celebrated doors are those of the Baptistery of Florence, which together with the door frames are all in bronze, the borders of the latter being perhaps the most remarkable: the modelling of the figures, birds and foliage of the south doorway, by Andrea Pisano (1330), and of the east doorway by Ghiberti (1425-1452), are of great beauty; in the north door (1402-1424) Ghiberti adopted the same scheme of design for the panelling and figure subjects in them as Andrea Pisano, but in the east door the rectangular panels are all filled with bas-reliefs, in which Scripture subjects are illustrated with innumerable figures, these being probably the gates of Paradise of which Michelangelo speaks. The doors of the mosques in Cairo were of two kinds; those which, externally, were cased with sheets of bronze or iron, cut out in decorative patterns, and incised or inlaid, with bosses in relief; and those in wood, which were framed with interlaced designs of the square and diamond, this latter description of work being Coptic in its origin. The doors of the palace at Palermo, which were made by Saracenic workmen for the Normans, are fine examples and in good preservation. A somewhat similar decorative class of door to these latter is found in Verona, where the edges of the stiles and rails are bevelled and notched. In the Renaissance period the Italian doors are quite simple, their architects trusting more to the doorways for effect; but in France and Germany the contrary is the case, the doors being elaborately carved, especially in the Louis XIV. and Louis XV. periods, and sometimes with architectural features such as columns and entablatures with pediment and niches, the doorway being in plain masonry. While in Italy the tendency was to give scale by increasing the number of panels, in France the contrary seems to have been the rule; and one of the great doors at Fontainebleau, which is in two leaves, is entirely carried out as if consisting of one great panel only. The earliest Renaissance doors in France are those of the cathedral of St Sauveur at Aix (1503); in the lower panels there are figures 3 ft. high in Gothic niches, and in the upper panels a double range of niches with figures about 2 ft. high with canopies over them, all carved in cedar. The south door of Beauvais cathedral is in some respects the finest in France; the upper panels are carved in high relief with figure subjects and canopies over them. The doors of the church at Gisors (1575) are carved with figures in niches subdivided by classic pilasters superimposed. In St Maclou at Rouen are three magnificently carved doors; those by Jean Goujon have figures in niches on each side, and others in a group of great beauty in the centre. The other doors, probably about forty to fifty years later, are enriched with bas- reliefs, landscapes, figures and elaborate interlaced borders. In England in the i7th century the door panels were raised with " bolection " or projecting mouldings, sometimes richly carved, round them; in the i8th century the mouldings worked on the stiles and rails were carved with the egg and tongue orna- ment. (R. P. S.) DOORWAY (corresponding to the Gr. TruXTj, Lat. porta), in architecture, the entrance to a building, apartment or enclosure. The term is more generally applied to the framing of the opening in wood, stone or metal. The representations in painting, and existing examples, show that whilst the jambs of the doorway in Egyptian architecture were vertical, the outer side had almost the same batter as the walls of the temples. In the doorways of enclosures or screen walls there was no lintel, but a small projec- tion inwards at the top, to hold the pivot of the door. In Greece the linings of the earliest doorways at Tiryns were in wood, and in order to lessen the bearing of the lintel the dressings or jambs (antepagmenta) sloped inwards, so that the width of the doorway opening was less at the top than at the bottom. In the entrance doorway of the tomb of Agamemnon at Mycenae, 18 ft. in height, the width is about 6 in. less at the top than at the bottom. The lintel of the Greek doorway projected on either side beyond the dressings, constituting what are known as the shoulders or knees (projecturae), a characteristic feature which has been retained down to our time. The next step was to work a projecting moulding round the dressings and lintel forming the architrave. Examples with shoulders in stone exist in the Beule doorway of the Acropolis at Athens, in the tomb of Theron, and in a temple at Agrigentum in Sicily; also in the temples of Hercules at Cora, and of Vesta at Trivoli, and with a peculiar pendant in all the Etruscan tombs. The most beautiful example of a Greek door- way is that under the north portico of the Erechtheum (420 B.C.). There is a slight diminution in the width at the top of the opening, DOPPLERITE— DORCHESTER, VISCOUNT 421 and outside the ordinary architrave mouldings (which here and in all classic examples are derived from those of the architrave of an order) is a band with rosettes, which recall the early decorative features in Crete and Mycenae; the band being carried across the top of the lintel and surmounted by a cornice supported on each side by corbels (ancones). In the Roman doorways, excepting those at Cora and Tivoli, there is, as a rule, no diminishing of the width, which is generally speaking half of the height. The dimensions of some of the Roman doorways are enormous; in the temple of the Sun at Palmyra the doorway is 15 ft. 6 in. wide and 33 ft. high; and in the temple of Jupiter at Baalbec, 20 ft. wide and 45 ft. high, the lintel is composed of three stones forming voussoirs the keystone measuring 7 ft. at the bottom, 8 ft. at the top, 10 ft. high and 7 ft. 6 in. deep. All the doorways mentioned above have cornices, and in those at Palmyra and Baalbec richly carved friezes with side corbels. In the Pantheon there is a plain convex frieze, but the outer mouldings of the architrave and the bed-mould of the cornice are richly carved. In the Byzantine doorways at Sta Sophia, Constantinople, a bold convex moulding and a hollow take the place of the fasciae of the classic architrave. So far we have only referred to square-headed doorways, but the side openings of the triumphal arches of Titus and Constantine are virtually doorways, and they have semicircular heads, the mouldings of which are the same as those of the square-headed examples. In Saxon doorways, which had semicircular heads, the outer mouldings projected more boldly than in classic examples, and were sometimes cut in a separate ring of stone like the hood mould of later date. During the Romanesque period hi all countries, the doorway becomes the chief characteristic feature, and consists of two or more orders, the term " order " in this case being applied to the concentric rings of voussoirs forming the door-head. In classic work the faces of these concentric rings were nearly always flush one with the other; in Romanesque work the upper one projected over the ring immediately below, and the employment of a different design in the carving of each ring produced a magnificent and imposing effect: in the Italian churches the decoration of the arch mould is frequently carried down the door jambs, and the same is found, but less often, in the English and French doorways; but as a rule each ring or order is carried by a nook shaft, those in England and France being plain, but in Italy and Sicily elaborately carved with spirals or other ornaments and sometimes inlaid with mosaic. The deeply recessed Norman doorways in English work required a great thickness of wall, and this was sometimes obtained by an addition outside, as at Iffley, Adel, Kirkstall and other churches. In France, during the Gothic period, the several orders were carved with figure sculpture, as also the door jambs; and the great recessing of these doorways brought them more into the categories of porches. In England much less importance was given to the Gothic doorways, and although they consisted of many orders, these were emphasized only by deep hollows and converse mouldings and always carried on angle or nook shafts. In the perpendicular period the pointed-arch doorway was often enclosed within a square head-moulding, the spandrel being enriched with foliage or quatrefoil tracery. In the Mahommedan style the doorway itself is comparatively simple, except that the voussoirs of its lintel are joggled with a series of curves, and being of different coloured stones have a decorative effect. These doorways are placed in a rectangular recess roofed with the stalactite vault. With the Renaissance architect, the doorway continued as the principal characteristic of the style; the actual door-frame was simply moulded, by enclosing it with pilasters or columns, isolated or semi-detached, raised on pedestals and carrying an entablature with pediment and other kind of super-doorway; and great importance was given to the feature. In the Italian cinquecento period, the panels of the side pilasters were enriched with the most elaborate carving, and this would seem to have been an ancient Roman method, to judge by portions of carved panels now in the museums of Rome. The doorways of Venice are remarkable in this respect. At Como the two side doorways of the cathedral, one of which is said to be by Bramante, are of great beauty, and the same rich decoration is found throughout Spain and France. In Germany and England the pattern book too often suggested designs of an extremely rococo character, and it was under the influence of Palladio, through Inigo Jones, that in England the architect returned to the simpler and purer Italian style. (R. P. S.) DOPPLERITE, a naturally occurring organic substance found in amorphous, elastic or jelly-like masses, of brownish-black colour, in peat beds in Styria and in Switzerland. It is tasteless, insoluble in alcohol and ether, and is described by Dana as an acid substance, or mixture of different acids, related to humic acid. DORAN, JOHN (1807-1878), English author, was born in London of Irish parentage on the nth of March 1807. He became tutor in several distinguished families, and while travelling on the continent contributed journalistic sketches to The Literary Chronicle, a paper which was afterwards incorporated with The Athenaeum. His play, Justice or the Venetian Jew, was produced at the Surrey theatre in 1824, and in 1830 he began to write translations from French, German, Latin and Italian authors for The Bath Journal. After some years of travel on the continent he became in 1841 literary editor of The Church and State Gazette, and in 1852 under the title of Filia dolorosa produced a memoir of Maria Therese Charlotte, duchesse d'Angouleme. Two years later he became a regular contributor to The Athenaeum, succeeding Hepworth Dixon as editor for a short time in 1869. until he became editor of Notes and Queries in 1870. His most elaborate work, Their Majesties' Servants, a history of the English stage from Betterton to Kean, was published in 1860, and was supplemented by In and About Drury Lane, which was written for Temple Bar and was not published in book form till 1885, after Doran's death. Among his other works may be mentioned Table Traits and Habits of Men (1854), TheQueens of the House of Hanover (1855), Knights and their Days (1856). Monarchs retired from Business ( 1 8 56) , The History of Court Fools ( 1 8 58) , an edition of the Bentley Ballads (1858), The Last Journals of Horace Walpole (2 vols., 1859), The Princess of Wales (1860), and the Memoirs of Queen Adelaide (1861). These were followed by A Lady of the Last Century (1873), an account of Mrs Elizabeth Montagu and the blue-stockings; London in Jacobite Times (1877); and Memories of our Great Towns (1878). Doran died in London, on the 25th of January 1878. DORAT, CLAUDE JOSEPH (1734-1780), French man of letters, was born in Paris on the 3ist of December 1 734. He belonged to a family whose members had for generations been lawyers, and he entered the corps of the king's musketeers. He obtained a great vogue by his Reponse d'Abailard d Heloise, and followed up this first success with a number of heroic epistles, Les Victimes de I' amour, ou lettres de quelques amants celebres (1776). Dorat was possessed by an ambition quite out of proportion to his very mediocre ability. Besides light verse he wrote comedies, fables and, among other novels, Les Sacrifices de I 'amour, ou leltres de la vicomtesse de Senanges et du chevalier de Versenay (1771). He tried to cover his failures as a dramatist by buying up a great number of seats, and his books were lavishly illustrated by good artists and expensively produced, to secure their success. He was maladroit enough to draw down on himself the hatred both of the philosophe party and of their arch-enemy Charles Palissot, and thus cut himself off from the possibility of academic honours. Le Tartufe litteraire (1777) attacked La Harpe and Palissot, and at the same time D'Alembert and Mile de Lespinasse. Dorat died on the 2gth of April 1780 in Paris. See G. Desnoireterres, Le Chevalier Dorat et les pastes legers au XVIII' siecle (1887). For the bibliographical value of his works, see Henry Cohen, Guide de I 'amateur de livres a figures et a vignettes du XVIII' siecle (editions of Ch. Mehl, 1876, and R. Portalis, 1887). DORCHESTER, DUDLEY CARLETON, VISCOUNT (1573-1632), English diplomatist, son of Antony Carleton of Baldwin 422 DORCHESTER, IST BARON— DORCHESTER Brightwell, Oxfordshire, and of Jocosa, daughter of John Goodwin of Winchington, Buckinghamshire, was born on the loth of March 1573, and educated at Westminster school and Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated M.A. in 1600. He travelled abroad, and was returned to the parliament of 1604 as member for St Mawes. Through his connexion as secretary with the earl of Northumberland his name was associated with the Gunpowder Plot, but after a short confinement he succeeded in clearing himself of any share in the conspiracy. In 1610 he was knighted and was sent as ambassador to Venice, where he was the means of concluding the treaty of Asti. He returned in 1615, and next year was appointed ambassador to Holland. The policy of England on the continent depended mainly upon its relations with that state, and Carleton succeeded in improving these, in spite of his firm attitude on the subject of the massacre of Amboyna, the bitter commercial disputes between the two countries, and the fatal tendency of James I. to seek alliance with Spain. It was in his house at the Hague that the unfortunate Elector Frederick and the princess Elizabeth took refuge in 1621. Carleton returned to England in 1625 with the duke of Buckingham, and was made vice-chamberlain of the household and a privy councillor. Shortly afterwards he took part in an abortive mission to France in favour of the French Protestants and to inspire a league against the house of Austria. On his return in 1626 he found the attention of parliament, to which he had been elected for Hastings, completely occupied with the attack upon Buckingham. Carleton endeavoured to defend his patron, and supported the king's violent exercise of his prerogative. It was perhaps fortunate that his further career in the Commons was cut short by his elevation in May to the peerage as Baron Carleton of Imbercourt. Shortly afterwards he was despatched on another mission to the Hague, on his return from which he was created Viscount Dorchester in July 1628. He was active in forwarding the conferences between Buckingham and Contarini for a peace with France on the eve of the duke's intended departure for La Rochelle, which was prevented by the latter's assassination. In December 1628 he was made principal secretary of state, and died on the isth of February 1632, being buried in Westminster Abbey. He was twice married, and had children, but all died in infancy, and the title became extinct. Carleton was one of the ablest diplomatists of the time, and his talents would have secured greater triumphs had he not been persistently hampered by the mistaken and hesitating foreign policy of the court. His voluminous correspondence, remarkable for its clear, easy and effective style, and for the writer's grasp of the main points of policy, covers practically the whole history of foreign affairs during the period 1610-1628, and furnishes valuable material for the study of the Thirty Years' War. His letters as ambassador at the Hague, January i6l"6 to December 1620, were first edited by Philip Yorke, afterwards second earl of Hardwicke, with a biographical and historical preface, in 1757; his correspondence from the Hague in 1627 by Sir Thomas Phillipps in 1841 ; other letters are printed in the Cabala, and in T. Birch's Court and Times of James I. and Charles I., but by far the greater portion remains in MS. among the state papers. DORCHESTER, GUY CARLETON, ist BARON (1724-1808), British general, and administrator, was born at Strabane, Co. Tyrone, Ireland, on the 3rd of September 1724. He served with distinction on the continent under the duke of Cumberland, and in 1759 in America as quartermaster-general, under his friend Wolfe. He was wounded at the capture of Quebec, and promoted to the rank of brigadier-general. In 1766 he was appointed governor-general of Canada, which position he held till 1778. His justice and kindliness greatly endeared him to the recently conquered French-Canadians, and did much to hold them neutral during the War of American Independence. He ordered the first codification of the civil law of the province, and was largely responsible for the passing of the Quebec Act. On the American invasion of Canada in 1 77 5 he was compelled to abandon Montreal and narrowly escaped capture, but defended Quebec (q.v.) with skill and success. In October of the same year he destroyed the American flotilla on Lake Champlain. In 1777 he was superseded in his command of the military forces by Major-General John Burgoyne, and asked to be recalled. He returned, however, to America in May 1782 as commander-in-chief, remaining till November 1783.- In 1786 he was again sent to Canada as governor-general and commander of the forces, with the title of Baron Dorchester. Many important reforms marked his rule; he administered the country with tact and moderation, and kept it loyal to the British crown amid the ferment caused by the French Revolution, and by the attempts of American emissaries to arouse discontent. In 1791 the province was divided into Upper and Lower Canada by the Constitutional Act. Of this division Carleton disapproved, as he did also of a provision tending to create in the new colony an hereditary aristocracy. In 1796 he insisted on retiring, and returned to England. He died on the loth of November 1808. He married in 1772 a daughter of the 2nd earl of Effingham, and had nine children, being succeeded in the title by his grandson Arthur. On the death in 1897 of the 4th baron (another grandson) the title became extinct, but was revived in 1899 for his cousin and co-heiress Henrietta Anne as Baroness Dorchester. J. C. Dent's Canadian Portrait Gallery (Toronto, 1880) gives a sketch of Lord Dorchester's Canadian career. His life by A. G. Bradley is included in the Makers of Canada series (Toronto). Most of his letters and state papers, which are indispensable for a know- ledge of the period, are in the archives department at Ottawa, and are calendared in Brymner's Reports on Canadian Archives (Ottawa, 1885, seq.). . (W. L. G.) DORCHESTER, a market town and municipal borough and the county town of Dorsetshire, England, in the southern par- liamentary division, 135 m. S.W. by W. from London by the London & South Western railway; served also by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 9458. It stands on an eminence on the right bank of the river Frome, within a wide open tract of land, containing 3400 acres, held under the duchy of Cornwall, called Fordington Field. Several of the streets are planted with trees, and the town is nearly surrounded by fine avenues. St Peter's church is a Perpendicular building with a fine tower. All Saints and Holy Trinity churches are modern, but Fordington church retains Norman and Transitional details. Of public buildings the principal are — the town-hall, with market-house, shire-hall, county prison and county hospital; there is also a county museum, containing many local objects of much interest. The grammar school (founded in 1569) is endowed with exhibitions tp Oxford and Cambridge. There is a statue to William Barnes the Dorsetshire poet (1801-1886). The town is noted also for its ale. It is a place of considerable agricultural trade, and large sheep and lamb fairs are held annually. The borough is under a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors. Area 1648 acres. History. — Durnovaria was here, a Romano-British country town of considerable size, probably successor to a British tribal centre of the Durotriges. The walls can be traced in part, and many mosaics, remains of houses, &c., have been found. The remains of an amphitheatre are seen at Maumbury Rings, near the town. Maiden Castle, 2 m. S.W. of the town, is a vast earth- work considered to have been a stronghold of the tribe of the Durotriges. There are other such remains in the vicinity. Little mention of Dorchester (Dornccaster, Dorcestre) occurs in Saxon annals, but a charter from ^Jthelstan to Milton Abbey in 939 is dated at villa regalis quae dicitur Doracestria, and at this period it possessed a mint. According to the Domesday Survey it was a royal borough, and at the time of Edward the Confessor contained 172 houses, of which 100 had been totally destroyed since the Conquest. Mention is made of a castle at Dorchester in records of the I2th and i3th centuries; and the Franciscan priory, founded some time before 1331, is thought to have been constructed out of its ruins. The latter was suppressed among the lesser monasteries in 1536. Edward II. granted the borough to the bailiffs and burgesses at a fee-farm rent of £20 for five years, and the grant was renewed in perpetuity by Edward III. Richard III. empowered the burgesses to elect a coroner and two constables, to be exempt from tolls, and to try minor pleas in the king's court within the borough before a steward to be chosen by themselves. The first charter of incorporation, granted by James I. in 1610, established a governing council of two bailiffs and DORCHESTER 423 fifteen capital burgesses. Charles I. in 1629 instituted a mayor, six aldermen and six capital burgesses, and also incorporated all the freemen of the borough, for the purposes of trade, under the government of a council consisting of a governor, assistants and twenty-four freemen, the governor and four assistants to be chosen out of the twenty-four by the freemen, and five other assistants to be chosen by the mayor out of the capital burgesses; the Council was empowered to hold four courts yearly and to make laws for the regulation of the markets and trade. Dorchester returned two members to parliament from 1295, until the Representation of the People Act of 1868 reduced the number to one; by the Redistribution Act of 1885 the representation was merged in the county. Edward III. granted to the burgesses the perquisites from three fairs lasting one day at the feasts of Holy Trinity, St John Baptist and St James, and markets on Wednesday, Friday and Saturday. Elizabeth granted an additional three days' fair at Candlemas. The days of the fairs and markets have remained unchanged. The cloth industry which flourished during the i6th century never recovered from the depression following on the Civil War. The malting and brewing industries came into prominence in the lyth century, when there was also a considerable serge manufacture, which has since declined. See Victoria County History, Dorsetshire; John Hutchins, The History and Antiquities of the Town and Borough of Dorchester (3rd edition, corrected, augmented and improved by W. Shipp and J. W. Hodson, Blandford, 1865). DORCHESTER, a large village in the south parliamentary division of Oxfordshire, England, 9 m. S.S.E. of Oxford by road, on the river Thame, i m. from its junction with the Thames. This is a site of much historical interest. There was a Roman station near the present village, facing, across the Thames, the double isolated mound known as Wittenham Hills (historically Sinodun), on one summit of which are strong early earthworks. In Dorchester itself the chief point of interest is the abbey church of St Peter and St Paul. This consists of a nave of great length, primarily of the transitional Norman period ; a choir with arcades of the finest Decorated work; north choir aisle of the close of the i3th century, south choir aisle (c. 1300) and south nave aisle (c. 1320). The tower (western) is an erection of the late I7th century. The eastern bay of the choir is considered to have been • added as a Lady chapel, and the north window is a magnificent example of a " Jesse window," in which the tracery represents the genealogical tree of Jesse, the complete execution of the design being carried on in the glass. The sedilia and piscina are very fine. The Decorated windows on the south side of the church form a beautiful series, and there are monuments and brasses of great interest. Dorchester (Dorcinia, Dornacestre, Dorchecestre) was con- quered by the West Saxons about 560. It occupied a com- manding position at the junction of the Thames and the Thame, and in 635 was made the seat of a bishopric which at its founda- tion was the largest in England, comprising the whole of Wessex and Mercia. The witenagemot of Wessex was held at Dorchester three times in the 9th century, and in 958 ^Ethelstan held a council here. In the nth century, however, the town is described as small and ill-peopled and remarkable only for the majesty of its churches, and in about 1086 William I. and Bishop Remigius removed the bishop's stool to Lincoln, as a city more worthy of the distinction. According to the Domesday Survey Dorchester was held by the bishop of Lincoln; it was assessed at 100 hides and comprised two mills. In 1140 Alexander bishop of Lincoln founded an abbey of Black Canons at Dorchester, but the town declined in importance after the removal of the cathedral, and is described by 16th-century writers as a mere agricultural village and destitute of trade. See Victoria County History, Oxfordshire; Henry Addington, Some Account of the Abbey Church of St Peter and St Paul at Dorchester, Oxfordshire, reissue with additional notes (Oxford, 1860). DORCHESTER, a residential and manufacturing district of Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A., a separate town until 1870, between the Neponset river on the S. and South Boston and Boston proper on the N. It is served by three lines of the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway. A ridge, with an average height of about 100 ft. above the sea, extends through the district from N. to S. and commands delightful views of Boston Bay to the E. and of the Blue Hills to the S. There are many large private estates, with beautiful lawns, and Franklin Field and Franklin Park, one of the largest parks of the Boston park system, are in Dorchester. The Shawmut school for girls is in the district. Among the landmarks are the Barnard Capen house, built in the fourth decade of the i;th century and now probably the second oldest house in New England; and the James Blake house (1648), now the home of the Dorchester Historical Society, which has a library and a museum. Opposite the Blake house formerly stood the house in which Edward Everett was born. Not far away is the old Dorchester burying ground, which dates from 1634; it has many curious epitaphs, and contains the graves of Barnard Capen, who died in 1638 (probably the oldest marked grave in the United States); of William Stoughton (1631-1701), chief justice of the court which tried the Salem " witches " in 1692, lieutenant-governor of the colony from 1692, acting governor in 1694-1699 and 1700-1701, and founder of the original Stoughton Hall, Harvard; and of Richard Mather, pastor of the First Parish church here from 1636 until his death. In Dorchester Maria Susana Cummins (1827-1866) wrote The Lamplighter (1854), one of the most popular novels of its time, and William T. Adams (" Oliver Optic ") and Charles Pollen Adams (" Yawcob Strauss ") did much of their writing; it was long the home of Mrs Lucy Stone (Blackwell). Among the manufactures are cocoa, chocolate, &c. (of the long-established Walter Baker & Co.), paper, crushing and grinding machinery (Sturtevant Mill Co.), chemicals, horseshoe nails, valves, organs and pianos, lumber, automobiles and shoe machinery. Dorchester was founded by about 140 colonists from Dorset- shire, England, with whom the movement for planting the colony in Massachusetts Bay was begun under the leadership of Rev. John White. They organized as a church while at Plymouth, England, in March 1630, then embarked in the ship " Mary ard John," arrived in Boston Bay two weeks before Governor Winthrop with the rest of the fleet, and in June selected Savin Hill (E. of what is now Dorchester Avenue and between Crescent Avenue and Dorchester Bay) as the site for their settlement. At the time the place was known as Mattapanock, but they named it Dorchester. Town affairs were at first managed by the church, but in October 1633 a town government was organized, and the example was followed by the neighbouring settlements; this seems to have been the beginning of the town-meeting form of government in America. Up to this time Dorchester was the largest town in the colony, but dissatisfaction arose with the location (Boston had a better one chiefly on account of the deeper water in its harbour), and in 1635-1637 many of the original settlers removed to the valley of the Connecticut where they planted Windsor. New settlers, however, arrived at Dorchester and in 1639 that town established a school supported by a public tax; this was the first free school in America supported by direct taxation or assessment on the inhabitants of a town.1 In October 1695, a few of the inhabitants of Dorchester organized a church and in December removed to South Carolina where they planted another Dorchester (on the N. bank of the Ashley river, about 26 m. from Charleston); by 1752 they had become dissatisfied with their location, which was unhealthy, and they gradually removed to Georgia, where they settled at Medway 1 In 1635 the general court of the colony of Massachusetts Bay had granted to Dorchester Thompson's Island, situated near the coast of the township. By the township of Dorchester this island was ap- portioned among the freemen of the township. On the 2Oth of May 1639 it was ordered that the proprietors of land in this island should collectively pay a " rent of twenty pounds a year forever," this rent " to be paid to such a school-master as shall undertake to teach English, Latin, and other tongues, and also writing," it being " left to the discretion of the elders and the seven men for the time being whether maids shall be taught with the boys or not." In 1642 the proprietors of the island conveyed it to the township " for and toward the maintenance of a free school in Dorchester aforesaid for the instructing and teaching of children and youth in good literature and learning." 424 DORDOGNE— DORfi (half way between the Ogeechee and Altamaha rivers), their settlement soon developing into St John's Parish (see GEORGIA: History). It was the fortification of Dorchester Heights, under orders from General Washington, on the night of the 4th and sth of March 1776, that forced the British to evacuate Boston. At one time Dorchester extended from Boston nearly to the Rhode Island line; but its territory was gradually reduced by the creation of new townships and additions to old ones. Dorchester Neck was annexed to Boston in 1804, Thompson's Island in 1834, and the remaining portions in 1855 and 1870. See W. D. Orcutt, Good Old Dorchester (Cambridge, 1893). DORDOGNE, a river of central and south-western France, rising at a height of 5640 ft. on the Puy-de-Sancy, a mountain of the department-of Puy-de-D6me, and flowing to the Garonne with which it unites at Bee d'Ambes to form the Gironde estuary. It has a length of 295 m. and the area of its basin is 9214 sq. m. Descending rapidly from its source, sometimes over cascades, the river soon enters deep gorges through which it flows as far as Beaulieu (department of Correze) where it debouches into a wide and fertile valley and is shortly after joined by the Cere. Enter- ing the department of Lot, it abandons a south-westerly for a westerly course and flowing in a sinuous channel traverses the department of Dordogne, where it receives the waters of the Vezere. Below the town of Bergerac it enters the department of Gironde, where at Libourne it is joined by the Isle and widens out, attaining at its union with the Garonne 45 m. from the sea a width of nearly 3300 yds. A few miles above this point the river is spanned by the magnificent bridges of Cubzac-les- Ponts, which carry a road and railway. Below its confluence with the Vezere, over the last 112 m. of its course, the river carries considerable navigation. The influence of the highest tides is felt at Pessac, a distance of 100 m. from the ocean. DORDOGNE, an inland department of south-western France, formed in 1790 from nearly the whole of Perigord, a part of Agenais, and small portions of Limousin and of Angoumois. Area 3560 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 447,052. It is bounded N. by Haute- Vienne, W. by Charente,Charente-Inferieure and Gironde, S. by Lot-et-Garonne, and E. by Lot and Correze. Situated on the western slopes of the Massif Central, Dordogne consists in the north-east and centre of sterile plateaus sloping towards the west, where they end in a region of pine forests known as the Double. The greatest altitudes are found in the highlands of the north, where many points exceed 1300 ft. in height. The department is intersected by many fertile and beautiful river valleys, which converge from its northern and eastern borders towards the south- west. The Dordogne is the principal river of the department and its chief affluent is the Isle, which crosses the centre of the depart- ment and flows into the Dordogneat Libourne.in the neighbouring department of Gironde. The Dronne and the Auvezere, both tributaries of the Isle, are the other main rivers. The climate is generally agreeable and healthy, but rather humid, especially in the north-east. Agriculture flourishes in the south and south-west of the department, especially in the valleys of the Dordogne and Isle, the rest of its surface being covered to a great extent by woods and heath. Pasture and forage amply suffice for the raising of large flocks and herds. The vine, cultivated mainly in the neighbourhood of Bergerac, and tobacco are important sources of profit. Wheat and maize are the chief cereals and potatoes are largely grown. The truffles of Perigord are famous for their abundance and quality. The plum and cider-apple yield good crops. In the forests the prevailing trees are the oak and chestnut. The fruit of the latter is much used both as food by the people and for fattening hogs, which are reared in large numbers. The walnut is extensively grown for its oil. The department has mines of lignite, and produces freestone, lime, cement, mill-stone, peat, potter's clay and fireclay. The leather industry and the preparation of preserved foods are important, and there are flour-mills, brick and tile works, earthenware manufactories, printing works, chemical works and a few iron foundries. Exports consist of truffles, wine, chestnuts and other fruit, live stock, poultry, and minerals of various kinds. Dordogne is served by the Orleans railway; the Dordogne, the Isle and the Vezere furnish nearly 200 m. of navigable waterway. It is divided into the arrondissements of Perigueux, Bergerac, Nontron, Riberac and Sarlat, with 47 cantons and 587 communes, and belongs to the ecclesiastical province of Bordeaux, to the academic (educational division) of Bordeaux and to the region of the XII. army corps, which has its headquarters at Limoges. Its court of appeal is at Bordeaux. Perigueux, the capital. Bergerac, Sarlat and Brant6me are the principal towns (see separate articles). There are several other places of interest. Bourdeilles has two finely preserved chateaux, one of the i4th century, with an imposing keep, the other in the Renaissance style of the i6th century. Both buildings are contained within the same fortified enceinte. The celebrated chateau of Biron, founded in the nth century, preserves examples of many subsequent architectural styles, among them a beautiful chapel of late Gothic and early Renaissance workmanship. The chateau of Jumilhac-le- Grand belongs to the isth century. Dordogne possesses several medieval bastides, the most perfect of which is Monpazier. At Cadouin there are the remains of a Cistercian abbey. Its church is a fine cruciform building in the Romanesque style, while the cloister is an excellent example of Flamboyant architecture. St Jean-de-C61e has an interesting Romanesque church and a chateau of the isth, i6th and i8th centuries. In the rocks of the valley of the lower Vezere there are prehistoric caves of great archaeological importance, in which have been found tools, and carvings on bone, flint and ivory. Troglodytic dwellings are to be found in many other places in Dordogne (see CAVE). DORDRECHT (abbreviated Dordt, or Dorf), a town and river- port of Holland, in the province of South Holland, on the south side of the Merwede, and a junction station 125 m. by rail S.E. of Rotterdam. Steam ferries connect it with Papendrecht and Zwyndrecht on the opposite shore, and it has excellent com- munication by water in every direction. Pop. (1900) 38,386. Dordrecht presents a picturesque appearance with its busy quays and numerous canals and windmills, its quaint streets and curiously gabled houses. The Groote Kerk, of Our Lady, whose massive tower forms a conspicuous object in the views of the town, dates from the i4th century and contains some finely carved stalls (1540) by Jan Terween Aertsz, a remarkable pulpit UTSQ)) many old monuments and a set of gold communion plate. In the town museum is an interesting collection of paintings, chiefly by modern artists, but including also pictures by some of the older masters, among whom Ferdinand Bol, the two Cuyps, Nicolas Maes, Godefried Schalcken, and in later times Ary Scheffer, were all natives of Dordrecht. The celebrated 17th- century statesman John de Witt was also a native of the town. Close to the museum is one of the old city gates, rebuilt in 1618, and now containing a collection of antiquities belonging to the Oud-Dordrecht Society. The South African Museum (1902) contains memorials of the Boer War of 1899-1902. The harbour of Dordrecht still has a large trade, but much has been diverted to Rotterdam. Large quantities of wood are imported from Germany, Scandinavia and America. There are numerous saw-mills, shipbuilding yards, engineering works, distilleries, sugar refineries, tobacco factories, linen bleacheries and stained glass, salt and white lead works. Dordrecht was founded by Count Dirk III. of Holland in 1018, becoming a town about 1200. One of the first towns in the Netherlands to embrace the reformed religion and to throw off the yoke of Spain, it was in 1572 the meeting-place of the de- puties who asserted the independence of the United Provinces. In 1618 and 1619 it was the seat of the synod of Dort (q.v.). DOR6, LOUIS AUGUSTE GUSTAVE (1832-1883), French artist, the son of a civil engineer, was born at Strassburg on the 6th of January 1832. In 1848 he came to Paris and secured a three years' engagement on the Journal pour rire. His facility as a draughtsman was extraordinary, and among the books he illustrated in rapid succession were Balzac's Contes drolatiques (1855), Dante's Inferno (1861), Don Quixote (1863), The Bible (1866), Paradise Lost (1866), and the works of Rabelais (1873). He painted also many large and ambitious compositions of a DORIA— DORIANS 425 religious or historical character, and made some success as a sculptor, his statue of Alexandra Dumas in Paris being perhaps his best-known work in this line. He died on the 25th of January 1883. DORIA, ANDREA (1466-1560), Genoese condottiere and admiral, was born at Oneglia of an ancient Genoese family. Being left an orphan at an early age, he became a soldier of fortune, and served first in the papal guard and then under various Italian princes. In 1503 we find him fighting in Corsica in the service of Genoa, at that time under French vassalage, and he took part in the rising of Genoa against the French, whom he compelled to evacuate the city. From that time forth it was as a naval captain that he became famous. For several years he scoured the Mediterranean in command of the Genoese fleet, waging war on the Turks and the Barbary pirates. In the mean- while Genoa had been recaptured by the French, and in 1522 by the Imperialists. But Doria now veered round to the French or popular faction and entered the service of King Francis I., who made him captain-general; in 1524 he relieved Marseilles, which was besieged by the Imperialists, and helped to place his native city once more under French domination. But he was dissatisfied with his treatment at the hands of Francis, who was mean about payment, and he resented the king's behaviour in connexion with Savona, which he delayed to hand back to the Genoese as he had promised; consequently on the expiry of Doria's contract we find him in the service of the emperor Charles V. (1528). He ordered his nephew Filippino, who was then blockading Naples in concert with a French army, to withdraw, and sailed for Genoa, where, with the help of some leading citizens, he expelled the French once more and re-established the republic under imperial protection. He reformed the constitution in an aristocratic sense, most of the nobility being Imperialists, and put an end to the factions which divided the city. He refused the lordship of Genoa and even the dogeship, but accepted the position of perpetual censor, and exercised predominant influence in the councils of the republic until his death. He was given two palaces, many privileges, and the title of Liberator et Pater Palriae. As imperial admiral he commanded several expeditions against the Turks, capturing Corona and Patras, and co-operating with the emperor himself in the capture of Tunis (1535). Charles found him an invaluable ally in the wars with Francis, and through him extended his domination over the whole of Italy. Doria's defeat by the Turks at Preveza in 1538 was said to be not in- voluntary, and designed to spite the Venetians whom he detested. He accompanied Charles on the ill-fated Algerian expedition of 1541, of which he disapproved, and by his ability just saved the whole force from complete disaster. For the next five years he continued to serve the emperor in various wars, in which he was generally successful and always active, although now over seventy years old; there was hardly an important event in Europe in which he had not some share. After the peace of Crepy between Francis and Charles in 1544 he hoped to end his days in quiet. But his great wealth and power, as well as the arrogance of his nephew and heir Giannettino Doria, made him many enemies, and in 1547 the Fiesco conspiracy to upset the power of his house took place. Giannettino was murdered, but the conspirators were defeated, and Andrea showed great vindictiveness in punishing them. Many of their fiefs he seized for himself, and he was implicated in the murder of Pier Luigi Farnese, duke of Parma (see FARNESE), who had helped Fiesco. Other conspiracies followed, of which the most important was that of Giulio Cibo (1548), but all failed. Although Doria was ambitious and harsh, he was a good patriot and successfully opposed the emperor Charles's repeated attempts to have a citadel built in Genoa and garrisoned by Spaniards; neither blandishments nor threats could win him over to the scheme. Nor did age lessen his energy, for in 1550, when eighty-four years old, he again put to sea to punish the raids of his old enemies the Barbary pirates, but with no great success. War between France and the Empire having broken out once more, the French seized Corsica, then admin- istered by the Genoese Bank of St George; Doria was again summoned, and he spent two years (1553-1555) in the island fighting the French with varying fortune. He returned to Genoa for good in 1555, and being very old and infirm he gave over the command of the galleys to his great-nephew Giovanni Andrea Doria, who conducted an expedition against Tripoli, but proved even more unsuccessful than his uncle had been'at Algiers, barely escaping with his life. Andrea Doria died on the 25th of November 1560, leaving his estates to Giovanni Andrea. The family of Doria-Pamphilii-Landi (q.v.) is descended from him and bears his title of prince of Melfi. Doria was a man of indomitable energy and a great admiral. If he appears unscrupulous and even treacherous he did but conform to the standards of 16th-century Italy. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — E. Petit's Andre Doria (Paris, 1887) is an ac- curate and documented biography, indicating all the chief works on the subject, but the author is perhaps unduly harsh in his judgment of the admiral ; F. D. Guerrazzi's Vita di Andrea Doria (yd ed., Milan, 1874) ; among the earlier works L. Cappelloni's Vita di Andrea Doria I Italian edition, Genoa, 1863) and V. Sigonius's VitaAndreaeDoriae (1576) may be mentioned ; see also " Document; ispano-genovesi del- 1'Archivio di Simancas " in the AM della Societd ligure di Storia patria, vol. viii. ; the Archivio storico italiano (serie iii. tome iv. parte i., 1866) contains a bibliography, but a great deal has been published since that date. (L. V. *) DORIANS, a name applied by the Greeks to one of the principal groups of Hellenic peoples, in contradistinction to lonians and Aeolians. In Hellenic times a small district known as Doris in north Greece, between Mount Parnassus and Mount Oeta, counted as " Dorian " in a special sense. Practically all Pelo- ponnese, except Achaea and Elis, was " Dorian," together with Megara, Aegina, Crete, Melos, Thera, the Spdrades Islands and the S.W. coast of Asia Minor, where Rhodes, Cos, Cnidus and (formerly) Halicarnassus formed a " Dorian " confederacy. " Dorian " colonies, from Corinth, Megara, and the Dorian islands, occupied the southern coasts of Sicily from Syracuse to Selinus. Dorian states usually had in common the " Doric " dialect, a peculiar calendar and cycle of festivals of which the Hyacinthia and Carneia were the chief, and certain political and social institutions, such as the threefold " Dorian tribes." The worships of Apollo and Heracles, though not confined to Dorians, were widely regarded as in some sense " Dorian " in character. But those common characters are not to be pressed too far. The northern Doris, for example, spoke Aeolic, while Elis, Phocis, and many non-Dorian districts of north-west Greece spoke dialects akin to Doric. Many Dorian states had additional " non- Dorian tribes "; Sparta, which claimed to be of pure and typical Dorian origin, maintained institutions and a mode of life which were without parallel in Peloponnese, in the Parnassian and in the Asiatic Doris, and were partially reflected in Crete only. Most non-Dorian Greeks, in fact, seem to have accepted much as Dorian which was in fact only Spartan: this was particularly the case in the political, ethical and aesthetic controversies of the 5th and 4th centuries B.C. Much, however, which was common (in art, for example) to Olympia, Argolis and Aegina, and might thus have been regarded as Dorian, was conspicuously absent from the culture of Sparta. Traditional History. — In the diagrammatic family tree of the Greek people, as it appears in the Hesiodic catalogue (6th century) and in Hellanicus (sth century), the " sons of Hellen " are Dorus, Xuthus (father of Ion and Achaeus) and Aeolus. Dorus' share of the inheritance of Hellen lay in central Greece, north of the Corinthian Gulf, between Xuthus in north Peloponnese and Aeolus in Thessaly. His descendants, either under Dorus or under a later king Aegimius, occupied Histiaeotis, a district of northern Thessaly, and afterwards conquered from the Dryopes the head-waters of the Boeotian Cephissus between Mount Parnassus and Mount Oeta. This became " Doris " par excellence. Services rendered to Aegimius by Heracles led (i) to the adoption of Hyllus, son of Heracles, by Aegimius, side by side with his own sons Dymas and Pamphylus, and to a threefold grouping of the Dorian clans, as Hylleis, Dymanes and Pamphyli; (2) to the association of the people of Aegimius in the repeated attempts of Hyllus and his family to recover their lost inheritance in 426 DORIANS Peloponnese (see HERACLIDAE). The last of these attempts resulted in the " Dorian conquest " of the " Achaeans " and " lonians " of Feloponnese, and in the assignment of Argolis, Laconia and Messenia to the Heracleid leaders, Temenus, Aristodemus and Cresphontes respectively; of Elis to their Aetolian allies; and of the north coast to the remnants of the conquered Achaeans. The conquest of Corinth and Megara was placed a generation later: Arcadia alone claimed to have escaped invasion. This conquest was dated relatively by Thucydides (i. 12) at eighty years after the Trojan War and twenty years after the conquest of Thessaly and Boeotia by the similar "invaders from Arne"; absolutely by Hellanicus and his school (sth century) at 1149 B.C.; by Isocrates and Ephorus (4th century B.C.) at about 1070 B.C.; and by Sosibius, Eratosthenes (3rd century), and later writers generally, at the generations from 1125 to noo B.C. The invasion was commonly believed to have proceeded by way of Aetolia and Elis, and the name Naupactus was interpreted as an allusion to the needful " shipbuilding " on the Corinthian Gulf. One legend made Dorus himself originally an Aetolian prince; the participation of Oxylus, and the Aetolian claim to Elis, appear first in Ephorus (4th century). The conquest of Laconia at least is represented in sth-century tradition as immediate and complete, though one legend admits the previous death of the Heracleid leader Aristodemus, and another describes a protracted struggle in the case of Corinth. Pausanias, however (following Sosibius) , interprets a long series of conflicts in Arcadia as stages in a gradual advance southward, ending with the conquest of Amyclae by King Teleclus (c. 800 B.C.) and of Helos by King Alcamenes (c. 770 B.C.). Of the invasion of Argolis a quite different version was already current in the 4th century. This represents the Argive Dorians as having come by sea (apparently from the Maliac Gulf, the nearest seashore to Parnassian Dorib), accompanied by survivors of the Dryopes (former inhabitants of that Doris), whose traces in south Euboea (Styra and Carystus), in Cythnus, and at Eion (Halieis), Hermione and Asine in Argob's, were held to indicate their probable route. The Homeric Dorians of Crete were also interpreted by Andron and others ford century) as an advance-guard of this sea-borne migration, and as having separated from the other Dorians while still in Histiaeotis. The 5th-century tradition that the Heracleid kings of Macedon were Temenid exiles from Argos may belong to the same cycle. The fate of the Dorian invaders was represented as differing locally. In Messenia (according to a legend dramatized by Euripides in the 5th century, and renovated for political ends in the 4th century) the descendants of Cresphontes quarrelled among themselves and were exterminated by the natives. In Laconia Aristodemus (01 his twin sons) effected a rigid military occupation which eventually embraced the whole district, and permitted (a) the colonization of Melos, Thera and parts of Crete (before 800 B.C.), (b) the reconquest and annexation of Messenia (about 750 B.C.), (c) a. settlement of half-breed Spartans at Tarentum in south Italy, 700 B.C. In Argos and other cities of Argolis the descendants of the Achaean chiefs were taken into political partnership, but a tradition of race-feud lasted till historic times. Corinth, Sicyon and Megara, with similar political compromises, mark the limits of Dorian conquest; a Dorian invasion of Attica (c. 1066 B.C.) was checked by the self-sacrifice of King Codrus: "Either Athens must perish or her king." Aegina was reckoned a colony of Epidaurus. Rhodes, and some Cretan towns, traced descent from Argos; Cnidus from Argos and Sparta; the rest of Asiatic Doris from Epidaurus or Troezen in Argolis. The colonies of Corinth, Sicyon and Megara, and the Sicilian offshoots of the Asiatic Dorians, belong to historic times (8th-6th centuries). Criticism of the Traditional History. — The following are the problems: — (i) Was there a Dorian invasion as described in the legends; and, if not, how did the tradition arise? (2) Who were the Dorian invaders, and in what relation did they stand to the rest of the population of Greece? (3) How far do the Dorian states, or their characteristics, represent the descendants, or the culture, of the original invaders? The Homeric poems (i2th-ioth centuries) know of Dorians only in Crete, with the obscure epithet Tpixaucts, and no hint of their origin. All those parts of Peloponnese and the islands which in historic times were " Dorian " are ruled by recently established dynasties of " Achaean " chiefs; the home of the Asiatic Dorians is simply " Caria "; and the geographical "catalogue" in Iliad ii. ignores the northern Doris altogether. The almost total absence from Homer not only of " Dorians " but of " lonians " and even of " Hellenes " leads to the conclusion that the diagrammatic genealogy of the " sons of Hellen " is of post-Homeric date; and that it originated as ah attempt to classify the Doric, Ionic and Aeolic groups of Hellenic settlements on the west coast of Asia Minor, for here alone do the three names correspond to territorial, linguistic and political divisions. The addition of an " Achaean " group, and the inclusion of this and the Ionic group under a single generic name, would naturally follow the recognition of the real kinship of the " Achaean " colonies of Magna Graecia with those of Ionia. But the attempt to interpret, in terms of this Asiatic diagram, the actual distribu- tion of dialects and peoples in European Greece, led to difficulties. Here, in the 8th-6th centuries, all the Dorian states were in the hands of exclusive aristocracies, which presented a marked contrast to tie subject populations. Since the kinship of the latter with the members of adjacent non-Dorian states was admitted, two different explanations seem to have been made, (i) on behalf of the non-Dorian populations, either that the Dorians were no true sons of Hellen, but were of some other northerly ancestry; or that they were merely Achaean exiles; and in either case that their historic predominance resulted from an act of violence, ill-disguised by their association with the ancient claims of the Peloponnesian Heraclidae; (2) on behalf of the Dorian aristocracies, that they were in some special sense " sons of Hellen," if not the only genuine Hellenes; the rest of the European Greeks, and in particular the anti-Dorian Athenians (with their marked likeness to lonians), being regarded as Hellenized barbarians of " Pelasgian " origin (see PELASGIANS). This process of Hellenization, or at least its final stage, was further regarded as intimately connected with a movement of peoples which had brought the " Dorians " from the northern highlands into those parts of Greece which they occupied in historic times. So long as the Homeric poems were believed to represent Hellenic (and mainly Ionian) beliefs of the gth century or later, the historical value of the traditions of a Dorian invasion was repeatedly questioned; most recently and thoroughly by J. Beloch (Gr. Geschichte, i., Strassburg, 1893), as being simply an attempt to reconcile the political geography of Homer (i.e. of Sth-century lonians describing 12th-century events) with that of historic Greece, by explaining discrepancies (due to Homeric ignorance) as the result of " migrations " in the interval. Such legends often arise to connect towns bearing identical or similar names (such as are common in Greece) and to justify political events or ambitions by legendary precedents; and this certainly happened during the successive political rivalries of Dorian Sparta with non-Dorian Athens and Thebes. But in proportion as an earlier date has become more probable for Homer, the hypothesis of Ionic origin has become less tenable, and the belief better founded (i) that the poems represent accurately a well- defined phase of culture in prehistoric Greece, and (2) that this " Homeric " or " Achaean " phase was closed by some such general catastrophe as is presumed by the legends. The legend of a Dorian invasion appears first in Tyrtaeus, a 7th- century poet, in the service of Sparta, who brings the Spartan Heracleids to Peloponnese from Erineon in the northern Doris; and the lost Epic of Aegimius, of about the same date, seems to have presupposed the same story. In the sth century Pindar ascribes to Aegimius the institutions of the Peloponnesian Dorians, and describes them as the " Dorian folk of Hyilus and Aegimius," and as " originating from Pindus " (Pyth. v. 75: cf. Fr. 4). Herodotus, also in the sth century, describes them as the DORIANS 427 typical (perhaps in contrast to Athenians as the only genuine) Hellenes, and traces their numerous wanderings from (i) an original home " in Deucalion's time " in Phthiotis (the Homeric " Hellas ") in south Thessaly, to (2) Histiaeotis " below Ossa and Olympus " in north-east Thessaly (note that the historic Histiaeotis is " below Pindus " in north-west Thessaly): this was " in the days of Dorus," i.e. it is at this stage that the Dorians are regarded as becoming specifically distinct from the generic " Hellene ": thence (3) to a residence " in Pindus," where they passed as a " Macedonian people." Hence (4) they moved south to the Parnassian Doris, which had been held by Dryopes: and hence finally (5) to Peloponnese. Elsewhere he assigns the expulsion of the Dryopes to Heracles in co-operation not with Dorians but with Malians. Here clearly two traditions are combined: — one, in which the Dorians originated from Hellas in south Thessaly, and so are " children of Hellen "; another, in which they were a " Macedonian people " intruded from the north, from Pindus, past Histiaeotis to Doris and beyond. It is a note- worthy coincidence that in Macedonia also the royal family claimed Heracleid descent; and that "'Pindus " is the name both of the mountains above Histiaeotis and of a stream in Doris. It is noteworthy also that later writers (e.g. Andron in Strabo 475) derived the Cretan Dorians of Homer from those of Histiaeotis, and that other legends connected Cretan peoples and places with certain districts of Macedon. Thucydides agrees in regarding the Parnassian Doris as the " mother-state " of the Dorians (i. 107) and dates the invasion (as above) eighty years after the Trojan War; this agrees approxi- mately with the pedigree of the kings of Sparta, as given by Herodotus, and with that of. Hecataeus of Miletus (considered as evidence for the foundation date of an Ionian refugee-colony). Thucydides also accepts the story of Heracleid leadership. The legend of an organized apportionment of Peloponnese amongst the Heracleid leaders appears first in the sth-century tragedians, — not earlier, that is, than the rise of the Peloponnesian League, — and was amplified in the 4th century; the Aetolians' aid, and claim to Elis, appear first in Ephorus. The numerous details and variant legends preserved by later writers, particu- larly Strabo and Pausanias, may go back to early sources (e.g. Herodotus distinguished the " local " from the " poetic " versions of events in early Spartan history); but much seems to be referable to Ephorus and the 4th-century political and rhetorical historians: — e.g. the enlarged version of the Heracleid claims in Isocrates (Archidamus, 1 20) and the theory that the Dorians were mere disowned Achaeans (Plato, Laws, 3). Moreover, many independent considerations suggest that in its main outlines the Dorian invasion is historical. The Doric Dialects. — These dialects have strongly marked features in common (future in - - - which are common to southern Doric and Aeolic; (3) that those parts of "Dorian" Greece in which tradition makes the pre-Dorian population " Ionic," and in which the political structure shows that the conquered were less completely subjugated, exhibit the Ionic -a. and -ov; (4) that as we go north, similar though more barbaric dialects extend far up the western side of central-northern Greece, and survive also locally in the highlands of south Thessaly; (5) that east of the watershed Aeolic has prevailed over the area which has legends of a Boeotian and Thessalian migration, and replaces Doric in the northern Doris. All this points on the one hand to an intrusion of Doric dialect into an Arcadian-and-Ionic-speaking area; on the other hand to a subsequent expansion of Aeolic over the north-eastern edge of an area which once was Dorian. But this distribution does not by itself prove that Doric speech was the language of the Dorian invaders. Its area coincides also approxi- mately with that of the previous Achaean conquests; and if the Dorians were as backward culturally as traditions and archaeology suggest, it is not improbable that they soon adopted the language of the conquered, as the Norman conquerors did in England. As evidence of an intrusion of northerly folk, however, the distribu- tion of dialects remains important. See GREEK LANGUAGE. The common calendar and cycle of festivals, observed by all Dorians (of which the Carneia was chief), and the distribution in Greece of the worships of Apollo and Heracles, which attained pre-eminence mainly in or near districts historically " Dorian," suggest that these cults, or an important element in them, were introduced comparatively late, and represent the beliefs of a fresh ethnic superstratum. The steady dependence of Sparta on the Delphic oracle, for example, is best explained as an observance inherited from Parnassian ancestors. The social and political structure of the Dorian states of Peloponnese presupposes likewise a conquest of an older highly civilized population by small bands of comparatively barbarous raiders. Sparta in particular remained, even after the reforms of Lycurgus, and on into historic times, simply the isolated camp of a compact army of occupation, of some 5000 families, bearing traces still of the fusion of several bands of invaders, and main- tained as an exclusive political aristocracy of professional soldiers by the labour of a whole population of agricultural and industrial serfs. The serfs were rigidly debarred from intermixture or social advancement, and were watched by their masters with a suspicion fully justified by recurrent ineffectual revolts. The other states, such as Argos and Corinth, exhibited just such compromises between conquerors and conquered as the legends described, conceding to the older population, or to sections of it, political incorporation more or less incomplete. The Cretan cities, irrespective of origin, exhibit serfage, militant aristocracy, rigid martial discipline of all citizens, and other marked analogies with Sparta; but the Asiatic Dorians and the other Dorian colonies do not differ appreciably in their social and political history from their Ionian and Aeolic neighbours. Tarentum alone, partly from Spartan origin, partly through stress of local conditions, shows traces of militant asceticism for a while. Archaeological evidence points clearly now to the conclusion that the splendid but overgrown civilization of the Mycenaean or " late Minoan " period of the Aegean Bronze Age collapsed rather suddenly before a rapid succession of assaults by com- paratively barbarous invaders from the European mainland north of the Aegean; that these invaders passed partly by way of Thrace and the Hellespont into Asia Minor, partly by Macedon and Thessaly into peninsular Greece and the Aegean islands; that in east Peloponnese and Crete, at all events, a first shock (somewhat later than 1500 B.C.) led to the establishment of a cultural, social and political situation which in many respects resembles what is depicted in Homer as the " Achaean " age, with principal centres in Rhodes, Crete, Laconia, Argolis, Attica, Orchomenus and south-east Thessaly; and that this regime was itself shattered by a second shock or series of shocks somewhat earlier than 1000 B.C. These latter events correspond in character and date with the traditional irruption of the Dorians and their associates. The nationality of these invaders is disputed. Survival of fair hair and complexion and light eyes among the upper classes in Thebes and some other localities shows that the blonde type of mankind which is characteristic of north-western Europe had already penetrated into Greek lands before classical times; but 428 DORIA-PAMPHILII-LANDI— DORION the ascription of the same physical traits to the Achaeans of Homer forbids us to regard them as peculiar to that latest wave of pre-classical immigrants to which the Dorians belong; and there is no satisfactory evidence as to the coloration of the Spartans, who alone were reputed to be pure-blooded Dorians in historic times. Language is no better guide, for it is not clear that the Dorian dialect is that of the most recent conquerors, and not rather that of the conquered Achaean inhabitants of southern Greece; in any case it presents no such affinities with any non-Hellenic speech as would serve to trace its origin. Even in northern and west- central Greece, all vestige of any former prevalence has been obliterated by the spread of " Aeolic " dialects akin to those of Thessaly and Boeotia; even the northern Doris, for example, spoke "Aeolic" in historic times. The doubt already suggested as to language applies still more to such characteristics as Dorian music and other forms of art, and to Dorian customs generally. It is clear from the traditions about Lycurgus (ri 6/wXia) has been preserved. A further appendix consisted of Anecdotes, Letters and Rescripts of the emperor Hadrian; fables of Aesop; extracts from Hyginus; a history of the Trojan War, abridged from the Iliad; and a legal fragment, Hepl eXeufapcbo-ecop (De manumissionibus) . Editions: Grammatical in H. Keil, Grammatici Latini, vii. and separately (1871); Hermeneumata by G. Gotz (1892) (in G. Lowe's Corpus glossariorum Latinorum, iii.) and E. Booking (1832), which contains the appendix (including the legal fragment) ; see also C. Lachmann, Versuch iiber Dositheus (1837) ; H. Hagen, De Dosithei magistri quae feruntur glossis (1877). DOSSAL (dossel, dorsel or dosel; Fr. dos, back), an ecclesi- astical ornamented clcth suspended behind the altar. DOSSERET, or impost block (a Fr. term, from dos, back), in architecture, the cubical block of stone above the capitals in a Byzantine church, used to carry the arches and vault, the springing of which had a superficial area greatly in excess of the column which carried them. DOST MAHOMMED KHAN (1793-1863), founder of the dynasty of the Barakzai in Afghanistan, was born in 1793. His elder brother, the chief of the Barakzai, Fatteh Khan, took an important part in raising Mahmud to the sovereignty of Afghanistan in 1800 and in restoring him to the throne in 1809. That ruler repaid his services by causing him to be assassinated in 1818, and thus incurred the enmity of his tribe. After a bloody conflict Mahmud was deprived of all his possessions but Herat, the rest of his dominions being divided among Fatteh Khan's brothers. Of these Dost Mahommed received for his share Ghazni, to which in 1826 he added Kabul, the richest of the Afghan provinces. From the commencement of his reign he found himself involved in disputes with Ranjit Singh, the Sikh ruler of the Punjab, who used the dethroned Saduzai prince, Shuja-ul-Mulk, as his instrument. In 1834 Shuja made a last attempt to recover his kingdom. He was defeated by Dost Mahommed under the walls of Kandahar, but Ranjit Singh seized the opportunity to annex Peshawar. The recovery of this fortress became the Afghan amir's great concern. Rejecting overtures from Russia, he endeavoured to form an alliance with England, and welcomed Alexander Burnes to Kabul in 1837. Burnes, however, was unable to prevail on the governor-general, Lord Auckland, to respond to the amir's advances. Dost Mahommed was enjoined to abandon the attempt to recover Peshawar, and to place his foreign policy under British guidance. In return he was only promised protection from Ranjit Singh, of 1 " Die Vorfahren der Schollen," Biol. Centralbl. xxii. (1002), p. 717. 