ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA

VOL. vai

•jft

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768—1771.

SECOND ten 1777—1784.

THIRD eighteen 1788—1797.

FOURTH twenty 1801 — 1810.

FIFTH twenty 1815—1817.

SIXTH twenty 1823—1824.

SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1842.

EIGHTH twenty-two 1853—1860.

NINTH twenty-five 1875—1889.

TENTH ninth edition and eleven

supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903.

ELEVENTH „ published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911.

COPYRIGHT

in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention

by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS

of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

All rights reserved

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL

INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME VIM

DEMIJOHN to EDWARD

Cambridge, England:

at the University Press

New York, 35 West 3 2nd Street
1910

AE-5

Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,

by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company

INITIALS USED IN VOLUME VIII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL

CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE

ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.

A. Ca. ARTHUR CAYLEY, LL.D., F.R.S. f Determinant.

See the biographical article: CAYLEY, ARTHUR. \

A. E. G.* REV. ALFRED ERNEST GARVIE, M.A., D.D.

Principal of New College, Hampstead. Member of the Board of Theology and
Board of Philosophy, London University. Formerly Professor of Philosophy, -j Devil.
Theism, Comparative Religion, and Christian Ethics in Hackney and New Colleges,
London. Author of Studies in the Inner Life of Jesus; The Christian Certainty; &c. [

A. E. S. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.L.S.

Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer of Christ's College, Cambridge. University Reader Desmoscoleeida'
in Zoology. President of the Association of Economic Biologists. Formerly < Z?
University Lecturer on the Advanced Morphology of the Invertebrata. Author of Hcniuroiflea.
Zoology of the Invertebrata. Editor of the Pitt Press Natural Science Manuals; &c. [

A. Fi. PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTE FILON. f n_ , p,^,j. / •„

See the biographical article : FILON, P. M. A. \ Drama' French (m

A. P. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.Soc. [

Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford. Professor of English History in the University I Edward VI
of London. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-1901.]
Author of England under the Protector Somerset ; Life of Thomas Cranmer ; &c. I

A. G. MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908). f

H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgale;\ Deportation.
Secrets of the Prison House ; &c. [_

A. G. D. ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, C.M.G., M.A., Lrrr.D., F.R.Hisi.S. f

Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of Canada. I Dorion.
Author of The Cradle of New France; &c. Joint Editor of Documents relating to]
the Constitutional History of Canada. [

A. H. J. G. ABEL HENDY TONES GREENIDGE, M.A., D.LiTT. (d. 1905).

Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Hertford College, Oxford, and of St John's
College, Oxford. Author of Infamia in Roman Law; Handbook of Greek Con- \ Dictator.
stitutwnal History; Roman Public Life; History of Rome. Joint Editor of Sources
of Roman History, 133-70 B.C.

A. H. S. REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, D.LITT., L.L.D., D.D. f Echatana

See the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H. \

A. J. L. ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX. f

Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Formerly Editor of the Rio -\ Ecuador (in part).
News, Rio de Janeiro.

A. J. P. ALEXANDER J. PHILIP. f «._. hniB<!

Borough Librarian of Gravesend. \ Uel

A. L. G. ANDREW LOCKHART GILLESPIE, M.D., F.R.S. (Edin.) (d. 1904). f Digestive Onrans- Pathnlnr

Formerly Lecturer on Modern Gastric Methods, Edinburgh Post-Graduate School \ UIges"ve Organs. Pathology
Author of Manual of Modern Gastric Methods ; &c. |_ (impart).

A. Mw. ALLEN MAWER, M.A.

Professor of English Language and Literature, Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-
Tyne. Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Formerly Lecturer in
English at the University of Sheffield.

Denmark: Ancient History;
Edgar, King;

Edmund , King of East Anglia;
Edmund I.; Edred;

A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE.

Edward (the Elder);
Edward (the Martyr).

>JES MARY CLERKE. f _. . _

See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. Y Dick' Tnomas; Donati.

A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. r Diver; Dodo (in part) ;

See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. ^ Dove; Duck; Eagle.

1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.

v

1977

vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

A. R. C. ALEXANDER Ross CLARKE, C.B., F.R.S. f

Colonel, R.E. Royal Medal of Royal Society, 1887. In charge of Trigonometrical •{ Earth, Figure of the (in part).
Operations of the Ordnance Survey, 1854-1881.

A. S. Wo. ARTHUR SMITH WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S. f

Keeper of Geology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Secretary of the ) DiplodOCUS.
Geological Society, London.

A. Wa. ARTHUR WAUGH, M.A.

New College, Oxford. Newdigate Prize, 1888. Managing Director of Chapman & J De Tabley.
Hall, Ltd. Author of Gordon in Africa; Alfred, Lord Tennyson. Editor of I
Johnson's Lives of the Poets; editions of Dickens, Tennyson, Arnold, Lamb; &c. I.

A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. f Derby, Earls of (in part).

Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. \

A, W. R. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. f

Pni«inp TnHcrp nf thp ^imrpmp Pniirt nf Opvlnn KHitnr nf F,nrvr.lnbrtj>din. nf Ike J.n.ins <

A. W. W.

Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws \ Easement.
of England.

ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LL.D., D.Lirr. /Drama.

See the' biographical article: WARD, A. W. \

C. A. G. CHRISTIAN CARL AUGUST GOSCH, M.Sc. J Denmark: Geography and

Commander of the Danebrog. Knight of St Anna. Formerly Attach^ to theH e , • .•' <•• ., ,\
Danish Legation, London. Author of Denmark and Germany since 1815. I »*««»« W» Pa1

C. Ch. CHARLES CHREE, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. f

Superintendent, Kew Observatory. Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. J v .«. „,
President of Physical Society of London. Watt Medallist, Institute of Civil] *-artH Currents.
Engineers, 1905.

C. C. H. CHARLES CAESAR HAWKINS, M.A., M.I.E.E. f _

Author of The Dynamo. \ Dynamo.

C. E.* CHARLES EVERITT, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. J Density Distillation.

Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford. \

C. F. A. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. f

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal •{ Dutch Wars: Military.
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. I

C. H. Rd. CHARLES HERCULES READ, LL.D.

Keeper of British and Medieval Antiquities, British Museum. President of the") Drinking Vessels.
Society of Antiquaries of London. Author of Antiquities from Benin ; &c. I

C. H. T.* CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, A.M., LL.D. f Ecelesiastes

See the biographical article: TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL. \

C. L. K. CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S., F.S.A. . J Derby, 1st Earl of;

Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor of 1 Edward IV
Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London.

C. PL CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D. is L. f

Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of J Ebroin.
Etude sur le rkgne de Robert le Pieux; Le duch6 merovingien d' Alsace el la legende de\
Sainte-Odile. I

C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HisT.S. r

Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow Diaz de Novaes*
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. -< nicuil
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of
Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. L

C. S. P.* REV. CHARLES STANLEY PHILLIPS. f Edmund Ironside;

King's College, Cambridge. Gladstone Memorial Prize, 1904. L Edward the Confessor.

C. W. W. SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907). c

Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary

Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com- J niarhatr (;„ A/r.rt

mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1836-1894. Director-General] L"arDeiir ^n pan).

of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; Life of

Lord Clive; &c.

D. B. Ma. DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. r

Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. Author J Dervish;
of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory;] Divan.
Selection from Ibn Khaldum ; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam ; &c. L

D. C. T. DAVID CROAL THOMSON. r

Formerly Editor of the Art Journal. Author of The Brothers Maris; The Barbizon \ Diaz, N. V.
School of Painters ; Life of " Phiz " ; Life of Bewick ; &c.

D. G. H. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. r

Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Derna;
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naukratis, 1899^ Didymi;
and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Druses (in part)
Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. L

D. H. DAVID HANNAY.

it-icti \7irA.r^r»ncn1 at- Rarrplnna AiitTir»r nf *\ltnvt WVc/rt^^r /i/ Jfsi+tfiJ J

Dutch Wars: Naval.

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal \ Dudley» Sir
Navy, 1217-1688; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. [ Dutch War

D. Mn. REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A.

Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Director of the London -\ Duff, Alexander.
Missionary Society,

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

VII

E. A. T.

E. Br.

E. C. B.
E. C. B.*

E. C. K.

E. C. Q.

E. Es.
£• £• A*

E.G.

E. Gr.
E. I. C.

E. J. D.

E.K.

Ed. M.

E. Ma.
E. M. T.

E. O'M.

E. Pr.

P. A. B.

F. E. B.

F. G. M. B.

MRS (ETHEL) ALEC TWEEDIE.

Author of Porfirio Diaz ; Mexico as I saw it ; &c.

ERNEST BARKER, M.A.

Fellow of, and Lecturer in Modern History at, St John's College, Oxford. Formerly -
Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895.

RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., D.LITT. (Dublin).
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath.

EDWARD CRESSWELL BASER, M.A. (d. 1910).

Formerly Senior Surgeon, Brighton and Sussex Throat and Ear Hospital. Prize-,
man and William Brown Scholar, St George's Hospital, London. Author of
numerous papers on Diseases of the Ear, Nose and Throat.

EDWARD CAMERON KIRK, D.Sc.

Dean of the Dental Faculty and Professor of Dental Pathology, Therapeutics and .
Materia Medica, University of Pennsylvania. Editor of The American Text-Book
of Operative Dentistry.

EDMUND CROSBY QUIGGIN, M.A.

Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge; Lecturer in Modern Languages'
and Monro Lecturer in Celtic.

EDMOND ESMONIN.

ERNEST E. AUSTEN.

Assistant in Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. -

EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D.

See the biographical article : GOSSE, EDMUND.

ERNEST A. GARDNER, M.A.

See the biographical article : GARDNER, PERCY.

EDWARD IRVING CARLYLE, M.A., F.R.HiST.S.

Fellow, Lecturer in Modern History, and Tutor of Lincoln College, Oxford. .
Formerly Fellow of Merton College. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National
Biography, 1895-1901.

Diaz, Porfirio.

Diet.

Dominic, Saint;
Dominicans.

Ear: Diseases.
Dentistry.

Druidism.

Desmarets.

Diptera.

Denmark: Literature;
Descriptive Poetry;
Dialogue; Diary;
Didactic Poetry;
Dithyrambic Poetry; Donne;
Drachmann;
Drayton, Michael;
I Dutch Literature; Edda.

! Dodona.
Dost Mahommed Khan.

EDWARD JOSEPH DENT, M.A., MUS.BAC.

Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge.
and Works.

Author of A . Scarlatti: his Life \ Durante, Francesco.

EDMUND KNECHT, PH.D., M.SC.TECH. (Manchester), F.I.C.

Professor of Technological Chemistry, Manchester University. Head of Chemical
Department, Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. Examiner in Dyeing, -| Dyeing.
City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of A Manual of Dyeing; &c. Editor
of Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists.

EDUARD MEYER, D.LITT. (Oxon.), LL.D., PH.D.

Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte I Diodotus.
des Alterthums; Forschungen zur alien Geschichte; Geschichte des alien Agyptens;\
Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme ; &c. I

EDWARD MANSON. r

Barrister-at-Law. Joint Editor of Journal of Comparative Legislation; Author of"! Directors.
Law of Trading Companies ; Practical Guide to Company Law ; &c. {.

SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON, G.C.B., I.S.O., D.C.L., Lrrr.D., LL.D.

Director and Principal Librarian, British Museum, 1898-1909. Sandars Reader

in Bibliography, Cambridge, 1895-1896. Hon. Fellow of University College,

Oxford. Correspondent of the Institute of France and of the Royal Prussian J Diplomatic.

Academy of Sciences. Author of Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography.

Editor of Chronicon Angliae. Joint Editor of publications of the Palaeographical

Society, the New Palaeographical Society, and of the Facsimile of the Laurentian

Sophocles.

J Diatomaceae (in part).

r

Eca de Queiroz.

REV. EUGENE HENRY O'MEARA, M.A
Vicar of Tallaght, County Dublin.

EDGAR PRESTAGE.

Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Com-
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal
Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. L

FRANCIS ARTHUR BATHER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. f

Assistant Keeper of Geology, British Museum. Rolleston Prizeman, Oxford, 1892.] Echinoderma.
Author of " Echinoderma " in A Treatise on Zoology; Triassic Echinoderms of\
Bakony; &c. I

FRANK EVERS BEDDARD, M.A., F.R.S. f

Prosector of the Zoological Society, London. Formerly Lecturer in Biology at J Earth-worm.
Guy's Hospital. Naturalist to " Challenger " Expedition Commission, 1882-1884. 1
Author of Text-Book of Zoogeography; Animal Colouration; &c. I

FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A.

Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge.

| East Anglia.

viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST.

Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on Diaphragm;
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. •< Ductless Glands*
Formerly Examiner in the Universities of Cambridge, Aberdeen, London and £--
Birmingham ; and Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons.

F. G. P.* FRANK GEORGE POPE. J Diazo

Lecturer on Chemistry, East London College (University of London). "^

F. J. H. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. f

Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of
Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Monographs on "
Roman History, especially Roman Britain, &c. L

F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. f

Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, J Dendera;
Oxford. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeological Reports of the | Edfu.
Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial German Archaeological [Institute. L

F. R. H. FREDERICK ROBERT HELMERT, PH.D., D.ING. /Knrtii IK™ «f tt» /•

Professor of Geodesy, University of Berlin. \ W

F. R. M. FRANCIS RICHARD MAUNSELL, C.M.G. c

Lieutenant-Colonel. Military Vice-Consul, Sivas, Trebizond, Van (Kurdistan), J Diarbekr (*n ^a,rf\
1897-1898. Military Attache, British Embassy, Constantinople, 1901-1905. 1 ' part).

Author of Central Kurdistan ; &c. L

F. S. FRANCIS STORR, M.A. f D ,

Editor of the Journal of Education, London. Officier d'Academie, Paris \

F. T. M. SIR FRANK THOMAS MARZIALS, K.C.B. f rjumas. m

Formerly Accountant General of the Army. Editor of the " Great Writers " Series. \

F. V. T. FREDERICK VINCENT THEOBALD, M.A. f

Vice-Principal and Zoologist, S.E. Agricultural College, Wye, Kent (University of J BI... ._,„ ,,_.t _ .
London). Grand Medallist of the Societe Nationale d'Acclimatation de France. 1 t'co lc Entomology.
Author of The Insect and other Allied Pests of Orchard, Bush and Hothouse Fruits ; &c. L

F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. -j Earthquake (in part).
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. I

F. W. W. FREDERIC W. WHYTE. f

Author of Actors of the Century; &c. Translator of Filon's English Stage; Schil-H Du Maurier, G.
ling's With Flashlight and Rifle; &c. L

G. A. B. GEORGE A. BOULENGER, F.R.S., D.Sc., PH.D. I"

In charge of the collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British -! Dory.
Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. L

G. Be. GERTRUDE MARGARET LOTHIAN BELL. f nmcoc / * A/, A

Author of The Desert and the Sown ; &c. \ ul

G. B. M. C. GEORGE BARNARD MILBANK COORE. f -eM11(,««nn. ATW,;^,/,* c,,^«,

Assistant Secretary, Board of Education, London. \ Education. Natwnal Systems.

G. C. W. GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, LITT.D. f

Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures; Life of Richard J Downman;
Cosway, R.A . ; George Engleheart ; Portrait Drawings ; &c. Editor of new edition ] Dumont, Francois,
of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. I

G. F. B. G. F. BARWICK. ("

Assistant Keeper of Printed Books and Superintendent of Reading Room, British i Dhuleep Singh.
Museum. L

G. G. S. GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. f Douglas Gavin-

Professor of English Literature, Queen's University of Belfast: Author of The •{ _ ' ,,,..,.

Days of James IV.; The Transition Period ; Specimens of Middle Scots ; &c. [ Dul»Dar, William.

G. H. Br. GEORGE HARTLEY BRYAN, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. f

Professor of Pure and Applied Mathematics, University College of North Wales. J Diffusion.

Formerly Fellow of Peterhouse, Cambridge. President of Mathematical Association, |

1907.

G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.Sc. f"

Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: -I Dragon-fly (in part),
their Structure and Life.

G. S. W.* GEORGE STEPHEN WEST, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. f

Professor of Botany, University of Birmingham. Associate of Royal College of •} Diatomaceae (in part).
Science, London. Author of Treatise on British Fresh-water Algae; &c.

H. A. Mi. HENRY ALEXANDER MIERS, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. r

Principal of the University of London. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford.
Formerly Waynflete Professor of Mineralogy, Oxford. President of Mineralogical -J Diamond.
Society since 1904. Editor of the Mineralogical Magazine, 1891-1900. Author of
Mineralogy; &c. L

H. B. Wo. HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S. ("

Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England and Wales, -j Desmarest, N.
President, Geologists' Association, 1893-1894. Wollaston Medallist, 1908.

, Devonshire, Earls and Dukes

H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. of;

Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition-^ Dufferin and Ava 1st
of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the loth edition. Marau«SS* Edward VII

H. De.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix

REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J. f

Bollandist. Joint Author of the Acta Sanctorum. \ Denis, Saint.

H F. Ba. HENRY FREDERICK BAKER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. r

Fellow and Lecturer of St John's College, Cambridge. Cayley Lecturer in Mathe- J Differential Equation.

ma tics in the University. Author of Abel's Theory and the Allied Theory; &c.

H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, M.A., F.R.S., PH.D. f

Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge, -j Dodo (in part).
Author of Amphibia and Reptiles (Cambridge Natural History). L

H. G. HUGH GODFRAY, M.A.

Sometime Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Author of an Elementary •{ Dial and Dialling.
Treatise on the Lunar Theory; A Treatise on Astronomy. [_

H. H. T. HERBERT HALL TURNER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. r

Savilian Professor of Astronomy, Oxford University. Fellow of New College.

Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Chief Assistant at the Royal I jp-ii-,. f A -*1

Observatory, Greenwich. Correspondent, Institut de France. President, Royal | '"'UP5* l*» pan).

Astronomical Society, 1903-1904. Author of Modern Astronomy; Astronomical

Discovery.

H. Lb. HORACE LAMB, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. f

Professor of Mathematics, University of Manchester. Formerly Fellow and J
Assistant Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Member of Council of Royal "j Dynamics.
Society, 1894-1896. Royal Medallist, 1902. President of London Mathematical
Society, 1902-1904. Author of Hydrodynamics; &c.

H. N. D. HENRY NEWTON DICKSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.R.G.S. [

Professor of Geography at University College, Reading. Formerly Vice-President, J Qeser*
Royal Meteorological Society. Lecturer in Physical Geography, Oxford. Author 1
of Meteorology ; Elements of Weather and Climate ; &c.

H. 0. T. HENRY OSBORN TAYLOR, LL.B. (Columbia). f _

Author of The Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages ; Ancient Ideals ; &c. \ Dionysius AreopagltiCUS.

H. St. HENRY STURT, M.A.

Author of Idola T

H. S. S. HAROLD SPENCER SCOTT, M.A.

l~
Author of Idola Theatri ; The Idea of a Free Church ; and Personal Idealism. \

f
New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. 1 Dower.

H. Ti. HENRY TIEDEMANN. f

London Editor of the Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant. Ex-President of the Foreign -j Dozy.
Press Association.

H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. f - . ,. «,.,..«._„

Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, 1 ""
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. [Edmund, Saint.

H. W. H. HOPE W. HOGG, M.A. f -,.

Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Manchester. \

I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. f Dujjes Leopold •

Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. President, J nill a<A. .
Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short History of Jewish Ultra- | Z~ >n '
ture; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages. I Duran.

J. A.* JOHN AITKEN, LL.D., F.R.S. r

Investigator of Atmospheric Dust. Inventor of instruments for counting the dust
particles in the atmosphere. Author of papers on Dust Fogs and Clouds; Hazing -{ Dust.
Effects of Atmospheric Dust; Cyclones and Anticyclones; &c., in publications of
Royal Society.

J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. f Devonian System ;

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. \ Drift.

J. A. P.* REV. JAMES ALEXANDER PATERSON, M.A., D.D. r

Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, New College, Edinburgh. Author
of The Period of the Judges; Book of Leviticus, in" Temple" Bible; Book o}\ Deuteronomy.
Numbers, in "Polychrome" Bible; &c. Translator of Schultz's Old Testament
Theology.

J. C. M. JAMES CLERK MAXWELL, D.C.L., F.R.S. / _.

See the biographical article: MAXWELL, JAMES CLERK. "^ Ulasram.

J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HisT.S. r

Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Deus, Joao de ;
Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. 4 Don Juan ;
Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of Frhpp-arav v Fi7a<Miirr«
Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c.

J. G. H. JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.MECH.E. J Drawing- Draivine-OfficeWork

Author of Plating and Boiler Making ; Practical Metal Turning ; &c. I

J. H. G. JOHANN HENDRIK GALL£E, PH.D.

Professor of Comparative Philology and Teutonic Languages, University of Utrecht. J Dutch Laneuaee
President of the Philological Society, Utrecht. Author of Altsdchsische Sprach- ]
denkmaler. (.

3. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.). J Domesday Book;

Author of Feudal England ; Studies in Peerage and Family History ; Peerage and \ '

Pedigree ; &c. I Earl Marshal.

J. I. JULES ISAAC. f Dii Bellay, Guillaume and

Professor of History at the Lycee of Lyons. \ Jean.

* INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

J. J. H. J. J. HUMMEL, F.I.C. (d. 1902). [

Formerly Professor of Dyeing, University 01 Leeds. Author of The Dyeing oH Dyeing (in part).
Textile Fabrics.' [_

J. J. L.* REV. JOHN JAMES LIAS, M.A. ["

Chancellor of Llandaff Cathedral. Formerly Hulsean Lecturer in Divinity andi Dollinger.
Lady Margaret Preacher, University of Cambridge. L

J. L. M. JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. f

Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Formerly j Dorians
Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient Geography, University of |
Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical Archaeology in University of Oxford.

J. Mi. JOHN MILNE, F.G.S., F.R.S., D.Sc. I"

Formerly Professor of Mining and Geology, Imperial University of Tokio. Founder _ .

of the Seismic Survey of Japan. Designer of seismographs and instruments to H Earthquake (in part).
record vibrations on railways, &c. Author of Earthquakes; Seismology; Crystal-
lography; &c.

J. Mo. VISCOUNT MORLEY OF BLACKBURN. f _. ,

See the biographical article: MORLEY, VISCOUNT, OF BLACKBURN. \ IflQeroi.

J'. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. f Draco'

Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London \ w ,
College (University of London). Joint Editor of Grote's History of Greece. I Jicclesla'

J. M. M. D. J. M. M. DALLAS. f ..

Formerly Secretary of the Edinburgh Draughts Club. \ Draughts (in part).

J. 0. B. JOHN OLIVER BORLEY, M.A. f _

Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. \ Dredge and Dredging: Marine.

J. P.-B. JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST. r

Editor of the Guardian, London. "j Desk.

J. R. C. JOSEPH ROGERSON COTTER, M.A. r

Assistant to the Professor of Physics, Trinity College, Dublin. Editor of 2nd -I Dispersion.
edition of Preston's Theory of Heat.

J. R. F. JOHN RITCHIE FINDLAY. f

See the biographical article: FINDLAY, J. R. ^ De Qumcey.

J. R. Fo. JOHN R. FOTHERGILL. f _

Editor of The Slade. \ Drawing.

J. S. F. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. r Diabase; Diorite;

Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in J rini..:*.. rtninmito-
Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby 1 „, I*6' Llolomlle»
Medallist of the Geological.Society of London. I Ecloglte.

Dnieper (in part);
Dniester (in part);

J. T. Be. JOHN T. BEALBY.

Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c.

Don (in part);

Don Cossacks, Territory of the

(in part);

Dvina (in part);
-Echmiadzin (in part).

Jno. W. JOHN WESTLAKE, K.C., LL.D., D.C.L. ["

Professor of International Law, Cambridge, 1888-1908. One of the Members for
United Kingdom of International Court of Arbitration under the Hague Conven- -| Domicile,
tion, 1900-1906. Author of A Treatise on Private International Law; International
Law: I. Peace; II. War; &c.

J. Wn. JAMES WELTON, M.A. r

Professor of Education in the University of Leeds. Author of Logical Bases of-i Education: Theory.
Education ; Principles and Methods of Moral Training ; &c.

J. W. He. JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A. f

Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient History at •< Droysen, J. G.
Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the German
Empire ; &c.

K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. f Double-Bass; Drone;

Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra; &c. "\ Drum; Dulcimer.

L. F. V.-H. LEVESON FRANCIS VERNON-HARCOURT, M.A., M.lNST.C.E. (1830-1907). r

Formerly Professor of Civil Engineering at University College, London. Author of J r\nf'ie

Rivers and Canals; Harbours and Docks; Civil Engineering as applied in Con- 1 UOCK-

struction; &c.

L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A., F.G.S. f _.. ,. _..

Assistant, Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Sidney J "lallage; Diaspore;
Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineralogical | Diopside; Dioptase.

Magazine.

L. V.* LUIGI VlLLARI.

Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Department). Formerly Newspaper Corre- niavnln Pra-
spondent in East of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906; Phil-S "
adelphia, 1907; and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town Dona.
and Country; Fire and Sword in the Caucasus; &c.

M- A. C. MAURICE ARTHUR CANNEY, M.A. f

Assistant Lecturer in Semitic Languages in the University of Manchester. 1 Dorner.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi

M. Br. Miss MARGARET BRYANT. JDryden (in part); Dumas.

M. F. SIR MICHAEL FOSTER, K.C.B., D C.L., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

See the biographical article: FOSTER, SIR M. -| Du Bois-Reymond.

M. G. D. RT. HON. SIR MOUNTSTUART ELPHINSTONE GRANT-DUFF, G.C.S.I., F.R.S.

(1829-1906).

M.P. for the Elgin Burghs, 1857-1881. Under-Secretary of State for India, 1868-
1874. Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, 1880-1881. Governor of Madras, .,
1881-1886. President of the Royal Geographical Society, 1889-1893. President
of the Royal Historical Society, 1892-1899. Author of Studies in European Politics;
Notes from a Diary ; &c.

Derby, 14th Earl of.

M. Ha. MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.Sc., F.L S.

Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. Author of Protozoa (in Cambridge -j Dinoflagellata.
Natural History) ; and papers for various scientific journals. [

M. Ja. MORRIS JASTROW, Jr., PH.D. f£a.

Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Author of •< vJL-n,
Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c. L •BgaDanl-

M. 0. B. C. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. [

Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birming- -i Doris.
ham University, 1905-1908. L

N. M. NORMAN MCLEAN, M.A. f

Fellow, Lecturer and Librarian of Christ's College, Cambridge. University Lecturer J njonvsil
in Aramaic. Examiner for the Oriental Languages Tripos, and the Theological 1
Tripos, at Cambridge. L

N. M. B. NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER. f Education- United States

See the biographical article: BUTLER, N. M. \

N. W. T. NORTHCOTE WHITBRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. I" Demonology;

Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the J Divination*
Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and \ TW.II. r»M
Marriage in Australia; &c. I DOU> Dreams-

0. J. R. H. OSBERT JOHN RADCLIFFE HOWARTH, M.A. f Denmark: Geography and

Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1901. Assistant Secretary of the"! Statistics (in part)
British Association. L

Dnieper (in part) ; Dniester

nnnrn«pT«f *h

Don Cossacks, Territory of the

(tn part); Dvina (in part);
Echmiadzin (in part).

P. C. M. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, F.R.S., M.A., D.Sc., LL.D. f

Secretary to the Zoological Society cf London. University Demonstrator in
Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891..) Dog (in part)
Lecturer on Biology at Charing Cross Hospital, 1892-1894; at London Hospital, I
1894. Examiner in Biology to the Royal College of Physicians, 1892-1896, 1901-
1903. Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903.

f Derby, 7th Earl of;

P. C. Y. PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE M.A. I Digby Slr Everard;

Magdalen College, Oxford. j Digby> sir

P. Gi. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT. D.

Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J R
Reader in Comparative Philology. Late Secretary of the Cambridge Philological 1
Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology ; &c.

P. G. K. PAUL GEORGE KONODY. f

Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of The Artist. 1 Donatello.
Author of Ths Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c. I

R. LORD RAYLEIGH.

See the biographical article : RAYLEIGH, 3RD BARON.

R. A. S. M. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. f

St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explora- J Diptych,
tion Fund.

R. C. J. SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB., LITT.D., D.C.L. f n«n - »h

See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD C. \UM ies<

R. D. M. R. D. MlLNER. f lit.*.*-.. /• • A

Formerly Assistant, U.S. Department of Agriculture. \ uie s Vn Part)-

R. H. D.* ROBERT HENRY DAVIS. f

Managing Director, Siebe, Gorman & Co., Ltd., Submarine Engineers, London. -| Divers and Diving Apparatus.
Author of A Diving Manual; &c.

R. I. P. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. • f Earwig.

Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. \

R. J. RICHARD JORDAN. f Drau!,hts (in *n.rt\

Draughts Champion of Scotland, 1896, and of the world, 1896 seq. \ "

R. J. H. RONALD JOHN McNEiLL, M.A. f Driving-

Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's •{ r>,,_i,n <,.* r.,,.1 „;
Gazette, London. I Durham, 1st Earl of.

xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. r niniro. nolnhln-

Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J „

Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; The Deer of] Dormouse; Dugong;

all Lands ; &c. L Duiker; Edentata.

R. Ma. REV. ROBERT MACKINTOSH, D.D. f

Professor of Christian Ethics and Apologetics, Lancashire Independent College. „
Lecturer on the Philosophy of Religion, University of Manchester. Author of
Christ and the Jewish Law ; &c. 1.

R. M'L. ROBERT M'LACHLAN, F.R.S. | _ ,.

Editor of the Entomologists' Monthly Magazine. \ "ragon-ny (in part).

R. N. B. ROBERT -NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). f Denmark: Medieval and

Assistant Librarian, British Museum 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the Modern History
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, -\ n ff _.
1613 to 1725 ; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1460 u*»ewny; IMUgosz;
to 1796; &c. I Dolgoruki; Dozsa.

R. P. S. R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. r

Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past- I Dome; Door;
President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, -j Doorway;
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's Earlv Enplfch Pprinri
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c.

S. A. C. STANLEY ARTHUR COOK. /•

Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and
formerly Fellow, Gonyille and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and j
Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Council of Royal Asiatic Society, 1904- -j Edom.
1905. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses and Code
of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient
Palestine; &c.

ISCSeTthe biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, IST EARL OF. | Du VerSier de Hauranne.

St H. LORD ST HELIER (SIR FRANCIS HENRY JEUNE), P.C., K.C.B., G.C.B. (1843-1905). I"

President of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court oH Divorce.
Justice, 1892-1905. Honorary Fellow of Hertford College, Oxford. L

S. C. SIDNEY COLVIN, LL.D. f Dttrer.

See the biographical article : COLVIN, S. \

S. D. H. S. D. HOPKINSON. -I Dividend.

S. K. STEN KONOW, Pn.D. f

Prof esspr of Indian Philology in the University of Christiania. Officier del' Academic I
Franchise. Author of Stamavidhana brdhmana; The Karpuramanjan; volumes •{ Dravidian.
ori Tibeto-Burman languages; Munda and Dravidian; " Marathi Bhil " in The
Linguistic Survey of India.

S. N. SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D. / Eclipse (in part);

See the biographical article : NEWCOMB, SIMON. I Ecliptic.

T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT., F.S.A.

Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Corresponding Member
of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ -j Eboli.
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1897. Author of The Classical Topo-
graphy of the Roman Campagna ; &c.

T. A. I. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D.

Trinity College, Dublin.

T. F. T. THOMAS FREDERICK TOUT, M.A. f

Professor of Medieval and Modern History in the University of Manchester. I Edward L, II., III.;
Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford. Author of Edward I. ; The Empire ] Edward The Black Prince.
and Papacy ; &c.

T. K. C. REV. THOMAS KELLY CHEYNE, M.A., D.D. J~ _ .

See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K. \ Baen-

T. L. H. SIR THOMAS LITTLE HEATH, K.C.B., D.Sc. f

Assistant Secretary to the Treasury. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- I nionhantos
bridge. Author of Diophantos of Alexandria; Editor of The Thirteen Books of\
Euclid's Elements; &c.

T. M. F. THOMAS McCALL FALLOW, M.A., F.S.A. f

Formerly Editor of the Antiquary. Author of Memorials of Old Yorkshire ; -j Easter.
Cathedral Churches of Ireland ; &c. [

T. Se. THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A.

Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges Dickens;
(University of London). Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of 4 nostoievskv
Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson;
Joint Author of The Bookman History of English Literature ; &c.

T. W. R. D. T. W. RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D.

Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester. Professor of Pali and Buddhist Devadatta-
Literature, University College, London, 1882-1904. President of the Pali Text J "~v **'
Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal Asiatic DnammapSla.
Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the Buddhists; Early
Buddhism; Buddhist India; Dialogues of the Buddha; &c. I

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

Xlll

V.T.

W. A.

W. A. B. C.

VLADIMIR TCHERTKOFF.

Editor of The Free Age Press. Literary Representative of Leo Tolstoy. Author of -| DoukhobOFS.

Christian Martyrdom in Russia ; &c.
WILLIAM ARCHER.

See the biographical article Archer, William.

REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. (Bern). ,

Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's Dolomites, The;
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of < Dornbirn;
the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in Durance;
History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889; &c. I Ebel J G

•j Drama (Recent English).
f Digne;

W. A. P.
W. A. S. H.

W. B.
W. E. B.

WALTER ALISON

M.A.

f Diplomacy; Dispensation;

Donation nf
"OI LHOn °l

W. E. D.

W. P. Sh.
W. F. W.

W. G. P. P.
W. Hy.
W. H.*

W. H. Ma.
W. L. G.
W. M.

W. IVl* K.

W. N. S.

Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College,
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c.

WILLIAM ALBERT SAMUEL HEWINS, M.A.

Secretary of the Tariff Commission. Formerly Director of the London School
of Economics. Teacher of Modern Economic History in the University of
London, 1902-1903. Tooke Professor of Economic Science and Statistics at King's'
College, London, 1897-1903. Author of Imperialism and its Probable Effect on the
Commercial Policy of the United Kingdom ; &c.

WALTER BAXENDALE.

Kennel Editor of the Field.

REV. WILLIAM EMERY BARNES, M.A., D.D.

Hulsean Professor of Divinity, Cambridge. Fellow and Hon. Chaplain of Peter-
house, Cambridge. Examining Chaplain to the_Bishop of London. Joinl Editor
of Journal of Theological Studies, 1899-1901. Formerly Leclurer in Hebrew, -
Clare College, and Leclurer in Hebrew and Divinily, Peterhouse. Author of The
Canonical and Uncanonical Gospels', The Peshitta Text of Chronicles; The Psalms
in the Peshitta Version ; Genuineness of Isaiah ; &c.

WILLIAM ERNEST DALBY, M.A., M.lNST.C.E., M.I.M.E., A.M.lNSx.N.A.

Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering al the City and Guilds of London
Institute Central Technical College, South Kensington. Formerly University -\ Dynamometer.
Demonstrator in the Engineering Department, Cambridge. Author of The Balanc-
ing of Engines ; Valves and Valve Gear Mechanism ;&c.

WILLIAM FLEETWOOD SHEPPARD, M.A.

Senior Examiner to the Board of Education.
Cambridge. Senior Wrangler, 1884.

Dragon; Duke;
I Eastern Question, The.

Economics.

Dog (in part).

Ecclesiasticus.

Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, -I Differences, Calculus of.

WALTER FRANCIS WILLCOX, LL.B., PH.D. [

Chief Statistician, United States Census Bureau. Professor of Social Science and

Statistics, Cornell University. Member of the American Social Science Association J Divorce: United States.
and Secretary of the American Economical Association. [Author of The Divorce
Problem: A Study in Statistics; Social Statistics of the United States; &c.

SIR WALTER GEORGE FRANK PHILLIMORE, BART., D.C.L., LL.D. f

Judge of the King's Bench Division. President of International Law Association,

1905. Author of Book of Church Law. Editor of 2nd editi9n of Phillimore's } Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction.
Ecclesiastical Law; yd edition of vol. iv. of Phillimore's International Law; &c. [

WILLIAM HENRY. r

Founder and Chief Secretary to the Royal Life Saying Society. Associate of the
Order of St John of Jerusalem. Joint Author of Swimming, (Badminton Library) ; "
&c.

Drowning and Life Saving.

WALTER HUNTER, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., F.G.S.

Consulting Engineer for Waterworks to Crown Agents for the Colonies. Member
of Council of Institute of Civil Engineers. Silver Medallist, Royal Society of Arts. \
Originator of Staines Scheme of Storage Reservoirs. Has reported on Waterworks
at Accra, Secconder and Lagos; also on Rand Water Supply.

WILLIAM HENRY MAXWELL, A.M.I.C.E. f

Borough and Waterworks Engineer, Tunbridge Wells. Formerly President of
Institute of Sanitary Engineers, London. Author of Refuse Destructors; &c. "
Joint Editor of Encyclopaedia of Municipal and Sanitary Engineering.

WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A.

Professorial Queen'ss University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly Beit Lecturer in

anil
,.

Hydraulic Engineering.

Destructors.

rrotessor at yueen s university, Kingston, Canada, hormerly Beit Lecturer in I n«w.i«e«M. ict
Colonial History at Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy Council, Colonial 1 uorcne •» lsl
series; Canadian Constitutional Development (in collaboration).

L

WILLIAM MINTO, M.A.

See the biographical article: MINTO, WILLIAM.

WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.

See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL.

Dry den (in part).

("Dole!; Domenichino;
t Dyce, William; Eastlake.

WILLIAM NAPIER SHAW, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. f"

Director of the Meteorological Office. Reader in Meteorology in the University of
London. President of Permanent International Meteorological Committee. I
Member of Meteorological Council, 1897-1905. Hon. Fellow of Emmanuel College, 1
Cambridge. Senior Tutor, 1890-1899. Joint Author of Text Book of Practical
Physics; &c.

XIV

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

W. 0. A.

W. R. E. H.

W. R. L.

W. S. J.

W. W.

W. W. R.*

WILBUR OLIN ATWATER, PH.D. (1844-1907).

Formerly Professor of Chemistry, Wesleyan University, U.S.A. Special Agent of H Dietetics (in part).
the United States Department of Agriculture in charge of Nutrition Investigations. L

WILLIAM RICHARD EATON HODGKINSON, PH.D., F.R.S. I"

Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ordnance College, Woolwich. Formerly J
Professor of Chemistry andlPhysics, R.M.A., Woolwich. Part author of Valentin- 1
Hodgkinson's Prqctical Chemistry ; &c. I

W. R. LETHABY, F.S.A.

Principal of the Central School of Arts and Crafts under the London County Council.
Author of Architecture, Mysticism and Myth; &c.

WILLIAM STANLEY JEVONS, LL.D.

See the biographical article: JEVONS, WILLIAM STANLEY.

WILLIAM WALLACE.

See the biographical article: WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897).

Design.

: De Morgan.

1 Descartes.

WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC.THEOL. / n , c , .

Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. \ uon' &ynoa OI-

PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES

Democratic Party.

Democritus.

Derbyshire.

Desmoulins.

Detroit.

Devonshire.

De Witt, John.

Diabetes.

Diamond Necklace.

Dice.

Dictionary.

Didache.

Dietary.

Dietrich of Bern.

Digitalis.

Dijon.

Dionysius.

Diphtheria.

Distress.

Dittersdorf, Karl D. von.

Divining-rod.

Dockyards.

Doge.

Dominoes.

Donatists.

Donegal.

Dorset, Earls, Marquesses

and Dukes of.
Dorsetshire.
Douglas: Family.
Dover.
Down.

Dragoman.

Drainage of Land.

Drake, Sir Francis.

Dresden.

Dropsy.

Drummond of Hawthornden.

Drunkenness.

Dualism.

Dublin.

Dunbar.

Dundee, Viscount.

Dundee: City.

Dundonald.

Duns Scotus.

Durban.

Durham.

Dutch East India Company.

Dutch West India Company.

Dwarf.

Dyaks.

Dysentery.

Dyspepsia.

Earth.

Eastern Bengal and Assam,

East India Company.

Ebionites.

Ecarte".

Ecclesiastical Law.

Eclecticism.

Edgeworth.

Edinburgh.

Edinburghshire.

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME VIII

DEMIJOHN, a glass bottle or jar with a large round body and
narrow neck, encased in wicker-work and provided with handles.
The word is also used of an earthenware jar, similarly covered
with wicker. The capacity of a demijohn varies from two to
twelve gallons, but the common size contains five gallons.
According to the New English Dictionary the word is an adapta-
tion of a French Dame Jeanne, or Dame Jane, an application
of a personal name to an object which is not uncommon; cf. the
use of " Toby " for a particular form of jug and the many uses
of the name " Jack."

DEMISE, an Anglo-French legal term (from the Fr. demettre,
Lat. dimiltere, to send away) for a transfer of an estate, especially
by lease. The word has an operative effect in a lease implying a
covenant for " quiet enjoyment " (see LANDLORD AND TENANT).
The phrase " demise of the crown " is used in English law to
signify the immediate transfer of the sovereignty, with all its
attributes and prerogatives, to the successor without any inter-
regnum in accordance with the maxim " the king never dies."
At common law the death of the sovereign eo facto dissolved
parliament, but this was abolished by the Representation of the
People Act 1867, §51. Similarly the common law doctrine that
all offices held under the crown determined at its demise has
been negatived by the Demise of the Crown Act 1901. "Demise"
is thus often used loosely for death or decease.