1 " On the systematic position of the Pleuronectidae/' Ann. and Mag. N. H. x. (1902), p. 295. ' On the number and arrangement of the bony plates of the young John Dory," Biometrika, ii. (1902), p. 115. whom he had no fear. He replied by renewing his relations with Russia, and in 1838 Lord Auckland set the British troops in motion against him. In March 1839 the British force under Sir Willoughby Cotton advanced through the Bolan Pass, and on the 26th of April it reached Kandahar. Shah Shuja was proclaimed amir, and entered Kabul on the 7th of August, while Dost Mahommed sought refuge in the wilds of the Hindu Rush. Closely followed by the British, Dost was driven to extremities, and on the 4th of November 1840 surrendered as a prisoner. He remained in captivity during the British occupation, during the disastrous retreat of the army of occupation in January 1 84 2 , and until the recapture of Kabul in the autumn of 1842. He was then set at liberty, in consequence of the resolve of the British govern- ment to abandon the attempt to intervene in the internal politics of Afghanistan. On his return from Hindustan Dost Mahommed was received in triumph at Kabul, and set himself to re-establish his authority on a firm basis. From 1846 he renewed his policy of hostility to the British and allied himself with the Sikhs; but after the defeat of his allies at Gujrat on the 2ist of February 1849 he abandoned his designs and led his troops back into Afghanistan. In 1850 he conquered Balkh, and in 1854 he acquired control over the southern Afghan tribes by the capture of Kandahar. On the 3oth of March 1855 Dost Mahommed reversed his former policy by concluding an offensive and defensive alliance with the British government. In 1857 he declared war on Persia in conjunction with the British, and in July a treaty was concluded by which the province of Herat was placed under a Barakzai prince. During the Indian Mutiny Dost Mahommed punctiliously refrained from assisting the insurgents. His later years were disturbed by troubles at Herat and in Bokhara. These he composed for a time, but in 1862 a Persian army, acting in concert with Ahmad Khan, advanced against Kandahar. The old amir called the British to his aid, and, putting himself at the head of his warriors', drove the enemy from his frontiers. On the 26th of May 1863 he captured Herat, but on the gth of June he died suddenly in the midst of victory, after playing a great role in the history of Central Asia for forty years. He named as his successor his son, Shere Ali Khan. (E. I. C.) DOSTOIEVSKY, FEODOR MIKHAILOVICH (1821-1881), Russian author, born at Moscow, on the 3oth of October 1821, was the second son of a retired military surgeon of a decayed noble family. He was educated at Moscow andat the military engineer- ing academy at St Petersburg, which he left in 1843 with the grade of sub-lieutenant. Next year his father died, and he resigned his commission in order to devote himself to literature — thus com- mencing a long struggle with ill-health and penury. In addition to the old Russian masters Gogol and Pushkin, Balzac and George Sand supplied him with literary ideals. He knew little of Dickens, but his first story is thoroughly Dickensian in character. The hero is a Russian " Tom Pinch," who entertains a pathetic, humble adoration for a fair young girl, a solitary waif like himself. Characteristically the Russian story ends in " tender gloom." The girl marries a middle-aged man of property; the hero dies of a broken heart, and his funeral is described in lamentable detail. The germ of all Dostoievsky's imaginative work may be discovered here. The story was submitted in manuscript to the Russian critic, Bielinski, and excited his astonishment by its power over the emotions. It appeared in the course of 1846 in the Recueil de Saint- Petersbourg, under the title of " Poor People." An English version, Poor Folk, with an introduction by Mr George Moore, appeared in 1894. The successful author became a regular contributor of short tales to the Annals of the Country, a monthly periodical conducted by Kraevsky; but he was wretchedly paid, and his work, though revealing extraordinary power andin tensity, commonly lacks both finish and proportion. Poverty and physical suffering robbed him of the joy of life and filled him with bitter thoughts and morbid imaginings. During 1847 he became an enthusiastic member of the revolutionary reunions of the political agitator, Petrachevski. Many of the students and younger members did little more than discuss the theories of Fourier and other economists at these gatherings. Exaggerated DOUAI 439 reports were eventually carried to the police; and on the 23rd of April 1849 Dostoievsky and his brother, with thirty other suspected personages, were arrested. After a short examination by the secret police they were lodged in the fortress of St Peter and St Paul at St Petersburg, in which confinement Feodor wrote his story A Little Hero. On the 22nd of December 1849 the accused were all condemned to death and conveyed in vans to a large scaffold in the Simonovsky Place. As the soldiers were preparing to carry out the sentence, the prisoners were informed that their penalty was commuted to exile in Siberia. The novelist's sentence was, four years in Siberia and enforced military service in the ranks for life. On Christmas eve 1849 he commenced the long journey to Omsk, and remained in Siberia, " like a man buried ab've, nailed down in his coffin," for four terrible years. His Siberian experiences are graphically narrated in a volume to which he gave the name of Recollections of a Dead-House (1858). It was known in an English translation as Buried Alive in Siberia (1881; another version, 1888). His release only subjected him to fresh indignities as a common soldier at Semipalatinsk; but in 1858, through the intercession of an old schoolfellow, General Todleben, he was made an under-officer; and in 1859, upon the accession of Alexander II., he was finally recalled from exile. In 1858 he had married a widow, Madame Isaiev, but she died at St Petersburg in 1867 after a somewhat stormy married life. After herding for years with the worst criminals, Dostoievsky obtained an exceptional insight into the dark and seamy side of Russian life. He formed new conceptions of human life, of the balance of good and evil in man, and of the Russian character. Psychological studies have seldom, if ever, found a more intense form of expression than that embodied by Dostoievsky in his novel called Crime and Punishment. The hero Raskolnikov is a poor student, who is led on to commit a murder partly by self- conceit, partly by the contemplation of the abject misery around him. Unsurpassed in poignancy in the whole of modern literature is the sensation of compassion evoked by the scene between the self-tormented Raskolnikov and the humble street-walker, Sonia, whom he loves, and from whom, having confessed his crime, he derives the idea of expiation. Raskolnikov finally gives himself up to the police and is exiled to Siberia, whither Sonia follows him. The book gave currency to a number of ideas, not in any sense new, but specially characteristic of Dostoievsky: the theory, for instance, that in every life, however fallen and degraded, there are ecstatic moments of self-devotion; the doctrine of purification by suffering, and by suffering alone; and the ideal of a Russian people forming a social state at some future period bound together by no obligation save mutual love and the magic of kindness. In this visionary prospect, as well as in his objection to the use of physical force, Dostoievsky anticipated in a remarkable manner some of the conspicuous tenets of his great successor Tolstoy. The book electrified the reading public in Russia upon its appear- ance in 1866, and its fame was confirmed when it appeared in Paris in 1867. To his remarkable faculty of awakening reverberations of melancholy and compassion, as shown in his early work, Dostoievsky had added, by the admission of all, a rare mastery over the emotions of terror and pity. But such mastery was not long to remain unimpaired. Crime and Punishment was written when he was at the zenith of his power. His remaining works ex- hibit frequently a marvellous tragic and analytic power, but they are unequal, and deficient in measure and in balance. The chief of them are: The Injured and the Insulted, The Demons (1867), Ttieldiot(i&6<)), The Adult (1875), The Brothers Karamzov (1881). From 1865, when he settled in St Petersburg, Dostoievsky was absorbed in a succession of journalistic enterprises, in the Slavophil interest, and suffered severe pecuniary losses. He had to leave Russia, in order to escape his creditors, and to seek refuge in Germany and Italy. He was further harassed by troubles*with his wife, and his work was interrupted by epileptic fits and other physical ailments. It was under such conditions as these that his most enduring works were created . He managed finally to return to Russia early in the seventies, and was for some time director of The Russian World. From 1876 he published a kind of review, entitled Garnet d'un icrivain, to the pages of which he committed many strange autobiographical facts and reflections. The last ight years of his life were spent in comparative prosperity at St Petersburg, where he died on the gth of February 1881. His life had been irremediably seared by his Siberian experi- mces. He looked prematurely old; his face bore an expression of accumulated sorrow; in disposition he had become distrustful, taciturn, contemptuous — his favourite theme the superiority of the Russian peasant over every other class; as an artist, though uncultured, he had ever been subtle and sympathetic, but latterly he was tortured by tragic visions and morbidly preoccupied by exceptional and perverted types. M. de Vogue, in his admirable Ecrivains russes, has worked out with some success a parallel between the later years of Dostoievsky and those of Jean Jacques Rousseau. Siberia effectually convinced the novelist of the impotence of Nihilism in such a country as Russia; but though he was assailed by ardent Liberals for the reactionary trend of his later writings, Dostoievsky became, towards the end of his life, an extremely popular figure, and his funeral, on the i2th of February 1881, was the occasion of one of the most remarkable demonstrations of public feeling ever witnessed in the Russian capital. The death of the Russian novelist was not mentioned in the London press; it is only since 1885, when Crime and Punish- ment first appeared in English, that his name has become at all familiar in England, mainly through French translations. A complete edition of his novels was issued at St Petersburg in fourteen volumes (1882-1883). Two critical studies by Tchij and Zelinsky appeared at Moscow in l885,and a German life by Hoffmann at Vienna in 1899. (T. SE.) DOUAI, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondisse- ment in the department of Nord, 20 m. S. of Lille on the Northern railway between that city and Cambrai. Pop. (1906) town, 21,679; commune, 33,247. Douai is situated in a marshy plain on the banks of the Scarpe which intersects the town from south to north, and supplies water to a canal skirting it on the west. The old fortifications; of which the Porte de Valenciennes (isth century) is the chief survival, have been demolished to make room for boulevards and public gardens. The industrial towns of Dorignies, Sin-le- Noble and Aniche are practically suburbs of Douai. Of the churches, that of Notre-Dame (i2th and i4th centuries) is remarkable for the possession of a fine altar- piece of the early i6th century, composed of wooden panels painted by Jean Bellegambe, a native of Douai. The principal building of the town is a handsome hotel de ville, partly of the 15th century, with a lofty belfry. The Palais de Justice (i8th century) was formerly the town house (refuge) of the abbey of Marchiennes. Houses of the i6th, i7th and i8th centuries are numerous. There is a statue of Madame Desbordes Valmore, the poet (d. 1859), a native of the town. The municipal museum contains a library of over 85,000 volumes as well as 1 800 MSS., and a fine collection of sculpture and paintings. Douai is the seat of a court of appeal, a court of assizes and a subprefect, and has a tribunal of first instance, a board of trade-arbitrators, an exchange, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. Its educational institutions include a lycee, training colleges, a school of mines, an artillery school, schools of music, agriculture, drawing, architecture, &c., and a national school for instruction in brewing and other industries connected with agriculture. In addition to other iron and engineering works, Douai has a large cannon foundry and an arsenal; coal-mining and the manufacture of glass and bottles and chemicals are carried on on a large scale in the environs; among the other industries are flax-spinning, rope-making, brewing and the manufacture of farm implements, oil, sugar, soap and leather. Trade, which is largely water-borne, is In grain and agricultural products, coal and building material. Douai, the site of which was occupied by a castle (Castrum Duacense) as early as the 7th century, belonged in the middle ages to the counts of Flanders, passed in 1384 to the dukes of Burgundy, and so in 1477 with the rest of the Netherlands to Spain. In 1667 it was captured by Louis XIV., and was ulti- mately ceded to France by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. His- torically Douai is mainly important as the centre of the political and religious propaganda of the exiled English Roman Catholics. 4-40 DOUARNENEZ— DOUBLE BASS In 1562 Philip II. of Spain founded a university here, in which several English- scholars were given chairs; and in connexion with this William Allen (q.v.) in 1568 founded the celebrated English college. It was here that the " Douai Bible " was pre- pared (see Vol. IV. p. 341). There were also an Irish and a Scots college and houses of English Benedictines and Francis- cans. All these survived till 1793, when the university was suppressed. For the Douai Bible see BIBLE, ENGLISH. See F. Brassart, Hist, du chateau et de la chdtellenie de Douai (Douai, 1877-87); C. Mine, Hist. pop. de Douai (ib. 1861) ; B. Ward, Dawn of the Catholic Revival (London, 1909); Handecceur, Hist, du College anglais, Douai (Reims, 1898) ; Daucoisne, Etablissements britanniques a Douai (Douai, 1881). DOUARNENEZ, a fishing-port of western France, in the depart- ment of Finistere,on the southern shore of the Bay of Douarnenez 15 m. N.W. of Quimper by rail. Pop. (1906) 13,472. Its sardine fishery, which is carried on from the end of June to the beginning of December, gives occupation to about 800 boats, and between 3000 and 4000 men, and the preserving of the fish is an important industry. Mackerel fishing, boat-building and rope and net making also occupy the inhabitants. There is a lighthouse on the small island of Tristan off Douarnenez. DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Fr. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much), twice as much, or large, having two parts, having a part repeated, coupled, &c. The word appears as a substantive with the special meaning of the appearance to a person of his own apparition, generally regarded as a warning, or of such an apparition of one living person to another, the German Doppelganger (see APPARITIONS). Another word often used with this meaning is " fetch." According to the New English Dictionary, " fetch " is chiefly of Irish usage, and may possibly be connected with " fetch," to bring or carry away, but it may be a separate word. The Corpus Glossary of the beginning of the loth century seems to identify a word/cecce with more, meaning a goblin which appears in " nightmare." " Double " is also used of a person whose resemblance to another is peculiarly striking or remarkable, so that confusion between them may easily arise. DOUBLE BASS (Fr. contrebasse; Ger. Kontrabass, Gross Bass Geige; Ital. contrabasso, violone), the largest member of the modern family of stringed instruments played with a bow, known as the violin family, and the lowest in pitch. The double bass differs slightly in construction from the other members of the family in that it has slanting shoulders (one of the features of the viola da gamba, see VIOLIN) ; that is to say that where the belly is joined by the neck and finger-board, it has a decided point, whereas in the violin, viola and violoncello, the finger-board is at right-angles to the horizontal part of a wide curve. It is probable that the shoulders of the double bass were made drooping for the sake of additional strength of construction on account of the strain caused by the tension of the strings. The double bass was formerly made with a flat back — another characteristic of the viol family — whereas now the back is as often found arched as flat. The bow is for obvious reasons shorter and stouter than the violin bow. The technique of the double bass presents certain difficulties inherent in an instrument of such large proportions. The stretches for the fingers are very great, almost double those required for the violoncello, and owing to the thickness of the strings great force is required to press them against the finger-board when they are vibrating. The performer plays standing owing to the great size of the instrument. The double bass sometimes has three strings tuned in England and Italy in fourths; (S_ in France and Germany to fifths. (B — : Owing to the scoring of modern composers, however, it was found necessary to adopt an accord- ance of four strings in order to obtain the additional lower notes required, although this entaijs the sacrifice of beauty of tone, the three-stringed instrument being more sonorous. Some orchestras make a compromise dividing the double basses into two equal sections of three and four-stringed basses. The four strings are tuned in fourths: — &= = Mr A. C. White, finding that an additional lower compass was required, first tuned his double 1 The real sounds are an octave lower. bass with three strings to *-*— — - afterwards adding a fourth string, the lower D. By this accordance the third and fourth strings gain additional power and clearness from the fact that the first and second, being their octaves higher, vibrate in sympathy, obviating the necessity of making the 'cello play in octaves with the double basses to increase the tone when the lowest register is used. In order to obtain equal sonority on his double bass with four strings, Mr White2 found it necessary to have a wider bridge measuring about 5 in., so that the distance between the strings should remain the same as on a double bass with three strings, thus allowing plenty of room for vibration. The neck was also widened in proportion. A five-stringed double bass was sometimes used in Germany tuned either to \2~ , <» *^ or to E3E -. =? j =: but such instruments have been almost superseded by those with four strings. A somewhat larger double bass with five strings by Karl Otno of Leipzig was introduced between 1880 and 1890 with the following accordance: — The practical compass of the double bass extends from to — = (real sounds) with all chromatic intervals. In order to avoid using numerous ledger lines the music is written an octave higher. The qualityof toneisverypowerfulbutsomewhatrough,and variesgreatly in its gradations. The notesof the lowest register, when played piano, sound weird and sometimes grotesque, and are some- times used instead of the kettledrum ; when played forte the tone is grand and full. The lowest octave is mainly used as a fundamental octave bass to 'cello, bassoon or trombone. The tone of the pizzicato is full and rich owing to the slowness of the vibrations, and it changes character according to the harmonies which lie above it: with a chord of the diminished seventh above it, for instance, the pizzicato sounds like a menace, but with the common chord calm and majestic. Both natural and artificial harmonics are possible on the double bass, the former being the best; but they are seldom used in orchestral works. As an instance of their use may be cited the scene by the Nile at the beginning of the third act of Verdi's A ida, where harmonics are indicated for both 'cellos and double basses. The technical capabilities of the double bass are necessarily some- what more limited than those of the violoncello. Quick passages, though possible, are seldom written for it; they cannot sound clear owing to the time required for the strings to vibrate. An excellent effect is produced by what is known as the intermittent tremolo: owing to the elasticity of the bow, it rebounds several times on the strings when a single blow is sharply struck, forming a series of short tremolos. The double bass is the foundation of the whole orchestra and therefore of great importance; it plays the lowest part, often, as its name indicates, only doubling the 'cello part an octave lower. It is only since the beginning of the igth century that an independent voice has occasionally been allotted to it, as in the Scherzo of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony in C minor: — CONTRABASSI. ^. ^ fi , „ ffiFk-s — .-I— l-a-^-H — ' I &• I P • 1 1° • = ^EK* ^r^^F^-i T- H- I' -™- pp These opening bars are played soli by "cellos and double basses, a daring innovation of Beethoven's which caused quite a consternation at first in musical circles. The remote origin of the double bass is the same as that of the violin.3 It was evolved from the bass viol; whether the trans- formation took place simultaneously with that of the violin from the treble viol or preceded it, has not been definitely proved, but both Gasparo da Salo and Maggini constructed double basses, which were in great request in the churches. De Salo made one with three strings for St Mark's, Venice, which is still preserved there.4 It was Dragonetti's favourite concert instrument, pre- sented to him by the monks of St Mark, and, according to the desire expressed in his will, the instrument was restored after his death to St Mark's, where it is at present preserved. Dragonetti used a straight bow similar to the violoncello bow, held overhand with. the hair slanting towards the neck of the instrument; it 1 The Double Bass (Novello, Music Primers, No. 32), p. 6. 3 See Kathleen Schlesinger, The Instruments of the Orchestra, Part II. " The Precursors of the Violin Family " (1908-1909). 4 See Laurent Grillet, Les Ancetres du violon et du violoncelle (Paris, 1901), tome ii. p. 159; IWillebald Leo von Lustgendorff, Die Geigen und Lautenmacher vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart (Frankfurt a. M., 1004), p. 50; A. C. White, The Double Bass, p. 8. DOUBLEDAY— DOUBS 441 was introduced into England from Paris, and is a favourite with orchestral players. Praetorius gives an illustration of a sub-bass viol da gamba or gross contra-bass geige1 "recently constructed," which displaced the other large contra-bass viols; of which he also gives an illustration.2 Giovanni Bottesini (1822-1889) was the greatest virtuoso on the double bass that the world has ever known. It was not only the perfection of his technique and tone which won him artistic fame, but also the delicacy of his style and his exquisite taste in phrasing. (K. S.) DOUBLEDAY, ABNER (1819-1893), American soldier, was born at Ballston Spa, New York, on the 26th of June 1819, and graduated from West Point in 1842. He served in the U.S. artillery during the Mexican War, being present at the battles of Monterey and Buena Vista. He was second in command at Fort Sumter, Charleston, South Carolina, when it was bombarded and taken by the Confederates in 1861, and later in the campaign of that year he served in the Shenandoah valley as a field officer. In February 1862 he was made a brigadier-general of volunteers and employed in the lines of Washington. He commanded a division in the Army of the Potomac in the second Bull Run campaign and at Antietam, becoming major-general U.S.V. in November 1862. He continued to command his division in the Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville campaigns, and on the first day of the battle of Gettysburg he led the I. corps, and for a time all the Union forces on the field, after the death of General Reynolds. In the latter part of the war he was employed in various administrative and military posts; in July 1863 he was breveted colonel, and in March 1865 brigadier-general and major-general U.S.A. General Doubleday continued in the army after the war, becoming colonel U.S.A. in 1867; he retired in 1873. He published two important works on the Civil War, Reminiscences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie (1876) and Chancellorsville and Gettysburg (1882), the latter being a volume of the series " Campaigns of the Civil War." He died at Mendham, New Jersey, on the 26th of January 1893. His younger brother, ULYSSES DOUBLEDAY (1824-1893), fought through the Civil War as an officer of volunteers, was breveted brigadier-general U.S.V. in March 1865, and com- manded a brigade at the battle of Five Forks (ist April). DOUBLEDAY, THOMAS (1790-1870), English politician and author, was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne in February 1790. In early life he adopted the views of William Cobbett, and was active in promoting the agitation which resulted in the passing of the Reform Bill of 1832. As secretary of the Northern Political Union of Whigs and Radicals he took a prominent part in forwarding the interests of Earl Grey and the reforming party. In 1858-1859 he was a member of the council of the Northern Reform Union; and to the last he was a keen observer of political events. He succeeded his father, George Doubleday, as partner in a firm of soap manufacturers at Newcastle, but devoted his attention rather to literature than to mercantile affairs. On the failure of the firm he obtained the office of registrar of St Andrew's parish, Newcastle, a post which he held until appointed secretary to the coal trade. He died at Bulman's Village, Newcastle-on- Tyne, on the i8th of December 1870. In 1832 Doubleday published an Essay on Mundane Moral Government, and in 1842 he attacked some of the principles of Malthus in his True Law of Population. He also wrote A Political Life of Sir Robert Peel (London, 1856); A Financial, Statistical and Monetary History of England from 1688 (London, 1847); Matter for Materialists (London, 1870); The Eve of St Mark, a Romance of Venice; and three dramas, The Statue Wife, Diocletian and Caius Marius, in addition to some fishing songs, and many contributions to various newspapers and periodicals. DOUBLET (a Fr. word, diminutive of double, folded or of two thicknesses), a close-fitting garment, with or without sleeves, extending from the neck to a little below the waist, worn by men of all ranks and ages from the I4th century to the time of Charles 1 M. Praetorius, Syntagma music. (Wolfenbiittel, 1618 and 1620), PP- 54-55 and pi. v. (l). 1 Ib. pi. vi. No. 4. II., when it began to be superseded by coat and waistcoat. The doublet was introduced into England from France, and was originally padded for defence or warmth. " Doublet " is also used of a pair or couple — a thing that is the facsimile of another; as in philology, one of two words differing in form, but repre- sented by an identical root, as " alarm " or " alarum "; in optics, of a pair of lenses, combined, for example, to correct aberration. In the work of the lapidary a doublet is a counterfeit gem, made by cementing two pieces of plain glass or crystal on each side of a layer of glass (coloured to represent the stone counterfeited); a thiu portion of a genuine stone may be cemented upon an in- ferior one, as a layer of diamond upon a topaz, or ruby on a garnet. DOUBS, a river of eastern France, rising in the Jura at the foot of the Noirmont ridge at a height of 3074 ft. and flowing into the Saone. Its course is 269 m. in length, though the distance from its source to its mouth is only 56 m. in direct h'ne; its basin has an area of 3020 sq. m. Flowing N.E. the river traverses the lake of St Point and passes Pontarlier; thenceforth its course lies chiefly through wooded gorges of great grandeur. After skirting the town of Morteau, below which it expands into the picturesque lake of Chaillexon and descends over the Falls of the Doubs (88 ft. in height), the river for about 28 m. forms the frontier between France and Switzerland. Flowing into the latter country for a short distance, it turns abruptly west, then north, and finally at Voujeaucourt, south-west. Just below that town the river is joined by the canal from the Rhone to the Rhine, to accommodate which its course has been canalized as far as Dole. Till it reaches Besanjon which lies on a peninsula formed by the river, the Doubs passes no town of importance except Pontarlier. Some distance below Besancon it enters the department of Jura, passes Dole, and leaving the region of hill and mountain, issues into a wide plain. Traversing this, it receives the waters of the Loue, its chief affluent, and broadening out to a width of 260 ft., at length reaches the Sa6ne at Verdun. Below Dole the river is navigable only for some 8 m. above its mouth. DOUBS, a frontier department of eastern France, formed in 1790 of the ancient principality of Montbeliard and of part of the province of Franche-Comte. It is bounded E. and S.E. by Switzerland, N. by the territory of Belfort and by Haute Saone, and W. and S.W. by Jura. Pop. (1906) 298,438. Area, 2030 sq. m. The department takes its name from the river Doubs, by which it .is traversed. Between the Ognon, which forms the north-western limit of the department, and the Doubs, runs a range of low hills known as " the plain." The rest of Doubs is mountainous, four parallel chains of the Jura crossing it from N.E. to S.W. The Lomont range, the lowest of these chains, dominates the left bank of the Doubs. The central region is occupied by hilly plateaux covered with pasturage and forests, while the rest of the department is traversed by the remaining three mountain ranges, the highest and most easterly of which contains the Mont d'Or (4800 ft.), the culminating point of Doubs. Besides the Doubs the chief rivers are its tributaries, the Dessoubre, watering the east of the department, and the Loue, which traverses its south-western portion. The climate is in general cold and rainy, and the winters are severe. The soil is stony and loamy, and at the higher levels there are numerous peat-bogs. Approximately a fifth of the total area is planted with cereals; more than a third is occupied by pasture. In its agricultural aspect the department may be divided into three regions. The highest, on which the snow usually lies from six to eight months in the year, is in part barren, but on its less exposed slopes is occupied by forests of fir trees, and affords good pasturage for cattle. In the second or lower region the oak, beech, walnut and sycamore flourish; and the valleys are susceptible of cultivation. The region of the plain is the most fertile, and produces all kinds of cereals as well as hemp, vegetables, vines and fruit. Cattle-rearing and dairy- farming receive much attention ; large quantities of cheese, of the nature of Gruyere, are produced, mainly by the co-operative cheese-factories or fruitieres. The rivers of the department abound in gorges and falls of great beauty. The most important manufactures are watches, made chiefly at Besancon and Morteau, hardware (Hfirimoncourt and Valentigney), and machinery. 442 DOUCE— DOUGLAS, HOUSE OF Large iron foundries are found at Audincourt (pop. 5317) and other towns. The distillation of brandy and absinthe, and the manufacture of cotton and woollen goods, automobiles and paper, are also carried on. Exports include watches, h've-stock, wine, vegetables, iron and hardware; cattle, hides, timber, coal, wine and machinery are imported. Large quantities of goods, in transit between France and Switzerland, pass through the depart- ment. Among its mineral products are building stone and lime, and there are peat workings. Doubs is served by the Paris- Lyon railway, the line from Dole to Switzerland passing, via Pontarlier, through the south of the department. The canal from the Rhone to the Rhine traverses it for 84 miles. The department is divided into the arrondissements of Besangon, Baume-les-Dames, Montbeliard and Pontarlier, with 27 cantons and 637 communes. It belongs to the academie (educational circumscription) and the diocese of Besancon, which is the capital, the seat of an archbishop and of a court of appeal, and headquarters of the VII. army corps. Besides Besancon the chief towns are Montbeliard and Pontarlier (qq.v.). Ornans, a town on the Loue, has a church of the i6th century and ruins of a feudal castle, which are of antiquarian interest. Montbenolt on the Doubs near Pontarlier has the remains of an Augustine abbey (i3th to i6th centuries). The cloisters are of the isth century, and the church contains, among other works of art, some fine stalls executed in the i6th century. Lower down the Doubs is the town of Morteau, with the Maison Pertuisier, a house of the Renaissance period, and a church which still preserves remains of a previous structure of the i3th century. Baume-les-Dames owes the affix of its name to a Benedictine convent founded in 763, to which only noble ladies were admitted. Numerous antiquities have been found at Mandeure (near Montbeliard), which stands on the site of the Roman town of Epomanduodurum. DOUCE, FRANCIS (1757-1834), English antiquary, was born in London in 1757. His father was a clerk in Chancery. After completing his education he entered his father's office, but soon quitted it to devote himself to the study of antiquities. He became a prominent member of the Society of Antiquaries, and for a time held the post of keeper of manuscripts in the British Museum, but was compelled to resign it owing to a quarrel with one of the trustees. In 1807 he published his Illustrations of Shakespeare and Ancient Manners (2 vols. 8vo), which contained some curious information, along with a great deal of trifling criticism and mistaken interpretation. An unfavourable notice of the work in The Edinburgh Review greatly irritated the author, and made him unwilling to venture any further publications. He contributed, however, a considerable number of papers to the Archaeologia and The Gentleman's Magazine. In 1833 he published a Dissertation on the various Designs of the Dance of Death, the substance of which had appeared forty years before. He died on the 30th of March 1834. By his will he left his printed books, illuminated manuscripts, coins, &c., to the Bodleian library; his own manuscript works to the British Museum, with directions that the chest containing them should not be opened until the ist of January 1900; and his paintings, carvings and miscellaneous antiquities to Sir Samuel Meyrick, who published an account of them, entitled The Doucean Museum. DOUGLAS, the name of a Scottish noble family, now re- presented by the dukes of Hamilton (Douglas-Hamilton, heirs- male), the earls of Home (Douglas-Home) who also bear the title of Baron Douglas of Douglas, the dukes of Buccleuch and Queensberry (Montagu-Douglas-Scott), the earls of Morton (Douglas), the earls of Wemyss (Wemyss-Charteris-Douglas), and the baronets Douglas of Carr, of Springwood, -of Glenbervie, &c. The marquessate of Douglas and the earldom of Angus, the historic dignities held by the two chief branches of the family, the Black and the Red Douglas, are merged in the Hamilton peerage. The name represented the Gaelic dubh glas, dark water, and Douglasdale, the home of the family in Lanarkshire, is still in the possession of the earls of Home. The first member of the family to emerge with any distinctness was William de Douglas, or Dufglas, whose name frequently appears on charters from 1175 to 1213. He is said to have been brother, or brother-in-law, of Freskin of Murray, the founder of the house of Murray. His second son, Brice (d. 1222), became bishop of Moray, while the estate fell to the eldest, Sir Archibald (d. c. 1240). SIR WILLIAM OF DOUGLAS (d. 1298), called " le hardi," Archibald's grandson, was the first formally to assume the title of lord of Douglas. After the death of his first wife, Elizabeth, daughter of Alexander the Steward, he abducted from the manor of the La Zouches at Tranent an heiress, Eleanor of Lovain, widow of William de Ferrers, lord of Groby in Leicestershire, who in 1291 appeared by proxy in the court of the English king, Edward I., to answer for the offence of marrying without his permission. He gave a grudging allegiance to John de Baliol, and swore fealty to Edward I. in 1291; but when the Scottish barons induced Baliol to break his bond with Edward I. he com- manded at Berwick Castle, which he surrendered after the sack of the town by the English in 1 296. After a short imprisonment Douglas was restored to his Scottish estates on renewing his homage to Edward I., but his English possessions were forfeited. He joined Wallace's rising in 1297, and died in 1298, a prisoner in the Tower of London. His son, SIR JAMES OF DOUGLAS (1286-1330), lord of Douglas, called the " Good," whose exploits are among the most romantic in Scottish history, was educated in Paris. On his return he found an Englishman, Robert de Clifford, in possession of his estates. His offer of allegiance to Edward I. being refused, he cast in his lot with Robert Bruce, whom he joined before his coronation at Scone in 1306. From the battle of Methven he escaped with Bruce and the remnant of his followers, and ac- companied him in his wanderings in the Highlands. In the next year they returned to the south of Scotland. He twice outwitted the English garrison of Douglas and destroyed the castle. One of these exploits, carried out on Palm Sunday, the igth of March 1307, with barbarities excessive even in those days, is known as the " Douglas Larder." Douglas routed Sir John de Mowbray at Ederford Bridge, near Kilmarnock, and was entrusted with the conduct of the war in the south, while Bruce turned to the High- lands. In 1308 he captured Thomas Randolph (afterwards earl of Moray), soon to become one of Bruce's firm supporters, and a friendly rival of Douglas, whose exploits he shared. He made many successful raids on the English border, which won for him the dreaded name of the " Black Douglas " in English households. Through the capture of Roxburgh Castle in 1314 by stratagem, the assailants being disguised as black oxen, he secured Teviot- dale; and at Bannockburn, where he was knighted on the battle- field, he commanded the left wing with Walter the Steward. During the thirteen years of intermittent warfare that followed he repeatedly raided England. He slew Sir Robert de Nevill, the " Peacock of the North," in single combat in 1316, and in 1319 he invaded Yorkshire, in company with Randolph, defeating an army assembled by William de Melton, archbishop of York, at Mitton-on-Swale (September 20), in a fight known as " The Chapter of Myton." In 1322 he captured the pass of Byland in Yorkshire, and forced the English army to retreat. He was rewarded by the " Emerald Charter," granted by Bruce, which gave him criminal jurisdiction over the family estates, and released the lords of Douglas from various feudal obligations. The emerald ring which Bruce gave Douglas in ratification of the charter is lost, but another of the king's gifts, a large two-handed sword (bearing, however, a later inscription), exists at Douglas Castle. In a daring night attack on the English camp in Weardale in 1327 Douglas came near capturing Edward III. himself. After laying waste the northern counties he retreated, without giving battle to the English. Before his death in 1329 Bruce desired Douglas to carry his heart to Palestine in redemption of his unfulfilled vow to go on crusade. Accordingly Sir James set out in 1330, bearing with him a silver casket containing the embalmed heart of Bruce. He fell fighting with the Moors in Spain on the 25th of August of that year, and was buried in St Bride's Church, Douglas. Since his day the Douglases have borne a human heart in their coat of arms. Sir James was said to have fought in seventy battles and to have conquered in fifty- seven. His exploits, as told in Froissart's Chronicles and in John DOUGLAS, EARLS OF 443 Barbour's Bruce, are familiar from Scott's Tales of a Grandfather and Castle Dangerous. His half-brother, Sir Archibald, defeated Edward Baliol at Annan in 1332, and had just been appointed regent of Scotland for David II. when he risked a pitched battle at Halidon Hill, where he was defeated and killed (1333), with his nephew William, lord of Douglas. The inheritance fell to his brother, a churchman, Hugh the "Dull" (b. 1294), who surrendered his lands to David II.; and a re-grant was made to William Douglas, next referred to. WILLIAM DOUGLAS, IST EARL OF DOUGLAS (c. 1327-1384), had been educated in France, and returned to Scotland in 1348. In 1353 he killed in Ettrick Forest his kinsman, William,1 the knight of Liddesdale (c. 1300-1353), known as the " Flower of Chivalry," who had been warden of the western marches during David II. 's minority, and had taken a heroic share in driving the English from southern Scotland. Liddesdale had in 1342 lost the king's favour by the murder of Sir Alexander Ramsay of Dalhousie, whom David had made constable of the castle of Roxburgh and sheriff of Teviotdale in his place; he was taken prisoner at Nevill's Cross in 1346, and only released on becoming liegeman of Edward III. for the lands of Liddesdale and the castle of the Hermitage; Liddesdale 2 was also accused of contriving the murder of Sir David Barclay in 1350. Some of his lands fell to his kinsman and murderer, who was created earl of Douglas in 1358. In 1357 his marriage with Margaret, sister and heiress of Thomas, i3th earl of Mar, eventually brought him the estates and the earldom of Mar. During a short truce with the warden of the English marches he had served in France, being wounded at Poitiers in 1356. He was one of the securities for the payment of David II. 's ransom, and in consequence of the royal misappropriation of some moneys raised for this purpose Douglas was for a short time in rebellion in 1363. In 1364^0 joined David II. in seeking a treaty with England which should deprive Robert the Steward, formerly an ally of Douglas, of the succession by putting an English prince on the Scottish throne. The in- dependence of Scotland was to be guaranteed, and a special clause provided for the restoration of the English estates of the Douglas family. On the accession of Robert II. he was neverthe- less reconciled, becoming justiciar of southern Scotland, and the last years of his life were spent in making and repelling border raids. He died at Douglas in May 1384, and was succeeded by his son James. By his wife's sister-in-law, Margaret Stewart, countess of Angus in her own right, and widow of the i3th earl of Mar, he had a son George, afterwards ist earl of Angus. JAMES, 2ND EARL or DOUGLAS AND MAR(C. 1358-1388), married Lady Isabel Stewart, daughter of Robert II. In 1385 he made war on the English with the assistance of a French contingent under John de Vienne. He allowed the English to advance to Edinburgh, wisely refusing battle, and contented himself with a destructive counter-raid on Carlisle. Disputes soon arose between the allies, and the French returned home at the end of the year. In 1388 Douglas captured Hotspur Percy's pennon in a skirmish near Newcastle. Percy sought revenge in the battle of Otterburn (August 1388), which ended in a victory for the Scots and the capture of Hotspur and his brother, though Douglas fell in the light. The struggle, narrated by Froissart, is celebrated in the English and Scottish ballads called " Chevy Chase " and " The Battle of Otterburn." Sir Philip Sidney " never heard the olde song of Percy and Douglas that I found not my heart mooved more than with a trumpet " (Apologie for Poelrie). The 2nd earl left no legitimate male issue. His natural sons William and Archibald became the ancestors of the families of Douglas 01 1 A descendant of a younger son of the original William de Douglas. " On the murder of the knight of Liddesdale, his lands, with the exception of Liddesdale and the .Hermitage forfeited to the crown and then secured by his nephew, fell to his nephew, Sir James Douglas of Dalkeith and Aberdpur (d. 1420), whose great-grandson James Douglas, 3rd Lord Dalkeith (d. 1504), became earl of Morton in 1458 on his marriage with Lady Joan Stewart, third daughter of James I. His grandson, the 3rd earl, left daughters only, of whom the eldest, Margaret, married James Hamilton, earl of Arran, regent of Scotland, ancestor of the dukes of Hamilton; Elizabeth married in 1543 James Douglas, who became by this marriage 4th earl of Morton. Drumlanrig (see QUEENSBERRY) and Douglas of Cavers. His sister Isabel became countess of Mar, inheriting the lands of Mar and his unentailed estates. The earldom and entailed estates of Douglas reverted by the patent of 1358 to ARCHIBALD DOUGLAS, 3RD EARL OF DOUGLAS, called " The Grim " (c. 1328-6. 1400), a natural son of the " good" Sir James. With his cousin, the ist earl of Douglas, he had fought at Poitiers, where he was taken prisoner, but was released through ignorance of his real rank. On his return to Scotland he became constable and sheriff of Edinburgh, and, later, warden of the western marches, where his position was strengthened by his becoming lord of Galloway in 1369 and by his purchase of the earldom of Wigtown in 1 3 7 2 . He further increased his estates by his marriage with Joanna Moray, heiress of Bothwell. During the intervals of war with the English he imposed feudal law on the border chieftains, drawing up a special cede for the marches. He was twice sent on missions to the French court. The power of the Black Douglas overshadowed the crown under the weak rule' of Robert III., and in 1399 he arranged a marriage between David, duke of Rothesay, the king's son and heir, and his own daughter, Marjory Douglas. Rothesay was already contracted to marry Elizabeth Dunbar, daughter of the earl of March, who had paid a large sum for the honour. March, alienated from his allegiance by this breach of faith on the king's part, now joined the English forces. A natural son of Archibald, Sir William of Douglas, lord of Nithisdale (d. 1392), married Egidia, daughter of Robert III. Archibald the Grim was succeeded by his eldest son,ARCHiBALD, 4TH EARL OF DOUGLAS, ist duke of Touraine, lord of Galloway and Annandale (1372-1424), who married in 1390 Lady Margaret Stewart, eldest daughter of John, earl of Carrick, afterwards King Robert III. In 1400 March and Hotspur Percy had laid waste eastern Scotland as far as Lothian when they were defeated by Douglas (then master of Douglas) near Preston. With the regent, Robert, duke of Albany, he was suspected of complicity in the murder (March 1402) of David, d"uke of Rothesay, who was in their custody at Falkland Castle, but both were officially declared guiltless by the parliament. In that year Douglas raided England and was taken prisoner at Homildon Hill by the Percys. He fought on the side of his captors at Shrewsbury (1403), and was taken prisoner by the English king Henry IV. He became reconciled during his captivity with the earl of March,whose lands had been conferred on Douglas, but were now, with the exception of Annandale, restored. He returned to Scotland in 1409, but was in constant communication with the English court for the release of the captive king James I. In 141 2 he had visited Paris, when he entered into a personal alliance with John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, and in 1423 he commanded a contingent of 10,000 Scots sent to the help of Charles VII. against the English. He was made lieutenant-general in the French army, and received the peerage-duchy of Touraine with remainder to his heirs-male. The new duke was defeated and slain at Verneuil (1424) with his second son, James; his persistent ill-luck earned him the title of the Tyneman (the loser). ARCHIBALD, STH EARL OF DOUGLAS (c. 1391-1439), succeeded to his father's English and Scottish honours, though he never touched the revenues of Touraine. He fought at Bauge in 1421, and was made count of Longueville in Normandy. His two sons, WILLIAM, 6xn EARL (1423 ?-i44o), and David, were little more than boys at the time of their father's death in 1439. " They can hardly have been guilty of any real offence when, on the 24th of November 1440, they were summoned to court by Sir William Crichton, lord chancellor of Scotland, and, after a mock trial in the young king's presence, were beheaded forthwith in the courtyard of Edinburgh Castle. This murder broke up the dangerous power wielded by the Douglases. The lordships of Annandale and Bothwell fell to the crown; Galloway to the earl's sister Margaret, the "Fair Maid of Galloway"; while the Douglas lands passed to his great-uncle JAMES DOUGLAS, 7TH EARL OF DOUGLAS, called the " Gross,"of Balvany (1371-1444), lord of Abercorn and Aberdour, earl of Avondale (cr. 1437), younger son of the 3rd earl. The latter's sons, WILLIAM (c. 1425-1452) and JAMES (1426- DOUGLAS, SIR C.— DOUGLAS, GAVIN 444 1488), became 8th and gth earls respectively; Archibald became earl of Moray by marriage with Elizabeth Dunbar, daughter and co-heiress of James, earl of Moray; Hugh was created earl of Ormond in 1445; John was lord of Balvany; Henry became bishop of Dunkeld. The power of the Black Douglases was restored by the 8th earl, who recovered Wigtown, Galloway and Bothwell by marriage (by papal dispensation) with his cousin, the Fair Maid of Galloway. He was soon high in favour with James II., and procured the disgrace of Crichton, his kinsmen's murderer, by an alliance with his rival, Sir Alexander Livingstone. In 1450 James raided the earl's lands during his absence on a pilgrimage to Rome; but their relations seemed outwardly friendly until in 1452 the king invited Douglas to Stirling Castle under a safe-conduct, in itself, however, a proof of strained relations. There James demanded the dissolution of a league into which Douglas had entered with Alexander Lindsay, the " Tiger " earl (4th) of Crawford. On Douglas's refusal the king murdered him (February 22) with his own hands, the courtiers helping to despatch him. The tales of the hanging of Sir Herbert Herries of Terregles and the murder of McLellan of Bombie by Douglas rest on no sure evidence. JAMES DOUGLAS, QTH EARL (and last), denounced his brother's murderers and took up arms, but was obliged by the desertion of his allies to submit. He obtained a papal dispensation to marry his brother's widow, in order to keep the family estates together. He intrigued with the English court, and in 1455 rebelled once more. Meanwhile another branch of the Douglas family, known as the Red Douglas, had risen into importance (see ANGUS, EARLS OF), and George Douglas, 4th earl of Angus (d. 1463), great- grandson of the ist earl of Douglas, took sides with the king against his kinsmen. James Douglas, again deserted by his chief allies, fled to England, and his three brothers, Ormond, Moray and Balvany, were defeated by Angus at Arkinholm on the Esk. Moray was killed, Ormond taken prisoner and executed, while Balvany escaped to England. Their last stronghold, the Thrieve in Galloway, fell, and the lands of the Douglases were declared forfeit, and were divided among their rivals, the lordship of Douglas falling to the Red Douglas, 4th earl of Angus. In England the earl of Douglas intrigued against his native land; he was employed by Edward IV. in 1461 to negotiate a league with the western highlanders against the Scottish kingdom. In 1484 he was taken prisoner while raiding southern Scotland, and was relegated to the abbey of Lindores, where he died in 1488. The title of Douglas was restored in 1633 when WILLIAM, nth earl of Angus (1580-1660), was created IST MARQUESS OF DOUGLAS by Charles I. In 1645 he joined Montrose at Philip- haugh, and was imprisoned in 1646 at Edinburgh Castle, only obtaining his release by signing the Covenant. His eldest son, Archibald, created earl of Ormond, Lord Bothwell and Hartside, in 1651, predeceased his father; Lord James Douglas (c. 1617- 1645) and his half-brother, Lord George Douglas (c. 1636-1692), created earl of Dumbarton in 1675, successively commanded a Scots regiment1 in the French service. William (1635-1694), created earl of Selkirk in 1646, became 3rd duke of Hamilton after his marriage (1656) with Anne, duchess of Hamilton in her own right. By the failure of heirs in the elder branches of the family the dukes of Hamilton (q.v.) became heirs-male of the house of Douglas. JAMES DOUGLAS, 2ND MARQUESS OF DOUGLAS (1646-1700), succeeded his grandfather in 1660. His eldest son, John, by courtesy earl of Angus, raised a regiment of 1 200 men, first known as the Angus regiment, later as the Cameronians (26th Foot). He was killed at its head at Steinkirk in 1692. The younger son, ARCHIBALD, 3RD MARQUESS (1694-1761), was created duke of Douglas in 1703, but the dukedom became extinct on hi? death, without heirs, in 1761. He was a consistent supporter of the Hanoverian cause, and fought at Sheriffmuir. The heir-pre- sumptive to the Douglas estates was his sister, Lady Jane Douglas (1698-1753), who in 1746 secretly married Colonel, afterwards Sir, John Steuart of GrandtuUy, by whom she had twin sons, born 1 Transferred to the British service in 1669 and eventually known as the Royal Scots regiment. in Paris in 1 748. These children were alleged to be spurious, and when Lady Jane and the younger of the two boys died in 1753, the duke refused to acknowledge the survivor as his nephew; but in 1760 he was induced, under the influence of his wife, to revoke a will devising the estates to the Hamiltons in favour of Lady Jane's son, Archibald James Edward Steuart (1748-1827), ist baron Douglas of Douglas (cr. 1790) in the British peerage. The inheritance of the estates was disputed by the Hamiltons, representing the male line, but the House of Lords decided in favour of Douglas in 1 769. Three of his sons succeeded Archibald Douglas as Baron Douglas, but as they left no male issue the title passed to the earls of Home, Cospatrick Alexander, nth earl of Home, having married a granddaughter of Archibald, ist Baron Douglas. Their descendants, the earls of Home, represent the main line of Douglas on the female side. AUTHORITIES. — David Hume of Godscroft (i56o?-i63o), who was secretary to Archibald Douglas, 8th earl of Angus, wrote a History of the House and Race of Douglas and Angus, printed under his daughter's superintendence (Edinburgh, 1644). He was a partial historian, and his account can only be accepted with caution. Modern authorities are Sir William Fraser, The Douglas Book (4 vols., Edinburgh, 1885), and Sir H. Maxwell, History of the House of Douglas (2 vols., 1902). See also G. E. C.[okayne]'s Peerage, and Douglas's Scots Peerage; Calendar of State Papers, Scottish Series, The Hamilton Papers, &c. DOUGLAS, SIR CHARLES, Bart. (d. 1789), British admiral, a descendant of the Scottish earls of Morton, was promoted lieutenant in the navy on the 4th of December 1753. Nothing is known of his early life. He became commander on the 24th of February 1759, and attained to post rank in 1761. When the War of American Independence began, he took an active part in the defence of Canada in 1775, and he afterwards commanded the " Stirling Castle " 64 in the battle of the Ushant, 27th of July 1778. His reputation is based first on the part he played in the battle of Dominica, i2th of April 1782, and then on the improve- ments in gunnery which he introduced into the British navy. It appears from the testimony of Sir F. Thesiger (d. 1805), who was present on the quarter-deck of the flagship, that Sir Charles Douglas, who was then captain of the fleet, first pointed out to Rodney the possibility and the advantage of passing through the French line. His advice was taken with reluctance. On the other hand, Lord Hood accuses Douglas of living in such abject fear of his admiral that he did not venture to speak with the freedom which his important post entitled him to take. His more certain claim to be ranked high among naval officers is founded on the many improvements he introduced into naval gunnery. Some account of these will be found in the writings of his son. He became rear-admiral on the 24th of September 1787, and died suddenly of apoplexy in February 1 789. He was made a baronet for his services in the West Indies. There is a life of Sir Charles Douglas in Charnock, Biogr. Nav. vi. 427. DOUGLAS, GAVIN (i474?-i522), Scottish poet and bishop, third son of Archibald, 5th earl of Angus (called the " great earl of Angus " and " Bell-the-Cat "), was born c. 1474, probably at one of his father's seats. He was a student at St Andrews, 1489-1494, and thereafter, it is supposed, at Paris. In 1496 he obtained the living of Monymusk, Aberdeenshire, and later he became parson of Lynton (mod. Linton) and rector of Hauch (mod. Prestonkirk), in East Lothian; and about 1501 was preferred to the deanery or provostship of the collegiate church of St Giles, Edinburgh, which he held with his parochial charges. From this date till the battle of Flodden, in September 1513, he appears to have been occupied with his ecclesiastical duties and literary work. Indeed all the extant writings by which he has earned his place as a poet and translator belong to this period. After the disaster at Flodden he was completely absorbed in public business. Three weeks after the battle he, still provost of St Giles, was admitted a burgess of Edinburgh, his father, the " Great Earl," being then civil provost of the capital. The latter dying soon afterwards (January 1514) in Wigtownshire, where he had gone as justiciar, and his son having been killed at Flodden, the succession fell to Gavin's nephew Archibald (6th earl). The marriage of this youth to James IV.'s widow on the 6th of August 1514 did much to DOUGLAS, GAVIN 445 identify the Douglases with the English party in Scotland, as against the French party led by Albany, and incidentally to determine the political career of bis uncle Gavin. During thefirst weeks of the queen's sorrow after the battle, Gavin, with one or two colleagues of the council, acted as personal adviser, and it may be taken for granted that he supported the pretensions of the young earl. His own hopes of preferment had been strengthened by the death of many of the higher clergy at Flodden. The first outcome of the new connexion was his appointment to the abbacy of Aberbrothock by the queen regent, before her marriage, probably in June 1514. Soon after the marriage she nominated him archbishop of St Andrews, in succession to Elphinstone, archbishop-designate. But Hepburn, prior of St Andrews, having obtained the vote of the chapter, expelled him, and was himself in turn expelled by Forman, bishop of Moray, who had been nominated by the pope. In the interval, Douglas's rights in Aberbrothock had been transferred to James Beaton, archbishop of Glasgow, and he was now without title or temporality. The breach between the queen's party and Albany's had widened, and the queen's advisers had begun an intrigue with England, to the end that the royal widow and her young son should be removed to Henry's court. In those deliberations Gavin Douglas took an active part, and for this reason stimulated the opposition which successfully thwarted his preferment. In January 1515 on the death of George Brown, bishop of Dunkeld, Douglas's hopes revived. The queen nominated him to the see, which he ultimately obtained, though not without trouble. For the earl of Athole had forced his brother. Andrew Stewart, prebendary of Craig, upon the chapter, and had put him in possession of the bishop's palace. The queen appealed to the pope and was seconded by her brother of England, with the result that the pope's sanction was obtained on the i8th of February 1515. Some of the correspondence of Douglas and his friends incident to this transaction was intercepted. When Albany came from France and assumed the regency, these documents and the " purchase " of the bishopric from Rome contrary to statute were made the basis of an attack on Douglas, who was imprisoned in Edinburgh Castle, thereafter in the castle of St Andrews (under the charge of his old opponent, Archbishop Hepburn), and later in the castle of Dunbar, and again in Edinburgh. The pope's intervention procured his release, after nearly a year's imprison- ment. The queen meanwhile had retired to England. After July 1516 Douglas appears to have been in possession of his see, and to have patched up a diplomatic peace with Albany. On the 1 7 th of May 1 5 1 7 the bishop of Dunkeld proceeded with Albany to France to conduct the negotiations which ended in the treaty of Rouen. He was back in Scotland towards the end of June. Albany's longer absence in France permitted the party- faction of the nobles to come to a head in a plot by the earl of Arran to seize the earl of Angus, the queen's husband. The issue of this plot was the well-known fight of "Clear-the-Causeway," in which Gavin Douglas's part stands out in picturesque relief. The triumph over the Hamiltons had an unsettling effect upon the earl of Angus. He made free of the queen's rents and abducted Lord Traquair's daughter. The queen set about to obtain a divorce, and used her influence for the return of Albany as a means of undoing her husband's power. Albany's arrival in November 1521, with a large body of French men-at-arms, compelled Angus, with the bishop and others, to flee to the Borders. From this retreat Gavin Douglas was sent by the earl to the English court, to ask for aid against the French party and against the queen, who was reported to be the mistress of the regent. Meanwhile he was deprived of his bishopric, and forced, for safety, to remain in England, where he effected nothing in the interests of his nephew. The declaration ol war by England against Scotland, in answer to the recent Franco-Scottish negotia- tions, prevented his return. His case was further complicated by the libellous animosity of Beaton, archbishop of St Andrews (whose' life he had saved in the " Clear-the-Causeway " incident), who was anxious to thwart his election to the archbishopric of St Andrews, now vacant by the death of Forman. In 1522 Douglas was stricken by the plague which raged in London, and died at the house of his friend Lord Dacre. During the closing years of exile he was on intimate terms with the historian Polydore Vergil, and one of his last acts was to arrange to give Polydore a corrected version of Major's account of Scottish affairs. Douglas was buried in the church of the Savoy, where a monumental brass (removed from its proper site after the fire in 1864) still records his death and interment. Douglas's literary work, now his chief claim to be remembered, belongs, as has been stated, to the period 1501-1513, when he was provost of St Giles. He left four poems. 1. The Police of Honour, his earliest work, is a piece of the later type of dream-allegory, extending to over 2000 lines in nine- lined stanzas. In its descriptions of the various courts on their way to the palace, and of the poet's adventures — first, when he incautiously slanders the court of Venus, and later when after his pardon he joins in the procession and passes to see the glories of the palace — the poem carries on the literary traditions of the courts of love, as shown especially in the " Romaunt of the Rose" and " The Hous of Fame." The poem is dedicated to James IV., not without some lesson in commendation of virtue and honour. No MS. of the poem is extant. The earliest known edition (c- X553) was printed at London by William Copland; an Edin- burgh edition, from the press of Henry Charteris, followed in 1579. From certain indications in the latter and the evidence of some odd leaves discovered by David Laing, it has been con- cluded that there was an earlier Edinburgh edition, which has been ascribed to Thomas Davidson, printer, and dated c. 1540. 2. King Hart is another example of the later allegory, and, as such, of higher literary merit. Its subject is human life told in the allegory of King Heart in his castle, surrounded by his five servitors (the senses), Queen Plesance, Foresight and other courtiers. The poem runs to over 900 lines and is written in eight-lined stanzas. The text is preserved in the Maitland folio MS. in the Pepysian library, Cambridge. It is not known to have been printed before 1 786, when it appeared in Pinkerton's Ancient Scottish Poems. 3. Conscience is in four seven-lined stanzas. Its subject is the ''conceit" that men first clipped away the ''con" from "con- science" and left "science" and "na mair." Then they lost " sci," and had nothing but " ens " (" that schrew, Riches and geir"). 4. Douglas's longest, last, and in some respects most im- portant work is his translation of the Aeneid, the first version of a great classic poet in any English dialect. The work includes the thirteenth book by Mapheus Vegius; and each of the thirteen books is introduced by a prologue. The subjects and styles of these prologues show great variety: some appear to be literary exercises with little or no connexion with the books which they introduce, and were perhaps written earlier and for other purposes. In the first, or general, prologue, Douglas claims a higher position for Virgil than for his master Chaucer, and attacks Caxton for his inadequate rendering of a French translation of the Aeneid. That Douglas undertook this work and that he makes a plea for more accurate scholarship in the translation have been the basis of a prevalent notion that he is a Humanist in spirit and the first exponent of Renaissance doctrine in Scottish literature. Careful study of the text will not support this view. Douglas is in all important respects even more of a medievalist than his contemporaries; and, like Henryson and Dunbar, strictly a member of the allegorical school and a follower, in the most generous way, of Chaucer's art. There are several early MSS. of the Aeneid extant: (a) in the library of Trinity College, Cambridge, c. 1525, (6) the Elphynstoun MS. in the library of the university of Edinburgh, c. 1525, (c) the Ruthven MS. in the same collection, c. 1535, (d) in the library of Lambeth Palace, 1 545-1 546. The first printed edition appeared in London in 1 5 53. An Edinburgh edition was issued from the press of Thomas Ruddimanin 1710. For Douglas's career see, in addition to the public records and general histories, Bishop Sage's Life in Ruddiman s edition, and tl at By John Small in the first volume of his edition of the Works of Gavin 446 DOUGLAS, SIR H.— DOUGLAS, STEPHEN Douglas (4 vols., 1874, the only collected edition of Douglas's works) A new edition of the texts is much to be desired. On Douglas' place in Scottish literature see SCOTLAND: Scottish Literature, alsc G. Gregory Smith's Transition Period (1900) and chapters in th Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. ii. (1908). P. Lange' dissertation Chaucer s Einfluss auf die Originaldichtungen des Schotten Gavin Douglas (Halle, 1882) draws attention to Douglas's indebted ness to Chaucer. Further discussion of the question of Douglas' alleged Humanism will be found in Courthope's History of English Poetry, i. (1895), T. F. Henderson's Scottish Vernacular Literature (1898), and J.H. Mi\lar's Literary History of Scotland (1903). Forthe language of the poems see G. Gregory Smith's Specimens of Middle Scots (1902). (G. G. S.) DOUGLAS, SIR HOWARD, Bart. (1776-1861), British general younger son of Admiral Sir Charles Douglas, was born at Gosport in 1776, and entered the Royal Military Academy in 1790. He was commissioned second lieutenant in the Royal Artillery in 1794, becoming first lieutenant a few months later. In 1795 he was shipwrecked while in charge of a draft for Canada, and lived with his men for a whole winter on the Labrador coast. Soon after his return to England in 1799 he was made a captain- lieutenant, and in the same year he married. In his regimental service during the next few years, he was attached to all branches of the artillery in succession, becoming captain in 1804, after which he was placed on half-pay to serve at the Royal Military College. Douglas was at this time (1804) appointed to a majority in the York Rangers, a corps immediately afterwards reduced, and he remained on the roll of its officers until promoted major-general. The senior department of the R.M.C. at High Wycombe, of which he was in charge, was the forerunner of the Staff College. Douglas, since 1806 a brevet lieutenant-colonel, served in 1808-1809 in the Peninsula and was present at Corunna, after which he took part in the Walcheren expedition. In 1809 he succeeded to the baronetcy on the death of his half-brother, Vice-admiral Sir William Henry Douglas. In 1812 he was employed in special missions in the north of Spain, and took part in numerous minor operations in this region, but he was soon recalled, the home government deeming his services indispensable to the Royal Military College. He became brevet colonel in 1814 and C.B. in 1815. In 1816 appeared his Essay on the Principles and Construction of Military Bridges (subsequent editions 1832, 1853) ; in 1819, Observations on the Motives, Errors and Tendency of M. Carnot's System of Defeme, and in the following year his Treatise on Naval Gunnery (of which numerous editions and translations appeared up to the general introduction of rifled ordnance). In 1821 he was promoted major-general. Douglas's criticisms of Carnot led to an important experiment being carried out at Woolwich in 1822, and his Naval Gunnery became a standard text-book, and indeed first drew attention to the subject of which it treated. From 1823 to 1831 Sir Howard Douglas was governor of New Brunswick, and, while there, he had to deal with the Maine boundary dispute of 1828. He also founded Fredericton College, of which he was the first chancellor. On his return to Europe he was employed in various missions, and he published about this time Naval Evolutions, a controversial work dealing with the question of " breaking the line " (London, 1832). From 1835 to 1840 Douglas, now a G.C.M.G., was lord high com- missioner of the Ionian Islands, where, amongst other reforms, he introduced a new code of laws. In 1837 he became a lieutenant- general, in 1840 a K.C.B., in 1841 a civil G.C.B., and in 1851 a general. From 1842 to 1847 Douglas sat in parliament, where he took a prominent part in debates on military and naval matters and on the corn laws. He was frequently consulted on important military questions. His later works included Observations on the Modern System of Fortification, &c. (London, 1859), and Naval Warfare Under Steam (London, 1858 and 1860). He died on the 9th of November 1861 at Tunbridge Wells. Sir Howard Douglas was a F.R.S., one of the founders of the R.G.S., and an honorary D.C.L. of Oxford University. Shortly before his death he declined the offer of a military G.C.B. See S. W. Fullom, Life of Sir Howard Douglas (London, 1862), and irentleman s Magazine, 3rd series, xii. 90-92. DOUGLAS, JOHN (1721-1807), Scottish man of letters and Anglican bishop, was the son of a small shopkeeper at Pittenweem, Fife, where he was born on the i4th of July 1721. He was educated at Dunbar and at Balliol College, Oxford, where he took his M.A. degree in 1743, and as chaplain to the 3rd regiment of foot guards he was at the battle of Fontenoy, 1745. He then returned to Balliol as a Snell exhibitioner; became vicar of High Ercall, Shropshire, in 1750; canon of Windsor, 1762; bishop of Carlisle, 1787 (and also dean of Windsor, 1788); bishop of Salisbury, 1791. Other honours were the degree of D.D., 1758 and those of F.R.S. and F.S.A. in 1778. Douglas was not con- spicuous as an ecclesiastical administrator, preferring to his livings the delights of London in winter and the fashionable watering- places in summer. Under the patronage of the earl of Bath he entered into a good many literary controversies, vindicating Milton from W. Lauder's charge of plagiarism (1750), attacking David Hume's rationalism in his Criterion of Miracles (1752), and the Hutchinsonians in his Apology for the Clergy (1755). He also edited Captain Cook's Journals, and Clarendon's Diary and Letters ( 1 7 63) . He died on the 1 8th of May 1 807 , and a volume of Miscellaneous Works, prefaced by a short biography, was published in 1820. DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD (1813-186!), American statesman, was born at Brandon, Vermont, on the 23rd of April 1813. His father, a physician, died in July 1 8 1 3 , and the boy was under the care of a bachelor uncle until he was fourteen, when his uncle married and Douglas was thrown upon his own resources. He was apprenticed to a cabinetmaker in Middlebury, Vt., and then to another in Brandon, but soon abandoned this trade.' He attended schools at Brandon and Canandaigua (N. Y.), and began the study of law. In 1833 he went West, and finally settled in Jacksonville, Illinois, where he was admitted to the bar in March 1834, and obtained a large practice. From the first he took an active interest in politics, identifying himself with the Jackson Democrats, and his rise was remarkably rapid even for the Middle West of that period. In February 1835 he was elected public arosecutor of the first judicial circuit, the most important at that time in Illinois; in 1835 he was one of several Democrats in Morgan county to favour a state Democratic convention to elect delegates to the national convention of 1836 — an important move toward party regularity; in December 1836 he became a member of the state legislature. In 1837 he was appointed by President Van Buren registrar of the land office at Springfield, which had ust become the state capital. In 1840 he did much to carry the state for Van Buren; and for a few months he was secretary of state of Illinois. He was a judge of the supreme court of Illinois rom 1841 to 1843. In 1843 he was elected to the national House )f Representatives. In Congress, though one of the youngest members, he at once prang into prominence by his clever defence of Jackson during he consideration by the House of a bill remitting the fine mposed on Jackson for contempt of court in New Orleans. He was soon recognized as one of the ablest and most energetic of the Democratic leaders. An enthusiastic believer in the destiny >f his country and more especially of the West, and a thorough- going expansionist, he heartily favoured in Congress the measures which resulted in the annexation of Texas and in the Mexican War — in the discussion of the annexation of Texas he suggested as early as 1845 that the states to be admitted should come n slave or free, as their people should vote when they applied o Congress for admission, thus foreshadowing his doctrine of ' Popular Sovereignty." He took an active share in the Oregon ontroversy, asserting his unalterable determination, in spite f President Folk's faltering from the declaration of his party's platform, not to " yield up one inch " of the territory to Great Jritain, and advocating its occupation by a military force; ndeed he consistently regarded Great Britain as the natural and oremost rival of the United States, the interests of the two lations, he thought, being always opposed, and few senators ought more vigorously the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty or Great Britain's reassertion of the right of search on the high seas. He rdently supported the policy of making Federal appropriations of land, but not of money) for internal improvements of a ational character, being a prominent advocate of the con- truction, by government aid, of a trans-continental railway, DOUGLAS 447 and the chief promoter (1850) of the Illinois Central; in 1854 he suggested that Congress should impose tonnage duties from which towns and cities might themselves pay for harbour improvement, &c. To him as chairman of the committee on territories, at first in the House, and then in the Senate, of which he became a member in December 1847, it fell to introduce the bills for admitting Texas, Florida, Iowa, Wisconsin, Minnesota, California and Oregon into the Union, and for organizing the territories of Minnesota, Oregon, New Mexico, Utah, Washington, Kansas and Nebraska. In 1848 he introduced a bill proposing that all the territory acquired from Mexico should be admitted into the Union as a single state, and upon the defeat of this bill proposed others providing for the immediate admission of parts of this territory. In the bitter debates concerning the keenly disputed question of the permission of slavery in the territories, Douglas was particularly prominent. Against slavery itself he seems never to have had any moral antipathy; he married (1847) the daughter1 of a slaveholder, Colonel Robert Martin of North Carolina, and a cousin of Douglas's colleague in Congress, D. S. Reid; and his wife and children were by inheritance the owners of slaves, though he himself never was. He did more probably than any other one man, except Henry Clay, to secure the adoption of the Compromise Measures of 1850. In 1849 the Illinois legislature demanded that its representatives and senators should vote for the prohibition of slavery in the Mexican cession, but next year this sentiment in Illinois had grown much weaker, and, both there and in Congress, Douglas's name was soon to become identified with the so-called " popular sovereignty " or " squatter sovereignty " theory, previously enunciated by Lewis Cass, by which each territory was to be left to decide for itself whether it should or should not have slavery. In 1850 his power of specious argument won back to him his Chicago constituents who had violently attacked him for not opposing the Fugitive Slave Law. The bill for organizing the territories of Kansas and Nebraska, which Douglas reported in January 1854 and which in amended form was signed by the president on the 3oth of May, reopened the whole slavery dispute — wantonly, his enemies charged, for the purpose of securing Southern support, — and caused great popular excitement, as it repealed the Missouri Compromise, and declared the people of " any state or territory " " free to form and regulate their domestic institutions in their own way, subject only to the Constitution of the United States." The passage of this Kansas- Nebraska Bill, one of the most momentous in its consequences ever passed by the Federal Congress, was largely a personal triumph for Douglas, who showed marvellous energy, adroitness and resourcefulness, and a genius for leadership. There was great indignation throughout the free states; and even in Chicago Douglas was unable to win for himself a hearing before a public meeting. In 1852, and again in 1856, he was a candidate for the presidential nomination in the national Democratic convention, and though on both occasions he was unsuccessful, he received strong support. In 1857 he broke with President Buchanan and the " administration " Democrats and lost much of his prestige in the South, but partially restored himself to favour in the North, and especially in Illinois, by his vigorous opposition to the method of voting on the Lecompton constitution, which he maintained to be fraudulent, and (in 1858) to the admission of Kansas into the Union under this constitution. In 1858, when the Supreme Court, after the vote of Kansas against the Lecompton con- stitution, had decided that Kansas was a " slave " territory, thus quashing Douglas's theory of " popular sovereignty," he engaged in Illinois in a close and very exciting contest for the senatorship with Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candidate, whom he met in a series of debates (at Ottawa, Freeport, Jonesboro, Charleston, Galesburg, Quincy and Alton), in one of which, that at Freeport, Douglas was led to declare that any territory, by " unfriendly 1 Her death in 1853 was a great blow to him and embittered him. In November 1856 he married Adele Cutts, a Maryland belle, a grand- niece of Dolly Madison, and a Roman Catholic, who became the leader of Washington society, especially in the winter of 1857-1858, when Douglas was in revolt against Buchanan. legislation," could exclude slavery, no matter what the action of the Supreme Court. This, the famous " Freeport Doctrine," lost to Douglas the support of a large element of his party in the South, and in Illinois his followers did not poll so large a vote as Lincoln's. Douglas, however, won the senatorship by a vote in the legisla- ture of 54 to 46. In the Senate he was not reappointed chairman of the committee on territories. In 1860 in the Democratic national convention in Charleston the adoption of Douglas's platform brought about the withdrawal from the convention of Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, South Carolina, Florida, Texas and Arkansas. The convention adjourned to Baltimore, where the Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky and Maryland delegations left it, and where Douglas was nominated for the presidency by the Northern Democrats; he campaigned vigorously but hopelessly, boldly attacking disunion, and in the election, though he received a popular vote of 1,376,957, he received an electoral vote of only 12 — Lincoln receiving 180. Douglas urged the South to acquiesce in Lincoln's election. On the outbreak of the Civil War, he denounced secession as criminal, and was one of the strongest advocates of maintaining the integrity of the Union at all hazards. At Lincoln's request he undertook a mission to the border states and the North-west to rouse the spirit of Unionism; he spoke in West Virginia. Ohio and Illinois. He died on the 3rd of June 1861 at Chicago, where he was buried on the shore of Lake Michigan; the site was afterwards bought by the state, and an imposing monument with a statue by Leonard Volk now stands over his grave. In person Douglas was conspicuously small, being hardly five feet in height, but his large head and massive chest and shoulders gave him the popular sobriquet " The Little Giant." His voice was strong and carried far, he had little grace of delivery, and his gestures were often violent. As a resourceful political leader, and an adroit, ready, skilful tactician in debate, he has had few equals in American history. See Allen Johnson's Stephen A. Douglas: A Study in American Politics (New York, 1908), W. G. Brown's Stephen Arnold Douglas (Boston, 1902), and an excellent review of his later life in James Ford Rhodes's History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 (New York, 1893-1906); also P. O. Ray, Repeal of the Missouri Compromise (Cleveland, Ohio, 1909), and E. C. Carr, Stephen A. Douglas (Chicago, 1909). DOUGLAS, the capital of the Isle of Man, a municipal borough and a favourite watering-place. Pop. (1901) 19,223. It stands on a fine semicircular bay on the east coast of the island, at the common mouth of two streams, the Awin-Dhoo and Awin-Glass, 62 m. W.N.W. of Fleetwood and 80 m. N.W. of Liverpool. The older streets are irregular and narrow, but the town has greatly extended in modern times, with numerous terraces of good dwelling-houses. A fine parade sweeps round the bay, which, from Derby Castle on the north to Douglas Head on the south, has a circuit exceeding 2 m. Low hills, penetrated by the valleys of the Dhoo and Glass, encircle the town on the north, west and south, the southern spur projecting seaward in the promontory of Douglas Head. The harbour, in the river mouth, lies immediately north of this; vessels drawing 9 ft. may enter it during neap tides, and those drawing 13 ft. during spring tides. A castellated building, called the Tower of Refuge, erected in 1832, marks the dangerous Conister rocks, north of the harbour entrance. The Battery pier protects the entrance on the south- west, and there is a short pier (the Red pier) within the harbour, while the Victoria pier on the north, at which passengers can land and embark at all heights of the tide, was erected in 1872. There is regular daily communication with Liverpool by the steamers of the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company, and during the season there are connexions with Fleetwood, Barrow, Dublin, Belfast and Glasgow. Douglas is connected by electric tramway north- ward with Laxey, the summit of the mountain of Snaefell and Ramsey, and southward with Port Soderick, while the Isle of Man railway runs to Peel in the west, and Castietown and Port Erin in the south-west. The town has services of cable and horse trams. The various popular attractions of Douglas include theatres, dancing halls, a race-course and two golf links Howstrake and Quarter Bridge. The shore of the bay is of firm DOUGLAS— DOUKHOBORS sand (covered at high tide) , and the sea-bathing is good. Among buildings and institutions in Douglas may be mentioned the legislative buildings (1893), the town hall (1899), the large free library, the court house and the Isle of Man hospital. Castle Mona, erected in 1804 by John, 4th duke of Arrol and lord of Man, is transformed into an hotel. St George's church, the oldest remaining in Douglas, dates from 1 780. Douglas was incorporated in 1895, and is governed by a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors. DOUGLAS, a village of Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1206. It is situated on Douglas water, 3 m. from Douglas station on the branch line from Carstairs to Ayr, 1 1 m. by road S.S.W. of Lanark. It is a place of ancient aspect, bearing evident signs of decay, but possesses peculiar interest as the original home of the great Douglas family. Of the old castle, Scott's Castle Dangerous, only a tower exists. The stronghold repeatedly changed hands during the wars waged against Edward I. for the independence of Scotland. The modern castle is the seat of the earl of Home. Only the choir and spire remain of the 12th-century church of St Bride, the patron saint of the Douglases. The vault beneath the choir was, until 1761, the burial-place of the family, and it contains a silver case said to hold the ashes of the heart of the "good Sir James" (1286-1330). Ini879thechoirwasrestoredand the tombs (including that of Sir James Douglas) repaired. David Hackston of Rathillet, the Covenanter, is stated to have been captured in the village (in a house still standing) after the battle of Aird's Moss in 1680. On the hill of Auchensaugh (1286 ft.), 2§ m. S.E., the Cameronians assembled in 1712 to renew the Solemn League and Covenant. This gathering, the "Auchensaugh Wark," as it was called, led up to the secession of the Reformed Presbyterians from the Kirk. DOUGLASS, FREDERICK (1817-1895), American orator and journalist, was born in Tuckahoe, Talbot county, Maryland, probably in February 1817. His mother was a negro slave of exceptional intelligence, and his father was a white man. Until nearly eight years of age, he was under the care of his grand- mother; then he lived for a year on the plantation of Colonel Edward Lloyd, of whose vast estate his master, Captain Aaron Anthony, was manager. After a year he was sent to Baltimore, where he lived in the family of Hugh Auld, whose brother, Thomas, had married the daughter of Captain Anthony; Mrs Auld treated him with marked kindness and without her husband's knowledge began teaching him to read. With money secretly earned by blacking boots he purchased his first book, the Columbian Orator; he soon learned to write " free passes " for runaway slaves. Upon the death of Captain Anthony in 1833, he was sent back to the plantation to serve Thomas Auld, who hired him out for a year to one Edward Covey, who had a wide reputation for disciplining slaves, but who did not break Frederick's spirit. Although a new master, William Freeland, who owned a large plantation near St Michael's, Md., treated him with much kindness, he attempted to escape in 1836, but his plans were suspected, and he was put in jail. From lack of evidence he was soon released, and was then sent to Hugh Auld in Baltimore, where he was apprenticed as a ship caulker. He learned his trade in one year, and in September 1838, masquerad- ing as a sailor, he escaped by railway train from Baltimore to New York city. For the sake of greater safety he soon removed to New Bedford, Massachusetts, where he changed his name from Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey to Frederick Douglass, " Douglass " being adopted at the suggestion of a friend who greatly admired Scott's Lady of the Lake. For three years he worked as a day labourer in New Bedford. An extempore speech made by him before an anti -slavery meeting at Nantucket, Mass., in August 1841 led to his being appointed one of the agents of the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society, and in this capacity he delivered during the next four years numerous addresses against slavery, chiefly in the New England and middle states. To quiet the suspicion that he was an impostor, in 1845 he published the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave. Fearing his recapture, his friends persuaded him to go to England, and from August 1845 to April 1847 he lectured in Ireland, Scotland and England, and did much to enlist the sympathy of the British public with the Abolitionists in America. Before his return a sum of £150 was raised by subscription to secure his legal manumission, thus relieving him from the fear of being returned to slavery in pursuance of the Fugitive Slave Law. From 1847 to 1860 he conducted an anti-slavery weekly journal, known as The North Star, and later as Frederick Douglass's Paper, at Rochester, New York, and, during this time, also was a frequent speaker at anti-slavery meetings. At first a follower of Garrison and a disunionist, he allied himself after 1851 with the more conservative political abolitionists, who, under the leader- ship of James G. Birney, adhered to the national Constitution and endeavoured to make slavery a dominant political issue. He disapproved of John Brown's attack upon Harper's Ferry in 1859, and declined to take any part in it. During the Civil War he was among the first to suggest the employment of negro troops by the United States government, and two of his sons served in the Union army. After the war he was for several years a popular public lecturer; in September 1866 he was a delegate to the national Loyalist convention at Philadelphia; and in 1869 he became the editor, at Washington, of a short-lived weekly paper, The New National Era, devoted to the interests of the negro race. In 187 1 he was assistant secretary of the Santo Domingo commission, appointed by President Grant. He was marshal of the District of Columbia from 1877 to 1881, was recorder of deeds for the district from 1881 to 1886, and from 1889 to 1891 was the American minister resident and consul-general in the Republic of Haiti. He died in Anacostia Heights, District of Columbia, on the 2oth of February 1895. He was widely known for his eloquence, and was one of the most effective orators whom the negro race has produced in America. His autobiography appeared, after two revisions, as The Life and Times of Frederick Douglass (London, 1882). See F. M. Holland, Frederick Douglass, The Colored Orator (New York, 1891) ; C. W. Chesnutt, Frederick Douglass, (Boston, 1899); and Booker T. Washington, Frederick Douglass (Philadelphia, 1907), in the series of American Crisis Biographies. DOUKHOBORS, a name given by the Russian Orthodox clergy to a community of nonconformist peasants. The word etymo- logically signifies " spirit-fighters," being originally intended by the priesthood to convey that they fight against the Spirit of God; but the Doukhobors themselves accepted the term as signifying that they fight, not against, but for and with the Spirit. Of late, however, they have decided to give up this name and call themselves " Christians of the Universal Brotherhood." This religious community was first heard of in the middle of the i8th century. By the end of that century or the beginning of the igth their doctrine had become so clearly defined, and the number of their members had so greatly increased, that the Russian govern- ment and Church, considering this sect to be peculiarly obnoxious, started an energetic campaign against it. The foundation of the Doukhobors' teaching consists in the belief that the Spirit of God is present in the soul of man, and directs him by its word within him. They understand the coming of Christ in the flesh, his works, teaching and sufferings, in a spiritual sense. The object of the sufferings of Christ, in their view, was to give an example of suffering for truth. Christ continues to suffer in us even now when we do not live in accordance with the behests and spirit of his teaching. The whole teaching of the Doukhobors is penetrated with the Gospel spirit of love. Worshipping God in the spirit, they affirm that the outward Church and all that is performed in it and concerns it has no importance for them. The Church is where two or three are gathered together, i.e. united in the name of Christ. They pray inwardly at all times; on fixed days they assemble for prayer-meetings, at which they greet each other fraternally with low bows, thereby acknowledging every man as a bearer of the Divine Spirit. Their teaching is founded on tradition, which is called among them the " Book of Life," because it lives in their memory and hearts. It consists of sacred songs or chants, partly composed independently, partly formed out of the contents of the Bible, which, however, has evidently been gathered by them orally, as until quite lately they were almost entirely DOULLENS— DOULTON 449 illiterate and did not possess any written book. They found alike their mutual relations and their relations to other people — and not only to people, but to all living creatures — exclusively on love, and therefore they hold all people equal and brethren. They extend this idea of equality also to the government authorities, obedience to whom they do not consider binding upon them in those cases when the demands of these authorities are in conflict with their conscience; while in all that does not infringe what they regard as the will of God they willingly fulfil the desire of the authorities. They consider killing, violence, and in general all relations to living beings not based on love as opposed to their conscience and to the will of God. They are industrious and abstemious in their lives, and when living up to the standard of their faith they present one of the nearest approaches to the realization of the Christian ideal which have ever been attained. In many ways they have thus a close resemblance to the Quakers or Society of Friends. For these beliefs and practices the Doukhobors long endured cruel persecution. Under Nicholas I., in the years 1840 and 1850, the Doukhobors, who on religious grounds refused to participate in military service, were all banished from the government of Tauris — whither they had been previously transported from various parts of Russia by Alexander I. — to Transcaucasia, near the Turkish frontier. But neither the severe climate nor the neighbourhood of wild and warlike hillmen shook their faith, and in the course of half a century, in one of the most unhealthyand unfertile localities in the Caucasus, they trans- formed this wilderness into flourishing colonies, and continued to live a Christian and laborious life, making friends with, instead of fighting, the hillmen. But the wealth to which they attained in the Caucasus weakened for a time their moral fervour, and little by little they began to depart somewhat from the require- ments of their belief. As soon, however, as events happened among them which disturbed their outward tranquillity, the religious spirit which had guided their fathers immediately revived within them. In 1887, in the reign of the tsar Alexander III., universal military service was introduced in the Caucasus; and even those for whom, as in the case of the Doukhobors, it had formerly been replaced with banishment, were called upon to serve. This measure took the Doukhobors unawares, and at first they outwardly submitted to it. About the same time, by the decision of certain government officials, the right to the possession of the public property of the Doukhobors (valued at about £50,000) passed from the community to one of their members, who had formed out of the more demoralized Doukhobors a group of his own personal adherents, which was henceforth called the " Small Party." Soon afterwards several of the most respected representatives of the community were banished to the govern- ment of Archangel. This series of calamities was accepted by the Doukhobors as a punishment from God, and a spiritual awaken- ing of a most energetic character ensued. The majority (about 1 2 ,000 in number) resolved to revive hi practice the traditions left them by their fathers, which they had departed from during the period of opulence. They again renounced tobacco, wine, meat and every kind of excess, many of them dividing up all their property in order to supply the needs of those who were in want, and they collected a new public fund. They also renounced all participation in acts of violence, and therefore refused military service. In confirmation of their sincerity, in the summer of 1895 the Doukhobors of the " Great Party," as they were called in distinction from the " Small Party," burnt all the arms which they, like other inhabitants of the Caucasus, had taken up for their protection from wild animals, and those who were in the army refused to continue service. At the commencement of the reign of the tsar Nicholas II., in 1895, the Doukhobors became the victims of a series of persecutions, Cossack soldiers plundering, insulting, beating and maltreating both men and women in every way. More than 400 families of Doukhobors who were living in the province of Tiflis were ruined and banished to Georgian villages. Of 4000 thus exiled, more than 1000 died in the course of the first two years from exhaustion and disease; and more would have perished had not information reached Count Leo Tolstoy and his friends, and through them the Society of Friends viii. 15 in England. Funds were immediately raised by sympathizers for alleviating the sufferings of the starving victims. At the same time an appeal, written by Tolstoy and some of his friends, requesting the help of public opinion in favour of the oppressed Doukhobors, was circulated in St Petersburg and sent to the emperor and higher government officials. The Doukhobors them- selves asked for permission to leave Russia, and the Society of Friends petitioned the emperor to the same effect. In March 1898 the desired permission was granted, and the first party of Doukhobors, 1126 in number, were able in the summer of 1898 to sail from Batum for Cyprus, which was originally chosen for their settlement because at that time funds were not sufficient for transferring them to any other British territory. But as contribu- tions accumulated, it was found possible to send a number of Doukhobor emigrants to Canada, whither they arrived in two parties, numbering above 4000, in January 1899. They were joined in the spring of the same year by the Cyprus party, and another party of about 2000 arrived from the Caucasus. In all about 7500 Doukhobor immigrants arrived in Canada. The Canadian government did their best to facilitate the immigration, and allotted land to the Doukhobors in the provinces of Assiniboia near Yorkto wn and of Saskatchewan nearThunder Hill and Prince Albert. They were very cordially received by the population of the Canadian port towns. In April 1 901 , in the Canadian House of Commons, the minister of justice made a statement about them in which he said that " not a single offence had been committed by the Doukhobors; they were law-abiding, and if good conduct was a recommendation, they were good immigrants. . . . The large tracts of land demanded population, and if they were not given to crime, the conclusion was that they would make good citizens." About eighteen months after they arrived in Canada the Doukhobors sent the Society of Friends a collective letter in which they sincerely thanked the English and American Friends for all the generous help of every kind they had received at their hands, but begged the Quakers to cease sending them any more pecuniary support, as they were now able to stand on their own feet, and therefore felt it right that any further help should be directed to others who were more in need of it. At Yorktown in the summer of 1907 the Doukhobors established one of the largest and best brick-making plants in Canada, a significant testimony to the way hi which the leaders of the community were working in the interests of the whole. Now and again small bodies broke off from the main community and adopted a semi-nomadic life, but these formed a very small percentage of the total number, which in 1908 was over 8000. See also Christian Martyrdom in Russia, by V. Tchertkoff (The Free Age Press, Christchurch, Hants) ; Aylmer Maude, A Peculiar People, the Doukhobors. (V. T.) DOULLENS, a town of • northern France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Somme, on the Authie, 27 m. N. of Amiens by rail. Pop. (1906) 449 5. It has a citadel of the 1 5th and i6th centuries which has often served as a state prison and is now used as a reformatory for girls. There are also a belfry of the 1 7th century and two old churches. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first instance; it has trade in phosphates, of which there are workings in the vicinity, and carries on cotton-spinning and the manufacture of leather, paper and sugar. Doullens, the ancient Dulincum, was seat of a viscountship and an important stronghold in the middle ages. In 1475 it was burnt by Louis XI. for openly siding with the house of Burgundy. In 1595 it was besieged and occupied by the Spaniards, but was restored to France by the treaty of Vervins (i598). DOULTON, SIR HENRY (1820-1897), English inventor and manufacturer of pottery, born in Vauxhall on the 25th of July 1820, was from the age of fifteen actively employed in the pottery works of his father, John Doulton, at Lambeth. One of the first results of his many experiments was the production of good enamel glazes. In 1846 he initiated in Lambeth the pipe works, in which he superintended the manufacture of the drainage and sanitary appliances which have helped to make the firm of Doulton famous. In 1870 the manufacture of " Art pottery " 5 45° DOUMER— DOUSA was begun at Lambeth, and in 1877 works were opened at Burslem, where almost every variety of china and porcelain, as well as artistic earthenware, has been produced. Works have since been opened at Rowley Regis, Smethwick, St Helens, Paisley and Paris. After the Paris exhibition of 1878 Henry Doulton was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour. In 1872 the " Art department " was instituted in the Doulton works, giving employment to both male and female artists, amongst whom such workers as George Tinworth and the Misses Barlow have obtained a reputation outside their immediate sphere. In 1887 Doulton received the honour of knighthood, and a few years later was awarded the Albert medal by the Society of Arts. He married in 1849 the daughter of Mr J. L. Kennaby; she died in 1888. Sir Henry Doulton took an active interest, as almoner, in St Thomas's hospital. He died in London on the i8th of November 1897. DOUMER, PAUL (1857- ), French politician, was born at Aurillac. He studied law and made his debut in politics as chef de cabinet to Floquet, when president of the chamber in 1885. In 1888 he was elected Radical deputy for the department of the Aisne. Defeated in the general elections of September 1889, he was elected again in 1890 by the arrondissement of Auxerre. As minister of finance in the Bourgeois cabinet (from the 3rd of November 1895 to the 2ist of April 1896) he tried without suc- cess to introduce an income-tax. In January 1897 he became governor of Indo-China, where he carried out important public works. In 1902 he returned to France and was elected by Laon to the chamber as a Radical. He refused, however, to support the Combes ministry, and formed a Radical dissident group, which grew in strength and eventually caused the fall of the ministry. Doumer became a prominent personage in Paris and was elected president of the chamber in January 1905, being re-elected in January 1906. At the presidential election of the i7th of January 1906 he was a candidate in opposition to M. Fallieres and obtained only 371 votes against 449; and the new chamber passed him over as its new president in favour of Henri Brisson. As an author he is known by his L'Indo-Chinefranc.aise (1904), and Le Livre de mesfils (1906). DOUMIC, RENE (1860- ), French critic and man of letters, was born in Paris, and after a distinguished career at the Ecole Normale began to teach rhetoric at the College Stanislas. He was a contributor to the Moniteur, the Journal des Debats and the Revue bleue, but was best known as the independent and un- compromising literary critic of the Revue des Deux Mondes. His works include : Elements d'histoire Utter air e (1888); Portraits d'ecrivains (1892); De Scribe it Ibsen (1893); Ecrivains d'aujour- d'hui (1894); Etudes sur la litlerature franc.aise (5 vols., 1896- 1905); Les Jeunes (1896); Essais sur le theatre conlemporain (1897); Les Hommes et les idees du XlX'siecle (1903); and an edition of the Lettres d'Elvire a Lamartine (1905). DOUNE, a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, 8| m. N.W. of Stirling by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 930. It is situated on the left bank of the Teith, here crossed by the bridge built in 1535 by Robert Spittal, tailor to James IV. The town was once famous for its pistols and sporrans (as the purses worn with the kilt are called), which were in great request by the clansmen of the Highlands. Doune Castle, now in ruins, occupies a commanding position on the Teith, at the point where it is joined by the Ardoch. .It is believed to have been built by Murdoch, 2nd duke of Albany (d. 1425), and was sometimes a residence of the sovereigns, among them James V. and Queen Mary. A nephew of Rob Roy held it for Prince Charlie, and it figures in Scott's Waverley. It belongs to the earl of Moray (Murray) , who derives from it his title of Lord Doune, and was the home of James Stewart, the " bonnie earl " of Moray, murdered at Donibristle in Fife by the earl of Huntly (1592). The braes of Doune lie to the north-west of the town and extend towards Uam Var. Deanston (pop. 652), I m. S.W. of Doune, on the right bank of the Teith, was the scene of the labours of James Smith (i 789- 1850), the agricultural engineer, who was also manager of the cotton mills established there in 1 785. On his farm Smith carried out his experiments in deep and thorough draining, and also invented a reaping machine, the subsoil plough and numerous other valuable appliances. DOURO (Span. Duero, Port. Douro, anc. Durius), a river of the Iberian Peninsula. The Douro rises south of the Sierra de la Demanda, in the Pico de Urbion, an isolated mountain mass 7389 ft. high. It describes a wide curve eastwards past Soria, then flows westward across the Castilian table-land, passing south of Valladolid, with Toro and Zamora on its right bank; then from a point 3 m. E. of Paradella to Barca d'Alva it flows south-west and forms the frontier between Spain and Portugal for 65 m. It crosses Portugal in a westerly direction through a narrow and tortuous bed, and enters the Atlantic 3 m. below Oporto at Sao Joao da Foz. The length of the Douro, which is greater than that of any other Iberian river except the Tagus and Guadiana, is probably about 485 m.; but competent authorities differ widely in their estimates, the extremes given being 420 and 507 m. In Spain the Douro receives from the right the rivers Pisuerga, Valderaduey and Esla, and from the left several small streams which drain the Sierra Guadarrama, besides the more important rivers Adaja, Tormes and Yeltes; in Portugal it receives the Agueda, C6a and Paiva from the left, and the Sabor, Tua and Tamega from the right. The area drained by the Douro and its tributaries is upwards of 37,50x3 sq. m., and includes the greater part of the vast plateau of Old Castile, between the water- sheds of the Cantabrian Mountains, on the north, and the Guadarrama, Credos, Gata and Estrella ranges, on the south. The lower stream is beset with numerous rapids, called pantos, and is subject to swift and violent inundations. On this account navigation is attended with difficulties and risks between its mouth and Barca d'Alva; but a railway, running for the most part along the right bank, skirts the river during the greater part of its course through Portugal. The mouth of the river is partly blocked by a sandy bar; only ships of light draught can enter, while those of greater burden are accommodated at the harbour of Leixoes, an artificial basin constructed about 3 m. N. On its way through Portugal the Douro traverses the Paiz do Vinho, one of the richest wine-producing territories in the world; large quantities of wine are conveyed to Oporto in sailing boats. The Douro yields an abundance of fish, especially trout, shad and lampreys. DOUROUCOULI, apparently the native name (perhaps derived from their cries) of a small group of American monkeys ranging from Nicaragua to Amazonia and eastern Peru, and forming the genus Nyctipithecus. In addition to the absence of prehensile power in their tails, douroucoulis, also known as night-apes, are distinguished by their large eyes, the sockets of which occupy nearly the whole front of the upper part of the skull, the partition between the nostrils being in consequence narrower than usual. The ears are short, and the hair round the eyes forms a disk. Douroucoulis live in parties, and are purely nocturnal, sleeping during the day in hollow trees, and coming out at night to feed on insects and fruits, when they utter piercing cat-like screams. DOUSA, JANUS [Jan van der Does], lord of Noordwyck (1545-1604), Dutch statesman, historian, poet and philologist, and the heroic defender of Leiden, was born at Noordwyck, in the province of Holland, on the 6th of December 1545. He began his studies at Lier in Brabant, became a pupil of Henry Junius at Delft in 1560, and then passed on in succession to Louvain, Douai and Paris. Here he studied Greek under Pierre Dorat, professor at the College Royal, and became acquainted with the chancellor L'H6pital, Turnebus, Ronsard and other eminent men. On his return in 1565 he married Elizabeth van Zuylen. His name stands in the list of nobles who in that year formed a league against Philip II. of Spain, but he does not appear to have taken any active part in public affairs till 1572, when he was sent as a member of an embassy to England. He was not, however, at first very eager to commit himself to the fortunes of William the Silent, prince of Orange, but having once chosen his side, he threw himself heart and soul into the struggle for freedom from the Spanish yoke. Fortunately for Leiden he was residing in the town at the time of the famous siege. He held no post in the government, but in the hour of need he, though not trained to DOVE PLATE I. ROCK DOVE OR BLUE ROCK PIGEON, Columba livia. STOCK DOVE, Columba oenas. AMERICAN WILD CARRIER PIGEON, RING DOVE OR WOOD PIGEON, Ectopistes migratorius. Columba palumbus. (After the coloured drawings by Mme. Knip (Pauline de Courcelles), painter to the Empress Marie Louise, in Les Pigeons. VI1I.450. Text by C. J. Themminck, Paris, 1811.) PLATE II. DOVE NICOBAR PIGEON, Caloenas nicobarica. (After Mme. Knip, as above.) CROWNED PIGEON, Goura coronala (After Mme. Knip, as above.) Photographs of two typical pedigree Homing or Racing Pigeons, colours black and blue chequer, bred and shown by Frederick Romer, Esq., prize-winners in races from France to England. By permission of the proprietors of the Racing Pigeon DOUVILLE— DOVE 45 arms, took the command of a company of troops. His fearlessness and unshaken resolution had no small influence in encouraging the regents and the citizens to prolong the defence. On the foundation of the university of Leiden by William the Silent, Dousa was appointed first curator, and he held this office for nearly thirty years. Through his friendships with foreign scholars he drew to Leiden many illustrious teachers and professors. After the assassination of the prince of Orange in 1584, Dousa undertook a private journey to England to try and persuade Queen Elizabeth to support the cause of the states, and in 1585 he went at the head of a formal embassy for the same purpose. About the same time he was appointed keeper of the archives of Holland (registermeester van Holland), and the opportunities thus afforded him of historical research he turned to good account. He had three sons and five daughters. All his sons acquired a reputation for learning, but two of them died before their father. Dousa was author of several volumes of Latin verse and of philological commentaries on Horace, Plautus, Catullus and other Latin poets. His principal work is the Annals of Holland, which first appeared in a metrical form in 1599, and was published in prose under the title of Bataviae Hollandiaeque annales in 1601. Dousa also took part as editor or contributor in various other publications. He died at Noordwyck on the 8th of October 1604, and was interred at the Hague ; but no monument was erected to his memory till 1792, when one of his descendants placed a tomb to his honour in the church of Noordwyck. There are good portraits of the Great Dousa, as he is often called, by Visscher and Houbraken. DOUVILLE, JEAN BAPTISTS (i794?-i837), French traveller, was born at Hambye, in the department of Manche. Having at an early age inherited a fortune, he decided to gratify his taste for foreign travel. According to his own profession he visited India, Kashmir, Khorasan, Persia, Asia Minor and many parts of Europe. In 1826 he went to South America, and in 1827 left Brazil for the Portuguese possessions on the west coast of Africa, where his presence in March 1828 is proved by the mention made of him in letters of Castillo Branco, the governor-general of Loanda. In May 1831 he reappeared in France, claiming to have pushed his explorations into the very heart of central Africa. His story was readily accepted by the Societ6 de G6ographie of Paris, which hastened to recognize his services by assigning him the great gold medal, and appointing him their secretary for the year 1832. On the publication of his narrative, Voyage au Congo et dans I'interieur de V Afrique iquinoxiale, which occupied three volumes and was accompanied by an elaborate atlas, public enthusiasm ran high. Before the year 1832 was out, however, it was established that Douville's Voyage was romance and not verity. He had probably been inspired by the appearance of Ren6 Caillie's account of his journey to Timbuktu, and wished to obtain a share of the fame attaching to African explorers. Douville tried vainly to establish the truth of his story in Ma Defense (1832), and Trente mois de ma vie, ou quinze mois avanl et quinze mois apres man voyage au Congo (1833). Mile Audrun, a lady to whom he was about to be married, committed suicide from grief at the disgrace; and the adventurer withdrew in 1833 to Brazil, and proceeded to make explorations in the valley of the Amazon. According to Dr G. Gardner, in his Travels in the Interior of Brazil (1846), he was murdered in 1837 on the banks of the Sao Francisco for charging too high for his medical assistance. Douville may well have explored part of the pro- vince of Angola, and Sir Richard Burton maintained that the Frenchman's descriptions of the country of the Congo were life- like; that his observations on the anthropology, ceremonies, customs and maladies of the people were remarkably accurate; and that even the native words used in his narrative were "for the most part given with unusual correctness." It has been shown, however, that the chief source of Douville's inspiration was a number of unpublished Portuguese manuscripts to which he had access. DOUW (or Dow), GERHARD (1613-1680), Dutch painter, was born at Leiden on the 7th of April 1613. His first instructor in drawing and design was Bartholomew Dolendo, an engraver; and he afterwards learned the art of glass-painting under Peter Kouwhoorn. At the age of fifteen he became a pupil of Rembrandt, with whom he continued for three years. From the great master of the Flemish school he acquired his skill in colour- ing, and in the more subtle effects of chiaroscuro ; and the style of Rembrandt is reflected in several of his earlier pictures, notably in a portrait of himself at the age of twenty-two, in the Bridge- water House gallery, and in the " Blind Tobit going to meet his Son," at Wardour Castle. At a comparatively early point in his career, however, he had formed a manner of his own distinct from, and indeed in some respects antagonistic to, that of his master. Gifted with unusual clearness of vision and precision of manipulation, he cultivated a minute and elaborate style of treatment ; and probably few painters ever spent more time and pains on all the details of their pictures down to the most trivial. He is said to have spent five days in painting a hand; and his work was so fine that he found it necessary to manufacture his own brushes. Notwithstanding the minuteness of his touch, how- ever, the general effect was harmonious and free from stiffness, and his colour was always admirably fresh and transparent. He was fond of representing subjects in lantern or candle light, the effects of which he reproduced with a fidelity and skill which no other master has equalled. He frequently painted by the aid of a concave mirror, and to obtain exactness looked at his subject through a frame crossed with squares of silk thread. His practice as a portrait painter, which was at first considerable, gradually declined, sitters being unwilling to give him the time that he deemed necessary. His pictures were always small in size, and represented chiefly subjects in still life. Upwards of 200 are attributed to him, and specimens are to be found in most of the great public collections of Europe. His chef-d'oeuvre is generally considered to be the " Woman sick of the Dropsy," in the Louvre. The " Evening School," in the Amsterdam gallery, is the best example of the candlelight scenes in which he excelled. In the National Gallery, London, favourable specimens are to be seen in the " Poulterer's Shop," and a portrait of himself. Douw's pictures brought high prices, and it is said that President Van Spiring of the Hague paid him 1000 florins a year simply for the right of pre-emption. Douw died in 1680. His most celebrated pupil was Francis Miens. DOVE, a river of England, tributary to the Trent, rising in Axe Edge, Derbyshire, and through almost its entire course forming the boundary of that county with Staffordshire. In its upper course it traverses a fine narrow valley, where the limestone hills exhibit many picturesque cliffs, gullies and caves. Dovedale, that part of the valley which lies between Dove Holes and Thorpe Cloud (or with a wider significance between the towns of Hartington and Ashbourne), is especially famous. Below Thorpe Cloud the Dove receives on the west the waters of the Manifold, which, like its tributary the Hamps, and other streams in the limestone district, has part of its course below ground. Near the village of Rocester the Churnet joins the Dove on the west, and then the course of the main stream, hitherto southerly, bends nearly easterly on passing Uttoxeter, and, winding through a widening valley, joins the Trent at Newton Solney, a short distance below Burton-on-Trent. The length of the valley is about 40 m. and the total fall of the river about 1450 ft. The Dove is well known for its trout-fishing, and the portion of the upper valley called Beresford Dale, below Hartington, has a special interest for fishermen through its associations with Izaak Walton and his friend Charles Cotton, whose fishing-house stands near the Pike Pool, a reach of the river with a lofty rock rising from its centre. DOVE (Dutch duyve, Dan. due, Ice. dufa, Ger. Taube), a name most commonly applied by ornithologists to the smaller members of the group of birds usually called pigeons (Columbae); but no sharp distinction can be drawn between pigeons and doves, and in general literature the two words are used almost indifferently, while no one species can be pointed out to which the word dove, taken alone, seems to be absolutely proper. The largest of the group to which the name is applicable is perhaps the ring-dove, or wood-pigeon, also called in many parts of 452 DOVER, BARON Britain cushat and queest (Columba palumbus, Linn.), a very common bird throughout the British Islands and most parts of Europe. It associates in winter in large flocks, the numbers of which (owing partly to the destruction of predaceous animals, but still more to the modern system of agriculture, and the growth of plantations in many districts that were before treeless) have increased enormously. In former days, when the breadth of land in Britain under green crops was comparatively small, these birds found little food in the dead season, and this scarcity was a natural check on their superabundance. But since the extended cultivation of turnips and plants of similar use the case is altered, and perhaps at no time of the year has provender become more plentiful than in winter. The ring-dove may be easily dis- tinguished from other European species by its larger size, and especially by the white spot on either side of its neck, forming a nearly continuous " ring," whence the bird takes its name, and the large white patches in its wings, which are very conspicuous in flight. It breeds several times in the year, making for its nest a slight platform of sticks on the horizontal bough of a tree, and laying therein two eggs — which, as in all the Columbae, are white. It is semi-domestic in the London parks. The stock-dove (C. aenas of most authors) is a smaller species, with many of the habits of the former, but breeding by preference in the stocks of hollow trees or in rabbit-holes. It is darker in colour than the ring-dove, without any white on its neck or wings, and is much less common and more locally distributed. The rock-dove (C. livid, Temm.) much resembles the stock-dove, but is of a lighter colour, with two black bars on its wings, and a white rump. In its wild state it haunts most of the rocky parts of the coast of Europe, from the Faeroes to the Cyclades, and, seldom going inland, is comparatively rare. Yet, as it is without contradiction the parent-stem of all British domestic pigeons, its numbers must far exceed those of both the former put together. In Egypt and various parts of Asia it is represented by what Charles Darwin has called " wild races," which are commonly accounted good " species " (C. schimperi, C. affinis, C. intermedia, C. leuconota, and so forth), though they differ from one another far less than do nearly all the domestic forms, of which more than 150 kinds that " breed true," and have been separately named, are known to exist. Very many of these, if found wild, would have unquestionably been ranked by the best ornithologists as distinct " species " and several of them would as undoubtedly have been placed in different genera. These various breeds are classified by Darwin 1 in four groups as follows: — GROUP I., composed of a single Race, that of the " Pouters," having the gullet of great size, barely separated from the crop, and often inflated, the body and legs elongated, and a moderate bill. The most strongly marked sub-race, the Improved English Pouter, is considered to be the most distinct of all domesticated pigeons. GROUP II. includes three Races: — (i) "Carriers," with a long pointed bill, the eyes surrounded by much bare skin, and the neck and body much elongated; (2) " Runts," with a long, massive bill, and the body of great size; and (3) " Barbs," with a short, broad bill, much bare skin round the eyes, and the skin over the nostrils swollen. Of the first four and of the second five sub-races are dis- tinguished. GROUP III. is confessedly artificial, and to it are assigned five Races: — (i) " Fan-tails," remarkable for the extraordinary develop- ment of their tails, which may consist of as many as forty-two rectrices in place of the ordinary twelve; (2) " Turbits ' and " Owls," with the feathers of the throat diverging, and a short thick bill; (3) " Tumblers," possessing the marvellous habit of tumbling backwards during flight, or, in some breeds, even on the ground, and having a short, conical bill; (4) " Frill-backs," in which the feathers are reversed; and (5) "Jacobins," with the feathers of the neck forming a hood, and the wings and tail long. GROUP IV. greatly resembles the normal form, and comprises two Races: — (i) " Trumpeters," with a tuft of feathers at the base of the neck curling forward, the face much feathered, and a very peculiar voice, and (2) Pigeons scarcely differing in structure from the wild stock. Besides these some three or four other little-known breeds exist, and the whole number of breeds and sub-breeds almost defies computation. The difference between them is in many cases far 1 TheVariation of Animals and Plants under Domestication (London, 1868), vol. i. pp. 131-224. from being superficial, for Darwin has shown that there is scarcely any part of the skeleton which is constant, and the modifications that have been effected in the proportions of the head and sternal apparatus are very remarkable. Yet the proof that all these different birds have descended from one common stock is nearly certain. Here there is no need to point out its bearing upon the theory of natural selection. The antiquity of some of these breeds is not the least interesting part of the subject, nor is the use to which one at least of them has long been applied. The dove from the earliest period in history has been associated with the idea of a messenger (Genesis viii. 8-12), and the employment of pigeons in that capacity, developed successively by Greeks, Romans, Mussulmans and Christians, has come down to modern times. The various foreign species, if not truly belonging to the genus Columba, are barely separable therefrom. Of these examples may be found in the Indian, Ethiopian and Neotropical regions. Innumerable other forms entitled to the name of " dove " are to be found in almost every part of the world, and nowhere more abundantly than in the Australian Region. A. R. Wallace (Ibis, 1865, pp. 365-400) considers that they attain their maximum development in the Papuan Subregion, where, though the land area is less than one-sixth that of Europe, more than a quarter of all the species (some 300 in number) known to exist are found — owing, he suggests, to the absence of forest-haunting and fruit- eating mammals, which are in most cases destructive to eggs also. To a small group of birds the name dove is, however, especially applicable in common parlance. This is the group containing the turtle-doves — -the time-honoured emblem of tenderness and conjugal love. The common turtle-dove of Europe ( Turtur auritus) is one of those species which are gradually extending their area. In England, in the i8th century, it seems to have been chiefly, if not solely, known in the southern and western counties. Though in the character of a straggler only, it now reaches the extreme north of Scotland, and is perhaps nowhere more abundant than in many of the midland and eastern counties of England. On the continent of Europe the same thing has been observed, though indeed not so definitely; and this species has appeared as a casual visitor within the Arctic Circle. Its graceful form and the delicate harmony of its modest colouring are pro- verbial. The species is migratory, reaching Europe late in April and retiring in September. Another species, and one perhaps better known from being commonly kept in confinement, is that called by many the collared or Barbary dove (T. risorius) — the second English name probably indicating that it was by way of the Barbary coast that it was brought to England. This is distinguished by its cream-coloured plumage and black necklace. (A. N.) DOVER, GEORGE JAMES WELBORE AGAR-ELLIS, BAKON (1797-1833), English man of letters, born on the i4th of January 1797, was the only son of the 2nd Viscount Clifden. He was educated at Westminster school and at Christ Church, Oxford. In 1818 he was returned to parliament as member for Heytesbury. He afterwards represented Seaford (1820), Ludgershall (1826) and Okehampton (1830). He seconded Canning's motion in 1822 for a bill to relieve the disabilities of Roman Catholic peers, and consistently supported liberal principles. In party politics, however, he took little interest, but he zealously advocated in parliament and elsewhere that state encouragement should be given to the cause of literature and the fine arts. In 1824 he was the leading promoter of the grant of £57,000 for the purchase of John Julius Angerstein's collection of pictures, which formed the foundation of the National Gallery. On the formation of Lord Grey's administration, in November 1830, he was appointed chief commissioner of woods and forests, but was compelled by delicate health to resign it after two months' occupancy. In June 1831, during the lifetime of his father, he was raised to the House of Lords, receiving an English peerage with the title of Baron Dover. He was president (1832) of the Royal Society of Literature, a trustee of the British Museum and of the National Gallery, and a commissioner of public records. He died on the icth of July DOVER, EARL OF— DOVER 1833. Lord Dover's works are chiefly historical, and include The True History of the Iron Mask, extracted from Documents in The French Archives (1826), Inquiries respecting the Character of Clarendon (1827), and a Life of Frederick II. (1831). He also edited the Ellis Correspondence (1829) and Walpole's Letters to Sir Horace Mann (1833). DOVER, HENRY JERMYN, EARL OF (c. 1636-1708), was the second son of Sir Thomas Jermyn, of Rushbroke, Suffolk, elder brother of Henry Jermyn, earl of St Albans (q.v.). Jermyn surpassed his uncle, St Albans, in reputation for profligacy, figuring frequently as " the little Jermyn " in the Grammont Memoirs, as the lover of Lady Castlemaine, Lady Shrewsbury, Miss Jennings and other beauties of the court of Charles II. He was also a noted duellist and a lifelong gambler. While the court was in exile, he obtained a post in the household of the duke of York, to whom he became master of the horse at the Restora- tion. Being a Roman Catholic he enjoyed a position of influence with James II., who on his accession raised Jermyn to the peerage as Baron Dover in 1685, and appointed him lieutenant-general of the royal guard in 1686. At the Revolution, Dover adhered to James, whom he followed abroad, and in July 1689 the deposed sovereign created him Baron Jermyn of Royston, Baron Ipswich, Viscount Cheveley and earl of Dover; these honours being among the " Jacobite peerages " which were not recognized by the English government, though Jermyn became generally known as the earl of Dover. He commanded a troop at the battle of the Boyne; but shortly afterwards made his submission to William III. He succeeded his brother Thomas as 3rd Baron Jermyn of St Edmundsbury in 1 703 , and died in 1 708. As he left no children by his wife, Judith, daughter of Sir Edmund Poley, of Badley, Suffolk, his titles became extinct at his death. See Samuel Pepys, Diary, edited by H. B. Wheatley, 9 vols. (London, 1893); Anthony Hamilton, Memoirs of Grammont (Bohn edition, London, 1846); J. S. Clarke, Life of James II., 2 vojs. (London, 1816); Narcissus Luttrell, Brief Relation of State Affairs i678-i7i4,6vols. (Oxford, 1857). DOVER, ROBERT (1575-1641), English captain and attorney, is known as the founder and director for many years of the " Cotswold Games," which he originated as a protest against the growing Puritanism of the day. These sports, which were referred to by contemporary writers as " Mr Robert Dover's Olimpick Games upon the Cotswold Hills," consisted of cudgel- playing, wrestling, running at the quintain, jumping, casting the bar and hammer, hand-ball, gymnastics, rural dances and games and horse-racing, the winners in which received valuable prizes. They continued from about the year 1604 until three years after the death of Dover, which took place in 1641. They were revived for a brief period in the reign of Charles II. DOVER, the capital of Delaware, U.S.A., and the county seat of Kent county, on the St Jones River, in the central part of the state, about 48 m. S. of Wilmington and about 9 m. from Delaware Bay. Pop. (1890) 3061; (1900) 3329 (772 negroes); (1910) 3720. Dover is served by the Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washington railway (Pennsylvania system). The state house, built about 1722 for a court house, was remodelled for its present purpose in 1791; it contains the state library, which in 1908 had about 50,000 bound volumes. Dover is the seat of the Wilmington Conference Academy (Methodist Episcopal) ; and about 2 m. N. is the state college for coloured students (co-educational; opened in 1892), an agricultural and manual training school. The surrounding country is largely devoted to the raising of small fruit. Among the manufactures are canned fruit and meat (especially poultry), timber, machine shop products, baskets and crates, and silk. The town was laid out in 1717; in 1777 it replaced New Castle as the capital of the state, and in 1829 it was incorporated as a town. Dover was the birthplace of the American patriot, Caesar Rodney (1728-1784), whose home near Dover is still standing. DOVER, a seaport and municipal and parliamentary borough of Kent, England, one of the Cinque Ports, 76 m. E.S.E. of London by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1891) 33,S03; (1901) 41,794. It is situated at the mouth of a small 453 stream, the Dour, whose valley here breaches the high chalk cliffs which fringe the coast on either hand. It is an exceptionally healthy locality, and the steep shore and open downs make it an agreeable summer resort. The better residential quarters lie along the seaboard and on the higher ground, notably on a western spur of the Castle Hill. The dominant object of the place is the castle, on the east height, 375 ft. above sea-level, between which and the batteries on the western heights lies the old town. The castle occupies a space of 35 acres. Within its precincts are a Roman pharos or lighthouse, still exhibiting the Roman masonry; the ancient fortress church (St Mary in Castro) ; some remains of the Saxon fort; and the massive keep and subsidiary defences (such as the Constable's, Avranche's, and other towers) of the Norman building. The church, substantially unaltered, forms an almost unique Christian relic. It has been called Roman, but is later. It is cruciform in shape, and the walls are built mainly of flint, but jambs and arches are formed of Roman bricks. At the end of the I2th century it was remodelled and given an Early English character. In the beginning of the i8th century it was dismantled and turned into a storehouse ; and so continued until 1863, when, having been restored by Sir G. G. Scott, it was again opened for divine service, and is now the chapel of the castle garrison. The view from the castle keep includes on a clear day the line of cliffs from Folkestone to Ramsgate on the one side, and from Boulogne to Gravelines on the other side of the strait. The cliffs are honeycombed in all directions with military works. They are covered by modern works on the north side known as Fort Burgoyne, and additional works extend eastwards towards St Margaret's Bay. The western heights, where is the foundation of another Roman lighthouse, form a further circuit of fortifica- tions. They are still more elevated than the castle. A military shaft, locally known as the Corkscrew Staircase, affords com- munication between the barracks and the town. Remains were discovered here in 1854 of a round church of the Templars (Holy Sepulchre), 32 ft. in diameter; the church, doubtless, in which King John made his submission to the Papal Nuncio in 1213. Archcliffe Fort lies to the south-west of old Dover. There may further be mentioned the remnant of the Saxon collegiate church of the canons of St Martin, and the parish church of St Mary the Virgin. This last was rebuilt and enlarged in 1843-1844, but preserves the three bays of the Saxon church, with its western narthex, on which was superimposed the Norman tower, which presents its rich front to the street. The rest of the church is mainly Norman and Early English. A later Norman church stands under the Castle Hill, but its parochial status was trans- ferred to the modern church of St James. The remains of the splendid foundation of St Martin's priory, of the 1 2th century, include the great gate, the house refectory, with campanile, and the spacious strangers' refectory, now incor- porated in Dover College. The college of St Martin for twenty-two secular canons, which had been established in the castle in 696, was removed into the town in the beginning of the 8th century, and in 1139 became a Benedictine priory under the jurisdiction of that at Canterbury, to which see the lands are still attached. The interior of the refectory is very fine. In High Street may be seen the noble hall and truncated fabric of the Maison Dieu founded by Hubert de Burgh in the i3th century for the reception of pilgrims of all nations. From the time of Henry VIII. to 1830 it was used as a crown victualling office, but was subsequently purchased by the corporation and adapted as a town hall. The new town hall adjoining the old hall of the Maison Dieu was opened in 1883. The museum (1849) contains an interesting collection of local antiquities and a natural history collection. Among various charitable institutions are the National Sailors' Home and the Gordon Boys' and Victoria Seaside Orphanages. Besides the church of St James, mentioned above, other modern churches are those of Holy Trinity and Christ church, and further up the valley there are the parish churches of Charlton (originally Norman) and Buckland (Early English). Among educational establishments is Dover College, occupying the site and remaining buildings of St Martin's priory, with additional modern buildings. 