DEMIURGE (Gr. d-rjfuovpyos, from Sixties, of or for the people,
and epyov, work), a handicraftsman or artisan. In Homer the
word has a wide application, including not only hand-workers
but even heralds and physicians. In Attica the demiurgi formed
one of the three classes (with the Eupatridae and the geomori,
georgi or agroeci) into which the early population was divided
(cf . Arist. Ath. Pol. xiii. 2). They represented either a class of the
whole population, or, according to Busolt, a commercial nobility
(see EUPATRIDAE). In the sense of " worker for the people "
the word was used throughout the Peloponnese, with the excep-
tion of Sparta, and in many parts of Greece, for a higher
magistrate. The demiurgi among other officials represent Elis
and Mantineia at the treaty of peace between Athens, Argos, Elis
andMantineiain42OB.c. (Thuc. v. 47). In the Achaean League
(q.v.) the name is given to ten elective officers who presided
over the assembly, and Corinth sent " Epidemiurgi " every year
to Potidaea, officials who apparently answered to the Spartan
harmosts. In Plato dijfuovpybs is the name given to the " creator
of the world " (Timaeus, 40) and the word was so adopted by
the Gnostics (see GNOSTICISM).

DEMMIN, a town of Germany, kingdom of Prussia, on the
navigable river Peene (which in the immediate neighbourhood
receives the Trebel and the Tollense), 72 m. W.N.W. of Stettin,
on the Berlin-Stralsund railway. Pop. (1905) 12,541. It has
manufactures of textiles, besides breweries, distilleries and
tanneries, and an active trade in corn and timber,
vm — i

The town is of Slavonian origin and of considerable antiquity,
and was a place of importance in the time of Charlemagne. It
was besieged by a German army in 1 148, and captured by Henry
the Lion in 1164. In the Thirty Years' War Demmin was the
object of frequent conflicts, and even after the peace of West-
phalia was taken and retaken in the contest between the electoral
prince and the Swedes. It passed to Prussia in 1720, and its
fortifications were dismantled in 1759. In 1807 several engage-
ments took place in the vicinity between the French and Russians.

DEMOCHARES (c. 355-275 B.C.), nephew of Demosthenes,
Athenian orator and stateman, was one of the few distinguished
Athenians in the period of decline. He is first heard of in 322,
when he spoke in vain against the surrender of Demosthenes
and the other anti-Macedonian orators demanded by Antipater.
During the next fifteen years he probably lived in exile. On the
restoration of the democracy by Demetrius Poliorcetes in 307
he occupied a prominent position, but was banished in 303
for having ridiculed the decree of Stratocles, which contained
a fulsome eulogy of Demetrius. He was recalled in 298, and
during the next four years l fortified and equipped the city with
provisions and ammunition. In 296 (or 295) he was again
banished for having concluded an alliance with the Boeotians,
and did not return until 287 (or 286). In 280 he induced the
Athenians to erect a public monument in honour of his uncle with
a suitable inscription. After his death (some five years later)
the son of Demochares proposed and obtained a decree (Plutarch,
Vitae decent oratomm,p. 851) that a statue should be erected in
his honour, containing a record of his public services, which seem
to have consisted in a reduction of public expenses, a more
prudent management of the state finances (after his return in
287) and successful begging missions to the rulers of Egypt and
Macedonia. Although a friend of the Stoic Zeno, Demochares
regarded all other philosophers as the enemies of freedom, and
in 306 supported the proposal of one Sophocles, advocating their
expulsion from Attica. According to Cicero (Brutus, 83) Demo-
chares was the author of a history of his own times, written in
an oratorical rather than a historical style. As a speaker
he was noted for his freedom of language (Parrhesiastes, Seneca,
De ira, iii. 23) . He was violently attacked by Timaeus, but found
a strenuous defender in Polybius (xii. 13).

See also Plutarch, Demosthenes, 30, Demetrius, 24, Vitae decem
oralorum, p. 847; J. G. Droysen's essay on Demochares in Zeil-
schriftfiir die Altertumswissenschaft (1836), Nos. 20, 21.

DEMOCRACY (Gr. SrifioKparia, from Sij/uos, the people, ije.
the commons, and KP&.TOS, rule), in political science, that form
of government in which the people rules itself, either directly,
as in the small city-states of Greece, or through representatives.
According to Aristotle, democracy is the perverted form of the

1 For the " four years' war " and the chronological questions in-
volved, see C. W. Muller, Frag. Hist. Graec. ii. 445.

DEMOCRATIC PARTY

third form of government, which he called TroXireta, " polity "
or " constitutional government," the rule of the majority of the
free and equal citizens, as opposed to monarchy and aristocracy,
the rule respectively of an individual and of a minority consist-
ing of the best citizens (see GOVERNMENT and ARISTOCRACY).
Aristotle's restriction of " democracy " to bad popular govern-
ment, i.e. mob-rule, or, as it has sometimes been called,
" ochlocracy " (oxAos, mob), was due to the fact that the
Athenian democracy had in his day degenerated far below the
ideals of the 5th century, when it reached its zenith under Pericles.
Since Aristotle's day the word has resumed its natural meaning,
but democracy in modern times is a very different thing from
what it was in its best days in Greece and Rome. The Greek
states were what are known as " city-states," the characteristic
of which was that all the citizens could assemble together in the
city at regular intervals for legislative and other purposes. This
sovereign assembly of the people was known at Athens as the
Ecclesia (q.v.), at Sparta as the Apella (q.v.), at Rome variously
as the Comitia Centuriata or the Concilium Plebis (see COMITIA).
Of representative government in the modern sense there is
practically no trace in Athenian history, though certain of the
magistrates (see STRATEGUS) had a quasi-representative char-
acter. Direct democracy is impossible except in small states.
In the second place the qualification for citizenship was rigorous;
thus Pericles restricted citizenship to those who were the sons of
an Athenian father, himself a citizen, and an Athenian mother
(e£ &n<i>div iurroiv) . This system excluded not only all the slaves,
who were more numerous than the free population, but also
resident aliens, subject allies, and those Athenians whose descent
did not satisfy this criterion (T<$ yivei /ii) Kadapoi). The Athenian
democracy, which was typical in ancient Greece, was a highly
exclusive form of government.

With the growth of empire and nation states this narrow
parochial type of democracy became impossible. The population
became too large and the distance too great for regular assemblies
of qualified citizens. The rigid distinction of citizens and non-
citizens was progressively more difficult to maintain, and new
criteria of citizenship came into force. The first difficulty has
been met by various forms of representative government. The
second problem has been solved in various ways in different
countries; moderate democracies have adopted a low property
qualification, while extreme democracy is based on the exten-
sion of citizenship to all adult persons with or without dis-
tinction of sex. The essence of modern representative govern-
ment is that the people does not govern itself, but periodically
elects those who shall govern on its behalf (see GOVERNMENT;
REPRESENTATION) .

DEMOCRATIC PARTY, originally DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN
PARTY, the oldest of existing political parties in the United States.
Its origin lay in the principles of local self-government and
repugnance to social and political aristocracy established as
cardinal tenets of American colonial democracy, which by the
War of Independence, which was essentially a democratic move-
ment, became the basis of the political institutions of the nation.
The evils of lax government, both central and state, under the
Confederation caused, however, a marked anti-democratic
reaction, and this united with the temperamental conservatism
of the framers of the constitution of 1787 hi the shaping of that
conservative instrument. The influences and interests for and
against its adoption took form in the groupings of Federalists
and Anti-Federalists, and these, after the creation of the new
government, became respectively, in underlying principles, and,
to a large extent, in personnel, the Federalist party (q.v.) and
the Democratic-Republican party.1 The latter, organized by
Thomas Jefferson in opposition to the Federalists dominated by
Alexander Hamilton, was a real party by 1 792. The great service
of attaching to the constitution a democratic bill of rights be-
longs to the Anti-Federalists or Democratic-Republican party,
although this was then amorphous. The Democratic-Republican
party gained full control of the government, save the judiciary,

1 The orefix " Democratic " was not used by Jefferson; it became
established, however, and official.

in 1801, and controlled it continuously thereafter until 1825.
No political " platforms " were then known, but the writings
of Jefferson, who dominated his party throughout this period,
take the place of such. His inaugural address of 1801 is a famous
statement of democratic principles, which to-day are taken for
granted only because, through the party organized by him to
secure their success, they became universally accepted as the
ideal of American institutions. In all the colonies, says John
Adams, " a court and a country party had always contended ";
Jefferson's followers believed sincerely that the Federalists were
a new court party, and monarchist. Hence they called themselves
" Republicans " as against monarchists, — standing also, incident-
ally, for states' rights against the centralization that monarchy
(or any approach to it) implied; and " Democrats " as against
aristocrats, — standing for the " common rights of Englishmen,"
the " rights of man," the levelling of social ranks and the widen-
ing of political privileges. In the early years of its history — and
during the period of the French Revolution and afterwards —
the Republicans sympathized with the French as against the
British, the Federalists with the British as against the French.

Devotion to abstract principles of democracy and liberty, and
in practical politics a strict construction of the constitution,
in order to prevent an aggrandizement of national power at the
expense of the states (which were nearer popular control) or the
citizens, have been permanent characteristics of the Democratic
party as contrasted with its principal opponents; but neither
these nor any other distinctions have been continuously or
consistently true throughout its long course.2 After 1801 the
commercial and manufacturing nationalistic3 elements of the
Federalist party,being now dependent on Jefferson for protection,
gradually went over to the Republicans, especially after the War
of 1812; moreover, administration of government naturally
developed in Republican ranks a group of broad-constructionists.
These groups fused, and became an independent party.4 They
called themselves National Republicans, while the Jacksonian
Republicans soon came to be known simply as Democrats.6
Immediately afterward followed the tremendous victory of the
Jacksonians in 1828, — a great advance in radical democracy
over the victory of 1800. In the interval the Federalist party
had disappeared, and practically the entire country, embracing
Jeffersonian democracy, had passed through the school of the
Republican party. It had established the power of the " people "
in the sense of that word in present-day American politics. Bills
of rights in every state constitution protected the citizen; some
state judges were already elective; very soon the people came
to nominate their presidential candidates in national conven-
tions, and draft their party platforms through their conven-
tion representatives.* After the National Republican scission
the Democratic party, weakened thereby in its nationalistic
tendencies, and deprived of the leadership of Jackson, fell
quickly under the control of its Southern adherents and became
virtually sectional in its objects. Its states' rights doctrine was
turned to the defence of slavery. In thus opposing anti-slavery
sentiment — inconsistently, alike as regarded the " rights of man "
and constitutional construction, with its original and permanent

2 Under the rubric of " strict construction " fall the greatest
struggles in the party's history: those over the United States Bank,
over tariffs — for protection or for " revenue "only — over "internal
improvements," over issues of administrative economy in pro-
viding for the " general welfare," &c. The course of the party
has frequently been inconsistent, and its doctrines have shown,
absolutely considered, progressive latitudinarianism.

8 " Nationalistic " is used here and below, not in the sense of a
general nationalistic spirit, such as that of Jackson, but to indicate
the centralizing tendency of a broad construction of constitutional
powers in behalf of commerce and manufactures.

4 Standing for protective tariffs, internal improvements, &c.

5 It should be borne in mind, however, that the Democratic party
of Jackson was not strictly identical with the Democratic- Republican
party of Jefferson, — and some writers date back the origin of the
present Democratic party only to 1828-1829.

8 The Democratic national convention of 1832 was preceded by an
Anti-Masonic convention of 1830 and by the National-Republican
convention of 1831 ; but the Democratic platform of 1840 was the
first of its kind.

DEMOCRITUS

principles — it lost morale and power. As a result of the contest
over Kansas it became fatally divided, and in 1860 put forward
two presidential tickets: one representing the doctrine of
Jefferson Davis that the constitution recognized slave-property,
and therefore the national government must protect slavery in
the territories; the other representing Douglas's doctrine that
the inhabitants of a territory might virtually exclude slavery by
" unfriendly legislation." The combined popular votes for the
two tickets exceeded that cast by the new, anti-slavery Republican
party (the second of the name) for Lincoln; but the election was
lost. During the ensuing Civil War such members of the party
as did not become War Democrats antagonized the Lincoln
administration, and in 1864 made the great blunder of pronounc-
ing the war " a failure." Owing to Republican errors in recon-
struction and the scandals of President Grant's administration,
the party gradually regained its strength and morale, until,
having largely subordinated Southern questions to economic
issues, it cast for Tilden for president in 1876 a popular vote
greater than that obtained by the Republican candidate, Hayes,
and gained control of the House of Representatives. The
Electoral Commission, however, made Hayes president, and the
quiet acceptance of this decision by the Democratic party did
it considerable credit.

Since 1877 the Southern states have been almost solidly
Democratic; but, except on the negro question, such unanimity
among Southern whites has been, naturally, factitious; and by
no means an unmixed good for the party. Apart from the
" Solid South," the period after 1875 is characterized by two
other party difficulties. The first was the attempt from 1878 to
1896 to "straddle" the silver issue;1 the second, an attempt
after 1896 to harmonize general elements of conservatism and
radicalism within the party. In 1896 the South and West gained
control of the organization, and the national campaigns of
1896 and 1900 were fought and lost mainly on the issue of
" free silver," which, however, was abandoned before 1904.
After 1898 " imperialism," to which the Democrats were hostile,
became another issue. Finally, after 1896, there became very
apparent in the party a tendency to attract the radical elements
of society in the general re-alignment of parties taking place
on industrial-social issues; the Democratic party apparently
attracting, in this readjustment, the " radicals " and the
" masses " as in the time of Jefferson and Jackson. In this
process, in the years 1896-1900, it took over many of the principles
and absorbed, in large part, the members of the radical third-
party of the " Populists," only to be confronted thereupon by the
growing strength of Socialism, challenging it to a farther radical
widening of its programme. From 1860 to 1908 it elected but a
single president (Grover Cleveland, 1885-1889 and 1893-1897) .2
All American parties accepted long ago in theory " Jeffersonian
democracy "; but the Democratic party has been " the political
champion of those elements of the [American] democracy which
are most democratic. It stands nearest the people."3 It may
be noted that the Jeffersonian Republicans did not attempt to
democratize the constitution itself. The choice of a president
was soon popularized, however, in effect; and the popular
election of United States senators is to-day a definite Demo-
cratic tenet.4

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For an exposition of the party's principles see
Thomas Jefferson, Writings, ed. by P. L. Ford (10 vols., New York,
1892-1899); J. P. Foley (ed.), The Jeffersonian Cyclopaedia (New
York, 1900) ; and especially the Campaign Text-Books of more recent

1 The attitude of the Republican party was no less inconsistent
and evasive.

1 It controlled the House of Representatives from 1874 to 1894
except in 1880-1882 and 1888-1890; but except for a time in
Cleveland^ second term, there were never simultaneously a
Democratic president and a Democratic majority in Congress.

1 Professor A. D. Morse in International Monthly, October 1000.
He adds, " It^has done more to Americanize the foreigner than all
other parties." (It is predominant in the great cities of the country.)

4 In connexion with the prevalent popular tendency to regard the
president as a people's tribune, it may be noted that a strong pre-
sidential veto is, historically, peculiarly a Democratic contribution,
owing to the history of Jackson's (compare Cleveland's) adminis-
tration.

times, usually issued by the national Democratic committee in
alternate years, and M. Carey, The Democratic Speaker's Hand-
book (Cincinnati, 1868). For a hostile criticism of the party, see
W. D.Jones, Mirror of Modern Democracy; History cf the Democratic
Party from 1825 to /S<5i(New York, 1864) ; Jonathan Norcross,History
of Democracy Considered as a Party-Name and a Political Organisa-
tion (New York, 1883); J. H. Patton, The Democratic Party: Its
Political History and Influence (New York, 1884). Favourable
treatises are R. H. Gillet, Democracy in the United States (New York,
1868); and George Fitch, Political Facts: an Historical Text-Book
of the Democratic and Other Parties (Baltimore, 1884). See also,
for general political history, Thomas H. Benton, Thirty Years' View
(2 vols., New York, 1854-1856, and later editions) ; James G. Elaine,
Twenty Years of Congress (2 vols., Norwich, Conn., 1884-1893);
S. S. Cox, Three Decades of Federal Legislation (Providence, 1885);
S. P. Orth, Five American Politicians: a Study in the Evolution of
American Politics (Cleveland, 1906), containing sketches of four
Democratic leaders — Burr, De Witt Clinton.Van Buren and Douglas;

{. Maoy, Party Organization and Machinery (New York, 1904);
. H. Hopkins, History of Political Parties in the United States
(New York, 1900); E. S. Stanwood, History of the Presidency
(last ed., Boston, 1904); I. P. Gordy, History of Political Parties, \.
(New York, 1900); H. J. Ford, Rise and Growth of American Politics
(New York, 1898) ; Alexander Johnston, History of American Politics
(New York, 1900, and later editions); C. E. Merriam, A History
of American Political Theories (New York, 1903), containing
chapters on the Jeffersonian and the Jacksonian Democracy;
and James A. Woodburn, Political Parties and Partv Problems in
the United States (New York, 1903).

DEMOCRITUS, probably the greatest of the Greek physical
philosophers, was a native of Abdera in Thrace, or as some say
— probably wrongly — of Miletus (Diog. Laert. ix. 34). Our
knowledge of his life is based almost entirely on tradition of an
untrustworthy kind. He seems to have been born about 470 or
460 B.C., and was, therefore, an older contemporary of Socrates.
He inherited a considerable property, which enabled him to
travel widely in the East in search of information. In Egypt
he settled for seven years, during which he studied the mathe-
matical and physical systems of the ancient schools. The
extent to which he was influenced by the Magi and the Eastern
astrologists is a matter of pure conjecture. He returned from
his travels impoverished; one tradition says that he received
500 talents from his fellow-citizens, and that a public funeral was
decreed him. Another tradition states that he was regarded as
insane by the Abderitans, and that Hippocrates was summoned
to cure him. Diodorus Siculus tells us that he died at the age
of ninety; others make him as much as twenty years older.
His works, according to Diogenes Laertius, numbered seventy-
two, and were characterized by a purity of style which com-
pares favourably with that of Plato. The absurd epithet, the
" laughing philosopher," applied to him by some unknown and
very superficial thinker, may possibly have contributed in
some measure to the fact that his importance was for centuries
overlooked. It is interesting, however, to notice that Bacon
(De Principiis) assigns to him his true place in the history of
thought, and points out that both in his own day and later
" in the times of Roman learning " he was spoken of in terms
of the highest praise. In the variety of his knowledge, and in
the importance of his influence on both Greek and modern
speculation he was the Aristotle of the sth century, while the
sanity of his metaphysical theory has led many to regard him
as the equal, if not the superior, of Plato.

His views may be treated under the following heads: —
i. The Atoms and Cosmology (adopted in part at least from
the doctrines of Leucippus, though the relations between the
two are hopelessly obscure). While agreeing with the Eleatics
as to the eternal sameness of Being (nothing can arise out of
nothing; nothing can be reduced to nothing), Democritus
followed the physicists in denying its oneness and immobility.
Movement and plurality being necessary to explain the pheno-
mena of the universe and impossible without space (not-Being),
he asserted that the latter had an equal right with Being
to be considered existent. Being is the Full (irMjoes, plenum) ;
not-Being is the Void (Kev6v, vacuum) , the infinite space in which
moved tire infinite number of atoms into which the single Being
of the Eleatics was broken up. These atoms are eternal and
invisible; absolutely small, so small that their size cannot be

DEMOGEOT— DEMOGRAPHY

diminished (hence the name OTOJUOS, " indivisible "); absolutely
full and incompressible, they are without pores and entirely fill
the space they occupy; homogeneous, differing only in figure
(as A from N), arrangement (as AN from NA), position (as N is
Z on its side), magnitude (and consequently in weight, although
some authorities dispute this). But while the atoms thus differ
in quantity, their differences of quality are only apparent, due
to the impressions caused on our senses by different configurations
and combinations of atoms. A thing is only hot or cold, sweet
or bitter, hard or soft by convention (vonqi); the only things
that exist in reality (erej;) are the atoms and the void. Locke's
distinction between primary and secondary qualities is here
anticipated. Thus, the atoms of water and iron are the same,
but those of the former, being smooth and round, and therefore
unable to hook on to one another, roll over and over like small
globes, whereas the atoms of iron, being rough, jagged and
uneven, cling together and form a solid body. Since all
phenomena are composed of the same eternal atoms (just as a
tragedy and a comedy contain the same letters) it may be said
that nothing comes into being or perishes in the absolute sense
of the words (cf. the modern "indestructibility of matter " and
" conservation of energy ") , although the compounds of the atoms
are liable to increase and decrease, appearance and disappearance
— in other words, to birth and death. As the atoms are eternal
and uncaused, so is motion; it has its origin in a preceding
motion, and so on ad infinitum. For the Love and Hate of
Empedocles and the Nous (Intelligence) of Anaxagoras, Demo-
critus substituted fixed and necessary laws (not chance; that is
a misrepresentation due chiefly to Cicero). Everything can be
explained by a purely mechanical (but not fortuitous) system,
in which there is no room for the idea of a providence or an
intelligent cause working with a view to an end. The origin of
the universe was explained as follows. An infinite number of
atoms was carried downwards through infinite space. The
larger (and heavier), falling with greater velocity, overtook and
collided with the smaller (and lighter), which were thereby forced
upwards. This caused various lateral and contrary movements,
resulting in a whirling movement (Sivrf) resembling the rotation
of Anaxagoras, whereby similar atoms were brought together
(as in the winnowing of grain) and united to form larger bodies
and worlds. Atoms and void being infinite in number and
extent, and motion having always existed, there must always
have been an infinite number of worlds, all consisting of similar
atoms, in various stages of growth and decay.

2. The Soul. — Democritus devoted considerable attention to
the structure of the human body, the noblest portion of which
he considered to be the soul, which everywhere pervades it, a
psychic atom being intercalated between two corporeal atoms.
Although, in accordance with his principles, Democritus was
bound to regard the soul as material (composed of round,
smooth, specially mobile atoms, identified with the fire-atoms
floating in the air), he admitted a distinction between it and the
body, and is even said to have looked upon it as something
divine. These all-pervading soul atoms exercise different functions
in different organs; the head is the seat of reason, the heart of
anger, the liver of desire. Life is maintained by the inhalation
of fresh atoms to replace those lost by exhalation, and when
respiration, and consequently the supply of atoms, ceases, the
result is death. It follows that the soul perishes with, and in the
same sense as, the body.

3. Perception. — Sensations are the changes produced in the
soul by external impressions, and are the result of contact, since
every action of one body (and all representations are corporeal
phenomena) upon another is of the nature of a shock. Certain
emanations (awoltpoai, biropfroiai) or images (elScoXa), consisting of
subtle atoms, thrown off from the surface of an object, penetrate
the body through the pores. On the principle that like acts upon
like, the particular senses are only affected by that which
resembles them. We see by means of the eye alone, and hear by
means of the ear alone, these organs being best adapted to receive
the images or sound currents. The organs are thus merely
conduits or passages through which the atoms pour into the soul.

The eye, for example, is damp and porous, and the act of seeing
consists in the reflection of the image (Sei/ctXoc) mirrored on the
smooth moist surface of the pupil. To the interposition of air
is due the fact that all visual images are to some extent blurred.
At the same time Democritus distinguished between obscure
(axoTtfj) cognition, resting on sensation alone, and genuine
(yvT\<r'ai) , which is the result of inquiry by reason, and is con-
cerned with atoms and void, the only real existences. This
knowledge, however, he confessed was exceedingly difficult to
attain.

It is in Democritus first that we find a real attempt to explain
colour. He regards black, red, white and green as primary.
White is characteristically smooth, i.e. casting no shadow, even,
flat; black is uneven, rough, shadowy and so on. The other
colours result from various mixtures of these four, and are
infinite in number. Colour itself is not objective; it is found not
in the ultimate plenum and vacuum, but only in derived objects
according to their physical qualities and relations.

4. Theology. — The system of Democritus was altogether anti-
theistic. But, although he rejected the notion of a deity taking
part in the creation or government of the universe, he yielded
to popular prejudice so far as to admit the existence of a class
of beings, of the same form as men, grander, composed of very
subtle atoms, less liable to dissolution, but still mortal, dwelling
in the upper regions of air. These beings also manifested them-
selves to man by means of images in dreams, communicated with
him, and sometimes gave him an insight into the future. Some
of them were benevolent, others malignant. According to
Plutarch, Democritus recognized one god under the form of a
fiery sphere, the soul of the world, but this idea is probably
of later origin. The popular belief in gods was attributed by
Democritus to the desire to explain extraordinary phenomena
(thunder, lightning, earthquakes) by reference to superhuman
agency.

5. Ethics. — Democritus's moral system — the first collection of
ethical precepts which deserves the name — strongly resembles
the negative side of the system of Epicurus. The summum
bonum is the maximum of pleasure with the minimum of pain.
But true pleasure is not sensual enjoyment; it has its principle
in the soul. It consists not in the possession of wealth or flocks
and herds, but in good humour, in the just disposition and con-
stant tranquillity of fthe soul. Hence the necessity of avoiding
extremes; too much and too little are alike evils. True happi-
ness consists in taking advantage of what one has and being
content with it (see ETHICS).

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Fragments edited by F. Mullach (1843) with
commentary and in his Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum, i.(l86o).
See also H. Putter and L. Preller, Historia philosophiae (chap. i. ad
fin.)\ P. Lafaist (Lafaye), Dissertation sur la philosophic ato-
mistique (1833); L. Liard, De Democrito philosopho (Paris, 1873);
H. C. Liepmann, Die Leucipp-Democritischen Atome (Leipzig, 1886) ;
F.A.Lange, Geschichte des Materialismus (Eng.trans. by E.C.Thomas,
1877); G. Hart, Zur Seelen- und Erkennlnislekre des Democritus
(Leipzig, 1886); P. Natorp, Die Ethika des Demokritos (Marburg,
1893) ; A. Dyroff, Demokntstudien (Leipzig, 1899) ; among general
works C. A. Brandis, Gesch. d. Entwickelungen d. griech. Philosophie
(Bonn, 1862-1864); Ed. Zeller, Pre-Socratic Philosophy (Eng.trans.,
London, 1881); for his theory of sense-perception see especially
J. I. Beare, Greek Theories of Elementary Cognition (Oxford, 1906).

DEMOGEOT, JACQUES CLAUDE (1808-1894), French man
of letters, was born in Paris on the sth of July 1808. He was
professor of rhetoric at the Iyc6e Saint Louis, and subsequently
assistant professor at the Sorbonne. He wrote many detached
papers on various literary subjects, and two reports on
secondary education in England and Scotland in collaboration
with H. Montucci. His reputation rests on his excellent Histoire
de la litterature franc.aise depuis ses origines jusqu'a nos jours
(1851), which has passed through many subsequent editions.
He was also the author of a Tableau de la litterature fran$aise au
XVII' siecle (1859), and of a work (3 vols., 1880-1883) on the
influence of foreign literatures on the development of French
literature. He died in Paris in 1894.

DEMOGRAPHY (from Gr. Sijfia*, people, and ypa<j>tu>, to
write), the science which deals with the statistics of health and

DEMOIVRE— DEMONOLOGY

disease, of the physical, intellectual, physiological and economical
aspects of births, marriages and mortality. The first to employ
the word was Achille Guillard in his tUments de statistique
humaine ou demographic comparee (1855), but the meaning which
he attached to it was merely that of the science which treats
of the condition, general movement and progress of population
in civilized countries, i.e. little more than what is comprised in
the ordinary vital statistics, gleaned from census and registra-
tion reports. The word has come to have a much wider meaning
and may now be defined as that branch of statistics which deals
with the life-conditions of peoples.

DEMOIVRE, ABRAHAM (1667-1754), English mathematician
of French extraction, was born at Vitry, in Champagne, on the
26th of May 1667. He belonged to a French Protestant family,
and was compelled to take refuge in England at the revocation of
the edict of Nantes, in 1685. Having laid the foundation of his
mathematical studies in France, he prosecuted them further in
London, where he read public lectures on natural philosophy for
his support. The Principia mathematical of Sir Isaac Newton,
which chance threw in his way, caused him to prosecute his
studies with vigour, and he soon became distinguished among
first-rate mathematicians. He was among the intimate personal
friends of Newton, and his eminence and abilities secured his
admission into the Royal Society of London in 1697, and after-
wards into the Academies of Berlin and Paris. His merit was
so well known and acknowledged by the Royal Society that they
judged him a fit person to decide the famous contest between
Newton and G. W. Leibnitz (see INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS).
The life of Demoivre was quiet and uneventful. His old age was
spent in obscure poverty, his friends and associates having
nearly all passed away before him. He died at London, on the
27th of November 1754.

The Philosophical Transactions contain several of his papers. He
also published some excellent works, such as Miscellanea analytica
de seriebus et quadraturis (1730), in 4to. This contained some elegant
and valuable improvements on then existing methods, which have
themselves, however, long been superseded. But he has been more
generally known by his Doctrine of Chances, or Method of Calculating
the Probabilities of Events at Play. This work was first printed in
1618, in 4to, and dedicated to Sir Isaac Newton. It was reprinted in
1738, with great alterations and improvements; and a third edition
was afterwards published with additions in 1756. He also published
a Treatise on Annuities (1725), which has passed through several
revised and corrected editions.

See C. Hutton, Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary (1815).
For Demoivre' s Theorem see TRIGONOMETRY: Analytical.

DEMONETIZATION, a term employed in monetary science in
two different senses, (a) The depriving or divesting of a metal
of its standard monetary value. From 1663 to 1717 silver was
the standard of value in England and gold coins passed at their
market value. The debasement and underrating of the silver
coinage insensibly brought about the demonetization of silver
in England as a standard of value and the substitution of gold.
During the latter half of the igth century, the tremendous
depreciation of silver, owing to its continually increasing pro-
duction, and consequently the impossibility of preserving any
ratio of stability between it and gold, led to the abandonment or
demonetization of the metal as a standard and to its use merely
as token money, (b) The withdrawal of coin from circulation, as,
for example, in England that of all pre- Victorian gold coins under
the provisions of the Coinage Act 1889, and the royal proclama-
tion of the 22nd of November 1890.

DEMONOLOGY (Aatjuwc, demon, genius, spirit), the branch
of the science of religions which relates to superhuman beings
which are not gods. It deals both with benevolent beings which
have no circle of worshippers or so limited a circle as to be below
the rank of gods, and with malevolent beings of all kinds. It may
be noted that the original sense of " demon " was a benevolent
being; but in English the name now connotes malevolence; in
German it has a neutral sense, e.g. Korndamonen. Demons,
when they are regarded as spirits, may belong to either of the
classes of spirits recognized by primitive animism (<?.».); that is
to say, they may be human, or non-human, separable souls, or
discarnate spirits which have never inhabited a body; a sharp

distinction is often drawh between these two classes, notably
by the Melanesians, the West Africans and others; the Arab
jinn, for example, are not reducible to modified human souls;
at the same time these classes are frequently conceived as pro-
ducing identical results, e.g. diseases.

Under the head of demons are classified only such spirits as
are believed to enter into relations with the human race; the
term therefore includes (i) human souls regarded as genii or
familiars, (2) such as receive a cult (for which see ANCESTOR
WORSHIP), and (3) ghosts or other malevolent revenants;
excluded are souls conceived as inhabiting another world. But
just as gods are not necessarily spiritual, demons may also be
regarded as corporeal; vampires for example are sometimes
described as human heads with appended entrails, which issue
from the tomb to attack the living during the night watches.
The so-called Spectre Huntsman of the Malay Peninsula is said
to be a man who scours the firmament with his dogs, vainly
seeking for what he could not find on earth — a buck mouse-deer
pregnant with male offspring; but he seems to be a living man;
there is no statement that he ever died, nor yet that he is a
spirit. The incubus and succubus of the middle ages are some-
times regarded as spiritual beings; but they were held to give
very real proof of their bodily existence. It should, however,
be remembered that primitive peoples do not distinguish clearly
between material and immaterial beings.

Prevalence of Demons. — According to a conception of the
world frequently found among peoples of the lower cultures,
all the affairs of life are supposed to be under the control of
spirits, each ruling a certain element or even object, and them-
selves in subjection to a greater spirit. Thus, the Eskimo are
said to believe in spirits of the sea, earth and sky, the winds,
the clouds and everything in nature. Every cove of the seashore,
every point, every island and prominent rock has its guardian
spirit. All are of the malignant type, to be propitiated only by
acceptable offerings from persons who desire to visit the locality
where it is supposed to reside. A rise in culture often results in
an increase in the number of spiritual beings with whom man
surrounds himself. Thus, the Koreans go far beyond the
Eskimo and number their demons by thousands of billions;
they fill the chimney, the shed, the living-room, the kitchen,
they are on every shelf and jar; in thousands they waylay
the traveller as he leaves his home, beside him, behind him,
dancing in front of him, whirring over his head, crying out
upon him from air, earth and water. \

Especially complicated was the ancient Babylonian demon-
ology; all the petty annoyances of life — a sudden fall, a headache,
a quarrel — were set down to the agency of fiends; all the stronger
emotions — love, hate, jealousy and so on — were regarded as the
work of demons; in fact so numerous were they, that there were
special fiends for various parts of the human body — one for the
head, another for the neck, and so on. Similarly in Egypt at the
present day the jinn are believed to swarm so thickly that it is
necessary to ask their permission before pouring water on the
ground, lest one should accidentally be soused and vent his
anger on the offending human being. But these beliefs are far
from being confined to the uncivilized; Greek philosophers like
Porphyry, no less than the fathers of the Church, held that the
world was pervaded with spirits; side by side with the belief in
witchcraft, we can trace through the middle ages the survival of
primitive animistic views; and in our own day even these beliefs
subsist in unsuspected vigour among the peasantry of the more
uneducated European countries. In fact the ready acceptance
of spiritualism testifies to the force with which the primitive
animistic way of looking at things appealed to the white races
in the middle of the last century.

Character of Spiritual World. — The ascription of malevolence
to the world of spirits is by no means universal. In West Africa
the Mpongwe believe in local spirits, just as do the Eskimo; but
they are regarded as inoffensive in the main; true, the passer-
by must make some trifling offering as he nears their place of
abode; but it is only occasionally that mischievous acts, such as
the throwing down of a tree on a passer-by, are, in the view of the

DEMONOLOGY

natives, perpetuated by the Ombuiri. So too, many of the spirits
especially concerned with the operations of nature are conceived
as neutral or even benevolent; the European peasant fears the
corn-spirit only when he irritates him by trenching on his domain
and taking his property by cutting the corn; similarly, there is
no reason why the more insignificant personages of the pantheon
should be conceived as malevolent, and we find that the Petara
of the Dyaks are far from indiscriminating and malignant, though
disease and death are laid at their door.

Classification. — Besides the distinctions of human and non-
human, hostile and friendly, the demons in which the lower races
believe are classified by them according to function, each class
with a distinctive name, with extraordinary minuteness, the list
in the case of the Malays running to several score. They have,
for example, a demon of the waterfall, a demon of wild-beast
tracks, a demon which interferes with snares for wild-fowl, a
baboon demon, which takes possession of dancers and causes them
to perform wonderful feats of climbing, &c. But it is impossible
to do more than deal with a few types, which will illustrate the
main features of the demonology of savage, barbarous and semi-
civilized peoples.

(a) Natural causes, either of death or of disease, are hardly,
if at all, recognized by the uncivilized; everything is attributed
to spirits or magical influence of some sort. The spirits which
cause disease may be human or non-human and their influence is
shown in more than one way; they may enter the body of the
victim (see POSSESSION), and either dominate his mind as well
as his body, inflict specific diseases, or cause pains of various
sorts. Thus the Mintra of the Malay Peninsula have a demon
corresponding to every kind of disease known to them; the
Tasmanian ascribed a gnawing pain to the presence within him
of the soul of a dead man, whom he had unwittingly summoned
by mentioning his name and who was devouring his liver; the
Samoan held that the violation of a food tabu would result in the
animal being formed within the body of the offender and cause
his death. The demon theory of disease is still attested by some
of our medical terms; epilepsy (Gr. ^riAjj^ts, seizure) points
to the belief that the patient is possessed. As a logical conse-
quence of this view of disease the mode of treatment among
peoples in the lower stages of culture is mainly magical; they
endeavour to propitiate the evil spirits by sacrifice, to expel them
by spells, &c. (see EXORCISM) , to drive them away by blowing, &c. ;
conversely we find the Khonds attempt to keep away smallpox
by placing thorns and brushwood in the paths leading to places
decimated by that disease, in the hope of making the disease
demon retrace his steps. This theory of disease disappeared
sooner than did the belief in possession; the energumens
(evepyovufvoi) of the early Christian church, who were under
the care of a special clerical order of exorcists, testify to a belief
in possession; but the demon theory of disease receives no recog-
nition; the energumens find their analogues in the converts
of missionaries in China, Africa and elsewhere. Another way in
which a demon is held to cause disease is by introducing itself into
the patient's body and sucking his blood; the Malays believe
that a woman who dies in childbirth becomes a langsuir and
sucks the blood of children; victims of the lycanthrope are
sometimes said to be done to death in the same way; and it is
commonly believed in Africa that the wizard has the power of
killing people in this way, probably with the aid of a familiar.

(6) One of the primary meanings of dainuv is that of genius
or familiar, tutelary spirit; according to Hesiod the men of the
golden race became after death guardians or watchers over
mortals. The idea is found among the Romans also; they
attributed to every man a genius who accompanied him through
life. A Norse belief found in Iceland is that the fylgia, a genius
in animal form, attends human beings; and these animal
guardians may sometimes be seen fighting; in the same way the
Siberian shamans send their animal familiars to do battle instead
of deciding their quarrels in person. The animal guardian re-
appears in the nagual of Central America (see article TOTEMISM),
the yunbeai of some Australian tribes, the manitou of the
Red Indian and the bush soul of some West African tribes;

among the latter the link between animal and human being
is said to be established by the ceremony of the blood bond.
Corresponding to the animal guardian of the ordinary man, we
have the familiar of the witch or wizard. All the world over it is
held that such people can assume the form of animals; some-
times the power of the shaman is held to depend on his being
able to summon his familiar; among the Ostiaks the shaman's
coat was covered with representations of birds and beasts; two
bear's claws were on his hands; his wand was covered with
mouse-skin; when he wished to divine he beat his drum till a
black bird appeared and perched on his hut; then the shaman
swooned, the bird vanished, and the divination could begin.
Similarly the Greenland angekok is said to summon his torngak
(which may be an ancestral ghost or an animal) by drumming;
he is heard by the bystanders to carry on a conversation and
obtain advice as to how to treat diseases, the prospects of good
weather and other matters of importance. The familiar, who is
sometimes replaced by the devil, commonly figured in witchcraft
trials; and a statute of James I. enacted that all persons invok-
ing an evil spirit or consulting, covenanting with, entertaining,
employing, feeding or rewarding any evil spirit should be guilty
of felony and suffer death. In modern spiritualism the familiar
is represented by the " guide," corresponding to which we have
the theosophical " guru."

(c) The familiar is sometimes an ancestral spirit, and here we
touch the fringe of the cult of the dead (see also ANCESTOR
WORSHIP). Especially among the lower races the dead are
regarded as hostile; the Australian avoids the grave even of a
kinsman and elaborate ceremonies of mourning are found amongst
most primitive peoples, whose object seems to be to rid the living
of the danger they run by association with the ghost of the dead.
Among the Zulu the spirits of the dead are held to be friendly or
hostile, just as they were in life; on the Congo a man after death
joins the good or bad spirits according as his life has been good
or bad. Especially feared among many peoples are the souls
of those who have committed suicide or died a violent death;
the woman who dies in childbed is held to become a demon of
the most dangerous kind; even the unburied, as restless, dis-
satisfied spirits, are more feared than ordinary ghosts. Naturally
spirits of these latter kinds are more valuable as familiars than
ordinary dead men's souls. We find many recipes for securing
their aid. In the Malay Peninsula the blood of a murdered man
must be put in a bottle and prayers said over; after seven days
of this worship a sound is heard and the operator puts his finger
into the bottle for the polong, as the demon is called, to suck;
it will fly through the air in the shape of an exceedingly diminutive
female figure, and is always preceded by its pet, the pelesit, in
the shape of a grasshopper. In Europe a similar demon is said
to be obtainable from a cock's egg. In South Africa and India,
on the other hand, the magician digs up a dead body, especially
of a child, to secure a familiar. The evocation of spirits, especially
in the form of necromancy, is an important branch of the demon-
ology of many peoples; and the peculiarities of trance medium-
ship, which seem sufficiently established by modern research,
go far to explain the vogue of this art. It seems to have been
common among the Jews, and the case of the witch of Endor is
narrated in a way to suggest something beyond fraud; in the
book of magic which bears the name of Dr Faustus may be found
many of the formulae for raising demons; in England may be
mentioned especially Dr Dee as one of the most famous of those
who claimed before the days of modern spiritualism (q.v.) to
have intercourse with the unseen world and to summon demons
at his will. Sometimes the spirits were summoned to appear
as did the phantoms of the Greek heroes to Odysseus; some-
times they were called to enter a crystal (see CRYSTAL-GAZING) ;
sometimes they are merely asked to declare the future or com-
municate by moving external objects without taking a visible
form; thus among the Karens at the close of the burial cere-
monies the ghost of the dead man, which is said to hover round
till the rites are completed, is believed to make a ring swing
round and snap the string from which it hangs.