454 DOVER It was instituted in 1871, and educates about 220 boys. There is a separate junior school. Dover is the only one of the Cinque Ports which is still a great port. It is one of the principal ports for passenger communica- tions across the Channel, steamers connecting it with Calais and Ostend. The Admiralty pier was begun in 1847 and practically completed to a length of about 2000 ft. in 1871. In 1888 the gates of Wellington dock were widened to admit a larger type of Channel steamers; new coal stores were erected on the Northampton quay; the slipway was lengthened 40 ft., and widened for the reception of vessels up to 800 tons. In 1891 it was resolved to construct a new commercial harbour at an estimated cost of about £700,000. Begun in 1893, the works included the construction of an east pier (" Prince of Wales's Pier "), running parallel to the general direction of the Admiralty pier and in conjunction with it enclosing an area of sheltered water amounting to seventy-five acres. This pier was completed in 1902. A railway line connected with the South-Eastern and Chatham system runs to its head, and in July 1903 it was brought into use for the embarcation of passengers by transatlantic liners. In 1896 and subsequent years funds were voted by parliament for the construction of an artificial harbour for naval purposes, having an area of 610 acres, of which 322 acres were to have a depth of not less than 30 ft. at low water. The scheme comprised three enclosing breakwaters — on the west an extension of the Admiralty pier in a south-easterly direction for a length of 2000 ft.; on the south an isolated breakwater, 4200 ft. long, curving round shore- ward at its eastern end to accord with the direction of the third breakwater; on the east, which runs out from the shore in a southerly direction for a length of 3320 ft. These three break- waters, with a united length of rather more than if m., are each built of massive concrete blocks in the form of a practically vertical wall founded on the solid chalk and rising to a quay level of 10 ft. above high water. Two entrances, one 800 ft. and the other 600 ft. in width, with a depth of about seven fathoms at low water, are situated at either end of the detached break- water. The plan also included the reclamation of the foreshore at tde foot of the cliffs, between the castle jetty and the root of the eastern breakwater, by means of a massive sea-wall. The construction of three powerful forts was undertaken in defence of the harbour, which was opened in 1909. Besides the mail service and harbour trade, Dover has a trade in shipbuilding, timber, rope and sail making, and ships' stores. Dover is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Canterbury. The parliamentary borough returns one member. The town is governed by a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors. Area, 2026 acres. History. — Dover (Dubris) was one of the ports for continental traffic in Roman times. In the 4th century it was guarded by a fort lying down near the harbour, and forming part of the defences of the Saxon shore (Litus Saxonicum). As a Cinque Port, Dover (Dofra, Dovorra) had to contribute twenty of the quota of ships furnished by those ports; in return for this service a charter of liberties was granted to the ports by Edward the Confessor, making the townsmen quit of shires and hundreds, with the right to be impleaded only at Shepway, and other privileges, which were confirmed by subsequent kings, with additions, down to James II. During the middle ages Dover Castle was an object of contention both in civil wars and foreign invasions, and was considered the key to England; the constable of the castle, who from the reign of John was appointed by the crown, was also warden of the Cinque Ports. The castle was successfully defended in 1216 against the French under the dauphin Louis by Hubert de Burgh, who was also the founder of the Maison Dieu established for the accommodation of pilgrims. The title of mayor as chief municipal officer first occurs about the middle of the i3th century, when the town was governed by a mayor and twelve jurats. The Cinque Ports were first represented in the parliament of 1265; Dover returned two members until 1885 when the number was reduced to one. In 1685 Charles II. confirmed to the inhabitants of Dover a fair beginning on the nth of November, which had been held of old in the town, and granted two others on the 23rd and 24th of April and the 25th and 26th of September. After the decay of Richborough harbour the passage from Dover to Whitsand, and later to Calais, became the accustomed route to France, and by a statute of 1465 no one might ship for Calais except at Dover. The guardians of the harbour were incorporated by James I. in 1607. See S. P. H. Statham, History of the Castle, Town and Port of Dover (London, 1899); and Dover, Charters and other Documents (London, 1902). BATTLE OF DOVER This famous and important naval victory was won off the town of Dover by the ships of the Cinque Ports on the 2ist of August 1217, during the minority of King Henry III. The barons, who were in arms against his father King John, had called Louis, son of Philip Augustus, king of the French, to their aid. Having been recently defeated in Lincoln, they were hard pressed, and reinforcements weresent to them from Calais in a fleet commanded by a pirate and mercenary soldier called Eustace the Monk. His real name is uncertain, but according to the chronicle of Lanercost it was Matthew. He passed the Straits of Dover with a numerous flotilla laden with military machines and stores, and also carrying many knights and soldiers. The Monk's fleet was seen from Dover, where the regent; Hubert de Burgh, lay with a navalforce of the Cinque Ports, said to have been very small. Sixteen vessels of large size for the time, and a number of smaller craft, is said to have been their total strength. But medieval estimates of numbers are never to be trusted, and the strength of the Cinque Port squadron was probably diminished to exalt the national glory. It put to sea, and by hugging the wind gained the weather gage of the French adventurer. Eustace is said to have been under the impression that they meant to attack Calais in his absence, and to have derided them because he had left the town well guarded. When they were to windward of his fleet the Cinque Port ships bore down on the enemy. As they approached they threw unslaked lime in the air and the wind blew it in the faces of the French. This form of attack, and the flights of arrows discharged by the English (which flew with the wind), produced confusion in the crowded benches of the French vessels, which in most cases must have been little more than open boats. It is further said that in some cases at least the English vessels were " bearded," that is to say, strengthened by iron bands across the bows for ramming, and that they sank many of the French. The Monk was certainly defeated, and his fleet was entirely scattered, sunk or taken. His own vessel was captured. Eustace, who had concealed himself in the bilge, was dragged out. In answer to his appeals for quarter and promises to pay ransom, he was told by Richard, the bastard son of King John, that he was a traitor who would not be allowed to deceive more men. His head was struck off by Richard, and was sent round the ports on a pike. The Cinque Port seamen returned in triumph, towing their prizes, after throwing the common soldiers overboard, and taking the knights to ransom according to the custom of the age. The political importance of the battle was very great, for it gave the death-blow to the cause of the barons who supported Louis, and it fixed Henry III. on the throne. But the defeat and death of the Monk was widely regarded as in a peculiar sense a victory over the powers of evil. The man became within a few years after his death the hero of many legends of piracy and necromancy. It was said that after leaving the cloister he studied the black art in Toledo, which had a great reputation in the middle ages as a school of witchcraft. A French poem written seemingly within a generation after his death represents him as a wizard. In a prose narrative discovered and printed by M. Francisque Michel, it is said that he made his ship invisible by magic spells. A brother wizard in the English fleet, by name Stephen Crabbe, detected him while he was invisible to others. The bold and patriotic Crabbe contrived to board the bewitched flagship, and was seen apparently laying about him with an axe on the water — which the spectators took to be a proof either that he was mad, or that this was the devil in his shape. At last he struck off the head of Eustace, upon which the spell was broken, and the ship DOVER 455 H A R B 0 V R appeared. Crabbe was torn to pieces — presum ably by the familiar spirits of the Monk — and the fragments were scattered over the water. Saint Bartholomew, whose feast is on the 2ist of August, came to encourage the English by his presence and his voice. Ascertainable fact concerning Eustace is less picturesque, but enough is known to show that he was an adventurous and unscrupulous scoundrel. In his youth he was a monk, and left the cloister to claim an inheritance from the count of Boulogne. Not having received satisfaction he became a freebooter on land and sea, and mercenary soldier. He is frequently mentioned in the Pipe, Patent and Close Rolls. For a time he served King John, but when the king made friends with the count of Boulogne, he fled abroad, and entered the service of the French prince Louis and his father Philip Augustus. Chroniclers lavish on him the titles of " archipirata," " vir flagitiosissimus et nequissimus," and poets made him an associate of the devil. The evidence concerning Eustace is collected by Herren Wendelin Forster and Johann Trost, in their edition of the French poem " Wistasse le moine " (Halle, 1891). See for the battle Sir N. Harris Nicolas, History of the Royal Navy (London, 1847). DOVER, a city and the county seat of Strafford county, New Hampshire, U.S.A., on the Cochecho river, at the head of naviga- tion, 10 m. N.W. of Portsmouth. Pop. (1890) 12,790; (1900) 13,207, of whom 3298 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 13,247. Land area, 26-4 sq. m. It is at the intersection of two branches of the Boston & Maine railway, and is served by several interurban electric lines. The street plan is irregular. Dover has a fine city hall of red brick and freestone; a public library containing (1907) 34,000 volumes; the Wentworth hospital; the Wentworth home for the aged ; a children's and an orphans' home. The Strafford Savings Bank is said to be the largest and oldest savings institution in the state. Dover has long had a considerable commerce, both by rail and by water, that by water being chiefly Emery Walker sc. in coal and building materials. The navigation of the Cochecho river has been greatly improved by the Federal government, at a cost between 1829 and 1907 of about $300,000, and in 1909 there was a navigable channel, 60-75 ft. wide and 7 ft. deep at mean low water, from Dover to the mouth of the river; the mean range of tides is 6-8 ft. The Cochecho river falls 31$ ft. within the city limits and furnishes water-power for factories; among the manufactures are textiles, boots and shoes, leather belting, sash, doors and blinds, carriages, machinery and bricks. In 1905 Dover ranked fourth among the manufacturing cities of the state, and first in manufactures of woollens; the value of the city's total factory product in that year was $6,042,901. Dover is one of the two oldest cities in the state. In May 1623 a settlement was established by Edward Hilton on Dover Point, about 5 m. S.E. of the Cochecho Falls; the present name was adopted in 1639, and with the development of manufacturing and trading interests the population gradually removed nearer the falls; Hilton and his followers were Anglicans, but in 1633 they were joined by several Puritan families under Captain Thomas Wiggin, who settled on Dover Neck (i m. above Dover Point), which for 100 years was the business centre of the town. As the settlement was outside the jurisdiction of any province, and as trouble arose between the two sects, a plantation covenant was drawn up and signed in 1640 by forty-one of the inhabitants. Dissensions, however, continued, and in 1641, by the will of the majority, Dover passed under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts and so remained for nearly half a century. The town, between 1675 and 1725, suffered greatly from Indian attacks, particularly from that of the 28th of June 1689 at Cochecho Falls. Dover was first chartered as a city in 1855. Within the original territory of the town were included Newington, set off in 1713, Somersworth (1729), Durham (1732), Medbury (1755), Lee, set off from Durham in 1766, and Rollinsford, set off from Somersworth in 1849. 456 DOVER— DOWDEN See Jeremy Belknap, History of New Hampshire (Philadelphia, 1784-1792); and Rev. Dr A. H. Quint's Historical Memoranda of Persens and Places in Old Dover, N.H., edited by John Scales (Dover, 1900). DOVER, a town of Morris county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the Rockaway river and the Morris canal, about 40 m. by rail W.N.W. of Hoboken. Pop. (1900) 5938, of whom 947 were foreign-born; (1905) 6353; (1910) 7468. The area of the town is 1-72 sq. m. Dover is at the junction of the main line and the Morris & Essex division of the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western railway (which has large repair shops here), and is also served by the High Bridge branch of the Central of New Jersey, and by an electric line connecting with neighbouring towns. The town is situated about 570 ft. above sea-level. Building stone, used extensively for railway bridges, and iron ore abound in the vicinity. The river furnishes good water-power, and the town has various manufactures, including stoves and ranges, boilers, bar iron, rivets, steel castings, rock drills, air compressors, silk hose and underwear, organzine or thrown silk, and overalls. The water- works are owned by the town, water being obtained from wells varying in depth from 193 to 213 ft. Dover was settled as early as 1748, and was separated from Randolph township and incorporated as a town in 1869. DOVERCOURT, a watering-place in the Harwich parliamentary division of Essex, England, immediately S.W. of Harwich, with a station between Parkeston Quay and Harwich town on the Great Eastern railway, 70 m. N.E. by E. from London. Pop. (1901) 3894. The esplanade and sea-wall front the North Sea, and there is a fine expanse of sand affording good bathing. There is also a chalybeate spa. The scenery of the neighbouring Orwell and Stour estuaries is pleasant. The church, which stands inland in the old village distinguished as Upper Dovercourt, is Early English and later; it formerly possessed a miraculous rood which became an object of pilgrimage of wide repute. It is said to have been stolen and burnt in 1532, three of the four thieves being subsequently taken and hanged. DOW, LORENZO (1777-1834), American preacher, noted for his eccentricities of dress and manner, was born at Coventry, Connecticut, on the i6th of October 1777. He was much troubled in his youth by religious perplexities, but ultimately joined the Methodists, and in 1 798 was appointed a preacher " on trial " in a New York circuit. In the following year, however, he crossed the Atlantic and preached as a missionary to the Catholics of Ireland, and thereafter was never connected officially with the ministry of the Methodist Church, though he remained essentially a Methodist in doctrine. Everywhere, in America and Great Britain, he attracted great crowds to hear and see him, and he was often persecuted as well as admired. In 1805 he visited England, introduced the system of camp meetings, and thus led the way to the formation of the Primitive Methodist Society. Dow's enthusiasm sustained him through the incessant labours of more than thirty years, during which he preached in almost all parts of the United States. His later efforts were directed chiefly against the Jesuits; indeed he was in general a vigorous opponent of Roman Catholicism. He died in Georgetown, District of Columbia, on the and of February 1834. Among his publications are: Polemical Works (1814); The Stranger in Charleston, or the Trial and Confession of Lorenzo Dow (1822) ; A Short Account of a Long Travel; with Beauties of Wesley (1823); and the History of a Cosmopolite; or the Four Volumes of the Rev. LorenzoDow's Journal, concentrated in One, containing his Ex- perience and Travels from Childhood to 1814 (1814; many later editions) ; this volume also contains " All the Polemical Works of Lorenzo." The edition of 1854 was entitled The Dealings of God, Man, and the Devil as exemplified in the Life, Experience and Travels of Lorenzo Dow. DOW, NEAL (1804-1897), American temperance reformer, was born at Portland, Maine, on the 2oth of March 1 804. His parents were Quakers and he was educated at the Friends' School in New Bedford, Massachusetts. He subsequently became a merchant in his native city and rose to a position of importance in its business and political life, riis chief interest, however, was in the temperance question, and he early attracted attention as an ardent champion of the prohibition of the sale of intoxicating drinks. He drafted the drastic Maine prohibitory law of 1851. He was mayor of Portland in 1851 and in 1855, and was a member of the Maine legislature in 1858-1859. Early in the Civil War he became colonel of the I3th Maine Volunteer Infantry. He served in General B. F. Butler's New Orleans expedition, was commissioned brigadier-general of volunteers in April 1862, and subsequently commanded for a time the department of Florida. He was twice wounded in the attack on Port Hudson, on the zyth of May 1863, and was taken prisoner, remaining eight months in Libby and other prisons before he was exchanged. After the war he devoted a great part of his time and energy to the extension of the prohibition movement in America and England. Through his exertions the prohibitory amendment was added to the Maine constitution in 1884. In 1880 he was the candidate of the National Prohibition Party for president, polling 10,305 votes. He died at Portland on the 2nd of October 1897. His Reminiscences were published at Portland in 1898. DOWAGER (from the Old Fr. douagiere, mod. douairiere), strictly, a widow in the enjoyment of dower. " Dowager " is also applied to widows of high rank to distinguish them from the wives of their sons, as queen-dowager, dowager-duchess, &c. The title was first used in England of Catherine of Aragon, widow of Arthur, prince of Wales, who was styled princess dowager till her marriage with Henry VIII. By transference the word is used of an elderly lady. DOWDEN, EDWARD (1843- ), Irish critic and poet, son of John Wheeler Dowden, merchant and landowner, was born at Cork on the 3rd of May 1843, being three years junior to his brother John, who became bishop of Edinburgh in 1886. His literary tastes were shown early, in a series of essays written at the age of twelve. His home education was continued at Queen's College, Cork, and Trinity College, Dublin; at the latter uni- versity he had a distinguished career, becoming president of the Philosophical Society, and winning the vice-chancellor's prize for English verse and prose, and the first senior moderatorship in ethics and logic. In 1867 he was elected professor of oratory and Engh'sh literature in Dublin University. His first book, Shakespeare, his Mind and Art (1875), was a revision of a course of lectures, and made him widely known as a critic, being translated into German and Russian; and his Poems (1876) went into a second edition. His Shakespeare Primer (1877) was also translated into Italian and German. In 1878 he was awarded the Cunningham gold medal of the Royal Irish Academy " for his literary writings, especially in the field of Shakespearian criticism." Later works by him in this field were his Shakespeare's Sonnets (1881), Passionate Pilgrim (1883), Introduction to Shakespeare (1893), Hamlet (1899), Romeo and Juliet (1900), Cymbeline (1903), and his article (National Review, July 1902) on " Shakespeare as a Man of Science," criticizing T. E. Webb's Mystery of William Shakespeare. His critical essays " Studies in Literature " (1878), " Transcripts and Studies " (1888), " New Studies in Literature " (1895) showed a profound knowledge of the currents and tendencies of thought in various ages and countries; but it was his Life of Shelley (1886) that made him best known to the public at large. In 1900 he edited an edition of Shelley's works. Other books by him which indicate his interests in literature are his Southey (in the " English Men of Letters " series, 1880), his edition of Southey's Correspondence with Caroline Bowles (1881), and Select Poems of Southey (1895), his Correspondence of Sir Henry Taylor (1888), his edition of Wordsworth's Poetical Works (1892) and of his Lyrical Ballads (1890), his French Revolution and English Literature (1897; lectures given at Princeton University in 1896), History of French Literature (1897) , Puritan and Anglican (1900), Robert Browning (1904) and Michel de Montaigne (1905). His devotion to Goethe led to his succeed- ing Max Miillerin 1888 as president of the English Goethe Society. In 1889 he became the first Taylorian lecturer at Oxford, and from 1892 to 1896 was Clark lecturer at Trinity College, Cambridge. To his sagacity in research are due, among other matters of literary interest, the first account of Carlyle's DOWDESWELL— DOWN 457 " Lectures on periods of European culture "; the identification of Shelley as the author of a review (in The Critical Review of December 1814) of a lost romance by Hogg; description of Shelley's " Philosophical View of Reform "; a MS. diary of Fabre D'Eglantine; and a record by Dr Wilhelm Weissenborn of Goethe's last days and death. He also discovered a " Narrative of a Prisoner of War under Napoleon " (published in Blackwood's Magazine), an unknown pamphlet by Bishop Berkeley, some unpublished writings of Hayley relating to Cowper, and a unique copy of the Tales of Terror. His wide sympathies and scholarly methods made his influence on criticism both sound and stimulating, and his own ideals are well described in his essay on " The Interpretation of Literature " in his Transcripts and Studies. As commissioner of education in Ireland (1896-1901), trustee of the National Library of Ireland, secretary of the Irish Liberal Union and vice-president of the Irish Unionist Alliance, he enforced his view that literature should not be divorced from practical life. He married twice, first (1866) Mary Clerke, and secondly (1895) Elizabeth Dickinson West, daughter of the dean of St Patrick's. DOWDESWELL, WILLIAM (1721-1775), English politician, was a son of William Dowdeswell of Pull Court, Bushley, Worcestershire, and was educated at Westminster school, at Christ Church, Oxford, and at the university of Leiden. He became member of parh'ament for the family borough of Tewkesbury in 1747, retaining this seat until 1754, and from 1761 until his death he was one of the representatives of Worcester- shire. Becoming prominent among the Whigs, Dowdeswell was made chancellor of the exchequer in 1765 under the marquess of Rockingham, and his short tenure of this position appears to have been a successful one, he being in Lecky 's words ' ' a good financier, but nothing more." To the general astonishment he refused to abandon his friends and to take office under Lord Chatham, who succeeded Rockingham in August 1766. Dowdeswell then led the Rockingham party in the House of Commons, taking an active part in debate until his death at Nice on the 6th of February 1775. The highly eulogistic epitaph on his monument at Bushley was written by Edmund Burke. DOWER (through the Old Fr. douaire from late Lat. dotarium, classical Lat. dos, dowry) , in law, the life interest of the widow in a third part of her husband's lands. There were originally five kinds of dower: (i) at common law; (2) by custom; (3) ad ostium ecdesiae, or at the church porch; (4) ex assensu patris; (5) de la plus belle. The last was a conveyance of tenure by knight service, and was abolished in 1660, by the act which did away with old tenures. Dower ad ostium ecdesiae, by which the bride was dowered at the church porch (where all marriages used formerly to take place), and dower ex assensu patris, by the father of the bridegroom, though long obsolete, were formally abolished by the Dower Act 1834. Dower is governed in the United Kingdom, so far as women married after the ist of January 1834 are concerned, by the Dower Act 1834, and under it only attaches on the husband's death to the lands which he actually possessed for an estate of inheritance at the time of his death. It must be claimed within twelw years of the time of its accrual, but only six years' arrears are recoverable. The wife is also entitled to dower out of equitable estates, but joint estates are exempt. By the act the wife's dower is placed completely under her husband's control. It does not attach to any land actually disposed of by him in his lifetime or by his will, nor to any land from which he has declared by deed his wife shall not be entitled to dower. He may also defeat her right, either as to any particular land or to all his lands, by a declaration in his will; while it is subject to all the deceased husband's debts and contracts, and to any partial estates which he may have created during his life or by his will. A widow tenant in dower may make leases for twenty-one years under the Settled Estates Act 1878. Free-bench is an analogous right in regard to copyhold land; it does not fall within the Dower Act 1834, and varies with the custom of each manor. At common law, and prior to the act of 1834, dower was of a very different nature. The wife's right attached, while the husband was still living, to any land whereof he was solely seised in possession (excluding equitable and joint estates) for an estate of inheritance at any time during the continuance of the marriage, provided that any child the wife might have had could have been heir to the same, even though no child was actually born. When once this right had attached it adhered to the lands, notwithstanding any sale or devise the husband might make; nor was it h'able for his debts. In this way dower proved an obstacle to the free alienation of land, for it was necessary for a husband wishing to make a valid conveyance to obtain the consent of his wife releasing her right to dower. This release was only effected by a fine, the wife being separately examined. Often, by reason of the expense involved, the wife's concurrence was not obtained, and thus the title of the purchaser was defective during the wife's lifetime. The acceptance of a jointure by the wife before marriage was, however, destructive of dower, if after marriage she was put to her election between it and dower. By the ingenuity of the old conveyancers, devices, known as " uses to bar dower " (the effect of which was that the purchaser never had at any time an estate of inheritance in possession), were found to prevent dower attaching to newly purchased lands, and so to enable the owner to give a clear title, without the need of the wife's concurrence^ in the event of his wishing, in his turn, to convey the land. All this was, however, swept away by the Dower Act 1834, and a purchaser of land no longer need trouble himself to inquire whether the dower of the wife of the vendor has been barred, or to insist on her concurrence in a fine. (H. S. S.) DOWIE, JOHN ALEXANDER (1848-1907), founder of " Zionism," was born in Edinburgh, and went as a boy to South Australia with his parents. He returned in 1868 to study for the Congregationalist ministry at Edinburgh University, and sub- sequently became pastor of a church near Sydney, Australia. He was a powerful preacher, and later, having become imbued with belief in his powers as a healer of disease by prayer, he obtained sufficient following to move to Melbourne, build a tabernacle, and found " The Divine Healing Association of Australia and New Zealand." In 1888 he went to America, preaching and " healing," and in spite of opposition and ridicule attracted a number of adherents. In 1896 he established " The Christian Catholic Apostolic Church in Zion," with himself as " First Apostle "; and in 1901, with money liberally contributed by his followers, he founded Zion City, on a site covering about 10 sq. m. on the west shore of Lake Michigan, with a central temple for the Zionist church. In 1903 and 1904, in the course of a visit to the branches of the Zionist movement throughout the world, he appeared in London, but was mobbed. In April 1906 a revolt against his domination took place in Zion City. He was charged with peculation and with practising polygamy, and was deposed, with the assent of his own wife and son. A suit brought by him in the United States district court to recover possession of the Zion City property, valued at two millions sterling, was unsuccessful, and his defalcations were fully proved. Dowie was now broken in health and unmistakably insane; he was struck with paralysis and gradually becoming weaker died in Zion City in March 1907. DOWLAS, the name given to a plain cloth, similar to sheeting, but usually coarser. It is made in several qualities, from line warp and weft to two warp and weft, and is used chiefly for aprons, pocketing, soldiers' gaiters, linings and overalls. The finer makes are sometimes made into shirts for workmen, and occasionally used for heavy pillow-cases. The word is spelt in many different ways, but the above is the common way of spelling adopted in factories, and it appears in the same form in Shakespeare's First Part of Henry IV., Act III. scene 3. The modern dowlas is a good, strong and closely woven linen fabric. DOWN, a maritime county of Ireland, in the province of Ulster, occupying the most easterly' part of the island, bounded N. by Co. Antrim and Belfast Lough, E. and S. by the Irish Sea, and W. by Co. Armagh. The area is 607, 916 acres, or nearly 950 sq. m. The coast line is indented by several loughs and bays. The largest of these is Strangford Lough, a fine sheet of water studded with 260 islets, 54 of which have names. All are well wooded or 458 DOWN rich in pasturage. The lough runs for 10 m. northwards, and the ancient castles and ruined abbeys on some of the islets render the scene one of singular interest and beauty. Farther south Dundrum Bay forms a wider expanse of water. In the south- west Carlingford Lough separates the county from Louth. There are no lakes of importance. Between Strangford and Carlingford loughs the county is occupied by a range of hills known in its south-western portion as the Mourne Mountains, which give rise to the four principal rivers — the Bann, the Lagan, the Annacloy and the Newry. This mass includes, several striking peaks, of which the principal is Slieve Donard, rising finely direct from the sea to a height of 2796 ft., which is exceeded in Ireland only by one peak in the Wicklow range, and by the higher reeks in Killarney. Several other summits exceed 2000 ft. Holy wells and mineral springs are numerous in Co. Down. Theseare both chalybeate and sulphurous, and occur at Ardmillan, Granshaw, Dundonnell,Magheralin, Dromore, Newry, Banbridge and Tierkelly. Those of Struell near Downpatrick were accred- ited with miraculous powers by the natives until recent times, and religious observances of an extravagant nature took place there. Geology. — The foundationof this countyisSilurianrockthroughout, the slates and sandstones striking as a whole north-east, but giving rise to a country of abundant small hills. The granite that appears along the same axis in Armagh continues from Newry to Slieve Croob, furnishing an excellent building stone. South of it, the Eocene granite of the Mournes forms a group of rocky summits, set with scarps and tors, and divided by noble valleys, which are not yet choked by the detritus of these comparatively youthful mountains. Basalt dykes abound, being well seen along the coast south of Newcastle. At the head of Strangford Lough, the basalt, possibly as intrusive sheets, has protected Triassic sandstone, which is quarried at Scrabo Hill. A strip of marine Permian occurs on the shore at Holywood. The north-west of the county includes, at Moira, a part of the great basaltic plateaux, with Chalk and Trias protected by them. The haematite of dehomet near Banbridge is well spoken of. Topaz and aquamarine occur in hollows in the granite of the Mournes. The Mourne granite is quarried above Annalong, and an ornamental dolerite is worked at Rosstrevor. Industries. — The predominating soil is a loam of little depth, in most places intermixed with considerable quantities of stones of various sizes, but differing materially in character according to the nature of the subsoil. Clay is mostly confined to the eastern coast, and to the northern parts of Castlereagh. Of sandy soil the quantity is small ; it occurs chiefly near Dundrum. Moor grounds are mostly confined to the skirts of the mountains. Bogs, though frequent, are scarcely sufficient to furnish a supply of fuel to the population. Agriculture is in a fairly satisfactory condition. The bulk of the labouring population is orderly and industrious, and dwell in circumstances contrasting well with those of others of their class in some other parts of Ireland. Tillage land declines somewhat in favour of pasture land. Oats, potatoes and turnips are the principal crops; flax, formerly important, is almost neglected. The breed of horses is an object of much attention, and some of the best racers in Ireland have been bred in this county. The native breed of sheep, a small hardy race, is confined to the mountains. The various other kinds of sheep have been much improved by judicious crosses from the best breeds. Pigs are reared in great numbers, chiefly for the Belfast market, where the large exportation occasions a constant demand for them. Poultry farming is a growing industry. The fisheries, of less value than formerly, are centred at Donaghadee, Newcastle, Strangford and Ardglass, the headquarters of the herring fishery. The chief industries in the county generally are linen manu- facture and bleaching, and brewing. Communications. — The Great Northern railway has an alternative branch route to its main line by Portadown, from Lisburn through Banbridge to Scarva, with a branch from Banbridge to Ballyroney and Newcastle. Newry is on a branch from the Dublin-Belfast line to Warrenpoint on Carlingford Lough. The main line between Lisburn and Portadown touches the north-western extremity of the county. The eastern part of the county is served by the Belfast & County Down railway with its main line from Belfast to Newcastle to Dundrum Bay, and branches from Belfast to Bangor, Comber to Newtownards and Donaghadee, Ballynahinch Junction to Ballynahinch, and Downpatrick to Ardglass and Killough. The Newry Canal skirts the west of the county, and the Lagan Canal intersects the rich lands in the Lagan valley to the north. Population and Administration. — The population (219,405 in 1891; 205,889 in 1901) decreases slightly. The population in 1891 on the area of the county before the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898 was 224,008, for in this case the figures for part of the county borough of Belfast were included. This is worth notice from the comparative point of view, since, whereas emigration to foreign ports is considerable, a large portion of the moving population travels no farther than the metropolis of Belfast. About 39% of the population is of the Presbyterian faith, about 31 % Roman Catholic, among whom, as usual, education is in the most backward condition; about 23% are Protestant Episcopalians. The following are the principal towns: — Newry (pop. 12,405), Newtownards (9110), Banbridge (5006), Downpatrick (2993 ; thecountytown), Holywood (3840), Gilford (1199), Bangor (5903), Dromore (2307), Donaghadee (2073), Comber (2095) and Warren- point (1817). Other small towns are Portaferry, Rathfryland, Killyleagh, Kilkeel, Ballynahinch, Dundrum, a small port, and Hillsborough, near Dromore, where the castle is the seat of the marquesses of Downshire. There are several popular watering- place on the coast, notably Newcastle, Donaghadee, Ardglass and Rosstrevor. On the shore of Belfast Lough are many pleasant residential villages and seats of the wealthy class in Belfast. The county is divided into fourteen baronies, and contains sixty-four parishes. The assizes are held at Down- patrick, and quarter-sessions at the same town and at Banbridge, Newry and Newtownards. The county is in the Protestant diocese of Down, and the Roman Catholic dioceses of Down and Dromore. Down returns four members to parliament — for the north, south, east and west divisions. The borough of Newry returns a member. Previous to the act of Union the county returned fourteen members to the Irish parliament. History and Antiquities. — The period at which Down was constituted a county is not certain. A district, however, appears to have borne this name before the beginning of the I4th century, but little is known of it even later than this. However, when in '535 Sir John Perrot undertook the shiring of Ulster, Down and Antrim were excepted as already settled counties. That some such settlement would have been attempted at an early period is likely, as this coast was a place of Anglo-Norman colonization, and to this movement was due the settlement of the baronies of Lecale, the Ards and others. The county is not wanting in interesting remains. At Slidderyford, near Dundrum, there is a group of ten or twelve pillar stones in a circle, about 10 ft. in height. A very curious cairn on the summit of Slieve Croob is 80 yds. in circumference at the base and 50 at the top, where is a platform on which cairns of various heights are found standing. The village of Anadorn is famed for a cairn covering a cave which contains ashes and human bones. Cromlechs, or altars, are numerous, the most remarkable being the Giant's Ring, which stands on the summit of a hill near the borders of Antrim.' This altar is formed of an unwrought stone 7 ft. long by 65 broad, resting in an inclined position on rude pillars about 3 ft. high. . This solitary landmark is in the centre of an enclosure about a third of a mile in circumference, formed of a rampart about 20 ft. high, and broad enough on the top to permit two persons to ride abreast. Near Downpatrick is a rath, or encampment, three-quarters of a mile in circumference. In its vicinity are the ruins of Saul Abbey, said to have been founded by St Patrick, and Inch Abbey, founded by Sir John de Courcy in 1 1 80. The number of monastic ruins is also considerable. The most ancient and celebrated is the abbey or cathedral of Down- Patrick. Dundrum Castle, attributed to the de Courcy family, stands finely above that town, and affords an unusual example (for Ireland) of a donjon keep. The castle of Hillsborough is of Carolean date. There are three round towers in the county, but all are fragmentary. DOWN, a smooth rounded hill, or more particularly an expanse of high rolling ground bare of trees. The word comes from the DOWNES— DOWNMAN 459 Old English dun, hill. This is usually taken to be a Celtic word. The Gaelic and Irish dun and Welsh din are specifically used of a hill-fortress, and thus frequently appear in place-names, e.g. Dum- barton, Dunkeld, and in the Latinized termination — dttnum, e.g. Lugdunum, Lyons. The Old Dutch duna, which is the same word, was applied to the drifted sandhills which are a prevailing feature of the south-eastern coast of the North Sea (Denmark and the Low Countries), and the derivatives, Ger. Dune, modern Dutch duin, Fr. dune, have this particular meaning. The English " dune " is directly taken from the French. The low sandy tracts north and south of Yarmouth, Norfolk, are known as the " Dunes," which may be a corruption of the Dutch or French words. From " down," hill, comes the adverb " down," from above, in the earlier form " adown," i.e. off the hill. The word for the soft under plumage of birds is entirely different, and comes from the Old Norwegian dun, cf. cedar-dun, eider-down. For the system of chalk hills in England known as " The Downs " see DOWNS. DOWNES [D(O)UNAEUS], ANDREW (c. 1540-1628), English classical scholar, was born in the county of Shropshire. He was educated at Shrewsbury and St John's College, Cambridge, where he did much to revive the study of Greek, at that time at a very low ebb. In 1571 he was elected fellow of his college, and, in 1585, he was appointed to the regius professorship of Greek, which he held for nearly forty years. He died at Colon, near Cambridge, on the and of February 1627/1628. According to Simonds d'Ewes (Autobiography, ed. J. O. Halliwell, i. pp. 139, 141), who attended his lectures on Demosthenes and gives a slight sketch of his personality, Downes was accounted " the ablest Grecian of Christendom." He published little, but seems to have devoted his chief attention to the Greek orators. He edited Lysias Pro caede Eratosthenis (1593); Praelectiones in Philip- picam de pace Demosthenis (1621), dedicated to King James I.; some letters (written in Greek) to Isaac Casaubon, printed in the Epistolae of the latter; and notes to St Chrysostom, in Sir Henry Savile's edition. Downes was also one of the seven translators of the Apocrypha for the " authorized " version of the Bible, and one of the six learned men appointed to revise the new version after its completion. DOWNING, SIR GEORGE, Bart. (c. 1624-1684), English soldier and diplomatist, son of Emmanuel Downing, barrister, and of Lucy, sister of Governor John Winthrop, was born in England about I624.1 His family joined Winthrop in America in 1638, settling in Salem, Massachusetts, and Downing studied at Harvard College. In 1645 he sailed for the West Indies as a preacher and instructor of the seamen, and arrived in England some time afterwards, becoming chaplain to Colonel John Okey's regiment. Subsequently he seems to have abandoned his religious vocation for a military career, and in 1650 he was scout-master- general of Cromwell's forces in Scotland, and as such received in 1657 a salary of £365 and £500 as a teller of the exchequer. His marriage in 1654 with Frances, daughter of Sir William Howard of Naworth, and sister of the ist earl of Carlisle, aided his advancement. In Cromwell's parliament of 1654 he represented Edinburgh, and Carlisle in those of 1656 and 1659. He was one of the first to urge Cromwell to take the royal title and restore the old constitution. In 1655 he was sent to France to remonstrate on the massacre of the Protestant Vaudois. Later in 1657 he was appointed resident at The Hague, to effect a union of the Protestant European powers, to mediate between Portugal and Holland and between Sweden and Denmark, to defend the interests of the English traders against the Dutch, and to inform the government concerning the movements of the exiled royalists. He showed himself in these negotiations an able diplomatist. He was maintained in his post during the interregnum subsequent to the fall of Richard Cromwell, and was thus enabled in April 1660 to make his peace !with Charles II., to whom he com- municated Thurloe's despatches, and declared his abandonment of " principles sucked in " in New England, of which he now "saw the error." At the Restoration, therefore, Downing was knighted The date of his birth is variously given as 1623, 1624 and 1625 (Sibley's Harvard Graduates, 1883). (May 1660), was continued in his embassy in Holland, was confirmed in his tellership of the exchequer, and was further rewarded with a valuable piece of land adjoining St James's Park for building purposes, now known as Downing Street.2 Consider- ing his past, he showed a very indecent zeal in arresting in Holland and handing over for execution the regicides Barkstead, Corbet and Okey. Pepys, who characterized his conduct as odious though useful to the king, calls him a " perfidious rogue," and remarks that " all the world took notice of him for a most ungrateful villain for his pains."3 On the ist of July 1663 he was created a baronet. Downing had from the first been hostile to the Dutch as the commercial rivals of England. He had strongly supported the Navigation Act of 1660, and he now deliberately drew on the fatal and disastrous war. During its continuance he took part at home in the management of the treasury, introduced the appropriation of supplies, opposed strongly by Clarendon as an encroachment on the prerogative, and in May 1667 was made secretary to the commissioners, his appointment being much welcomed by Pepys.4 He had been returned for Morpeth in the convention parliament of April 1660, a constituency which he represented in every ensuing parliament till his death, and he spoke with ability on financial and commercial questions. He was appointed a commissioner of the customs in 1671. Thesame year he was again sent to Holland to replace Sir William Temple, to break up the policy of the Triple alliance and incite another war between Holland and England in furtherance of the French policy. His unpopularity there was extreme, and after three months' residence Downing fled to England, in fear of the fury of the mob. For this unauthorized step he was sent to the Tower on the 7th of February 1672, but released some few weeks after- wards. He defended the Declaration of Indulgence the same year, and made himself useful in supporting the court policy. He died in July 1684. Downing Street, London, is named after him, while Downing College, Cambridge, derived its name from his grandson, the 3rd baronet. The title became extinct when the 4th baronet, Sir Jacob G. Downing, died in 1764. Downing was undoubtedly a man of great political and diplomatic ability, but his talents were rarely employed for the advantage of his country and his character was marked by all the mean vices, treachery, avarice, servility and ingratitude. " A George Downing " became a proverbial expression in New England to denote a false man who betrayed his trust.6 He published a large number of declarations and discourses, mostly in Dutch, enumerated in Sibley's biography, and wrote also " A True Relation of the Progress of the Parliament's Forces in Scotland " (1651), Thomason Tracts, Brit. Mus., E 640 (5). DOWNMAN, JOHN (1750-1824), English portrait painter, was the son of Francis Downman, attorney, of St Neots, by Charlotte Goodsend, eldest daughter of the private secretary to George I.; his grandfather, Hugh Downman (1672-1729), having been the master of the House of Ordnance at Sheerness. He is believed to have been born near Ruabon, educated first at Chester, then at Liverpool, and finally at the Royal Academy schools, and he was for a while in the studio of Benjamin West. His exquisite pencil portrait drawings, slightly tinted in colour, usually from the reverse, are well known, and many of them are of remarkable beauty. Several volumes of sketches for these drawings are still in existence. Downman is believed to have beeii " pressed " for the navy as a young man, and on his escape settled down for a while in Cambridge, eventually coming to London, and later ( 1 804) going to reside in Kent in the village of West Mailing. He afterwards spent some part of his life in the west of England, especially in Exeter, and then travelled all 'over the country painting his dainty portraits. Ini8i8he settled down at Chester, finally removing to Wrexham, where his only daughter married and where he died and was buried. He was an associate of the Royal Academy. The Downman family is usually known as a Devonshire one, but the exact connexion between the artist 1 Col. of St Pap. ; Dom. (1661-1662) p. 408 ; Notes and Queries, ix. ser. vii. 92. 3 Diary, March 12, 17, 1662. * 76. May 27, 1667. 5 Sibley, i. 46. 460 DOWNPATRICK— DOWNSHIRE, MARQUESS OF and the Devonshire branch has not been traced. Many of his portraits have attached to them remarks of considerable importance respecting the persons represented. See John Downman, his Life and Works, by G. C. Williamson (London, 1907). (G. C. W, ) DOWNPATRICK, a market town and the county town of Co. Down, Ireland, in the east parliamentary division, 28 m. S.S.E. of Belfast by the Belfast & County Down railway. Pop. (1901) 2993. It stands picturesquely on a sloping site near the south- west extremity of Strangford Lough. It is the seat of the Protestant and Roman Catholic dioceses of Down. St Patrick founded the see about 440, but the present Protestant cathedral dates from 1790, the old structure, * after suffering many vicissitudes, having been in ruins for 250 years. The cathedral is said to contain the remains of its founder, together with those of St Columba and St Bridget. A round tower adjoining it was destroyed in 1790. A small trade is carried on at Strangford „ Lough by means of vessels up to 100 tons, which discharge at Quoile quay, about i m. from the town; but vessels of larger tonnage can discharge at a steamboat quay lower down the Quoile. The imports are principally iron, coal, salt and timber; the exports barley, oats, cattle, pigs and potatoes. Linen manu- facture is also carried on, and brewing, tanning and soap-making give considerable employment. The Down corporation race- meeting is important and attracts visitors from far outside the county. The rath or dun from which the town is named remains as one of the finest in Ireland. It was called Rath-Keltair, or the rath of the hero Keltar, and covers an area of 10 acres. In the vicinity of the town are remnants of the monastery of Saul, a foundation ascribed to St Patrick, and of Inch Abbey (1180), founded by Sir John de Courcy. Three miles south is a fine stone circle, and to the south-east are the wells of Struell, famous as miraculous healers among the peasantry until modern times. The town is of extreme antiquity. It was called Dun-leth-glas, the fort of the broken fetters, from the miraculous deliverance from bondage of two sons of Dichu, prince of Lecale, and the first convert of St Patrick. It is the Dunum of Ptolemy, and was a residence of the kings of Ulster. It was already incorporated early in the i sth century. It returned two members to the Irish parliament until the Union in 1800, and thereafter one to the Imperial parliament until 1832. DOWNS, the name of a system of chalk hills in the south-east of England. For the etymology of the word and its meaning see DOWN. It is most familiar in its application to the two ranges of the North and South Downs. Of these the North Downs are confined chiefly to the counties of Surrey and Kent, and the South to Sussex. Each forms a well-defined long range springing from the chalk area of Dorsetshire and Hampshire, to which, though broken up into a great number of short ranges and groups of hills, the general name of the Western Downs is given. The Downs enclose the rich district of the Weald (q.v.). The North Downs, extending from a point near Farnham to the English Channel between Dover and Folkestone, have a length along the crest line, measured directly, of 95 m. The crest, however, is not continuous, as the hills are breached by a suc- cession of valleys, forming gaps through which high-roads and railways converge upon London. The rivers flowing through these gaps run northward, and, except in the extreme east, are members of the Thames basin. These breaching valleys, which are characteristic of the South Downs also, " carry us back to a ti;ne when the greensand and chalk were continued across, or almost across, the Weald in a great dome." The rivers " then ran down the slopes of the dome, and as the chalk and greensand gradually weathered back . . . deepened and deepened their valleys, and thus were enabled to keep their original course." * The western termination of the North Downs is the Hog's Back, a narrow ridge, little more than a quarter of a mile broad at the summit, sloping sharply north and south, and reaching 489ft. in height. At the west end a depression occurs where the rivers Wey and Blackwater closely approach each other; and it is thought that the Wey has beheaded the Blackwater, which formerly 1 Avebury, The Scenery of England, ch. xi. flowed through the gap. In this depression lies Farnham, the first of a series of towns which have grown up at these natural gateways through the hills. The Wey, flowing south of the Hog's Back, breaches the Downs at its eastern extremity, the town of Guildford standing at this point. The next gap is that of the Mole, in which Dorking lies. Between Guildford and Dorking the main line of the Downs reaches a height of 712 ft., but a lateral depression, followed by the railway between these towns, marks off on the south a loftier range of lower greensand, in which Leith Hill, famous as a view-point, is 965 ft. in height. East of the Mole the northward slope of the Downs is deeply cut by narrow valleys, and the depression above Redhill may have been traversed by a stream subsequently beheaded by the Mole. A height of 868 ft. is attained east of Caterham. The next river to break through the main line is the Darent, but here another lateral depression, watered by the headstreams of that river, marks off the Ragstone Ridge,southof Sevenoaks,reaching8ooft. The lateral depression is continued along the valleys of streams tributary to the Medway, so that nearly as far as Ashford the Downs consist of two parallel ranges; but the Medway itself breaches both, Maidstone lying in the gap. The elevation now begins to decrease, and 682 ft. is the extreme height east of the Medway. The direction, hitherto E. by N., trends E.S.E. The final complete breach is made by the Great Stour, between Ashford and Canterbury, east of which a height of 600 ft. is rarely reached. The valley of the Little Stour, however, offers a well-marked pass followed by the Folkestone- Canterbury railway, and the North Downs finally fall to the sea in the grand white cliffs between Dover and Folkestone. The South Downs present similar characteristics on a minor scale. Springing from the main mass of the chalk to the south of Petersfield they have their greatest elevation (889 ft. in Butser Hill) at that point, and extend E. by S. for 65 m. to the English Channel at the cliffs of Beachy Head. As in the case of the North Downs a succession of rivers breach the hills, and a succession of towns mark the gaps. These are, from east to west, the Arun, with the town of Arundel, the Adur, with Shoreham, the Ouse, with Lewes and Newhaven, and the Cuckmere, with no considerable town. The steep slope of the South Downs is north- ward towards the Weald. The southern slopes reach the coast east of Brighton, but west of this town a flat coastal belt intervenes, widening westward. Apart from the complete breaches mentioned, the South Downs, scored on the south with many deep vales, are generally more easily penetrable than the North Downs, and the coast is less continuous. Smooth convex curves are characteristic of the Downs; their graceful and striking outline gives them an importance in the landscape in excess of their actual height; their flanks are well wooded, their summits covered with close springy turf. " THE DOWNS " is also the name of a roadstead in the English Channel off Deal between the North and the South Foreland. It forms a favourite anchorage during heavy weather, protected on the east by the Goodwin Sands and on the north and west by the coast. It has depths down to 12 fathoms. Even during southerly gales some shelter is afforded, though under this condition wrecks are not infrequent. DOWNSHIRE, WILLS HILL, IST MARQUESS OF (1718-1793), son of Trevor Hill, ist Viscount Hillsborough, was bom at Fairford in Gloucestershire on the 3oth of May 1718. He became an English member of parliament in 1741, and an Irish viscount on his father's death in the following year, thus sitting in both the English and Irish parliaments. In 1751 he was created earl of Hillsborough in the Irish peerage; in 1754 he was made comp- troller of the royal household and an English privy councillor; and in 1756 he became a peer of Great Britain as baron of Harwich. For nearly two years he was president of the board of trade and plantations under George Grenville, and after a brief period of retirement he filled the same position, and then that of joint postmaster-general, under the earl of Chatham. From 1768 to 1772 Hillsborough was secretary of state for the colonies and also president of the board of trade, becoming an English earl on his retirement; in 1779 he was made secretary of state for the northern department, and he was created marquess of DOWRY— DOYLE, SIR A. C. 461 Downshire seven years after his final retirement in 1782. Both in and out of office he opposed all concessions to the American colonists, but he favoured the project for a union between England and Ireland. Reversing an earlier opinion Horace Walpole says Downshire was " a pompous composition of ignorance and want of judgment." He died on the ;th of October 1793 and was succeeded by his son Arthur (1753-1801), from whom the present marquess is descended. DOWRY (in Anglo-Fr. dowarie, O. Fr. douaire, Med. Lat. dotaria, from Lat. dos, from root of dare, to give; in Fr. dot), the property which a woman brings with her at her marriage, a wife's marriage portion (see SETTLEMENT) . DOWSER and DOWSING (from the Cornish " dowse," M.E. duschcn, to strike or fall), one who uses, or the art of using, the dowsing-rod (called " deusing-rod " by John Locke in 1691), or " striking-rod " or divining-rod, for discovering subterranean minerals or water. (See DIVINING-ROD.) DOXOLOGY (Gr. So^p\oyia, a praising, giving glory), an ascription of praise to the Deity. The early Christians continued the Jewish practice of making such an ascription at the close of public prayer (Origen, Ilepi eux^s, 33) and introduced it after the sermon also. The name is often applied to the Trisagion (tersanctus), or " Holy, Holy, Holy," the scriptural basis of which is found in Isaiah vi. 3, and which has had a place in the worship of the Christian church since the 2nd century; to the Hallelujah of several of the Psalms and of Rev. xix. ; to such passages of glorification as Rom. ix. 5, xvi. 27, Eph. iii. 21; and to the last clause of the Lord's Prayer as found in Matt. vi. 13 (A.V.), which critics are generally agreed in regarding as an interpolation, and which, while used in the Greek and the Protestant churches, is omitted in the Roman rite. It is used, however, more definitely as the designation of two hymns distinguished by liturgical writers as the Greater and Lesser Doxologies. The origin and history of these it is impossible to trace fully. The germ of both is to be found in the Gospels; the first words of the Greater Doxology, or Gloria in Excelsis, being taken from Luke ii. 14, and the form of the Lesser Doxology, or Gloria Patri, having been in all probability first suggested by Matt, xxviii. 19. The Greater Doxology, in a form approximating to that of the English prayer-book, is given in the Apostolical Constitutions (vii. 47). At this time (c. 37 5) it ran thus: " Glory to God on high, and on earth peace to men of (his) goodwill. We praise thee, we bless thee, we worship thee, we glorify thee, we give thanks to thee for thy great glory. O Lord God, heavenly king, God the Father Almighty; O Lord, the only begotten Son, Jesus Christ; O Lord God, Lamb of God, Son of the Father, that takest away the sins of the world, have mercy upon us; Thou that takest away the sins of the world, receive our prayer; Thou that sittest at the right hand of the Father, have mercy upon us; For Thou alone art holy. Thou only, Jesus Christ, with the Holy Ghost, art most high in the glory of God the Father. Amen." This is the earliest record of it, but it is also found in the Alexandrine Codex. Alcuin attributes the authorship of the Latin form — the Gloria in Excelsis — to St Hilary of Poitiers (died 367). The quotations from the hymn in the pseudo-Athanasian De Virginitate, and in Chrysostom (Horn. 69 in Matth.), include only the opening words (those from St Luke's gospel), though the passage in Athanasius shows by an el caelera that only the beginning of the hymn is given. These references indicate that the hymn was used in private devotions; as it does not appear in any of the earliest liturgies, whether Eastern or Western, its introduction into the public services of the church was probably of a later date than has often been supposed. Its first introduction into the Roman liturgy is due to Pope Symmachus (498-514), who ordered it to be sung on Sundays and festival days. There was much opposi- tion to the expansion, but it was suppressed by the fourth council of Toledo in 633. Until the end of the nth century its use was confined to bishops, and to priests at Easter and on their installa- tion. The Mozarabic liturgy provides for its eucharistic use on Sundays and festivals. In these and other early liturgies the Greater Doxology occurs immediately after the beginning of the service; in the English prayer-book it introduced at the close of the communion office, but it does not occur in either the morning or evening service. This doxology is also used in the Protestant Episcopal and Methodist Episcopal churches of America, as indeed in most Protestant churches at the eucharist. The Lesser Doxology, or Gloria Patri, combines the character of a creed with that of a hymn. In its earliest form it ran simply — " Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost, world without end, Amen," or " Glory be to the Father, in (or through) the Son, and in (or through) the Holy Ghost." Until the rise of the Arian heresy these forms were probably regarded as indifferent, both being equally capable of an orthodox interpretation. When the Arians, however, finding the second form more consistent with their views, adopted it persistently and exclusively, its use was naturally discountenanced by the Catholics, and the other form became the symbol of orthodoxy. To the influence of the Arian heresy is also due the Catholic addition — " as it was in the beginning, is now, and ever shall be," the use of which was, according to some authorities, expressly enjoined by the council of Nicaea. There is no sufficient evidence of this, but there exists a decree of the second council of Vaison (529), asserting its use as already established in the East propter haereticorum astutiam, and ordering its adoption throughout the churches of the West. In the Western Church the Gloria Patri is repeated at the close of every psalm, in the Eastern Church at the close of the last psalm. This last is the optional rule of the American Episcopal Church. Metrical doxologies are often sung at the end of hymns, and the term has become especially associated with the stanza beginning " Praise God from whom all blessings flow," with which Thomas Ken, bishop of Winchester, concluded his morning and evening hymns. See J. Bingham, Biog. cedes, xiv. 2; Siegel, Christl. Alterthiimer, i. 515, &c.; F. Procter, Book of Common Prayer, p. 212; W. Palmer, Orig. Liturg. iv. § 23; art. " Liturgische Formeln " (by Drews) in Hauck-Herzog, Realencyk. fur prot. Theol. xi. 547. DOYEN, GABRIEL FRANCOIS (1726-1806), French painter, was born at Paris in 1726. His passion for art prevailed over his father's wish, and he became in his twelfth year a pupil of Vanloo. Making rapid progress, he obtained at twenty the Grand Prix, and in 1748 set out for Rome. He studied the works of Annibale Caracci, Cortona, Giulio Romano and Michelangelo, then visited Naples, Venice, Bologna and other Italian cities, and in 1755 returned to Paris. At first unappreciated and disparaged, he resolved by one grand effort to conquer a reputation, and in 1758 he exhibited his " Death of Virginia." It was completely success- ful, and procured him admission to the Academy. Among his greatest works are reckoned the " Miracle des Ardents," painted for the church of St Genevieve at St Roch (1773) ; the " Triumph of Thetis," for the chapel of the Invalides; and the " Death of St Louis," for the chapel of the Military School. In 1776 he was appointed professor at the Academy of Painting. Soon after the beginning of the Revolution he accepted the invitation of Catherine II. and settled at St Petersburg, where he was loaded with honours and rewards. He died there on the sth of June 1806. DOYLE, SIR ARTHUR CONAN (1850- ), English novelist, eldest son of the artist Charles Doyle, was born on the 22nd of May 1859. He was sent to Stonyhurst College, and further pursued his education in Germany, and at Edinburgh University where he graduated M.B. in 1881 and M.D. in 1885. He had begun to practise as a doctor in Southsea when he published A Study in Scarlet in 1887. Micah Clarke (1888), a tale of Monmouth's rebellion, The Sign of Four (1889), and The White Company (1891), a romance of Du Guesclin's time, followed. In Rodney Stone (1896) he drew an admirable sketch of the prince regent; and he collected a popular series of stories of the Napoleonic wars in The Exploits of Brigadier Gerard (1896). In 1891 he attained immense popularity by The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes, which first appeared in The Strand Magazine. These ingenious stories of the success of the imperturbable Sherlock Holmes, who had made his first appearance in A Study in Scarlet (1887), in detecting crime and disentangling mystery, found a host of imitators. The novelist himself returned to his 462 DOYLE, SIR F. H. C.