(d) The vampire is a particular form of demon which calls for

DEMONOLOGY

some notice. In the Malay Peninsula, parts of Polynesia, &c.,
it is conceived as a head with attached entrails, which issues, it
may be from the grave, to suck the blood of living human beings.
According to the Malays a penanggalan (vampire) is a living
witch, and can be killed if she can be caught; she is especially
feared in houses where a birth has taken place and it is the
custom to hang up a bunch of thistle in order to catch her; she
is said to keep vinegar at home to aid her in re-entering her own
body. In Europe the Slavonic area is the principal seat of
vampire beliefs, and here too we find, as a natural development,
that means of preventing the dead from injuring the living have
been evolved by the popular mind. The corpse of the vampire,
which may often be recognized by its unnaturally ruddy and
fresh appearance, should be staked down in the grave or its head
should be cut off; it is interesting to note that the cutting off of
heads of the dead was a neolithic burial rite.

(e) The vampire is frequently blended in popular idea with
the Poltergeist (q.ii.) or knocking spirit, and also with the werwolf
(see LYCANTHROPY).

(/) As might be expected, dream demons are very common;
in fact the word " nightmare " (A.S. mar, spirit, elf) preserves
for us a record of this form of belief, which is found right down
to the lowest planes of culture. The Australian, when he suffers
from an oppression in his sleep, says that Koin is trying to throttle
him; the Caribs say that Maboya beats them in their sleep;
and the belief persists to this day in some parts of Europe;
horses too are said to be subject to the persecutions of demons,
which ride them at night. Another class of nocturnal demons
are the incubi and succubi, who are said to consort with human
beings in their sleep; in the Antilles these were the ghosts of the
dead; in New Zealand likewise ancestral deities formed liaisons
with females; in the Samoan Islands the inferior gods were
regarded as the fathers of children otherwise unaccounted for;
the Hindus have rites prescribed by which a companion nymph
may be secured. The question of the real existence of incubi and
succubi, whom the Romans identified with the fauns, was gravely
discussed by the fathers of the church ; and in 1418 Innocent VIII.
set forth the doctrine of lecherous demons as an indisputable
fact; and in the history of the Inquisition and of trials for witch-
craft may be found the confessions of many who bore witness
to their reality. In the Anatomy of Melancholy Burton assures
us that they were never more numerous than in A.D. 1600.

(g) Corresponding to the personal tutelary spirit (supra, b) we
have the genii of buildings and places. The Romans celebrated
the birthday of a town and of its genius, just as they celebrated
that of a man; and a snake was a frequent form for this kind of
demon; when we compare with this the South African belief that
the snakes which are in the neighbourhood of the kraal are the
incarnations of the ancestors of the residents, it seems probable
that some similar idea lay at the bottom of the Roman belief; to
this day in European folklore the house snake or toad, which lives
in the cellar, is regarded as the " life index " or other self of the
father of the house; the death of one involves the death of the
other, according to popular belief. The assignment of genii to
buildings and gates is connected with an important class of
sacrifices; in order to provide a tutelary spirit, or to appease
chthonic deities, it was often the custom to sacrifice a human
being or an animal at the foundation of a building; sometimes we
find a similar guardian provided for the frontier of a country or of
a tribe. The house spirit is, however, not necessarily connected
with this idea. In Russia the domovoi (house spirit) is an
important personage in folk-belief; he may object to certain
kinds of animals, or to certain colours in cattle; and must,
generally speaking, be propitiated and cared for. Corresponding
to him we have the drudging goblin of English folklore.

(h) It has been shown above how the animistic creed postulates
the existence of all kinds of local spirits, which are sometimes
tied to their habitats, sometimes free to wander. Especially
prominent in Europe, classical, medieval and modern, and in
East Asia, is the spirit of the lake, jiver, spring, or well, often
conceived as human, but also in the form of a bull or horse; the
term Old Nick may refer to the water-horse Nok. Less specialized

in their functions are many of the figures of modern folklore,
some of whom have perhaps replaced some ancient goddess,
e.g. Frau Holda; others, like the Welsh Pwck, the Lancashire
boggarts or the more widely found Jack-o'-Lantern (Will o' the
Wisp), are sprites who do no more harm than leading the
wanderer astray. The banshee is perhaps connected with
ancestral or house spirits; the Wild Huntsman, the Gabriel
hounds, the Seven Whistlers, &c., are traceable to some actual
phenomenon; but the great mass of British goblindom cannot
now be traced back to savage or barbarous analogues. Among
other local sprites may be mentioned the kobolds or spirits of the
mines. The fairies (see FAIRY), located in the fairy knolls by the
inhabitants of the Shetlands, may also be put under this head.

(i) The subject of plant souls is referred to in connexion with
animism (q.v.); but certain aspects of this phase of belief
demand more detailed treatment. Outside the European area
vegetation spirits of all kinds seem to be conceived, as a rule, as
anthropomorphic; in classical Europe, and parts of the Slavonic
area at the present day, the tree spirit was believed to have the
form of a goat, or to have goats' feet.

Of special importance in Europe is the conception of the
so-called " corn spirit "; W. Mannhardt collected a mass of
information proving that the life of the corn is supposed to exist
apart from the corn itseli and to take the form, sometimes of an
animal, sometimes of a man or woman, sometimes of a child.
There is, however, no proof that the belief is animistic in the
proper sense. The animal which popular belief identified with
the corn demon is sometimes killed in the spring in order to
mingle its blood or bones with the seed; at harvest- time it is
supposed to sit in the last corn and the animals driven out from it
are sometimes killed; at others the reaper who cuts the last ear
is said to have killed the " wolf " or the " dog," and sometimes
receives the name of " wolf " or " dog " and retains it till the next
harvest. The corn spirit is also said to be hiding in the barn till
the corn is threshed, or it may be said to reappear at midwinter,
when the farmer begins to think of his new year of labour and
harvest. Side by side with the conception of the corn spirit as
an animal is the anthropomorphic view of it; and this element
must have predominated in the evolution of the cereal deities
like Demeter; at the same time traces of the association of gods
and goddesses of corn with animal embodiments of the corn spirit
are found.

(;') In many parts of the world, and especially in Africa, is
found the conception termed the " otiose creator "; that is to
say, the belief in a great deity, who is the author of all that exists
but is too remote from the world and too high above terrestrial
things to concern himself with the details of the universe. As
a natural result of this belief we find the view that the operations
of nature are conducted by a multitude of more or less obedient
subordinate deities; thus, in Portuguese West Africa the
Kimbunda believe in Suku-Vakange, but hold that he has com-
mitted the government of the universe to innumerable kilulu
good and bad; the latter kind are held to be far more numerous,
but Suku-Vakange is said to keep them in order by occasionally
smiting them with his thunderbolts; were it not for this, man's
lot would be insupportable.

Sometimes the gods of an older religion degenerate into the
demons of the belief which supersedes it. A conspicuous example
of this is found in the attitude of the Hebrew prophets to the gods
of the nations, whose power they recognize without admitting
their claim to reverence and sacrifice. The same tendency is seen
in many early missionary works and is far from being without
influence even at the present day. In the folklore of European
countries goblindom is peopled by gods and nature-spirits of an
earlier heathendom. We may also compare the Persian dens
with the Indian devas.

Expulsion of Demons. — In connexion with demonology mention
must be made of the custom of expelling ghosts, spirits or evils
generally. Primitive peoples from the Australians upwards
celebrate, usually at fixed intervals, a driving out of hurtful
influences. Sometimes, as among the Australians, it is merely
the ghosts of those who have died in the year which are thus

8

DE MORGAN

driven out; from this custom must be distinguished another,
which consists in dismissing the souls of the dead at the close of
the year and sending them on their journey to the other world;
this latter custom seems to have an entirely different origin and
to be due to love and not fear of the dead. In other cases it is
believed that evil spirits generally or even non-personal evils
such as sins are believed to be expelled. In these customs
originated perhaps the scapegoat, some forms of sacrifice (q.v.)
and other cathartic ceremonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Tylor, Primitive Culture; Frazer, Golden Bough;
Skeat, Malay Magic; Bastian, Der Mensch in der Geschichte;
Callaway, Religion of the Amazulu; Hild, Etude sur les demons;
Welcker, Griechische Gotterlehre, i. 731; Trans. Am. Phil. Soc.
xxvi. 79; Calmet, Dissertation sur les esprits; Maury, La Magie;
L. W. King, Babylonian Magie; Lenormant, La Magie chez les
Chaldeens; R. C. Thompson, Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia;
Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie ; Roskoff , Geschichte des Teufels ; Sibly,
Illustration of the Occult Sciences; Scott, Demonology; Pitcairn,
Scottish Criminal Trials; Jewish Quarterly Rev. viii. 576, &c. ;
Horst, Zauberbibliothek; Jewish Encyclopedia, s.v. " Demonology."
See also bibliography to POSSESSION, ANIMISM and other articles.

(N. W. T.)

DE MORGAN, AUGUSTUS (1806-1871), English mathema-
tician and logician, was born in June 1806, at Madura, in the
Madras presidency. His father, Colonel John De Morgan, was
employed in the East India Company's service, and his grand-
father and great-grandfather had served under Warren Hastings.
On the mother's side he was descended from JamesDodson,F.R.S.,
author of the Anti-logarithmic Canon and other mathematical
works of merit, and a friend of Abraham Demoivre. Seven
months after the birth of Augustus, Colonel De Morgan brought
his wife, daughter and infant son to England, where he left
them during a subsequent period of service in India, dying in
1 8 1 6 on his way home.

Augustus De Morgan received his early education in several
private schools, and before the age of fourteen years had learned
Latin, Greek and some Hebrew, in addition to acquiring much
general knowledge. At the age of sixteen years and a half he
entered Trinity College, Cambridge, and studied mathematics,
partly under the tuition of Sir G. B. Airy. In 1825 he gained a
Trinity scholarship. De Morgan's love of wide reading some-
what interfered with his success in the mathematical tripos, in
which he took the fourth place in 1827. He was prevented from
taking his M.A. degree, or from obtaining a fellowship, by his
conscientious objection to signing the theological tests then
required from masters of arts and fellows at Cambridge.

A career in his own university being closed against him, he
entered Lincoln's Inn ; but had hardly done so when the establish-
ment, in 1828, of the university of London, in Gower Street,
afterwards known as University College, gave him an opportunity
of continuing his mathematical pursuits. At the early age of
twenty-two he gave his first lecture as professor of mathematics
in the college which he served with the utmost zeal and success
for a third of a century. His connexion with the college, indeed,
was interrupted in 1831, when a disagreement with the governing
body caused De Morgan and some other professors to resign their
chairs simultaneously. When, in 1836, his successor was acci-
dentally drowned, De Morgan was requested to resume the
professorship.

In 1837 he married Sophia Elizabeth, daughter of William
Frend, a Unitarian in faith, a mathematician and actuary in
occupation, a notice of whose life, written by his son-in-law,
will be found in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society (vol. v.). They settled in Chelsea (30 Cheyne Row), where
in later years Mrs De Morgan had a large circle of intellectual
and artistic friends.

As a teacher of mathematics De Morgan was unrivalled. He
gave instruction in the form of continuous lectures delivered
extempore from brief notes. The most prolonged mathematical
reasoning, and the most intricate formulae, were given with
almost infallible accuracy from the resources of his extraordinary
memory. De Morgan's writings, however excellent, give little
idea of the perspicuity and elegance of his viva voce expositions,
which never failed to fix the attention of all who were worthy

of hearing him. Many of his pupils have distinguished them-
selves, and, through Isaac Todhunter and E. J. Routh, he had
an important influence on the later Cambridge school. For
thirty years he took an active part in the business of the Royal
Astronomical Society, editing its publications, supplying obituary
notices of members, and for eighteen years acting as one of the
honorary secretaries. He was also frequently employed as con-
sulting actuary, a business in which his mathematical powers,
combined with sound judgment and business-like habits, fitted
him to take the highest place.

De Morgan's mathematical writings contributed powerfully
towards the progress of the science. His memoirs on the
" Foundation of Algebra," in the ;th and 8th volumes of the
Cambridge Philosophical Transactions, contain some of the most
important contributions which have been made to the philosophy
of mathematical method; and Sir W. Rowan Hamilton, in the
preface to his Lectures on Quaternions, refers more than once to
those papers as having led and encouraged him in the working
out of the new system of quaternions. The work on Trigon-
ometry and Double Algebra (1849) contains in the latter part a
most luminous and philosophical view of existing and possible
systems of symbolic calculus. But De Morgan's influence on
mathematical science in England can only be estimated by a
review of his long series of publications, which commence, in
1828, with a translation of part of Bourdon's Elements of Algebra,
prepared for his students. In 1830 appeared the first edition of
his well-known Elements of Arithmetic, which did much to raise
the character of elementary training. It is distinguished by a
simple yet thoroughly philosophical treatment of the ideas of
number and magnitude, as well as by the introduction of new
abbreviated processes of computation, to which De Morgan
always attributed much practical importance. Second and third
editions were called for in 1832 and 1835; a sixth edition was
issued in 1876. De Morgan's other principal mathematical
works were The Elements of Algebra (1835), a valuable but some-
what dry elementary treatise; the Essay on Probabilities (1838),
forming the iO7th volume of Lardner's Cyclopaedia, which forms
a valuable introduction to the subject; and The Elements of
Trigonometry and Trigonometrical Analysis, preliminary to the
Differential Calculus (1837). Several of his mathematical works
were published by the Society for the Diffusfon of Useful Know-
ledge, of which De Morgan was at one time an active member.
Among these may be mentioned the Treatise on the Differential
and Integral Calculus (1842); the Elementary Illustrations of the
Differential and Integral Calculus, first published in 1832, but
often bound up with the larger treatise; the essay, On the Study
and Difficulties of Mathematics (1831); and a brief treatise on
Spherical Trigonometry (1834). By some accident the work on
probability in the same series, written by Sir J. W. Lubbock and
J. Drinkwater-Bethune, was attributed to De Morgan, an error
which seriously annoyed his nice sense of bibliographical accuracy.
For fifteen years he did all in his power to correct the mistake,
and finally wrote to The Times to disclaim the authorship. (See
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xxvi.
p. 1 1 8.) Two of his most elaborate treatises are to be found in the
Encyclopaedia metropolitana, namely the articles on the Calculus
of Functions, and the Theory of Probabilities. DeMorgan's minor
mathematical writings were scattered over various periodicals.
A list of these and other papers will be found in the Royal
Society's Catalogue, which contains forty-two entries under the
name of De Morgan.

In spite, however, of the excellence and extent of his mathe-
matical writings, it is probably as a logical reformer that De
Morgan will be best remembered. In this respect he stands
alongside of his great contemporaries Sir W. R. Hamilton and
George Boole, as one of several independent discoverers of the
all-important principle of the quantification of the predicate.
Unlike most mathematicians, De Morgan always laid much stress
upon the importance of logical training. In his admirable papers
upon the modes of teaching arithmetic and geometry, originally
published in the Quarterly Journal of Education (reprinted in The
Schoolmaster, vol ii.), he remonstrated against the neglect of

DE MORGAN

logical doctrine. In 1839 he produced a small work called First
Notions of Logic, giving what he had found by experience to be
much wanted by students commencing with Euclid. In October
1846 he completed the first of his investigations, in the form of a
paper printed in the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical
Society (vol. viii. No. 29). In this paper the principle of the
quantified predicate was referred to, and there immediately
ensued a memorable controversy with Sir W. R. Hamilton regard-
ing the independence of De Morgan's discovery, some communi-
cations having passed between them in the autumn of 1846. The
details of this dispute will be found in the original pamphlets,
in the Athenaeum and in the appendix to De Morgan's Formal
Logic. Suffice it to say that the independence of De Morgan's
discovery was subsequently recognized by Hamilton. The eight
forms of proposition adopted by De Morgan as the basis of his
system partially differ from those which Hamilton derived
from the quantified predicate. The general character of De
Morgan's development of logical forms was wholly peculiar and
original on his part.

Late in 1847 De Morgan published his principal logical treatise,
called Formal Logic, or the Calculus of Inference, Necessary and
Probable. This contains a reprint of the First Notions, an elabor-
ate development of his doctrine of the syllogism, and of the
numerical definite syllogism, together with chapters of great
interest on probability, induction, old logical terms and fallacies.
The severity of the treatise is relieved by characteristic touches
of humour, and by quaint anecdotes and allusions furnished from
his wide reading and perfect memory. There followed at
intervals, in the years 1850, 1858, 1860 and 1863, a series of four
elaborate memoirs on the " Syllogism," printed in volumes ix.
and x. of the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions. These
papers taken together constitute a great treatise on logic,
in which he substituted improved systems of notation, and
developed a new logic of relations, and a new onymatic system
of logical expression. In 1860 De Morgan endeavoured to render
their contents better known by publishing a Syllabus of a
Proposed System of Logic, from which may be obtained a good
idea of his symbolic system, but the more readable and interesting
discussions contained in the memoirs are of necessity omitted.
The article " Logic " in the English Cyclopaedia (1860) completes
the list of his logical publications.

Throughout his logical writings De Morgan was led by the idea
that the followers of the two great branches of exact science,
logic and mathematics, had made blunders, — the logicians in
neglecting mathematics, and the mathematicians in neglecting
logic. He endeavoured to reconcile them, and in the attempt
showed how many errors an acute mathematician could detect
in logical writings, and how large a field there was for discovery.
But it may be doubted whether De Morgan's own system,
" horrent with mysterious spiculae," as Hamilton aptly described
it, is fitted to exhibit the real analogy between quantitative and
qualitative reasoning, which is rather to be sought in the logical
works of Boole.

Perhaps the largest part, in volume, of De Morgan's writings re-
mains still to be briefly mentioned ; it consists of detached articles
contributed to various periodical or composite works. During the
years 1833—1843 he contributed very largely to the first edition of
the Penny Cyclopaedia, writing chiefly on mathematics, astronomy,
physics and biography. His articles of various length cannot be
less in number than 850, and they have been estimated to constitute
a sixth part of the whole Cyclopaedia, of which they formed perhaps
the most valuable portion. He also wrote biographies of Sir Isaac
Newton and Edmund Halley for Knight's British Worthies, various
notices of scientific men for the Gallery of Portraits, and for the un-
completed Biographical Dictionary of the Useful Knowledge Society,
and at least seven articles in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman
Biography. Some of De Morgan's most interesting and useful minor
writings are to be found in the Companions to the British Almanack, to
which he contributed without fail one article each year from 1831 up
to 1857 inclusive. In these carefully written papers he treats a great
variety of topics relating to astronomy, chronology, decimal coinage,
life assurance, bibliography and the history of science. Most of
them are as valuable now as when written.

Among De Morgan's miscellaneous writings may be mentioned his
Explanation of the Gnomonic Projection of the Sphere, 1836, including
a description of the maps of the stars, published by the Useful Know-

ledge Society ; his Treatise on the Globes, Celestial and Terrestrial,lB45,
and his remarkable Book of Almanacks (2nd edition, 1871), which
contains a series of thirty-five almanacs, so arranged with indices of
reference, that the almanac for any year, whether in old style or new,
from any epoch, ancient or modern, up to A. D. 2000, may be found
without difficulty, means being added for verifying the almanac and
also for discovering the days of new and full moon from 2000 B. C. up
to A. D. 2000. De Morgan expressly draws attention to the fact that
the plan of this book was that of L. B. Francoeur and J. Ferguson,
but the plan was developed by one who was an unrivalled master of
all the intricacies of chronology. The two best tables of logarithms,
the small five-figure tables of the Useful Knowledge Society (1839 and
1857), and Shroen's Seven Figure-Table (5th ed., 1865), were printed
under De Morgan's superintendence. Several works edited by him
will be found mentioned in the British Museum Catalogue. He made
numerous anonymous contributions through a long series of years
to the Athenaeum, and to Notes and Queries, and occasionally to
The North British Review, Macmillan's Magazine, &c.

Considerable labour was spent by De Morgan upon the subject
of decimal coinage. He was a great advocate of the pound and mil
scheme. His evidence on this subject was sought by the Royal
Commission, and, besides constantly supporting the Decimal
Association in periodical publications, he published several separate
pamphlets on the subject.

One marked characteristic of De Morgan was his intense and yet
reasonable love of books. He was a true bibliophile and loved to
surround himself, as far as his means allowed, with curious and rare
books. He revelled in all the mysteries of watermarks, title-pages,
colophons, catch-words and the like; yet he treated bibliography
as an important science. As he himself wrote, " the most worthless
book of a bygone day is a record worthy of preservation; like a
telescopic star, its obscurity may render it unavailable for most
purposes; but it serves, in hands which know how to use it, to de-
termine the places of more important bodies." His evidence before
the Royal Commission on the British Museum in 1850 (Questions
5704*-58i5,* 6481-6513, and 8966-8967), should be studied by all
who would comprehend the principles of bibliography or the art of
constructing a catalogue, his views on the latter subject correspond-
ing with those carried out by Panizzi in the British Museum Catalogue.
A sample of De Morgan's bibliographical learning is to be found in
his account of Arithmetical Books, from the Invention of Printing
(1847), and finally in his Budget of Paradoxes. This latter work
consists of articles most of which were originally published in the
Athenaeum, describing the various attempts which have been made
to invent a perpetual motion, to square the circle, or to trisect the
angle ; but De Morgan took the opportunity to include many curious
bits gathered from his extensive reading, so that the Budget, as re-
printed by his widow (1872), with much additional matter prepared
by himself, forms a remarkable collection of scientific ana. De
Morgan's correspondence with contemporary scientific men was very
extensive and full of interest. It remains unpublished, as does also
a large mass of mathematical tracts which he prepared for the use
of his students, treating all parts of mathematical science, and
embodying some of the matter of his lectures. De Morgan's library
was purchased by Lord Overstone, and presented to the university
of London.

In 1866 his life became clouded by the circumstances which led
him to abandon the institution so long the scene of his labours.
The refusal of the council to accept the recommendation of the
senate, that they should appoint an eminent Unitarian minister
to the professorship of logic and mental philosophy, revived all
De Morgan's sensitiveness on the subject of sectarian freedom;
and, though his feelings were doubtless excessive, there is no
doubt that gloom was thrown over his life, intensified in 1867 by
the loss of his son George Campbell De Morgan, a young man of
the highest scientific promise, whose name, as De Morgan
expressly wished, will long be connected with the London
Mathematical Society, of which he was one of the founders.
From this time De Morgan rapidly fell into ill-health, previously
almost unknown to him, dying on the i8th of March 1871. An
interesting and truthful sketch of his life will be found in the
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society for the gth of
February 1872, vol. xxii. p. 112, written by A. C. Ranyard, who
says, " He was the kindliest, as well as the most learned of men —
benignant to every one who approached him, never forgetting the
claims which weakness has on strength."

De Morgan left no published indications of his opinions on
religious questions, in regard to which he was extremely reticent.
He seldom or never entered a place of worship, and declared that
he could not listen to a sermon, a circumstance perhaps due to
the extremely strict religious discipline under which he was
brought up. Nevertheless there is reason to believe that he

IO

DEMOSTHENES

was of a deeply religious disposition. Like M. Faraday and
Sir I. Newton he entertained a confident belief in Provi-
dence, founded not on any tenuous inference, but on personal
feeling. His hope of a future life also was vivid to the last.

It is impossible to omit a reference to his witty sayings, some
specimens of which are preserved in Dr Sadler's most interesting
Diary of Henry Crabb Robinson (1869), which also contains a
humorous account of H. C. R. by De Morgan. It may be
added that De Morgan was a great reader and admirer of
Dickens; he was also fond of music, and a fair performer on
the flute. (W. S. J.)

His son, WILLIAM FREND DE MORGAN (b. i§39), first became
known in artistic circles as a potter, the " De Morgan " tiles
being remarkable for his rediscovery of the secret of some beauti-
ful colours and glazes. But later in life he became even better
known to the literary world by his novels, Joseph Vance (1906),
Alice for Short (1907), Somehow Good (1908) and It Never Can
Happen Again (1909), in which the influence of Dickens and of
his own earlier family life were conspicuous.

DEMOSTHENES, the great Attic orator and statesman, was
born in 384 (or 383) B.C. His father, who bore the same name,
was an Athenian citizen belonging to the deme of Paeania. His
mother, Cleobule, was the daughter of Gylon, a citizen who had
been active in procuring the protection of the kings of Bosporus
for the Athenian colony of Nymphaeon in the Crimea, and whose
wife was a native of that region. On these grounds the adversaries
of Demosthenes, in after-days, used absurdly to taunt him with
a traitorous or barbarian ancestry. The boy had a bitter fore-
taste of life. He was seven years old when his father died,
leaving property (in a manufactory of swords, and another of
upholstery) worth about £3500, which, invested as it seems to
have been (20% was not thought exorbitant), would have
yielded rather more than £600 a year. £300 a year was a very
comfortable income at Athens, and it was possible to live decently
on a tenth of it. Nicias, a very rich man, had property equivalent,
probably, to not more than £4000 a year. Demosthenes was born
then, to a handsome, though not a great fortune. But his
guardians — two nephews of his father, Aphobus and Demophon,
and one Therippides — abused their trust, and handed over to
Demosthenes, when he came of age, rather less than one-seventh
of his patrimony, perhaps between £50 and £60 a year.
Demosthenes, after studying with Isaeus (q.v.) — then the great
master of forensic eloquence and of Attic law, especially in will
cases ' — brought an action against Aphobus, and gained a verdict
for about £2400. But it does not appear that he got the money;
and, after some more fruitless proceedings against Onetor,
the brother-in-law of Aphobus, the matter was dropped, — not,
however, before his relatives had managed to throw a public
burden (the equipment of a ship of war) on their late ward,
whereby his resources were yet further straitened. He now
became a professional writer of speeches or pleas (\oyoy pa<tx>s)
for the law courts, sometimes speaking himself. Biographers
have delighted to relate how painfully Demosthenes made him-
self a tolerable speaker, — how, with pebbles in his mouth, he
tried his lungs against the waves, how he declaimed as he ran up
hill, how he shut himself up in a cell, having first guarded himself
against a longing for the haunts of men by shaving one side of
his head, how he wrote out Thucydides eight times, how he was
derided by the Assembly and encouraged by a judicious actor who
met him moping about the Peiraeus. He certainly seems to have
been the reverse of athletic (the stalwart Aeschines upbraids him
with never having been a sportsman), and he probably had some
sort of defect or impediment in his speech as a boy. Perhaps the
most interesting fact about his work for the law courts is that
he seems to have continued it, in some measure, through the most
exciting parts of his great political career. The speech for
Phormio belongs to the same year as the plea for Megalopolis.
The speech against Boeotus " Concerning the Name " comes
between the First Philippic and the First Olynthiac. The speech
against Pantaenetus comes between the speech " On the Peace "
and the Second Philippic.

1 See Jebb's Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeos, vol. ii. p. 267 f.

The political career of Demosthenes, from his first direct
contact with public affairs in 355 B.C. to his death in 322, has
an essential unity. It is the assertion, in successive
forms adapted to successive moments, of unchanging Pollacal
principles. Externally, it is divided into the chap- "eec^"'
ter which precedes and the chapter which follows
Chaeronea. But its inner meaning, the secret of its indomitable
vigour, the law which harmonizes its apparent contrasts, cannot
be understood unless it is regarded as a whole. Still less can it
be appreciated in all its large wisdom and sustained self-mastery
if it is viewed merely as a duel between the ablest champion and
the craftiest enemy of Greek freedom. The time indeed came
when Demosthenes and Philip stood face to face as representative
antagonists in a mortal conflict. But, for Demosthenes, the
special peril represented by Philip, the peril of subjugation to
Macedon, was merely a disastrous accident. Philip happened
to become the most prominent and most formidable type of a
danger which was already threatening Greece before his baleful
star arose. As Demosthenes said to the Athenians, if the
Macedonian had not existed, they would have made another
Philip lor themselves. Until Athens recovered something of its
old spirit, there must ever be a great standing danger, not for
Athens only, but for Greece, — the danger that sooner or later, in
some shape, from some quarter — no man could foretell the hour,
the manner or the source — barbarian violence would break up
the gracious and undefiled tradition of separate Hellenic life.

What was the true relation of Athens to Greece ? The answer
which he gave to this question is the key to the life of
Demosthenes. Athens, so Demosthenes held, was the natural
head of Greece. Not, however, as an empress holding subject
or subordinate cities in a dependence more or less compulsory.
Rather as that city which most nobly expressed the noblest
attributes of Greek political existence, and which, by her pre-
eminent gifts both of intellect and of moral insight, was primarily
responsible, everywhere and always, for the maintenance of those
attributes in their integrity. Wherever the cry of the oppressed
goes up from Greek against Greek, it was the voice of Athens
which should first remind the oppressor that Hellene differed
from barbarian in postponing the use of force to the persuasions
of equal law. Wherever a barbarian hand offered wrong to any
city of the Hellenic sisterhood, it was the arm of Athens which
should first be stretched forth in the holy strength of Apollo the
Averter. Wherever among her own children the ancient loyalty
was yielding to love of pleasure or of base gain, there, above all,
it was the duty of Athens to see that the central hearth of Hellas
was kept pure. Athens must never again seek " empire " in the
sense which became odious under the influence of Cleon and
Hyperbolus, — when, to use the image of Aristophanes, the allies
were as Babylonian slaves grinding in the Athenian mill. Athens
must never permit, if she could help it, the re-establishment of
such a domination as Sparta exercised in Greece from the battle
of Aegospotami to the battle of Leuctra. Athens must aim
at leading a free confederacy, of which the members should be
bound to her by their own truest interests. Athens must seek
to deserve the confidence of all Greeks alike.

Such, in the belief of Demosthenes, was the part which Athens
must perform if Greece was to be safe. But reforms must be
effected before Athens could be capable of such a part. The evils
to be cured were different phases of one malady. Athens had
long been suffering from the profound decay of public spirit.
Since the early years of the Peloponnesian War, the separation
of Athenian society from the state had been growing more and
more marked. The old type of the eminent citizen, who was at
once statesman and general, had become almost extinct. Politics
were now managed by a small circle .of politicians. Wars were
conducted by professional soldiers whose troops were chiefly
mercenaries, and who were usually regarded by the politicians
either as instruments or as enemies. The mass of the
citizens took no active interest in public affairs. But, ^^
though indifferent to principles, they had quickly sensi-
tive partialities for men, and it was necessary to keep them in
good humour. Pericles had introduced the practice of giving a

DEMOSTHENES

ii

small bounty from the treasury to the poorer citizens, for the pur-
pose of enabling them to attend the theatre at the great festivals,
— in other words, for the purpose of bringing them under the
concentrated influence of the best Attic culture. A provision
eminently wise for the age of Pericles easily became a mischief
when the once honourable name of " demagogue " began to
mean a flatterer of the mob. Before the end of the Pelopon-
nesian War the festival-money (theoricon) was abolished. A few
years after the restoration of the democracy it was again intro-
duced. But until 354 B.C. it had never been more than a gratuity,
of which the payment depended on the treasury having a surplus.
In 354 B.C. Eubulus became steward of the treasury. He was
an able man, with a special talent for finance, free from all taint
of personal corruption, and sincerely solicitous for the honour
of Athens, but enslaved to popularity, and without principles
of policy. His first measure was to make the festival-money a
permanent item in the budget. Thenceforth this bounty was in
reality very much what Demades afterwards called it, — the
cement (xoXXa) of the democracy.

Years before the danger from Macedon was urgent, Demos-
thenes had begun the work of his life, — the effort to lift the spirit
Forensic °^ Athens, to revive the old civic loyalty, to rouse the
speeches city into taking that place and performing that part
la public which her own welfare as well as the safety of Greece
causes, prescribed. His formally political speeches must never
be considered apart from his forensic speeches in public causes.
The Athenian procedure against the proposer of an unconstitu-
tional law — i.e. of a law incompatible with existing laws — had a
direct tendency to make the law court, in such cases, a political
arena. The same tendency was indirectly exerted by the
tolerance of Athenian juries (in the absence of a presiding expert
like a judge) for irrelevant matter, since it was usually easy for a
speaker to make capital out of the adversary's political ante-
cedents. But the forensic speeches of Demosthenes for public
causes are not only political in this general sense. They are
documents, as indispensable as the Olynthiacs or Philippics,
for his own political career. Only by taking them along with the
formally political speeches, and regarding the whole as one
unbroken series, can we see clearly the full scope of the task
which he set before him, — a task in which his long resistance to
Philip was only the most dramatic incident, and in which his
real achievement is not to be measured by the event of
Chaeronea.

A forensic speech, composed for a public cause, opens the
political career of Demosthenes with a protest against a signal
abuse. In 355 B.C., at the age of twenty-nine, he wrote the
speech " Against Androtion." This combats on legal grounds a
proposal that the out-going senate should receive the honour of a
golden crown. In its larger aspect, it is a denunciation of the
corrupt system which that senate represented, and especially of
the manner in which the treasury had been administered by
Aristophon. In 354 B.C. Demosthenes composed and spoke the
oration " Against Leptines," who had effected a slender saving
for the state by the expedient of revoking those hereditary
exemptions from taxation which had at various times been
conferred in recognition of distinguished merit. The descendants
of Harmodius and Aristogeiton alone had been excepted from
the operation of the law. This was the first time that the voice
of Demosthenes himself had been heard on the public concerns
of Athens, and the utterance was a worthy prelude to the career
of a statesman. He answers the advocates of the retrenchment
by pointing out that the public interest will not ultimately be
served by a wholesale violation of the public faith. In the same
year he delivered his first strictly political speech, " On the Navy
Boards " (Symmories). The Athenians, irritated by the support
which Artaxerxes had lately given to the revolt of their allies,
and excited by rumours of his hostile preparations, were feverishly
eager for a war with Persia. Demosthenes urges that such an
enterprise would at present be useless; that it would fail to unite
Greece; that the energies of the city should be reserved for a real
emergency; but that, before the city can successfully cope with
any war, there must be a better organization of resources, and,

first of all, a reform of the navy, which he outlines with character-
istic lucidity and precision.

Two years later (352 B.C.) he is found dealing with a more
definite question of foreign policy. Sparta, favoured by the
depression of Thebes in the Phocian War, was threatening
Megalopolis. Both Sparta and Megalopolis sent embassies to
Athens. Demosthenes supported Megalopolis. The ruin of
Megalopolis would mean, he argued, the return of Spartan
domination in the Peloponnesus. Athenians must not favour
the tyranny of any one city. They must respect the rights of all
the cities, and thus promote unity based on mutual confidence.
In the same year Demosthenes wrote the speech " Against
Timocrates," to be spoken by the same Diodorus who had before
prosecuted Androtion, and who now combated an attempt to
screen Androtion and others from the penalties of embezzlement.
The speech " Against Aristocrates," also of 352 B.C., reproves that
foreign policy of feeble makeshifts which was now popular at
Athens. The Athenian tenure of the Thracian Chersonese partly
depended for its security on the good-will of the Thracian prince
Cersobleptes. Charidemus, a soldier of fortune who had already
played Athens false, was now the brother-in-law and the favourite
of Cersobleptes. Aristocrates proposed that the person of
Charidemus should be invested with a special sanctity, by the
enactment that whoever attempted his life should be an outlaw
from all dominions of Athens. Demosthenes points out that
such adulation is as futile as it is fulsome. Athens can secure
the permanence of her foreign possessions only in one way — by
being strong enough to hold them.

Thus, between 355 and 352, Demosthenes had laid down
the main lines of his policy. Domestic administration must be
purified. Statesmen must be made to feel that they
are responsible to the state, They must not be allowed
to anticipate judgment on their deserts by voting each
other golden crowns. They must not think to screen mis-
appropriation of public money by getting partisans to pass new
laws about state-debtors. Foreign policy must be guided by a
larger and more provident conception of Athenian interests.
When public excitement demands a foreign war, Athens must not
rush into it without asking whether it is necessary, whether it
will have Greek support, and whether she herself is ready for it.
When a strong Greek city threatens a weak one, and seeks to
purchase Athenian connivance with the bribe of a border-town,
Athens must remember that duty and prudence alike command
her to respect the independence of all Greeks. When it is pro-
posed, by way of insurance on Athenian possessions abroad, to
flatter the favourite of a doubtful ally, Athens must remember
that such devices will not avail a power which has no army
except on paper, and no ships fit to leave their moorings.

But the time had gone by when Athenians could have tranquil
leisure for domestic reform. A danger, calling for prompt action,
had at last come very near. For six years Athens had
been at war with Philip on account of his seizure of
Amphipolis. Meanwhile he had destroyed Potidaea Philip.
and founded Philippi. On the Thracian coasts he had
become master of Abdera and Maronea. On the Thessalian coast
he had acquired Methone. In a second invasion of Thessaly,
he had overthrown the Phocians under Onomarchus, and had
advanced to Thermopylae, to find the gates of Greece closed
against him by an Athenian force. He had then marched
to Heraeon on the Propontis, and had dictated a peace to
Cersobleptes. He had formed an alliance with Cardia, Perinthus
and Byzantium. Lastly, he had begun to show designs on the
great Confederacy of Olynthus, the more warlike Miletus of
the North. The First Philippic of Demosthenes was spoken in
351 B.C. The Third Philippic — the latest of the extant political
speeches — was spoken in 341 B.C. Between these he delivered
eight political orations, of which seven are directly concerned
with Philip. The whole series falls into two great divisions.
The first division comprises those speeches which were spoken
against Philip while he was still a foreign power threatening
Greece from without. Such are the First Philippic and the three
orations for Olynthus. The second division comprises the speeches

12

DEMOSTHENES

spoken against Philip when, by admission to the Amphictyonic
Council, he had now won his way within the circle of the Greek
states, and when the issue was no longer between Greece and
Macedonia, but between the Greek and Macedonian parties in
Greece. Such are the speech " On the Peace," the speech " On
the Embassy," the speech " On the Chersonese," the Second and
Third Philippics.

The First Philippic, spoken early in 351 B.C., was no sudden
note of alarm drawing attention to an unnoticed peril. On the
contrary, the Assembly was weary of the subject. For
PAfl/ fc, s*x Xears tne war w*tn Philip had been a theme of barren
talk. Demosthenes urges that it is time to do some-
thing, and to do it with a plan. Athens fighting Philip has fared,
he says, like an amateur boxer opposed to a skilled pugilist.
The helpless hands have only followed blows which a trained eye
should have taught them to parry. An Athenian force must be
stationed in the north, at Lemnos or Thasos. Of 2000 infantry
and 200 cavalry at least one quarter must be Athenian citizens
capable of directing the mercenaries.

Later in the same year Demosthenes did another service to the
cause of national freedom. Rhodes, severed by its own act from
the Athenian Confederacy, had since 355 been virtually subject
to Mausolus, prince (Svvaarrp) of Caria, himself a tributary of
Persia. Mausolus died in 351, and was succeeded by his widow
Artemisia. The democratic party in Rhodes now appealed to
Athens for help in throwing off the Carian yoke. Demosthenes
supported their application in his speech " For the Rhodians."
No act of his life was a truer proof of statesmanship. He failed.
But at least he had once more warned Athens that the cause of
political freedom was everywhere her own, and that, wherever
that cause was forsaken, there a new danger was created both for
Athens and for Greece.

Next year (350) an Athenian force under Phocion was sent to
Euboea, in support of Plutarchus, tyrant of Eretria, against the
faction of Cleitarchus. Demosthenes protested against
spending strength, needed for greater objects, on the
local quarrels of a despot. Phocion won a victory at
Tamynae. But the " inglorious and costly war " entailed an
outlay of more than £12,000 on the ransom of captives alone,
and ended in the total destruction of Athenian influence through-
out Euboea. That island was now left an open field for the
intrigues of Philip. Worst of all, the party of Eubulus not only
defeated a proposal, arising from this campaign, for applying the
festival-money to the war-fund, but actually carried a law making
it high treason to renew the proposal. The degree to which
political enmity was exasperated by the Euboean War may be
judged from the incident of Midias, an adherent of Eubulus,
and a type of opulent rowdyism. Demosthenes was choragus
of his tribe, and was wearing the robe of that sacred office at
the great festival in the theatre of Dionysus, when Midias struck
him on the face. The affair was eventually compromised. The
speech " Against Midias " written by Demosthenes for the trial
(in 349) was neither spoken nor completed, and remains, as few
will regret, a sketch.

It was now three years since, in 352, the Olynthians had sent
an embassy to Athens, and had made peace with their only sure
ally. In 350 a second Olynthian embassy had sought
and obtained Athenian help. The hour of Olynthus
had indeed come. In 349 Philip opened war against
the Chalcidic towns of the Olynthian League. The First and
Second Olynthiacs of Demosthenes were spoken in that year in
support of sending one force to defend Olynthus and another to
attack Philip. " Better now than later," is the thought of the
First Olynthiac: The Second argues that Philip's strength is
overrated. The Third — spoken in 348 — carries us into the midst
of action.1 It deals with practical details. The festival-fund
must be used for the war. The citizens must serve in person.

1 It is generally agreed that the Third Olynthiac is the latest ; but
the question of the order of the First and Second has been much
discussed. See Grote (History of Greece, chap. 88, appendix), who
prefers the arrangement ii. i. iii., and Blass, Die attische Beredsamkeit,
iii. p. 319.