— DOZY hero in The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes (1893), The Hound of the Baskervilles (1902), and The Return of Sherlock Holmes (1905). His later books include numerous novels; plays, The Story of Waterloo (i 894) , in which Sir Henry Irving played the leading part, The Fires of Fate (1909), and The House of Temperley (1909); and two books in defence of the British army in South Africa — The Great Boer War (1900) and The War in South Africa; its Causes and Conduct (1902). Dr Conan Doyle served as registrar of the Langman Field Hospital in South Africa, and was knighted in 1902. DOYLE, SIR FRANCIS HASTINGS CHARLES, Bart. (1810- 1888), English man of letters, was born at Nunappleton, Yorkshire, on the 2ist of August 1810. He was the son of Major- General Sir Francis Hastings Doyle, ist baronet (1783-1839), and was educated at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he took a first-class in classics in 1831. He read for the bar and was called in 1837. He had been elected to a fellowship of All Souls' in 1835, and his interests were chiefly literary. Among his intimate friends was Mr Gladstone, at whose marriage he assisted as " best man "; but in later life their political opinions widely differed. In 1834 he published Miscellaneous Verses, reissued with additions in 1840. This was followed by Two Destinies (1844), The Duke's Funeral (1852), Return of the Guards and other Poems (1866); and from 1867 to 1877 he was professor of poetry at Oxford. In 1869 some of the lectures he delivered were published in book form. One of the most interesting was his appreciation of William Barnes, and the essay on Newman's Dream of Gerontius was translated into French. In 1886 he published his Reminiscences, full of records of the interesting people he had known. Sir Francis Doyle succeeded his father (chairman of the board of excise) as 2nd baronet in 1839, and in 1844 married Sidney, daughter of Charles Watkin Williams Wynn (1775-1850). From 1845 he held various important offices in the customs. He died on the 8th of June 1888. Doyle's poetry is memorable for certain isolated and spirited pieces in praise of British fortitude. The best-known are his ballads on the " Birkenhead " disaster and on " The Private of the Buffs." DOYLE, JOHN ANDREW (1844-1907), English historian, the son of Andrew Doyle, editor of The Morning Chronicle, was born on the I4th of May 1844. He was educated at Eton and at Balliol College, Oxford, winning the Arnold prize in 1868 for his essay, The American Colonies. He was a fellow of All Souls' from 1870 until his death, which occurred at Crickhowell, South Wales, on the 4th of August 1907. His principal work is The English Colonies in America, in five volumes, as follows: Virginia, Maryland and the Carolinas (i vol., 1882), The Puritan Colonies (2 vols., 1886), The Middle Colonies (i vol., 1907), and The Colonies under the House of Hanover (i vol., 1907), the whole work dealing with the history of the colonies from 1607 to 1759. Doyle also wrote chapters i., ii., v. and vii. of vol. vii. of the Cambridge Modern History, and edited William Bradford's His- tory of the Plimouth Plantation (1896) and the Correspondence of Susan Ferrier (1898)'. DOYLE, RICHARD (1824-1883), English artist, son of John Doyle, the caricaturist known as " H. B." (1797-1868), was born in London in 1824. His father's " Political Sketches " took the town by storm in the days of Lord Grey and Lord Melbourne. The son was an extremely precocious artist, and in his " Home for the Holidays," done when he was twelve, and his " Comic English Histories," drawn four years later, he showed extraordinary gifts of humour and fancy. He had no art training outside his father's studio. In 1843 he joined the staff of Punch, drawing cartoons and a vast number of illustrations, but he retired in 1850, in consequence of the attitude adopted by that paper towards what was known as " the papal aggression," and especially towards the pope himself. In 1854 he published his " Continental Tour of Brown, Jones and Robinson." His illustrations to three of the Christmas Books of Charles Dickens, and to The Newcomes by Thackeray, are reckoned among his principal achievements; and his fanciful pictures of elves and fairies have always been general favourites. He died on the nth of December 1883. His most popular drawing is his cover of Punch. DOZSA, GY6RGY (d. 1514), Hungarian revolutionist, was a Szekler squire and soldier of fortune, who won such a reputation for valour in the Turkish wars that the Hungarian chancellor, Tamas Bakocz, on his return from Rome in 1514 with a papal bull preaching a holy war in Hungary against the Moslems, appointed him to organize and direct the movement. In a few weeks he collected thousands of so-called Kuruczok (a corruption of Cruciati), consisting for the most part of small yeomen, peasants, wandering students, friars and parish priests, the hum- blest and most oppressed portion of the community, to whom alone a crusade against the Turk could have the slightest attrac- tion. They assembled in their counties, and by the time Dozsa had drilled them into some sort of discipline and self-confidence, they began to air the grievances of their class. No measures had been taken to supply these voluntary crusaders with food or clothing; as harvest-time approached, the landlords commanded them to return to reap the fields, and on their refusing to do so, proceeded to maltreat their wives and families and set their armed retainers upon the half -starved multitudes. Instantly the movement was diverted from its original object, and the peasants and their leaders began a war of extermination against the landlords. By this time Dozsa was losing control of the rabble, which had fallen under the influence of the socialist parson of Czegled, Lorincz Meszaros. The rebellion was the more dangerous as the town rabble was on the side of the peasants, and in Buda and other places the cavalry sent against the Kuruczok were unhorsed as they passed through the gates. The rebellion spread like lightning, principally in the central or purely Magyar provinces, where hundreds of manor-houses and castles were burnt and thousands of the gentry done to death by impalement, crucifixion and other unspeakable methods. Dozsa's camp at Czegled was the centre of the jacquerie, and from thence he sent out his bands in every direction, pillaging and burning. In vain the papal bull was revoked, in vain the king issued a proclama- tion commanding the peasantry to return to their homes under pain of death. By this time the rising had attained the dimensions of a revolution; all the feudal levies of the kingdom were called out against it; and mercenaries were hired in haste from Venice, Bohemia and the emperor. Meanwhile Dozsa had captured the city and fortress of Csanad, and signalized his victory by impaling the bishop and the castellan. Subsequently, at Arad, the lord treasurer, Istvan Telegdy, was seized and tortured to death with satanic ingenuity. It should, however, in fairness be added that only notorious bloodsuckers, or obstinately resisting noblemen, were destroyed in this way. Those who freely submitted were always released on parole, and Dozsa not only never broke his given word, but frequently assisted the escape of fugitives. But he could not always control his followers when their blood was up, and infinite damage was done before he could stop it. At first, too, it seemed as if the government were incapable of coping with him. In the course of the summer he took the fortresses of Arad, Lippa and Vilagos; provided himself with guns and trained gunners; and one of his bands advanced to within five leagues of the capital. But his half- naked, ill-armed ploughboys were at last overmatched by the mail- clad chivalry of the nobles. Dozsa, too, had become demoralized by success. After Csanad, he issued proclamations which can only be described as nihilistic. His suppression had become a political necessity. He was finally routed at Temesvar by the combined forces of Janos Zapolya and Istvan Bathory, was captured, and condemned to sit on a red-hot iron throne, with a red-hot iron crown on his head and a red-hot sceptre in his hand. This infernal sentence was actually carried out, and, life still lingering, the half-roasted carcass of the unhappy wretch, who endured everything with invincible heroism, was finally devoured by half-a-dozen of his fellow-rebels, who by way of preparation had been starved for a whole week beforehand. See Sandor Marki, Dozsa Gyorgy (Hung.), Budapest, 1884. (R. N. B.) DOZY, REINHART PIETER ANNE (1820-1883), Dutch Arabic scholar of French (Huguenot) origin, was born at Leiden in February 1820. The Dozys, like so many other contemporary DRACAENA— DRACHMANN 463 French families, emigrated to the Low Countries after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, but some of the former appear to have settled in Holland as early as 1647. Dozy studied at the university of Leiden, obtained the degree of doctor in 1844, was appointed an extraordinary professor of history in 1850, and professor in 1857. The first results of his extensive studies in Oriental literature, Arabic language and history, manifested themselves in 1847, when he published Al-Marrakushi's History of the Almohades (Leiden, 2nd ed., 1881), which, together with his Scriptorum Arabumlocide Abbaditis (Leiden, 1846-1863, 3 vols.), his editions of Ibn-Adhari's History of Africa and Spain (Leiden, 1848-1852, 3 vols.), of Ibn-Badrun's Historical Commentary on the Poem of Ibn-Abdun (Leiden, 1848), and his Dictionnaire detaille des noms des vetements chez les Arabes (Amsterdam, 1845) — a work crowned by the Dutch Institute — stamped Dozy as one of the most learned and critical Arabic scholars of his day. But his real fame as a historian mainly rests on his great work, Histoire des Mussulmans d'Espagne,jusqu'a la conquete de I' Andalousie par les Almoramdes, 711-1110 (Leiden, 1861; 2nd ed., ibid., 1881); a graphically written account of Moorish dominion in Spain, which shed new light on many obscure points, and has remained the standard work on the subject. Dozy's Recherclies sur I' hisloire el la literature de I'Espagne pendant le moyen dge (Leiden, 2 vols., 1849; 2nd and 3rd ed., completely recast, 1860 and 1881) form a needful and wonderfully trenchant supplement to his Histoire des Mussulmans, in which he mercilessly exposes the many tricks and falsehoods of the monks in their chronicles, and effectively demolishes a good part of the Cid legends. As an Arabic scholar Dozy stands well-nigh unsurpassed in his Supplement aux dictionnaires arabes (Leiden, 1877-1881, 2 vols.), a work full of research and learning, a storehouse of Arabic lore. To the same class belongs his Glossaire des mots espagnols et portugais, derives de I'Arabe, edited with Dr W. H. Engelmann of Leipzig (Leiden, 1866; 2nd ed., 1868), and a similar list of Dutch words derived from the Arabic. Dozy also edited Al Makkari's Analectes sur I'histoire et la litterature des Arabes d'Espagne (Leiden, 1855- 1861, 2 vols.), and, in conjunction with his friend and worthy successor, Professor De Goeje, at Leiden, Idrisi's Description de I'Afrique et de I'Espagne (1866), also the Calendrier de Cordoue de I'annie p6i; lexle arabe et ancienne traduction latine (Leiden, 1874). Het Islamisme (Islamism; Haarlem, 1863, 2nd ed., 1880; French translation) is a popular exposition of Mahommedanism, of a more controversial character; and De Israelieten te Mekka (" The Israelites at Mecca," Haarlem, 1864) became the subject of a rather heated discussion in Jewish circles. Dozy died at Leiden in May 1883. (H. Ti.) DRACAENA, in botany, a genus of the natural order Liliaceae, containing about fifty species in the warmer parts of the Old World. They are trees or shrubs with long, generally narrow leaves, panicles of small whitish flowers, and berried fruit. The most remarkable species is Dracaena Draco, the dragon-tree of the Canary Isles, which reaches a great size and age. The famous specimen in Teneriffe, which was blown down by a hurricane in 1868, when measured by Alexander von Humboldt, was 70 ft. high, with a circumference of 45 ft. several feet above the ground. A resin exuding from the trunk is known as dragon's blood (-j> terjuman,a.n interpreter or translator; the same root occurs in the Hebrew word tar gum signifying translation, the title of the Chaldaean translation of the Bible), a comprehensive designation applied to all who act as intermediaries between Europeans and Orientals, from the hotel tout or travellers' guide, hired at a few shillings a day, to the chief dragoman of a foreign embassy whose functions include the carrying on of the most important political negotia- tions with the Ottoman government, or the dragoman of the imperial divan (the grand master of the ceremonies) . The original employment of dragomans by the Turkish government arose from its religious scruples to use any language save those of peoples which had adopted Islamism. The political relations between the Porte and the European states, more frequent in proportion as the Ottoman power declined, com- pelled the sultan's ministers to make use of interpreters, who rapidly acquired considerable influence. It soon became neces- sary to create the important post of chief dragoman at the Porte, and there was no choice save to appoint a Greek, as no other race in Turkey combined the requisite knowledge of languages with the tact and adroitness essential for conducting diplomatic negotiations. The first chief dragoman of the Porte was Panayot Nikousia, who held his office from 1665 to 1673. His successor, Alexander Mavrocordato, surnamed Exaporritos, was charged by the Turkish government with the delicate and arduous negotiation of the treaty of Carlowitz, and by his dexterity succeeded, in spite of his questionable fidelity to the interests of his employers, in gaining their entire confidence, and in becoming the factotum of Ottoman policy. From that time until 1821 the Greeks monopolized the management of Turkey's foreign relations, and soon established the regular system whereby the chief dragoman passed on as a matter of course to the dignity of hospodar of one of the Danubian principalities. In the same way, the foreign representatives accredited to the Porte found it necessary, in the absence of duly qualified countrymen of their own, to engage the services of natives, Greek, Armenian, or Levantine, more or less thoroughly ac- quainted with the language, laws and administration of the country. Their duties were by no means confined to those of a mere translator, and they became the confidential and in- dispensable go-betweens of the foreign missions and the Porte. Though such dragomans enjoyed by treaty the protection of the country employing them, they were by local interests and family ties very intimately connected with the Turks, and the disadvantages of the system soon became apparent. Accord- ingly as early as 1669 the French government decided on the foundation of a school for French dragomans at Constantinople, for which in later years was substituted the £cole des langues orientates in Paris; most of the great powers eventually took some similar step, England also adopting in 1877 a system, since modified, for the selection and tuition of a corps of British- born dragomans. The duties of an embassy dragoman are extensive and not easily defined. They have been described as partaking at once of those of a diplomatist, a magistrate, a legal adviser and an administrator. The functions of the first dragoman are mainly political; he accompanies the ambassador or minister at his audiences of the sultan and usually of the ministers, and it is he who is charged with the bulk of diplomatic negotiations at the palace or the Porte. The subordinate dragomans transact the less important business, comprising routine matters such as requests for the recognition of consuls, the settlement of claims or furthering of other demands of their nationals, and in general all the various matters in which the interests of foreign subjects may be concerned. An important part of the dragoman's duties is to attend during any legal proceedings to which a subject of his nationality is a party, as failing his attendance and his concurrence in the judgment delivered such proceedings are null and void. Moreover, the dragoman is frequently enabled, through the close relations which he necessarily maintains with different classes of Turkish officials, to furnish valuable and confidential information not otherwise obtainable. The high estimation in which the dragomans are held by most foreign powers is shown by the fact that they are usually and in the regular course promoted to the most important diplomatic posts. This is the case in the Russian and Austrian services (where more than one ambassador began his career as a junior dragoman) 466 DRAGOMIROV— DRAGON and generally in the German service; the French chief drago- man usually attains the rank of minister plenipotentiary. The value of a tactful and efficient intermediary can hardly be over-estimated, and in the East a personal interview of a few minutes often results in the conclusion of some important matter which would otherwise require the exchange of a long and laborious correspondence. The more important consulates in the provinces of Turkey are also provided with one or more dragomans, whose duties, mutatis mutandis, are of a similar though less important nature. In the same way banks, railway companies and financial institutions employ dragomans for facilitating their business relations with Turkish officials. DRAGOMIROV, MICHAEL IVANOVICH (1830-1905), Russian general and military writer, was born on the 8th of November 1830. He entered the Guard infantry in 1849, becoming 2nd lieutenant in 1852 and lieutenant in 1854. In the latter year he was selected to study at the Nicholas Academy (staff college), and here he distinguished himself so much that he received a gold medal, an honour which, it is stated, was paid to a student of the academy only twice in the I9th century. In 1856 he was promoted staff-captain and in 1858 full captain, being sent in the latter year to study the military methods in vogue in other countries. He visited France, England and Belgium, and wrote voluminous reports on the instructional and manoeuvre camps of these countries at Chalons, Aldershot and Beverloo. In 1859 he was attached to the headquarters of the king of Sardinia during the campaign of Magenta and Solferino, and immediately upon his return to Russia he was sent to the Nicholas Academy as professor of tactics. Dragomirov played a leading part in the reorganization of the educational system of the army, and acted also as instructor to several princes of the imperial family. This post he held until 1863, when, as a lieutenant- colonel, he took part in the suppression of the Polish insurrection of 1863-64, returning to St Petersburg in the latter year as colonel and chief of staff to one of the Guard divisions. During the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Dragomirov was attached to the headquarters of the II. Prussian army. He was present at the battles on the upper Elbe and at Koniggratz, and his comments on the operations which he witnessed are of the greatest value to the student of tactics and of the war of 1866. In 1868 he was made a major-general, and in the following year became chief of the staff in the Kiev military circum- scription. In 1873 he was appointed to command the i4th division, and in this command he distinguished himself very greatly in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. The I4th division led the way at the crossing of the Danube at Zimnitza, Drago- mirov being in charge of the delicate and difficult operation of crossing and landing under fire, and fulfilling his mission with complete success. Later, after the reverses before Plevna, he, with the cesarevich and Generals Todleben and Milutine, strenuously opposed the suggestion of the Grand-duke Nicholas that the Russian army should retreat into Rumania, and the demoralization of the greater part of the army was not per- mitted to spread to Dragomirov's division, which retained its discipline unimpaired and gave a splendid example to the rest. He was wounded at the Shipka Pass, and, though promoted lieutenant-general soon after this, was not able to see further active service. He was also made adjutant-general to the tsar and chief of the S3rd Volhynia regiment of his old division. For eleven years thereafter General Dragomirov was chief of the Nicholas Academy, and it was during this period that he collated and introduced into the Russian army all the best military literature of Europe, and in many other ways was active in improving the moral and technical efficiency of the Russian officer-corps, especially of the staff officer. In 1889 Dragomirov became commander-in-chief of the Kiev military district, and governor-general of Kiev, Podolsk and Volhynia, retaining this post until 1903. He was promoted to the rank of general of infantry in 1891. His advanced age and failing health prevented his employment at the front during the Russo-Japanese war of 1004-5, but his advice was continually solicited by the general headquarters at St Petersburg, and while he disagreed with General Kuropatkin in many important questions of strategy and military policy, they both recommended a repetition of the strategy of 1812, even though the total abandonment of Port Arthur was involved therein. General Dragomirov died at Konotop on the 28th of October 1905. In addition to the orders which he already possessed, he received in 1901 the order of St Andrew. His larger military works were mostly translated into French, and his occasional papers, extending over a period of nearly fifty years, appeared chiefly in the Voienni Svornik and the Razoiedschik; his later articles in the last-named paper were, like the general orders he issued to his own troops, attentively studied throughout the Russian army. His critique of Tolstoy's War and Peace attracted even wider attention. Dragomirov was, in formal tactics, the head of the " orthodox " school. His conservatism was not, however, th6 result of habit and early training, but of deliberate reasoning and choice. His model was, as he admitted in the war of 1866, the British infantry of the Peninsular War, but he sought to reach the ideal, not through the methods of repression against which the " advanced " tacticians revolted, but by means of thorough efficiency in the individual soldier and in the smaller units. He inculcated the " offensive at all costs," and the combination of crushing short- range fire and the bayonet charge. He carried out the ideas of Suvarov to the fullest extent, and many thought that he pressed them to a theoretical extreme unattainable in practice. His critics, however, did not always realize that Dragomirov de- pended, for the efficiency his unit required, on the capacity of the leader, and that an essential part of the self-sacrificing discipline he exacted from his officers was the power of assuming responsi- bility. The details of his brilliant achievement of Zimnitza suffice to give a clear idea of Dragomirov's personality and of the way in which his methods of training conduced to success. DRAGON (Fr. dragon, through Lat. draco, from the Greek; connected with StpKOfiai, " see," and interpreted as " sharp- sighted "; O.H. Ger. tracho, dracho, M.H.G. troche, Mod. Ger. Drachen; A.S. draca, hence the equivalent English form " drake," " fire-drake," cf. Low Ger. and Swed. drake, Dan. drage), a fabulous monster, usually conceived as a huge winged fire-breathing lizard or snake. In Greece the word dpaxuv was used originally of any large serpent, and the dragon of mythology, whatever shape it may have assumed, remains essentially a snake. For the part it has played in the myths and cults of various peoples and ages see the article SERPENT-WORSHIP. Here it may be said, in general, that in the East, where snakes are large and deadly (Chaldea, Assyria, Phoenicia, to a less degree in Egypt), the serpent or dragon was symbolic of the principle of evil. Thus Apophis, in the Egyptian religion, was the great serpent of the world of darkness vanquished by Ra, while in Chaldaea the goddess Tiamat, the female principle of primeval Chaos, took the form of a dragon. Thus, too, in the Hebrew sacred books the serpent or dragon is the source of death and sin, a conception which was adopted in the New Testament and so passed into Christian mythology. In Greece and Rome, on the other hand, while the oriental idea of the serpent as an evil power found an entrance and gave birth to a plentiful brood of terrors (the serpents of the Gorgons, Hydra, Chimaera and the like) , the draconles were also at times conceived as beneficent powers, sharp-eyed dwellers in the inner parts of the earth, wise to discover its secrets and utter them in oracles, or powerful to invoke as guardian genii. Such were the sacred snakes in the temples of Aesculapius and the sacri dracontes in that of the Bona Dea at Rome; or, as guardians, the Python at Delphi and the dragon of the Hesperides. In general, however, the evil reputation of dragons was the stronger, and in Europe it outlived the other. Christianity, of course, confused the benevolent and malevolent serpent- deities of the ancient cults in a common condemnation. The very " wisdom of the serpent " made him suspect; the devil, said St Augustine, "leo et draco est; leo propter impetum, draco propter insidias." The dragon myths of the pagan East took new shapes in the legends of the victories of St Michael and DRAGON 467 St George; and the kindly snakes of the " good goddess " lived on in the immanissimus draco whose baneful activity in a cave of the Capitol was cut short by the intervention of the saintly pope Silvester I. (Duchesne, Liber pontificates, i. 109 seq.). In this respect indeed Christian mythology found itself in harmony with that of the pagan North. The similarity of the Northern and Oriental snake myths seems to point to some common origin in an antiquity too remote to be explored. Whatever be the origin of the Northern dragon, the myths, when they first become articulate for us, show him to be in all essentials the same as that of the South and East. He is a power of evil, guardian of hoards, the greedy withholder of good things from men; and the slaying of a dragon is the crowning achievement of heroes — of Siegmund, of Beowulf, of Sigurd, of Arthur, of Tristram — even of Lancelot, the beau ideal of medieval chivalry. Nor were these dragons anything but very real terrors, even in the imaginations of the Dragon Lizard (Draco taeniopterus). learned, until comparatively modern times. As the waste places were cleared, indeed, they withdrew farther from the haunts of men, and in Europe their last lurking-places were the in- accessible heights of the Alps, where they lingered till Jacques Balmain set the fashion which has finally relegated them to the realm of myth. In the works of the older naturalists, even in the great Historia animalium of so critical a spirit as Conrad Gesner (d. 1564), they still figure as part of the fauna known to science. As to their form, this varied from the beginning. The Chaldaean dragon Tiamat had four legs, a scaly body, and wings. The Egyptian Apophis was a monstrous snake, as were also, originally at least, the Greek dracontes. The dragon of the Apocalypse (Rev. xii. 3), " the old serpent," is many-headed, like the Greek Hydra. The dragon slain by Beowulf is a snake (worm), for it " buckles like a bow "; but that done to death by Sigurd, though its motions are heavy and snake-like, has legs, for he wounds it " behind the shoulder." On the other hand, the dragon seen by King Arthur in his dreams is, according to Malory, winged and active, for it " swoughs " down from the sky. The belief in dragons and the conceptions of their shape were undoubtedly often determined, in Europe as in China, by the discovery of the remains of the gigantic extinct saurians. The qualities of dragons being protective and terror-inspiring, and their effigies highly decorative, it is natural that they should have been early used as warlike emblems. Thus, in Homer (Iliad xi. 36 seq.), Agamemnon has on his shield, besides the Gorgon's head, a blue three-headed snake (dp&Kuv), just as ages afterwards the Norse warriors painted dragons on their shields and carved dragons' heads on the prows of their ships. From the conquered Dacians, too, the Romans in Trajan's time borrowed the dragon ensign which became the standard of the cohort as the eagle was that of the legion; whence, by a long descent, the modern dragoon. Under the later East Roman emperors the purple dragon ensign became the ceremonial standard of the emperors, under the name of the dpaKovrtiov. The imperial fashion spread; or similar causes elsewhere produced similar results. In England before the Conquest the dragon was chief among the royal ensigns in war. Its origin, according to the legend pre- served in the Flares historiarum, was as follows. Uther Pen- dragon, father of King Arthur, had a vision of a flaming dragon in the sky, which his seers interpreted as meaning that he should come to the kingdom. When this happened, after the death of his brother Aurelius, " he ordered two golden dragons to be fashioned, like to those he had seen in the circle of the star, one of which he dedicated in the cathedral of Winchester, the other he kept by him to be carried into battle." From Uther Dragon- head, as the English called him, the Anglo-Saxon kings borrowed the ensign, their custom being, according to the Flares, to stand in battle inter draconem el standardum. The dragon ensign, which was borne before Richard I. in 1191 when on crusade " to the terror of the heathen beyond the sea," was that of the dukes of Normandy; but even after the loss of Normandy the dragon was the battle standard of English kings (signum regium quod Draconem vacant), and was displayed, e.g. by Henry III. in 1245 when he went to war against the Welsh. Not till the 20th century, under King Edward VII., was the dragon officially restored as proper only to the British race of Uther Pendragon, by its incorporation in the armorial bearings of the prince of Wales. As a matter of fact, however, the dragon ensign was common to nearly all nations, the reason for its popularity being naively stated in the romance of Athis (quoted by Du Cange), " Ce souloient Remains porter, Ce nous fait moult a redouter:" " This the Romans used to carry, This makes us very much to be feared." Thus the dragon and wyvern (i.e. a two-legged snake, M.E. wivere, viper) took their place as heraldic symbols (see HERALDRY). As an ecclesiastical symbol it has remained consistent to the present day. Wherever it is represented it means the principle of evil, the devil and his works. In the middle ages the chief of these works was heresy, and the dragon of the medieval church legends and mystery plays was usually heresy. Thus the knightly order of the vanquished dragon, instituted by the emperor Sigismund in 1418, celebrated the victory of orthodoxy over John Huss. Hell, too, is represented in medieval art as a dragon with gaping jaws belching fire. Of the dragons carried in effigy in religious processions some have become famous, e.g. the Gargouille (gargoyle) at Rouen, the Graully at Metz, and the Tarasque at Tarascon. Their popularity tended to disguise their evil significance and to restore to them something of the beneficent qualities of the ancient dracontes as local tutelary genii. In the East, at the present day, the dragon is the national symbol of China and the badge of the imperial family, and as such it plays a large part in Chinese art. Chinese and Japanese dragons, though regarded, as powers of the air, are wingless. They are among the deified forces of nature of the Taoist religion, and the shrines of the dragon-kings, who dwell partly in water and partly on land, are set along the banks of rivers. The constellation Draco (anguis, serpens) was probably so DRAGONETTI— DRAGON-FLY called from its fanciful likeness to a snake. Numerous myths, in various countries, are however connected with it. The general character of these may be illustrated by the Greek story which explains the constellation as being the dragon of the Hesperides slain by Heracles and translated by Hera or Zeus to the heavens. See C. V. Daremberg and E. Saglio, Diclionnaire des antiquites grecques et romaines (Paris, 1886, &c.), s.v. "Draco"; Pauly- Wissowa, Realencyclopadie, s.v. " Drakon "; Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v. "Draco"; La Grande Encyclopedic, s.v. "Dragon"; J. B. Panthot, Histoire des dragons et des escarboucles (Lyons, 1691). See also the articles EGYPT: Religion, and BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN RELIGION. (W. A. P.) In zoology the name " dragon " is now applied to a highly interesting, but very harmless, group of small flying lizards form- ing the genus Draco, belonging to the Agamidae, a family of Saurian reptiles. About 20 species of " flying dragons " inhabit the various Indo-Malayan countries; one, D. dussumieri, occurs in Madras. They are small creatures, measuring about 10 in. long, including the tail, which in some cases is more than half of the entire length. The head is small, and the throat is pro- vided with three pouches which are spread out when they lie on the trunks of trees. They are, however, chiefly remarkable for the wing-like cutaneous processes with which their sides are provided, and which are extended and supported by greatly elongated ribs. These form a sort of parachute by which the animals are enabled to glide from branch to branch of the trees on which they live, but, being altogether independent of the fore limbs, they cannot be regarded as true wings, nor do they enable the lizard to fly, but merely to make extensive leaps. But they have the habit of opening and folding these prettily coloured organs, when resting upon a branch, which gives them the appearance of butterflies. When not in use they are folded by the side after the manner of a fan, and the dragon can then walk or run with considerable agility. Its food consists of insects. DRAGONETTI, DOMENICO (1763-1846), Italian double-bass player, was born in Venice on the 7th of April 1763. Having become famous as a performer on his instrument, he went to London in 1794, where his playing created a furore. He was the friend of Haydn and of Beethoven, and a well-known character in his day. He died in London on the i6th of April 1846. DRAGON-FLY (Ger. Wasserjungfer; Swed. trollslanda; Dan. guldsmed; Dutch, scherpstekendevlieg; Fr. demoiselle), the popular English name applied to the members of a remarkable group of insects which formed the genus Libellula of Linnaeus and the ancient authors. In some parts of the United States they appear to be known as " devil's darning needles," and in many parts of England are termed " horse-stingers." It is almost needless to say that (excepting to other insects upon which they prey) they are perfectly innocuous, though some of the larger species can inflict a momentarily painful bite with their powerful jaws. Their true systematic position is still contested and somewhat uncertain. By most of the older systematists they were placed as forming part of the hetero- geneous order Neuroptera. J. C. Fabricius, however, elevated them to the rank of a distinct order, which he termed Odonata; and whatever may be the difference of opinion amongst authors at the present day, that term is almost universally employed for the group. W. F. Erichson transferred all the groups of so-called Neuroplera with incomplete metamorphoses, hence in- cluding the dragon-flies, as a division of Orthoptera, which he termed Pseudo-Neuroptera. K. E. A. Gerstacker more recently •also retains them in the Orthoplera, terming those groups in which the earlier states are subaquatic Orthoptera amphibotica. All entomologists are agreed in maintaining the insects as form- ing a group marked by characters at once extraordinary and isolated in their nature, and in most modern classifications they are treated as a distinct order. The group Odonata is divided into three families, and each of these again into two subfamilies. The families are the Agri- onidae, Aeschnidae and Libellulidae — the first including the sub- families Calopterygina and Agrionina, the second Gomphina and Aeschnina, and the third Cordulina and Libellulina. Anatomy. — The structure of a dragon-fly being so very remarkable, it is necessary to enter somewhat extensively into details. The head is comparatively small, and excavated posteriorly, connected very slightly with the prothorax, on which it turns almost as on a pivot. facets, which are often larger on the upper portion. The antennae, which are smaller in proportion than in almost any other insects, consist only of two short swollen basal joints and a 5 or 6-jointed bristle-like thread. The large labrum conceals the jaws and inner mouth parts. The lower lip, or labium (formed by the conjoined second maxillae), is attached to a very small chin piece (or mentum), and is generally very large, often (Agrionidae) divided almost to its base into two portions, or more frequently entire or nearly so; on each side of it are two usually enormous hypertrophied pieces, which form the " palpi," and which are often furnished at the tips with an articulated spine (or terminal joint), the whole structure serving to retain the prey. Considerable diversity of opinion exists with respect to the composition of the mouth parts, and by some authors the " palpi " have been termed the side pieces of the lower lip. The prothorax is extremely small, consisting of only a narrow ring. The rest of the thorax is very large, and consolidated into a single piece with oblique sutures on the sides beneath the wings. The abdomen varies excessively in form, the two extremes being the filiform structure observable in most Agrionidae, and the very broad and depressed formation seen in the familiar British Libellula depressa. It consists of ten distinct segments, whereof the basal two and those at the apex are short, the others elongate, the first being excessively short. In a slit on the under side of the second in the male, accompanied by external protuberances, are concealed the genital organs: on the under side of the eighth in the female is a scale-like formation, indicating the entrance to the oviduct. The tenth is always provided in both sexes with prominent appendages, differing greatly in form, and often furnishing the best specific (and even generic) characters. The legs vary in length and stoutness, but may, as a rule, be termed long and slender. The anterior pair probably assist in capturing and holding insect prey, but the greatest service all the legs render is possibly in enabling the creature to rest lightly, so that it can quit a position of repose in chase of passing prey in the quickest possible manner. The coxa is short and stout, followed by a still shorter trochanter; the femora and tibiae long and slender, almost in- variably furnished on their under surface with two series of strong spines, as also are the tarsi, which consist of three slender joints, the last having two long and slender claws. The wings are always elongate, and furnished with strong longi- tudinal neuration and dense transverse nervules strengthening the already strong (although typically transparent) membrane. In the Agrionidae both pairs are nearly equal, and are carried vertically and longitudinally in repose, and the neuration and membrane are less strong; hence the species of this family are not so powerful on the wing as are those of the other groups in which the wings are horizontally extended in a position ready for instant service. The neuration is peculiar, and in many respects without precise analogy in other groups of insects, but it is not necessary here to enter into more than some special points. The arrangement of the nervures at the base of the wing is very singular, and slight differences in it form useful aids to classification. In the Aeschnidae and Libellulidae this arrangement results in the formation of a triangular space (known as the " triangle "), which is either open or traversed by nervules; but in many Agrionidae this space, instead of being triangular, is oblong or elongately quadrate, or with its upper edge partly straight and partly oblique. This fixitude of type in neuration is not one of the least important of the many peculiarities exhibited in these insects. The internal structure is comparatively simple. The existence of salivary glands, denied by L. Duprix, has been asserted by O. Poletajewa. The rest of the digestive apparatus consists of an elongate canal extending from mouth to anus, comprising the oesophagus, stomach and intestine, with certain dilatations and constrictions; the characteristic Malpighian vessels are stated to number about forty, placed round the posterior extremity of the stomach. Dragon-flies eat their prey completely, and do not content themselves by merely sucking its juices; the harder portions are rejected as elongate, nearly dry, pellets of excrement. Pairing. — But the most extraordinary feature in the economy — one which has attracted the attention of naturalists from remote times — is the position of the genital organs, and the corresponding anomalous manner in which the pairing of the sexes and impregnation is effected. In the male the intromittent organ is situated in a slit on the under surface of the second abdominal segment ; it is usually very crooked or sinuous in form, and is accompanied by sheaths, and by external hooks or secondary appendages, and also by seminal vessels. But the ducts of the vessels connected with the testes unite and open on the under surface of the ninth segment; hence, before copulation can take place, it is necessary that the vessels in the second DRAGON-FLY 469 segment be charged from this opening, and in the majority of cases tins is done by the male previously to seeking the female. In the latter sex the entrance to the oviduct and genital organs is on the under surface of the eighth abdominal segment. The act of pairing may be briefly stated as follows. The male, when flying, seizes the prothorax of the female with the strong appendages at the extremity of the abdomen, and the abdomen of this latter sex is then curved upward so as to bring the under side of the eighth segment into FIG. i . — The anterior portion of the body of Aeschna cyanea freed from the nymph-cuticle. FIG. 2. — The tail being extricated. contact with the organs of the second segment of the male. In the more powerful Libellulidae, &c., the act is of short duration, and it is probable that polygamy and polyandry exist, for it possibly requires more than one almost momentary act to fertilize all the eggs in the ovaries of a female. But in many Agrionidae, and in some others, the male keeps his hold of the prothorax of the female for a lengthened period, retaining himself in flight in an almost perpendicular manner, and it may be that the deposition of eggs and pairing goes on alternately. There is, however, much yet to be learned on these points. The gravid female usually lays her eggs in masses (but perhaps sometimes singly), and the operation may be witnessed by any one in localities frequented by these insects. She hovers for a considerable time over nearly the same spot, rapidly dipping the apex of her abdomen into the water, or at any rate touching it, and often in places where there are no water-weeds, so that in all probability the eggs fall at once to the bottom. But in some of the Agrionidae the female has been often noticed by trustworthy ob- servers to creep down the stems of aquatic plants several inches below the surface, emerging after the act of oviposition has been effected ; and in the case of Lestes sponsa, K. T. E. von Siebold saw the male descend with the female. The same exact observer noticed also in this species that the female makes slight incisions in the stems or leaves of water plants with the double serrated apparatus (vulva) forming a prolonga- tion of the ninth segment beneath, depositing an egg in each incision. He has seen two pairs thus occupied be- neath the surface on one and the same stem. Larva and Nymph. — The duration of the subaquatic life of a dragon-fly is no doubt variable, according to the species. In the smaller forms it is probably less than a year, but precise evidence is wanting as to the occurrence of two broods in one year. On the other hand, it is certain that often a longer period is requisite to enable the creature to attain its full growth, and three years have been stated to be necessary for this in the large and powerful FIG. 3. — The whole body extricated. A nax formosus. Like all insects with incomplete metamorphoses, there is no quiescent pupal condition, no sharp line of demar- cation between the larval and so-called " nymph " or pen- ultimate stage. The creature goes on eating and increasing in size from the moment it emerges from the egg to the time when it leaves the water to be transformed into the aerial perfect insect. The number of moults is uncertain, but they are without doubt numerous. At probably about the antepenultimate of these operations, the rudimentary wings begin to appear as thoracic buddings, and in the full-grown nymph these wings overlap about one-half of the dorsal surface of the abdomen. In structure there is a certain amount of resemblance to the perfect insect, but the body is always much stouter and shorter, in some cases most disproportionately so, and the eyes are always separated; even in those genera (e.g. Aeschna) in which the eyes of the imago are absolutely contiguous, the most that can be seen in the larva is a prolongation towards each other, and there are no ocelli. The legs are shorter and more fitted for crawling about water plants and on the bottom. In the mouth parts the mandibles and maxillae are similar in form to those of the adult, but there is an extraordinary and unique modification of the lower lip. This is attached to an elongate and slender mentum articulated to the posterior portion of the lower surface of the head, slightly widened at its ex- tremity, to which is again articulated the labium proper, which is very large, flattened, and gradually dilated to its extremity; but its form differs according to group as in the perfect insect. Thus in the A g rionidae it is deeply cleft, and with comparatively slender side-pieces (or palpi), and strongly developed FIG. 4. — The perfect insect (the wings having acquired their full dimensions) resting to dry itself, preparatory to the wings being horizontally extended. articulated spines; in the Aeschnidae it is at the most notched, with narrow side-pieces and very strong spines; in the Libellulidae it is entire, often triangular at its apex, and with enormously developed palpi with- out spines, but having the opposing inner edges furnished with interlocking serrations. The whole of this apparatus is commonly termed the mask. In a state of repose it is applied closely against the face, the elongated mentum directed back- ward and lying between the anterior pair of legs; but when an approaching victim is seen the whole apparatus is suddenly projected, and the prey caught by the raptorial palpi; in some large species it is capable of being projected fully half an inch in front of the head. The prey, once caught and held by this apparatus, is devoured in the usual manner. There are two pairs of thoracic spiracles, through which the nymph breathes during its later life by thrusting the anterior end of the body into the air; but respiration is mostly effected by a peculiar apparatus at the tail end, and there are two different methods. In the Agrionidae there arej;hree elongate flattened plates, or false gills, full of tracheal ramifications, which extract the air from the water, and convey it to the internal tracheae (in Calo- pteryx these plates are excessively long, nearly equalling the abdomen), the plates also serving as means of locomotion. But in the other groups these external false gills are absent, and in 470 DRAGON-FLY their place are five valves, which by their sudden opening and closing force in the water to the rectum, the walls of which are furnished with branchial lamellae. The alternate opening and closing of these valves enables the creature to make quick jerks or rushes (incorrectly termed " leaps ") through the water,1 and, in conjunction with its mouth parts, to make sudden attacks upon prey from a considerable distance. Well-developed Aeschnid larvae have been observed to take atmospheric air into the rectum. The lateral angles of the terminal abdominal segments are sometimes produced into long curved spines. In colour these larvae are generally muddy, and they frequently have a coating of muddy particles, and hence are less likely to be observed by their victims. If among insects the perfect dragon- fly may be termed the tyrant of the air, so may its larva be styled that of the water. Aquatic insects and larvae form the principal food, but there can be no doubt that worms, the fry of fish, and even younger larvae of their own species, form part of the bill of fare. The " nymph " when arrived at its full growth sallies forth from the water, and often crawls a considerable distance (frequently many feet up the trunks of trees) before it fixes itself for the final change, which is effected by the thorax splitting longitudinally down the back, through which fissure the perfect insect gradually drags itself. The figures indicate this process as observed in Aeschna cyanea. The Complete Insect. — For a considerable time after its emer- gence a dragon-fly is without any of its characteristic colours, and is flaccid and weak, the wings (even in those groups in which they are afterwards horizontally extended) being held vertically in a line with the abdomen. By degrees the parts harden, and the insect essays its first flight, but even then the wings have little power and are semi-opaque in appearance, as if dipped in mucilage. In most species of Calopterygina, and in some others, the prevailing colour of the body is a brilliant bronzy green, blue or black, but the colours in the other groups vary much, and often differ in the sexes. Thus in Libellula depressa the abdomen of the fully adult male is covered with a bluish bloom, whereas that of the female is yellow; but several days elapse before this pulverulent appearance is attained, and a comparatively young male is yellow like the female. The wings are typically hyaline and colourless, but in many species (espe- cially Calopterygina and Libellidina) they may be wholly or in part opaque and often black, due apparently to gradual oxydization of a pigment between the two membranes of which the wings are composed; the brilliant iridescence, or metallic lustre, so frequently found is no doubt due to interference — the effect of minute irregularities of the surface — and not produced by a pigment. A beautiful little genus (Chalcopteryx) of Calo- pterygina from the Amazon is a gem in the world of insects, the posterior wings being of the most brilliant fiery metallic colour, whereas the anterior remain hyaline. These insects are pre-eminently lovers of the hottest sunshine (a few are somewhat crepuscular), and the most powerful and daring on the wing in fine weather become inert and compara- tively lifeless when at rest in dull weather, allowing themselves to be captured by the fingers without making any effort to escape. Many of the larger species (Aeschna, &c.) have a habit of affecting a particular twig or other resting place like a fly-catcher among birds, darting off after prey and making long excursions, but returning to the chosen spot. A. R. Wallace, in his Malay Archipelago, states that the inhabitants of Lombok use the large species for food, and catch them by means of limed twigs. They are distributed over the whole world excepting the polar regions, but are especially insects of the tropics. At the present day about 2200 species are known, dispersed unequally among the several subfamilies as follows: Agrionina, 700 species; Calopterygina, 280; Gomphina, 320; Aeschnina, 170; Corduliina, 130; Libellulina, 600. In Europe proper only 100 species have been observed, and about 46 of these occur in the British islands. New Zealand is excessively poor, and can only number 8 species, whereas they are very numerous in Australia. 1 A similar contrivance was suggested and (if the writer mistakes not) actually tried as a means of propelling steamships. Some species are often seen at sea, far from land, in calm weather, in troops which are no doubt migratory; the common Libellula quadrimaculata, which inhabits the cold and temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, has been frequently seen in immense migratory swarms. One species (Pantala fiavescens) has about the widest range of any insect, occurring in the Old World from Kamtchatka to Australia, and in the New from the Southern States to Chili, also all over Africa and the Pacific islands, but is not found in Europe. The largest species occur in the Aeschnina and Agrionina; a member of the former subfamily from Borneo expands to nearly 6| in., and with a moderately strong body and powerful form; in the latter the Central American and Brazilian Megaloprepus caerulatus and species of Mecistogaster are very large, the former expanding to nearly 7 in., and the latter to nearly as much, but the abdomen is not thicker than an ordinary grass-stem and of extreme length (fully 5 in. in Mecistogaster). Fossils. — Among fossil insects dragon-flies hold a conspicuous position. Not only do they belong to what appears to have been a very ancient type, but in addition, the large wings and strong dense reticulation are extremely favourable for preserva- tion in a fossil condition, and in many cases all the intricate details can be as readily followed as in a recent example. From the Carboniferous strata of Commentry, France, C. Brongniart has described several genera of gigantic insects allied to dragon- flies, but with less specialized thoracic segments and simpler wing-neuration. These form a special group — the Protodonata. True Odonata referable to the existing families are plentiful in Mesozoic formations; in England they have been found more especially in the Purbeck beds of Swanage, and the vales of Wardour and Aylesbury, in the Stonesfield Slate series, and in the Lias and Rhaetic series of the west of England. But the richest strata appear to be those of the Upper Miocene at Oeningen, near Schaffhausen in the Rhine valley; the Middle Miocene at Radaboj, near Krapina in Croatia; the Eocene of Aix, in Provence; and more especially the celebrated Secondary rocks furnishing the lithographic stone of Solenhofen, in Bavaria. This latter deposit would appear to have been of marine origin, and it is significant that, although the remains of gigantic dragon-flies discovered in it are very numerous and perfect, no traces of their subaquatic conditions have been found, although these as a rule are numerous in most of the other strata, hence the insects may be regarded as having been drowned in the sea and washed on shore. Many of these Solenhofen species differ considerably in form from those now existing, so that Dr H. A. L. Hagen, who has especially studied them, says that for nearly all it is necessary to make new genera. It is of great interest, how- ever, to find that a living Malayan genus (Euphaea) and another living genus Uropetala, now confined to New Zealand, are repre- sented in the Solenhofen deposits, while a species of Mega- podagrion now entirely Neotropical, occurs in the Eocene beds of Wyoming. A notice of fossil forms should not be concluded without the remark that indications of at least two species have been found in amber, a number disproportionately small if compared with other insects entombed therein; but it must be remembered that a dragon-fly is, as a rule, an insect of great power, and in all probability those then existing were able to extricate themselves if accidentally entangled in the resin. See E. de Selys-Longchamps, Monographic des Libellulidees d'Europe (Brussels, 1840); Synopses des Agnonines, Calopterygines, Gomphines, et Gordulines, with Supplements (Brussels, from 1853 to 1877); E. de Selys-Longchamps and H. A. L. Hagen, Revue des Odonates d'Europe (Brussels, 1850); Monographic des Calopteryeines et des Gomphines (Brussels, 1854 and 1858) ; Charpentier, Libellulinae europeae (Leipzig, 1840). For modern systematic work see various papers by R. M'Lachlan, P. P. Calvert, J. G. Needham, R. Martin, E. B. Williamson, F. Karsch, &c. ; also H. Tumpel, Die Geradflugler Mitleleuropas (Eisenach, 1900); and W. F. Kirby, Catalogs of Neuroptera Odonata (London, 1890). For habits and details of trans- formation and larval life, see L. C. Miall, Natural History of Aquatic Insects (London, 1895); H. Dewitz, Zool. Anz. xiii. (1891); and J. G. Needham, Bull. New York Museum, Ixviii. (1903). For geo- graphical distribution, G. H. Carpenter, Sci. Proc. R. Dublin Soc. viii. (1897). For British species, W. J. Lucas, Handbook of British DRAGON'S BLOOD— DRAINAGE OF LAND Dragonflies (London, 1899). For wings and mechanism of flight, R. von Lendenfeld, S.B. Akad. Wien, Ixxxiii. (1881), and J. G. Needham, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. xxvi. (1903). For general mor- phology, R. Heymons, Abhandl. k. preuss. Akad. (1896), and Ann. Hofmus. Wein, xix. (1904). (R. M'L.; G. H. C.) DRAGON'S BLOOD, a red-coloured resin obtained from several species of plants. Calamus draco (Willd.), one of the rotang or rattan palms, which produces much of the dragon's blood of commerce, is a native of Further India and the Eastern Archi- pelago. The fruit is round, pointed, scaly, and the size of a large cherry, and when ripe is coated with the resinous exudation known as dragon's blood. The finest dragon's blood, called jernang or djernang in the East Indies, is obtained by beating or shaking the gathered fruits, sifting out impurities, and melting by exposure to the heat of the sun or by placing in boiling water; the resin thus purified is then usually moulded into sticks or quills, and after being wrapped in reeds or palm-leaves, is ready for market. An impurer and inferior kind, sold in lumps of considerable size, is extracted from the fruits by boiling. Dragon's blood is dark red-brown, nearly opaque and brittle, contains small shell-like flakes, and gives when ground a fine red powder; it is soluble in alcohol, ether, and fixed and volatile oils. If heated it gives off benzoic acid. In Europe it was once valued as a medicine on account of its astringent properties, and is now used for colouring varnishes and lacquers; in China, where it is mostly consumed, it is employed to give a red facing to writing paper. The drop dragon's blood of commerce, called cinnabar by Pliny (N.H. xxxiii. 39), and sangre de dragon by Barbosa was formerly and is still one of the products of Socotra, and is obtained from Dracaena cinnabari. The dragon's blood of the Canary Islands is a resin procured from the surface of the leaves and from cracks in the trunk of Dracaena draco. The hardened juice of a euphorbiaceous tree, Croton draco, a resin resembling kino, is the sangre del drago or dragon's blood of the Mexicans, used by them as a vulnerary and astringent. DRAGOON (Fr. dragon, Ger. Dragoner), originally a mounted soldier trained to fight on foot only (see CAVALRY). This mounted infantryman of the late i6th and I7th centuries, like his comrades of the infantry who were styled " pike " and " shot," took his name from his weapon, a species of carbine or short musket called the " dragon." Dragoons were organized not in squadrons but in companies, like the foot, and their officers and non-commissioned officers bore infantry titles. The invariable tendency of the old-fashioned dragoon, who was always at a disadvantage when engaged against true cavalry, was to improve his horsemanship and armament to the cavalry standard. Thus " dragoon " came to mean medium cavalry, and this significance the word has retained since the early wars of Frederick the Great, save for a few local and temporary returns to the original mean- ing. The phrases " to dragoon " and " dragonnade " bear witness to the mounted infantry period, this arm being the most efficient and economical form of cavalry for police work and guerrilla warfare. The " Dragonnades," properly so called, were the operations of the troops (chiefly mounted) engaged in enforcing Louis XIV.'s decrees against Protestants after the revocation of the edict of Nantes. In the British service the dragoons (ist Royals, 2nd Scots Greys, 6th Inniskillings) are heavy cavalry, the Dragoon Guards (seven regiments) are medium, as are the dragoons of other countries. The light cavalry of the British army in the i8th and early igth century was for the most part called light dragoons. DRAGUIGNAN, the chief town of the department of the Var in S.E. France; 51 m. N.E. of Toulon, and 28$ m. N.W. of Frejus by rail; situated at a height of 679 ft. above the level of the sea, at the southern foot of the wooded heights of Malmont, and on the left bank of the Nartuby river; pop. (1906) 7766. It possesses no notable buildings, save a modern parish church, a prefecture, also modern, and a building wherein are housed the town library and a picture gallery, with some fair works of art. In modern times the ramparts have been demolished, and new wide streets pierced through the town. DRAINAGE OF LAND. The verb " to drain," with its sub- stantives " drain " and " drainage," represents the 0. Eng. dreahnian, from the same root found in " dry," and signifies generally the act of drawing off moisture or liquid from some- where, and so drinking dry, and (figuratively) exhausting; the substantive " drain " being thus used not only in the direct sense of a channel for carrying off liquid, but also figuratively for a very small amount such as would be left as dregs. The term " drainage " is applied generally to all operations involving the drawing off of water or other liquid, but more particularly to those connected with the treatment of the soil in agriculture, or with the removal of water and refuse from streets and houses. For the last, see SEWERAGE; the following article being devoted to the agricultural aspects of this subject. See also the articles RECLAMATION OF LAND, CANAL, IRRIGATION, RIVER ENGINEER- ING, WATER SUPPLY and (law) WATER RIGHTS. Agricultural or field drainage consists in the freeing of the soil from stagnant and superfluous water by means of surface or underground channels. It may be distinguished from the draining of land on a large scale which is exemplified in the re- clamation of the English Fens (see FENS). Surface drainage is usually effected by ploughing the land into convex ridges off which the water runs into intervening furrows and is conveyed into ditches. For several reasons this method is ineffective, and, where possible, is now superseded by underground drainage by means of pipe-tiles. Land is not in a satisfactory condition with respect to drainage unless the rain that falls upon it can sink down to the minimum depth required for the healthy develop- ment of the roots of crops and thence find vent either through a naturally porous subsoil or by artificial channels. A few of the evils inseparable from the presence of overmuch water in the soil may be enumerated. Wet land, if in grass, produces only the coarser grasses, and many subaquatic plants and mosses, which are of little or no value for pasturage; its herbage is late in spring, and fails early in autumn; the animals grazed upon it are unduly liable to disease, and sheep, especially, to foot-rot and liver-rot. In the case of arable land the crops are poor and moisture-loving weeds flourish. Tillage operations on such land are easily interrupted by rain, and the period always much limited in which they can be prosecuted at all; the com- pactness and toughness of the soil renders each operation more arduous, and its repetition more necessary than in the case of dry land. The surface must necessarily be thrown into ridges, and the furrows and cross-cuts cleared out after each process of tillage, and upon this surface-drainage as much labour is expended in twenty years as would suffice to make under-drains enough to lay it permanently dry. With all these precautions the best seed time is often missed, and this usually proves the prelude to a scanty crop, or to a late and disastrous harvest. The cultivation of the turnip and other root crops, which require the soil to be wrought to a deep and free tilth, either becomes altogether impracticable and must be abandoned for the safe but costly bare fallow, or is carried out with great labour and hazard; and the crop, when grown, can neither be removed from the ground, nor consumed upon it by sheep without damage by " poaching." The roots of plants require both air and warmth. A deep stratum through which water can percolate, but in which it can never stagnate, is therefore necessary. A waterlogged soil is impenetrable by air, and owing to the continuous process of evaporation and radiation, its temperature is much below that of drained soil. The surface of the water in the supersaturated soil is known as the " water-table " and is exemplified in water standing in a well. Water will rise in clay by capillarity to a height of 50 in., in sand to 22 in. Above the " water-table " the water is held by capillarity, and the percentage of water held decreases as we approach the surface where there may be perfect dryness. Draining reduces the " surface tension " of the capil- lary water by removal of the excess, but the " water-table " may be many feet below. Drains ordinarily remove only excess of capillary water, an excess of percolating water in wet weather. In setting about the draining of a field, or farm, or estate, the first point is to secure a proper outfall. The lines of the receiving drains must next be determined, and then the direction of the 472 DRAINAGE OF LAND parallel drains. The former must occupy the lowest part of the natural hollows, and the latter must run in the line of the greatest slope of the ground. In the case of flat land, where a fall is obtained chiefly by increasing the depth of the drains at their lower ends, these lines may be disposed in any direction that is found convenient; but in undulating ground a single field may require several distinct sets of drains lying at different angles, so as to suit its several slopes. When a field is ridged in the line of the greatest ascent of the ground, there is an obvious con- venience in adopting the furrows as the site of the drains; but wherever this is not the case the drains must be laid off to suit the contour of the ground, irrespective of the furrows altogether. When parts of a field are flat, and other parts have a considerable acclivity, it is expedient to cut a receiving drain near to the bottom of the slopes, and to give the flat ground an independent set of drains. In laying off receiving drains it is essential to give hedgerows and trees a good offing, lest the conduit be obstructed by the roots. When a main drain is so placed that parallel ones empty into it from both sides, care should be taken that the inlets of the latter are not made exactly opposite to each other. Much of the success of draining depends on the skilful planning of these main drains, and in making them large enough to discharge the greatest flow of water to which they may be exposed. Very long main drains are to be avoided. Numerous outlets are also objectionable, from their liability to obstruction. An outlet to an area of from 10 to 15 acres is a good arrangement. These outlets should be faced with mason work, and guarded with iron gratings. The distance and depth apart of the parallel drains is deter- mined chiefly by reference to the texture of the soil. In an impervious clay the flow of the water is much impeded and the water-table can be controlled only by frequent lines of pipes. On such land it is customary to lay them about 3 ft. from the surface and from 15 to 21 ft. apart. In lighter soils the depth, and proportionately the distance apart, is increased, but the drains are rarely more than 4 ft. 6 in. below the surface, though they may be 75 or 100 apart. A fall of at least i in 200 is desirable. There are various forms of under-drainage, some of them alluded to in the historical section below, but by far the common- est is by means of cylindrical or oval pipes of burnt clay about i ft. in length, sometimes supplemented by collars, though nowadays the use of these is being abandoned. Pipes vary in bore from 2 in. for the parallel to 6 in. for the main drains. In constructing a drain, it is of importance that the bottom be cut out just wide enough to admit the pipes and no more. Pipes, when accurately fitted in, are much less liable to derangement than when laid in the bottom of a trench several times their width, into which a mass of loose earth must necessarily be returned. This is easily effected m the case of soils tolerably free from stones by the use of draining spades and the tile-hook which are represented in the accompanying cut. The tile-hook is an implement by means of which the pipes may be lowered from the edge of the trench and laid at the bottom. An implement, sometimes propelled by steam, known as the draining plough, can be used for opening the trenches. Draining can be carried on at all seasons, but is usually best done in autumn or summer. A thoroughly trustworthy and experienced workman should be selected to lay the pipes, with instructions to set no pipes until he is satisfied that the depth of the drains and level of the bottoms are correct. The expense of tile-drainage may vary from about £2:105. per acre on locse soils to £10 an acre on the most tenacious soils, the rate of wages and the cost of the pipes, the depth of the trenches and the ease with which they can be dug, all influencing the cost of the process. Drainage is not a modern discovery. The Romans were careful to keep their arable lands dry by means of open trenches or covered drains filled with stones or twigs. It is at least several centuries since covered channels of various kinds were used by British husbandmen for drying their land. Walter Blith (see AGRICULTURE) about the middle of the i;th century wrote of the improvement which might be effected in barren land by free- ing it from the excess of stagnant water on or near the surface by means of channels filled with faggots or stones, but his principles, never generally adopted, were ultimately forgotten. In the latter half of the i8th century. Joseph Elkington, a Warwickshire farmer, discovered a plan of laying dry sloping ground that is drowned by the outbursting of springs. When the higher-lying portion of such land is porous, rain falling upon it sinks down until it is arrested by clay or other impervious matter, which causes it again to issue at the surface and wet the lower-lying ground. Elkington showed that by cutting a deep drain through the clay, aided when necessary by wells or auger holes, the subjacent bed of sand or gravel in which a body of water is pent up by the clay, as in a vessel, might be tapped and the water conveyed harmlessly in the covered drain to the nearest ditch or stream. In the circumstances to which it is applicable, and in the hands of skilful drainers, Elkington's Draining Implements. plan, known as " sink-hole drainage," by bringing into play the natural drainage furnished by porous strata, is often eminently successful. During the subsequent thirty or forty years most of the drain- ing that took place was on this system, and an immense capital was expended in such works with varying results. Things continued in this position until about 1823, when James Smith of Deanston, having discovered anew those principles of draining so long before indicated by Blith, proceeded to exemplify them in his own practice, and to expound them to the public in a way that speedily effected a complete revolution in the art of draining, and marked an era in agricultural progress. Instead of persisting in fruitless attempts to dry extensive areas by a few dexterous cuts, he insisted on the necessity of providing every field that needed draining at all with a complete system of parallel under- ground channels, running in the line of the greatest slope of the ground, and so near to each other that the whole rain falling at any time upon the surface should sink down and be carried off by the drains. A main receiving drain was to be carried along the lowest part of the ground, with sub-drains in every subor- dinate hollow that the ground presented. The distances between drains he showed must be regulated by the greater or less reten- tiveness of the ground operated upon, and gave 10 to 40 ft. as the limits of their distance apart. The depth which he prescribed for his parallel drains was 30 in., and these were to be filled with 12 in. of stones small enough to pass through a 3-in. ring — in short a new edition of Blith's drain. Josiah Parkes, engineer DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS 473 to the Royal Agricultural Society, advocated a greater distance apart for the drains, and, in order that the subterranean water might be reached, a depth of at least 4 ft. The cultivated lands of Britain being disposed in ridges which usually lie in the line of greatest ascent, it became customary to form the drains in each furrow, or in each alternate, or third or fourth one, as the case might require, or views of economy dictate and hence the system soon came to be popularly called " furrow draining." From the number and arrangement of the drains, the terms " frequent " and " parallel " were also applied to it. Smith himself more appropriately named it, from its effects, "thorough draining." The sound principles thus promulgated by him were speedily adopted and extensively carried into practice. The great labour and cost incurred in procuring stones in adequate quantities, and the difficulty of carting them in wet seasons, soon led to the substitution of " tiles," and soles of burnt earthenware. The limited supply and high price of these tiles for a time impeded the progress of the new system of draining; but the invention of tile-making machines removed this impediment, and gave a stimulus to this fundamental agricultural improvement. The substitution of cylindrical pipes for the original horse-shoe tiles has still further lowered the cost and increased the efficiency and permanency of drainage works. The system introduced by Smith of Deanston has now been virtually adopted by all drainers. Variations in matters of detail (having respect chiefly to the depth and distance apart of the parallel drains) have indeed been introduced; but the distinctive features of his system are recognized and acted upon. A great stimulus was given to the improvement of land by the passing in England of a series of acts of parliament, which removed certain obstacles that effectually hindered tenants with limited interests from investing capital in works of drainage and kindred amelioration. The Public Money Drainage Acts 1846-1856 author- ized the advance of public money to landowners to enable them to make improvements in their lands, not only by draining, but by irrigation, the making of permanent roads, clearing, erecting build- ings, planting for shelter, &c. The rapid absorption of the funds provided by these acts led to further legislative measures by which private capital was rendered available for the improvement of land. A series of special improvement acts were passed, authorizing companies to execute or advance money for executing improvements in land. Finally, the Land Improvement Act 1864, amended and extended by the act of 1899, gave facilities for borrowing money by charging the cost of draining, &c., as a rent-charge upon the inherit- ance of the land. The instalments must be repaid with interest in equal amounts extending over a fixed term of years by the tenant for life during his lifetime, the tenant being bound to maintain the improvements. See C. G. Elliott, Engineering for Land Drainage (New York, 'QOS) I F. H. King, Irrigation and Drainage (New York, 1899); G. S. Mitchell, Handbook of Land Drainage (London, 1898), with a good bibliography. DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS (c. 1545-1595), English admiral, was born near Tavistock, Devonshire, about 1545 according to most early authorities, but possibly as early as 1539 (see Corbett, vol. i., Appendix A). His father, a yeoman and a zealous Protestant, was obliged to take refuge in Kent during the persecutions in the reign of Queen Mary. He obtained a naval chaplaincy from Queen Elizabeth, and is said to have been after- wards vicar of Upnor Church (evidently a misprint or slip of the pen for Upchurch) on the Medway. Young Drake was educated at the expense and under the care of Sir John Hawkins, who was his kinsman; and, after passing an apprenticeship on a coasting vessel, at the age of eighteen he had risen to be purser of a ship trading to Biscay. At twenty he made a voyage to Guinea; and at twenty-two he was made captain of the " Judith." In that capacity he was in the harbour of San Juan de Ulloa, in the Gulf of Mexico, where he behaved most gallantly in the actions under Sir John Hawkins, and returned with him to England, having acquired great reputation, though with the loss of all the money which he had embarked in the expedition. In 1570 he obtained a regular privateering commission from Queen Eliza- beth, the powers of which he immediately exercised in a cruise in the Spanish Main. Having next projected an attack against the Spaniards in the West Indies to indemnify himself for his former losses, he set sail in 1572, with two small ships named the " Pasha " and the " Swan." He was afterwards joined by another vessel; and with this small squadron he took and plundered the Spanish town of Nombre de Dios. With his men he penetrated across the isthmus of Panama, and committed great havoc among the Spanish shipping. From the top of a tree which he climbed while on the isthmus he obtained his first view of the Pacific, and resolved " to sail an English ship in these seas." In these expeditions he was much assisted by the Maroons, descendants of escaped negro slaves, who were then engaged in a desultory warfare with the Spaniards. Having embarked his men and filled his ships with plunder, he bore away for England, and arrived at Plymouth on the gth of August 1573. His success and honourable demeanour in this expedition gained him high reputation; and the use which he made of his riches served to raise him still higher in popular esteem. Having fitted out three frigates at his own expense, he sailed with them to Ireland, and rendered effective service as a volunteer, under Walter, earl of Essex, the father of the famous but unfortunate earl. After his patron's death he returned to England, where he was introduced to Queen Elizabeth (whether by Sir Christopher Hatton is doubtful), and obtained a favourable reception. In this way he acquired the means of undertaking the expedition which has immortalized his name. The first proposal he made was to undertake a voyage into the South Seas through the Straits of Magellan, which no Englishman had hitherto ever attempted. This project having been well received at court, the queen furnished him with means; and his own fame quickly drew together a sufficient force. The fleet with which he sailed on this enterprise consisted of only five small vessels, and their united crews mustered only 166 men. Starting on the i3th of December 1577, his course lay by the west coast of Morocco and the Cape Verde Islands. He reached the coast of Brazil on the 6th of April, and entered the Rio de la Plata, where he parted company with two of his ships; but having met them again, and taken out their provisions, he turned them adrift. On the 1 9th of June he entered the port of St Julian's, where he remained two months, partly to lay in provisions, and partly delayed by the trial and execution of Thomas Doughty, who had plotted against him. On the 2ist of August he entered the Straits of Magellan. The passage of the straits took sixteen days, but then a storm carried the ships to the west; on the 7th of October, having made back for the mouth of the strait, Drake's ship and the two vessels under his vice-admiral Captain Wynter were separated, and the latter, missing 'the rendezvous arranged, returned to England. Drake went on, and came to Mocha Island, off the coast of Chile, on the 25th of November. He thence continued his voyage along the coast of Chile and Peru, taking all opportunities of seizing Spanish ships, and attacking them on shore, till his men were satiated with plunder; and then coasted along the shores of America, as far as 48° N. lat., in an unsuccessful endeavour to discover a passage into the Atlantic. Having landed, however, he named the country New Albion, and took possession of it in the name of Queen Elizabeth. Having careened his ship, he sailed thence on the 26th of July 1579 for the Moluccas. On the 4th of November he got sight of those islands, and, arriving at Ternate, was extremely well received by the sultan. On the loth of December he made the Celebes, where his ship unfortunately struck upon a rock, but was taken off without much damage. On the nth of March he arrived at Java, whence he intended to have directed his course to Malacca; but he found himself obliged to alter his purpose, and to think of returning home. On the 26th of March 1580 he again set sail; and on the isth of June he doubled the Cape of Good Hope, having then on board only fifty-seven men and three casks of water. He passed the line on the I2th of July, and on the i6th reached the coast of Guinea, where he watered. On the i ith of September he made the Island of Terceira, and on the 26th of September (?) he entered the harbour of Plymouth. This voyage round the world, the first accomplished by an Englishman, was thus performed in two years and about ten 474 DRAKE, N.