Euboean
War.

Olyn-
thiacs.

A few months later, Olynthus and the thirty-two towns of the
confederacy were swept from the earth. Men could walk over
their sites, Demosthenes said seven years afterwards, without
knowing that such cities had existed. It was now certain that
Philip could not be stopped outside of Greece. The question
was, What point within Greece shall he be allowed to reach?

Eubulus and his party, with that versatility which is the
privilege of political vagueness, now began to call for a congress
of the allies to consider the common danger. They found a
brilliant interpreter in Aeschines, who, after having been a tragic
actor and a clerk to the assembly, had entered political life with
the advantages of a splendid gift for eloquence, a fine presence,
a happy address, a ready wit and a facile conscience. While
his opponents had thus suddenly become warlike, Demosthenes
had become pacific. He saw that Athens must have time to
collect strength. Nothing could be gained, meanwhile, by going
on with the war. Macedonian sympathizers at Athens, of whom
Philocrates was the chief, also favoured peace. Eleven envoys,
including Philocrates, Aeschines, and Demosthenes, were sent
to Philip in February 346 B.C. After a debate at Athens, peace
was concluded with Philip in April. Philip on the one Peace
hand, Athens and her allies on the other, were to keep between
what they respectively held at the time when the peace phll'P aad
was ratified. But here the Athenians made a fatal
error. Philip was bent on keeping the door of Greece open.
Demosthenes was bent on shutting it against him. Philip was
now at war with the people of Halus in Thessaly. Thebes had
for ten years been at war with Phocis. Here were two distinct
chances for Philip's armed intervention in Greece. But if the
Kalians and the Phocians were included in the peace, Philip
could not bear arms against them without violating the peace.
Accordingly Philip insisted that they should not be included.
Demosthenes insisted they should be included. They were
not included. The result followed speedily. The same envoys
were sent a second time to Philip at the end of April 346 for
the purpose of receiving his oaths in ratification of the peace.
It was late in June before he returned from Thrace to Pella — thus
gaining, under the terms, all the towns that he had taken mean-
while. He next took the envoys with him through Thessaly to
Thermopylae. There — at the invitation of Thessalians and
Thebans — he intervened in the Phocian War. Phalaecus
surrendered. Phocis was crushed. Philip took its
place in the Amphictyonic Council, and was thus p£%Jfaa
established as a Greek power in the very centre, at the war.
sacred hearth, of Greece. The right of precedence in
consultation of the oracle (irponavrdo.) was transferred from
Athens to Philip. While indignant Athenians were clamouring for
the revocation of the peace, Demosthenes upheld it in his speech
" On the Peace " in September. It ought never to have been
made on such terms, he said. But, having been made, it had
better be kept. " If we went to war now, where should we find
allies? And after losing Oropus, Amphipolis, Cardia, Chios, Cos,
Rhodes, Byzantium, shall we fight about the shadow of Delphi?"

During the eight years between the peace of Philocrates and
the battle of Chaeronea, the authority of Demosthenes steadily
grew, until it became first predominant and then paramount. He
had, indeed, a melancholy advantage. Each year his argument
was more and more cogently enforced by the logic of facts. In
344 he visited the Peloponnesus for the purpose of counteracting
Macedonian intrigue. Mistrust, he told the Peloponnesian
cities, is the safeguard of free communities against tyrants.
Philip lodged a formal complaint at Athens. Here, as elsewhere,
the future master of Greece reminds us of Napoleon on the eve of
the first empire. He has the same imperturbable and persuasive
effrontery in protesting that he is doing one thing at the moment
when his energies are concentrated on doing the opposite.
Demosthenes replied in the Second Philippic. " If," he
said, " Philip is the friend of Greece, we are doing
wrong. If he is the enemy of Greece, we are doing
right. Which is he? I hold him to be our enemy, because
everything that he has hitherto done has benefited himself and
hurt us." The prosecution of Aeschines for malversation on the

Second
Philippic.

DEMOSTHENES

Third
Philippic.

embassy (commonly known as De falsa legalione), which was
brought to an issue in the following year, marks the moral
strength of the position now held by Demosthenes. When the
gravity of the charge and the complexity of the evidence are
considered, the acquittal of Aeschines by a narrow majority
must be deemed his condemnation. The speech " On the
Affairs of the Chersonese " and the Third Philippic were the
crowning efforts of Demosthenes. Spoken in the same year,
341 B.C., and within a short space of each other, they must be
taken together. The speech " On the Affairs of the Chersonese "
regards the situation chiefly from an Athenian point of view.
" If the peace means," argues Demosthenes, " that Philip can
seize with impunity one Athenian possession after another, but
that Athenians shall not on their peril touch aught that belongs
to Philip, where is the line to be drawn? We shall go to war, I
am told, when it is necessary. If the necessity has not come

yet, when will it come? " The Third Philippic surveys

a wider horizon. It ascends from the Athenian to the

Hellenic view. Philip has annihilated Olynthus and
the Chalcidic towns. He has ruined Pbocis. He has frightened
Thebes. He has divided Thessaly. Euboea and the Pelo-
ponnesus are his. His power stretches from the Adriatic to
the Hellespont. Where shall be the end? Athens is the last
hope of Greece. And, in this final crisis, Demosthenes was the
embodied energy of Athens. It was Demosthenes who went to
Byzantium, brought the estranged city back to the Athenian
alliance, and snatched it from the hands of Philip. It was
Demosthenes who, when Philip had already seized Elatea,
hurried to Thebes, who by his passionate appeal gained one last
chance, the only possible chance, for Greek freedom, who broke
down the barrier of an inveterate jealousy, who brought Thebans
to fight beside Athenians, and who thus won at the eleventh
hour a victory for the spirit of loyal union which took away
at least one bitterness from the unspeakable calamity of
Chaeronea.

But the work of Demosthenes was not closed by the ruin of his
cause. During the last sixteen years of his life (338-322) he

rendered services to Athens not less important, and
'activity? perhaps more difficult, than those which he had

rendered before. He was now, as a matter of course,
foremost in the public affairs of Athens. In January 337, at the
annual winter Festival of the Dead in the Outer Ceramicus, he
spoke the funeral oration over those who had fallen at Chaeronea.
He was member of a commission for strengthening the fortifica-
tions of the city (reixorotos). He administered the festival-fund.
During a dearth which visited Athens between 330 and 326 he
was charged with the organization of public relief. In 324 he was
chief (Apxt0€wpos) of the sacred embassy to Olympia. Already,
in 336, Ctesiphon had proposed that Demosthenes should receive
a golden crown from the state, and that his extraordinary merits
should be proclaimed in the theatre at the Great Dionysia. The
proposal was adopted by the senate as a bill (irpoftovKevna) ;
but it must be passed by the Assembly before it could become
an act (^(^wrpta). To prevent this, Aeschines gave notice, in 336,
that he intended to proceed against Ctesiphon for having proposed
an unconstitutional measure. For six years Aeschines avoided
action on this notice. At last, in 330, the patriotic party felt
strong enough to force him to an issue. Aeschines spoke the
speech " Against Ctesiphon," an attack on the whole public life
of Demosthenes. Demosthenes gained an overwhelming victory
for himself and for the honour of Athens in the most finished, the
most splendid and the most pathetic work of ancient eloquence
— the immortal oration " On the Crown."

In the winter of 325-324 Harpalus, the receiver-general of
Alexander in Asia, fled to Greece, taking with him 8000 mercen-

aries, and treasure equivalent to about a million and
Harpalus. a quarter sterling. On the motion of Demosthenes

he was warned from the harbours of Attica. Having
left his troops and part of his treasure at Taenarum, he again
present'ed himself at the Peiraeus, and was now admitted. He
spoke fervently of the opportunity which offered itself to those
who loved the freedom of Greece. All Asia would rise with Athens

to throw off the hated yoke. Fiery patriots like Hypereides were
in raptures. For zeal which could be bought Harpalus had other
persuasions. But Demosthenes stood firm. War with Alexander
would, he saw, be madness. It could have but one result, — some
indefinitely worse doom for Athens. Antipater and Olympias
presently demanded the surrender of Harpalus. Demosthenes
opposed this. But he reconciled the dignity with the loyalty of
Athens by carrying a decree that Harpalus should be arrested,
and that his treasure should be deposited in the Parthenon, to be
held in trust for Alexander. Harpalus escaped from prison. The
amount of the treasure, which Harpalus had stated as 700 talents,
proved to be no more than 350. Demosthenes proposed that the
Areopagus should inquire what had become of the other 350.
Six months, spent in party intrigues, passed before the Areo-
pagus gave hi their report (dwo^cuns). The report inculpated
nine persons. Demosthenes headed the list of the accused.
Hypereides was among the ten public prosecutors. Demos-
thenes was condemned, fined fifty talents, and, in default of
payment, imprisoned. After a few days he escaped from prison
to Aegina, and thence to Troezen. Two things in this obscure
affair are beyond reasonable doubt. First, that Demosthenes
was not bribed by Harpalus. The hatred of the Macedonian
party towards Demosthenes, and the fury of those vehement
patriots who cried out that he had betrayed their best oppor-
tunity, combined to procure his condemnation, with the help,
probably, of some appearances which were against him.
Secondly, it can hardly be questioned that, by withstanding the
hot-headed patriots at this juncture, Demosthenes did heroic
service to Athens.

Next year (323 B.C.) Alexander died. Then the voice of Demos-
thenes, calling Greece to arms, rang out like a trumpet. Early
in August 322 the battle of Crannon decided the
Lamian War against Greece. Antipater demanded, as
the condition on which he would refrain from besieging war.
Athens, the surrender of the leading patriots. De-
mades moved the decree of the Assembly by which Demosthenes,
Hypereides, and some others were condemned to death as
traitors. On the 2oth of Boedromion (September 16) Demos-
322, a Macedonian garrison occupied Munychia. It thenes
was a day of solemn and happy memories, a day con~
devoted, in the celebration of the Great Mysteries, to
sacred joy, — the day on which the glad procession of the Initiated
returned from Eleusis to Athens. It happened, however, to have
another association, more significant than any ironical contrast
for the present purpose of Antipater. It was the day on which,
thirteen years before, Alexander had punished the rebellion of
Thebes with annihilation.

The condemned men had fled to Aegina. Parting there from
Hypereides and the rest, Demosthenes went on to Calauria, a
small island off the coast of Argolis. In Calauria there
was an ancient temple of Poseidon, once a centre of
Minyan and Ionian worship, and surrounded with a
peculiar sanctity as having been, from time immemorial, an
inviolable refuge for the pursued. Here Demosthenes sought
asylum. Archias of Thurii, a man who, like Aeschines, had begun
life as a tragic actor, and who was now in the pay of Antipater,
soon traced the fugitive, landed in Calauria, and appeared before
the temple of Poseidon with a body of Thracian spearmen.
Plutarch's picturesque narrative bears the marks of artistic
elaboration. Demosthenes had dreamed the night before that
he and Archias were competing for a prize as tragic actors; the
house applauded Demosthenes; but his chorus was shabbily
equipped, and Archias gained the prize. Archias was not the
man to stick at sacrilege. In Aegina, Hypereides and the others
had been taken from the shrine of Aeacus. But he hesitated to
violate an asylum so peculiarly sacred as the Calaurian temple.
Standing before its open door, with his Thracian soldiers around
him, he endeavoured to prevail on Demosthenes to quit the holy
precinct. Antipater would be certain to pardon him. Demos-
thenes sat silent, with his eyes fixed on the ground. At last, as
the emissary persisted in his bland persuasions, he looked up and
said, — " Archias, you never moved me by your acting, and you

demned.

DEMOSTHENES

will not move me now by your promises." Archias lost his temper,
and began to threaten. " Now," rejoined Demosthenes, " you
speak like a real Macedonian oracle; before you were acting.
Wait a moment, then, till 1 write to my friends." With these
words, Demosthenes withdrew into the inner part of the temple,
— still visible, however, from the entrance. He took out a roll of
paper, as if he were going to write, put the pen to his mouth, and
bit it, as was his habit in composing. Then he threw his head
back, and drew his cloak over it. The Thracian spearmen, who
were watching him from the door, began to gibe at his cowardice.
_ .. Archias went in to him, encouraged him to rise,

repeated his old arguments, talked to him of reconcilia-
tion with Antipater. By this time Demosthenes felt that the
poison which he had sucked from the pen was beginning to work.
He drew the cloak from his face, and looked steadily at Archias.
" Now you can play the part of Creon in the tragedy as soon as
you like," he said, " and cast forth my body unburied. But I,
O gracious Poseidon, quit thy temple while I yet live; Antipater
and his Macedonians have done what they could to pollute it."
He moved towards the door, calling to them to support his
tottering steps. He had just passed the altar of the god, when he
fell, and with a groan gave up the ghost (October 322 B.C.).

As a statesman, Demosthenes needs no epitaph but his own
words in the speech " On the Crown," — / say that, if the event had

been manifest to the whole world beforehand, not even then
character. ou&ht Athens to have forsaken this course, if Athens had

any regard for her glory, or for her past, or for the ages to
come. The Persian soldier in Herodotus, following Xerxes to
foreseen ruin, confides to his fellow-guest at the banquet that the
bitterest pain which man can know is TroXXet <t>poveovra nr/Stvos
Kparktiv, — complete, but helpless, prescience. In the grasp of a
more inexorable necessity, the champion of Greek freedom was
borne onward to a more tremendous catastrophe than that which
strewed the waters of Salamis with Persian wrecks and the field of
Plataea with Persian dead; but to him, at least, it was given to
proclaim aloud the clear and sure foreboding that filled his soul,
to do all that true heart and free hand could do for his cause, and,
though not to save, yet to encourage, to console and to ennoble.
As the inspiration of his life was larger and higher than the mere
courage of resistance, so his merit must be regarded as standing
altogether outside and above the struggle with Macedon. The
great purpose which he set before him was to revive the public
spirit, to restore the political vigour, and to re-establish the
Panhellenic influence of Athens, — never for her own advantage
merely, but always in the interest of Greece. His glory is, that
while he lived he helped Athens to live a higher life. Wherever
the noblest expressions of her mind are honoured, wherever the
large conceptions of Pericles command the admiration of states-
men, wherever the architect and the sculptor love to dwell on the
masterpieces of Ictinus and Pheidias, wherever the spell of ideal
beauty or of lofty contemplation is exercised by the creations of
Sophocles or of Plato, there it will be remembered that the spirit
which wrought in all these would have passed sooner from among
men, if it had not been recalled from a trance, which others were
content to mistake for the last sleep, by the passionate breath of
Demosthenes.

The orator in whom artistic genius was united, more perfectly
than in any other man, with moral enthusiasm and with intel-
Orato lectual grasp, has held in the modern world the same

rank which was accorded to him in the old; but he
cannot enjoy the same appreciation. Macaulay's ridicule has
rescued from oblivion the criticism which pronounced the
eloquence of Chatham to be more ornate than that of Demos-
thenes, and less diffuse than that of Cicero. Did the critic, asks
Macaulay, ever hear any speaking that was less ornamented than
that of Demosthenes, or more diffuse than that of Cicero? Yet
the critic's remark was not so pointless as Macaulay thought
it. Sincerity and intensity are, indeed, to the modern reader,
the most obvious characteristics of Demosthenes. His style is,
on the whole, singularly free from what we are accustomed to
regard as rhetorical embellishment. Where the modern orator
would employ a wealth of imagery, or elaborate a picture in

exquisite detail, Demosthenes is content with a phrase or a
word. Burke uses, in reference to Hyder Ali, the same image
which Demosthenes uses in reference to Philip. " Compounding
all the materials of fury, havoc, desolation, into one black cloud,
he hung for a while on the declivity of the mountains. Whilst
the authors of all these evils were idly and stupidly gazing on this
menacing meteor, which darkened all their horizon, it suddenly
burst, and poured down the whole of its contents upon the plains
of the Carnatic." Demosthenes forbears to amplify. " The
people gave their voice, and the danger which hung upon our
borders went by like a cloud." To our modern feeling, the
eloquence of Demosthenes exhibits everywhere a general stamp
of earnest and simple strength. But it is well to remember the
charge made against the style of Demosthenes by a contempo-
rary Greek orator, and the defence offered by the best Greek
critic of oratory. Aeschines reproached the diction of Demos-
thenes with excess of elaboration and adornment (irepitpyia).
Dionysius, in reply, admits that Demosthenes does at times
depart from simplicity, — that his style is sometimes elaborately
ornate and remote from the ordinary usage. But, he adds,
Demosthenes adopts this manner where it is justified by the
elevation of his theme. The remark may serve to remind us of
our modern disadvantage for a full appreciation of Demosthenes.
The old world felt, as we do, his moral and mental greatness, his
fire, his self-devotion, his insight. But it felt also, as we can
never feel, the versatile perfection of his skill. This it was that
made Demosthenes unique to the ancients. The ardent patriot,
the far-seeing statesman, were united in his person with the con-
summate and unapproachable artist. Dionysius devoted two
special treatises to Demosthenes, — one on his language and style
(Xecrads TOJTOS) , the other on his treatment of subject-matter
(irpaynariKos Torres). The latter is lost. The former is one of
the best essays in literary criticism which antiquity has
bequeathed to us. The idea which it works out is that Demos-
thenes has perfected Greek prose by fusing in a glorious harmony
the elements which had hitherto belonged to separate types.
The austere dignity of Antiphon, the plain elegance of Lysias,
the smooth and balanced finish of that middle or normal char-
acter which is represented by Isocrates, have come together in
Demosthenes. Nor is this all. In each species he excels the
specialists. He surpasses the school of Antiphon in perspicuity,
the school of Lysias in verve, the school of Isocrates in variety, in
felicity, in symmetry, in pathos, in power. Demosthenes has at
command all the discursive brilliancy which fascinates a festal
audience. He has that power of concise and lucid narration, of
terse reasoning, of persuasive appeal, which is required by the
forensic speaker. His political eloquence can worthily image
the majesty of the state, and enforce weighty counsels with lofty
and impassioned fervour. A true artist, he grudged no labour
which could make the least part of his work more perfect.
Isocrates spent ten years on the Panegyricus. After Plato's
death, a manuscript was found among his papers with the first
eight words of the Republic arranged in several different orders.
What wonder, then, asks the Greek critic, if the diligence of
Demosthenes was no less incessant and minute? " To me,"
he says, " it seems far more natural that a man engaged in com-
posing political discourses, imperishable memorials of his power,
should neglect not even the smallest details, than that the
veneration of painters and sculptors, who are darkly showing
forth their manual tact and toil in a corruptible material, should
exhaust the refinements of their art on the veins, on the feathers,
on the down of the lip, and the like niceties."

More than half of the sixty-one speeches extant under the name
of Demosthenes are certainly or probably spurious. The results
to which the preponderance of opinion leans are given works.
in the following table. Those marked a were already
rejected or doubted in antiquity; those marked m, first in
modern times:1

1 The dates agree in the main with those given by A. D. Schafer
in Demosthenes und seine Zeit (2nd ed., 1885-1887), and by F. Blass
in Die attische Beredsamkeit (1887-1898), who regards thirty-three
(or possibly thirty-five) of the speeches as genuine.

DEMOSTHENES

I. DELIBERATIVE SPEECHES.

GENUINE.

Or. 14. On the Navy Boards . . 354 B.C.

Or. 1 6. For the People of Megalopolis . 352 „

Or. 4. First Philippic . 351 „

Or. 15. For the Rhodians . 351 „

Or. i. First Olynthiac . 349

Or. 2. Second Olynthiac . 349

Or. 3. Third Olynthiac . 348

Or. 5. On the Peace . 346

Or. 6. Second Philippic . 344

Or. 8. On the Affairs of the Chersonese 341

Or. 9. Third Philippic . . . 341

SPURIOUS.

(a) Or. 7. On Halonnesus (by Hegesippus) . . 342 B.C.
Rhetorical Forgeries.

(a) Or. 17. On the Treaty with Alexander.

(a) Or. 10. Fourth Philippic.

(TO) Or. II. Answer to Philip's Letter.1

(m) Or. 12. Philip's Letter.

(m) Or. 13. On the Assessment (oinrfu).

II. FORENSIC SPEECHES.
A. IN PUBLIC CAUSES.

GENUINE.

Or. 22. In (KOTA) Androtionem . 355 B.C.

Or. 20. Contra (irp6s) Leptinem 354 „

Or. 24. In Timocratem . 352 ,,

Or. 23. In Aristocratem . 352 „

Or. 21. In Midiam . . 349 „

Or. 19. On the Embassy . 343 • „

Or. 18. On the Crown . 330 „

SPURIOUS.

(a) Or. 58. In Theocrinem ..... 339 B.C.
(a) Or. 25, 26. In Aristogitona I. and II. (Rhetorical forgeries).

B. IN PRIVATE CAUSES.

GENUINE.

Or. 27, 28. In Aphobum I. et II. . 364 B.C.

(m) Or. 30, 31. Contra Onetora I. et II. . 362 „

Or. 41. Contra Spudiam . . . ? „

(m) Or. 55. Contra Calliclem . . ?

Or. 54. In Cononem. . . . 356 ,,

Or. 36. Pro Phormione . . . 352 ,,

(m) Or. 39. Contra Boeotum de Nomine . 350 ,,

Or. 37. Contra Pantaenetum . . 346-5 ,,

(m) Or. 38. Contra Nausimachum et Diopithem ?

SPURIOUS.
(The first eight of the following are given by Schafer to Apollodorus.)

.
after

(TO) Or. 52. Contra Callippum.
(a) Or. 53. Contra Nicostratum .
(a) Or. 49. Contra Timotheum .
(TO) Or. 50. Contra Polyclem .
(a) Or. 47. In Evergum et Mnesibulum
(m) Or. 45, 46. In Stephanum I. et II.
(a) Or. 59. In Neaeram . . 349[343~o, Blass]

(TO) -Or. 51. OntheTrierarchicCrown(by Cephiso-
dotus?)

369-8 B.C.

368

362

357

356

351

(TO) Or. 43. Contra Macartatum
(TO) Or. 48. In Olympiodorum.
(TO) Or. 44. Contra Leocharem.

,,_
300-359

after

343

(a) Or. 35. Contra Lacritum .... 341 „

(a) Or. 42. Contra Phaenippum ... ?

(m) Or. 32. Contra Zenothemin ... ?

(TO) Or. 34. Contra Phormionem ... ?

(TO) Or. 29. Contra Aphobum pro Phano

(a) Or. 40. Contra Boeotum de Dote . . 347 „

(TO) Or. 57. Contra Eubulidem . . . 346-5 ,,

(TO) Or. 33. Contra Apaturium . . ?

(a) Or. 56. In Dionysodorum . not before 322-1 „

Or. 60 (imT&<t>ios) and Or. 61 (4poiT«6s) are works of rhetor-
icians. The six epistles are also forgeries; they were used by the
composer of the twelve epistles which bear the name of Aeschines.
The 56 irpoolfua, exordia or sketches for political speeches, are by
various hands and of various dates.2 They are valuable as being
compiled from Demosthenes himself, or from other classical models.

The ancient fame of Demosthenes as an orator can be compared
only with the fame of Homer as a poet. Cicero, with generous
appreciation, recognizes Demosthenes as the standard of perfec-
tion. Dionysius, the closest and most penetrating of his ancient
critics, exhausts the language of admiration in showing how

1 Or. ii and 12 are probably both by Anaximenes of Lampsacus.
1 According to Blass, the second and third epistles and the exordia
are genuine.

Demosthenes united and elevated whatever had been best in
earlier masters of the Greek idiom. Hermogenes, in his works
on rhetoric, refers to Demosthenes as 6 p^rwp, the Literary
orator. The writer of the treatise On Sublimity knows history of
no heights loftier than those to which Demosthenes
has risen. From his own younger contemporaries,
Aristotle and Theophrastus, who founded their theory of rhetoric
in large part on his practice, down to the latest Byzantines, the
consent of theorists, orators, antiquarians, anthologists, lexico-
graphers, offered the same unvarying homage to Demosthenes.
His work busied commentators such as Xenon, Minucian,
Basilicus, Aelius, Theon, Zosimus of Gaza. Arguments to his
speeches were drawn up by rhetoricians so distinguished as
Numenius and Libanius. Accomplished men of letters, such as
Julius Vestinus and Aelius Dionysius, selected from his writings
choice passages for declamation or perusal, of which fragments
are incorporated in the miscellany of Photius and the lexicons
of Harpocration, Pollux and Suidas. It might have been
anticipated that the purity of a text so widely read and so
renowned would, from the earliest times, have been guarded with
jealous care. The works of the three great dramatists had been
thus protected, about 340 B.C., by a standard Attic recension.
But no such good fortune befell the works of Demosthenes.
Alexandrian criticism was chiefly occupied with poetry. The
titular works of Demosthenes were, indeed, registered, with
those of the other orators, in the catalogues (PTJTOPIKOI irlvoxts)
of Alexandria and Pergamum. But no thorough attempt was
made to separate the authentic works from those spurious works
which had even then become mingled with them. Philosophical
schools which, like the Stoic, felt the ethical interest of Demos-
thenes, cared little for his language. The rhetoricians who
imitated or analysed his style cared little for the criticism of his
text. Their treatment of it had, indeed, a direct tendency to
falsify it. It was customary to indicate by marks those passages
which were especially useful for study or imitation. It then
became a rhetorical exercise to recast, adapt or interweave such
passages. Sopater, the commentator on Hermogenes, wrote on
/i€Ta/3oXai xoi utrairoiriffta T&V &t\iuxj8ivovs \upiuv, " adap-
tations or transcripts of passages in Demosthenes." Such
manipulation could not but lead to interpolations or confusions
in the original text. Great, too, as was the attention bestowed
on the thought, sentiment and style of Demosthenes, compara-
tively little care was bestowed on his subject-matter. He was
studied more on the moral and the formal side than on the real
side. An incorrect substitution of one name for another, a reading
which gave an impossible date, insertions of spurious laws or
decrees, were points which few readers would stop to notice.
Hence it resulted that, while Plato, Thucydides and Demos-
thenes were the most universally popular of the classical prose-
writers, the text of Demosthenes, the most widely used perhaps
of all, was also the least pure. His more careful students at
length made an effort to arrest the process of corruption.
Editions of Demosthenes based on a critical recension, and called
'ArrLKiava (avriypatjia), came to be distinguished from the
vulgates, or oynuSea ec&fcmJ.

Among the extant manuscripts of Demosthenes — upwards of
170 in number — one is far superior, as a whole, to the rest. This
is Parisinus S 2934, of the loth century. A com-
parison of this MS. with the extracts of Aelius,
Aristeides and Harpocration from the Third Philippic
favours the view that it is derived from an 'AmKt.av6v, whereas
the SrjjuajSets ec56<T«s, used by Hermogenes and by the
rhetoricians generally, have been the chief sources of our other
manuscripts. The collation of this manuscript by Immanuel
Bekker first placed the textual criticism of Demosthenes on a
sound footing. Not only is this manuscript nearly free from
interpolations, but it is the sole voucher for many excellent
readings. Among the other MSS., some of the most important
are — Marcianus 416 F, of the loth (or nth) century, the basis
of the Aldine edition; Augustanus I. (N 85), derived from the
last, and containing scholia to the speeches on the Crown and the
Embassy, by Ulpian, with some by a younger writer, who was

i6

DEMOTIC— DEMPSTER

Scholia.

perhaps Moschopulus; Parisinus T ; Antverpiensis fl — the last
two comparatively free from additions. The fullest authority
on the MSS. is J. T. Vomel, Notitia codicum Demosth., and
Prolegomena Critica to his edition published at Halle (1856-1857),
pp. 175-178.'

The extant scholia on Demosthenes are for the most part poor.
Their staple consists of Byzantine erudition; and their value
depends chiefly on what they have preserved of older
criticism. They are better than usual for the Ilept
are^avov, Kara Tt/JOKparous; best for the Ilepi irapairptcr-
(Setas. The Greek commentaries ascribed to Ulpian are especially
defective on the historical side, and give little essential aid.
Editions:— C. W. Miiller, in Oral. Alt. ii. (1847-1858); Scholia
Graeca in Demosth. ex cod. aucta et emendata (Oxon., 1851; in
W. Dindorf's ed.).

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Editio princeps (Aldus, Venice, 1504); J. J.
Reiske (with notes of J. Wolf, J. Taylor, J. Markland, &c., 177°-
1775); revised edition of Reiske by G. H. Schafer (1823-1826);
I. Bekker, in Oratores Attici (1823-1824), the first edition based on
codex S (see above); W. S. Dobson (1828); J. G. Baiter and
H. Sauppe (1850); W. Dindorf (in Teubner series, 1867, 4th ed. by
F. Blass, 1885-1889); H. Omont, facsimile edition of codex S
(1892-1893) ; S. H. Butcher in Oxford Scriptor'um Classicorum
Bibliotheca (1003 foil.); W. Dindorf (9 vols., Oxford, 1846-1851),
with notes of previous commentators and Greek scholia ; R. Whiston
(political speeches) with introductions and notes (1859-1868). For
a select list of the numerous English and foreign editions and trans-
lations of separate speeches see J. B. Mayor, Guide to the Choice of
Classical Books (1885, suppt. 1896). Mention may here be made of
De corona by W. W. Goodwin (1901, ed. min., 1904) ; W. H. Simcox
(1873, with Aeschines In Ctesiphontem) ; and P. E. Matheson
(1899); Leptines by J. E. Sandys (1890); De falsa legatione by
R. Shilleto (4th ed., 1874) ; Select Private Orations by J. E. Sandys and
F. A. Paley ford ed., 1898, 1896) ; Midias by W. W. Goodwin (1906).
C. R. Kennedy's complete translation is a model of scholarly finish,
and the appendices on Attic law, &c., are of great value. There are
indices to Demosthenes by J. Reiske (ed. G. H. Schafer, 1823);
S. Preuss (1892). Among recent papyrus finds are fragments of a
special lexicon to the Aristocratea and a commentary by Didymus
(ed. H. Diels and W. Schubart, 1904). Illustrative literature: A. D.
Schafer, Demosthenes und seine Zeit (2nd ed., 1885-1887), a masterly
and exhaustive historical work; F. Blass, Die attische Beredsamkeit
(1887-1898); W. J. Brodribb, " Demosthenes " in Ancient Classics
for English Readers (1877) ; S. H. Butcher, Introduction to the Study
of Demosthenes (1881); C. G. Bohnecke, Demosthenes, Lykurgos,
Hyperides, und ihr Zeitalter (1864); A. Bouille, Histoire de Demos-
thene (2nd ed., 1868) ; J. Girard, Etudes sur I'eloquence attique (1874) ;
M. Croiset, Des idees morales dans VEloquence politique de Demos-
thene (1874); A. Hug, Demosthenes als politischer Denker (1881);
L. Bredit, L'Eloquence politique en Grece (2nd ed., 1886) ; A. Bougot,
Rivalite d'Eschine et Demosthene (1891). For fuller bibliographical
information consult R. Nicolai, Griechische Literaturgeschichte
(1881); W. Engelmann, Scriptores Graeci (1881); G. Hiittner in
C. Bursian's Jahresbencht, li. (1889). (R. C. J.)

DEMOTIC (Gr. STIHOTIKOS, of or belonging to the people), a
term, meaning popular, specially applied to that cursive script
of the ancient Egyptian language used for business and literary
purposes, — for the people. It is opposed to " hieratic " (Gr.
iepanKos, of or belonging to the priests), the script, an abridged
form of the hieroglyphic, used in transcribing the religious texts.
(See WRITING, and EGYPT: II., Andent,D. Langttageand Writing.)

DEMOTICA, or DIMOTICA, a town of European Turkey, in the
vilayet of Adrianople; on the Maritza valley branch of the
Constantinople-Salonica railway, about 35 m. S. of Adrianople.
Pop. (1905) about 10,000. Demotica is built at the foot of a
conical hill on the left bank of the river Kizildeli, near its junction
with the Maritza. It was formerly the seat of a Greek arch-
bishop, and besides the ancient citadel and palace on the summit
of the hill contains several Greek churches, mosques and public
baths. In the middle ages, when it was named Didymotichos,
it was one of the principal marts of Thrace; in modern times
it has regained something of its commercial importance, and
exports pottery, linen, silk and grain. These goods are sent
to Deddagatch for shipment. Demotica was the birthplace of the

1 See also H. Usener in Nachrichten von der Konigl. Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Gottingen, p. 188 (1892) ; J. H. Lipsius, " Zur Text-
critik des Demosthenes " in Berichte . . . der Konigl. Sachsischen
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften (1893) with special reference to the
papyrus finds at the end of the 19th century; E. Bethe, Demosthenis
scriptorum corpus (1893).

Turkish sultan Bayezid I. (1347); after the battle of Poltava,
Charles XII. of Sweden resided here from February 1713 to
October 1714.

DEMPSTER, THOMAS (1570-1625), Scottish scholar and
historian, was born at Cliftbog, Aberdeenshire, the son of
Thomas Dempster of Muresk, Auchterless and Killesmont,
sheriff of Banff and Buchan. According to his own account,
he was the twenty -fourth of twenty-nine children, and was early
remarkable for precocious talent. He obtained his early educa-
tion in Aberdeenshire, and at ten entered Pembroke Hall,
Cambridge; after a short while he went to Paris, and, driven
thence by the plague, to Louvain, whence by order of the pope
he was transferred with several other Scottish students to the
papal seminary at Rome. Being soon forced by ill health to
leave, he went to the English college at Douai, where he remained
three years and took his M.A. degree. While at Douai he wrote
a scurrilous attack on Queen Elizabeth, which caused a riot
among the English students. But, if his truculent character
was thus early displayed, his abilities were no less conspicuous;
and, though still in his teens, he became lecturer on the
Humanities at Tournai, whence, after but a short stay, he returned
to Paris, to take his degree of doctor of canon law, and become
regent of the college of Navarre. He soon left Paris for Toulouse,
which in turn he was forced to leave owing to the hostility of the
city authorities, aroused by his violent assertion of university
rights. He was now elected professor of eloquence at the
university or academy of Nimes, but not without a murderous
attack upon him by one of the defeated candidates and his
supporters, followed by a suit for libel, which, though he ulti-
mately won his case, forced him to leave the town. A short
engagement in Spain, as tutor to the son of Marshal de Saint Luc,
was terminated by another quarrel; and Dempster now returned
to Scotland with the intention of asserting a claim to bis father's
estates. Finding his relatives unsympathetic, and falling into
heated controversy with the Presbyterian clergy, he made no
long stay, but returned to Paris, where he remained for seven
years, becoming professor in several colleges successively. At
last, however, his temporary connexion with the college de
Beauvais was ended by a feat of arms which proved him as stout
a fighter with his sword as with his pen; and, since his victory
was won over officers of the king's guard, it again became
expedient for him to change his place of residence. The dedica-
tion of his edition of Rosinus' Antiquitatum Romanorum corpus
absolutissimum to King James I. had won him an invitation
to the English court; and in 1615 he went to London. His
reception by the king was flattering enough; but his hopes of
preferment were dashed by the opposition of the Anglican clergy
to the promotion of a papist. He left for Rome, where, after a
short imprisonment on suspicion of being a spy, he gained the
favour of Pope Paul V., through whose influence with Cosimo II.,
grand duke of Tuscany, he was appointed to the professorship of
the Pandects at Pisa. He had married while in London, but ere
long had reason to suspect his wife's relations with a certain
Englishman. Violent accusations followed, indignantly repudi-
ated; a diplomatic correspondence ensued, and a demand was
made, and supported by the grand duke, for an apology, which
the professor refused to make, preferring rather to lose his chair.
He now set out once more for Scotland, but was intercepted by
the Florentine cardinal Luigi Capponi, who induced him to
remain at Bologna as professor of Humanity. This was the most
distinguished post in the most famous of continental universities,
and Dempster was now at the height of his fame. Though his
Roman Antiquities and Scotia illustrior had been placed on the
Index pending correction, Pope Urban VIII. made him a knight
and gave him a pension. He was not, however, to enjoy his
honours long. His wife eloped with a student, and Dempster,
pursuing the fugitives in the heat of summer, caught a fever, and
died at Bologna on the 6th of September 1625.

Dempster owed his great position in the history of scholarship
to his extraordinary memory, and to the versatility which made
him equally at home in philology, criticism, law, biography and
history. His style is, however, often barbarous; and the obvious

DEMURRAGE— DENBIGH

defects of his works are due to his restlessness and impetuosity
and to a patriotic and personal vanity which led him in Scottish
questions into absurd exaggerations, and in matters affecting
his own life into an incurable habit of romancing. The besl
known of his works is the Hisloria ecclesiastica gentis Scotorum
(Bologna, 1627). In this book he tries to prove that Bernard
(Sapiens), Alcuin, Boniface and Joannes Scotus Erigena were
all Scots, and even Boadicea becomes a Scottish author. This
criticism is not applicable to his works on antiquarian subjects,
and his edition of Benedetto Accolti's De bello a Christianis
contra barbaros (1623) has great merits.

A portion of his Latin verse is printed in the first volume (pp. 306-
354) of Delitiae poetarum Scotorum (Amsterdam, 1637).

DEMURRAGE (from "demur," Fr. demeurer, to delay,
derived from Lat. mora), in the law of merchant shipping, the
sum payable by the freighter to the shipowner for detention of
the vessel in port beyond the number of days allowed for the
purpose of loading or unloading (see AFFREIGHTMENT: under
Charter-parties). The word is also used in railway law for the
charge on detention of trucks; and in banking for the charge
per ounce made by the Bank of England in exchanging coin
or notes for bullion.

DEMURRER (from Fr. demeurer, to delay, Lat. morari), in
English law, an objection taken to the sufficiency, in point of
law, of the pleading or written statement of the other side. In
equity pleading a demurrer lay only against the bill, and not
against the answer; at common law any part of the pleading
could be demurred to. On the passing of the Judicature Act
of 1875 the procedure with respect to demurrers in civil cases
was amended, and, subsequently, by the Rules of the Supreme
Court, Order XXV. demurrers were abolished and a more
summary process for getting rid of pleadings which showed
no reasonable cause of action or defence was adopted, called
proceedings in lieu of demurrer. Demurrer in criminal cases
still exists, but is now seldom resorted to. Demurrers are still
in constant use in the United States. See ANSWER; PLEADING.
DENAIN, a town of northern France in the department of
Nord, 8 m. S.W. of Valenciennes by steam tramway. A mere
village in the beginning of the igth century, it rapidly increased
from 1850 onwards, and, according to the censusof 1906, possessed
22,845 inhabitants, mainly engaged in the coal mines and iron-
smelting works, to which it owes its development. There are
also breweries, manufactories of machinery, sugar and glass.
A school of commerce and industry is among the institutions.
Denain has a port on the left bank of the Scheldt canal. Its
vicinity was the scene of the decisive victory gained in 1712 by
Marshal Villars over the allies commanded by Prince Eugene;
and the battlefield is marked by a monolithic monument
inscribed with the verses of Voltaire: —

" Regardez dans Denain I'audacieux Villars

Disputant le tonnerre a 1'aigle des Cesars."
DENBIGH, WILLIAM FEILDING, IST EARL OF (d. 1643), son
of Basil Feilding1 of Newnham Paddox in Warwickshire, and
of Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Walter Aston, was educated
at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and knighted in 1603. He
married Susan, daughter of Sir George Villiers, sister of the
future duke of Buckingham, and on the rise of the favourite
received various offices and dignities. He was appointed custos
rotulorum of Warwickshire, and master of the great wardrobe
in 1622, and created baron and viscount Feilding in 1620, and
earl of Denbigh on the I4th of September 1622. He attended
Prince Charles on the Spanish adventure, served as admiral in
the unsuccessful expedition to Cadiz in 1625, and commanded the
disastrous attempt upon Rochelle in 1628, becoming the same
year a member of the council of war, and in 1633 a member of the
council of Wales. In 1631 Lord Denbigh visited the East. On
the outbreak of the Civil War he served under Prince Rupert

1 Th£ descent of the Feildings from the house of Habsburg, through
the counts of Laufenburg and Rheinfelden, long considered authentic,
and immortalized by Gibbon, has been proved to have been based on
forged documents. See J. H. Round, Peerage and Family History

and was present at Edgehill. On the 3rd of April 1643 during
Rupert's attack on Birmingham he was wounded and died from
the effects on the 8th, being buried at Monks Kirby in Warwick-
shire. His courage, unselfishness and devotion to duty are much
praised by Clarendon.

See E. Lodge, Portraits (1850), iv. 113; J. Nichols, Hist of
Leicestershire (1807), iv. pt. I, 273; Hist. MSS. Comm Ser. 4th Rep.
app. 254 ; Cat. of State Papers, Dom. ; Studies in Peerage and Family
History, by J. H. Round (1901), 216.