— DRAKENSBERG months. The queen hesitated for some time whether to recog- nize his achievements or not, on the ground that such recognition might lead to complications with Spain, but she finally decided in his favour. Accordingly, soon after his arrival she paid a visit to Deptford, went on board his ship, and there, after partaking of a banquet, conferred upon him the honour of knight- hood, at the same time declaring her entire approbation of all that he had done. She likewise gave directions for the preser- vation of his ship, the " Golden Hind," that it might remain a monument of his own and his country's glory. After the lapse of a century it decayed and had to be broken up. Of the sound timber a chair was made, which was presented by Charles II. to the university of Oxford. In 1581 Drake became mayor of Plymouth; and in 1585 he married a second time, his first wife having died in 1583. In 1585, hostilities having commenced with Spain, he again went to sea, sailing with a fleet to the West Indies, and taking the cities of Santiago (in the Cape Verde Islands), San Domingo, Cartagena and St Augustine. In 1587 he went to Lisbon with a fleet of thirty sail; and having received intelligence of a great fleet being assembled in the bay of Cadiz, and destined to form part of the Armada, he with great courage entered the port on the iQth of April, and there burnt upwards of 10,000 tons of shipping — a feat which he afterwards jocosely called " singeing the king of Spain's beard," In 1588, when the Spanish Armada was approaching England, Sir Francis Drake was appointed vice-admiral under Lord Howard, and made prize of a very large galleon, commanded by Don Pedro de Valdez, who was reputed the projector of the invasion, and who struck at once on learning his adversary's name. It deserves to be noticed that Drake's name is mentioned in the singular diplomatic communication from the king of Spain which preceded the Armada: — " Te veto ne pergas bello defendere Belgas; Quae Dracus eripuit nunc restituantur oportet; Quas pater evertit jubeo te condere cellas: Religio Papae fac restituatur ad unguera." To these lines the queen made this extempore response: — " Ad Graecas, bone rex, fiant mandata kalendas." In 1589 Drake commanded the fleet sent to restore Dom Antonio, king o* Portugal, the land forces being under the orders of Sir John Norreys; but they had hardly put to sea when the commanders differed, and thus the attempt proved abortive. But as the war with Spain continued, a more formidable ex- pedition was fitted out, under Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake, against their settlements in the West Indies, than had hitherto been undertaken during the whole course of it. Here, however, the commanders again disagreed about the plan; and the result in like manner disappointed public expectation. These disasters were keenly felt by Drake, and were the principal cause of his death, which took place on board his own ship, near the town of Nombre de Dios, in the West Indies, on the 28th of January 1595. The older Lives by Samuel Clarke (1671) and John Barrow, junr. (1843), have been superseded by Julian Corbett's two admirable volumes on Drake and the Tudor Navy (1898), the best source of information on the subject, which were preceded by the same author's Sir Francis Drake in the " English Men of Action " series (1890). See also E. J. Payne's edition of Voyages of the Elizabethan Seamen to A merica : Thirteen original narratives from the collection of Hakluyt (new ed., 1893). DRAKE, NATHAN (1766-1836), English essayist and phy- sician, son of Nathan Drake, an artist, was born at York in 1766. He was apprenticed to a doctor in York in 1779, and in 1786 proceeded to Edinburgh University, where he took his degree as M.D. in 1789. In 1790 he set up as a general prac- titioner at Sudbury, Suffolk, where he found an intimate friend in Dr Mason Good (d. 1827). In 1792 he removed to Hadleigh, Suffolk, where he died in 1836. His works include several volumes of literary essays, and some papers contributed to medical periodicals; but his most important production was Shakespeare and his Times, inciting the Biography of the Poet, Criticisms on his Genius and Writings; a new Chronology of his Plays; a Disquisition on the Object of his Sonnets; and a History of the Manners, Customs and Amusements, Superstitions, Poetry and Elegant Literature of his Age (2 vols., 1817). The title sufficiently indicates the scope of this ample work, which has the merit, says G. G. Gervinus (Shakespeare Commentaries, Eng. trans., 1877) " of having brought together for the first time into a whole the tedious and scattered material of the editions and of the many other valuable labours of Tyrwhitt, Heath, Ritson &c." DRAKENBORCH, ARNOLD (1684-1748), Dutch classical scholar, was born at Utrecht on the ist of January 1684. Having studied philology under Graevius and Burmann the elder, and law under Cornelius VanEck, ini7i6hesucceededBurmannin his professorship (conjointly with C. A. Duker), which he continued to hold till his death on the i6th of January 1748. Although he obtained the degree of doctor of laws, and was intended for the legal profession, he determined to devote himself to philo- logical studies. His edition of Livy (1738-1746, and subsequent editions) is the work on which his fame chiefly rests. The preface gives a particular account of all the literary men who have at different periods commented on the works of Livy. The edition itself is based on that of Gronovius; but Drakenborch made many important alterations on the authority of manuscripts which it is probable Gronovius had never seen. He also published Disserlatio de praefectis urbi (1704; reprinted at Frankfort in 1752 with a life of Drakenborch); Dissertatio de officio praefectorum praetorio (1707); and an edition of Silius Italicus (1717). DRAKENSBERG (Quathlamba or Kahlamba, i.e. " heaped up and jagged," of the natives), a mountain chain of S.E. Africa, running parallel to the coast from Basutoland to the Limpopo river — a distance of some 600 m. The Drakensberg are the eastern part of the rampart which forms the edge of the inner tableland of South Africa. The sides of the mountains facing the sea are in general precipitous; on their inner face they slope more or less gently to the plateau. The culminating points of the range, and the highest lands in South Africa, are found in a sharp bend from S.E. to N.W. in about 29° S. 29° E., where " the Berg " (as the range is called locally) forms the frontier between Natal and Basutoland. Within 60 m. of one another are three mountains, Giant's Castle, Champagne Castle or Cathkin Peak, and Mont aux Sources, 10,000 to 11,000 or more ft. above the sea. From Mont aux Sources the normal N.E. direction of the range is resumed. Conspicuous among the heights along the Orange Free State, Transvaal and Natal frontiers are Tintwa, Malani, Inkwelo and Amajuba or Majuba (?.».), all between 7000 and 8000 ft. The Draken's Berg — the particular hill from which the range is named — is 5682 ft. high and lies between Malani and Inkwelo heights. It was so named by the iioor- trekkers about 1840. North of Majuba the range enters the Transvaal. Here the elevation is generally lower than in the south, but the Mauch Berg is about 8500 ft. high. At its northernmost point the range joins 'the Zoutpansberg. In their southern part the Drakensberg form the parting between the rivers draining west to the Atlantic and those flowing south and east to the Indian Ocean. At Mont aux Sources rise the chief headwaters of the Orange, Tugela and other rivers. In the north, however, several streams rising in the interior plateau, e.g. the Komati, the Crocodile and the Olifants, pierce the Drakensberg and reach the Indian Ocean. The range has numerous passes, many available for wheeled traffic. Van Reenen's Pass, between Tintwa and Malani, is crossed by a railway which connects the Orange Free State and Natal: Laing's Nek, the main pass leading from Natal to the Transvaal, which lies under the shadow of Majuba, is pierced by a railway tunnel. The railway from Delagoa Bay to Pretoria crosses the Drakensberg by a very steep gradient. Several subsidiary ranges branch off from the main chain of the Berg. This is especially the case in Natal, where one range is known as the Little Drakensberg. (See further BASUTOLAND; NATAL and TRANSVAAL.) DRAMA 475 DRAMA (literally "action," from Gr. dpav, act or do), the term applied to those productions of Art which imitate or, to use a more modern term, " represent " action by introducing the personages taking part in them as real, and as employed in the action itself. There are numerous varieties of the drama,, differing more or less widely from one another, both as to the objects imitated and as to the means used in the process. But they all agree in the method or manner which is essential to the drama and to dramatic art, namely, imitation in the way of action. The function of all Art being to give pleasure by representation (see FINE ARTS), it is clear that what is distinctive of any one branch or form must be the manner in which this function is performed by it. In the epos, for instance, the method or manner is narrative, and even when Odysseus tells of his action, he is not acting. i. THEORY OF THE DRAMA, AND DRAMATIC ART The first step towards the drama is the assumption of character, whether real or fictitious. It is caused by the desire, inseparable from human nature, to give expression to feelings and thfdrama. ideas. These man expresses not only by sound and gesture, like other animals, and by speech significant by its delivery as well as by its purport, but also by imitation superadded to these. To imitate, says Aristotle, is instinctive in man from his infancy, and no pleasure is more universal than that which is given by imitation. Inasmuch as the aid of some sort of dress or decoration is usually at hand, while the accompaniment of dance or song, or other music, naturally suggests itself, especially on joyous or solemn occasions, we find that this pre- liminary step is taken among all peoples, however primitive or remote. But it does not follow, as is often assumed, that they possess a drama in germ. Boys playing at soldiers, or men walking in a pageant — a shoemaker's holiday in ribbons and flowers, or a Shetland sword-dance — none of these is in itself a drama. This is not reached till the imitation or representation extends to action. An action which is to present itself as such to human minds must enable them to recognize in it a procedure from cause to effect. This of course means, neither that the cause suggested must be the final cause, nor that the result shown forth need pretend to be the ultimate result. We look upon an action as ended when the purpose with which it began is shown to have been gained or frustrated; and we trace the beginning of an action back to the human will that set it on foot — though this will may be in bondage to a higher or stronger will, or to fate, in any or all of its purposes. Without an action in the sense stated — without a plot, in a word — there can be no drama. But the very simplest action will satisfy the dramatic test; a mystery representing the story of Cain and Abel without a deviation from the simple biblical narrative, a farce exhibiting the stalest trick played by designing sobriety upon oblivious drunkenness, may each of them be a complete drama. But even to this point, the imitation of action by action in however crude a form, not all peoples have advanced. But after this second step has been taken, it only remains for the drama to assume a form regulated by certain literary laws, in order that it may become a branch of dramatic literature literature. Such a literature, needless to say, only a limited number of nations has come to possess; and, while some are to be found that have, or have had, a drama with- out a dramatic literature, it is quite conceivable that a nation should continue in possession of the former after having ceased to cultivate the latter. It is self-evident that no drama which forms part of a dramatic literature can ignore the use of speech; and however closely music, dancing and decoration may associate themselves with particular forms or phases of the drama, their aid cannot be more than adventitious. As a matter of fact, the beginnings of dramatic composition are, in the history of such literatures as are well known to us, preceded by the earlier stages in the growth of the .lyric and epic forms of poetry, or by one of these at all events; and it is in the continua- tion of both that the drama in its literary form takes its origin in those instances which lie open to our study. While the aid of all other arts — even, strictly speaking, the aid of the literary art — is merely an accident, the co-operation of the art of acting is indispensable to that of the drama. Thedra- The dramatic writer may have reasons for preferring to matte and leave the imagination of his reader to supply the the hi*- absence of this co-operation; but, though the term t££le " literary drama " is freely used of works kept away from the stage, it is in truth either a misnomer or a self-condemna- tion. It is true that the actor only temporarily interprets, and sometimes misinterprets, the dramatist, while occasionally he reveals dramatic possibilities in a character or situation which remained hidden from their literary inventor. But this only shows that the courses of the dramatic and the histrionic arts dp not run parallel; it does not contradict the fact that theft conjunction is, on the one side as well as on the other, indispen- sable. No drama is more than potentially such till it is acted. To essay, whether in a brief summary or in more or less elaborate detail, a statement of the main laws of the drama, has often been regarded as a superfluous, not to say, futile effort. But the laws of which it is proposed to give ^/^S0/n<' some indication here are not so much those which any the drama. particular literature or period has chosen to set up and follow, as those abstracted by criticism, in pursuit of its own free comparative method, from the process that repeats itself in every drama adequately meeting the demands upon it. Aristotle, whom we still justly revere as the originator of the theory of the drama, and thus its great po/wflenjs, was, no doubt, in his practical knowledge of it, confined to its Greek examples, yet his object was not to produce another generation of great Attic tragedians, but rather to show how it was by following the necessary laws of their art that the great masters, true to them- selves and to their artistic ends, had achieved what they had achieved. Still more distinctly was such the aim of the greatest modern critical writer on the drama, Lessing, whose chief design was to combat false dramatic theories and to overthrow laws demonstrated by him to be artificial inventions, unreal figments. He proved, what before him had only been suspected, that Shakespeare, though in hopeless conflict with certain rules dating from the siede de Louis XIV, was not in conflict with those laws of the drama which are of its very essence, and that, accordingly, if Shakespeare and the rules in question could not be harmonized, it was only so much the worse for the rules. To illustrate from great works, and expound with their aid, the organic processes of the art to which they belong, is not only among the highest, it is also one of the most useful functions of literary and artistic criticism. Nor is there, in one sense at least, any finality about it. Neither the great authorities on dramatic theory nor the resolute and acute apologists of more or less transitory phases of the drama — Corneille, Dryden and many later successors — have exhausted the statement of the means which the drama has proved, or may prove, capable of employing. The multitude of technical terms and formulae which has gathered round the practice of the most living and the most Protean of arts has at no time seriously interfered with the operation of creative power. Ontheotherhand, no dramaturgic theory has (though the attempt has been often enough made) ever succeeded in giving rise to a single dramatic work of enduring value, unless the creative force was there to animate the form. It is therefore the operation of this creative force which we are chiefly interested in noting; and its task begins with the beginning of the dramatist's labours. He must of course start with the choice of a subject; yet it is obvious that the subject is merely the dead material out of which is formed that living something, the action of a play; and it is only in rare instances — far rarer than might at first sight appear — that the subject is as it were self-moulded as a dramatic action. The less experienced a playwright, the more readily will he, as the phrase is, rush at his subject, more especially if it seems to him to possess prima facie dramatic capabilities; and the consequence will be that which usually attends upon a precipitate start. On the other hand, while the quickness of a great dramatist's apprehension is apt to suggest 476 DRAMA [THEORY to him an infinite number of subjects, and insight and experience may lead him half instinctively in the direction of suitable themes, it will often be long before in his mind the subject converts itself into the initial conception of the action of a play. To mould a subject — be it a Greek legend, or a portion of a Tudor chronicle, or one out of a hundred Italian tales, or a true story of modern life — into the action or fable of a play, is the primary task of the dramatist, and with this all-important process the creative part of his work really begins. Although his conception may expand or modify itself as he executes it, yet upon the conception the execution must largely depend. The range of subjects open to a dramatist may be as wide as the world itself, or it may be restricted by an endless variety of causes, conven- tions and considerations; and it is quite true that even the greatest dramatists have not always found time for contemplating each subject that occurs to them till the ray is caught which proclaims it a dramatic diamond. What they had time for, and what only the playwright who entirely misunderstands his art ignores the necessity of finding time for, is the transformation of the dead material of the subject into the living action of a drama. What is it, then, that makes an action dramatic, and without which no action, whatever may be its nature — serious or ludicrous, stately or trivial, impetuous as a flame of fire, or light as a western breeze — can be so described? The answer to this question can only suggest itself from an attempt to ascertain the laws which determine the nature of all actions corresponding to this description. The first of the laws in question is in so far the most noteworthy among them that it has been the most amply discussed and the most pertinaciously misunderstood. This is the law which requires that a dramatic action should be one — that it should possess unity. What in the subject of a drama is merely an approximate or supposititious, must in its action be an actual unity; and it is indeed this requirement which constitutes the most arduous part of the task of transforming subject into action. There is of course no actual unity in any group of events in human life which we may choose to call by a single collective name — a war, a revolution, a con- spiracy, an intrigue, an imbroglio. The events of real life, the facts of history, even the imitative incidents of narrative fiction, are like the waves of a ceaseless flood; that which binds a group or body of them into a single action is the bond of the dramatic idea; and this it is incumbent upon the dramatist to supply. Within the limits of a dramatic action all its parts should (as in real life or in history they so persistently refuse to do) flow into its current like tributaries to a single stream; or, to vary the figure, everything in a drama should form a link in a single chain of cause and effect. This law is incumbent upon every kind of drama — alike upon the tragedy which sets itself to solve one of the problems of a life, and upon the farce which sums up the follies of an afternoon. Such is not, however, the case with certain more or less arbi- trary rules which have at different times been set up for this or that kind of drama. The supposed necessity that an action should consist of one event is an erroneous interpretation of the law that it should be, as an action, one. For an event is but an element in an action, though it may be an element of decisive moment. The assassination of Caesar is not the action of a Caesar tragedy; the loss of his treasure is not the action of The Miser. Again, unity of action, while excluding those uncon- nected episodes which Aristotle so severely condemns, does not prohibit the introduction of one or even more subsidiary actions as contributing to the progress of the main action. The sole indispensable law is that these should always be treated as what they are — subsidiary only; and herein lies the difficulty, which Shakespeare so successfully overcame, of fusing a combination of subjects taken from various sources into the idea of a single action; herein also lies the danger in the use of that favourite device of the Spanish and other modern dramas — " by-plots " or " under-plots." On the other hand, the modern French drama has largely employed another device — quite legitimate in itself — for increasing the interest of an action without destroying its unity. This may be called the dramatic use of backgrounds, the depiction of surroundings on W(hich the action or its chief characters seem sympathetically to reflect themselves, back- biting " good villagers " or academicians who inspire one another — with tedium. But a really double or multiple action, logically carried out as such, is inconceivable in a single drama, though many a play is palpably only two plays knotted into one. It was therefore not all pedantry which protested against the multiplicity of action which had itself formed part of the revolt against the too narrow interpretation of unity adopted by the French classical drama. Thirdly, unity of action need not imply unity of hero — for hero (or heroine) is merely a conventional term signifying the principal personage of the action. It is only when the change in the degree of interest excited by different characters in a play results from a change in the conception of the action itself, that the consequent duality (or multiplicity) of heroes recalls a faulty uncertainty in the conception of the action they carry on. Such an objection, while it may hold in the case of Schiller's Don Carlos, would therefore be erroneously urged against Shakespeare's Julius Caesar. Lastly, as to the theory fcwhich made the so-called unities of lime and place con- stitute, together with that of action, the Three Unities indispen- sable to the (tragic) drama, the following note must suffice. Aristotle's supposed exaction of all the Three Unities, having been expanded by Chapelain and approved by Richelieu, was stereotyped by Corneille, though he had (as one might say) got on very well without them, and was finally set forth in Horatian verse by Boileau. Thus it came to be overlooked that there is nothing in Aristotle's statement to show that in his judgment unity of time and place are, like unity of action, absolute dramatic laws. Their object is by representing an action as visibly continuous to render its unity more distinctly or easily perceptible. But the imagination is capable of con- structing for itself the bridges required for preserving to an action, conceived of as such, its character of continuousness. In another sense these rules were convenient usages conducing to a concise and clear treatment of a limited kind of themes; for they were a Greek invention, and the repeated resort to the same group of myths made it expedient for a Greek poet to seek the subject of a single tragedy in a part only of one of the myths at his disposal. The observance of unity of place, moreover, was suggested to the Greeks by certain outward conditions of their stage — as assuredly as it was adopted by the French in accordance with the construction and usages of theirs, and as the neglect of it by the Elizabethans was in their case encouraged by the established form of the English scene. The palpable artificiality of these laws needs no demonstration, so long as the true meaning of the term " action " be kept in view. Of the action of Otliello part takes place at Venice and part at Cyprus, and yet the whole is one in itself; while the limits of time over which an action — Hamlet's progress to resolve, for instance — extends cannot be restricted by a revolution of the earth round the sun or of the moon round the earth. In a drama which presents its action as one, this action must be complete in itself. This Aristotelian law, like the other, dis- tinguishes the dramatic action from its subject. The former may be said to have a real artistic, while the c°mi>l*t*- latter has only an imaginary real, completeness. The act/oa. historian, for instance, is aware that the complete ex- position of a body of events and transactions at which he aims can never be more than partially accomplished, since he may present only what he knows, and all human knowledge is im- perfect. But Art is limited by no such uncertainty. The dramatist, in treating an action as one, comprehends the whole of it in the form of his work, since, to him who has conceived it, all its parts, from cause to effect, are equally clear. It is his fault if in the action of his drama anything is left unaccounted for — not motive; though a dramatic motif might not always prove to be a sufficient explanation in real life. Accordingly, every drama should represent in organic sequence the several stages of which a complete action consists, and which are essential to it. This law of completeness, therefore, lies at the foundation of all systems of dramatic " construction." ANALYSIS] DRAMA 477 Every action, if conceived of as complete, has its causes, growth, height, consequences and close. There is no binding law to prescribe the relative length or proportion at construe- which these several stages in the action should be iion based treated in a drama; or to regulate the treatment of on this law suc}j subsidiary actions as may be introduced in aid of l^e main p'ot> or of suck more or less Directly con" nected " episodes " as may at the same time advance and relieve its progress. But experience has necessarily from time to time established certain rules of practice, and from the adoption of particular systems of division.for particular species of the drama — such as that into five acts for a regular tragedy or comedy, which Roman example has caused to be so largely followed — has naturally resulted a certain uniformity of relation between the conduct of an action and the outward sections of a play. Essentially, however, there is no difference between the laws regulating the construction of a Sophoclean or Shakespearian tragedy, a comedy of Moliere or Congreve, and a well-built modern farce, because all exhibit an action complete in itself. The " introduction " or " exposition " forms an integral part of the action, and is therefore to be distinguished from the Proiorues " Pr°l°gue " m the more ordinary sense of the term, fad which like the " epilogue " (and the Greek TrapajStwis) epilogues stands outside the action, and is a mere address to the outside the pUDiic from author, presenter or actor occasioned by the play. Prologue and epilogue are mere external, though at times effective, adjuncts, and have, properly speaking, as little to do with the construction of a play as the bill which announces it or the musical prelude which disposes the mind for its reception. A special kind of preface or argument is the " dumb-show," which in some old plays briefly rehearses in pantomime the action that is to follow. The introduction or Parts at exposition belongs to the action itself; it is, as the the action. Hindu critics called it, the seed or circumstance from introduc- which the business arises. Clearness being its primary 'ion or ex- requjsite, many expedients have been at various times adopted to secure this feature. Thus the Euripidean prologue, though spoken by one of the characters of the play, took a narrative form, more acceptable to the audience than to the critics, and placed itself half without, half within, the action. The same purpose is served by the separate " inductions " in many of the old English plays, and by the preludes or prologues, or whatever name they may assume, in numberless modern dramas of all kinds — from Faust down to the favourites of the Ambigu and the Adelphi. More facile is the orientation supplied in French tragedy by the opening scenes between hero and confidant, and in French comedy and its derivatives by those between observant valet and knowing lady's-maid. But all such expedients may be rendered unnecessary by the art of the dramatist, who is able outwardly also to present the introduction of his action as an organic part of that action itself; who seems to take the spectators in medias res, while he is really building the foundations of his plot; who touches in the opening of his action the chord which is to vibrate throughout its course — " Down with the Capulets ! down with the Montagues !" — " With the Moor, sayest thou ? " The exposition, which may be short or long, but which should always prepare and may even seem to necessitate the action, ends . when the movement of the action itself begins. This Opening of . . • 11 -..t. movement, transition may occasionally be marked with the utmost distinctness (as in the actual meeting between the hero and the Ghost in Hamlet), while in other instances sub- sidiary action or episode may judiciously intervene (as in King Lear, where the subsidiary action of Gloster and his sons oppor- tunely prevents too abrupt a sequence of cause and effect). From this point the second stage of the action — its " growth " — progresses to that third stage which is called its " height " or " climax." All that has preceded the attainment of this constitutes that half of the drama — usually its much larger half — which Aristotle terms the beats, or tying of the knot. The varieties in the treatment of the growth or second stage of the action are infinite; it is here that the greatest Umwth. Height or climax. freedom is manifestly permissible; that in the Indian drama the personages make long journeys across the stage; and that, with the help of their under-plots, the masters of the modern tragic and the comic drama — notably those unequalled weavers of intrigues, the Spaniards — are able most fully to exercise their inventive faculties. If the growth is too rapid, the climax will fail of its effect; if it is too slow, the interest will be exhausted before the greatest demand upon it has been made — a fault to which comedy is specially liable; if it is involved or inverted, a vague uncertainty will take the place of an eager or agreeable suspense, the action will seem to halt, or a fall will begin pre- maturely. In the contrivance of the " climax " itself lies one of the chief tests of the dramatist's art; for while the transactions of real life often fail to reach any climax at all, that of a dramatic action should present itself as self-evident. In the middle of everything, says the Greek poet, lies the strength; and this strongest or highest point it is the task of the dramatist to make manifest. Much here depends upon the niceties of constructive instinct; much (as in all parts of the action) upon a thorough dramatic transformation of the subject. The historical drama at this point presents peculiar difficulties, of which the example of Henry VIII. may be cited as an illustration. From the climax, or height, the action proceeds through its " fall " to its " close," which in a drama with an unhappy ending we still call its " catastrophe," while to termina- Fa]1 tions in general we apply the term denouement. This latter name would, however, more properly be applied in the sense in which Aristotle employs its Greek equivalent Xixrts — the untying of the knot — to the whole of the second part of the action, from the climax downwards. In the management of the climax, everything depends upon producing the effect; in the fall, everything depends upon not marring it. This may be ensured by a rapid advance to the close; but neither does every action admit of such treatment, nor is it in accordance with the character of those which are of a more subtle or com- plicated kind. With the latter, therefore, the " fall " is often a revolution or " return," i.e. in Aristotle's phrase a change into the reverse of what is expected from the circumstances of the action (irtpiTrertia) — as in Coriolanus, where the Roman story lends itself so admirably to dramatic demands. In any case, the art of the dramatist is in this part of his work called upon for the surest exercise of its tact and skill. The effect of the climax was to concentrate the interest; the fall must therefore, above all, avoid dissipating it. The use of episodes is not even now excluded; but, even where serving the purpose of relief, they must now be such as help to keep alive the interest, previously raised to its highest pitch. This may be effected by the raising of obstacles between the height of the action and its expected consequences; in tragedy by the sugges- tion of a seemingly possible recovery or escape from them (as in the wonderfully powerful construction of the latter part of Macbeth) ; in comedy, or wherever the interest of the action is less intense, by the gradual removal of incidental difficulties. In all kinds of the drama " discovery " will remain, as it was in the judgment of Aristotle, a most effective expedient; but it should be a discovery prepared by that method of treatment which in its consummate master, Sophocles, has been termed his " irony." Nowhere should the close or catastrophe be other than a consequence of the action itself. Sudden revulsions from the conditions of the action — such as a°se or are supplied with the aid of the dens ex machina, or tnahe the revising officer of the emperor of China,or the nabob returned from India, or a virulent malaria — condemn themselves as unsatisfactory makeshifts. However sudden, and even in manner of accomplishment surprising, may be the catastrophe, it should, like every other part of the action, be in organic con- nexion with the whole preceding action. The sudden suicides which terminate so many tragedies, and the unmerited paternal blessings which close an equal number of comedies, should be something more than a " way out of it," or a signal for the fall of the curtain. A catastrophe may conveniently, and even (as in 478 DRAMA [CHARACTER Faust) with powerful effect, be left to the imagination; but to substitute for it a deliberate blank is to leave the action incom- plete, and the drama a fragment ending with a — possibly interest- ing— confession of incompetence. The action of a drama, besides being one and complete in itself, ought likewise to be probable. The probability or necessity (in the Aristotelian sense of the terms) required of a drama abtin of *s not tnat °^ actual or historical experience — it is a action. conditional probability, or in other words an internal consistency between the course of the action and the conditions under which the dramatist has chosen to carry it on. As to the former, he is fettered by no restrictions save those which he imposes upon himself, whether or not in deference to the usages of certain accepted species of dramatic composition. Ghosts seldom appear in real life or in dramas of real life; but the introduction of supernatural agency is neither enjoined nor prohibited by any general dramatic law. The use of such expedients is as open to the dramatic as to any other poet; the judiciousness of his use of them depends upon the effect which, consistently with the general conduct of his action, they will exercise upon the spectator, whom other circumstances may or may not predispose to their acceptance. The Ghost in Hamlet belongs to the action of the play; the Ghost in the Persae is not intrinsically less probable, but seems a less immediate product of the surrounding1 atmosphere. Dramatic probability has, how- ever, a far deeper meaning than this. . The Eumenides is prob- able, with all its mysterious commingling of cults, and so is Macbeth, with all its barbarous witchcraft. The proceedings of the leathered builders of Cloudcuckootown in the Birds of Aristophanes are as true to dramatic probability as are the pranks of Oberon's fairies in Midsummer Night's Dream. In other words, it is in the harmony between the action and the characters, and in the consistency of the characters with themselves, in the appropriateness of both to the atmosphere in which they have their being, that this dramatic probability lies. The dramatist has to represent characters affected by the progress of an action in a particular way, and contributing to it in a particular way, because, if consistent with themselves, they must be so affected, and must so act. Upon the invention and conduct of his characters the dramatist must therefore expend a great proportion — even a preponderance — of his labour. His treatment of them will, in at least as high a degree as his choice of subject, conception of action, and method of construction, determine the effect which his work produces. And while there are aspects of the dramatic art under which its earlier phases already exhibit an unsurpassed degree of perfection, there is none under which its i advance is more notable than this. Many causes have na contributed to this result; the chief is to be sought in la this the multiplication of the opportunities for mankind's respect study of man. The theories of the Indian critics on the subject of dramatic character are little more than an elaborate scaffolding. Aristotle's remarks on the subject are scanty; nor indeed is the strength of the dramatic literature from whose examples he abstracted his maxims to be sought in the fulness or variety of its characterization. This relative deficiency was beyond doubt largely caused by the outward conditions of the Greek theatre — the remoteness of actor from spectator, and the consequent necessity for the use of masks, and for the raising, and consequent conventionalizing, of the tones of the voice. Later Greek and Roman comedy, unable or unwilling to resist the force of habit, limited their range of characters to an accepted gallery of types. Nor is it easy to ignore the fact that the influence of these classical examples, combined with that of national tendencies of mind and temperament, have all along inclined the dramatists of the Romance nations to attach less importance to characterization of a closer and more varied kind than to interest of action and effectiveness of construction. The Italian and the Spanish drama more especially, and the French during a great part of its history, have in general shown a disposition to present their characters, as it were, ready made — whether in the case of tragic heroes and heroines, or in that of comic types, often moulded, as in the commedia dell' arte " and beyond," according to a long-lived system of local or national selection. These types, expanded, heightened and modified, are recognizable in some of the triumphs of comic characterization achieved by the Germanic drama, and by its master, Shakespeare, above all; but this fact must not obscure one of more importance than itself. In the matter of comic as well as of serious characterization — in the individualizing of characters and in evolving them as it were out of the progress of the action — the modern drama has not only advanced, but in a sense revolutionized, the dramatic art, as inherited from its ancient masters. Yet, however the method and scope of characterization may vary under the influence of different historical epochs and different tendencies or tastes of races or nations, the laws of this branch of the dramatic art remain based oji *«9u'*We» the same essential requirements. What interests us in character. a man or woman in real life, or in the impressions we form of historical personages, is that which seems to us to give them individuality. A dramatic character must therefore, whatever its part in the action, be sufficiently marked by features of its own to interest the imagination; with these features its subsequent conduct must be consistent, and to them its partici- pation in the action must correspond. In order to achieve such a result, the dramatist must have, in the first instance, distinctly conceived the character, however it may have been suggested to him. His task is, not to paint a copy of some contemporary or " historical " personage, but to conceive a particular kind of man, acting under the operation of particular circumstances. This conception, growing and modifying itself with the progress of the action, also invented by the dramatist, will determine the totality of the character which he creates. The likeness which the result bears to an actual or historical personage may very probably, from secondary points of view, affect the immediate stage success of the creation; upon its dramatic result this likeness can have no influence whatever. In a wider sense than that in which Shakespeare denied the charge that Falstaff was Oldcastle, it should be possible to say of every dramatic character which it is sought to identify with an actual personage, " This is not the man." The mirror of the drama is not a photographic apparatus ; and not even the most conscientious combination of science and art can bring back even a " phase " of the real Napoleon. Distinctiveness, as the primary requisite in dramatic char- acterization, is to be demanded in the case of all personages introduced into a dramatic action, but not in all cases in an equal degree. Schiller, in adding to the dramatis personae of his Fiesco superscriptions of their chief characteristics, labels Sacco as " an ordinary person," and this, no doubt, suffices for Sacco. But with the great masters of character- ization a few touches, of which the true actor's art knows how to avail itself, distinguish even their lesser characters from one another; and every man is in his humour down to the " third citizen." Elaboration is necessarily reserved for characters who are the more important contributors to the action, and the fulness of elaboration for its heroes. Many expedients may lend their aid to the higher degrees of distinctiveness. Much is gained by a significant introduction of hero or heroine — thus Antigone is dragged in by the watchman, Gloucester enters alone upon the scene, Volpone is discovered in adoration of his golden saint. Nothing marks character more clearly than the use of contrast — as of Othello with lago, of Ottavio with Max Piccolomini, of Joseph with Charles Surface. Nor is direct antithesis the only effective kind of contrast; Cassius is a foil to Brutus, and Leonora to her namesake the Princess. But, besides impressing the imagination as a conception distinct in itself, each character must maintain a consistency between its conduct in the action and the features it has established as its own. This consistency does not imply uniformity; for, as Aristotle observes, there are characters which, to be represented with uniformity, must be presented as uniformly un-uniform. Of such consistently complex characters the great critic cites no instances, nor indeed are they of frequent occurrence in Greek tragedy; in the modern drama Hamlet is their unrivalled Self-coa- slstency. VARIETIES] DRAMA 479 exemplar; and Weislingen in Goethe's Gotz, and Alceste in the Misanthrope, may be mentioned as other illustrations in dramas differing widely from one another. The list might be enlarged almost indefinitely from the gallery of female characters, in view of the greater pliability and more habitual dependence of the nature of women. It should be added that those dramatic literatures which freely admit of a mixture of the serious with the comic element thereby enormously increase the opportunities of varied characterization. The difficulty of the task at the same time enhances the effect resulting from its satisfactory accom- plishment; and, if the conception of a character is found to meet a variety of tests resembling that which life has at hand for every man, its naturalness, as we term it, becomes more obvious to the imagination. " Naturalness " is only another word for what Aristotle terms " propriety "; the artificial rules by which usage has at times sought to define particular species of character are in their origin only a convenience of the theatre, though they have largely helped to conventionalize drama tic characteriza- tion. Lastly, a character should be directly effective with regard Effective to ^ dramatic action in which it takes part — that is to ness- say, the influence it exerts upon the progress of the action should correspond to its distinctive features; the conduct of the play should seem to spring from the nature of its characters. In other words, no characterization can be effective which is not what may be called economical, i.e. which does not strictly limit itself to suiting the purposes of the action. Even the minor characters should not idly intervene; while the chief characters should predominate over, or determine, the course of the action, its entire conception should harmonize with their distinctive features. It is only a Prometheus whom the gods bind fast to a rock, only a Juliet who will venture into a living death for her Romeo. Thus, in a sense, chance is excluded from dramatic action, or rather, like every other element in it, bends to the dramatic idea. In view of this predominance of character over action, we may appropriately use such expressions as a tragedy of love or jealousy or ambition, or a comedy of character. For such collocations merely indicate that plays so described have proved (or were intended to prove) specially impressive by the concep- tion or execution of their chief character or characters. The term " manners " (as employed in a narrower sense than the Aristotelian fjdri) applies to that which colours both action Manners &n^ characters, but does not determine the essence of either. As exhibiting human agents under certain con- ditions of time and place, and of the various relations of life, the action of a drama, together with the characters engaged in it, and the incidents and circumstances belonging to it, must more or less adapt itself to the external conditions assumed. From the assumption of some such conditions not even those dramatic species which indulge in the most sovereign licence, such as Old Attic comedy, or burlesque in general, can wholly emancipate themselves; and even supernatural or fantastic characters and actions must suit themselves to some sort of antecedents. But it depends altogether on the measure in which the nature of an action and the development of its characters are effected by considerations of time and place, or of temporary social systems and the transitory distinctions incidental to them, whether the imitation of a particular kind of manners becomes a significant Their element in a particular play. The Hindu caste-system relative is an antecedent of every Hindu drama, and the peculiar organization of Chinese society of nearly every Chinese play with which we are acquainted. Greek tragedy itself, though treating subjects derived from no historic age, had established a standard of manners from which in its decline it did not depart with impunity. Again, the imitation of manners of a particular age or country may or may not be of moment in a play. In some dramas, and in some species of drama, time and place are so purely imaginary and so much a matter of in- difference that the adoption of a purely conventional standard of manners, or at least the exclusion of any definitely fixed standard, is here desirable. The ducal reign of Theseus at Athens (if its period be ascertainable) does not date A Midsummer Night's Dream; nor do the coasts of Bohemia in The Winter's Tale localize the manners of the customers of Autolycus. Where, on the other hand, as more especially in the historic drama, or in that kind of comedy which directs its shafts against the ridiculous vices of a particular age or country, significance attaches to the degree in which the manners represented resemble what is more or less known, the dramatist will do well to be careful in his colouring. How admirably is the French court specialized in Henry V.; how completely are we transplanted among the burghers of Brussels in the opening scenes of Egmont; what a portraiture of a clique we have in the Prtcieuses ridicules of Moliere; what a reproduction of a class in the pot-house politicians of Holberg ! And how minutely have modern dramatists found it necessary to study the more fascinating aspects of la vie parisienne, in order to convey to the curious at home and abroad a conviction of the verisimilitude of their pictures ! Yet, even in such instances, the dramatist will only use what suits his dramatic purpose; he will select, not transfer in mass, historic features, and discriminate in his use of modern instances. The details of historic fidelity, and the lesser shades distinguishing the varieties of social usage, will be introduced by him at his choice, or left to be supplied by the actor. Where the reproduction of manners becomes the primary purpose of a play, its effect can only be of an inferior kind; and a drama purely of manners is a contradiction in terms. No complete system of dramatic species can be abstracted from any one dramatic literature. They are often the result of particular antecedents, and their growth is often affected by peculiar conditions. Different nations or ages use the same names and may preserve some of the same rules for species which in other respects their usage may have materially modified from that of their neighbours or predecessors. The very question of the use of measured or pedestrian speech as fit for different kinds of drama, and therefore distinctive of them, cannot be profitably discussed except in reference to particular literatures. In the Chinese drama the most solemn themes are treated in the same form — an admixture of verse and prose — which not so very long since was character- istic of that airiest of Western dramatic species, the French vaudeville. Who would undertake to define, except in the applications which have been given to the words in successive generations, such terms as " tragi-comedy," orindeed as "drama" (drame) itself ? Yet this uncertainty does not imply that all is confusion in the terminology as to the species of the drama. In so far as they are distinguishable according to the effects which their actions, or those which the preponderating parts of '.heir actions, produce, these species may primarily be ranged in accordance with the broad difference established by Aristotle between tragedy and comedy. " Tragic " and " comic " effects differ in regard to the emotions of the mind which they excite; and a drama is tragic or comic according as such effects are produced by it. The strong or serious emotions are alone capable of exercising upon us that influence which, employing a bold but marvellously happy figure, Aristotle termed purification, and which a Greek comedian, after a more matter-of-fact fashion, thus expressed: " For whensoe'er a man observes his fellow Bear wrongs more grievous than himself has known, More easily he bears his own misfortunes." That is to say, the petty troubles of self which disturb without elevating the mind are driven out by the sympathetic participa- tion in greater griefs, which raises while it excites the mind employed upon contemplating them. It is to these emotions — which are and can be no others than pity and terror — that actions which we call tragic appeal. Naif as we may think Aristotle in desiderating for such actions a complicated rather than a simple plot, he obviously means that in form as well as in design they should reveal their relative importance. Those actions which we term comic address themselves to the sense of the ridiculous, and their themes are those vices and moral infirmities the repre- sentation of which is capable of touching the springs of laughter. Where, accordingly, a drama confines itself to effects of the 480 DRAMA [INDIAN ' former class, it may be called a pure " tragedy "; when to those of the latter, a pure " comedy." In dramas where the effects are mixed the nature of the main action and of the main characters (as determined by their distinctive features) alone enables us to classify such plays as serious or humorous dramas — or as " tragic " or " comic," if we choose to preserve the terms. But the classification admits of a variety of transitions, from " pure " tragedy to " mixed, " from " mixed tragedy " to " mixed comedy," and thence to " pure comedy," with the more freely licensed " farce " and " burlesque," the time-honoured inversion of the relations of dramatic method and purpose. This system of distinction has no concern with the mere question of the termina- tion of the play, according to which Philostratus and other authorities have sought to distinguish tragic from comic dramas. The serious drama which ends happily (the German Schauspiel) is not a species co-ordinate with tragedy and comedy, but at the most a subordinate variety of the former. Other distinctions may be almost infinitely multiplied, according to the point of view adopted for the classification. The historical sketch of the drama attempted in the following pages will best serve to indicate the successive growth of national dramatic species, many of which, by asserting their influence in other countries and ages than those which gave birth to them, have acquired a more than national vitality. The art of acting, whose history forms an organic though a distinct part of that of the drama, necessarily possesses a theory and a technical system of its own. But into these it is impossible here to enter. One claim, however, should be vindicated for the art of acting, viz. that, though it is a dependent art, and most signally so in its highest forms, yet its true exercise implies (however much the term may have been abused) a creative process. The conception of a character is determined by antecedents not of the actor's own making; and the term originality can be applied to it only in a relative sense. Study and reflection enable him, with the aid of experience and of the intuition which genius bestows, but which experience may in a high degree supply, to interpret, to combine, and to supplement given materials. But in the transformation of the conception into the represented character the actor's functions are really creative; for here he becomes the character by means which belong to his art alone. The distinctiveness which he gives to the character by making the principal features recognized by him in it its groundwork — the consistency which he maintains in it between groundwork and details — the appropriateness which he preserves in it to the course of the action and the part borne in it by the character — all these are of his own making, though suggested by the conception derived by him from his materials. As to the means at his disposal, they are essentially of two kinds only; but not all forms of the drama have admitted of the use of both, or of both in the same com- pleteness. All acting includes the use of gesture, or, as it has been Gesture more comprehensively termed, of bodily eloquence. From various points of view its laws regulate the actor's bearing, walk and movements of face and limbs. They teach what is aesthetically permitted and what is aesthetically pleasing. They deduce from observation what is appropriate to the ex- pression of particular affections of the mind and of their combina- tions, of emotions and passions, of physical and mental conditions — joy and grief, health and sickness, waking, sleeping and dreaming, madness, collapse and death — of particular ages of life and temperaments, as well as of the distinctive characteristics of race, nationality or class. While under certain con- ditions— as in the masked drama — -the use of bodily movement as one of the means of expression has at times been partially restricted, there have been, or are, forms of the drama which have altogether excluded the use of speech (such as pantomime), or have restricted the manner of its employment (such as opera). In the spoken drama the laws of rhetoric regulate the actor's use of speech, but under conditions of a special nature. Like the orator, he has to follow the laws of pronunciation, modulation, accent and rhythm (the last in certain kinds of prose as well as in such forms of verse as he may be called upon to reproduce). But he has also to give his atten- tion to the special laws of dramatic delivery, which vary in soliloquy and dialogue, and in such narrative or lyrical passages as may occur in his part. The totality of the effect produced by the actor will in some degree depend upon other aids, among which those of a purely external kind are unlikely to be lost sight of. But the _ . significance of costume (q.v.) in the actor, like that of decoration and scenery (see THEATRE) in an action, is a wholly relative one, and is to a large measure determined by the claims which custom enables the theatre to make, or forbids its making, upon the imagination of the spectators. The actor's real achieve- ment lies in the transformation which the artist himself effects; nor is there any art more sovereign in the use it can make of its means, or so happy in the directness of the results it can accom- plish by them. 2. INDIAN DRAMA The origin of the Indian drama may unhesitatingly be de- scribed as purely native. The Mahommedans, when they overran India, brought no drama with them; the Persians, the Arabs and the Egyptians were without a national theatre. It would be absurd to suppose the Indian drama to have owed anything to the Chinese or its offshoots. On the other hand, there is no real evidence for assuming any influence of Greek examples upon the Indian drama at any stage of its progress. Finally, it had passed into its decline before the dramatic literature of modern Europe had sprung into being. The Hindu writers ascribe the invention of dramatic enter- tainments to an inspired sage Bharata, or to the communications made to him by the god Brahma himself concerning _.. an art gathered from the Vedas. As the word Bharata signifies an actor, we have clearly here a mere personification of the invention of the drama. Three kinds of entertainments, of which the natya (defined as a dance combined with gesticula- tion and speech) comes nearest to the drama, were said to have been exhibited before the gods by the spirits and nymphs of Indra's heaven, and to these the god Siva added two new styles of dancing. The origin of the Indian drama was thus unmistakably religious. Dramatic elements first showed themselves in certain of the hymns of the Rig Veda, which took the form of dialogues between divine personages, and in one of which is to be found the germ of Kalidasa's famous Vikrama and Ureasi. These hymns were combined with the dances in the festivals of the gods, which soon assumed a more or less conventional form. Thus, from the union of dance and song, to which were afterwards added narrative recitation, and first sung, then spoken, dialogue, was gradually evolved the acted drama. Such scenes and stories from the mythology of Vishnu are still occasionally enacted by pantomime or spoken dialogue in India (jatras of the Bengalis; rasas of the Western Provinces); and the most ancient Indian play was said to have treated an episode from the history of that deity — the choice of him as a consort by Laxmi— a favourite kind of subject in the Indian drama. The tradition connecting its earliest themes with the native mythology of Vishnu agrees with that ascribing the origin of a particular kind of dramatic performance — the sangita — to Krishna and the shepherdesses. The author's later poem, the GUagomnda, has been conjectured to be suggestive of the earliest species of Hindu dramas. But, while the epic poetry of the Hindus gradually approached the dramatic in the way of dialogue, their drama developed itself independently out of the union of the lyric and the epic forms. Their dramatic poetry arose later than their epos, whose great works, the Mahabhdrata and the Ramayana, had themselves been long preceded by the hymnody of the Vedas — just as the Greek drama followed upon the Homeric poems and these had been preceded by the early hymns. There seems, indeed, no reason for dating the beginnings of the regular Indian drama farther back than the 5th century A.D., though it is probable that the earliest extant Sanskrit play, the delightful, and in some respects incomparable, Mrichchhakatlka INDIAN) DRAMA 481 (The Toy Cart), was considerably earlier in date than the works of Kalidasa. Indeed, of his predecessors in dramatic composition very little is known, and even the contemporaries who com- peted with him as dramatists are mere names. Thus, by the time the Indian drama produced almost the earliest specimens with which we are acquainted, it had already reached its zenith; and it was therefore looked upon as having sprung into being as a perfect art. We know it only in its glory, in its decline, and in its decay. The history of Indian dramatic literature may be roughly divided into the following periods. I. To the nth Century A.D. — This period virtually belongs to the pre-Mahommedan age of Indian history; but already to that second division of it in which Buddhism had become F>*ltod a P°wer^u^ factor in the social as well as in the moral (classical, and intellectual life of the land. It is the classical period 'of the Hindu drama, and includes the works of its two indisputably greatest masters. The earliest extant Sanskrit play is the pathetic Mrichchhakatikd (The Toy Cart), which has been dated back as far as the close of the and century A.D. It is attributed (as is not uncommon with Indian plays) to a royal author, named Sudraka; but it was more probably written by his court poet, whose name has been concluded to have been Dandin. It may be described as a comedy of middle-class life, treating of the courtship and marriage of a ruined Brahman and a wealthy and large-hearted courtesan. Kalidasa, the brightest of the " nine gems " of genius in whom the Indian drama gloried, lived at the court of Ujjain, though whether in the earlier half of the 6th century A.D., or in the 3rd century, or at a yet earlier date, remains an unsettled question. He is the author of Sakuntala — the work which, in the translation by Sir William Jones (1789), first revealed to the Western world of letters the existence of an Indian drama, since repro- duced in innumerable versions in many tongues. This heroic comedy, in seven acts, takes its plot from the first book of the Mahdbharata. It is a dramatic love-idyll of surpassing beauty, and one of the masterpieces of the poetic literature of the world. Another drama by Kalidasa, Vikrama and Urvdsi (The Hero and the Nymph), though unequal as a whole to Sakuntala, contains one act of incomparable loveliness; and its enduring effect upon Indian dramatic literature is shown by the imitations of it in later plays. (It was translated into English in 1827 by H. H. Wilson.) To Kalidasa has likewise been attributed a third play, Malavika and Agnimitra; but it is possible that this con- ventional comedy, though held to be of ancient date, was com- posed by a different poet of the same name. To Harsadeva, king of northern India, are ascribed three extant plays, which were more probably composed by some poet in his pay. One of these, Nagananda (Joy of the Serpents), which begins as an erotic play, but passes into a most impressive exemplification of the supreme virtue of self-sacrifice, is notable as the only Buddhist drama which has been preserved, though others are known to have existed and to have been represented. The palm of pre-eminence is disputed with Kalidasa by the great dramatic poet Babhavuti (called Crikafitha, or he in whose throat is fortune), who flourished in the earlier part of the 8th century. While he is considered more artificial in language than his rival, and in general more bound by rules, he can hardly be deemed his inferior in dramatic genius. Of his three extant plays, M ahdvara-Charitra and U tiara- Rama-Charitra are heroic dramas concerned with the adventures of Rama (the seventh incarnation of Vishnu); the third, the powerful melodrama, in ten acts, of Malati and Madhava, has love for its theme, and has been called (perhaps with more aptitude than usually belongs to such comparisons) the Romeo and Juliet of the Hindus. It is considered by their critical authorities the best example of the Prakarana, or drama of domestic life. Babhavuti's plays, as is indicated by the fact that no jester appears in them, are devoid of the element of humour. The plays of Rajasekhara, who lived about the end of the 9th century, deal, like those of Harsadeva, with harem and court life. One of them, Karpura Manjuri (Camphor Cluster), vm — 16 is stated to be the only example of the saltaka or minor heroic comedy, written entirely in Prakrit. In this period may probably also be included Visakhadatta's interesting drama of political intrigue, Mudrd-Rakshasa (The Signet of the Minister), in which Chandragupta (Sandracottus) appears as the founder of a dynasty. In subject, therefore, this production, which is one of the few known Indian historical dramas, goes back to the period following on the invasion of India by Alexander the Great; but the date of composition is probably at least as late as A.D. 1000. The plot of the play turns on the gaining-over of the prime minister of the ancien regime. Among the remaining chief works of this period is the Veni- Samhara (Binding of the Braid) by Narayana Bhatta. Though described as a play in which both pathos and horror are ex- aggerated— its subject is an outrage resembling that which Dunstan is said to have inflicted on Elgiva — it is stated to have been always a favourite, as written in exact accordance with dramatic rules. Perhaps the Candakansika by Ksemlsvara should also be included, which deals with the working of a curse pro- nounced by an aged priest upon a king who had innocently offended him. II. The Period of Decline. — This may be reckoned from about the nth to about the i4th century of the Christian era, the beginning roughly coinciding with that of a continuous series of Mahommedan invasions of India. Hanuman- Se^fnage maxims of wisdom and morality, or reminiscences and ""*" slags- examples drawn from legend or history. Arising out of the dialogue, these passages at the same time diversify it, and give to it such elevation and brilliancy as it can boast. The singing character must be the principal personage in the action, but may be taken from any class of society. If this personage dies in the course of the play, another sings in his place. From the mention of this distinctive feature of the Chinese drama it will be obvious how unfair it would be to judge of diction. any of its productions, without a due appreciation of the lyric passages, which do not appear to be altogether restricted to the singing of the principal personage, for other characters frequently " recite verses." In these lyrical or didactic passages are to be sought those flowers of diction which, as Julien has shown, consist partly in the use of a metaphorical phraseology of infinite nicety in its variations — such as a long series of phrases compounded with the word signifying jet and expressing severally the ideas of rarity, distinction, beauty, &c., or as others derived from the names of colours, birds, beasts, precious metals, ele- ments, constellations, &c., or alluding to favourite legends or anecdotes. These features constitute the literary element par excellence of Chinese dramatic composition. At the same time, though it is impossible for the untrained reader to be alive to 16 Pi-Pa-Ki, sc. 15. 