His eldest son, BASIL FEILDING, 2nd earl of Denbigh (c. i6o8->
1675), was educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. He was
summoned to the House of Lords as Baron Feilding in March
1629. After seeing military service in the Netherlands he was
sent in 1634 by Charles I. as ambassador to Venice, where he
remained for five years. When the Civil War broke out Feilding,
unlike the other members of his family, ranged himself among
the Parliamentarians, led a regiment of horse at Edgehill, and,
having become earl of Denbigh in April 1643, was made com-
mander-in-chief of the Parliamentary army in Warwickshire and
the neighbouring counties, and lord-lieutenant of Warwickshire.
During the year 1644 he was fairly active in the field, but in some
quarters he was distrusted and he resigned his command after
the passing of the self-denying ordinance in April 1645. At
Uxbridge in 1645 Denbigh was one of the commissioners appointed
to treat with the king, and he undertook a similar duty at
Carisbrooke in 1647. Clarendon relates how at Uxbridge
Denbigh declared privately that he regretted the position in
which he found himself, and expressed his willingness to serve
Charles I. He supported the army in its dispute with the
parliament, but he would take no part in the trial of Charles I.
Under the government of the commonwealth Denbigh was a
member of the council of state, but his loyalty to his former
associates grew lukewarm, and gradually he came to be regarded
as a royalist. In 1664 the earl was created Baron St Liz.
Although four times married he left no issue when he died on the
28th of November 1675.

His titles devolved on his nephew WILLIAM FEILDING (1640-
1685), son and heir of his brother George (created Baron Feilding
of Lecaghe, Viscount Callan and earl of Desmond), and the
earldom of Desmond has been held by his descendants to the
present day in conjunction with the earldom of Denbigh.

DENBIGH (Dinbych), a municipal and (with Holt, Ruthin
and Wrexham) contributory parliamentary borough, market
town and county town of Denbighshire, N. Wales, on branches
of the London & North Western and the Great Western railways.
Pop. (1901) 6438. Denbigh Castle, surrounding the hill with a
double wall, was built, in Edward I.'s reign, by Henry de Lacy,
earl of Lincoln, from whom the town received its first charter.
The outer wall is nearly a mile round; over its main gateway is a
niche with a figure representing, possibly, Edward I., but more
probably, de Lacy. Here, in 1645, after the defeat of Rowton
Moor, Charles I. found shelter, the castle long resisting the
Parliamentarians, and being reduced to ruins by his successor.
The chief buildings are the Carmelite Priory (ruins dating
Derhaps from the i3th century); a Bluecoat school (1514); a
:ree grammar school (1527); an orphan girl school (funds left by
Thomas Howel to the Drapers' Co., in Henry VII. 's reign);
the town hall (built in 1572 by Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester,
enlarged and restored in 1780); an unfinished church (begun
Leicester); a market hall (with arcades or "rows," such as
:hose of Chester or Yarmouth); and the old parish church of
St Marcella. The streams near Denbigh are the Clwyd and
Elwy. The inhabitants of Denbigh are chiefly occupied in
he timber trade, butter-making, poultry-farming, bootmaking,
:anning and quarrying (lime, slate and paving-stones). The
jorough of Denbigh has a separate commission of the peace, but
no separate court of quarter sessions. The town has long been
known as a Welsh publishing centre, the vernacular newspaper,
Barter, being edited and printed here. Near Denbigh, at
Jodelwyddan, &c., coal is worked.

The old British tower and castle were called Castell caled
'ryn yn Rhds, the " castle of the hard hill in Rh6s." Din in

i8

DENBIGHSHIRE— DENDERA

Dinbych means a fort. There is a goblin well at the castle.
Historically, David (Dafydd), brother of the last Llewelyn, was
here (act. Edward I.) perhaps on a foray; also Henry Lacy, who
built the castle (aet. Edward I.), given to the Mortimers and to
Leicester (under Edward III. and Elizabeth, respectively).

DENBiaHSHIRE (Dinbych), a county of N. Wales, bounded
N. by the Irish Sea, N.E. by Flint and Cheshire, S.E. by Flint
and Shropshire, S. by Montgomery and Merioneth, and W. by
Carnarvon. Area, 662 sq. m. On the N. coast, within the
Denbighshire borders and between Old Colwyn and Llandulas,
is a wedge of land included in Carnarvonshire, owing to a change
in the course of the Conwy stream. (Thus, also, Llandudno is
partly in the Bangor, and partly in the St Asaph, diocese.) The
surface of Denbighshire is irregular, and physically diversified.
In the N.W. are the bleak Hiraethog (" longing ") hills, sloping W.
to the Conwy and E. to the Clwyd. In the N. are Colwyn and
Abergele bays, on the S. the Yspytty (Lat. Hospitium) and
Llangwm range, between Denbigh and Merioneth. From this
watershed flow the Elwy, Aled, Clywedog, Merddwr and Alwen,
tributaries of the Clwyd, Conwy and Dee (Dyfrdwy). Some of
the valleys contrast agreeably with the bleak hills, e.g. those
of the Clwyd and Elwy. The portion lying between Ruabon
(Rhiwabon) hills and the Dee is agricultural and rich in minerals;
the Berwyn to Offa's Dyke (Wdl Of a) is wild and barren,
except the Tanat valley, Llansilin and Ceiriog. One feeder of
the Tanat forms the Pistyll Rhaiadr (waterspout fall), another
rises in Llyncaws (cheese pool) under Moel Sych (dry bare-hill),
the highest point in the county. Aled and Alwen are both lakes
and streams.

Geology. — The geology of the county is full of interest, as it
develops all the principal strata that intervenes between the
Ordovician and the Triassic series. In the Ordovician district, which
extends from the southern boundary to the Ceiriog, the Llandeilo
formation of the eastern slopes of the Berwyn and the Bala beds of
shelly sandstone are traversed east and west by bands of intrusive
felspathic porphyry and ashes. The same formation occurs just
within the county border at Cerrig-y-Druidion, Langum, Bettys-y-
coed and in the Fairy Glen. Northwards from the Ceiriog to the
limestone fringe at Llandrillo the Wenlock shale of the Silurian
covers the entire mass of the Hiraethog and Clwydian hills, but
verging on its western slopes into the Denbighshire grit, which may
be traced southward in a continuous line from the mouth of the
Conway as far as Llanddewi Ystrad Enni in Radnorshire, near
Pentre-Voelas and Conway they are abundantly fossiliferous. On its
eastern slope a narrow broken band of the Old Red, or what may be
a conglomeratic basement bed of the Carboniferous Limestone series,
crops up along the Vale of Clwyd and in Eglwyseg. Resting upon this
the Carboniferous Limestone extends from Llanymynach, its extreme
southern point, to the Cyrnybrain fault, and there forks into two
divisions that terminate respectively in the Great Orme's Head and
in Talargoch, and are separated from each other by the denuded
shales of the Moel Famma range. In the Vale of Clwyd the jimestone
underlies the New Red Sandstone, and in the eastern division it is
itself overlaid by the Millstone Grit of Ruabon and Minera, and by
a long reach of the Coal Measures which near Wrexham are 4j m.
in breadth. Eastward of these a broad strip of the red marly beds
succeeds, formerly considered to be Permian but now regarded as
belonging to the Coal Measures, and yet again between this and the
Dee the ground is occupied — as in the Vale of Clwyd — by the New
Red rocks. As in the other northern counties of Wales, the whole
of the lower ground is covered more or less thickly with glacial drift.
On the western side of the Vale of Clwyd, at Cefn and Plas Heaton,
the caves, which are a common feature in such limestone districts,
have yielded the remains of the rhinoceros, mammoth, hippopotamus
and other extinct mammals.

Coal is mined from the Coal Measures, and from the limestone
below, lead with silver and zinc ores have been obtained. Valuable
fireclays and terra-cotta marls are also taken from the Coal Measures
about Wrexham.

The uplands being uncongenial for corn, ponies, sheep and
black cattle are reared, for fattening in the Midlands of England
and sale in London. Oats and turnips, rather than wheat,
barley and potatoes, occupy the tilled land. The county is
fairly wooded. There are several important farmers' clubs (the
Denbighshire and Flintshire, the vale of Conway, the Cerrig y
druidion, &c.). The London & North- Western railway (Holyhead
line), with the Conway and Clwyd valleys branches, together
with the lines connecting Denbigh with Ruabon (Rhiwabon),
via Ruthin and Corwen, Wrexham with Connah's Quay (Great

Central) and Rhosllanerchrhugog with Glyn Ceiriog (for the Great
Western and Great Central railways) have opened up the county.
Down the valley of Llangollen also runs the Holyhead road from
London, well built and passing thro ugh fine scenery. At Nantglyn
paving flags are raised, at Rhiwfelen (near Llangollen) slabs and
slates, and good slates are also obtained at Glyn Ceiriog. There
is plenty of limestone, with china stone at Brymbo. Cefn
Rhiwabon yields sandstone (for hones) and millstone grit.
Chirk, Ruabon and Brymbo have coal mines. The great Minera
is the principal lead mine. There is much brick and pottery clay.
The Ceiriog valley has a dynamite factory. Llangollen and
Llansantffraid (St Bridgit's) have woollen manufactures.

The area of the ancient county is 423,499 acres, with a popula-
tion in 1901 of 129,942. The area of the administrative county
is 426,084 acres. The chief towns are: Wrexham, a mining
centre and N. Wales . military centre, with a fine church;
Denbigh; Ruthin, where assizes are held (here are a grammar
school, a warden and a 13th-century castle rebuilt); Llangollen
and Llanrwst; and Holt, with an old ruined castle. The
Denbigh district of parliamentary boroughs is formed of:
Denbigh (pop. 6483), Holt (1059), Ruthin (2643), and Wrexham
(14,966). The county has two parliamentary divisions. The
urban districts are: Abergele and Pensarn (2083), Colwyn Bay
and Colwyn (8689), Llangollen (3303), and Llanrwst (2645).
Denbighshire is in the N. Wales circuit, assizes being held
at Ruthin. Denbigh and Wrexham boroughs have separate
commissions of the peace, but no separate quarter-session courts.
The ancient county, which is in the diocese of St Asaph, contains
seventy-five ecclesiastical parishes and districts and part of a
parish.

The county was formed, by an act of Henry VIII., out of the
lordships of Denbigh, Ruthin (Rhuthyn), Rhos and Rhyfoniog,
which are roughly the Perfeddwlad (midland) between Conway
and Clwyd, and the lordships of Bromfield, Yale (Idl, open land)
and Chirkland, the old possessions of Gruffydd ap Madoc,
arglwydd (lord) of Dinas Bran. Cefn (Elwy Valley) limestone
caves hold the prehistoric hippopotamus, elephant, rhinoceros,
lion, hyena, bear, reindeer, &c.; Plas Heaton cave, the glutton;
Pont Newydd, felstone tools and a polished stone axe (like that
of Rhosdigre) ; Carnedd Tyddyn Bleiddian, " platycnemic
(skeleton) men of Denbighshire " (like those of Perthi Chwareu).
Clawdd Coch has traces of the Romans; so also Penygaer
and Penbarras. Roman roads ran from Deva (Chester; to
Segontium (Carnarvon) and from Deva to Mons Henri (Tomen
y mur). To their period belong the inscribed Gwytherin and
Pentrefoelas (near Bettws-y-coed) stones. The Valle Crucis
" Eliseg's pillar " tells of Brochmael and tKe Cairlegion (Chester)
struggle against ^Ethelfrith's invading Northumbrians, A.D. 613,
while Offa's dike goes back to the Mercian advance. Near
and parallel to Offa's is the shorter and mysterious Watt's
dike. Chirk is the only Denbighshire castle comparatively
untouched by time and still occupied. Ruthin has cloisters;
Wrexham, the Brynffynnon " nunnery "; and at both are
collegiate churches. Llanrwst, Gresford and Derwen boast
rood lofts and screens; Whitchurch and Llanrwst, portrait
brasses and monuments; Derwen, a churchyard cross; Gresford
and Llanrhaiadr (Dyffryn Clwyd) , stained glass. Near Abergele,
known for its sea baths, is the ogof (or cave), traditionally the
refuge of Richard II. and the scene of his capture by Bolingbroke
in 1399.

See J. Williams, Denbigh (1856), and T. F. Tout, Welsh Shires.

DENDERA, a village in Upper Egypt, situated in the angle
of the great westward bend of the Nile opposite Kena. Here
was the ancient city of Tentyra, capital of the Tentyrite nome, the
sixth of Upper Egypt, and the principal seat of the worship of
Hathor [Aphrodite] the cow-goddess of love and joy. The old
Egyptian name of Tentyra was written Tn-t (Ant), but the pro-
nunciation of it is unknown: in later days it was 'In-t-t-ntr-t,
" ant of the goddess," pronounced Ni-tent6ri, whence Ttvrvpa,
Tevrupis. The temple of Hathor was built in the ist century B.C.,
being begun under the later Ptolemies (Ptol. XIII.) and finished
by Augustus, but much of the decoration is later. A great

DENDROCOMETES— DENE-HOLES

rectangular enclosure of crude bricks, measuring about 900 X 850
ft., contains the sacred buildings: it was entered by two stone
gateways, in the north and the east sides, built by Domitian.
Another smaller enclosure lies to the east with a gateway also
of the Roman period.

The plan of the temple may be supposed to have included a
colonnaded court in front of the present facade, and pylon towers
at the entrance; but these were never built, probably for lack
of funds. The building, which is of sandstone, measures about
300 ft. from front to back, and consists of two oblong rectangles;
the foremost, placed transversely to the other, is the great
hypostyle hall or pronaos, the broadest and loftiest part of the
temple, measuring 135 ft. in width, and comprising about one-
third of the whole structure; the facade has six columns with
heads of Hathor, and the ceiling is supported by eighteen great
columns. The second rectangle contains a small hypostyle hall
with six columns, and the sanctuary, with their subsidiary
chambers. The sanctuary is surrounded by a corridor into which
the chambers open: on the west side is an apartment forming a
court and kiosk for the celebration of the feast of the New
Year, the principal festival of Dendera. On the roof of the
temple, reached by two staircases, are a pavilion and several
chambers dedicated to the worship of Osiris. Inside and out,
the whole of the temple is covered with scenes and inscriptions
in crowded characters, of ceremonial and religious import; the
decoration is even carried into a remarkable series of hidden
passages and chambers or crypts made in the solid walls for the
reception of its most valuable treasures. The architectural style
is dignified and pleasing in design and proportions. The interior
of the building has been completely cleared: from the outside,
however, its imposing effect is quite lost, owing to the mounds
of rubbish amongst which it is sunk. North-east of the entrance
is a " Birth House " for the cult of the child Harsemteu, and
behind the temple a small temple of Isis, dating from the reign
of Augustus. The original foundation of the temple must date
back to a remote time: the work of some of the early builders
is in fact referred to in the inscriptions on the present structure.
Petrie's excavation of the cemetery behind the temple enclosures
revealed burials dating from the fourth dynasty onwards, the
most important being mastables of the period from the sixth
to the eleventh dynasties; many of these exhibited a peculiar
degradation of the contemporary style of sculpture.

The zodiacs of the temple of Dendera gave rise to a consider-
able literature before their late origin was established by
Champollion in 1822: one of them, from a chamber on the roof,
was removed in 1820 to the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris.
Figures of the celebrated Cleopatra VI. occur amongst the
sculptures on the exterior of the temple, but they are purely
conventional, without a trace of portraiture. Horus of Edfu,
the enemy of the crocodiles and hippopotami of Set, appears
sometimes as the consort of Hathor of Dendera. The skill
displayed by the Tentyrites in capturing the crocodile is referred
to by Strabo and other Greek writers. Juvenal, in his seventeenth
satire, takes as his text a religious riot between the Tentyrites
and the neighbouring Ombites, in the course of which an unlucky
Ombite was torn to pieces and devoured by the opposite party.
The Ombos in question is not the distant Ombos south of Edfu,
where the crocodile was worshipped; Petrie has shown that
opposite Coptos, only about 15 m. from Tentyra, there was
another Ombos, venerating the hippopotamus sacred to Set.

See A. Mariette, Denderah (5 vols. atlas and text, 1869-1880);
W. M. F. Petrie, Denderah (1900) ; Nagada and Dallas (1896).

(F. LL. G.)

DENDROCOMETES (so named by F. Stein), a genus of
suctorian Infusoria, characterized by the repeatedly branched
attached body; each of the lobes of the body gives off a few
retractile tentacles. It is parasitic on the gills of the so-called
freshwater shrimp Gammarus pulex.

For its conjugation see Sydney H. HicksOn, in Quarterly Journ. of
Microsc. Science, vol xlv. (1902), p. 325.

DENE-HOLES, the name given to certain caves or excavations
in England, which have been popularly supposed to be due to the

Danes or some other of the early northern invaders of the country.
The common spelling " Dane hole " is adduced as evidence of
this, and individual names, such as Vortigern's Caves at Margate,
and Canute's Gold Mine near Bexley, naturally follow the same
theory. The word, however, is probably derived from the Anglo-
Saxon den, a hole or valley. There are many underground
excavations in the south of the country, also found to some extent
in the midlands and the north, but true dene-holes are found
chiefly in those parts of Kent and Essex along the lower banks
of the Thames. With one exception there are no recorded
specimens farther east than those of the Grays Thurrock district,
situated in Hangman's Wood, on the north, and one near
Rochester on the south side of the river.

The general outline of the formation of these caves is invariably
the same. The entrance is a vertical shaft some 3 ft. in diameter
falling, on an average, to a depth of 60 ft. The depth is regulated,
obviously, by the depth of the chalk from the surface, but,
although chalk could have been obtained close at hand within
a few feet, or even inches, from the surface, a depth of from
45 to 80 ft., or more, is a characteristic feature. It is believed
that dene-holes were also excavated in sand, but as these would
be of a perishable nature there are no available data of any
value. The shaft, when the chalk is reached, widens out into a
domed chamber with a roof of chalk some 3 ft. thick. The walls
frequently contract somewhat as they near the floor. As a rule
there is only one chamber, from 16 to 18 ft. in height, beneath
each shaft. From this excessive height it has been inferred that
the caves were not primarily intended for habitations or even
hiding-places. In some cases the chamber is extended, the roof
being supported by pillars of chalk left standing. A rare specimen
of a twin-chamber was discovered at Gravesend. In this case
the one entrance served for both caves, although a separate
aperture connected them on the floor level. Where galleries
are found connecting the chambers, forming a bewildering
labyrinth, a careful scrutiny of the walls usually reveals evidence
that they are the work of a people of a much later period than
that of the chambers, or, as they become in these cases, the
halls of the galleries.

Isolated specimens have been discovered in various parts of
Kent and Essex, but the most important groups have been found
at Grays Thurrock, in the districts of Woolwich, Abbey V/ood
and Bexley, and at Gravesend. Those at Bexley and Grays
Thurrock are the most valuable still existing.

It is generally found that the tool work on the root or ceiling
is rougher than that on the walls, where an upright position
could be maintained. Casts taken of some of the pick-holes
near the roof show that, in all probability, they were made
by bone or horn picks. And numerous bone picks have been
discovered in Essex and Kent. These pick-holes are amongst
the most valuable data for the study of dene-holes, and have
assisted in fixing the date of their formation to pre-Roman
times. Very few relics of antiquarian value have been discovered
in any of the known dene-holes which have assisted in fixing the
date or determining the uses of these prehistoric excavations.
Pliny mentions pits sunk to a depth of a hundred feet, " where
they branched out like the veins of mines." This has been used
in support of the theory that dene-holes were wells sunk for the
extraction of chalk; but no known dene-hole branches out in this
way. Chretien de Troyes has a passage on underground caves in
Britain which may have reference to dene-holes, and tradition of
the I4th century treated the dene-holes of Grays as the fabled
gold mines of Cunobeline (or Cymbeline) of the ist century.

Vortigern's Caves at Margate are possibly dene-holes which
have been adapted by later peoples to other purposes; and
excellent examples of various pick-holes may be seen on different
parts of the walls.

Local tradition in some cases traces the use of these caves to
the smugglers, and, when it is remembered that illicit traffic was
common not only on the coast but in the Thames as far up the
river as Barking Creek, the theory is at least tenable that these
ready-made hiding-places, difficult of approach and dangerous
to descend, were so utilized.

20

DENGUE— DENHAM

There are three purposes for which dene-holes may have been
originally excavated: (a) as hiding-places or dwellings, (b) draw-
wells for the extraction of chalk for agricultural uses, and (c) store-
houses for grain . For several reasons it is unlikely that they were
used as habitations, although they may have been used occasion-
ally as hiding-places. Other evidence has shown that it is
equally improbable that they were used for the extraction of
chalk. The chief reasons against this theory are that chalk
could have been obtained outcropping close by, and that every
trace of loose chalk has been removed from the vicinity of the
holes, while known examples of chalk draw-wells do not descend
to so great a depth. The discovery of a shallow dene-hole, about
14 ft. below the surface, at Stone negatives this theory still
further. The last of the three possible uses for which these
prehistoric excavations were designed is usually accepted as
the most probable. Silos, or underground storehouses, are well
known in the south of Europe and Morocco. It is supposed that
the grain was stored in the ear and carefully protected from
damp by straw. A curious smoothness of the roof of one of the
chambers of the Gravesend twin-chamber dene-hole has been put
forward as additional evidence in support of this theory. One
other theory has been advanced, viz. that the excavations were
made in order to get flints for implements, but this is quite
impossible, as a careful examination of a few examples will show.

Further reference may be made to Essex Dene-holes by T. V. Holmes
and W. Cole; fo The Archaeological Journal (1882); the Transac-
tions of the Essex Field Club; Archaeologia Cantiana, &c.; Dene-
holes by F. W. Reader, in Old Essex, ed. A. C. Kelway (1908).

(A.J.P.)

DENGUE (pronounced deng-ga), an infectious fever occurring
in warm climates. The symptoms are a sudden attack of fever,
accompanied by rheumatic pains in the joints and muscles with
severe headache and erythema. After a few days a crisis is
reached and an interval of two or three days is followed by a
slighter return of fever and pain and an eruption resembling
measles, the most marked characteristic of the disease. The
disease is rarely fatal, death occurring only in cases of extreme
weakness caused by old age, infancy or other illness. Little is
known of the aetiology of " dengue." The virus is probably
similar to that of other exanthematous fevers and communicated
by an intermediary culex. The disease is nearly always epidemic,
though at intervals it appears to be pandemic and in certain
districts almost endemic. The area over which the disease ranges
may be stated generally to be between 32° 47' N. and 23° 23' S.
Throughout this area " dengue " is constantly epidemic. The
earliest epidemic of which anything is known occurred in 1779-
1780 in Egypt and the East Indies. The chief epidemics have
been those of 1824-1826 in India, and in the West Indies and
the southern states of North America, of 1870-1875, extending
practically over the whole of the tropical portions of the East and
reaching as far as China. In 1888 and 1889 a great outbreak
spread along the shores of the Aegean and over nearly the whole
of Asia Minor. Perhaps " dengue " is most nearly endemic in
equatorial East Africa and in the West Indies. The word has
usually been identified with the Spanish dengue, meaning stiff or
prim behaviour, and adopted in the West Indies as a name suit-
able to the curious cramped movements of a sufferer from the
disease, similar to the name " dandy-fever " which was given to
it by the negroes. According to the New English Dictionary
(quoting Dr Christie in The Glasgow Medical Journal, September
1881), both " dengue " and " dandy " are corruptions of the
Swahili word dinga or denga, meaning a sudden attack of cramp,
the Swahili name for the disease being ka-dinga pepo.

See Sir Patrick Manson, Tropical Diseases; a Manual of Diseases
of Warm Climates (1903).

DENHAM, DIXON (1786-1828), English traveller in West
Central Africa, was born in London on the ist of January 1786.
He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School, and was articled
to a solicitor, but joined the army in 1811. First in the 23rd
Royal Welsh Fusiliers, and afterwards in the 54th foot, he served
in the campaigns in Portugal, Spain, France and Belgium, and
received the Waterloo medal. In 1821 he volunteered to join
Dr Oudney and Hugh Clapperton (?.».), who had been sent by the

British government via Tripoli to the central Sudan. He joined
the expedition at Murzuk in Fezzan. Finding the promised
escort not forthcoming, Denham, whose energy was boundless,
started for England to complain of the " duplicity " of the pasha
of Tripoli. The pasha, alarmed, sent messengers after him with
promises to meet his demands. Denham, who had reached
Marseilles, consented to return, the escort was forthcoming, and
Murzuk was regained in November 1822. Thence the expedition
made its way across the Sahara to Bornu, reached in February
1823. Here Denham, against the wish of Oudney and Clapperton,
accompanied a slave-raiding expedition into the Mandara high-
lands south of Bornu. The raiders were defeated, and Denham
barely escaped with his life. When Oudney and Clapperton set
out, December 1823, for the Hausa states, Denham remained
behind. He explored the western, south and south-eastern
shores of Lake Chad, and the lower courses of the rivers Waube,
Logone and Shari. In August 1824, Clapperton having returned
and Oudney being dead, Bornu was left on the return journey
to Tripoli and England. In December 1826 Denham, promoted
lieutenant-colonel, sailed for Sierra Leone as superintendent of
liberated Africans. In 1828 he was appointed governor of Sierra
Leone, but after administering the colony for five weeks died of
fever at Freetown on the 8th of May 1828.

See Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central
Africa in the years 1822-1824 (London, 1826), the greater part of
which is written by Denham ; The Story of Africa, vol. i. chap. xiii.
(London, 1892), by Dr Robert Brown.

DENHAM, SIR JOHN (1615-1669), English poet, only son of
Sir John Denham (1550-1639), lord chief baron of the exchequer
in Ireland, was born in Dublin in 1615. In 1617 his father
became baron of the exchequer in England, and removed to
London with his family. In Michaelmas term 1631 the future
poet was entered as a gentleman commoner at Trinity College,
Oxford. He removed in 1634 to Lincoln's Inn, where he was, says
John Aubrey, a good student, but not suspected of being a wit.
The reputation he had gained at Oxford of being the " dream-
ingest young fellow " gave way to a scandalous reputation for
gambling. In 1634 he married Ann Cotton, and seems to have
lived with his father at Egham, Surrey. In 1636 he wrote his
paraphrase of the second book of the Aeneid (published in 1656
as The Destruction of Troy, with an excellent verse essay on the
art of translation). About the same time he wrote a prose tract
against gambling, The Anatomy of Play (printed 1651), designed
to assure his father of his repentance, but as soon as he came into
his fortune he squandered it at play. It was a surprise to every-
one when in 1642 he suddenly, as Edmund Waller said, " broke
out like the Irish rebellion, three score thousand strong, when no
one was aware, nor in the least expected it," by publishing The
Sophy, a tragedy in five acts, the subject of which was drawn
from Sir Thomas Herbert's travels. At the beginning of the Civil
War Denham was high sheriff for Surrey, and was appointed
governor of Farnham Castle. He showed no military ability, and
speedily surrendered the castle to the parliament. He was sent
as a prisoner to London, but was soon permitted to join the king
at Oxford.

In 1642 appeared Cooper's Hill, a poem describing the Thames
scenery round his home at Egham. The first edition was
anonymous: subsequent editions show numerous alterations,
and the poem did not assume its final form until 1655. This
famous piece, which was Pope's model for his Windsor Forest, was
not new in theme or manner, but the praise which it received was
well merited by its ease and grace. Moreover Denham expressed
his commonplaces with great dignity and skill. He followed the
taste of the time in his frequent use of antithesis and metaphor,
but these devices seem to arise out of the matter, and are not
of the nature of mere external ornament. At Oxford he wrote
many squibs against the roundheads. One of the few serious
pieces belonging to this period is the short poem " On the Earl
of Stafford's Trial and Death."

From this time Denham was much in Charles I.'s confidence.
He was entrusted with the charge of forwarding letters to and
from the king when he was in the custody of the parliament, a

DENIA— DENIS, SAINT

21

duty which he discharged successfully with Abraham Cowley, but
in 1648 he was suspected by the Parliamentary authorities, and
thought it wiser to cross the Channel. He helped in the removal
of the young duke of York to Holland, and for some time he
served Queen Henrietta Maria in Paris, being entrusted by her
with despatches for Holland. In 1650 he was sent to Poland in
company with Lord Crofts to obtain money for Charles II. They
succeeded in raising £10,000. After two years spent at the exiled
court in Holland, Denham returned to London and being quite
without resources, he was for some time the guest of the earl of
Pembroke at Wilton. In 1655 an order was given that Denham
should restrict himself to some place of residence to be selected
by himself at a distance of not less than 20 m. from London;
subsequently he obtained from the Protector a licence to live at
Bury St Edmunds, and in 1658 a passport to travel abroad with
the earl of Pembroke. At the Restoration Denham's services
were rewarded by the office of surveyor-general of works. His
qualifications as an architect were probably slight, but it is safe
to regard as grossly exaggerated the accusations of incompetence
and peculation made by Samuel Butler in his brutal " Panegyric
upon Sir John Denham's Recovery from his Madness." He
eventually secured the services of Christopher Wren as deputy-
surveyor. In 1660 he was also made a knight of the Bath>

In 1665 he married for the second time. His wife, Margaret,
daughter of Sir William Brooke, was, according to the comte de
Gramont, a beautiful girl of eighteen. She soon became known
as the mistress of the duke of York, and the scandal, according
to common report, shattered the poet's reason. While Denham
was recovering, his wife died, poisoned, it was said, by a cup of
chocolate. Some suspected the duchess of York of the crime,
but the Comte de Gramont says that the general opinion was
that Denham himself was guilty. No sign of poison, however,
was found in the examination after Lady Denham's death.
Denham survived her for two years, dying at his house near
Whitehall in March 1669. He was buried on the 23rd in West-
minster Abbey. In the last years of his life he wrote the bitter
political satires on the shameful conduct of the Dutch War entitled
" Directions to a Painter," and " Fresh Directions," continuing
Edmund Waller's " Instructions to a Painter." The printer of
these poems, with which were printed one by Andrew Marvell,
was sentenced to stand in the pillory. In 1667 Denham wrote his
beautiful elegy on Abraham Cowley.

Denham's poems include, beside those already given, a verse
paraphrase of Cicero's Cato major, and a metrical version of the
Psalms. As a writer of didactic verse, he was perhaps too highly
praised by his immediate successors. Dryden called Copper's Hill
" the exact standard of good writing," and Pope in his Windsor
Forest called him " majestic Denham. ' His collected poems with a
dedicatory epistle to Charles II. appeared in 1668. Other editions
followed, and they are reprinted in Chalmers' (1810) and other col-
lections of the English poets. His political satires were printed with
some of Rochester's and Marvell's in Bibliotheca curiosa, vol. i.
(Edinburgh, 1885).

D^NIA, a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of Alicante;
on the Mediterranean Sea, at the head of a railway from Car-
cagente. Pop. ( i goo) 1 2 ,43 1 . Denia occupies the seaward slopes
of a hill surmounted by a ruined castle, and divided by a narrow
valley on the south from the limestone ridge of Mongo (2500 ft.),
which commands a magnificent view of the Balearic Islands and
the Valencian coast. The older houses of Denia are characterized
by their flat Moorish roofs (azoteas) and view-turrets (mir adores) ,
while fragments of the Moorish ramparts are also visible near the
harbour; owing, however, to the rapid extension of local com-
merce, many of the older quarters were modernized at the
beginning of the 2oth century. Nails, and woollen, linen and
esparto grass fabrics are manufactured here; and there is a
brisk export trade in grapes, raisins and onions, mostly consigned
to Great Britain or the United States. Baltic timber and
British coal are largely imported. The harbour bay, which is
well lighted and sheltered by a breakwater, contains only a small
space of deep water, shut in by deposits of sand on three sides.
In 1904 it accommodated 402 vessels of 175,000 tons; about
half of which were small fishing craft, and coasters carrying
agricultural produce to Spanish and African ports.

Denia was colonized by Greek merchants from Emporiae
(Ampurias in Catalonia), or Massilia (Marseilles), at a very early
date; but its Greek name of Hemeroskopeion was soon super-
seded by the Roman Dianium. In the ist century B.C., Sertorius
made it the naval headquarters of his resistance to Rome; and,
as its name implies, it was already famous for its temple of Diana,
built in imitation of that at Ephesus. The site of this temple can
be traced at the foot of the castle hill. D6nia was captured by
the Moors in 713, and from 1031 to 1253 belonged successively to
the Moorish kingdoms of Murcia and Valencia. According to an
ancient but questionable tradition, its population rose at this
period to 50,000, and its commerce proportionately increased.
After the city was retaken by the Christians in 1253, its pros-
perity dwindled away, and only began to revive in the igth
century. During the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14),
Denia was thrice besieged; and in 1813 the citadel was held for
five months by the French against the allied British and Spanish
forces, until the garrison was reduced to 100 men, and compelled
to surrender, on honourable terms.

DENIKER, JOSEPH (1852- ) French naturalist and
anthropologist, was born of French parents at Astrakhan, Russia,
on the 6th of March 1852. After receiving his education at the
university and technical institute of St Petersburg, he adopted
engineering as a profession, and in this capacity travelled ex-
tensively in the petroleum districts of the Caucasus, in Central
Europe, Italy and Dalmatia. Settling at Paris in 1876, he
studied at the Sorbonne, where he took his degree in natural
science. In 1888 he was appointed chief librarian of the Natural
History Museum, Paris. Among his many valuable ethnological
works mention may be made of Recherches anatomiques et embryo-
logiques sur les singes anthropoides (1886); £lude sur les Kal-
mouks (1883); Les Ghiliaks (1883); and Races et peuples de la
lerre (1900). He became one of the chief editors of the Diction-
naire de g&ographie uniiierselle, and published many papers in the
anthropological and zoological journals of France.

DENILIQUIN, a municipal town of Townsend county, New
South Wales, Australia, 534 m. direct S.W. of Sydney, and 195 m.
by rail N. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 2644. The business of
the town is chiefly connected with the interests of the sheep
and cattle farmers of the Riverina district, a plain country, in
the main pastoral, but suited in some parts for cultivation.
Deniliquin has a well-known public school.

DENIM (an abbreviation of serge de Nimes), the name origin-
ally given to a kind of serge. It is now applied to a stout twilled
cloth made in various colours, usually of cotton, and used for
ovcrnlls &c

DENINA, CARLO GIOVANNI MARIA (1731-1813), Italian
historian, was born at Revello, Piedmont, in 1731, and was
educated at Saluzzo and Turin. In 1753 he was appointed to the
chair of humanity at Pignerol, but he was soon compelled by the
influence of the Jesuits to retire from it. In 1756 he graduated
as doctor in theology, and began authorship with a theological
treatise. Promoted to the professorship of humanity and rhetoric
in the college of Turin, he published (1769-1772) his Delle re-
voluzioni d'ltalia, the work on which his reputation is mainly
founded. Collegiate honours accompanied the issue of its
successive volumes, which, however, at the same time multiplied
his foes and stimulated their hatred. In 1782, at Frederick the
Great's invitation, he went to Berlin, where he remained for many
years, in the course of which he published his Vie et regne de
Frederic II (Berlin, 1788) and La Prusse litteraire sous Frederic
II (3 vols., Berlin, 1790-1791). His Delle revoluzioni della
Germania was published at Florence in 1804, in which year he
went to Paris as the imperial librarian, on the invitation of
Napoleon. At Paris he published in 1 805 his Tableau de la Haute
Italie, et des Alpes qui I'entourent. He died there on the 5th of
December 1813.

DENIS (DiONYSius) , SAINT, first bishop of Paris, patron saint
of France. According to Gregory of Tours (Hist. Franc, i. 30),
he was sent into Gaul at the time of the .emperor Decius. He
suffered martyrdom at the village of Catulliacus, the modern St
Denis. His tomb was situated by the side of the Roman road,

22

DENIS, J. N. C. M.— DENIZLI

where rose the priory of St-Denis-de-l'Estr€e, which existed
until the i8th century. In the sth century the clergy of the
diocese of Paris built a basilica over the tomb. About 625
Dagobert, son of Lothair II., founded in honour of St Denis, at
some distance from the basilica, the monastery where the greater
number of the kings of France have been buried. The festival of
St Denis is celebrated on the gth of October. With his name are
already associated in the Martyrologium Hieronymianum the
priest Rusticus and the deacon Eleutherius. Other traditions — •
of no value — are connected with the name of St Denis. A false
interpretation of Gregory of Tours, apparently dating from 724,
represented St Denis as having received his mission from Pope
Clement, and as having suffered martyrdom under Domitian
(81-96). Hilduin, abbot of St-Denis in the first half of the gth
century, identified Denis of Paris with Denis (Dionysius) the
Areopagite (mentioned in Acts xviii. 34), bishop of Athens
(Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. iii.4. io,iv. 23.3), and naturally attributed
to him the celebrated writings of the pseudo-Areopagite. St
Denis is generally represented carrying his head in his hands.

See Acta Sanctorum, Octobris, iv. 696-987; Bibliolheca hagio-
graphica graeca, p. 37 (Brussels, 1895); Bibiiotheca hagiographica
latina. No. 2171-2203 (Brussels, 1899); J. Havet, Les Origines de
Saint-Denis, in his collected works, i. 191-246 (Paris, 1896) ; Cahier,
Caracteristiques des saints, p. 761 (Paris, 1867). (H. DE.)

DENIS, JOHANN NEPOMUK COSMAS MICHAEL (1720-1800),
Austrian poet, was born at Scharding on the Inn, on the 27th
of September 1729. He was brought up by the Jesuits, entered
their order, and in 1759 was appointed professor in the
Theresianum in Vienna, a Jesuit college. In 1784, after the
suppression of the college, he was made second custodian of
the court library, and seven years later became chief librarian.
He died on the 2gth of September 1800. A warm admirer of
Klopstock, he was one of the leading members of the group of
so-called " bards "; and his original poetry, published under the
title Die Lieder Sineds des Barden (1772), shows all the extrava-
gances of the " bardic " movement. He is best remembered
as the translator of Ossian (1768-1769; also published together
with his own poems in 5 vols. as Ossians und Sineds Lieder, 1784).
More important than either his original poetry or his translations
were his efforts to familiarize the Austrians with the literature
of North Germany; his Sammlung kurzerer Gedichle aus den
neitern Dichtern Deutschlands, 3 vols. (1762-1766), was in this
respect invaluable. He has also left a number of bibliographical
compilations, Grundriss der Bibliographic und Bucherkunde
(1774), Grundriss der Literaturgeschichte (1776), Einleitung in
die Bucherkunde (1777) and Wiens Buchdruckergeschichle bis 1560
(1782).

Ossians und Sineds Lieder have not been reprinted since 1791 ; but
a selection of his poetry edited by R. Hamel will be found in vol.
48 (1884) of Kiirschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur. His Litera-
rischer NacUass was published by J. F. von Retzer in 1802 (2 vols.).
See P. von Hofmann-Wellenhof, Michael Denis (1881).

DENISON, GEORGE ANTHONY (1805-1896), English church-
man, brother of John Evelyn Denison (1800-1873; speaker of
the House of Commons 1857-1872; Viscount Ossington), was
born at Ossington, Notts, on the nth of December 1805, and
educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford. In 1828 he was
elected fellow of Oriel; and after a few years there as a tutor,
during which he was ordained and acted as curate at Cuddesdon,
he became rector of Broadwindsor, Dorset (1838). He became
a prebendary of Sarum in 1841 and of Wells in 1849. In 1851
he was preferred to the valuable living of East Brent, Somerset,
and in the same year was made archdeacon of Taunton. For
many years Archdeacon Denison represented the extreme Hjgh
Tory party not only in politics but in the Church, regarding
all " progressive " movements in education or theology as
abomination, and vehemently repudiating the " higher criticism "
from the days of Essays and Reviews (1860) to those of Lux
Mundi (1800). In 1853 he resigned his position as examining
chaplain to the bishop of Bath and Wells owing to his pronounced
eucharistic views. A suit on the complaint of a neighbouring
clergyman ensued and after various complications Denison was
condemned by the archbishops' court at Bath (1856); but on

appeal the court of Arches and the privy council quashed this
judgment on a technical plea. The result was to make Denison
a keen champion of the ritualistic school. He edited The Church
and State Review (1862-1865). Secular state education and the
" conscience clause " were anathema to him. Until the end of
his life he remained a protagonist in theological controversy and
a keen fighter against latitudinarianism and liberalism; but the
sharpest religious or political differences never broke his personal
friendships and his Christian charity. Among other things for
which he will be remembered was his origination of harvest
festivals. He died on the 2ist of March 1896.

DENISON, GEORGE TAYLOR (1839- ), Canadian soldier
and publicist, was born in Toronto on the 3ist of August 1839.
In 1861 he was called to the bar, and was from 1865-1867 a
member of the city council. From the first he took a prominent
part in the organization of the military forces of Canada, becom-
ing a lieutenant-colonel in the active militia in 1866. He saw
active service during the Fenian raid of 1866, and during the
rebellion of 1885. Owing to his dissatisfaction with the conduct
of the Conservative ministry during the Red River Rebellion in
1869-70, he abandoned that party, and in 1872 unsuccessfully
contested Algoma in the Liberal interest. Thereafter he remained
free from party ties. In 1877 he was appointed police magistrate
of Toronto. Colonel Denison was one of the founders of the
" Canada First " party, which did much to shape the national
aspirations from 1870 to 1878, and was a consistent supporter
of imperial federation and of preferential trade between Great
Britain and her colonies. He became a member of the Royal
Society of Canada, and was president of the section dealing with
English history and literature. The best known of his military
works is his History of Modern Cavalry (London, 1877), which
was awarded first prize by the Russian government in an open
competition and has been translated into German, Russian and
Japanese. In 1900 he published his reminiscences under the
title of Soldiering in Canada.

DENISON, a city of Grayson county, Texas, U.S.A., about
i\ m. from the S. bank of the Red river, about 70 m. N. of Dallas.
Pop. (1890) 10,958; (1900) 11,807, of whom 2251 were negroes;
(1910 census) 13,632. It is served by the Houston & Texas
Central, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Texas & Pacific, and
the St Louis & San Francisco ('Frisco System) railways, and is
connected with Sherman, Texas, by an electric line. Denison
is the seat of the Gate City business college (generally known
as Harshaw Academy), and of St Xavier's academy (Roman
Catholic). It is chiefly important as a railway centre, as a
collecting and distributing point for the fruit, vegetables, hogs
and poultry, and general farming products of the surrounding
region, and as a wholesale and jobbing market for the upper
Red river valley. It has railway repair shops, and among its
manufactures are cotton-seed oil, cotton, machinery and foundry
products, flour, wooden-ware, and dairy products. In 1905 its
factory products were valued at $1,234,956, 47-0 % more than
in 1900. Denison was settled by Northerners at the time of
the construction of the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railway to
this point in 1872, and was named in honour of George Denison
(1822-1876), a director of the railway; it became a city in 1891,
and in 1907 adopted the commission form of government.

DENIZEN (derived through the Fr. from Lat. de intus, " from
within," i.e. as opposed to "foreign"), an alien who obtains
by letters patent (ex donatione regis) certain of the privileges of
a British subject. He cannot be a member of the privy council
or of parliament, or hold any civil or military office of trust, or
take a grant of land from the crown. The Naturalization Act
1870 provides that nothing therein contained shall affect the
grant of any letters of denization by the sovereign.

DENIZLI (anc. Laodicea (q.v.) ad Lycuni), chief town of a
sanjak of the Aidin vilayet of Asia Minor, altitude 1167 ft.
Pop. about 17,000. It is beautifully situated at the foot of Baba
Dagh (Mt. Salbacus), on a tributary of the Churuk Su (Lycus),
and is connected by a branch line with the station of Gonjeli
on the Smyrna-Dineir railway. It took the place of Laodicea
when that town was deserted during the wars between the

DENMAN— DENMARK

Byzantines and Seljuk Turks, probably between 1158 and 1174.
It had become a fine Moslem city in the I4th century, and was
then called Ladik, being famous for the woven and embroidered
products of its Greek inhabitants. The delightful gardens of
Denizli have obtained for it the name of the "Damascus of
Anatolia."

DENMAN, THOMAS, IST BARON (1779-1854), English judge,
was born in London, the son of a well-known physician, on the
23rd of July 1779. He was educated at Eton and St John's
College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1800. Soon after
leaving Cambridge he married; and in 1806 he was called to the
bar at Lincoln's Inn, and at once entered upon practice. His
success was rapid, and in a few years he attained a position at
the bar second only to that of Brougham and Scarlett (Lord
Abinger). He distinguished himself by his eloquent defence of
the Luddites; but his most brilliant appearance was as one of
the counsel for Queen Caroline. His speech before the Lords
was very powerful, and some competent judges even considered
it not inferior to Brougham's. It contained one or two daring
passages, which made the king his bitter enemy, and retarded
his legal promotion. At the general election of 1818 he was
returned M.P. for Wareham, and at once took his seat with the
Whig opposition. In the following year he was returned for
Nottingham, for which place he continued to sit till his elevation
to the bench in 1832. His liberal principles had caused his
exclusion from office till in 1822 he was appointed common
Serjeant by the corporation of London. In 1830 he was made
attorney-general under Lord Grey's administration. Two years
later he was made lord chief justice of the King's Bench, and
in 1834 he was raised to the peerage. As a judge he is most
celebrated for his decision in the important privilege case of
Stockdale v. Hansard (9 Ad. & El. I.; n Ad. & El. 253), but
he was never ranked as a profound lawyer. In 1850 he resigned
his chief justiceship and retired into private life. He died on
the 26th of September 1854, his title continuing in the direct line.

The HON. GEORGE DENMAN (1810-1896), his fourth son, was
also a distinguished lawyer, and a judge of the Queen's Bench
from 1872 till his death in 1896.

See Memoir of Thomas, first Lord Denman, by Sir Joseph Arnould
(2 vols., 1873) ; E. Manson, Builders of our Law (1904).

DENMARK (Danmark), a small kingdom of Europe, occupying
part of a peninsula and a group of islands dividing the Baltic
and North Seas, in the middle latitudes of the eastern coast.
The kingdom lies between 54° 33' and 57° 45' N. and between
8° 4' 54" and 12° 47' 25* E., exclusive of the island of Bornholm,
which, as will be seen, is not to be included in the Danish archi-
pelago. The peninsula is divided between Denmark and Germany
(Schleswig-Holstein). The Danish portion is the northern and
the greater, and is called Jutland (Dan. Jylland). Its northern
part is actually insular, divided from the mainland by the
Limf jord or Liimf jord, which communicates with the North Sea
to the west and the Cattegat to the east, but this strait, though
broad and possessing lacustrine characteristics to the west, has
only very narrow entrances. The connexion with the North Sea
dates from 1825. The Skagerrack bounds Jutland to the north
and north-west. The Cattegat is divided from the Baltic by the
Danish islands, between the east coast of the Cimbric peninsula
in the neighbourhood of the German frontier and south-western
Sweden.

There is little variety in the surface of Denmark. It is
uniformly low, the highest elevation in the whole country, the
Himmelbjerg near Aarhus in eastern Jutland, being little more
than 500 ft. above the sea. Denmark, however, is nowhere low
in the sense in which Holland is; the country is pleasantly
diversified, and rises a little at the coast even though it remains
flat inland. The landscape of the islands and the south-eastern
part of Jutland is rich in beech-woods, corn fields and meadows,
and even the minute islets are green and fertile. In the western
and northern districts of Jutland this condition gives place to a
wide expanse of moorland, covered with heather, and ending
towards the sea in low whitish-grey cliffs. There is a certain
charm even about these monotonous tracts, and it cannot be

said that Denmark is wanting hi natural beauty of a quiet
order. Lakes, though small, are numerous; the largest are the
Arreso and the Esromso in Zealand, and the chain of lakes in
the Himmelbjerg region, which are drained by the largest river
hi Denmark, the Gudenaa, which, however, has a course not
exceeding 80 m. Many of the meres, overhung with thick beech-
woods, are extremely beautiful. The coasts are generally low
and sandy; the whole western shore of Jutland is a succession
of sand ridges and shallow lagoons, very dangerous to shipping.
In many places the sea has encroached; even in the igth
century entire villages were destroyed, but during the last
twenty years of the century systematic efforts were made to
secure the coast by groynes and embankments. A belt of sand
dunes, from 500 yds. to 7 m. wide, stretches along the whole of
this coast for about 200 m. Skagen, or the Skaw, a long, low,
sandy point, stretches far into the northern sea, dividing the
Skagerrack from the Cattegat. On the western side the coast is
bolder and less inhospitable; there are several excellent havens,
especially on the islands. The coast is nowhere, however, very
high, except at one or two points hi Jutland, and at the eastern
extremity of Moen, where limestone cliffs occur.

Continental Denmark is confined wholly to Jutland, the
geographical description of which is given under that heading.
Out of the total area of the kingdom, 14,829 sq. m., Jutland,
including the small islands adjacent to it, covers 9753 sq. m., and
the insular part of the kingdom (including Bornholm), 5076 sq. m.
The islands may be divided into two groups, consisting of the
two principal islands Fiinen and Zealand, and the lesser islands
attendant on each. Fiinen (Dan. Fyen), in form roughly an oval
with an axis from S.E. to N.W. of 53 m., is separated from
Jutland by a channel not half a mile wide hi the north, but
averaging 10 m. between the island and the Schleswig coast, and
known as the Little Belt. Fiinen, geologically a part of southern
Jutland, has similar characteristics, a smiling landscape of
fertile meadows, the typical beech-forests clothing the low hills
and the presence of numerous erratic blocks, are the superficial
signs of likeness. Several islands, none of great extent, lie off
the west coast of Fiinen in the Little Belt; off the south, how-
ever, an archipelago is enclosed by the long narrow islands of
Aero (16 m. in length) and Langeland (32 m.), including in a
triangular area of shallow sea the islands of Taasinge, Avernako,
Dreio, Turo and others. These aie generally fertile and well
cultivated. Aeroskjobing and Rudkjobing, on Aero and
Langeland respectively, are considerable ports. On Langeland is
the great castle of Tranekjaer, whose record dates from the i3th
century. The chief towns of Fiinen itself are all coastal. Odense
is the principal town, lying close to a great inlet behind the
peninsula of Hindsholm on the north-east, known as Odense
Fjord. Nyborg on the east is the port for the steam-ferry to
Korsor hi Zealand; Svendborg picturesquely overlooks the
southern archipelago; Faaborg on the south-west lies on a
fjord of the same name; Assens, on the west, a port for the
crossing of the Little Belt into Schleswig, still shows traces of
the fortifications which were stormed by John of Ranzau in
1535; Middelfart is a seaside resort near the narrowest reach
of the Little Belt; Bogense is a small port on the north coast.
All these towns are served by railways radiating from Odense.
The strait crossed by the Nyborg- Korsor ferry is the Great Belt
which divides the Fiinen from the Zealand group, and is con-
tinued south by the Langelands Belt, which washes the straight
eastern shore of that island, and north by the Samso Belt,
named from an island 15 m. in length, with several large villages,
which lies somewhat apart from the main archipelago.

Zealand, or Sealand (Dan. Sjaelland), measuring 82 m. N.
to S. by 68 E. to W. (extremes), with its fantastic coast-line
indented by fjords and projecting into long spits or promontories,
may be considered as the nucleus of the kingdom, inasmuch as it
contains the capital, Copenhagen, and such important towns as
Roskilde, Slagelse, Korsor, Naestved and Elsinore (Helsingor).
Its topography is described in detail under ZEALAND. Its
attendant islands lie mainly to the south and are parts of itself,
only separated by geologically recent troughs. The eastern

DENMARK

[GEOGRAPHY

coast of Moen is rocky and bold. It is recorded that this island
formed three separate isles in noo, and the village of Borre, now
2 m. inland, was the object of an attack by a fleet from Liibeck
in 1510. On Falster is the port of Nykjobing, and from Gjedser,
the extreme southern point of Denmark, communication is
maintained with Warnemiinde in Germany (29 m.). From
Nykjobing a bridge nearly one-third of a mile long crosses to
Laaland, at the west of which is the port of Nakskov; the other
towns are the county town of Maribo with its fine church of the
I4th century, Saxkjobing and Rodby. The island of Bornholm
lies 86 m. E. of the nearest point of the archipelago, and as it
belongs geologically to Sweden (from which it is distant only
22 m.) must be considered to be physically an appendage rather
than an internal part of the kingdom of Denmark.

Geology. — The surface in Denmark is almost everywhere
formed by the so-called Boulder Clay and what the Danish
geologists call the Boulder Sand. The former, as is well known,
owes its origin to the action of ice on the mountains of Norway
in the Glacial period. It is unstratified; but by the action of
water on it, stratified deposits have been formed, some of clay,
containing remains of arctic animals, some, and very extensive
ones, of sand and gravel. This boulder sand forms almost every-
where the highest hills, and besides, in the central part of Jutland,
a wide expanse of heath and moorland apparently level, but really
sloping gently towards the west. The deposits of the boulder
formation rest generally on limestone of the Cretaceous period,
which in many places comes near the surface and forms cliffs
on the sea-coast. Much of the Danish chalk, including the well-
known limestone of Faxe, belongs to the highest or " Danian "
subdivision of the Cretaceous period. In the south-western
parts a succession of strata, described as the Brown Coal or
Lignite formations, intervenes between the chalk and the boulder
clay; its name is derived from the deposits of lignite which occur
in it. It is only on the island of Bornholm that older formations
come to light. This island agrees in geological structure with the
southern part of Sweden, and forms, in fact, the southernmost
portion of the Scandinavian system. There the boulder clay
lies immediately on the primitive rock, except in the south-western
corner of the island, where a series of strata appear belonging to
the Cambrian, Silurian, Jurassic and Cretaceous formations, the
true Coal formation, &c., being absent. Some parts of Denmark
are supposed to have been finally raised out of the sea towards
the close of the Cretaceous period; but as a whole the country
did not appear above the water till about the close of the Glacial
period. The upheaval of the country, a movement common to a
large part of the Scandinavian peninsula, still continues, though
slowly, north-east of a line drawn in a south-easterly direction
from Nissumfjord on the west coast of Jutland, across the island
of Fyen, a little south of the town of Nyborg. Ancient sea-
beaches, marked by accumulations of seaweed, rolled stones,
&c., have been noticed as much as 20 ft. above the present level.
But the upheaval does not seem to affect all parts equally.
Even in historic times it has vastly changed the aspect and
configuration of the country.

Climate, Flora, Fauna. — The climate of Denmark does not
differ materially from that of Great Britain in the same latitude;
but whilst the summer is a little warmer, the winter is colder, so
that most of the evergreens which adorn an English garden in the
winter cannot be grown in the open in Denmark. During thirty
years the annual mean temperature varied from 43-88° F. to
46-22° in different years and different localities, the mean
average for the whole country being 45-14°. The islands have,
upon the whole, a somewhat warmer climate than Jutland. The
mean temperatures of the four coldest months, December to
March, are 33-26°, 31-64°, 31-82°, and 33-98° respectively, or for
the whole winter 32-7°; that of the summer, June to August,
59-2°, but considerable irregularities occur. Frost occurs on an
average on twenty days in each of the four winter months, but
only on two days in either October or May. A fringe of ice
generally lines the greater part of the Danish coasts on the eastern
side for some time during the winter, and both the Sound and the
Great Belt are at times impassable on account of ice. In some

winters the latter is sufficiently firm and level to admit of sledges
passing between Copenhagen and Malmo. The annual rainfall
varies between 21-58 in. and 27-87 in. in different years and
different localities. It is highest on the west coast of Jutland;
while the small island of Anholt in the Cattegat has an annual
rainfall of only 15-78 in. More than half the rainfall occurs
from July to November, the wettest month being September, with
an average of 2-95 in.; the driest month is April, with an
average of 1-14 in. Thunderstorms are frequent in the summer.
South-westerly winds prevail from January to March, and from
September to the end of the year. In April the east wind, which
is particularly searching, is predominant, while westerly winds
prevail from May to August. In the district of Aalborg, in the
north of Jutland, a cold and dry N.W. wind called skai prevails
in May and June, and is exceedingly destructive to vegetation;
while along the west coast of the peninsula similar effects are
produced by a salt mist, which carries its influence from 15 to
30 m. inland.

The flora of Denmark presents greater variety than might
be anticipated in a country of such simple physical structure.
The ordinary forms of the north of Europe grow freely in the mild
air and protected soil of the islands and the eastern coast; while
on the heaths and along the sandhills on the Atlantic side there
flourish a number of distinctive species. The Danish forest is
almost exclusively made up of beech, a tree which thrives better
in Denmark than in any other country of Europe. The oak and
ash are now rare, though in ancient times both were abundant
in the Danish islands. The elm is also scarce. The almost
universal predominance of the beech is by no means of ancient
origin, for in the first half of the I7th century the oak was still
the characteristic Danish tree. No conifer grows in Denmark
except under careful cultivation, which, however, is largely
practised in Jutland (<?.».). But again, abundant traces of
ancient extensive forests of fir and pine are found in the numerous
peat bogs which supply a large proportion of the fuel locally used.
In Bornholm, it should be mentioned, the flora is more like that
of Sweden; not the beech, but the pine, birch and ash are the
most abundant trees.

The wild animals and birds of Denmark are those of the rest
of central Europe. The larger quadrupeds are ah1 extinct; even
the red deer, formerly so abundant that in a single hunt in
Jutland in 1593 no less than 1600 head of deer were killed, is now
only to be met with in preserves. In the prehistoric " kitchen-
middens " (kjokkenmodding) and elsewhere, however, vestiges are
found which prove that the urochs, the wild boar, the beaver,
the bear and the wolf all existed subsequently to the arrival of
man. The usual domestic animals are abundantly found in
Denmark, with the exception of the goat, which is uncommon.
The sea fisheries are of importance. Oysters are found in some
places, but have disappeared from many localities, where their
abundance in ancient times is proved by their shell moulds on the
coast. The Gudenaa is the only salmon river in Denmark.

Population. — The population of Denmark in 1901 was
2,449,540. It was 929,001 in 1801, showing an increase during
the century in the proportion of i to 2-63. In 1901 the average
density of the population of Denmark was 165-2 to the square
mile, but varied much in the different parts. Jutland showed
an average of only 109 inhabitants per square mile, whilst on the
islands, which had a total population of 1,385,537, the average
stood at 272-95, owing, on the one hand, to the fact that large
tracts in the interior of Jutland are almost uninhabited, and on
the other to the fact that the capital of the country, with its pro-
portionately large population, is situated on the island of Zealand.
The percentages of urban and rural population are respectively
about 38 and 62. A notable movement of the population to the
towns began about the middle of the igth century, and increased
until very near its end. It was stronger on the islands, where the
rural population increased by 5-3 % only in eleven years, whereas
in Jutland the increase of the rural population between 1890 and
1901 amounted to 12-0%. Here, however, peculiar circum-
stances contributed to the increase, as successful efforts have
been made to render the land fruitful by artificial means. The

S K A G EIR K A G-K

DENMARK

Scale. 1:1.800.000

Longitude East 10 of Greenwich Q

Emery Walker &c.

INDUSTRIES]

DENMARK

Danes are a yellow-haired and blue-eyed Teutonic race of
middle stature, bearing traces of their kinship with the northern
Scandinavian peoples. Their habits of life resemble those of the
North Germans even more than those of the Swedes. The in-
dependent tenure of the land by a vast number of small farmers,
who are their own masters, gives an air of carelessness, almost of
truculence, to the well-to-do Danish peasants. They are gener-
ally slow of speech and manner, and somewhat irresolute, but
take an eager interest in current politics, and are generally fairly
educated men of extreme democratic principles. The result of
a fairly equal distribution of wealth is a marked tendency towards
equality in social intercourse. The townspeople show a bias in
favour of French habits and fashions. The separation from
the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which were more than
half German, intensified the national character; the Danes are
intensely patriotic; and there is no portion of the Danish
dominions except perhaps in the West Indian islands, where
a Scandinavian language is not spoken. The preponderance of
the female population over the male is approximately as 1052 to
1000. The male sex remains in excess until about the twentieth
year, from which age the female sex preponderates in increasing
ratio with advancing age. The percentage of illegitimacy is high
as a whole, although in some of the rural districts it is very low.
But in Copenhagen 20 % of the births are illegitimate. Between
the middle and the end of the ipth century the rate of mortality
decreased most markedly for all ages. During the last decade of
the century it ranged between 19-5 per thousand in 1891 and
15-1 in 1898 (17-4 in 1900). Emigration for some time in the
1 9th century at different periods, both in its early part and towards
its close, seriously affected the population of Denmark. But in
the last decade it greatly diminished. Thus in 1892 the number
of emigrants to Transatlantic places rose to 10,422 but in 1900
it was only 3570. The great bulk of them go to the United States;
next in favour is Canada.

Communications. — The roads of Denmark form an extensive
and well-maintained system. The railway system is also fairly
complete, the state owning about three-fifths of the total mileage,
which amounts to some 2000. Two lines enter Denmark from
Schleswig across the frontier. The main Danish lines are as
follows. From the frontier a line runs east by Fredericia, across
the island of Fiinen by Odense and Nyborg, to Korsor on Zealand,
and thence by Roskilde to Copenhagen. The straits between
Fredericia and Middelfart and between Nyborg and Korsor are
crossed by powerful steam-ferries which are generally capable of
conveying a limited number of railway wagons. This system is
also in use on the line which runs south fromRoskilde to the island
of Falster, from the southernmost point of which, Gjedser, ferry-
steamers taking railway cars serve Warnemiinde in Germany.
The main lines in Jutland run (a) along the eastern side north
from Fredericia by Horsens, Aarhus, Randers, Aalborg and
Hjorring, to Frederikshavn, and (b) along the western side from
Esbjerg by Skjerne and Vemb, and thence across the peninsula
by Viborg to Langaa on the eastern line. The lines are generally
of standard gauge (4 ft. 8J in.), but there is also a considerable
mileage of light narrow-gauge railways. Besides the numerous
steam-ferries which connect island and island, and Jutland with
the islands, and the Gjedser-Warnemiinde route, a favourite
passenger line from Germany is that between Kiel and Korsor,
while most of the German Baltic ports have direct connexion with
Copenhagen. With Sweden communications are established by
ferries across the Sound between Copenhagen and Malmo and
Landskrona, and between Elsinore (Helsingor) and Helsingborg.
The postal department maintains a telegraph and telephone
service.

Industries. — The main source of wealth in Denmark is agri-
culture, which employs about two-fifths of the entire population.
Most of the land is freehold and cultivated by the owner himself,
and comparatively little land is let on lease except very large
holdings and glebe farms. The independent small farmer
(bonder) maintains a hereditary attachment to his ancestral
holding. There is also a class of cottar freeholders (Junster).
Fully 74 % of the total area of the country is agricultural land.

Of this only about one-twelfth is meadow land. The land under
grain crops is not far short of one-half the remainder, the principal
crops being oats, followed by barley and rye in about equal
quantities, with wheat about one-sixth that of barley and hardly
one-tenth that of oats, Beet is extensively grown. During the
last forty years of the igth century dairy -farming was greatly
developed in Denmark, and brought to a high degree of perfection
by the application of scientific methods and the best machinery,
as well as by the establishment of joint dairies. The Danish
government has assisted this development by granting money
for experiments and by a rigorous system of inspection for the
prevention of adulteration. The co-operative system plays an
important part in the industries of butter-making, poultry-farm-
ing and the rearing of swine.

Rabbits, which are not found wild in Denmark, are bred for
export. Woods cover fully 7 % of the area, and their preserva-
tion is considered of so much importance that private owners are
under strict control as regards cutting of timber. The woods
consist mostly of beech, which is principally used for fuel, but
pines were extensively planted during the igth century. Allusion
has been made already to the efforts to plant the extensive heaths
in Jutland (q.v.) with pine-trees.

Agriculture. — Rates and taxes on land are mostly levied ac-
cording to a uniform system of assessment, the unit of which is
called a Tonde Hartkorn. The Td. Htk., as it is usually abbrevi-
ated, has further subdivision, and is intended to correspond to
the same value of land throughout the country. The Danish
measure for land is a Tonde Land (Td. L.), which is equal to i -363
statute acres. Of the best ploughing land a little over 6 Td. L.,
or about 8 acres, go to a Td. Htk., but of unprofitable land a Td.
Htk. may represent 300 acres or more. On the islands and in the
more fertile part of Jutland the average is about 10 Td. L., or
13! acres. Woodland, tithes, &c., are also assessed to Td. Htk.
for fiscal purposes. In the island of Bornholm, the assessment
is somewhat different, though the general state of agricultural
holdings is the same as in other parts. The selling value of land
has shown a decrease in modern times on account of the agri-
cultural depression. A homestead with land assessed less than
i Td. Htk. is legally called a Huus or Sled, i.e. cottage, whilst
a farm assessed at i Td. Htk. or more is called Gaard, i.e. farm.
Farms of between i and 1 2 Td. Htk. are called Bondergaarde, or
peasant farms, and are subject to the restriction that such a hold-
ing cannot lawfully be joined to or entirely merged into another.
They may be subdivided, and portions may be added to another
holding, but the homestead, with a certain amount of land, must
be preserved as a separate holding for ever. The seats of the
nobility and landed gentry are called Herregaarde. The peasants
hold about 73 % of all the land according to its value. As regards
their size about 30 % are assessed from i to 4 Td. Htk. ; about
33% from 4 to 8 Td. Htk.; the remainder at about 8 Td. Htk.
An annual sum is voted by parliament out of which loans are
granted to cottagers who desire to purchase small freehold plots.

The fishery along the coasts of Denmark is of some importance
both on account of the supply of food obtained thereby for the
population of the country, and on account of the export; but the
good fishing grounds, not far from the Danish coast, particularly
in the North Sea, are mostly worked by the fishing vessels of other
nations, which are so numerous that the Danish government is
obliged to keep gun-boats stationed there in order to prevent
encroachments on territorial waters.

Other Industries. — The mineral products of Denmark are
unimportant. It is one of the poorest countries of Europe in
this particular. It is rich, however, in clays, while in the island
of Bornholm there are quarries of freestone and marble. The
factories of Denmark supply mainly local needs. The largest are
those engaged in the construction of engines and iron ships. The
manufacture of woollens and cotton, the domestic manufacture
of linen in Zealand, sugar refineries, paper mills, breweries, and
distilleries may also be mentioned. The most notable manu-
facture is that of porcelain. The nucleus of this industry was a
factory started in 1772, by F. H. Muller, for the making of china
out of Bornholm clay. In 1779 it passed into the hands of the

DENMARK

[GOVERNMENT

state, and has remained there ever since, though there are
also private factories. Originally the Copenhagen potters
imitated the Dresden china made at Meissen, but they later pro-
duced graceful original designs. The creations of Thorvaldsen
have been largely repeated and imitated in this ware. Trade-
unionism flourishes in Denmark, and strikes are of frequent
occurrence.

Commerce. — Formerly the commercial legislation of Denmark
was to such a degree restrictive that imported manufactures had
to be delivered to the customs, where they were sold by public
auction, the proceeds of which the importer received from the
custom-houses after a deduction was made for the duty. To this
restriction, as regards foreign intercourse, was added a no less
injurious system of inland duties impeding the commerce of the
different provinces with each other. The want of roads also,
and many other disadvantages, tended to keep down the develop-
ment of both commerce and industry. During the ipth century,
however, several commercial treaties were concluded between
Denmark and the other powers of Europe, which made the
Danish tariff more regular and liberal.

The vexed question, of many centuries' standing, concerning
the claim of Denmark to levy dues on vessels passing through the
Sound (q.v.), was settled by the abolition of the dues in 1857.
The commerce of Denmark is mainly based on home production
and home consumption, but a certain quantity of goods is im-
ported with a view to re-exportation, for which the free port and
bonded warehouses at Copenhagen give facilities. In modern
times the value of Danish commerce greatly increased, being
doubled in the last twenty years of the igth century, and ex-
ceeding a total of fifty millions sterling. The value of export is
exceeded as a whole by that of import in the proportion, roughly,
of i to i -35. By far the most important articles of export may be
classified as articles of food of animal origin, a group which covers
the vast export trade in the dairy produce, especially butter, for
which Denmark is famous. The value of the butter for export
reaches nearly 40% of the total value of Danish exports. A
small proportion of the whole is imported chiefly from Russia
(also Siberia) and Sweden and re-exported as of foreign origin.
The production of margarine is large, but not much is exported,
margarine being largely consumed in Denmark instead of
butter, which is exported. Next to butter the most important
article of Danish export is bacon, and huge quantities of eggs
are also exported. Exports of less value, but worthy of special
notice, are vegetables and wool, bones and tallow, also dairy
machinery, and finally cement, the production of which is a
growing industry. The classes of articles of food of animal
origin, and living animals, are the only ones of which the
exportation exceeds the importation; with regard to all other
goods, the reverse is the case. In the second of these classes the
most important export is home-bred horned cattle. The trade
in live sheep and swine, which was formerly important, has mostly
been converted into a dead-meat trade. A proportionally large
importation of timber is caused by the scarcity of native timber
suitable for building purposes, the plantations of firs and pines
being insufficient to produce the quantity required, and the
quality of the wood being inferior beyond the age of about forty
years. The large importation of coal, minerals and metals, and
goods made from them is likewise caused by the natural poverty
of the country in these respects.

Denmark carries on its principal import trade with Germany,
Great Britain and the United States of America, in this order,
the proportions being about 30, 20 and 16% respectively of the
total. Its principal export trade is with Great Britain, Germany
and Sweden, the percentage of the whole being 60, 18 and 10.
With Russia, Norway and France (in this order) general trade is
less important, but still large. A considerable proportion of
Denmark's large commercial fleet is engaged in the carrying
trade between foreign, especially British, ports.

Under a law of the 4th of May 1907 it was enacted that the
metric system of weights and measures should come into official
use in three years from that date, and into general use in
five years.

Money and Banking. — Theunit of the Danish monetarysystem,
as of the Swedish and Norwegian, is the krone (crown), equal to
is. ijd., which is divided into 100 ore; consequently 75 ore are
equal to one penny. Since 1873 gold has been the standard, and
gold pieces of 20 and 10 kroner are coined, but not often met with,
as the public prefers bank-notes. The principal bank is the
National Bank at Copenhagen, which is the only one authorized
to issue notes. These are of the value of 10, 50, 100 and 500 kr.
Next in importance are the Danske Landmands Bank, the
Handels Bank and the Private Bank, all at Copenhagen. The
provincial banks are very numerous; many of them are at the
same time savings banks. Their rate of interest, with few ex-
ceptions, is 3^ to 4%. There exist, besides, in Denmark several
mutual loan associations (Kreditforeninger) , whose business is
the granting of loans on mortgage. Registration of mortgages
is compulsory in Denmark, and the system is extremely simple, a
fact which has been of the greatest importance for the improve-
ment of the country. There are comparatively large institutions
for insurance of all kinds in Denmark. The largest office for life
insurance is a state institution. By law of the gth of April 1891
a system of old-age pensions was established for the benefit of
persons over sixty years of age.

Government. — Denmark is a limited monarchy, according to
the law of 1849, revised in 1866. The king shares his power with
the parliament (Rigsdag), which consists of two chambers, the
Landsihing and the Folkething, but the constitution contains no
indication of any difference in their attributes. The Landsthing,
or upper house, however, is evidently intended to form the con-
servative element in the constitutional machinery. While the
114 members of the Folkething (House of Commons) are elected
for three years in the usual way by universal suffrage, 12 out of
the 66 members of the Landsthing are life members nominated
by the crown. The remaining 54 members of the Landsthing are
returned for eight years according to a method of proportionate
representation by a body of deputy electors. Of these deputies
one-half are elected in the same way as members of the Folke-
thing, without any property qualification for the voters; the
other half of the deputy electors are chosen in the towns by those
who during the last preceding year were assessed on a certain
minimum of income, or paid at least a certain amount in rates
and taxes. In the rural districts the deputy electors returned by
election are supplemented by an equal number of those who have
paid the highest amounts in taxes and county rate"- together.
In this manner a representation is secured for fairly large
minorities, and what is considered a fair share of influence on
public affairs given to those who contribute the most to the needs
of the state. The franchise is held byevery male who has reached
his thirtieth year, subject to independence of public charity and
certain other circumstances. A candidate for either house of the
Rigsdag must have passed the age of twenty-five. Members are
paid ten kroner each day of the session and are allowed travelling
expenses. The houses meet each year on the first Monday in
October. The constitutional theory of the Folkething is that of
one member for every 16,000 inhabitants. The Faeroe islands,
which form an integral part of the kingdom of Denmark in the
wider sense, are represented in the Danish parliament, but not
the other dependencies of the Danish crown, namely Iceland,
Greenland and the West Indian islands of St Thomas, St John
and St Croix. The budget is considered by the Folkething at the
beginning of each session. The revenue and expenditure average
annually about £4,700,000. The principal items of revenue are
customs and excise, land and house tax, stamps, railways, legal
fees, the state lottery and death duties. A considerable reserve
fund is maintained to meet emergencies. The public debt is
about £13,500,000 and is divided into an internal debt, bearing
interest generally at 3^%, and a foreign debt (the larger), with
interest generally at 3%. The revenue and expenditure of the
Faeroes are included in the budget for Denmark proper, but
Iceland and the West Indies have their separate budgets. The
Danish treasury receives nothing from these possessions; on the
contrary, Iceland receives an annual grant, and the West Indian
islands have been heavily subsidized by the Danish finances to

ADMINISTRATION]

DENMARK

27

assist the sugar industry. The administration of Greenland
(q.v.) entails an annual loss which is posted on the budget of the
ministry of finances. The state council (Statsraad) includes the
presidency of the council and ministries of war, and marine,
foreign affairs, the interior, justice, finance, public institution and
ecclesiastical, agriculture and public works. ,

Local Government. — For administrative purposes the country is
divided into eighteen counties (Amter, singular Ami), as follows,
(i) Covering the islands of Zealand and lesser adjacent islands,
Copenhagen, Frederiksborg, Holbaek, Soro, Praesto. (2) Cover-
ing the islands of Laaland and Falster, Maribo. (3) Covering
Fttnen, Langeland and adjacent islets, Svendborg, Odense.
(4) On the mainland, Hjorring, Aalborg, Thisted, Ringkjobing,
Viborg, Randers, Aarhus, Vejle, Ribe. (5) Bornholm. The
principal civil officer in each of these is the Amtmand. Local
affairs are managed by the Amslraad and Sogneraad, correspond-
ing to the English county council and parish council. These
institutions date from 1841, but they have undergone several
modifications since. The members of these councils are elected
on a system similar to that applied to the elections for the
Landsthing. The same is the case with the provincial town
councils. That of Copenhagen is elected by those who are rated
on an income of at least 400 kroner (£22). The burgomasters are
appointed by the crown, except at Copenhagen, where they are
elected by the town council, subject to royal approbation. The
financial position of the municipalities in Denmark is generally
good. The ordinary budget of Copenhagen amounts to about
£1,100,000 a year.

Justice. — For the administration of justice Denmark is
divided into herreds or hundreds; as, however, they are mostly
of small extent, several are generally served by one judge
(herredsfoged) ; the townships are likewise separate jurisdictions,
each with a byfoged. There are 126 such local judges, each of
whom deals with all kinds of cases arising in his district, and
is also at the head of the police. There are two intermediary
Courts of Appeal (Overrel), one in Copenhagen, another in
Viborg; the Supreme Court of Appeal (Hojesteret) sits at Copen-
hagen. In the capital the different functions are more divided.
There is also a Court of Commerce and Navigation, on which
leading members of the trading community serve as assessors.
In the country, Land Commissions similarly constituted deal with
many questions affecting agricultural holdings. A peculiarity
of the Danish system is that, with few exceptions, no civil cause
can be brought before a court until an attempt has been made
at effecting an amicable settlement. This is mostly done by
so-called Committees of Conciliation, but in some cases by the
court itself before commencing formal judicial proceedings. In
this manner three-fifths of all the causes are settled, and many
which remain unsettled are abandoned by the plaintiffs.
Sanitary matters are under the control of a Board of Health.
The whole country is divided into districts, in each of which a
medical man is appointed with a salary, who is under the obliga-
tion to attend to poor sick and assist the authorities in medical
matters, inquests, &c. The relief of the poor is well organized,
mostly on the system of out-door relief. Many workhouses have
been established for indigent persons capable of work. There are
also many almshouses and similar institutions.

Army and Navy. — The active army consists of a life guard
battalion and 10 infantry regiments of 3 battalions each, infantry,
5 cavalry regiments of 3 squadrons each, 12 field batteries (now
re-armed with a Krupp Q.F. equipment), 3 battalions of fortress
artillery and 6 companies of engineers, with in addition various
local troops and details. The peace strength of permanent
troops, without the annual contingent of recruits, is about
13,500 officers and men, the annual contingent of men trained
two or three years with the colours about 22,500, and the annual
contingent of special reservists (men trained for brief periods)
about 17,000. Thus the number of men maintained under arms
(without calling up the reserves) is as high as 75,000 during
certain periods of the year and averages nearly 60,000. Reservists
who have definitively left the colours are recalled for short
refresher trainings, the number of men so trained in 1907 being

about 80,000. The field army on a war footing, without depot
troops, garrison troops and reservists, would be about 50,000
strong, but by constituting new cadres at the outbreak of war
and calling up the reserves it could be more than doubled, and as
a matter of fact nearly 1 20,000 men were with the colours in the
manoeuvre season in 1907. The term of service is eight years in
the active army and its reserves and eight years in the second
line. The armament of the infantry is the Krag-jorgensen of
•314 in. calibre, model 1889, that of the field artillery a 7-5 cm.
Krupp Q.F. equipment, model 1902. The navy consists of 6
small battleships, 3 coast defence armour-clads, 5 protected
cruisers, 5 gun-boats, and 24 torpedo craft.

Religion. — The national or state church of Denmark is officially
styled " Evangelically Reformed," but is popularly described
as Lutheran. The king must belong to it. There is complete
religious toleration, but though most of the important Christian
communities are represented their numbers are very small. The
Mormon apostles for a considerable time made a special raid upon
the Danish peasantry and a few hundreds profess this faith.
There are seven dioceses, Fiinen, Laaland and Falster, Aarhus,
Aalborg, Viborg and Ribe, while the primate is the bishop
of Zealand, and resides at Copenhagen, but his cathedral is at
Roskilde. The bishops have no political function by reason of
their office, although they may, and often do, take a prominent
part in politics. The greater part of the pastorates comprise
more than one parish. The benefices are almost without excep-
tion provided with good residences and glebes, and the tithes, &c.,
generally afford a comfortable income. The bishops have fixed
salaries in lieu of tithes appropriated by the state.

Education and Arts. — The educational system of Denmark is
maintained at a high standard. The instruction in primary schools
is gratuitous. Every child is bound to attend the parish school at
least from the seventh to the thirteenth year, unless the parents
can prove that it receives suitable instruction in other ways.
The schools are under the immediate control of school boards
appointed by the parish councils, but of which the incumbent of
the parish is ex-officio member; superior control is exercised by
the Amtmand, the rural dean, and the bishop, under the Minister
for church and education. Secondary public schools are provided
in towns, in which moderate school fees are paid. There are also
public grammar-schools. Nearly all schools are day-schools.
There are only two public schools, which, though on a much
smaller scale, resemble the great English schools, namely,
those of Soro and Herlufsholm, both founded by private munifi-
cence. Private schools are generally under a varying measure
of public control. The university is at Copenhagen (<?.».).
Amongst numerous other institutions for the furtherance of
science and training of various kinds may be mentioned the large
polytechnic schools; the high school for agriculture and veter-
inary art; the royal library; the royal society of sciences;
the museum of northern antiquities; the society of northern
antiquaries, &c. The art museums of Denmark are not consider-
able, except the museum of Thorvaldsen, at Copenhagen, but
much is done to provide first-rate training in the fine arts and
their application to industry through the Royal Academy of Arts,
and its schools. Finally, it may be mentioned that a sum
proportionately large is available from public funds and regular
parliamentary grants for furthering science and arts by temporary
subventions to students, authors, artists and others of insufficient
means, in order to enable them to carry out particular works, to
profit by foreign travel, &c. The principal scientific societies
and institutions are detailed under COPENHAGEN. During the
earlier part of the igth century not a few men could be mentioned
who enjoyed an exceptional reputation in various departments
of science, and Danish scientists continue to contribute their full
share to the advancement of knowledge. The society of sciences,
that of northern antiquaries, the natural history and the botani-
cal societies, &c., publish their transactions and proceedings,
but the Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift, of which 14 volumes with
259 plates were published (1861-1884), and which was in the
foremost rank in its department, ceased with the death in
1884 of the editor, the distinguished zoologist, I. C. Schiodte.

28

DENMARK

[HISTORY

Another extremely valuable publication of wide general interest,
the Meddelelser om Gronland, is published by the commission for
the exploration of Greenland. What may be called the modern
" art " current, with its virtues and vices, is as strong in Denmark
as in England. Danish sculpture will be always famous, if only
through the name of Thorvaldsen. In architecture the prevailing
fashion is a return to the style of the first half of the 1 7th century,
called the Christian IV. style; but in this branch of art no
marked excellence has been obtained.

AUTHORITIES. — J. P. Trap, Statistisk Topographisk Beskrivelse af
Kongeriget Danmark (Copenhagen, 1859-1860, 3 vols., 2nd ed., 1872-
1879); ». Falbe-Hansen and W. Scharling, Danmarks Statistik
(Copenhagen, 1878-1891, 6 vols.). (Various writers) Vort Folk i
del nittende Aarhundrede (Copenhagen, 1899 et seq.), illustrated;
J. Carlsen, H. Olrik and C. N. Starcke, Le Danemark (Copenhagen,
1900), 700 pp.; illustrated, published in connexion with the Paris
Exhibition. Statistisk Aarbog (1896, &c.). Annual publication,
and other publications of Statens Statistiske Bureau, Copenhagen ;
Annuaire meteorologique, Danish Meteorological Institution, Copen-
hagen; E. Loffler, Ddnemarks Natur and Volk (Copenhagen, 1905);
Margaret Thomas, Denmark Past and Present (London, 1902).