18 Hoei-Lan-Ki, act i. 20 Hoei-Lan-Ki, act ii. 22 Pi-Pa-Ki, sc. 18. 24 Tchao-Mei-Hiang; Pi-Pa-Ki. * Ho-Han-Chan. 17 Ho-Han-Chan, act ii. a Teou-Ngo-Yuen, act iii. 21 Teou-Ngo- Yuen, act iii. 28 Teou-Ngo- Yuen, act. iv. 26 Hoei-Lan-Ki. DRAMA [JAPANESE the charms of so unfamiliar a phraseology, it may be questioned whether even in its diction the Chinese drama can claim to be regarded as really poetic. It may abound in poetic ornament; it is not, like the Indian, bathed in poetry. On the other hand, the merits of this dramatic literature are by no means restricted to ingenuity of construction and variety Merits of of character — merits, in themselves important, which the no candid criticism will deny to it. Its master-piece Chinese js nO(; onjy truly pathetic in the conception and the drama. majn situations of its action, but includes scenes of singular grace and delicacy of treatment — such as that where the remarried husband of the deserted heroine in vain essays in the presence of his second wife to sing to his new lute, now that he has cast aside the old.1 In the last act of a tragedy appealing at once to patriotism and to pity, there is true imagina- tive power in the picture of the emperor, when aware of the departure, but not of the death, of his beloved, sitting in solitude broken only by the ominous shriek of the wild-fowl.2 Nor is the Chinese drama devoid of humour. The lively abigail who has to persuade her mistress into confessing herself in love by arguing (almost like Beatrice) that " humanity bids us love men ";3 the corrupt judge (a common type in the Chinese plays) who falls on his knees before the prosecuting parties to a suit as before "the father and mother who give him sustenance,"4 may serve as examples; and in Pi-Pa-Ki there is a scene of admirable burlesque on the still more characteristic theme of the humours of a competitive examination.5 If such illustrations could not easily be multiplied, they are at least worth citing in order to deprecate a perfunctory criticism on the qualities of a dramatic literature as to which our materials for judgment are still scanty. While in the north of China houses are temporarily set apart for dramatic performances, in the south these are usually con- fined to theatres erected in the streets (Hi- That). Thus scenic decorations of any importance must always costume, have been out of question in the Chinese theatre. The costumes, on the other hand, are described as magnifi- cent; they are traditionally those worn before the I7th century, in accordance with the historical colouring of most of the plays. Actors. The actor's profession is not a respectable one in China, the managers being in the habit of buying children of slaves and bringing them up as slaves of their own. Women may not appear on the stage, since the emperor K'ien-Lung admitted an actress among his concubines; female parts are therefore played by lads, occasionally by eunuchs. 4. JAPANESE DRAMA The Japanese drama, as all evidence seems to agree in showing, still remains what in substance it has always been — an amuse- ment passionately loved by the lower orders, but hardly dignified by literature deserving the name. Apart from its native elements of music, dance and song, and legendary or historical narrative and pantomime, it is clearly to be regarded as a Chinese im- portation; nor has it in its more advanced forms apparently even attempted to emancipate itself from the reproduction of the conventional Chinese types. As early as the close of the 6th century Hada Kawatsu, a man of Chinese extraction, but born in Japan, is said to have been ordered to arrange entertainments for the benefit of the country, and to have written as many as thirty-three plays. The Japanese, however, ascribe the origin of their drama to the introduction of the dance called Sambaso as a charm against a volcanic depression of the earth which occurred in 805; and this dance appears still to be used as a prelude to theatrical exhibitions. In 1108 lived a woman called Iso no Zenji, who is looked upon as " the mother of the Japanese drama." But her performances seem to have been confined to dancing or posturing in male attire (otokomai); and the intro- 1 Pi-Pa-Ki, sc. 14. 2 Han-Kong-Tseu. * Tchao-Mei-Hiang, act ii. 4 Teou-Ngo- Yuen, act ii. ; cf . Hoei-Lan-Ki. 8 Pi-Pa-Ki, sc. 5. duction of the drama proper is universally attributed to Sarnwaka Kanzaburo, who in 1624 opened the first theatre (sibaia) at Yeddo. Not long afterwards (1651) the playhouses were re- moved to their present site in the capital; and both here and in the provincial towns, especially of the north, the drama has since continued to flourish. Persons of rank were formerly never seen at these theatres; but actors were occasionally engaged to play in private at the houses of the nobles, who appear themselves to have taken part in performances of a species of opera affected by them, always treating patriotic legends and called no. The mikado has a court theatre. The subjects of the serious popular plays are mainly mytho- logical— the acts of the great spirit Day-Sin, the incarnation of Brahma, and similar themes — or historical, treating of the doings of the early dynasties. In these the names of the personages are changed. An example of the latter class is to be found in the joruri, or musical romance, in which the universally popular tale of Chiushingura ( The Loyal League) has been amplified and adapted for theatrical representa- tion. This famous narrative of the feudal fidelity of the forty- seven ronins, who about the year 1699 revenged their chief's judicial suicide upon the arrogant official to whom it was due, is stirring rather than touching in its incidents, and contains much bloodshed, together with a tea-house scene which suffices as a specimen of the Japanese comedy of manners. One of the books of this dramatic romance consists of a metrical description, mainly in dialogue, of a journey which (after the fashion of Indian plays) has to be carried out on the stage. The performance of one of these quasi-historical dramas sometimes lasts over several days; they are produced with much pomp of costume; but the acting is very realistic, and hari-kari is performed, almost " to the life." Besides these tragic plays (in which, however, comic intermezzos are often inserted) the Japanese have middle-class domestic dramas of a very realistic kind. The language of these, unlike that of Chinese comedy, is often gross and scurrilous, but intrigues against married women are rigidly excluded. Fairy and demon operas and ballets, and farces and intermezzos, form an easy transition to the interludes of tumblers and jugglers. As a specimen of nearly every class of play is required to make up a Japanese theatrical entertainment, which lasts from sunrise to sunset, and as the lower houses appropriate and mutilate the plays of the higher, it is clear that the status of the Japanese theatre cannot be regarded as at ah1 high. In respect, however, of its movable scenery and properties, it is in advance of its Chinese prototype. The performers are, except in the ballet, males only; and the comic acting is said to be excellent of its kind. Though the leading actors enjoy great popularity and very respectable salaries, the class is held in contempt, and the companies were formerly recruited from the lowest sources. The disabilities under which they lay have, however, been removed; a Dramatic Reform Association has been organized by a number of noblemen and scholars, and a theatre on European lines built (see JAPAN). 5. PERSIAN AND OTHER ASIATIC, POLYNESIAN AND PERUVIAN- DRAMA Such dramatic examples of the drama as may be discoverable in Siam will probably have to be regarded as belonging to a branch of the Indian drama. The drama of the Malay populations of Java and the neighbouring island of Sumatra also resembles the Indian, to which it may have owed what development it has reached. The Javanese, as we learn, distinguish among the lyrics sung on occasions of popular significance the panton, a short simile or fable, su/nafr-a and the tcharita, a more advanced species, taking the &c. form of dialogue and sung or recited by actors proper. From the tcharita the Javanese drama, which in its higher forms treats the stories of gods and kings, appears to have been derived. As in the Indian drama, the functions of the director or manager are of great importance; as in the Greek, the performers wear masks, here made of wood. The comic drama is often represented in both Java and Sumatra by parties of strollers consisting of PERSIAN] DRAMA 487 Persian. The teazles. two men and a woman — a troop sufficient for a wide variety of plot. Among other more highly civilized Asiatic peoples, the traces of the dramatic art are either few or late. The originally Aryan Persians exhibit no trace of the drama in their ample earlier literature. But in its later national development the two species, widely different from one another, of the religious drama or mystery and of the popular comedy or farce have made their appearance — the former in a growth of singular interest. Of the Persian teazles (lamentations or complaints) the subjects are invariably derived from religious history, and more or less directly connected with the " martyrdoms " of the house of Ali. The performance of these episodes or scenes takes place during the first ten days of the month of Muharram, when the adherents of the great Shi'ite sect all over Persia and Mahommedan India commemorate the deaths of the Prophet and his daughter Fatima, the mother of Ali, the martyrdoms of Ah' himself, shamefully murdered in the sanctuary, and of his unoffending son Hasan, done to death by his miserable guilty Deianira of a wife, and lastly the never-to-be-forgotten sacrifice of Hasan's brother, the heroic Hosain, on the bloody field of Kerbela (A.D. 680). With the establishment in Persia, early in the i6th century, of the Safawid (Sufi) dynasty by the Shi'ites, the cult of the martyrs Hasan and Hosain secured the official sanction which it has since retained. Thus the perform- ance of these tiazies, and the defraying of the equipment of them, are regarded as religious, and in a theological sense meritorious, acts; and the plays are frequently provided by the court or by other wealthy persons, by way of pleasing the people or securing divine favour. The plays are performed, usually by natives of Isfahan, in courtyards of mosques, palaces, inns, &c., and in the country in temporary structures erected for the purpose. It would seem that, no farther back than the beginning of the i gth century, the teazles were still only songs or elegies in honour of the martyrs, occasionally chanted by persons actually repre- senting them. Just, however, as Greek tragedy was formed by a gradual detachment of the dialogue from the choric song of which it was originally only a secondary outgrowth, and by its gradually becoming the substance of the drama, so the Miracle Play of Hasan and Hosain, as we may call it, has now come to be a continuous succession of dramatic scenes. Of these fifty-two have, thanks to the labours of Alexander Chodzko and Sir Lewis Pelly, been actually taken down in writing, and thirty-seven published in translations; and it is clear that there is no limit to the extension of the treatment, as is shown by such a teazie as the Marriage of Kassem, dealing with the unfortunate Hosain's unfortunate son.1 The performance is usually opened by a prologue delivered by the rouzekhan, a personage of semi-priestly character claiming descent from the Prophet, who edifies and excites the audience by a pathetic recitation of legends and vehement admonitions in prose or verse concerning the subject of the action. But the custom seems to have arisen of specially prefacing the drama proper by a kind of induction which illus- trates the cause or effect of the sacred story — as for instance that of Amir Timur (Tamerlane), who appears as lamenting and avenging the death of Hosain; or the episode of Joseph's be- trayal by his brethren, as prefiguring the cruelty shown to Ali and his sons. At the climax of the action proper Hosain prays to be granted at the day of judgment the key of the treasure of intercession; and the final scene shows the fulfilment of his prayer, which opens paradise to those who have helped the holy martyr, or who have so much as shed a single tear for him. It will thus be seen that not only is this complex and elaborate production unapproached in its length and in its patient develop- ment of a long sequence of momentous events by any chronicle history or religious drama, but that it embodies together with the passionately cherished traditions of a great religious com- munity the expression of a long-lived resentment of foreign invasion — and is thus a kind of Oberammergau play and complaint of the Nibelungs in one. 1 Translated by Comte de Gobineau, in his Religions et philosophies dans I'Asie centrale (Paris, 1865). The other kind of Persian drama is the tf mocha ( = spectacle), a kind of comedy or farce, sometimes called teglid (disguising), performed by wandering minstrels or joculatores called loutys, who travel about accompanied by their baya- deres, and amuse such spectators as they find by their improvised entertainments, which seem to be on much the same level as English " interludes." A favourite and ancient variety of the species is the karaguez or puppet-play, of which the protagonist is called kelchel pehlivan (the bald hero). The modern Persian drama seems to have admitted Western influences, as in the case of such comedies as The Pleaders of the Court, and, avowedly, Monsieur Jourdan and Musla'li Shah, of whom the former steals away the wits of young Persia by his pictures of the delights of Paris. There is no necessity for any reference here to the civilization or to the literature of the Hebrews, or to those of other Semitic peoples, with whom the drama is either entirely wanting, or only appears as a quite occasional and exotic growth. Dramatic elements are apparent in two of the books of the Hebrew scripture — the Book of Ruth and the Book of Job, of which latter the author of Everyman, and Goethe in his Faust, made so impressive a use. From Polynesia and aboriginal America we also have isolated traces of drama. Among these are the performances, accom- panied by dancing and intermixed with recitation and singing, of the South Sea Islanders, first described by Captain Cook, and reintroduced to the notice of students Peru[ of comparative mythology by W. Wyatt Gill. Of the so-called Inca drama of the Peruvians, the unique relic, Apu Ollantay, said to have been written down in the Quichua tongue from native dictation by Spanish priests shortly after the conquest of Peru, has been partly translated by Sir Clements Markham, and has been rendered into German verse. It appears to be an historic play of the heroic type, combining stirring incidents with a pathos finding expression in at least one lyric of some sweetness — the lament of the lost Collyar. With it may be contrasted the ferocious Aztek dramatic ballet, Rabinal-Achi (translated by Brasseur de Bourbourg), of which the text seems rather a suc- cession of warlike harangues than an attempt at dramatic treat- ment of character. But these are mere isolated curiosities. 6. DRAMATIC ELEMENTS IN EGYPTIAN CULTURE The civilization and religious ideas of the Egyptians so vitally influenced the people of whose drama we are about to speak that a reference to them cannot be altogether omitted. The influence of Egyptian upon Greek civilization has probably been over- estimated by Herodotus; but while it will never be clearly known how much the Greeks owed to the Egyptians in divers branches of knowledge, it is certain that the former confessed themselves the scholars of Egypt in the cardinal doctrine of its natural theology. The doctrine of the immortality of the soul there found its most solemn expression in mysterious recitations connected with the rites of sepulture, and treating of the migra- tion of the soul from its earthly to its eternal abode. These solemnities, whose transition into the Hellenic mysteries has usually been attributed to the agency of the Thracian worship of Dionysus, undoubtedly contained a dramatic element, upon the extent of which it is, however, useless to speculate. The ideas to which they sought to give utterance centred in that of Osiris, the vivifying power or universal soul of nature, whom Herodotus simply identifies with the Dionysus of the Greeks. The same deity was likewise honoured by processions among the rural Egyptian population, which, according to the same authority, in nearly all respects except the absence of choruses resembled the Greek phallic processions in honour of the wine-god. That the Egyptians looked upon music as an important science seems fully established; it was diligently studied by their priests, though not, as among the Greeks, forming a part of general education, and in the sacred rites of their gods they as a rule permitted the use of flute and harp, as well as of vocal music. Dancing was as an art confined to professional persons ; but though the higher orders abstained from its practice, the lower indulged 488 DRAMA [GREEK in it on festive occasions, when a tendency to pantomime naturally asserted itself, and licence and wanton buffoonery prevailed, as in the early rustic festivals of the Greek and Italian peoples. Of a dance of armed men, on the other hand, there seems no satisfactory trace in the representations of the Egyptian monuments. 7. GREEK DRAMA Whatever elements the Greek drama may, in the sources from which it sprang, have owed to Egyptian, or Phrygian, or other Asiatic influences, its development was independent an(l self-sustained. Not only in its beginnings, but so long as the stage existed in Greece, the drama was in intimate connexion with the national religion. This is the most signal feature of its history, and one which cannot in the same degree or to the same extent be ascribed to the drama of any other people, ancient or modern. Not only did both the great branches of the Greek drama alike originate in the usages of religious worship, but they never lost their formal union with it, though one of them (comedy) in its later growth abandoned all direct reference to its origin. Hellenic polytheism was at once so active and so fluid or flexible in its anthropomorphic formations, that no other religious system has ever with the same conquering force assimilated to itself foreign elements, or with equal vivacity and variety developed its own. Thus, the worship of Dionysus, introduced into Greece by the Phoenicians as that of the tauri- form sun-god whom his worshippers adored with loud cries (whence Bacchus or lacchus), and the god of generation (whence his phallic emblem) and production, was brought into connexion with the Dorian religion of the sun-god Apollo. Apollo and his sister, again, corresponded to the Pelasgian and Achaean divinities of sun and moon, whom the Phoenician Dionysus and Demeter superseded, or with whose worship theirs was blended. Dionysus, whose rites were specifically conducted with reference to his attributes as the wine-god, was attended by deified representations of his original worshippers, who wore the skin of the goat sacrificed to him. These were the satyrs. Out of the connected worships of Dionysus, Bacchus, Apollo and Demeter sprang the beginnings of the Greek drama. "Both tragedy and comedy," says Aristotle, "originated in a rude and unpremeditated manner — the first from the leaders of the dithyramb, and the second from those who led off the phallic songs." This diversity of origin, and the distinction jealously maintained down to the latest times between the two branches of the dramatic art, even where they might seem to come into actual contact with one another, necessitate a separate statement as to the origin and history of either. The custom of offering thanks to the gods by hymns and dances in the places of public resort was first practised by the Greeks in the Dorian states, whose whole system of tragedy. ^e was organized on a military basis. Hence the dances of the Dorians originally taught or imitated the movements of soldiers, and their hymns were warlike chants. Such were the beginnings of the chorus, and of its songs (called paeans, from an epithet of Apollo), accompanied first by the phorminx and then by the flute. A step in advance was taken when the poet with his trained singers and dancers, like the Indian siitra-dhdra, performed these religious functions as the representa- tive of the population. From the Doric paean at a very early period several styles of choral dancing formed themselves, to which the three styles of dance in scenic productions — the tragic, the comic and the satyric — are stated afterwards to have corresponded. But none of these could have led to a literary growth. This was due to the introduction among the Dorians of the dithyramb (from 5?o$, descended from Zeus, and ramb. Bpiapfios, the Latin triumphus) , originally a song of revellers, probably led by a flute-player and accom- panied by the music of other Eastern instruments, in which it was customary in Crete to celebrate the birth of Bacchus (the doubly-born) and possibly also his later adventures. The leader of the band (coryphaeus') may be supposed to have at times assumed the character of the wine-god, whose worshippers bore aloft the vineclad thyrsus. The dithyramb was reduced to a definite form by the Lesbian Arion (fl. 610), who composed regular poems, turned the moving band of worshippers into a standing or " cyclic " chorus of attendants on Dionysus — a chorus of satyrs, a tragic or goat chorus— invented a style of music adapted to the character of the chorus, and called these songs " tragedies " or " goat-songs. " Arion, whose goat-chorus may perhaps have some connexion with an early Arcadian worship of Pan, associated it permanently with Dionysus, and thus became the inventor of " lyrical tragedy " — a transition stage between the dithyramb and the regular drama. His invention, or the chorus with which it dealt, was established according to fixed rules by his contem- porary Stesichorus. About the time when Arion introduced these improvements into the Dorian city of Corinth, the (likewise Dorian) families at Sicyon honoured the hero-king Adrastus by tragic choruses. Hence the invention of tragedy was ascribed by the Sicyonians to their poet Epigenes; but this step, signifi- cant for the future history of the Greek drama, of employing the Bacchic chorus for the celebration of other than Bacchic themes, was soon annulled by the tyrant Cleisthenes. The element which transformed lyrical tragedy into the tragic drama was added by the lonians. The custom of the recitation of poetry by wandering minstrels, called rhapsodes (from ^d/35os, staff, or from pa.intu>, to piece sojeg ap~ together), first sprang up in the Ionia beyond the sea; to such minstrels was due the spread of the Homeric poems and of subsequent epic cycles. These recitations, with or without musical accompaniment, soon included gnomic or didactic, as well as epic, verse; if Homer was a rhapsode, so was the sen- tentious or " moral " Hesiod. The popular effect of these recita- tions was enormously increased by the metrical innovations of Archilochus (from 708), who invented the trochee and the iambus, the latter the arrowy metre which is the native form of satirical invective — the species of composition in which Archi- lochus excelled — though it was soon used for other purposes also. The recitation of these iambics may already have nearly approached to theatrical declamation. The rhapsodes were welcome guests at popular festivals, where they exercised their art in mutual emulation, or ultimately recited parts, perhaps the whole, of longer poems. The recitation of a long epic may thus have resembled theatrical dialogue; even more so must the alternation of iambic poems, the form being frequently an address in the second person. The rhapsode was in some sense an actor; and when these recitations reached Attica, they thus brought with them the germs of theatrical dialogue. The rhapsodes were actually introduced into Attica at a very early period; the Iliad, we know, was chanted at the Brauronia, a rural festival of Bacchus, whose worship had early invention entered Attica, and was cherished among its rustic of the population. Meanwhile the cyclic chorus of the t''axic Dorians had found its way into Attica and Athens, ever since the Athenians had recognized the authority of the great centre of the Apolline religion at Delphi. From the second half of the 6th century onwards the chorus of satyrs formed a leading feature of the great festival of Dionysus at Athens. It therefore only remained for the rhapsodic and the cyclic — in other words, for the epic and the choral — elements to coalesce; and this must have been brought about by a union of the two accompaniments of religious worship in the festive rites of Bacchus, and by the domestication of these rites in the ruling city. This occurred in the time of Peisistratus, perhaps after his restoration in 554. To Thespis (534), said to have been a contemporary of the tyrant and a native of an Attic deme (Icaria) , the invention of tragedy is accordingly ascribed. Whether his name be that of an actual person or not, his claim to be regarded as the inventor of tragedy is founded on the statement that he introduced an actor (wrcxcprrifc, originally, " answerer "), doubtless, at first, gener- ally the poet himself, who, instead of merely alternating his recitations with the songs of the chorus, addressed his speech to its leader — the coryphaeus— with whom he thus carried on a GREEK] DRAMA 489 species of " dialogue." Or, in other words, the leader of the chorus (coryphaeus), instead of addressing himself to the chorus, held converse with the actor. The chorus stood round its leader in front of the Bacchic altar (thymele) ; the actor stood with the coryphaeus, who had occupied a more elevated position in order to be visible above his fellows, on a rude table, or possibly on a cart, though the wagon of Thespis may be a fiction, due to a confusion between his table and the wagon of Susarion. In any case, we have here, with the beginnings of dialogue, the beginning of the stage. It is a significant minor invention ascribed to Thespis, that he disguised the actor's face first by means of a pigment, afterwards by a mask. In the dialogue was treated some myth relating to Bacchus, or to some other deity or hero. Whether or not Thespis actually wrote tragedies (and there seems no reason to doubt it), Phrynichus and one or two other poets are mentioned as having carried on choral tragedy as set on foot by him, and as having introduced improvements into its still predominating lyrical element. The step which made dramatic action possible, and with which the Greek drama thus really began, was, as is distinctly stated by Aristotle, taken by Aeschylus. He added a second actor; and, by reducing the functions of the chorus, he further established the dialogue as the principal part of tragedy. Sophocles afterwards added a third actor, by which change the preponderance of the dialogue was made complete. . If the origin of Greek comedy is simpler in its nature than that of Greek tragedy, the beginnings of its progress are involved in more obscurity. Its association with religious wor- ship was not initial; its foundations lay in popular mirth, though religious festivals, and those of the vintage god in particular, must from the first have been the most obvious occasions for its exhibition. It is said to have been " invented " by Susarion, a native of Doric Megaris, whose in- habitants were famed for their coarse humour, which they communicated to their own and other Dorian colonies in Sicily, to this day the home of vivacious mimic dialogue. In the rural Bacchic vintage festivals bands of jolly companions Ooojuos, properly a revel continued after supper) went about in carts or afoot, carrying the phallic emblem, and indulging in the ribald licence of wanton mirth. From the song sung in these processions or at the Bacchic feasts, which combined the praise of the god with gross personal ridicule, and was called comus in a secondary sense, the Bacchic reveller taking part in it was called a comus- singer or comoedus. These phallic processions, which were after- wards held in most Greek cities, and in Athens seem to have early included a" topical " speech as well as a choral song, determined the character of Old Attic comedy, whose most prominent feature was an absolute licence of personal vilification. Thus independent of one another in their origin, Greek tragedy and comedy never actually coalesced. The "satyr-drama," though in some sense it partook of the nature of both, was *n i^s origin as in its history connected with tragedy alone, whose origin it directly recalled. Pratinas of Philus, a contemporary of Aeschylus in his earlier days, is said to have restored the tragic chorus to the satyrs; i.e. he first produced dramas in which, though they were the same in form and theme as the tragedies, the choric dances were different and entirely carried on by satyrs. The tragic poets, while never writing comedies, henceforth also composed satyr- dramas; but neither tragedies nor satyr-dramas were ever written by the comic poets, and it was in conjunction with tragedies only that the satyr-dramas were performed. The theory of the Platonic Socrates, that the same man ought to be the best tragic and the best comic poet, was among the Greeks never exemplified in practice. The so-called " hilaro- comedy. tragedy " or " tragi-comedy " of later writers, perhaps in some of its features in a measure anticipated by Euripides,1 in form nowise differed from tragedy; it merely contained a comic element in its characters, and invariably had a happy ending. It is an instructive fact that the serious and sentimental element in the comedy of Menander and his con- 1 Alcestis; Orestes. drama? temporaries did far more to destroy the essential difference between the two great branches of the Greek dramatic art. Periods of Greek Tragedy. — The history of Greek — which to all intents and purposes remained Attic — tragedy divides itself into three periods. I. The Period before Aeschylus (535-499). — From this we have but a few names of authors and plays — those of the former being (besides Thespis) Choerilus, Phrynichus and Pratinas, all of whom lived to contend with Aeschylus for the tragic prize. To each of them certain innovations are ascribed — for instance the intro- duction of female characters to Phrynichus. He is best re- membered by the overpowering effect said to have been created by his Capture of Miletus, in which the chorus consisted of the wives of the Phoenician sailors in the service of the Great King. II. The Classical Period of Attic Tragedy — that of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, and their contemporaries (499-405). To this belong all the really important phases in the progress of Greek tragedy, which severally connect themselves with the names of its three great masters. They may be regarded as the representatives of successive generations of Attic history and life, though of course in these, as in the progress of their art itself, there is an unbroken continuity. Aeschylus (525-456) had not only fought both at Marathon and at Salamis against those Persians whose rout he celebrated with patriotic price, 2 but he had been trained in the Aeschylus. Eleusinian mysteries, and strenuously asserted the value of the institution most intimately associated with the primitive political traditions of the past — the Areopagus.3 He had been born in the generation after Solon, to whose maxims he fondly clung; and it was the Dorian development of Hellenic life and the philosophical system based upon it with which his religious and moral convictions were imbued. Thus even upon the generation which succeeded him, and to which the powerful simplicity of his dramatic and poetic diction seemed strange, the ethical loftiness of his conceptions and the sublimity of his dramatic imagination fell like the note of a mightier age. To us nothing is more striking than the conciliatory tendencies of his conservative mind, and the progressive nature of what may have seemed to his later contemporaries antiquated ideals. Sophocles (495-405) was the associate of Pericles, and an upholder of his authority, rather than a consistent pupil of his political principles; but his manhood, and perhaps Sophocles the maturity of his genius, coincided with the great days when he could stand, like his mighty friend and the com- munity they both so gloriously represented, on the sunny heights of achievement. Serenely pious as well as nobly patriotic, he nevertheless treats the myths of the national religion in the spirit of a conscious artist, contrasting with lofty irony the struggles of humanity with the irresistible march of its destinies. Perhaps he, too, was one of the initiated; and the note of personal responsibility which is the mystic's inner religion is recognizable in his view of lif e.4 The art of Sophocles may in its perfection be said to typify the greatest epoch in the life of Athens — an epoch conscious of unequalled achievements, but neither wholly unconscious of the brief endurance which was its destiny. Euripides (480-406), as is the fate of genius of a more complex kind, has been more variously and antithetically judged than Euripides. either of his great fellow-tragedians. His art has been described as devoid of the idealism of theirs, his genius as rhetorical rather than poetical, his morality as that of a sophistical wit. On the other hand, he has been recognized not only as the most tragic of the Attic tragedians and the most pathetic of ancient poets, but also as the most humane in his social philosophy and the most various in his psychological insight. At least, though far removed from the more naif age of the national life, he is, both in patriotic spirit and in his choice of themes, genuinely Attic; and if he was " haunted on the stage by the daemon of Socrates," he was, like Socrates himself, the representative of an age which was a seed- time as well as a season of decay. His technical innovations * Persae. * Eumenides. 'Antigone; Oedipus Rex. 49° DRAMA [GREEK corresponded to his literary characteristics; but neither in the treatment of the chorus, nor in his management of the beginning and the ending of a tragedy, did he introduce any radical change. To Euripides the general progress of dramatic literature never- theless owes more than to any other ancient poet. Tragedy followed in his footsteps in Greece and at Rome. Comedy owed him something in the later phases of the very Aristophanes who mocked him, and more in the human philosophy expressed in the sentiments of Menander; and, when the modern drama came to engraft the ancient upon its own crude growth, his was directly or indirectly the most powerful influence in the establish- ment of a living connexion between them. The incontestable pre-eminence of the three great tragic poets was in -course of time acknowledged at Athens by the The great usaSe allowing no tragedies but theirs to be performed tragic more than once, and by the prescription that one masters play of theirs should be performed at each Dionysia, and their as weii as by the law of Lycurgus (c. 330) which C°ora™es obliSed the actors to use, in the case of works of the great masters, authentic copies preserved in the public archives. Yet it is possible that the exclusiveness of these tributes is not entirely justifiable; and not all the tragic poets contemporary with the great writers were among the myriad of younglings derided by Aristophanes. Of those who attained to celebrity Ion of Chios (d. before 419) seems to have followed earlier traditions of style than Euripides; Agathon, who survived the latter, on the other hand, introduced certain innovations of a transnormal kind both into the substance and the form of dramatic composition.1 III. Of the third period of Greek tragedy the concluding limit cannot be precisely fixed. Down to the days of Alexander The sue- t'le Great, Athens had remained the chief home of cessorsol tragedy. Though tragedies must have begun to be thegreat acted at the Syracusan and Macedonian courts, since masters at Aeschylus, Euripides and Agathon had sojourned Athens. there— though the practice of producing plays at the Dionysia before the allies of Athens must have led to their holding similar exhibitions at home — yet before the death of Alexander we meet with no instance of a tragic poet writing or of a tragedy written outside Athens. An exception should indeed be made in favour of the tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse, who (like Critias in his earlier days at Athens) was " addicted to " tragic composition. Not all the tragedians of this period, however, were Athenians born; though the names of Euphorion, the son of Aeschylus, lophon, the son of Sophocles, and Euripides and Sophocles, the nephew and the grandson respectively of their great namesakes, illustrate the descent of the tragic art as an hereditary family possession. Chaeremon (fl. 380) already exhibits tragedy on the road to certain decay, for we learn that his plays were written for reading. Soon after the death of Alexander theatres are found spread over the whole Hellenic world of Europe and Asia — a result to which the practice of the conqueror and his father of celebrating their victories by scenic performances had doubtless contributed. Alexandria having now become a literary centre with which even Athens was in some respects unable to compete, while the latter still remained the home of comedy, the tragic poets flocked to the capital of the Ptolemies; and here, in the canon of Greek poets drawn up by command of Ptolemy Philadelphus (283-247), Alexander the Aetolian undertook the list of tragedies, while Lycophron was charged with the comedies. But Lycophron himself was in- cluded in all the versions of the list of the seven tragic poets famed as the " Pleias " who still wrote in the style of the Attic masters and followed the rules observed by them. Tragedy and the dramatic art continued to be favoured by the later Ptolemies; and about 100 B.C. we meet with the curious phenomenon of a Jewish poet, Ezechiel, composing Greek tragedies, of one of which (the Exodus from Egypt) fragments have come down to us. Tragedy, with the satyr-drama and comedy, survived in Alexandria beyond the days of Cicero and 1 Anthos. Varro; nor was their doom finally sealed till the emperor Caracalla abolished theatrical performances in the Egyptian capital in A.D. 217. Thus Greek tragedy is virtually only another name for Attic; nor was any departure from the lines laid down fhe by its three great masters made in most respects by tragedy of the Roman imitators of these poets and of their sue- thegreat cessors. masters. Tragedy was defined by Plato as an imitation of the noblest life. Its proper themes — the deeds and sufferings of heroes — were familiar to audiences intimately acquainted with the mythology of the national religion. To such Subjects themes Greek tragedy almost wholly confined itself ; and in later days there were numerous books which discussed these myths of the tragedians. They only very exceptionally treated historic themes, though one great national calamity,2 and a yet greater national victory,3 and in later times a few other historical subjects,4 were brought upon the stage. Such veiled historical allusions as critical ingenuity has sought not only in passages but in the entire themes of other Attic tragedies 5 cannot, of course, even if accepted as such, stamp the plays in which they occur as historic dramas. No doubt Attic tragedy, though after a different and more decorous fashion, shared the tendency of her comic sister to introduce allusions to contemporary events and persons; and the in- dulgence of this tendency was facilitated by the revision (SicurKevfj) to which the works of the great poets were subjected by them, or by those who produced their works after them.' So far as we know, the subjects of the tragedies before Aeschylus were derived from the epos; and it was a famous saying of this poet that his dramas were " but dry scraps from the great banquets of Homer " — an expression which may be understood as includ- ing the poems which belong to the so-called Homeric cycles. Sophocles, Euripides and their successors likewise resorted to the Trojan, and also to the Heraclean and the Thesean myths, and to Attic legend in general, as well as to Theban, to which already Aeschylus had had recourse, and to the side or subsidiary myths connected with these several groups. These substantially remained to the last the themes 'of Greek tragedy, the Trojan myths always retaining so prominent a place that Lucian could jest on the universality of their dominion. Purely invented subjects were occasionally treated by the later tragedians; of this innovation Agathon was the originator.7 Thespis is said to have introduced the use of a " prologue " and a " rhesis " (speech) — the former being probably the opening speech recited by the coryphaeus, the latter the dialogue between him and the actor. It was a natural result of the introduction of the second actor that a second rhesis should likewise be added; and this tripartite division would be the earliest form of the trilogy, — three sections of the same myth forming the beginning, middle and end of a single drama, marked off from one another by the choral The songs. From this Aeschylus proceeded to the treat- Aeschy- ment of these several portions of a myth in three fcaj> separate plays, connected together by their subject trilogy. and by being performed in sequence on a single occasion. This is the Aeschylean trilogy, of which we have only one extant example, the Oresteia — as to which critics may differ whether Aeschylus adhered in it to his principle that the strength should 2 Phrynichus, Capture of Miletus. * Id., Phpenissae; Aeschylus, Persae (Persae-trilogy ?). * Moschion, Themistodes; Theodectes, Mausolus; Lycophron, Marathonii; Cassandrei; Socii; Philiscus, Themistodes. 6 Aeschylus, Septem c. Thebas', Prometheus Vinctus', Danais- trilogy; Sophocles, Antigone; Oedipus Coloneus; Euripides, Medea. 6 Quite distinct from this revision was the practice against which the law of Lycurgus was directed, of " cobbling and heeling " the dramas of the great masters by alterations of a kind familiar enough to the students of Shakespeare as improved by Colley Gibber and other experts. The later tragedians also appear to have occasionally transposed long speeches or episodes from one tragedy into another — a device largely followed by the Roman dramatists, and called contamination by Latin writers. ''Anthos (The Flower). Construc- tion. GREEK] DRAMA 491 lie in the middle — in other words, that the interest should centre in the second play. In any case, the symmetry of the trilogy was destroyed by the practice of performing after it a jo e ' satyr-drama, probably as a rule, if not always, con- nected in subject with the trilogy, which thus became a tetralogy, though this term, unlike the other, seems to be a purely technical expression invented by the learned.1 Sophocles, a more conscious and probably a more self-critical artist than Aeschylus, may be assumed from the first to have elaborated his tragedies with greater care; and to this, as well as to his innovation of the third actor, which materially added to the fulness of the action, we may attribute his introduction of the custom of contending for the prize with single plays. It does not follow that he never produced connected trilogies, though we have no example of such by him or any later author; on the other hand, there is no proof that either he or any of his successors ever departed from the Aeschylean rule of producing three tragedies, followed by a satyr-drama, on the same day. This remained the third and last stage in the history of the con- struction of Attic tragedy. The tendency of its I"*" action towards complication was a natural progress, actions. an(l is emphatically approved by Aristotle. This complication, in which Euripides excelled, led to his use of prologues, in which one of the characters opens the play by an exposition of the circumstances under which its action begins. This practice, though ridiculed by Aristophanes, was too convenient not to be adopted by the successors of Euripides, and Menander transferred it to comedy. As the dialogue in- creased in importance, so the dramatic significance of the chorus diminished. While in Aeschylus it mostly, and in Sophocles occasionally, takes part in the action, its songs could not but more and more approach the character of lyrical intermezzos', and this they openly assumed when Agathon began the practice of inserting choral songs (embolima) which had nothing to do with the action of the play. In the general contrivance of their actions it was only natural that, as compared with Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides should exhibit an advance in both freedom and ingenuity; but the palm, due to a treatment at once piously adhering to the substance of the ancient legends and original in an effective dramatic treatment of them, must be given to Sophocles. Euripides was, moreover, less skilful in untying complicated actions than in weaving them; hence his frequent resort 2 to the expedient of the deus ex machina, which Sophocles employs only in his latest play.3 The' other distinctions to be drawn between the dramatic qualities of the three great tragic masters must be mainly based upon a critical estimate of the individual genius of each. In the characters of their tragedies, Aeschylus and Sophocles avoided those lapses of dignity with which from one point of view Euripides has been charged by Aristophanes and other critics, but which, from another, connect themselves with his humanity. If his men and women are less heroic and statuesque, they are more like men and women. Aristotle objected to the later tragedians that, compared with the great masters, they were deficient in the drawing of character — by which he meant the lofty drawing of lofty character. In diction, the transition is even more manifest from the " helmeted phrases " of Aeschylus, who had Milton's love of long words and sonorous proper names, to the play of Euripides' " smooth and diligent tongue "; but to a sustained style even he remained essentially true, and it was reserved for his successors to introduce into tragedy the " low speech " — i.e. the conversational language — of comedy. Upon the whole, however, the Euripidean diction seems to have remained the standard of later tragedy, the flowery style of speech introduced by Agathon finding no permanent favour. 1 One satyr-drama only is preserved to us, the Cyclops of Euripides, a dramatic version of the Homeric tale of the visit of Odysseus to Polyphemus. Lycophron, by using the satyr-drama (in his Mene- demus) as a vehicle of personal ridicule applied it to a purpose resembling that of Old Attic Comedy. * Ion; Supplices; Iphigenia in Tauris; Electro,; Helena; Hippolytus; A ndr attache. * Philoctetes. Charac- ters. Diction. Finally, Aeschylus is said to have made certain reforms in tragic costume of which the object is self-evident — to have improved the mask, and to have invented the cothurnus impr0ve- or buskin, upon which the actor was raised to loftier meats la stature. Euripides was not afraid of rags and tatters ; <**tumc, but the sarcasms of Aristophanes on this head seem feeble to those who are aware that they would apply to King Lear as well as to Telephus. Periods of Greek Comedy. — The history of Greek comedy is likewise that of an essentially Attic growth, although Sicilian comedy was earlier in date than her Attic sister or descendant. The former is represented by Epicharmus (fl. 500), and by the names of one or two other poets. It probably had a chorus, and, dealing as it did in a mixture of philosophical discourse, anti- thetical rhetoric and wild buffoonery, necessarily varied in style. His comedies were the earliest examples of the class distinguished as motoriae from the statariae and the mixtae by their greater freedom and turbulence of movement. Though in some respects Sicilian comedy seems to have resembled the Middle rathet than the Old Attic comedy, its subjects sometimes, like those of the latter, coincided with the myths of tragedy, of which they were doubtless parodies. The so-called " mimes " of Sophron (fl. 430) were dramatic scenes from Sicilian everyday life, in- tended, not for the stage, but for recitation, and classed as " male " and "female " according to the sex of the characters. Attic comedy is usually divided into three periods or species. I. Old comedy, which dated from the complete establishment of democracy by Pericles, though a comedy directed against Themistocles is mentioned. The Megarean farcical entertainments had long spread in the rural districts comedy. of Attica, and were now introduced into the city,where from about 460 onwards the " comus " became a matter of public concern. Cratinus (c. 450-422) and Crates (c. 449-425) first moulded these beginnings into the forms of Attic art. The final victory of Pericles and the democratic party may be reckoned from the ostracism of Thucydides (444) ; and so eagerly was the season of freedom employed by the comic poets that already four years afterwards a law— which, however, remained only a short time in force — limited their licence. Cratinus,4 an exceed- ingly bold and broad satirist, apparently of conservative tendencies, was followed by Eupolis (440-after 415), every one of whose plays appears to have attacked some individual,6 by Phrynichus, Plato and others; but the representative of old comedy in its fullest development is Aristophanes (c. 444-c. 380), a comic poet of unique and unsurpassed genius. Dignified by the acquisition of a chorus (more numerous — twenty-four to twelve or afterwards fifteen — though of a less costly kind than the tragic) of masked actors, and of scenery and machinery, as well as by a corresponding literary Phaae"s elaboration and elegance of style, Old Attic comedy nevertheless remained true both to its origin and to the purposes of its introduction into the free imperial city. Its special season was at the festival of the Lenaea, when the Athenians could enjoy the fun against one another without espying strangers; but it was also performed -at the Great Dionysia. It borrowed much from tragedy, but it retained the phallic abandonment of the old rural festivals, the licence of word and gesture, and the audacious directness of personal invective. These characteristics are not features peculiar to Aristophanes. He was twitted by some of the older comic poets with having degenerated from the full freedom of the art by a tendency to refinement, and he took credit to himself for having superseded the time-honoured cancan and the stale practical joking of his predecessors by a nobler kind of mirth. But in daring, as he likewise boasted, he had no peer; and the shafts of his wit, though dipped in wine- lees and at times feathered from very obscene fowl, flew at high game.6 He has been accused of seeking to degrade what he ought to have recognized as good7; and it has been shown with com- plete success that he is not to be taken as an impartial or accurate 4 Archilochi; Pytine (The Bottle}. 6 Maricas (Cleon) ; Baptae (Alcibiades) ; Lacones (Cimon). • Knights. ' Clouds. 492 DRAMA [GREEK authority on Athenian history. ' But partisan as he was, he was also a genuine patriot; and his very political sympathies — which were conservative, like those of the comic poets in general, not only because it was the old families upon whom the expense of the choregia in the main devolved — were such as have often stimulated the most effective political satire. Of the conservative quality of reverence he was, however, altogether devoid; and his love for Athens was that of the most free-spoken of sons. Flexible even in his religious notions, he was, in this as in other respects, ready to be educated by his times; and, like a true comic poet, he could be witty at the expense even of his friends, and, it might almost be said, of himself. In wealth of fancy * and in beauty of lyric melody, he has few peers among the great poets of all times. The distinctive feature of Old, as compared with Middle comedy, is the parabasis, the speech in which the chorus, moving towards and facing the audience, addressed it in the basis*' ' name °f the poet, often abandoning all reference to the action of the play. The loss of the parabasis was involved in the loss of the chorus, of which comedy was deprived in consequence of the general reduction of expenditure upon the comic drama, culminating in the law of the personally aggrieved dithyrambic poet Cinesias (396) .2 But with the downfall of the independence of Athenian public life, the ground had been cut from under the feet of its most characteristic representative. Already in 414, in the anxious time after the sailing of the Sicilian expedition, the law of Syracosius had prohibited the comic poets from making direct reference to current events; but the Birds had taken their flight above the range of all regulations. The catastrophe of the city (405) was preceded by the temporary overthrow of the democracy (411), and was followed by the establishment of an oligarchical " tyranny " under Spartan protection; and, when liberty was restored (404), the citizens for a time addressed themselves to their new life in a soberer spirit, and continued (or passed) the law prohibiting the introduc- tion by name of any individual as one of the personages of a play. The change to which comedy had to accommodate itself was one which cannot be denned by precise dates, yet it was not the less inevitable in its progress and results. Comedy, in her struggle for existence, now chiefly devoted herself to literary and social themes, such as the criticism of tragic poets,3 and the literary craze of women's rights,4 and the transiti'on to Middle comedy accomplished itself. Of the later plays of Aristophanes, three6 are without a parabasis, and in the last of those preserved to us which properly belongs to Middle comedy 6 the chorus is quite insignificant. II. Middle comedy, whose period extends over the remaining years of Athenian freedom (from about 400 to 338), thus differed in substance as well as in form from its predecessor. It kiddie *s represented by the names of thirty-seven writers comedy. (more than double the number of poets attributed to Old comedy), among whom Eubulus, Antiphanes and Alexis are stated to have been pre-eminently fertile and successful. It was a comedy of manners as well as character, although its ridicule of particular classes of men tended to the creation of standing types, such as soldiers, parasites, courtesans, revellers, and — a favourite figure already drawn by Aristophanes ' — the self-conceited cook. . In style it necessarily inclined to become more easy and conversational and to substitute insinuation for invective; while in that branch which was devoted to the parody- ing of tragic myths its purpose may have been to criticize, but its effect must have been to degrade. This species of the comic art had found favour at Athens already before the close of the great civil War; its inventor was the Thasian Hegemon, whose Gigantomachia was amusing the Athenians on the day when the news arrived of the Sicilian disaster. i Birds. 1 Strattis, The Choricide (against Cinesias). •Aristophanes, Frogs; Phrynichus, Musae; Tragoedi. * Aristophanes, Ecclesiazusae. 