(C. A. G.;O. J. R. H.)
HISTORY

Ancient. — Our earliest knowledge of Denmark is derived
from Pliny, who speaks of three islands named " Skandiai," a
name which is also applied to Sweden. He says nothing about
the inhabitants of these islands, but tells us more about the
Jutish peninsula, or Cimbric Chersonese as he calls it. He
places the Saxons on the neck, above them the Sigoulones,
Sabaliggoi and Kobandoi, then the Chaloi, then above them the
Phoundousioi, then the Charondes and finally the Kimbroi.
He also mentions the three islands called Alokiai, at the northern
end of the peninsula. This would point to the fact that the
Limfjord was then open at both ends, and agree with Adam of
Bremen (iv. 16), who also speaks of three islands called Wendila,
Morse and Thud. The Cimbri and Charydes are mentioned in
the Monumentum Ancyranum as sending embassies to Augustus
in A.D. 5. The Promontorium Cimbrorum is spoken of in Pliny,
who says that the Sinus Codanus lies between it and Mons
Saevo. The latter place is probably to be found in the high-
lying land on the N.E. coast of Germany, and the Sinus Codanus
must be the S.W. corner of the Baltic, and not the whole sea.
Pomponius Mela says that the Cimbri and Teutones dwelt on the
Sinus Codanus, the latter also in Scandinavia (or Sweden). The
Romans believed that these Cimbri and Teutones were the same
as those who invaded Gaul and Italy at the end of the 2nd century
B.C. The Cimbri may probably be traced in the province of
Aalborg, formerly known as Himmerland; the Teutones, with
less certainty, may be placed in Thyth or Thyland, north of the
Limfjord. No further reference to these districts is found till
towards the close of the migration period, about the beginning of
the 6th century, when the Heruli (q.v.), a nation dwelling in or
near the basin of the Elbe, were overthrown by the Langobardi.
According to Procopius (Bellum Gothicum, ii. 15), a part of them
made their way across the " desert of the Slavs," through the
lands of the Warni and the Danes to Thoule (i.e. Sweden). This
is the first recorded use of the name " Danes." It occurs again
in Gregory of Tours (Historiae Francorum, iii. 3) in connexion
with an irruption of a Gotish (loosely called Danish) fleet into the
Netherlands (c. 520). From this time the use of the name is
fairly common. The heroic poetry of the Anglo-Saxons may
carry the name further back, though probably it is not very
ancient, at all events on the mainland.

According to late Danish tradition Denmark now consisted
of Vitheslaeth (i.e. Zealand, Moen, Falster and Laaland),
Jutland (with Fyen) and Skaane. Jutland was acquired by
Dan, the eponymous ancestor of the Danes. He also won
Skaane, including the modern provinces of Halland, Kristianstad,
Malmohus and Blekinge, and these remained part of Denmark
until the middle of the I7th century. These three divisions
always remained more or less distinct, and the Danish kings had
to be recognized at Lund, Ringsted and Viborg, but Zealand
was from time immemorial the centre of government, and Lejre
was the royal seat and national sanctuary. According to tradition

this dates from the time of Skioldr, the eponymous ancestor of the
Danish royal family of Skioldungar. He was a son of Othin and
husband of the goddess Gefjon, who created Zealand. Anglo-
Saxon tradition also speaks of Scyld (i.e. Skioldr), who was
regarded as the ancestor of both the Danish and English royal
families, and it represented him as coming as a child of unknown
origin in a rudderless boat. There can be little doubt that from
a remote antiquity Zealand had been a religious sanctuary,
and very probably the god Nerthus was worshipped here by the
Angli and other tribes as described in Tacitus (Germania, c. 40).
The Lejre sanctuary was still in existence in the time of Thietmar
of Merseburg (i. 9), at the beginning of the nth century.

In Scandinavian tradition the next great figure is Fr65e the
peace-king, but it is not before the sth century that we meet with
the names of any kings which can be regarded as definitely
historical. In Beowulf we hear of a Danish king Healfdene,
who had three sons, Heorogar, Hrothgar and Halga. The hero
Beowulf comes to the court of Hrothgar from the land of the
Gotar, where Hygelac is king. This Hygelac is undoubtedly to
be identified with the Chochilaicus, king of the Danes (really
Gotar) who, as mentioned above, made a raid against the Franks
c. 520. Beowulf himself won fame in this campaign, and by the
aid of this definite chronological datum we can place the reign
of Healfdene in the last half of the 5th century, and that of
Hrothgar's nephew Hrothwulf, son of Halga, about the middle
of the 6th century. Hrothgar and Halga correspond to Saxo's
Hroar and Helgi, while Hrothwulf is the famous Rolvo or
Hrolfr Kraki of Danish and Norse saga. There is probably some
historical truth in the story that Heoroweard or HiorvarSr was
responsible for the death of Hrolfr Kraki. Possibly a still earlier
king of Denmark was Sigarr or Sigehere, who has won lasting
fame from the story of his daughter Signy and her lover
HagbarSr.

From the middle of the 6th to the beginning of the Sth century
we know practically nothing of Danish history. There are
numerous kings mentioned in Saxo, but it is impossible to identify
them historically. We have mention at the beginning of the
8th century of a Danish king Ongendus (cf. O. E. Ongen^eow)
who received a mission led by St Willibrord, and it was probably
about this time that there flourished a family of whom tradition
records a good deal. The founder of this line was Ivarr VitSfaSmi
of Skaane, who became king of Sweden. His daughter AuSr
married one Hroerekr and became the mother of Haraldr
Hilditonn. The genealogy of Haraldr is given differently in Saxo,
but there can be no doubt of his historical existence. In his time
it is said that the land was divided into four kingdoms — Skaane,
Zealand, Fyen and Jutland. After a reign of great splendour
Haraldr met his death in the great battle of Bravalla (Bravik in
Ostergotland), where he was opposed by his nephew Ring, king
of Sweden.

The battle probably took place about the year 750. Fifty
years later the Danes begin to be mentioned with comparative
frequency in continental annals. From 777-798 we have mention
of a certain Sigifridus as king of the Danes, and then in 804 his
name is replaced by that of one Godefridus. This Godefridus
is the Godefridus-Guthredus of Saxo, and is to be identified also
with GuSroSr the Yngling, king in Vestfold in Norway. He came
into conflict with Charlemagne, and was preparing a great
expedition against him when he was killed by one of his own
followers (c. 810). He was succeeded by his brother Hemmingus,
but the latter died in 812 and there was a disputed succession.
The two claimants were " Sigefridus nepos Godefridi regis "
and " Anulo nepos Herioldi quondam regis " (i.e. probably
Haraldr Hilditonn). A great battle took place in which both
claimants were slam, but the party of Anulo (O.N. Ali) were
victorious and appointed as kings Anulo's brothers Herioldus
and Reginfridus. They soon paid a visit to Vestfold, " the
extreme district of their realm, whose peoples and chief men were
refusing to be made subject to them," and on their return had
trouble with the sons of Godefridus. The latter expelled them
from their kingdom, and in 814 Reginfridus fell in a vain attempt
to regain it. Herioldus now received the support of the emperor,

HISTORY]

DENMARK

29

and after several unsuccessful attempts a compromise was
effected in 819 when the parties agreed to share the realm.
In 820 Herioldus was baptized at Mainz and received from the
emperor a grant of Riustringen in N.E. Friesland. In 827 he
was expelled from his kingdom, but St Anskar, who had been sent
with Herioldus to preach Christianity, remained at his post. In
836 we find one Horic as king of the Danes; he was probably
a son of Godefridus. During his reign there was trouble with
the emperor as to the overlordship of Frisia. In the meantime
Herioldus remained on friendly terms with Lothair and received
a further grant of Walcheren and the neighbouring districts.
In 850 Horic was attacked by his own nephews and compelled
to share the kingdom with them, while in 852 Herioldus was
charged with treachery and slain by the Franks. In 854 a revo-
lution took place in Denmark itself. Horic's nephew Godwin,
returning from exile with a large following of Northmen, over-
threw his uncle in a three days' battle in which all members
of the royal house except one boy are said to have perished.
This boy now became king as " Horicus junior." Of his reign
we know practically nothing. The next kings mentioned are
Sigafrid and Halfdane, who were sons of the great Viking leader
Ragnarr LoSbrok. There is also mention of a third king named
Godefridus. The exact chronology and relationship of these
kings it is impossible to determine, but we know that Healfdene
died in Scotland in 877, while Godefridus was treacherously
slain by Henry of Saxony in 885. During these and the next
few years there is mention of more than one king of the names
Sigefridus and Godefridus: the most important event associated
with their names is that two kings Sigefridus and Godefridus fell
in the great battle on the Dyle in 891.

We now have the names of several kings, Heiligo, Olaph (of
Swedish origin), and his sons Chnob and Gurth. Then come a
Danish ruler Sigeric, followed by Hardegon, son of Swein, coming
from Norway. At some date after 916 we find mention of one
" Hardecnuth Urm " ruling among the Danes. Adam of Bremen,
from whom these details come, was himself uncertain whether
" so many kings or rather tyrants of the Danes ruled together or
succeeded one another at short intervals." Hardecnuth Urm
is to be identified with the famous Gorm the old, who married
Thyra Danmarkarbot: their son was Harold Bluetooth.

(A. Mw.)

Medieval and Modern. — Danish history first becomes authentic
at the beginning of the gth century. The Danes, the southern-
most branch of the Scandinavian family, referred to by Alfred
(c. 890) as occupying Jutland, the islands and Scania, were, in
777, strong enough to defy the Frank empire by harbouring
its fugitives. Five years later we find a Danish king, Sigfrid,
among the princes who assembled at Lippe in 782 to make
their submission to Charles the Great. About the same
time Willibrord, from his see at Utrecht, made an unsuccessful
attempt to convert the " wild Danes." These three salient
facts are practically the sum of our knowledge of early Danish
history previous to the Viking period. That mysterious upheaval,
most generally attributed to a love of adventure, stimulated by
the pressure of over-population, began with the ravaging of
Lindisfarne in 793, and virtually terminated with the establish-
ment of Rollo in Normandy (911). There can be little doubt
that the earlier of these expeditions were from Denmark, though
the term Northmen was originally applied indiscriminately to all
these terrible visitants from the unknown north. The rovers
who first chastened and finally colonized southern England and
Normandy were certainly Danes.

The Viking raids were one of the determining causes of the

establishment of the feudal monarchies of western Europe,

but the un tameable freebooters were themselves finally

Coa~. , subdued by the Church. At first sight it seems curious

version of ,-,,..

the Danes, that Christianity should have been so slow to reach
Denmark. But we must bear in mind that one very
important consequence of the Viking raids was to annihilate the
geographical remoteness which had hitherto separated Denmark
from the Christian world. Previously to 793 there lay between
Jutland and England a sea which no keel had traversed within

the memory of man. The few and peaceful traders who explored
those northern waters were careful never to lose sight of the
Saxon, Frisian and Prankish shores during their passage. Nor
was communication with the west by land any easier. For genera-
tions the obstinately -heathen Saxons had lain, a compact and
impenetrable mass, between Scandinavia and the Frank empire,
nor were the measures adopted by Charles the Great for the
conversion of the Saxons to the true faith very much to the
liking of their warlike Danish neighbours on the other side.
But by the time that Charles had succeeded in " converting "
the Saxons, the Viking raids were already at their height, and
though generally triumphant, necessity occasionally taught the
Northmen the value of concessions. Thus it was the desire
to secure his Jutish kingdom which induced Harold Klak, in
826, to sail up the Rhine to Ingelheim, and there accept
baptism, with his wife, his son Godfred and 400 of his suite,
acknowledging the emperor as his overlord, and taking back
with him to Denmark the missionary monk Ansgar. Ansgar
preached in Denmark from 826 to 861, but it was not till after
the subsidence of the Viking raids that Adaldag, archbishop
of Hamburg, could open a new and successful mission, which
resulted in the erection of the bishoprics of Schleswig, Ribe and
Aarhus (c. 948), though the real conversion of Denmark must be
dated from the baptism of King Harold Bluetooth (960).

Meanwhile the Danish monarchy was attempting to aggrandize
itself at the expense of the Germans, the Wends who then
occupied the Baltic littoral as far as the Vistula, and
the other Scandinavian kingdoms. Harold Bluetooth expansion,
(940-986) subdued German territory south of the
Eider, extended the Danevirke, Denmark's great line of defensive
fortifications, to the south of Schleswig and planted the military
colony of Julin or Jomsborg, at the mouth of the Oder. Part of
Norway was first seized after the united Danes and Swedes had
defeated and slain King Olaf Trygvesson at the battle of Svolde
(1000); and between 1028 and 1035 Canute the Great added the
whole kingdom to his own ; but the union did not long survive
him. Equally short-lived was the Danish dominion in England,
which originated in a great Viking expedition of King Sweyn I.

The period between the death of Canute the Great and the
accession of Valdemar I. was a troublous time for Denmark.
The k'' gdom was harassed almost incessantly, and Consollda-
more chan once partitioned,by pretenders to the throne, tloa of the
who did not scruple to invoke the interference of the ^j^rine
neighbouring monarchs, and even of the heathen vaide-
Wends, who established themselves for a time on mars,
the southern islands. Yet, throughout this chaos, one I1S7~
thing made for future stability, and that was the
growth and consolidation of a national church, which culmin-
ated in the erection of the archbishopric of Lund (c. 1104) and
the consequent ecclesiastical independence of Denmark. The
third archbishop of Lund was Absalon (1128-1201), Denmark's
first great statesman, who so materially assisted Valdemar I.
(1157-1182) and Canute VI. (1182-1202) to establish the
dominion of Denmark over the Baltic, mainly at the expense
of the Wends. The policy of Absalon was continued on a still
vaster scale by Valdemar II. (1202-1241), at a time when the
German kingdom was too weak and distracted to intervene to
save its seaboard; but the treachery of a vassal and the loss of
one great battle sufficed to plunge this unwieldy, unsubstantial
empire in the dust. (See VALDEMAR I., II., and ABSALON.)

Yet the age of the Valdemars was one of the most glorious in
Danish history, and it is of political importance as marking a
turning-point. Favourable circumstances had, from the first,
given the Danes the lead in Scandinavia. They held the richest
and therefore the most populous lands, and geographically
they were nearer than their neighbours to western civilization.
Under the Valdemars, however, the ancient patriarchal system
was merging into a more complicated development, of separate
estates. The monarchy, now dominant, and far wealthier than
before, rested upon the support of the great nobles, many of
whom held their lands by feudal tenure, and constituted the
royal Raod, or council. The clergy, fortified by royal privileges,

DENMARK

[HISTORY

had also risen to influence; but celibacy and independence of the
civil courts tended to make them mo*e and more of a separate
caste. Education was spreading. Numerous Danes, lay as well
as clerical, regularly frequented the university of Paris. There
were signs too of the rise of a vigorous middle class, due to the
extraordinary development of the national resources (chiefly
the herring fisheries, horse-breeding and cattle-rearing) and the
foundation of gilds, the oldest of which, the Edslag of Schleswig,
dates from the early iath century. The bonder, or yeomen, were
prosperous and independent, with well-defined rights. Danish
territory extended over 60,000 sq. kilometres, or nearly double
its present area; the population was about 700,000; and 160,000
men and 1400 ships were available for national defence.

On the death of Valdemar II. a period of disintegration ensued.
Valdemar's son, Eric Plovpenning, succeeded him as king; but

his near kinsfolk also received huge appanages, and
Period of family discords led to civil wars. Throughout the
aoa.t<>S!ra' X3th and Part of tke ^th century, the struggle raged

between the Danish kings and the Schleswig dukes;
and of six monarchs no fewer than three died violent deaths.
Superadded to these troubles was a prolonged struggle for
supremacy between the popes and the crown, and, still more
serious, the beginning of a breach between the kings and nobles,
which had important constitutional consequences. The prevalent
disorder had led to general lawlessness, in consequence of which
the royal authority had been widely extended; and a strong
opposition gradually arose which protested against the abuses
of this authority. In 1282 the nobles extorted from King Eric
Clipping the first Haandfoestning, or charter, which recognized
the Danehof, or national assembly, as a regular branch of the
administration and gave guarantees against further usurpations.
Christopher II. (1319-1331) was constrained to grant another
charter considerably reducing the prerogative, increasing the
privileges of the upper classes, and at the same time reducing the
burden of taxation. But aristocratic licence proved as mischiev-
ous as royal incompetence; and on the death of Christopher II.
the whole kingdom was on the verge of dissolution. Eastern
Denmark was in the hands of one magnate; another magnate
held Jutland and Fiinen in pawn; the dukes of Schleswig were
practically independent of the Danish crown; the Scandian pro-
vinces had (1332) surrendered themselves to Sweden.

It was reserved for another Valdemar (Valdemar IV., q.v.) to
reunite and weld together the scattered members of his heritage.
vaide- His long reign (1340-1375) resulted in the re-establish-
mariv., ment of Denmark as the great Baltic power. It is al&>

a very interesting period of her social and constitutional

development. This great ruler, who had to fight, year
after year, against foreign and domestic foes, could, nevertheless,
always find time to promote the internal prosperity of his much
afflicted country. For the dissolution of Denmark, during the
long anarchy, had been internal as well as external. The whole
social fabric had been convulsed and transformed. The monarchy
had been undermined. The privileged orders had aggrandized
themselves at the expense of the community. The yeoman class
had sunk into semi-serfdom. In a word, the natural cohesion of
the Danish nation had been loosened and there was no security
for law and justice. To make an end of this universal lawlessness
Valdemar IV. was obliged, in the first place, to re-establish the
royal authority by providing the crown with a regular and certain
income. This he did by recovering the alienated royal demesnes
in every direction, and from henceforth the annual landgilde, or
rent, paid by the royal tenants, became the monarch's principal
source of revenue. Throughout his reign Valdemar laboured
incessantly to acquire as much land as possible. Moreover, the
old distinction between the king's private estate and crown
property henceforth ceases; all such property was henceforth
regarded as the hereditary possession of the Danish crown.

The national army was also re-established on its ancient
footing. Not only were the magnates sharply reminded that they
held their lands on military tenure, but the towns were also made
to contribute both men and ships, and peasant levies, especially
archers, were recruited from every parish. Everywhere indeed

Valdemar intervened personally. The smallest detail was not
beneath his notice. Thus he invented nets for catching wolves
and built innumerable water-mills, " for he would not let the
waters run into the sea before they had been of use to the
community. ' ' Under such a ruler law and order were speedily re-
established. The popular tribunals regained their authority, and
a supreme court of justice, Del Kongelige Retterting, presided over
by Valdemar himself, not only punished the unruly and guarded
the prerogatives of the crown, but also protected the weak and
defenceless from the tyranny of the strong. Nor did Valdemar
hesitate to meet his people hi public and periodically render an
account of his stewardship. He voluntarily resorted to the old
practice of summoning national assemblies, the so-called Danehof.
At the first of these assemblies held at Nyborg, Midsummer Day
1314, the bishops and councillors solemnly promised that the
commonalty should enjoy all the ancient rights and privileges
conceded to them by Valdemar II., and the wise provision that
the Danehof should meet annually considerably strengthened its
authority. The keystone to the whole constitutional system was
" King Valdemar's Charter " issued in May 1360 at the Rigsmode,
or parliament, held at Kalundborg in May 1360. This charter
was practically an act of national pacification, the provisions
of which king and people together undertook to enforce for the
benefit of the commonweal.

The work of Valdemar was completed and consolidated by
his illustrious daughter Margaret (1375-1412), whose crowning
achievement was the Union of Kalmar (1397), whereby
she sought to combine the three northern kingdoms Tl" v"ioa
into a single state dominated by Denmark. In any ^^*tmar<
case Denmark was bound to be the only gainer by
the Union. Her population was double that of the two other
kingdoms combined, and neither Margaret nor her successors
observed the stipulations that each country should retain its own
laws and customs and be ruled by natives only. In both Norway
and Sweden, therefore, the Union was highly unpopular. The
Norwegian aristocracy was too weak, however, seriously to
endanger the Union at any time, but Sweden was, from the
first, decidedly hostile to Margaret's whole policy. Nevertheless
during her lifetime the system worked fairly well; but her pupil
and successor, Eric of Pomerania, was unequal to the burden
of empire and embroiled himself both with his neighbours and
his subjects. The Hanseatic League, whose political ascendancy
had been shaken by the Union, enraged by Eric's efforts to bring
in the Dutch as commercial rivals, as well as by the establish-
ment of the Sound tolls, materially assisted the Holsteiners in
their twenty-five years' war with Denmark (1410-35), and
Eric VII. himself was finally deposed (1439) in favour of his
nephew, Christopher of Bavaria.

The deposition of Eric marks another turning-point in Danish
history. It was the act not of the people but of the Rigsrood
(Senate), which had inherited the authority of the drouth Ot
ancient Danehof and, after the death of Margaret, the power
grew steadily in power at the expense of the crown. ofihe
As the government grew more and more aristocratic,
the position of the peasantry steadily deteriorated. It is under
Christopher that we first hear, for instance, of the Vornedskab, or
patriarchal control of the landlords over their tenants, a system
which degenerated into rank slavery. In Jutland, too, after
the repression, in 1441, of a peasant rising, something very like
serfdom was introduced.

On the death of Christopher III. without heirs, in 1448, the
Rigsraad elected his distant cousin, Count Christian of Oldenburg,
king; but Sweden preferred Karl Knutsson (Charles
" VIII."), while Norway finally combined with Den- Break-up
mark, at the conference of Halmstad, in a double
election which practically terminated the Union,
though an agreement was come to that the survivor of the two
kings should reign over all three kingdoms. Norway, subse-
quently, threw in her lot definitively with Denmark. Dissensions
resulting in interminable civil wars had, even before the Union,
exhausted the resources of the poorest of the three northern
realms; and her ruin was completed by the ravages of the Black

HISTORY]

DENMARK

Death, which wiped out two-thirds of her population. Unfortu-
nately, too, for Norway's independence, the native gentry had
gradually died out, and were succeeded by immigrant Danish
fortune-hunters; native burgesses there were none, and the
peasantry were mostly thralls; so that, excepting the clergy,
there was no patriotic class to stand up for the national
liberties.

Far otherwise was it in the wealthier kingdom of Sweden. Here
the clergy and part of the nobility were favourable to the Union;
but the vast majority of the people hated it as a foreign usurpa-
tion. Matters were still further complicated by the continual
interference of the Hanseatic League; and Christian I. (1448-
1481) and Hans (1481-1513), whose chief merit it is to have
founded the Danish fleet, were, during the greater part of their
reigns, only nominally kings of Sweden. Hans also received
in fief the territory of Dietmarsch from the emperor, but, in
attempting to subdue the hardy Dietmarschers, suffered a
crushing defeat in which the national banner called " Danebrog "
fell into the enemy's hands ( 1 500) . Moreover, this defeat led to a
successful rebellion in Sweden, and a long and ruinous war with
Lubeck, terminated by the peace of Malmo, 1512. It was during
this war that a strong Danish fleet dominated the Baltic for the
first time since the age of the Valdemars.

On the succession of Hans's son, Christian II. (1513-1523),
Margaret's splendid dream of a Scandinavian empire seemed,
finally, about to be realized. The young king, a man
//**««" °^ character and genius, had wide views and original
1523. ideas. Elected king of Denmark and Norway, he suc-

ceeded in subduing Sweden by force of arms; but
he spoiled everything at the culmination of his triumph by the
hideous crime and blunder known as the Stockholm massacre,
which converted the politically divergent Swedish nation into the
irreconcilable foe of the unional government (see CHRISTIAN
II.). Christian's contempt of nationality in Sweden is the more
remarkable as in Denmark proper he sided with the people
against the aristocracy, to his own undoing in that age of privilege
and prejudice. His intentions, as exhibited to his famous
Landelove (National Code), were progressive and enlightened to
an eminent degree; so much so, indeed, that they mystified
the people as much as they alienated the patricians; but his
actions were often of revolting brutality, and his whole career
was vitiated by an incurable double-mindedness which provoked
general distrust. Yet there is no doubt that Christian II. was
a true patriot, whose ideal it was to weld the three northern
kingdoms into a powerful state, independent of all foreign
influences, especially of German influence as manifested in the
commercial tyranny of the Hansa League. His utter failure was
due, partly to the vices of an undisciplined temperament, and
partly to the extraordinary difficulties of the most inscrutable
period of European history, when the shrewdest heads were at
fault and irreparable blunders belonged to the order of the day.
That period was the period of the Reformation, which profoundly
affected the politics of Scandinavia. Christian II. had always
subordinated religion to politics, and was Papist or Lutheran
according to circumstances. But, though he treated the Church
more like a foe than a friend and was constantly at war with the
Curia, he retained the Catholic form of church worship and never
seems to have questioned the papal supremacy. On the flight of
Christian II. and the election of his uncle, Frederick I. (1523-
Frederkk X533)> tne Church resumed her jurisdiction and every-
I.,1523- thing was placed on the old footing. The newly
1533. The elected and still insecure German king at first remained
ao'a""*' neutral; but in tne autumn of 1525 the current of
Lutheranism began to run so strongly in Denmark as
to threaten to whirl away every opposing obstacle. This novel
and disturbing phenomenon was mainly due to the zeal and
eloquence of the ex-monk Hans Tausen and his associates, or
disciples, Peder Plad and Sadolin; and, in the autumn of 1526,
Tausen was appointed one of the royal chaplains. The three
ensuing years were especially favourable for the Reformation,
as during that time the king had unlooked-for opportunities for
filling the vacant episcopal sees with men after his own heart,

and at heart he was a Lutheran. The reformation movement in
Denmark was further promoted by Schleswig-Holstein influence.
Frederick's eldest son Duke Christian had, since 1527, resided at
Haderslev, where he collected round him Lutheran teachers
from Germany, and made his court the centre of the propaganda
of the new doctrine. On the other hand, the Odense Recess of
the 20th of August 1527, which put both confessions on a footing
of equality, remained unrepealed; and so long as it remained in
force, the spiritual jurisdiction of the bishops, and, consequently,
their authority over the " free preachers " (whose ambition
convulsed all the important towns of Denmark and aimed
at forcibly expelling the Catholic priests from their churches)
remained valid, to the great vexation of the reformers. The
inevitable ecclesiastical crisis was still further postponed by the
superior stress of two urgent political events — Christian II. 's
invasion of Norway (1531) and the outbreak, in 1533, of
" Grevens fejde," or " The Count's War " (1534-36), no
the count in question being Christopher of Oldenburg, Count'*
great-nephew of King Christian I., whom Lubeck and War,
her allies, on the death of Frederick I., raised up lj?3~
against Frederick's son Christian III. The Catholic
party and the lower orders generally took the part of Count
Christopher, who acted throughout as the nominee of the captive
Christian II., while the Protestant party, aided by the Holstein
dukes and Gustavus Vasa of Sweden, sided with Christian III.
The war ended with the capture of Copenhagen by the forces of
Christian III., on the 2pth of July 1536, and the triumph of so
devoted a Lutheran sealed the fate of the Roman Catholic
Church in Denmark, though even now it was necessary for the
victorious king to proceed against the bishops and their friends
by a coup d'itat, engineered by his German generals the Rantzaus.
The Recess of 1536 enacted that the bishops should forfeit their
temporal and spiritual authority, and that all their property
should be transferred to the crown for the good of the common-
wealth. In the following year a Church ordinance, based upon
the canons of Luther, Melanchthon and Bugenhagen, was drawn
up, submitted to Luther for his approval, and promulgated on
the 2nd of September 1537. On the same day seven " super-
intendents," including Tausen and Sadolin, all of whom had
worked zealously for the cause of the Reformation, were
consecrated in place of the dethroned bishops. The position of
the superintendents and of the reformed church generally was
consolidated by the Articles of Ribe in 1542, and the constitution
of the Danish church has practically continued the same to the
present day. But Catholicism could not wholly or immediately
be dislodged by the teaching of Luther. It had struck deep
roots into the habits and feelings of the people, and traces of its
survival were distinguishable a whole century after the triumph
of the Reformation. Catholicism lingered longest in the cathedral
chapters. Here were to be found men of ability proof against
the eloquence of Hans Tausen or Peder Plad and quite capable
of controverting their theories — men like Povl Helgesen, for
instance, indisputably the greatest Danish theologian of his day,
a scholar whose voice was drowned amidst the clash of conflicting
creeds.

Though the Reformation at first did comparatively little for
education,1 and the whole spiritual life of Denmark was poor and
feeble in consequence for at least a generation after-
wards, the change of religion was of undeniable, if the K*_°
temporary, benefit to the state from the political formation.
point of view. The enormous increase of the royal
revenue consequent upon the confiscation of the property of the
Church could not fail to increase the financial stability of the
monarchy. In particular the suppression of the monasteries
benefited the crown in two ways. The old church had, indeed,
frequently rendered the state considerable financial aid, but such
voluntary assistance was, from the nature of the case, casual
and arbitrary. Now, however, the state derived a fixed and
certain revenue from the confiscated lands; and the possession

1 It is true the university was established on the 9th of September
1537. but its influence was of very gradual growth and small at
first.

DENMARK

[HISTORY

of immense landed property at the same time enabled the
crown advantageously to conduct the administration. The
gross revenue of the state is estimated to have risen threefold.
Before the Reformation the annual revenue from land averaged
400,000 bushels of corn; after the confiscations of Church
property it averaged 1,200,000 bushels. The possession of a
full purse materially assisted the Danish government in its
domestic administration, which was indeed epoch-making. It
enabled Christian III. to pay off his German mercenaries
immediately after the religious coup d'etat of 1536. It enabled
him to prosecute shipbuilding with such energy that, by. 1550,
the royal fleet numbered at least thirty vessels, which were
largely employed as a maritime police in the pirate-haunted
Baltic and North Seas. It enabled him to create and
remunerate adequately a capable official class, which proved
its efficiency under the strictest supervision, and ultimately
produced a whole series of great statesmen and admirals like
Johan Friis, Peder Oxe, Herluf Trolle and Peder Skram. It is
not too much to say that the increased revenue derived from the
appropriation of Church property, intelligently applied, gave
Denmark the hegemony of the North during the
latter Part of Christian III.'s reign, the whole reign
of of Frederick II. and the first twenty-five years of the

Denmark, reign of Christian IV., a period embracing, roughly
speaking, eighty years ( 1 544- 1626). Within this period
Denmark was indisputably the leading Scandinavian
power. While Sweden, even after the advent of Gustavus Vasa,
was still of but small account in Europe, Denmark easily held
her own in Germany and elsewhere, even against Charles V., and
was important enough, in 1553, to mediate a peace between the
emperor and Saxony. Twice during this period Denmark and
Sweden measured their strength in the open field, on the first
occasion in the " Scandinavian Seven Years' War" (1562-70),
on the second in the " Kalmar War" (1611-13), and on both
occasions Denmark prevailed, though the temporary advantage
she gained was more than neutralized by the intense feeling of
hostility which the unnatural wars, between the two kindred
peoples of Scandinavia, left behind them. Still, the fact remains
that, for a time, Denmark was one of the great powers of Europe.
Frederick II., in his later years (1571-1588), aspired to the
dominion of all the seas which washed the Scandinavian coasts,
and before he died he was able to enforce the rule that all foreign
ships should strike their topsails to Danish men-of-war as a token
of his right to rule the northern seas. Favourable political
circumstances also contributed to this general acknowledgment
of Denmark's maritime greatness. The power of the Hansa had
gone; the Dutch were enfeebled by their contest with Spain;
England's sea-power was yet in the making; Spain, still the
greatest of the maritime nations, was exhausting her resources
in the vain effort to conquer the Dutch. Yet more even than to
felicitous circumstances, Denmark owed her short-lived greatness
to the great statesmen and administrators whom Frederick II.
succeeded in gathering about him. Never before, since the age
of Margaret, had Denmark been so well governed, never before
had she possessed so many political celebrities nobly emulous for
the common good.

Frederick II. was succeeded by his son Christian IV. (April 4,
1588), who attained his majority on the i7th of August 1596, at
Denmark ^e age of nineteen. The realm which Christian IV. was
at the ac- to govern had undergone great changes within the last
cession of two generations. Towards the south the boundaries of
^v^isss ^e Danish state remained unchanged. Levensaa and
the Eider still separated Denmark from the Empire.
Schleswig was recognized as a Danish fief, in contradistinc-
tion to Holstein, which owed vassalage to the Empire. The
" kingdom " stretched as far as Kolding and Skedborg, where
the " duchy " began; and this duchy since its amalgamation
with Holstein by means of a common Landtag, and especially
since the union of the dual duchy with the kingdom on almost
equal terms in 1533, was, in most respects, a semi-independent
state. Denmark, moreover, like Europe in general, was, politic-
ally, on the threshold of a transitional period. During the whole

course of the i6th century the monarchical form of government
was in every large country, with the single exception of Poland,
rising on the ruins of feudalism. The great powers of the late
i6th and early ryth centuries were to be the strong, highly
centralized, hereditary monarchies, like France, Spain and
Sweden. There seemed to be no reason why Denmark also should
not become a powerful state under the guidance of a powerful
monarchy, especially as the sister state of Sweden was developing
into a great power under apparently identical conditions. Yet,
while Sweden was surely ripening into the dominating power of
northern Europe, Denmark had as surely entered upon a period
of uninterrupted and apparently incurable decline. What was
the cause of this anomaly ? Something of course must be allowed
for the superior and altogether extraordinary genius of the great
princes of the house of Vasa; yet the causes of the decline
of Denmark lay far deeper than this. They may roughly be
summed up under two heads: the inherent weakness of an
elective monarchy, and the absence of that public spirit which
is based on the intimate alliance of ruler and ruled. Whilst
Gustavus Vasa had leaned upon the Swedish peasantry, in other
words upon the bulk of the Swedish nation, which was and
continued to be an integral part of the Swedish body-politic,
Christian III. on his accession had crushed the middle and lower
classes in Denmark and reduced them to political insignificance.
Yet it was not the king who benefited by this blunder. The
Danish monarchy since the days of Margaret had continued to be
purely elective; and a purely elective monarchy at that stage of
the political development of Europe was a mischievous anomaly.
It signified in the first place that the crown was not the highest
power in the state, but was subject to the aristocratic Rigsraad,
or council of state. The Rigsraad was the permanent owner of the
realm and the crown-lands; the king was only their temporary
administrator. If the king died before the election of his
successor, the Rigsraad stepped into the king's place. Moreover,
an elective monarchy implied that, at every fresh succession, the
king was liable to be bound by a new Haandfaestning, or charter.
The election itself might, and did, become a mere formality;
but the condition precedent of election, the acceptance of
the charter, invariably limiting the royal authority, remained a
reality. This period of aristocratic rule, which dates practically
from the accession of Frederick I. (1523), and lasted for nearly
a century and a half, is known in Danish history as Adelsvaelde,
or rule of the nobles.

Again, the king was the ruler of the realm, but over a very
large portion of it he had but a slight control. The crown-lands
and most of the towns were under his immediate jurisdiction,
but by the side of the crown-lands lay the estates of the nobility,
which already comprised about one-half of the superficial area
of Denmark, and were in many respects independent of the central
government both as regards taxation and administration. In a
word, the monarchy had to share its dominion with the nobility;
and the Danish nobility in the i6th century was one of the most
exclusive and selfish aristocracies in Europe, and already far
advanced in decadence. Hermetically sealing itself from any
intrusion from below, it deteriorated by close and constant inter-
marriage; and it was already, both morally and intellectually,
below the level of the rest of the nation. Yet this very aristo-
cracy, whose claim to consideration was based not upon its own
achievements but upon the length of its pedigrees, insisted upon
an amplification of its privileges which endangered the economical
and political interests of the state and the nation. The time was
close at hand when a Danish magnate was to demonstrate that he
preferred the utter ruin of his country to any abatement of his
own personal dignity.

All below the king and the nobility were generally classified
together as " subjects." Of these lower orders the clergy stood
first in the social scale. As a spiritual estate, indeed, it had
ceased to exist at the Reformation, though still represented in the
Rigsdag or diet. Since then too it had become quite detached
from the nobility, which ostentatiously despised the teaching
profession. The clergy recruited themselves therefore from
the class next below them, and looked more and more to the

HISTORY]

DENMARK

33

crown for help and protection as they drew apart from
the gentry, who, moreover, as dispensers of patronage, lost no
opportunity of appropriating church lands and cutting down
tithes.

The burgesses had not yet recovered from the disaster of
" Grevens fejde"; but while the towns had become more
dependent on the central power, they had at the same time been
released from their former vexatious subjection to the local mag-
nates, and could make their voices heard in the Rigsdag, where
they were still, though inadequately, represented. Within the
Estate of Burgesses itself, too, a levelling process had begun.
The old municipal patriciate, which used to form the connecting
link between the bourgeoisie and the nobility, had disappeared,
and a feeling of common civic fellowship had taken its place.
All this tended to enlarge the political views of the burgesses, and
was not without its influence on the future. Yet, after all, the
prospects of the burgesses depended mainly on economic con-
ditions; and in this respect there was a decided improvement,
due to the increasing importance of money and commerce all
over Europe, especially as the steady decline of the Hanse towns
immediately benefited the trade of Denmark-Norway; Norway
by this time being completely merged in the Danish state,
and ruled from Copenhagen. There can, indeed, be no doubt
that the Danish and Norwegian merchants at the end of the
i6th century flourished exceedingly, despite the intrusion and
competition of the Dutch and the dangers to neutral shipping
arising from the frequent wars between England, Spain and
the Netherlands.

At the bottom of the social ladder lay the peasants, whose
condition had decidedly deteriorated. Only in one respect had
they benefited by the peculiar conditions of the i6th century:
the rise in the price of corn without any corresponding rise in the
land-tax must have largely increased their material prosperity.
Yet the number of peasant-proprietors had diminished, while
the obligations of the peasantry generally had increased; and,
still worse, their obligations were vexatiously indefinite, varying
from year to year and even from month to month. They
weighed especially heavily on the so-called Ugedasmaend, who
were forced to work two or three days a week in the demesne
lands. This increase of villenage morally depressed the peasantry,
and widened still further the breach between the yeomanry and
the gentry. Politically its consequences were disastrous. While
in Sweden the free and energetic peasant was a salutary power
in the state, which he served with both mind and plough, the
Danish peasant was sinking to the level of a bondman. While
the Swedish peasants were well represented in the Swedish
Riksdag, whose proceedings they sometimes dominated, the
Danish peasantry had no political rights or privileges what-
ever.

Such then, briefly, was the condition of things in Denmark
when, in 1 588, Christian IV. ascended the throne. Where so much
was necessarily uncertain and fluctuating, there was
iv S1S88- room f°r an almost infinite variety of development.
1648. Much depended on the character and personality of

the young prince who had now taken into his hands
the reins of government, and for half a century was to guide the
destinies of the nation. In the beginning of his reign the hand
of the young monarch, who was nothing if not energetic, made
itself felt in every direction. The harbours of Copenhagen,
Elsinore and other towns were enlarged; many decaying towns
were abolished and many new ones built under more promising
conditions, including Christiania, which was founded in August
1624, on the ruins of the ancient city of Oslo. Various attempts
were also made to improve trade and industry by abolishing the
still remaining privileges of the Hanseatic towns, by promoting
a wholesale immigration of skilful and well-to-do Dutch traders
and handicraftsmen into Denmark under most favourable
conditions, by opening up the rich fisheries of the Arctic seas,
and by establishing joint-stock chartered companies both in the
East and the West Indies. Copenhagen especially benefited by
Christian IV.'s commercial policy. He enlarged and embellished
it, and provided it with new harbours and fortifications; in short,

did his best to make it the worthy capital of a great empire.
But it was in the foreign policy of the government that the royal
influence was most perceptible. Unlike Sweden, Denmark had
remained outside the great religious-political movements which
were the outcome of the Catholic reaction; and the peculiarity
of her position made her rather hostile than friendly to the other
Protestant states. The possession of the Sound enabled her to
close the Baltic against the Western pcwers; the possession of
Norway carried along with it the control of the rich fisheries
which were Danish monopolies, and therefore a source of irrita-
tion to England and Holland. Denmark, moreover, was above
all things a Scandinavian power. While the territorial expansion
of Sweden in the near future was a matter of necessity, Denmark
had not only attained, but even exceeded, her natural limits.
Aggrandizement southwards, at the expense of the German
empire, was becoming every year more difficult; and in every
other direction she had nothing more to gain. Nay, more,
Denmark's possession of the Scanian provinces deprived Sweden
of her proper geographical frontiers. Clearly it was Denmark's
wisest policy to seek a close alliance with Sweden in their common
interests, and after the conclusion of the " Kalmar War " the
two countries did remain at peace for the next thirty-one years.
But the antagonistic interests of the two countries in Germany
during the Thirty Years' War precipitated a fourth contest
between them (1643-45), in which Denmark would have been
utterly ruined but for the heroism of King Christian IV. and his
command of the sea during the crisis of the struggle. Even so,
by the peace of Bromsebro (February 8, 1645)
Denmark surrendered the islands of Oesel and Gotland /osseg „/
and the provinces of Jemteland and Herjedal (in territory.
Norway) definitively, and Halland for thirty years.
The freedom from the Sound tolls was by the same treaty also
extended to Sweden's Baltic provinces.