6 Lysistrata; Thesmophoriazusae; Plutus II. 6 Plutus. ' Aeolosicon. III. New comedy, which is dated from the establishment of the Macedonian supremacy (338) , is merely a further development of Middle, from which indeed it was not distinguished till the time of Hadrian. If its favourite types were more numerous, including the captain (of mercenaries) — the original of a long line of comic favourites — the cunning slave, &c., they were probably also more conventional. New comedy appears to have first constituted love intrigues the main subject of dramatic actions. The most famous of the sixty-four writers said to have belonged to this period of comedy were Philemon (fl. from 330), Menander (342-329) and his contem- porary Diphilus. Of these authors we know something from fragments, but more from their Latin adapters Plautus and Terence. As comedians of character, aader. they were limited by a range of types which left little room for originality of treatment; in the construction of their plots they were skilful rather than varied. In style, as well as to some extent in construction, Menander seems to have taken Euripides as his model, infusing into his comedy an element of moral and sentimental reflection, which refined if it did not enliven it. New comedy, and with it Greek comedy proper, is regarded as having come to an end with Posidippus (fl. c. 280). Other comic writers of a later date are, however, mentioned, among them Rhinthon of Tarentum (fl. c. 300), whose mixed compositions have been called by various names, among them by that of " phlyacographies " (from phlyax, idle chatter). He was succeeded by Sopater, Sotades and others; but the dramatic element in these often obscene, but not perhaps altogether frivolous, travesties is not always clearly ascertainable. It is certain that Greek comedy gradually ceased to be pro- ductive; and though even in its original form it long continued to be acted in imperial Rome, these are phases of its history which may here be passed by. The religious origin of the Attic drama impresses itself upon all its most peculiar features. Theatrical performances were held at Athens only at fixed seasons in the early part „ „ - rl i-ni.i*.iri jKCSUltS Of of the year — at the Bacchic festivals of the country religious Dionysia (vintage), the Lenaea (wine-press), probably at the Anthesteria, and above all, at the Great Dionysia, or the Dionysia par excellence, at the end of March and beginning of April, when in her most glorious age Athens was crowded with visitors from the islands and cities of her federal empire. As a part of religious worship, the performances took place in a sacred locality — the Lenaeum on the south- eastern declivity of the Acropolis, where the first wine-press (lenos) was said to have been set up, and where now an altar of Bacchus (thymele) formed the centre of the theatre. For the same reason the exhibitions claimed the attendance of the whole population, and room was therefore provided on a grand scale — according to the Platonic Socrates, for " more than 30,000 " spectators (see THEATRE). The performances lasted all day, or were at least, in accordance with their festive character, extended to as great a length as possible. To their religious origin is likewise to be attributed the fact that they were treated as a matter of state concern. The expenses of the chorus, which in theory represented the people at large, were defrayed on behalf of the state by the liturgies (public services) of wealthy citizens, chosen in turn by the tribes to be choragi (leaders, i.e. providers of the chorus), the duty of training being, of course, deputed by them to professional persons (chorodidascali). Publicly appointed and sworn judges decided between the merits of the dramas produced in competition with one another; the successful poet, performers and choragus were crowned with ivy, and the last- named was allowed at his own expense to consecrate a tripod in memory of his victory in the neighbourhood of the sacred Bacchic enclosure. Such a monument — one of the most graceful relics of ancient Athens — still stands in the place where it was erected, and recalls to posterity the victory of Lysicrates, achieved in the same year as that of Alexander on the Granicus. The dramatic exhibitions being a matter of religion and state, the entrance money (theoricum), which had be -in introduced to ROMAN] DRAMA 493 prevent overcrowding, was from the time of Pericles provided out of the public treasury. The whole populatiom had a right to its Bacchic holiday; neither women, nor boys, nor slaves were excluded from theatrical spectacles at Athens. The religious character of dramatic performances at Athens, and the circumstances under which they accordingly took place, likewise determined their externals of costume and Costume scenerv- The actor's dress was originally the festive scenery. Dionysian attire, of which it always retained the gay and variegated hues. The use of the mask, sur- mounted, high over the forehead, by an ample wig, was due to the actor's appearing in the open air and at a distance from most of the spectators; the several species of mask were elaborated with great care, and adapted to the different types of theatrical character. The cothurnus, or thick-soled boot, which further raised the height of the tragic actor (while the comedian wore a thin-soled boot), was likewise a relic of Bacchic costume. The scenery was, in the simplicity of its original conception, suited to open-air performances; but in course of time the art of scene-painting came to be highly cultivated, and movable scenes were contrived, together with machinery of the ambitious kind required by the Attic drama, whether for bringing gods down from heaven, or for raising mortals aloft. On a stage and among surroundings thus conventional, it might seem as if little scope could have been left for the actor's art. But, though the demands made upon the Attic actor differed in kind even from those made upon his Roman successor, and still more from those which the histrionic art has to meet in modern times, they were not the less rigorous. Mask and buskin might increase his stature, and the former might at once lend the appropriate expression to his appearance and the necessary resonance to his voice. But in declamation, dialogue and lyric passage, in gesticulation and movement, he had to avoid the least violation of the general harmony of the performance. Yet it is clear that the refinements of by-play must, from the nature of the case, have been impossible on the Attic stage; the gesticulation must have been broad and massive; the movement slow, and the grouping hard, in tragedy; and the weighty sameness of the recitation must have had an effect even more solemn and less varied than the half-chant which still lingers on the modern stage. Not more than three actors, as has been seen, appeared in any Attic tragedy. The actors were provided by the poet; perhaps the performer of the first parts (protagonist) was paid by the state. It was again a result of the religious origin of Attic dramatic performances and of the public importance attached to them, that the actor's profession was held in high esteem. These artists were as a matter of course free Athenian citizens, often the dramatists themselves, and at times were employed in other branches of the public service. In later days, when tragedy had migrated to Alexandria, and when theatrical entertainments had spread over all the Hellenic world, the art of acting seems to have reached an unprecedented height, and to have taken an extraordinary hold of the public mind. Synods, or companies, of Dionysian artists abounded, who were in possession of various privileges, and in one instance at least (at Pergamum) of rich endowments. The most important of these was the Ionic company, established first in Teos, and afterwards in Lebedos, near Colophon, which is said to have lasted longer than many a famous state. We like- wise hear of strolling companies performing in pariibus. Thus it came to pass that the vitality of some of the masterpieces of the Greek drama is without a parallel in theatrical history; while Greek actors were undoubtedly among the principal and most effective agents of the spread of literary culture through a great part of the known world. The theory and technical system of the drama exercised the critical powers both of dramatists, such as Sophocles, and of the Writers oa greatest among Greek philosophers. If Plato touched the theory the subject incidentally, Aristotle has in his Poetics °dnm* (after 334) included an exposition of it, which, mutilated as it is, has formed the basis of all later systematic in- quiries. The specialities of Greek tragic dramaturgy refer above all to the chorus; its general laws are those of the regular drama of all times. The theories of Aristotle and other earlier writers were elaborated by the Alexandrians, many of whom doubtless combined example with precept; they also devoted themselves to commentaries on the old masters, such as those in which Didymus (c. 30 B.C.) abundantly excelled, and collected a vast amount of learning on dramatic composition in general, which was doomed to perish, with so many other treasures, in the flames kindled by religious fanaticism. 8. ROMAN DRAMA In its most productive age, as well as in the times of its decline and decay, the Roman drama exhibits the continued coexistence of native forms by the side of those imported from Greece — either kind being necessarily often subject to the influence of the other. Italy (with Sicily) has ever been the native land of acting and of scenic representation; and, though Roman dramatic literature at its height is but a faint reflex of Greek examples, there is perhaps no branch of Roman literary art more congenial than this to the soil whence it sprang. Quick observation and apt improvisation have always been distinctive features in the Italian character. Thus in the rural festivities of Italy there developed from a very early period in lively intermixture the elements of the Of1*1" °f /• • i j i • .. its native dance, of jocular and abusive succession of song, forms. speech and dialogue, and of an assumption of character such as may be witnessed in any ordinary dialogue carried on by southern Italians at the present day. Not less indigenous was the invariable accompaniment of the music of the flute (tibia). The occasions of these half obligatory, half impromptu festivities were religious celebrations, public or private — among the latter more especially weddings, which have in all ages been provocative of demonstrative mirth. The so-called Fescennine verses (from Fescennium in southern Etruria, and very possibly connected with fascinum=phallos), which were afterwards con- fined to weddings, and ultimately suggested an elaborate species of artistic poetry, never merged into actual dramatic perform- ances. In the saturae, on the other hand — a name saturae originally suggested by the goatskins of the shepherds, but from primitive times connected with the " fulness " of both performers and performance — there seems from the first to have been a dramatic element; they were probably comic songs or stories recited with gesticulation and the invariable flute ac- companiment. Introduced into the city, these entertainments received a new impulse from the performa.nces of the Etruscan players (ludiones) who had been brought inCo Rome when scenic games (ludi scenici) were introduced there in 364 B.C. for purposes of religious propitiation. These (h)istriones, as they jstriones were called at Rome (islri had been their native name), who have had the privilege of transmitting their appellation to the entire histrionic art and its professors, were at first only dancers and pantomimists in a city where their speech was exotic. But their performances encouraged and developed those of other players and mountebanks, so that after the establishment of the regular drama at Rome on the Greek model, the saturae came to be performed as farcical after-pieces (exodia), until they gave way to other species. Among these the mimi were at Rome probably coeval in their beginnings with the stage itself, where those who performed them were after- wards known under the same name, possibly in the place of an older appellation (planipedes, bare-footed, representatives of slaves and humble folk) . These loose farces, after being probably at first performed independently, were then played as after- pieces, till in the imperial period, when they reasserted their predominance, they were again produced independently. At the close of the republican period the mimus found its way into literature, through D. Laberius, C. Matius and Publilius Syrus, and was assimilated in both form and subjects to other varieties of the comic drama — preserving, however, as its distinctive feature, a preponderance of the mimic or gesticulatory element. Together with the pantomimus (see below) the mimus continued to prevail in the days of the Empire, having transferred its Miml. 494 DRAMA [ROMAN original grossness to its treatment of mythological subjects, with which it dealt in accordance with the demands of a " lubrique and adulterate age." As a matter of course, the mimus freely borrowed from other species, among which, so far as they were of native Italian origin, the A tellane fables (from Atella in Campania) call for special mention. Very probably of Oscan origin, they began with delineations of the life of small towns, in which dramatic and other satire has never ceased to find a favourite subject. The principal personages in these living sketches gradually assumed a fixed and conventional character, which they retained even when, after the final overthrow of Campanian independence (210), the Alellanae had been trans- planted to Rome. Here the heavy father or husband (pappus), the ass-eared glutton (maccus), the full-cheeked, voracious chatterbox (bucco), and the wily sharper (dorsenus) became accepted comic types, and, with others of a smiliar kind, were handed down, to reappear in the modern Italian drama. In these characters lay the essence of the Atellanae: their plots were extremely simple; the dialogue (perhaps interspersed with songs in the Saturnian metre) was left to the performers to improvise. In course of time these plays assumed a literary form, being elaborated as after-pieces by Lucius Pomponius of Bononia, Novius and other authors; but under the Empire they were gradually absorbed in the pantomimes. The regular, as distinct from the popular, Roman drama, on the other hand, was of foreign (i.e. Greek) origin; and its origin at early history, at all events, attaches itself to more or the regular less fixed dates. It begins with the year 240 B.C., Roman when at the ludi Romani, held with unusual splendour drama. after the first Punic War, its victorious conclusion was, in accordance with Macedonian precedent, celebrated by the first production of a tragedy and a comedy on the Roman stage. The author of both, who appeared in person as an actor, was Livius Andronicus (b. 278 or earlier), a native of the Greek city of Tarentum, where the Dionysiac festivals enjoyed high popularity. His models were, in tragedy, the later Greek tragedians and their revisions of the three great Attic masters; in comedy, we may feel sure, Menander and his school. Greek examples continued to dominate the regular Roman drama during the whole of its course, even when it resorted to native themes. The main features of Roman tragedy admit of no doubt, although our conclusions respecting its earlier progress are only derived from analogy, from scattered notices, especially woman °' °^ ^ t^t^es °f plavs> and from such fragments — mostly tragedy. very brief — as have come down to us. Of the known titles of the tragedies of Livius Andronicus, six belong to the Trojan cycle, and this preference consistently maintained itself among the tragedians of the " Trojugenae " ; next in popularity seem to have been the myths of the house of Tantalus, of the Pelopidae and of the Argonauts. The distinctions drawn by later Roman writers between the styles of the tragic poets of the republican period must in general be taken on trust. The Campanian Cn. Naevius (fl. from 236) wrote comedies as well as tragedies, so that the rigorous separation observed among the Greeks in the cultivation of the two dramatic species was at first neglected at Rome. His realistic tendency, displayed in that fondness for political allusions which brought upon him the vengeance of a noble family (the Metelli) incapable of under- standing a joke of this description, might perhaps under more favourable circumstances have led him more fully to develop a Praetexta. new traSic species invented by him. But the fabula praelexta or praetextata (from the purple-bordered robe worn by higher magistrates) was not destined to become the means of emancipating the Roman serious drama from the control of Greek examples. In design, it was national tragedy on historic subjects of patriotic interest— which the Greeks had treated only in isolated instances; and one might at first sight marvel why, after Naevius and his successors had produced skilful examples of the species, it should have failed to over- shadow and outlast in popularity a tragedy telling the oft-told foreign tales of Thebes and Mycenae, or even the pseudo-ancestral story of Troy. But it should not be forgotten to how great an extent so-called early Roman history consisted of the traditions of the gentes, and how little the party-life of later republican Rome lent itself to a dramatic treatment likely to be acceptable both to the nobility and to the multitude. As for the emperors, the last licence they would have permitted to the theatre was a free popular treatment of the national history ; if Augustus prohibited the publication of a tragedy by his adoptive father on the subject of Oedipus, it was improbable that he or his successors should have sanctioned the performance of plays dealing with the earthly fortunes of Divus Julius himself, or with the story of Marius, or that of the Gracchi, or any of the other tragic themes of later republican or imperial history. The historic drama at Rome thus had no opportunity for a vigorous life, even could tragedy have severed its main course from the Greek literature of which it has been well called a " free-hand copy." The praetextae of which we know chiefly treat — possibly here and there helped to form ' — legends of a hoary antiquity, or celebrate battles chronicled in family or public records2; and in the end the species died a natural death.3 Q. Ennius (239-168), the favourite poet of the great families, was qualified by his Tarentine education, which taught the Oscan youth the Greek as well as the Latin tongue (so that he boasted " three souls "), to become the literary f"^*s exponent of the Hellenizing tendencies of his age of successors. Roman society. Nearly half of the extant names of his tragedies belong to the Trojan cycle; and Euripides was clearly his favourite source and model. M. Pacuvius (b. c. 229), like Ennius subject from his youth up to the influences of Greek civilization, and the first Roman dramatist who devoted himself exclusively to the tragic drama, was the least fertile of the chief Roman tragedians, but was regarded by the ancients as indisput- ably superior to Ennius. He again was generally (though not uniformly) held to have been surpassed by L. Accius (b. 170), a learned scholar and prolific dramatist, of whose plays 50 titles and a very large number of fragments have been preserved. The plays of the last-named three poets maintained themselves on the stage till the close of the republic ; and Accius was quoted by the emperor Tiberius.4 Of the other tragic writers of the republic several were dilettanti — such as the great orator and eminent politician C. Julius Strabo; the cultivated officer Q. Tullius Cicero, who made an attempt, disapproved by his illustrious brother, to introduce the satyr-drama into the Roman theatre; L. Cornelius Balbus, a Caesarean partisan; and finally C. Julius Caesar himself. Tragedy continued to be cultivated under the earlier emperors; and one author, the famous and ill-fated L. Annaeus Seneca (4 B.C.-A.D. 65), left behind him a series of works which were to exercise a paramount influence upon the beginnings of modern tragedy. In accordance with the character of their author's prose-work, they exhibit a strong predominance of the rhetorical element, and an artificiality of style far removed from that of the poets Sophocles and Euripides, from whom Seneca derived his themes. Yet he is interesting, not only by these devices and by a " sensational " choice of themes, but also by a quickness of treatment which we may call " modem," a quality not easily resisted in a dramatist. The metrification of his plays is very strict, and they were doubtless intended for recitation, whether or not also designed for the stage. A few tragic poets are mentioned after Seneca, till about the reign of Domitian (81-96) the list comes to an end. The close of Roman tragic literature is obscurer than its beginning; and, while there are traces of tragic performances at Rome as late as even the 6th century, we are ignorant how long the works of the old 'Naevius, Lupus (The Wolf); Romulus; Ennius, Sabinae (The Sabine Women) ; Accius, Brutus. 2 Naevius, Clastidium (Marcellust) ; Ennius, Ambracia; Pacuvius, Paulus; Accius, Aeneadae (Decius?). 3 Balbus's Her (The Mission), an isolated play on an episode of the Pharsalian campaign, seems to have been composed for the mere private delectation of its author and hero. Octavia, a late praetexta ascribed to Seneca, was certainly not written by him. 4 " Oderint dum metuant " (Atreus). Seneca, ROMAN] DRAMA 495 masters of Roman tragedy maintained themselves on the stage. It would obviously be an error to draw from the plays of Seneca conclusions as to the method and style of the earlier Character- writers. In general, however, no important changes istics of seem to have occurred in the progress of Roman tragic Roman composition. The later Greek plays remained, so far as can be gathered, the models in treatment; and, inasmuch as at Rome the several plays were performed singly, there was every inducement to make their action as full and complicated as possible. The dialogue-scenes (diverbia) appear to have been largely interspersed with musical passages (cantica) ; but the effect of the latter must have suffered from the barbarous custom of having the songs sung by a boy, placed in front of the flute-player (cantor), while the actor accompanied them with gesticulations. The chorus (unlike the Greek) stood on the stage itself and seems occasionally at least to have taken part in the action. But the whole of the musical element can hardly have attained to so full a development as among the Greeks. The divisions of the action appear at first to have been three; from the addition of prologue and epilogue may have arisen the invention (probably due in tragedy to Varro) of the fixed number of five acts. In style, such influence as the genius of Roman literature could exercise must have been in the direction of the rhetorical and the pathetic; a superfluity of energy on the one hand, and a defect of poetic richness on the other, can hardly have failed to characterize these, as they did all the other productions of early Roman poetry. In Roman comedy two different kinds — respectively called palliata and togata from well-known names of dress— were dis- tinguished,— the former treating Greek subjects and Roman ° imitating Greek originals, the latter professing a native comedy, character. The palliata sought its originals especially in New Attic comedy; and its authors, as they advanced in refinement of style, became more and more de- pendent upon their models, and unwilling to gratify the coarser Palliata. tastes of the public by local allusions or gross season- ings. But that kind of comedy which shrinks from the rude breath of popular applause usually has in the end to give way to less squeamish rivals; and thus, after the species had been cultivated for about a century (c. 250-1503.0.), palliatae ceased to be composed except for the amusement of select circles, though the works of the most successful authors, Plautus and Terence, kept the stage even after the establishment of the empire. Among the earlier writers of palliatae were the tragic poets Andronicus, Naevius and Ennius, but they were alike Plautus. surpassed by T. Maccius Plautus (254-184), nearly all of whose comedies esteemed genuine by Varro — not less than 20 in number — have been preserved, though twelve of them were not known to the modern world before 1429. He was exclusively a comic poet, and, though he borrowed his plots from the Greeks — from Diphilus and Philemon apparently in preference to the more refined Menander — there was in him a genuinely national as well as a genuinely popular element. Of the extent of his originality it is impossible to judge; probably it lies in his elaboration of types of character and the comic turns of his dialogue rather than in his plots. Modern comedy is indebted to him in all these points; and, in consequence of this fact, as well as of the attention his text has for linguistic reasons received from scholarship both ancient and modern, his merits have met with quite their full share of recognition. Caecilius Statius (an Insubrian brought to Rome as a captive c. 200) stands midway between Plautus and Terence, but no Tennce. P'ays °f ms remain. P. Terentius Afer (c. 185-159) was, as his cognomen implies, a native of Carthage, of whose conqueror he enjoyed the patronage. His six extant comedies seem to be tolerably close renderings of their Greek originals, nearly all of which were plays of Menander. It was the good fortune of the works of Terence to be preserved in an exceptionally large number of MSS. in the monastic libraries of the middle ages, and thus (as will be seen) to become a main link between the ancient and the Christian drama. As a Togatae. dramatist he is distinguished by correctness of style rather than by variety in his plots or vivacity in his characters; his chief merit — and at the same time the quality which has rendered him so suitable for modern imitation — is to be sought in the polite ease of his dialogue. In general, the main features of the palliatae, which were divided into five acts, are those of the New Comedy of Athens, like which they had no chorus; for purposes of explanation from author to audience the prologue sufficed; the Roman versions were probably terser than their originals, which they often altered by the process called contamination. The togatae, in the wider sense of the term, included all Roman plays of native origin — among the rest, the praetextae, in contradistinction to which and to the transient species of the trabeatae (from the dress of the knights) the comedies dealing with the life of the lower classes were afterwards called tabernariae (from taberna, a shop), a name suited by some of their extant titles,1 while others point to the treatment of provincial scenes.2 The togata, which was necessarily more realistic than the palliata, and doubtless fresher as well as coarser in tone, flourished in Roman literature between 170 and 80 B.C. In this species Titinius, all whose plays bear Latin titles and were tabernariae, was succeeded by the more refined L. Afranius, who, though still choosing natural subjects, seems to have treated them in the spirit of Menander. His plays continued to be performed under the empire, though with an admixture of elements derived from that lower species, the pantomime, to which they also were in the end to succumb. The Romans likewise adopted the burlesque kind of comedy called from its inventor Rhinthonica, and by other names (see above). But with them, the general course of the drama, which with the Greeks lost itself in the sand, could not fail to be merged in to the flood. The end of Roman dramatic literature was dilettantism and criticism; the end of the Roman drama was spectacle and show, buffoonery and sensual allurement. It was for this that the theatre had passed through all its early troubles, when the political puritanism of the old theatre. school had upheld the martial games of the circus against the enervating influence of the stage. In those days the guardians of Roman virtue had sought to diminish the attractions of the theatre by insisting upon its remaining as uncomfortable as possible; but as was usual at Rome, the privileges of the upper orders were at last extended to the population at large, though a separation of classes continued to be characteristic of a Roman audience. The first permanent theatre erected at Rome was that of Cn. Pompeius (55 B.C.), which contained nearly 18,000 seats; but even of this the portion allotted to the performers (scaena) was of wood; nor was it till the reign of Tiberius (A.D. 22) that, after being burnt down, the edifice was rebuilt in stone. Though a species of amateur literary censorship, introduced by Pompeius, became customary in the Augustan age, in general the drama's laws at Rome were given by the drama's Acton. patrons — in other words, the production of plays was a matter of private speculation. The exhibitions were contracted for with the officials charged with the superintendence of public amusements (curatores ludorum); the actors were slaves trained for the art, mostly natives of southern Italy or Greece. Many of them rose to reputation and wealth, purchased their freedom, and themselves became directors of companies; but, though Sulla might make a knight of Roscius, and Caesar and his friends defy ancient prejudice, the stigma of civil disability (infamia) was not removed from the profession, which in the great days of the Attic drama had been held in honour at Athens. But, on the whole, the social treatment of actors was easy in the days of the early empire; senators and knights actually appeared on the stage; Nero sang on it; and a pantomimus was made praefectus urbi by Elagabalus. The actor's art was carried on at Rome under conditions differing in other respects from those of the Greek theatre. 1 Augur; Cinerarius (The Crimper)', Fullonia (The Fuller's Trade); Libertus (The Freedman); Tibicina (The Flute-Girl). J Brundisinae ; Ferentinatis ; Setina. 496 DRAMA [CLASSICAL The Romans loved a full stage, and from the later period of the republic liked to see it crowded with supernumeraries. This accorded with their military instincts, and with the general grossness of their tastes, which led them in the theatre as well as in the circus to delight in spectacle and tumult, and to applaud Pompeius when he furnished forth the return of Agamemnon in the Clytaemnestra with a grand total of 600 heavily-laden mules. On the other hand, the actors stood nearer to the spectators in the Roman theatre than in the Greek, the stage (pulpitum) not being separated from the first rows of the audience by an orchestra occupied by the chorus; and this led in earlier times to the absence of masks, diversely coloured wigs serving to distinguish the age of the characters. Roscius, however, is said (because of an obliquity of vision which disfigured his countenance) to have introduced the use of masks; and the retrograde innovation, though disapproved of, maintained itself. The tragic actors wore the crepida, corresponding to the cothurnus, and a heavy toga, which in the praetexta had the purple border giving its name to the species. The conventional costumes of the various kinds of comedy are likewise indicated by their names. The comparative nearness of the actors to the spectators encouraged the growth of that close criticism of acting which has always been dear to an Italian public, and which in ancient days mani- fested itself at Rome in all the ways familiar to modern audiences. Where there is criticism, devices are apt to spring up for anticipat- ing or directing it; and the evil institution of the claque is modelled on Roman precedent, typified by the standing conclu- sion " plaudite! " in the epilogues of the palliatae. In fine, though the art of acting at Rome must have originally formed itself on Greek example and precept, it was doubtless elaborated with a care unknown to the greatest Attic Rosdas artists. Its most famous representatives were Gallus, called after his emancipation Q. Roscius Gallus (d. c. 62 B.C.), who, like the great " English Roscius," excelled equally in tragedy and comedy, and his younger con- temporary Clodius Aesopus, a Greek by birth, likewise eminent in both branches of his art, though in tragedy more particularly. Both these great actors are said to have been constant hearers of the great orator Hortensius; and Roscius wrote a treatise on the relations between oratory and acting. In the influence of oratory upon the drama are perhaps to be sought the chief among the nobler features of Roman tragedy to which a native origin may be fairly ascribed. 9. DOWNFALL OF THE CLASSICAL DRAMA The ignoble end of the Roman — and with it of the ancient classical — drama has been already foreshadowed. The elements of dance and song, never integrally united with the dialogue in Roman tragedy, were now altogether separated from it. While it became customary simply to recite tragedies to the small audiences who continued (or, as a matter of courtesy, affected) to appreciate them, the paniomimus commended itself to the heterogeneous multitudes of the Roman theatre and to an effete upper class by confining the performance of the actor to gesticulation and dancing, a chorus singing the accom- panying text. The species was developed with extra- ordinary success already under Augustus by Pylades and Bathyllus; and so popular were these entertainments that even eminent poets, such as Lucan (d. A.D. 65), wrote the librettos for these fabulae salticae (ballets), of which the subjects were generally mythological, only now and then historical, and chiefly of an amorous kind. A single masked performer was able to enchant admiring crowds by the art of gesticulation and move- ment only. In what direction this art tended, when suiting itself to the most abnormal demands of a recklessly sensual age, may be gathered from the remark of one of the last pagan historians of the empire, that the introduction of pantomimes was a sign of the general moral decay of the world which began with the Mima* beginning of the monarchy. Comedy more easily lost itself in the cognate form of the mimus, which sur- vived all other kinds of comic entertainments because of its more audacious immorality and open obscenity. Women took Paato- mlmus. part in these performances, by means of which, as late as the 6th century, a mima acquired a celebrity which ultimately raised her to the imperial throne, and perhaps occasioned the removal of a disability which would have rendered her marriage with Justinian impossible. Meanwhile, the regular drama had lingered on, enjoying in all its forms imperial patronage in the days of the literary revival under Hadrian (117-138); but the perennial The drama taste for the spectacles of the amphitheatre, which snathe was as strong at Byzantium as it was at Rome, and Christian which reached its climax in the days of Constantine ct>UKtt- the Great (306-337), under whom the reaction set in, determined the downfall of the dramatic art. It was not absolutely extin- guished even by the irruptions of the northern barbarians; but a bitter adversary had by this time risen into power. The whole authority of the Christian Church had, without usually caring to distinguish between the nobler and the looser elements in the drama, involved all its manifestations in a consistent condem- nation (as in Tertullian's De spectaculis, 200 c.), comprehended them all in an uncompromising anathema. When the faith of that Church was acknowledged as the religion of the Roman empire, the doom of the theatre was sealed. It died hard, however, both in the capitals and in many of the provincial centres of East and West alike. At Rome the last mention of spectacula as still in existence seems to date from the sway of the East-Goths under Theodoric and his successor, in the earlier half of the 6th century. In the capital and provinces of the Eastern empire the decline and fall of the stage cannot be similarly traced; but its end is authoritatively assigned to the period of Saracen invasions which began with the Omayyad dynasty in the 7th century. It cannot be pretended that the doom which thus slowly and gradually overtook the Roman theatre was undeserved. The remnants of the literary drama had long been overshadowed by entertainments such as both earlier and later Roman emperors — Domitian and Trajan as well as Galerius and Constantine — had found themselves constrained to prohibit in the interests of public morality and order, by the bloody spectacles of the amphitheatre and by the maddening excitement of the circus. The art of acting had sunk into pandering to the lewd or frivolous itch of eye and ear; its professors had, in the words of a most judicious modern historian, become " a danger to the peace of house- holders, as well as to the peace of the streets "; and the theatre had contributed its utmost to the demoralization of a world. The attitude taken up by the Christian Church towards the stage was in general as unavoidable as its particular expressions were at times heated by fanaticism or distorted by ignorance. Had she not visited with her condemnation a wilderness of decay, she could not herself have become — what she little dreamt of becoming — the nursing mother of the new birth of an art which seemed incapable of regeneration. Though already in the 4th century scenici had been excluded from the benefit of Christian sacraments, and excommunication had been extended to those who visited theatres instead of churches on Sundays and holidays, while the clergy were absolutely prohibited from entering a theatre, and though similar enactments had followed at later dates — yet the entertainments of the condemned profession had never been entirely suppressed, and had even occasionally received imperial patronage. The legislation on the subject in the Codex Theodosianus (accepted by both empires in the earlier part of the sth century) shows a measure of tolerance indicating a conviction that the theatrical profession could not be suppressed. Gradually, however, as they lost all footing in the centres of civic We, the mimes and their fellows became a wandering fraternity, who doubtless appeared at festivals when their services were required, and vanished again into the depths of the obscurity which has ever covered that mysterious existence — the strollers' life. It was thus that these strange intermediaries of civilization carried down such traditions as survived of the acting drama of pagan antiquity into the succeeding ages. mimes. MEDIEVAL] DRAMA 497 10. MEDIEVAL DRAMA While the scattered and persecuted strollers thus kept alive something of the popularity, if not of the loftier traditions, of . . their art, neither, on the other hand, was there an tkaiand utter absence of written compositions to bridge the monastic gap between ancient and modern dramatic literature. literary jn the midst of the condemnation with which the Christian Church visited the stage, its professors and votaries, we find individual ecclesiastics resorting in their writings to both the tragic and the comic form of the ancient drama. These isolated productions, which include the Xptoros ircurxuv (Passion of Christ) formerly attributed to St Gregory Nazianzen, and theQuerolus, long fathered upon Plautus himself, were doubtless mostly written for educational purposes — whether Euripides and Lycophron, or Menander, Plautus and Terence, served as the outward models. The same was probably „ ... the design of the famous " comedies " of Hrosvitha, the nrosvrtna. .... ***_•«.! • •*-< * i. Benedictine nun of Gandersheim, in Eastphahan Saxony, which associate themselves in the history of Christian literature with the spiritual revival of the icth century in the days of Otto the Great. While avowedly imitated in form from the comedies of Terence, these religious exercises derive their themes — martyrdoms,1 and miraculous or otherwise startling conversions2 — from the legends of Christian saints. Thus, from perhaps the gth to the I2th centuries, Germany and France, and through the latter, by means of the Norman Conquest, England, became acquainted with what may be called the literary monastic drama. It was no doubt occasionally performed by the children under the care of monks or nuns, or by the religious themselves; an exhibition of the former kind was that of the Play of St Katharine, acted at Dunstable about the year mo in " copes " by the scholars of the Norman Geoffrey, afterwards abbot of St Albans. Nothing is known concerning it except the fact of its performance, which was certainly not regarded as a novelty. These efforts of the cloister came in time to blend themselves with more popular forms of the early medieval drama. The The toco- natural agents in the transmission of these popular latores, forms werethoseffw'wes, whom, while therepresentatives jongleurs, of more elaborate developments, the " pantomimes " B in particular, had inevitably succumbed, the Roman drama had left surviving it, unextinguished and unextinguishable. Above all, it is necessary to point out how in the long interval now in question — the " dark ages," which may, from the present point of view, be reckoned from about the 6th to the nth century — the Latin and the Teutonic elements of what may be broadly designated as medieval " minstrelsy," more or less imperceptibly, coalesced. The traditions of the disestabh'shed and disendowed mimus combined with the " occupation " of the Teutonic scdp, who as a professional personage does not occur in the earliest Teutonic poetry, but on the other hand is very distinctly traceable under this name or that of the " gleeman," in Anglo-Saxon literature, before it fell under the control of the Christian Church. Her influence and that of docile rulers, both in England and in the far wider area of the Frank empire, gradually prevailed even over the inherited goodwill which neither Alfred nor even Charles the Great had denied to the composite growth in which mimus and scdp alike had a share. How far the joculatores — which in the early middle ages came to be the name most widely given to these irresponsible trans- mitters of a great artistic trust — kept ah've the usage of entertain- ments more essentially dramatic than the minor varieties of their performances, we cannot say. In different countries these entertainers suited themselves to different tastes, and with the rise of native literatures to different literary tendencies. The literature of the troubadours of Provence, which communicated itself to Spain and Italy, came only into isolated contact with the beginnings of the religious drama; in northern France the jongleurs, as the joculatores were now called, were confounded 1 Gallicanus, part ii. ; Sapienlia. *Gallicanus, part i.; CaUimachus; Abraham; Paphnutius. with the trouveres, who, to the accompaniment of vielle or harp, sang the chansons de geste commemorative of deeds of war. As appointed servants of particular households they were here, and afterwards in England, called menestrels (from ministeriales) or minstrels. Such a histrio or mimus (as he is called) was Taillefer, who rode first into the fight at Hastings, singing his songs of Roland and Charlemagne, and tossing his sword in the air and catching it again. In England such accomplished minstrels easily outshone the less versatile gleemen of pre- Norman times, and one or two of them appeared as landholders in Domesday Book, and many enjoyed the favour of the Norman, Angevin and Plantagenet kings. But here, as elsewhere, the humbler members of the craft spent their lives in strolling from castle to convent, from village-green to city-street, and there exhibiting their skill as dancers, tumblers, jugglers proper, and as masquers and conductors of bears and other dumb contributors to popular wonder and merriment. Their only chance of survival finally came to lie in organization under the protection of powerful nobles; but when, in the isth century hi England, companies of players issued forth from towns and villages, the profession, in so far as its members had not secured preference, saw itself threatened with ruin. In any attempt to explain the transmission of dramatic elements from pagan to Christian times, and the influence exercised by this transmission upon the beginnings of Survivals the medieval drama, account should finally be taken *"d adapt- of the pertinacious survival of popular festive rites and atl°™ ot ceremonies. From the days of Gregory the Great, i.e. 'festive from the end of the 6th century onwards, the Western ceremonies Church tolerated and even attracted to her own *"* festivals popular customs, significant of rejoicing, Us9ges' which were in truth relics of heathen ritual. Such were the Mithraic feast of the zsthof December, or the egg of Eostre-tide, and a multitude of Celtic or Teutonic agricultural ceremonies. These rites, originally symbolical of propitiation or of weather- magic, were of a semi-dramatic nature — such as the dipping of the neck of corn in water, sprinkling holy drops upon persons or animals, processions of beasts or men in beast-masks, dressing trees with flowers, and the like, but above all ceremonial dances, often in disguise. The sword-dance, recorded by Tacitus, of which an important feature was the symbolic threat of death to a victim, endured (though it is rarely mentioned) to the later middle ages. By this time it had attracted to itself a variety of additional features, and of characters familiar as pace-eggers, mummers, morris-dancers (probably of distinct origin), who continually enlarged the scope of their performances, especially as regarded their comic element. The dramatic " expulsion of death," or winter, by the destruction of a lay-figure — common through western Europe about the 8th century — seems con- nected with a more elaborate rite, in which a disguised performer (who perhaps originally represented summer) was slain and afterwards revived (the Pfingstl, Jack in the Green, or Green Knight). This representation, after acquiring a comic com- plexion, was annexed by the character dancers, who about the 1 5th century took to adding still livelier incidents from songs treating of popular heroes, such as St George and Robin Hood; which latter found a place in the festivities of May Day with their central figure, the May Queen. The earliest ceremonial obser- vances of this sort were clearly connected with pastoral and agricultural life; but the inhabitants of the towns also came to have a share in them; and so, as will be seen later, did the clergy. They were in particular responsible for the buffooneries of the feast of fools (or asses), which enjoyed the greatest popu- larity in France (though protests against it are on record from the nth century onwards to the I7th), but was well known from London to Constantinople. This riotous New Year's celebration was probably derived from the ancient Kalend feasts, which may have bequeathed to it both the hobby-horse and the lord, or bishop, of misrule. In the i6th century the feast of fools was combined with the elaborate festivities of courts and cities during the twelveChristmasf east-days — theseasonwhen through- out the previous two centuries the " mummers " especially DRAMA [MEDIEVAL the mala source of the medieval religious drama. Tropes. flourished, who in their disguisings and " viseres " began as dancers gesticulating in dumb-show, but ultimately developed into actors proper. Thus the literary and the professional element, as well as that of popular festive usages, had survived to become tributaries to the main stream of the early Christian drama, which had its direct source in the liturgy of the Church itself. The service of the Mass contains in itself dramatic elements, and combines with the reading out of portions of Scripture by the priest — its " epical " part — a " lyrical " part in the anthems and responses of the congregation. At a very early period — certainly already in the sth century — it was usual on special occasions to increase the attractions of public worship by living pictures, illustrating the Gospel narrative and accompanied by songs; and thus a certain amount of action gradually introduced itself into the service. The insertion, before or after sung portions of the service, of tropes, originally one or more verses of texts, usually serving as introits and in connexion with the gospel of the day, and recited by the two halves of the choir, naturally led to dialogue chanting; and this was frequently accompanied by illustrative fragments of action, such as drawing down the veil from before the altar. This practice of interpolations in the offices of the church, which is attested by texts from the gth century onwards (the so-called " Winchester tropes " belong to the icth and nth), progressed, till on the great festivals of the church the epical part of the liturgy was systematically connected with spectacular and in some measure mimical adjuncts, the lyrical accompaniment being of course retained. Thus the liturgical mystery — the earliest .form of the Christian drama — was gradually called into existence.^ This had certainly been accomplished as early as the loth century, when on great ecclesiastical festivals it was customary for the priests to perform in the churches these offices (as they were called). The whole Easter story, from the burial to Emmaus, was thus presented, the Maries and the angel adding their lyrical planctus; while the surroundings of the Nativity — the Shepherds, the Innocents, &c. — were linked with the Shepherds of Epiphany by a recitation of "Prophets," including Vergil and the Sibyl. Before long, from the nth century onwards, mysteries, as they were called, were produced in France on scriptural subjects unconnected with the great Church festivals — such as the Wise and Foolish Virgins, Adam (with the fall of Lucifer), Daniel, Lazarus, &c. Compositions on the last-named two themes remain from the hand of one of the very earliest of medieval play-writers, Hilarius, who may have been an Englishman, and who certainly studied under Abelard. He also wrote a " miracle " of St Nicholas, one of the most widely popular of medieval saints. Into the pieces founded on the Scripture narrative outside characters and incidents were occasionally introduced, by way of diverting the audience. These mysteries and miracles being as yet represented by the clergy only, the language in which they were usually written is Latin — in many varieties of verse with occasional prose; but already in the nth century the further st;eP was taken of composing these texts in the ver- nacular — the earliest example being the mystery of the Resurrection. In time a whole series of mysteries was joined together; a process which was at first roughly and then more elaborately pursued in France and elsewhere, and finally resulted in the collective mystery — merely a scholars' term of course, but one to which the principal examples of the English mystery-drama correspond. The productions of the medieval religious drama it is usual technically to divide into three classes. The mysteries proper M steries ^ea^ w^h scriptural events only, their purpose being miracles, ' to set forth, with the aid of the prophetic or preparatory and morals history of the Old Testament, and more especially of iiistin. the fulfilling events of the New, the central mystery guished. of tne Redemption of the world, as accomplished by the Nativity, the Passion and the Resurrection. But in fact The m stery these were not kept distinctly apart from the miracle-plays, or miracles, which are strictly speaking concerned with the legends of the saints of the church; and in England the name mysteries was not in use. Of these species the miracles must more especi- ally have been fed from the resources of the monastic literary drama. Thirdly, the moralities, or moral-plays, teach and illustrate the same truths — not, however, by direct representation of scriptural or legendary events and personages, but allegoric- ally, their characters being personified virtues or qualities. Of the moralities the Norman trouveres had been the inventors; and doubtless this innovation connects itself with the endeavour, which in France had almost proved victorious by the end of the i3th century, to emancipate dramatic performances from the control of the church. The attitude of the clergy towards the dramatic performances which had arisen out of the elaboration of the services of the church, but soon admitted elements from other sources, fhe clergy was not, and could not be, uniform. As the plays grew and the longer, their paraphernalia more extensive, and their religious spectators more numerous, they began to be repre- <"-a/na' sented outside as well as inside the churches, at first in the churchyards, and the use of the Vulgar tongue came to be gradu- ally preferred. A Beverley Resurrection play (i22oc.) and some others are bilingual. Miracles were less dependent on this connexion with the church services than mysteries proper; and lay associations, gilds, and schools in particular, soon began to act plays in honour of their patron saints in or near their own halls. Lastly, as scenes and characters of a more or less trivial description were admitted even into the plays acted or super- intended by the clergy, as some of these characters came to be depended on by the audiences for conventional extravagance or fun, every new Herod seeking to out-Herod his predecessor, and the devils and their chief asserting themselves as indispensable favourites, the comic element in the religious drama increased; and that drama itself, even where it remained associated with the church, grew more and more profane. The endeavour to sanctify the popular tastes to religious uses, which connects itself with the institution of the great festival of Corpus Christi (1164, confirmed 1311), when the symbol of the mystery of the Incarna- tion was borne in solemn procession, led to the closer union of the dramatic exhibitions (hence often called processus) with this and other religious feasts; but it neither limited their range, nor controlled their development.^ It is impossible to condense into a few sentences the extremely varied history of the processes of transformation undergone by the medieval drama in Europe during the two centuries progress — from about 1200 to about 1400 — in which it ran a course of its own, and during the succeeding period, in which it was only partially affected by the influence of the Renaissance. A few typical phenomena may, however, be noted in the case of the drama of each of the several chief countries of the West; where the vernacular successfully supplanted Latin as the ordinary medium of dramatic speech, where song was effectually ousted by recitation and dialogue, and where finally, though the emancipation was on this head nowhere absolute, the religious drama gave place to the secular. In France, where dramatic performances had never fallen entirely into the hands of the clergy, the progress was speediest and most decided towards forms approaching those France. of the modern drama. The earliest play in the French tongue, however, the 12th-century Adam, supposed to have been written by a Norman in England (as is a fragmentary Resurrection of much the same date) , still reveals its connexion with the liturgical drama. Jean Bodel of Arras' miracle-play of St Nicolas (before 1 205) is already the production of a secular author, probably designed for the edification of some civic con- fraternity to which he belonged, and has some realistic features. On the other hand, the Theophilus of Rutebeuf (d. c. 1280) treats its Faust-like theme, with which we meet again in Low-German dramatic literature two centuries later, in a rather lifeless form but in a highly religious spirit, and belongs to the cycle of miracles of the Virgin of which examples abound throughout of the medieval drama In Europe. MEDIEVAL] DRAMA 499 this period. Easter or Passion plays were fully established in popular acceptance in Paris as well as in other towns of France by the end of the I4th century; and in 1402 the Confrerie de la Passion, who at first devoted themselves exclusively to the performance of this species, obtained a royal privilege for the purpose. These series of religious plays were both extensive and elaborate; perhaps the most notable series (c. 1450) is that by Arnoul Greban, who died as a canon of Le Mans, his native town. Its revision, by Jean Michel, containing much illustrative detail (first performed at Angers in 1486), was very popular. Still more elaborate is the Rouen Christmas mystery of 1474, and the celebrated Mysore du vieil testament, produced at Abbeville in 1458, and performed at Paris in 1500. Most of the Provencal Christmas and Passion plays date from the I4th century, as well as a miracle of St Agnes. The miracles of saints were popular in all parts of France, and the diversity of local colouring naturally imparted to these productions contributed materially to the growth of the early French drama. The miracles of Ste Genevieve and St Denis came directly home to the inhabitants of Paris, as that of St Martin to the citizens of Tours; while the early victories of St Louis over the English might claim a national significance for the dramatic celebration of his deeds. The local saints of Provence were in their turn honoured by miracles dating from the isth and i6th centuries. It is less easy to trace the origins of the comic medieval drama in France, connected as they are with an extraordinary variety of associations for professional, pious and pleasurable purposes. The ludi inhonesti in which the students of a Paris college (Navarre) were in 1315 debarred from engaging cannot be proved to have been dramatic performances; the earliest known secular plays presented by university students in France were moralities, performed in 1426 and 1431. These plays, depicting conflicts between opposing influences — and at bottom the struggle between good and evil in the human soul — become more frequent from about this time onwards. Now it is (at Rennes in 1439) the contention between Bien-amst and Mal-avise (who at the close find themselves respectively in charge of Bonne-fin and Male- fin); now, one between I'homme juste and I'homme mondain; now, the contrasted story of Les Enfants de Maintenant, who, however, is no abstraction, but an honest baker with a wife called Mignotte. Political and social problems are likewise treated; and. the Mystere du Candle de Bale — an historical morality — dates back to 1432. But thought is taken even more largely of the sufferings of the people than of the controversies of the Church; and in 1507 we even meet with a hygienic or abstinence morality (by N. de la Chesnaye) in which " Banquet " enters into a conspiracy with " Apoplexy," " Epilepsy " and the whole regiment of diseases. Long before this development of an artificial species had been consummated — from the beginning of the i4th century onwards — the famous fraternity or professional union of the Basoche (clerks of the Parlement and the Chatelet) had been entrusted with the conduct of popular festivals at Paris, in which, as of right, they took a prominent personal share; and from a date unknown they had performed plays. But after the Confrerie de la Passion had been allowed to monopolize the religious drama, the basochiens had confined themselves to the presentment of moralities and of farces (from Italian farsa, Latin farci'-a) , in which political satire had as a matter of course when possible found a place. A third association, calling themselves the Enfans sans souci, had, apparently also early in the isth century, acquired celebrity by their performances of short comic plays called soties — in which, as it would seem, at first allegorical figures ironically " played the fool," but which were probably before long not very carefully kept distinct from the farces of the Basoche, and were like these on occasion made to serve the purposes of State or of Church. Other confraternities and associations readily took a leaf out of the book of these devil-may- care good-fellows, and interwove their religious and moral plays with comic scenes and characters from actual life, thus becoming more and more free and secular in their dramatic methods, and unconsciously preparing the transition to the regular drama. The earliest example of a serious secular play known to have been written in the French tongue is the Esloire de Griseldis (I393)> which is in the style of the miracles of the Virgin, but is largely indebted to Petrarch. The Mystere du siege a '.'Orleans, on the other hand, written about half a century later, in the epic tediousness of its manner comes near to a chronicle history, and interests us chiefly as the earliest of many efforts-'to bring Joan of Arc on the stage. Jacques Milet's celebrated mystery of the Destruction de Troye la grant (1452) seems to'have been addressed to readers and not to hearers only. The begin- nings of the French regular comic drama are again more difficult to extract from the copious literature of farces and soties, which, after mingling actual types with abstract and allegorical figures, gradually came to exclude all but the concrete personages; moreover, the large majority of these productions in their extant form belong to a later period than that now under considera- tion. But there is ample evidence that the most famous of all medieval farces, the immortal Maistre Pierre Pathelin (other- wise L'Avocat Pathelin), was written before 1470 and acted by the basochiens; and we may conclude that this delightful story of the biter bit, and the profession outwitted, typifies a multi- tude of similar comic episodes of real life, dramatized for the delectation of clerks, lawyers and students, and of all lovers of laughter. In the neighbouring Netherlands many Easter and Christmas mysteries are noted from the middle of the i sth century, attesting the enduring popularity of these religious plays; and with them the celebrated series of the Seven Joys of JT*" Maria — of which the first is the Annunciation and the lands. seventh the Ascension. To about the same date belongs the small group of the so-called abele spelen (as who should say plays easily managed), chiefly on chivalrous themes. Though allegorical figures are already to be found in the Netherlands miracles of Mary, the species of the moralities was specially cultivated during the great Burgundian period of this century by the chambers or lodges of the Rederijkers (rhetoricians)- — the well-known civic associations which devoted themselves to the cultivation of learned poetry and took an active share in the festivals that formed one of the most characteristic features of the life of the Low Countries. Among these moralities was that of Elckerlijk (printed 1495 and presumably by Peter Dorlandus), which there is good reason for regarding as the original of one of the finest of English moralities, Everyman. In Italy the liturgical drama must have run its course as elsewhere; but the traces of it are few, and confined to the north-east. The collective mystery, so common in other Western countries, is in Italian literature represented by a single example only — a Passione di Gesu Cristo, performed at Revello in Saluzzo in the isth century; though there are some traces of other cyclic dramas of the kind. The Italian religious plays, called figure when on Old, vangeli when on New, Testament subjects, and differing from those of northern Europe chiefly by the less degree of coarseness in their comic characters, seem largely to have sprung out of the development of the processional element in the festivals of the Church. Besides such processions as that of the Three Kings at Epiphany in Milan, there were the penitential processions and songs (laude) , which at Assist, Perugia and elsewhere already contained a dramatic element; and at Siena, Florence and other centres these again developed into the so-called (sacre) rappresentazioni, which became the most usual name for this kind of entertainment. Such a piece was the San Giovanni e San Paolo (1489) , by Lorenzo the Magnificent — the prince who afterwards sought to reform the Italian stage by paganizing it; another was the Santa Teodora, by Luigi Pulci (d. 1487); San Giovanni Gualberto (of Florence) treats the religious experience of a latter-day saint; Rosana e Ulimento is a love-story with a Christian moral. Passion plays were performed at Rome in the Coliseum by the Compagnia del Gonf alone; but there is no evidence on this head before the end of the isth century. In general, the spectacular magnificence of Italian theatrical displays accorded with the growing pomp of the processions both ecclesiastical and lay — called trionfi Italy. 5°° DRAMA [EARLY ENGLISH already in the days of Dante; while the religious drama gradu- ally acquired an artificial character- and elaboration of form assimilating it to the classical attempts, to be noted below, which gave rise to the regular Italian drama. The poetry of the Troubadours, which had come from Provence into Italy, here frequently took a dramatic form, and may have suggested some of his earlier poetic experiments to Petrarch. It was a matter of course that remnants of the ancient popular dramatic entertainments should have survived in particular abundance on Italian soil. They were to be recognized in the improvised farces performed at the courts, in the churches (farse spiritual?), and among the people; the Roman carnival had preserved its wagon-plays, and various links remained to connect the modern comic drama of the Italians with the Atellanes and mimes of their ancestors. But the more notable later comic developments, which belong to the i6th century, will be more appropriately noticed below. Moralities proper had not flourished in Italy, where the love of the concrete has always been dominant in popular taste; more numerous are examples of scenes, largely mythological, in which the influence of the Renaissance is already perceptible, of eclogues, and of allegorical festival-plays of various sorts. In Spain hardly a monument of the medieval religious drama has been preserved. There is manuscript evidence of the nth century attesting the early addition of dramatic elements to the Easter office; and a Spanish fragment of the Three Kings Epiphany play, dating from the i2th century, is, like the French Adam, one of the very earliest examples of the medieval drama in the vernacular. But that religious plays were performed in Spain is clear from the permission granted by Alphonso X. of Castile (d. 1 284) to the clergy to represent them, while prohibiting the performance by them of juegos de escarnio (mocking plays). The earliest Spanish plays which we possess belong to the end of the isth or beginning of the i6th century, and already show humanistic influence. In 1472 the couplets of Mingo Revidgo (i.e. Domingo Vulgus, the common people), and about the same time another dialogue by the same author, offer examples of a sort resembling the Italian contrasti (see below). The German religious plays in the vernacular, the earliest of which date from the I4th and isth centuries, and were produced Qfna at Trier, Wolfenbuttel, Innsbruck, Vienna, Berlin, &c., laay' were of a simple kind; but in some of them, though they were written by clerks, there are traces of the minstrels' hands. The earliest complete Christmas play in German, contained in a 14th-century St Gallen MS., has nothing in it to suggest a Latin original. On the other hand, the play of The Wise and the Foolish Virgins, in a Thuringian MS. thought to be as early as 1328, a piece of remarkable dignity, was evidently based on a Latin play. Other festivals besides Christmas were celebrated by plays; but down to the Reformation Easter enjoyed a preference. In the same century miracle-plays began to be performed, in honour of St Catherine, St Dorothea and other saints. But all these productions seem to belong to a period when the drama was still under ecclesiastical control. Gradually, as the liturgical drama returned to the simpler forms from which it had so surprisingly expanded, and ultimately died out, the religious plays performed outside the churches expanded more freely; and the type of mystery associated with the name of the Frankfort canon Baldemar von Peterweil communicated itself, with other examples, to the receptive region of the south- west. The Corpus Christi plays, or (as they were here called) Frohnleichnamsspiele, are notable, since that of Innsbruck (1391) is probably the earliest extant example of its class. The number of non-scriptural religious plays in Germany, was much smaller than that in France; but it may be noted that (in accordance with a long-enduring popular notion) the theme of the last judgment was common in Germany in the latter part of the middle ages. Of this theme Antichrist may be regarded as an episode, though in 1469 an Antichrist appears to have occupied at Frankfort four days in its performance. The earlier (izth century) Antichrist is a production quite unique of its kind; this political protest breathes the Ghibelline spirit of the reign (Frederick Barbarossa's) in which it was composed. Though many of the early German plays contain an element of the moralities, there were few representative German examples of the species. The academical instinct, or some other influence, kept the more elaborate productions on the whole apart from the drolleries of the professional strollers (fahrende Lettte) , whose Shrove-Tuesday plays (Fastnachtsspiele) and cognate productions reproduced the practical fun of common life. Occasionally, no doubt, as in the Liibeck Fastnachtsspiel of the Five Virtues, the two species may have more or less closely approached to one another. When, in the course of the isth century, Hans Rosen- pliit, called Schnepperer — or Hans Schnepperer, called Rosenpliit — the predecessor of Hans Sachs, first gave a more enduring form to the popular Shrove-Tuesday plays, a connexion was already establishing itself between the dramatic amusements of the people and the literary efforts of the " master-singers " of the towns. But, while the main productivity of the writers of moralities and cognate productions — a species particularly suited to German latitudes — falls into the periods of Renaissance and Reformation, the religious drama proper survived far beyond either in Catholic Germany, and, in fact, was not suppressed in Bavaria and Tirol till the end of the i8th century.1 It may be added that the performance of miracle-plays is traceable in Sweden in the latter half of the I4th century; and that the German clerks and laymen who immigrated Sweden, into the Carpathian lands,and into Galicia inparticular, Car- in the later middle ages, brought with them their path/an religious plays together with other elements of culture. laads> *c- This fact is the more striking, inasmuch as, though Czech Easter plays were performed about the end of the i4th century, we hear of none among the Magyars, or among their neighbours of the Eastern empire. Coming now to the English religious drama, we find that from its extant literature a fair general idea may be derived of the character of these medieval productions. The miracle- plays, miracles or plays (these being the terms used in J^'mar™ England) of which we hear in London in the i2th England. century were probably written in Latin and acted by ecclesiastics; but already in the following century mention is made — in the way of prohibition — of plays acted by professional players. (Isolated moralities of the I2th century, are not to be regarded as popular productions.) In England as elsewhere, the clergy either sought to retain their control over the religious plays, which continued to be occasionally acted in churches even after the Reformation, or else reprobated them with or without qualifications. In Cornwall miracles in the native Cymric dialect were performed at an early date; but those which have been preserved are apparently plays. copies of English (with the occasional use of French) originals; they were represented, unlike the English plays, in the open country, in extensive amphitheatres constructed for the purpose — one of which, at St Just near Penzance, has recently been restored. The flourishing period of English miracle-plays begins with the practice of their performance by trading-companies in the towns, though these bodies were by no means possessed of ioca|We, any special privileges for the purpose. Of this practice Ottt,e Chester is said to have set the example (1268-1276); perform- it was followed in the course of the i3th and i4th aaceof centuries by many other towns, while in yet others m,i™le traces of such performances are not to be found till the ' 1 5th, or even the i6th. These towns with their neighbourhoods include, starting from East Anglia, where the religious drama was particularly at home, Wymondham, Norwich, Sleaford, Lincoln, Leeds, Wakefield, Beverley, York, Newcastle-on-Tyne, with a deviation across the border to Edinburgh and Aberdeen. In the north-west they are found at Kendal, Lancaster, Preston, 1 The passion-play of Oberammergau, familiar in its present artistic form to so many visitors, was instituted under special circum- stances in the days of the Thirty Years' War (1634). Various reasons account for its having been allowed to survive. EARLY ENGLISH] DRAMA Chester; whence they may be supposed to have migrated to Dublin. In the west they are noticeable at Shrewsbury, Wor-