The peace of Bromsebro was the first of the long series
of treaties, extending down to our own days, which mark the
progressive shrinkage of Danish territory into an irreducible
minimum. Sweden's appropriation of Danish soil had begun,
and at the same time Denmark's power of resisting the encroach-
ments of Sweden was correspondingly reduced. The Danish
national debt, too, had risen enormously, while the sources of
future income and consequent recuperation had diminished
or disappeared. The Sound tolls, for instance, in consequence of
the treaties of Bromsebro and Kristianopel (by the latter treaty
very considerable concessions were made to the Dutch) had sunk
from 400,000 to 140,000 rix-dollars. The political influence of
the crown, moreover, had inevitably been weakened, and the
conduct of foreign affairs passed from the hands of the king
into the hands of the Rigsraad. On the accession
of Frederick III. (1648-1670) moreover, the already IIL> '

>

diminished royal prerogative was still further curtailed 1670.
by the Haandfaestning, or charter, which he was
compelled to sign. Fear and hatred of Sweden, and the never
abandoned hope of recovering the lost provinces, animated king
and people alike; but it was Denmark's crowning misfortune
that she possessed at this difficult crisis no statesman of the first
rank, no one even approximately comparable with such com-
petitors as Charles X. of Sweden or the " Great Elector "
Frederick William of Brandenburg. From the very beginning
of his reign Frederick III. was resolved upon a rupture at the
first convenient opportunity, while the nation was, if possible,
even more bellicose than the king. The apparently insuperable
difficulties of Sweden in Poland was the feather that turned the
scale; on the ist of June 1657, Frederick III. signed the manifesto
justifying a war which was never formally declared and brought
Denmark to the very verge of ruin. The extraordinary details
of this dramatic struggle will be found elsewhere (see FREDERICK
III., king of Denmark, and CHARLES X., king of Sweden) ;
suffice it to say that by the peace of Roskilde
(February 26, 1658), Denmark consented to cede the
three Scanian provinces, the island of Bornholm and less.
the Norwegian provinces of Baahus and Trondhjem;
to renounce all anti-Swedish alliances and to exempt all Swedish

5

34

DENMARK

[HISTORY

llshed,
1660.

vessels, even when carrying foreign goods, from all tolls. These
terrible losses were somewhat retrieved by the subsequent
treaty of Copenhagen (May 27, 1660) concluded by the Swedish
regency with Frederick III. after the failure of Charles X.'s
second war against Denmark, a failure chiefly owing to the
heroic defence of the Danish capital (1658-60). By this treaty
Treaty of Sweden gave back the province of Trondhjem and the
Copeo- isle of Bornholm and released Denmark from the most
hagea, onerous of the obligations of the treaty of Roskilde.
In fact the peace of Copenhagen came as a welcome
break in an interminable series of disasters and humiliations.
Anyhow, it confirmed the independence of the Danish state.
On the other hand, if Denmark had emerged from the war with
her honour and dignity unimpaired, she had at the same time
tacitly surrendered the dominion of the North to her Scandi-
navian rival.

But the war just terminated had important political conse-
quences, which were to culminate in one of the most curious and
Hereditary interesting revolutions of modern history. In the first
monarchy place, it marks the termination of the Adelsvaelde, or
estab- rule of the nobility. By their cowardice, incapacity,
egotism and treachery during the crisis of the struggle,
the Danish aristocracy had justly forfeited the respect
of every other class of the community, and emerged from the
war hopelessly discredited. On the other hand, Copenhagen,
proudly conscious of her intrinsic importance and of her inestim-
able services to the country, whom she had saved from annihilation
by her constancy, now openly claimed to have a voice in public
affairs. Still higher had risen the influence of the crown. The
courage and resource displayed by Frederick III. in the extremity
of the national danger had won for " the least expansive of
monarchs " an extraordinary popularity.

On the loth of September 1660, the Rigsdug, which was to
repair the ravages of the war and provide for the future, was
opened with great ceremony in the Riddersaal of the castle
of Copenhagen. The first bill laid before the Estates by the
government was to impose an excise tax on the principal articles
of consumption, together with subsidiary taxes on cattle, poultry,
&c., in return for which the abolition of all the old direct taxes
was promised. The nobility at first claimed exemption from
taxation altogether, while the clergy and burgesses insisted upon
an absolute equality of taxation. There were sharp encounters
between the presidents of the contending orders, but the position
of the Lower Estates was considerably prejudiced by the dissen-
sions of its various sections. Thus the privileges of the bishops
and of Copenhagen profoundly irritated the lower clergy and
the unprivileged towns, and made a cordial understanding
impossible, till Hans Svane, bishop of Copenhagen, and Hans
Nansen the burgomaster, who now openly came forward as the
leader of the reform movement, proposed that the privileges
which divided the non-noble Estates should be abolished. In
accordance with this proposal, the two Lower Estates, on the
i6th of September, subscribed a memorandum addressed to the
Rigsraad, declaring their willingness to renounce their privileges,
provided the nobility did the same; which was tantamount to a
declaration that the whole of the clergy and burgesses had made
common cause against the nobility. The opposition so formed
took the name of the " Conjoined Estates." The presentation
of the memorial provoked an outburst of indignation. But the
nobility soon perceived the necessity of complete surrender.
On the 30th of September the First Estate abandoned its former
standpoint and renounced its privileges, with one unimportant
reservation.

The struggle now seemed to be ended, and the financial
question having also been settled, the king, had he been so
minded, might have dismissed the Estates. But the still more
important question of reform was now raised. On the I7th of
September the burgesses introduced a bill proposing a new
constitution, which was to include local self-government in the
towns, the abolition of serfdom, and the formation of a national
army. It fell to the ground for want of adequate support; but
another proposition, the fruit of secret discussion between the

king and his confederates, which placed all fiefs under the control
of the crown as regards taxation, and provided for selling and
letting them to the highest bidder, was accepted by the Estate
of burgesses. The significance of this ordinance lay in the fact
that it shattered the privileged position of the nobility, by
abolishing the exclusive right to the possession of fiefs. What
happened next is not quite clear. Our sources fail us, and we are
at the mercy of doubtful rumours and more or less unreliable
anecdotes. We have a vision of in trigues, mysterious conferences,
threats and bribery, dimly discernible through a shifting mirage
of tradition.

The first glint of light is a letter, dated the 23rd of September,
from Frederick III. to Svane and Nansen, authorizing them to
communicate the arrangements already made to reliable men,
and act quickly, as " if the others gain time they may possibly
gain more." The first step was to make sure of the city train-
bands: of the garrison of Copenhagen the king had no doubt.
The headquarters of the conspirators was the bishop's palace
near Vor Frue church, between which and the court messages
were passing continually, and where the document to be adopted
by the Conjoined Estates took its final shape. On the 8th of
October the two burgomasters, Hans Nansen and Kristoffer
Hansen, proposed that the realm of Denmark should be made
over to the king as a hereditary kingdom, without prejudice to
theprivilegesof the Estates ; whereupon they proceeded to Brewer's
Hall, and informed the Estate of burgesses there assembled
of what had been done. A fiery oration from Nansen dissolved
some feeble opposition; and simultaneously Bishop Svane
carried the clergy along with him. The so-called " Instrument,"
now signed by the Lower Estates, offered the realm to the king
and his house as a hereditary monarchy, by way of thank-offering
mainly for his courageous deliverance of the kingdom during
the war; and the Rigsraad and the nobility were urged to
notify the resolution to the king, and desire him to maintain
each Estate in its due privileges, and to give a written counter-
assurance that the revolution now to be effected was for the sole
benefit of the state. Events now moved forward rapidly. On
the loth of October a deputation from the clergy and burgesses
proceeded to the Council House where the Rigsraad were de-
liberating, to demand an answer to their propositions. After
a tumultuous scene, the aristocratic Raad rejected the " Instru-
ment " altogether, whereupon the deputies of the commons pro-
ceeded to the palace and were graciously received by the king,
who promised them an answer next day. The same afternoon
the guards in the streets and on the ramparts were doubled; on
the following morning the gates of the city were closed, powder
and bullets were distributed among the city train-bands, who
were bidden to be in readiness when the alarm bell called them,
and cavalry was massed on the environs of the city. The same
afternoon the king sent a message to the Rigsraad urging them
to declare their views quickly, as he could no longer hold himself
responsible for what might happen. After a feeble attempt
at a compromise the Raad gave way. On the I3th of October
it signed a declaration to the effect that it associated itself
still with the Lower Estates in the making over of the kingdom,
as a hereditary monarchy, to his majesty and his heirs male and
female. The same day the king received the official communi-
cation of this declaration and the congratulation of the burgo-
masters. Thus the ancient constitution was transformed; and
Denmark became a monarchy hereditary in Frederick III. and
his posterity.

But although hereditary sovereignty had been introduced, the
laws of the land had not been abolished. The monarch was
specifically now a sovereign over-lord, but he had not been
absolved from his obligations towards his subjects. Hereditary
sovereignty per se was not held to signify unlimited dominion,
still less absolutism. On the contrary, the magnificent gift of
the Danish nation to Frederick III. wa? made under express
conditions. The " Instrument " drawn up by the Lower
Estates implied the retention of all their rights; and the king,
in accepting the gift of a hereditary crown, did not repudi-
ate the implied inviolability of the privileges of the donors.

HISTORY]

DENMARK

35

Unfortunately everything had been left so vague, that it was
an easy matter for ultra-royalists like Svane and Nansen to
ignore the privileges of the Estates, and even the Estates
themselves.

On the 1 4th of October a committee was summoned to the
palace to organize the new government. The discussion turned
mainly upon two points, (i) whether a new oath of homage should
be taken to the king, and (2) what was to be done with the
Haandfaestning or royal charter. The first point was speedily
decided in the affirmative, and, as to the second, it was ultimately
decided that the king should be released from his oath and the
charter returned to him ; but a rider was added suggesting that
he should, at the same time, promulgate a Recess providing for
his own and his people's welfare. Thus Frederick III. was not
left absolutely his own master; for the provision regarding a
Recess, or new constitution, showed plainly enough that such
a constitution was expected, and, once granted, would of course
have limited the royal power.

It now only remained to execute the resolutions of the com-
mittee. On the 1 7th of October the charter, which the king had
sworn to observe twelve years before, was solemnly handed back
to him at the palace, Frederick III. thereupon promising to rule
as a Christian king to the satisfaction of all the Estates of the
realm. On the following clay the king, seated on the topmost
step of a lofty tribune surmounted by a baldaquin, erected in the
midst of the principal square of Copenhagen, received the public
homage of his subjects of all ranks, in the presence of an immense
concourse, on which occasion he again promised to rule " as a
Christian hereditary king and gracious master," and, " as soon as
possible, to prepare and set up " such a constitution as should
secure to his subjects a Christian and indulgent sway. The
ceremony concluded with a grand banquet at the palace. After
dinner the queen and the clergy withdrew; but the king remained.
An incident now occurred which made a strong impression on all
present. With a brimming beaker in his hand, Frederick III.
went up to Hans Nansen, drank with him and drew him aside.
They communed together in a low voice for some time, till the
burgomaster, succumbing to the influence of his potations,
fumbled his way to his carriage with the assistance of some of
his civic colleagues. Whether Nansen, intoxicated by wine
and the royal favour, consented on this occasion to sacrifice the
privileges of his order and his city, it is impossible to say; but
it is significant that, from henceforth, we hear no more of the
Recess which the more liberal of the leaders of the lower
orders had hoped for when they released Frederick III. from
the obligations of the charter.

We can follow pretty plainly the stages of the progress from
a limited to an absolute monarchy. By an act dated the icth
Establish- °^ JanuarY 1661, entitled " Instrument, or pragmatic
meat of sanction," of the king's hereditary right to the king-
absolute doms of Denmark and Norway, it was declared that
all the prerogatives of majesty.'and " all regalia as an
absolute sovereign lord," had been made over to the king. Yet,
even after the issue of the " Instrument," there was nothing,
strictly speaking, to prevent Frederick III. from voluntarily
conceding to his subjects some share in the administration.
Unfortunately the king was bent upon still further emphasizing
the plenitude of his power. At Copenhagen his advisers were
busy framing drafts of a Lex Regia Perpetua ; and the one
which finally won the royal favour was the famous Kongelov, or
" King's Law."

This document was in every way unique. In the first place
it is remarkable for its literary excellence. Compared with the
barbarous macaronic jargon of the contemporary official language
it shines forth as a masterpiece of pure, pithy and original
Danish. Still more remarkable are the tone and tenor of this
royal law. The Kongelov has the highly dubious honour of being
the one written law in the civilized world which fearlessly carries
out absolutism to the last consequences. The monarchy is de-
clared to owe its origin to the surrender of the supreme authority
by the Estates to the king. The maintenance of the indivisi-
bility of the realm and of the Christian faith according to the

Augsburg Confession, and the observance of the Kongelov itself,
are now the sole obligations binding upon the king. The supreme
spiritual authority also is now claimed; and it is expressly stated
that it becomes none to crown him ; the moment he ascends the
throne, crown and sceptre belong to him of right. Moreover,
par. 26 declares guilty of llse-majestt whomsoever shall in any
way usurp or infringe the king's absolute authority. In the
following reign the ultra-royalists went further still. In their
eyes the king was not merely autocratic, but sacrosanct. Thus
before the anointing of Christian V. on the 7th of June 1671, a
ceremony by way of symbolizing the new autocrat's humble
submission to the Almighty, the officiating bishop of Zealand
delivered an oration in which he declared that the king was God's
immediate creation, His vicegerent on earth, and that it was the
bounden duty of all good subjects to serve and honour the
celestial majesty as represented by the king's terrestrial majesty.
The Kongelov is dated and subscribed the I4th of November
1665, but was kept a profound secret, only two initiated persons
knowing of its existence until after the death of Frederick III.,
one of them being Kristoffer Gabel, the king's chief intermediary
during the revolution, and the other the author and custodian
of the Kongelov, Secretary Peder Schumacher, better known as
Griffenfeldt. It is significant that both these confidential agents
were plebeians.

The revolution of 1660 was certainly beneficial to Norway.
With the disappearance of the Rigsraad, which, as representing
the Danish crown, had hitherto exercised sovereignty Effa^ of
over both kingdoms, Norway ceased to be a subject the revoiu-
principality. The sovereign hereditary king stood in tloa of
exactly the same relations to both kingdoms; and 1660'
thus, constitutionally, Norway was placed on an equality with
Denmark, united with but not subordinate to it. It is clear
that the majority of the Norwegian people hoped that the
revolution would give them an administration independent
of the Danish government; but these expectations were not
realised. Till the cessation of the Union in 1814, Copenhagen
continued to be the headquarters of the Norwegian administra-
tion; both kingdoms had common departments of state; and
the common chancery continued to be called the Danish chancery.
On the other hand the condition of Norway was now greatly
improved. In January 1661 a land commission was appointed
to investigate the financial and economical conditions of the
kingdoms; the fiefs were transformed into counties; the nobles
were deprived of their immunity from taxation; and in July
1662 the Norwegian towns received special privileges, including
the monopoly of the lucrative timber trade.

The Enevaelde, or absolute monarchy, also distinctly benefited
the whole Danish state by materially increasing its reserve of
native talent. Its immediate consequence was to throw open
every state appointment to the middle classes; and the middle
classes of that period, with very few exceptions, monopolized the
intellect and the energy of the nation. New blood of the best
quality nourished and stimulated the whole body politic. Ex-
pansion and progress were the watchwords at home, and abroad
it seemed as if Denmark were about to regain her
former position as a great power. This was especially
the case during the brief but brilliant administration
of Chancellor Griffenfeldt. Then, if ever, Denmark
had the chance of playing once more a leading part in inter-
national politics. But Griffenfeldt's difficulties, always serious,
were increased by the instability of the European situation,
depending as it did on the ambition of Louis XIV. Resolved to
conquer the Netherlands, the French king proceeded, first of all,
to isolate her by dissolving the Triple Alliance. (See SWEDEN
and GRIFFENFELDT.) In April 1672 a treaty was concluded
between France and Sweden, on condition that France should not
include Denmark in her system of alliances without the consent
of Sweden. This treaty showed that Sweden weighed more in
the French balances than Denmark. In June 1672 a French
army invaded the Netherlands; whereupon the elector of
Brandenburg contracted an alliance with the emperor Leopold,
to which Denmark was invited to accede; almost simultaneously

DENMARK

[HISTORY

the States-General began to negotiate for a renewal of the recently
expired Dano-Dutch alliance.

In these circumstances it was as difficult for Denmark to
remain neutral as it was dangerous for her to make a choice.
a'liance with France would subordinate her to

Denmark

in the Sweden ; an alliance with the Netnerlands would expose
Great her to an attack from Sweden. The Franco-Swedish
wZr"1"' alliance left Griffenfeldt no choice but to accede to the
opposite league, for he saw at once that the ruin of the
Netherlands would disturb the balance of power in the north by
giving an undue preponderance to England and Sweden. But
Denmark's experience of Dutch promises in the past was not
reassuring; so, while negotiating at the Hague for a renewal of
the Dutch alliance, he at the same time felt his way at Stockholm
towards a commercial treaty with Sweden. His Swedish mission
proved abortive, but, as he had anticipated, it effectually acceler-
ated the negotiations at the Hague, and frightened the Dutch
into unwonted liberality. In May 1673 a treaty of alliance was
signed by the ambassador of the States-General at Copenhagen,
whereby the Netherlands pledged themselves to pay Denmark
large subsidies in return for the services of 10,000 men and
twenty warships, which were to be held in readiness in case the
United Provinces were attacked by another enemy besides
France. Thus, very dexterously, Griffenfeldt had succeeded in
gaining his subsidies without sacrificing his neutrality.

His next move was to attempt to detach Sweden from France;
but, Sweden showing not the slightest inclination for a rapproche-
ment, Denmark was compelled to accede to the anti-French
league, which she did by the treaty of Copenhagen, of January
1674, thereby engaging to place an army of 20,000 in the field
when required; but here again Griffenfeldt safeguarded himself
to some extent by stipulating that this provision was not to be
operative till the allies were attacked by a fresh enemy. When,
in December 1674, a Swedish army invaded Prussian Pomerania,
Denmark was bound to intervene as a belligerent, but Griffen-
feldt endeavoured to postpone this intervention as long as
possible; and Sweden's anxiety to avoid hostilities with her
southern neighbour materially assisted him to postpone the evil
day. He only wanted to gain time, and he gained it. To the last
he endeavoured to avoid a rupture with France even if he broke
with Sweden; but he could not restrain for ever the foolish
impetuosity of his own sovereign, Christian V., and his fall in
the beginning of 1676 not only, as he had foreseen, involved
Denmark in an unprofitable war, but, as his friend and disciple,
Jens Juel, well observed, relegated her henceforth to the humiliat-
ing position of an international catspaw. Thus at the peace of
Fontainebleau (September 2, 1679) Denmark, which had borne
the brunt of the struggle in the Baltic, was compelled by the
inexorable French king to make full restitution to Sweden, the
treaty between the two northern powers being signed at Lund
on the 26th of September. Freely had she spent her blood and
her treasure, only to emerge from the five years' contest exhausted
and empty-handed.

By the peace of Fontainebleau Denmark had been sacrificed
to the interests of France and Sweden; forty-one years later she
was sacrificed to the interests of Hanover and Prussia by the
peace of Copenhagen (1720), which ended the Northern War so
far as the German powers were concerned. But it would not
have terminated advantageously for them at all, had not the
powerful and highly efficient Danish fleet effectually prevented
the Swedish government from succouring its distressed German
provinces, and finally swept the Swedish fleets out of the northern
waters. Yet all the compensation Denmark received for her
inestimable services during a whole decade was 600,000 rix-
dollars! The bishoprics of Bremen and Verden, the province of
Farther Pomerania and the isle of Riigen which her armies had
actually conquered, and which had been guaranteed to her by a
whole catena of treaties, went partly to the upstart electorate
of Hanover and partly to the upstart kingdom of Prussia, both of
which states had been of no political importance whatever at the
beginning of the war of spoliation by which they were, ultimately,
to profit so largely and so cheaply.

The last ten years of the reign of Christian V.'s successor,
Frederick IV. (1690-1730), were devoted to the nursing and
development of the resources of the country, which had
suffered only less severely than Sweden from the effects
of the Great Northern War. The court, seriously pious,
did much for education. A wise economy also contri-
buted to reduce the national debt within manageable limits, and
in the welfare of the peasantry Frederick IV. took a deep interest.
In 1722 serfdom was abolished in the case of all peasants in the
royal estates born after his accession.

The first act of Frederick's successor, Christian VI. (1730-1746),
was to abolish the national militia, which had been an intoler-
able burden upon the peasantry; yet the more pressing
agrarian difficulties were not thereby surmounted, chrlstlaa
as had been hoped. The price of corn continued ij46?3°~
to fall; the migration of the peasantry assumed
alarming proportions; and at last, " to preserve the land " as
well as to increase the defensive capacity of the country, the
national militia was re-established by the decree of the 4th of
February 1733, which at the same time bound to the soil all
peasants between the age of nine and forty. Reactionary as the
measure was it enabled the agricultural interest, on which the
prosperity of Denmark mainly depended, to tide over one of the
most dangerous crises in its history; but certainly the position
of the Danish peasantry was never worse than during the reign
of the religious and benevolent Christian VI.

Under the peaceful reign of Christian's son and successor,
Frederick V. (1746-1766), still more was done for commerce,
industry and agriculture. To promote Denmark's
carrying trade, treaties were made with the Barbary
States, Genoa and Naples; and the East Indian
Trading Company flourished exceedingly. On the
other hand the condition of the peasantry was even worse under
Frederick V. than it had been under Christian VI., the Stavns-
baand, or regulation which bound all males to the soil, being
made operative from the age of four. Yet signs of a coming
amelioration were not wanting. The theory of the physiocrats
now found powerful advocates in Denmark; and after 1755, when
the press censorship was abolished so far as regarded political
economy and agriculture, a thorough discussion of the whole
agrarian question became possible. A commission appointed
in 1757 worked zealously for the repeal of many agricultural
abuses; and several great landed proprietors introduced heredi-
tary leaseholds, and abolished the servile tenure.

Foreign affairs during the reigns of Frederick V. and Christian
VI. were left in the capable hands of J. H. E. Bernstorff, who
aimed at steering clear of all foreign complications and preserving
inviolable the neutrality of Denmark. This he succeeded in
doing, in spite of the Seven Years' War and of the difficulties
attending the thorny Gottorp question in which Sweden and
Russia were equally interested. The same policy was victori-
ously pursued by his nephew and pupil Andreas Bernstorff, an
even greater man than the elder Bernstorff, who controlled the
foreign policy of Denmark from 1773 to 1778, and again from
1784 till his death in 1797. The period of the younger
Bernstorff synchronizes with the greater part of the
long reign of Christian VII. (1766-1808), one of the
most eventful periods of modern Danish history. The
king himself was indeed a semi-idiot, scarce responsible for his
actions, yet his was the era of such striking personalities as
the brilliant charlatan Struensee, the great philanthropist and
reformer C. D. F. Reventlow, the ultra-conservative Ove
Hoegh-Guldberg, whose mission it was to repair'the damage done
by Struensee, and that generation of alert and progressive spirits
which surrounded the young crown prince Frederick, whose first
act, on taking his seat in the council of state, at the age of
sixteen, on the 4th of April 1784, was to dismiss Guldberg.

A fresh and fruitful period of reform now began, lasting till
nearly the end of the century, and interrupted only by the brief
but costly war with Sweden in 1788. The emancipation of
the peasantry was now the burning question of the day, and
the whole matter was thoroughly ventilated. Bernstorff and the

HISTORY]

DENMARK

37

crown prince were the most zealous advocates of the peasantry
in the council of state; but the honour of bringing the whole
peasant question within the range of practical politics un-
doubtedly belongs to C. D. F. Reventlow (<?.».). Nor was the
reforming principle limited to the abolition of serfdom. In 1788
the corn trade was declared free; the Jews received civil rights;
and the negro slave trade was forbidden. In 1796 a special
ordinance reformed the whole system of judicial procedure,
making it cheaper and more expeditious; while the toll ordinance
of the ist of February 1797 still further extended the principle
of free trade. Moreover, until two years after Bernstorff's death
in 1797, the Danish press enjoyed a larger freedom of speech than
the press of any other absolute monarchy in Europe, so much so
that at last Denmark became suspected of favouring Jacobin
views. But in September 1799 under strong pressure from
the Russian emperor Paul, the Danish government forbade
anonymity, and introduced a limited censorship.

It was Denmark's obsequiousness to Russia which led to the
first of her unfortunate collisions with Great Britain. In 1800
Denmark tne Danis!l government was persuaded by the tsar
and Great to accede to the second Armed Neutrality League,
Britain la which Russia had just concluded with Prussia and
theNapo- Sweden. Great Britain retaliated by laying an
^art embargo on the vessels of the three neutral powers,
and by sending a considerable fleet to the Baltic under
the command of Parker and Nelson. Surprised and unprepared
though they were, the Danes, nevertheless, on the 2nd of April
1801, offered a gallant resistance; but their fleet was destroyed,
their capital bombarded, and, abandoned by Russia, they were
compelled to submit to a disadvantageous peace.

The same vain endeavour of Denmark to preserve her neutrality
led to the second breach with England. After the peace of Tilsit
there could be no further question of neutrality. Napoleon had
determined that if Great Britain refused to accept Russia's
mediation, Denmark, Sweden and Portugal were to be forced to
close their harbours to her ships and declare war against her.
It was the intention of the Danish government to preserve its
neutrality to the last, although, on the whole, it preferred an
alliance with Great Britain to a league with Napoleon, and was
even prepared for a breach with the French emperor if he pressed
her too hardly. The army had therefore been assembled in
Holstein, and the crown prince regent was with it. But the
British government did not consider Denmark strong enough to
resist France, and Canning had private trustworthy information
of the designs of Napoleon, upon which he was bound to act. He
sent accordingly a fleet, with 30,00x3 men on board, to the Sound
to compel Denmark, by way of security for her future conduct,
to unite her fleet with the British fleet. Denmark was offered
an alliance, the complete restitution of her fleet after the war, a
guarantee of all her possessions, compensation for all expenses,
and even territorial aggrandizement.

Dictatorially presented as they were, these terms were liberal
and even generous; and if a great statesman like Bernstorff
had been at the head of affairs in Copenhagen, he would, no
doubt, have accepted them, even if with a wry face. But the
prince regent, if a good patriot, was a poor politician, and
invincibly obstinate. When, therefore, in August 1807, Gambier
arrived in the Sound, and the English plenipotentiary Francis
James Jackson, not perhaps the most tactful person that could
have been chosen, hastened to Kiel to place the British demands
before the crown prince, Frederick not only refused to negotiate,
but ordered the Copenhagen authorities to put the city in the best
state of defence possible. Taking this to be tantamount to a
declaration of war, on the i6th of August the British army
landed at Vedback; and shortly afterwards the Danish capital
was invested. Anything like an adequate defence was hopeless;
Loss of a bombardment began which lasted from the 2nd of
Norway. September till the sth of September, and ended with
tne caP!tulat'on °f tne city and the surrender of the
fleet intact, the prince regent having neglected to give
orders for its destruction. After this Denmark, unwisely, but
not unnaturally, threw herself into the arms of Napoleon and

continued to be his faithful ally till the end of the war. She was
punished for her obstinacy by being deprived of Norway, which
she was compelled to surrender to Sweden by the terms of the
treaty of Kiel (1814), on the I4th of January, receiving by way
of compensation a sum of money and Swedish Pomerania, with
Riigen, which were subsequently transferred to Prussia in ex-
change for the duchy of Lauenburg and 2,000,000 rix-dollars.

On the establishment of the German Confederation in 1815,
Frederick VI. acceded thereto as duke of Holstein, but refused
to allSw Schleswig to enter it, on the ground that Schleswig was
an integral part of the Danish realm.

The position of Denmark from 1815 to 1830 was one of great
difficulty and distress. The loss of Norway necessitated consider-
able reductions of expenditure, but the economies
actually practised fell far short of the requirements of
the diminished kingdom and its depleted exchequer;
while the agricultural depression induced by the enormous fall in
the price of corn all over Europe caused fresh demands upon
the state, and added 10,000,000 rix-dollars to the national debt
before 1835. The last two years of the reign of Frederick VI.
(1838-1839) were also remarkable for the revival of political life,
provincial consultative assemblies being established for Jutland,
the Islands, Schleswig and Holstein, by the ordinance of the 28th
of May 1831. But these consultative assemblies were regarded
as insufficient by the Danish Liberals, and during the last years
of Frederick VI. and the whole reign of his successor, Christian
VIII. (1839-1848), the agitation for a free constitution,
both in Denmark and the duchies, continued to grow
in strength, in spite of press prosecutions and other
repressive measures. The rising national feeling in Beginnings
Germany also stimulated the separatist tendencies otthe
of the duchies; and " Schleswig-Holsteinism," as fioiste^n^
it now began to be called, evoked in Denmark the Question.
counter-movement known as Eiderdansk-polilik,
i.e. the policy of extending Denmark to the Eider and
obliterating German Schleswig, in order to save Schleswig
from being absorbed by Germany. This division of national
sentiment within the monarchy, complicated by the ap-
proaching extinction of the Oldenburg line of the house of
Denmark, by which, in the normal course under the Salic law,
the succession to Holstein would have passed away from the
Danish crown, opened up the whole complicated Schleswig-
Holstein Question with all its momentous consequences. (See
ScHLESWic-HoLSTEiN QUESTION.) Within the monarchy itself,
during the following years, " Schleswig-Holsteinism " and
" Eiderdanism " faced each other as rival, mutually exacerbating
forces; and the efforts of succeeding governments to solve the
insoluble problem broke down ever on the rock of nationalist
passion and the interests of the German powers. The unionist
constitution, devised by Christian VIII., and pro- uaioaist
mulgated by his successor, Frederick VII. ( 1 848-1 863) , constita-
on the 28th of January 1848, led to the armed inter- Honor
vention of Prussia, at the instance of the new German I84S' aaa
parliament at. Frankfort; and, though with the help
of Russian and British diplomacy, the Danes were
ultimately successful, they had to submit, in 1851, to the
government of Holstein by an international commission consisting
of three members, Prussian, Austrian and Danish respectively.

Denmark, meanwhile, had been engaged in providing herself
with a parliament on modern lines. The constitutional rescript
of the 28th of January 1848 had been withdrawn in favour of an
electoral law for a national assembly, of whose 152 members
38 were to be nominated by the king and to form an Upper
House (Landsting) , while the remainder were to be elected by
the people and to form a popular chamber (Folkeiing). The
Bondevenlige, or philo-peasant party, which objected to the king's
right of nomination and preferred a one-chamber system, now
separated from the National Liberals on this point. But the
National Liberals triumphed at the general election; fear of
reactionary tendencies finally induced the Radicals to accede to
the wishes of the majority; and on the sth of June 1849 the new
constitution received the royal sanction.

DENMARK

[HISTORY

At this stage Denmark's foreign relations prejudicially affected
her domestic politics. The Liberal Eiderdansk party was for
Qermaay dividing Schleswig into three distinct administrative
»ad the belts, according as the various nationalities predomin-
Danish ated (language rescripts of i85i),butGermansentiment
duchies. was Opp0se({ to anv such settlement and, still worse,
the great continental powers looked askance on the new Danish
constitution as far too democratic. The substance of the notes
embodying the exchange of views, in 1851 and 1852, between the
German great powers and Denmark, was promulgated, dn the
28th of January 1852, in the new constitutional decree which,
together with the documents on which it was founded, was known

as the Conventions of 1851 and 1852. Under this

onven- arrangement each part of the monarchy was to have

1852? local autonomy, with a common constitution for

common affairs. Holstein was now restored to
Denmark, and Prussia and Austria consented to take part in the
conference of London, by which the integrity of Denmark was
upheld, and the succession to the whole monarchy settled on
Prince Christian, youngest son of Duke William of Schleswig-
Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg, and husband of Louise of
Hesse, the niece of King Christian VIII. The " legitimate "
heir to the duchies, under the Salic law, Duke Christian of
Sonderburg-Augustenburg, accepted the decision of the London
conference in consideration of the purchase by the Danish
government of his estates in Schleswig.

On the 2nd of October 1855 was promulgated the new common
constitution, which for two years had been the occasion of a

fierce contention between the Conservatives and the
Constitu- Racjicais. it proved no more final than its predecessors.
isss. The representatives of the duchies in the new common

Rigsraod protested against it, as subversive of the Con-
ventions of 1851 and 1852; and their attitude had the support
of the German powers. In 1857, Carl Christian Hall (q.v.) became
prime minister. After putting off the German powers by seven
years of astute diplomacy, he realized the impossibility of carrying
out the idea of a common constitution and, on the 3oth of March
1862, a royal proclamation was issued detaching Holstein as far
as possible from the common monarchy. Later in the year he

introduced into the Rigsraad a common constitution
tio'not"' f°r Denmark and Schleswig, which was carried through
1863 and and confirmed by the council of state on the I3th of
accession November 1863. It had not, however, received the

royal assent when the death of Frederick VII. brought

the " Protocol King " Christian IX. to the throne.
Placed between the necessity of offending his new subjects or
embroiling himself with the German powers, Christian chose the
remoter evil and, on the i8th of November, the new constitution
became law. This once more opened up the whole question in an
acute form. Frederick, son of Christian of Augustenburg, refus-
ing to be bound by his father's engagements, entered Holstein
and, supported by the Estates and the German diet, proclaimed
himself duke. The events that followed: the occupation of the

duchies by Austria and Prussia, the war of 1864,

gallantly fought by the Danes against overwhelming
War of odds, and the astute diplomacy by which Bismarck
1864, and succeeded in ultimately gaining for Prussia the seaboard
cess/ooo/ SQ essential for her maritime power, are dealt with
duchies. elsewhere (see ScHLESwic-HoLSTEiN QUESTION). For

Denmark the question was settled when, by the peace
of Vienna (October 30, 1864), the duchies were irretrievably
lost to her. At the peace of Prague, which terminated the
Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Napoleon III. procured the in-
sertion in the treaty of paragraph v., by which the northern
districts of Schleswig were to be reunited to Denmark when the
majority of the population by a free vote should so desire; but
when Prussia at last thought fit to negotiate with Denmark
on the subject, she laid down conditions which the Danish
government could not accept. Finally, in 1878, by a separate
agreement between Austria and Prussia, paragraph v. was
rescinded.

The salient feature of Danish politics during subsequent years

of Chris
tlan IX.

was the struggle between the two Tings, the Folketing or Lower
House, and the Landsting, or Upper House of the
Rigsdag. This contest began in 1872, when a com- 2^"""
bination of all the Radical parties, known as the struggles
" United Left," passed a vote of want of confidence l"Dea-
against the government and rejected the budget, ^j£J* sla<*
Nevertheless, the ministry, supported by the Landsting,
refused to resign; and the crisis became acute when, in 1875,
J. B. Estrup became prime minister. Perceiving that the coming
struggle would be essentially a financial one, he retained the
ministry of finance in his own hands; and, strong in the support
of the king, the Landsting, and a considerable minority in the
country itself, he devoted himself to the double task of establish-
ing the political parity of the Landsting with the Folketing and
strengthening the national armaments, so that, in the event of
a war between the European great powers, Denmark might be
able to defend her neutrality.

The Left was willing to vote 30,000,000 crowns for
extraordinary military expenses, exclusive of the fortifications
of Copenhagen, on condition that the amount should be raised
by a property and income tax; and, as the elections of 1875 had
given them a majority of three-fourths in the popular chamber,
they spoke with no uncertain voice. But the Upper House
steadily supported Estrup, who was disinclined to accept any
such compromise. As an agreement between the two houses on
the budget proved impossible, a provisional financial decree was
issued on the i2th of April 1877, which the Left stigmatized as a
breach of the constitution. But the difficulties of the ministry
were somewhat relieved by a split in the Radical party, still
further accentuated by the elections of 1879, which enabled
Estrup to carry through the army and navy defence bill and
the new military penal code by leaning alternately upon one or
the other of the divided Radical groups.

After the elections of 1881, which brought about the reamalga-
mation of the various Radical sections, the opposition presented
a united front to the government, so that, from 1882 onwards,
legislation was almost at a standstill. The elections of 1884
showed clearly that the nation was also now on the side of the
Radicals, 83 out of the 102 members of the Folketing belonging
to the opposition. Still Estrup remained at his post. He had
underestimated the force of public opinion, but he was conscienti-
ously convinced that a Conservative ministry was necessary to
Denmark at this crisis. When therefore the Rigsdag rejected
the budget, he advised the king to issue another provisional
financial decree. Henceforth, so long as the Folketing refused to
vote supplies, the ministry regularly adopted these makeshifts.
In 1886 the Left, having no constitutional means of dismissing
the Estrup ministry, resorted for the first time to negotiations;
but it was not till the ist of April 1894 that the majority of the
Folketing could arrive at an agreement with the government and
the Landsting as to a budget which should be retrospective and
sanction the employment of the funds so irregularly obtained for
military expenditure. The whole question of the provisional
financial decrees was ultimately regularized by a special resolution
of the Rigsdag; and the retirement of the Estrup ministry in
August 1894 was the immediate result of the compromise.

In spite of the composition of 1894, the animosity between
Folketing and Landsting continues to characterize Danish politics,
and the situation has been complicated by the division of both
Right and Left into widely divergent groups. The elections of
1895 resulted in an undeniable victory of the extreme Radicals;
and the budget of 1895-1896 was passed only at the last moment
by a compromise. The session of 1896-1897 was remarkable for
a rapprochement between the ministry and the " Left Reform
Party," caused by the secessions of the " Young Right," which led
to an unprecedented event in Danish politics— the voting of the
budget by the Radical Folketing and its rejection by the Conserva-
tive Landsting in May 1897; whereupon the ministry resigned
in favour of the moderate Conservative Horring cabinet, which
induced the Upper House to pass the budget. The elections of
1898 were a fresh defeat for the Conservatives, and in the autumn
session of the same year, the Folketing, by a crushing majority of

LITERATURE]

DENMARK

39

85 to 12, rejected the military budget. The ministry was
saved by a mere accident — the expulsion of Danish agitators
from North Schleswig by the German government, which evoked
a passion of patriotic protest throughout Denmark, and united
all parties, the war minister declaring in the Folketing, during
the debate on the military budget (January 1899), that the
armaments of Denmark were so far advanced that any great
power must think twice before venturing to attack her. The
chief event of the year 1899 was the great strike of 40,000
artisans, which cost Denmark 50,000,000 crowns, and brought
about a reconstruction of the cabinet in order to bring in, as
minister of the interior, Ludwig Ernest Bramsen, the great
specialist in industrial matters, who succeeded (September 2-4)
in bringing about an understanding between workmen and
employers. The session 1900-1901 was remarkable for the
further disintegration of the Conservative party still in office
(the Sehested cabinet superseded the Horring cabinet on the
27th of April 1900) and the almost total paralysis of parliament,
caused by the interminable debates on the question of taxation
reform. The crisis came in 1901. Deprived of nearly all its
supporters in the Folketing, the Conservative ministry resigned,
and King Christian was obliged to assent to the formation of
a " cabinet of the Left " under Professor Deuntzer. Various
reforms were carried, but the proposal to sell the Danish islands
in the West Indies to the United States fell through. During
these years the relations between Denmark and the German
empire improved, and in the country itself the cause of social
democracy made great progress. In January 1906 King Christian
ended his long reign, and was succeeded by his son Frederick VIII.
At the elections of 1996 the government lost its small absolute
majority, but remained in power with support from the Moderates
and Conservatives. It was severely shaken, however, when
Herr A. Alberti, who had been minister of justice since 1901,
and was admitted to be the strongest member of the cabinet, was
openly accused of nepotism and abuse of the power of his position.
These charges gathered weight until the minister was forced to
resign in July 1908, and in September he was arrested on a charge
of forgery in his capacity as director of the Zealand Peasants'
Savings Bank. The ministry, of which Herr Jens Christian
Christensen was head, was compelled to resign in October. The
effect of these revelations was profound not only politically, but
also economically; the important export trade in Danish butter,
especially, was adversely affected, as Herr Alberti had been
interested in numerous dairy companies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — I. GENERAL HISTORY. Danmarks Riges
Historic (Copenhagen, 1897-1905); R. Nisbet Bain, Scandinavia
(Cambridge, 1905); H. Weitemeyer, Denmark (London, 1901);
Adolf Ditlev Jorgensen, Historiske Afhandlinger (Copenhagen, 1898) ;
ib. Fortaellinger af Nordens Historic (Copenhagen, 1892). II. EARLY
AND MEDIEVAL HISTORY. Saxo, GestaDanorum (Strassburg, 1886) ;
Repertorium diplomaticum regni Danici mediaevalis (Copenhagen,
1894); Ludvig Holberg, Konge og Danehof (Copenhagen, 1895);
Poul Frederik Barford, Danmarks Historie 1319-1536 (Copenhagen,
1885); ib. 1536-1670 (Copenhagen, 1891). III. i6TH TO 19111
CENTURY. Philip P. Munch, Kobstadstyrelsen i Danmark (Copen-
hagen, 1900) ; Peter Edvard Holm, Danmark Norges indre Historie,
1660-1720 (Copenhagen, 1885-1886); ib. Danmark Norges Histoiie,
1720-1814 (Copenhagen, 1891-1894); Soren Bloch Thrige, Dan-
marks Historie i vort Aarhundrede (Copenhagen, 1888); Marcus
Rubin, Frederick VI.' s Tid fra Kielerfreden (Copenhagen, 1895) ;
Christian Frederick von Holten, Erinnerungen; Der deutsch-danische
Krieg (Stuttgart, 1900) ; Niels Peter Jensen, Den anden slesvigske
Krig (Copenhagen, 1900); S. N. Mouritsen, Vor Forfatnings Historie
(Copenhagen, 1894) : Carl Frederik Vilhelm Mathildus Rosenberg,
Danmarkfi Aaret 1848 (Copenhagen, 1891). See also the special
bibliographies appended to the biographies of the Danish kings
and statesmen. (R. N. B.)

LITERATURE

The present language of Denmark is derived directly from
the same source as that of Sweden, and the parent of both is the
old Scandinavian (see SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES). In Iceland
this tongue, with some modifications, has remained in use, and
until about noo it was the literary language of the whole of
Scandinavia. The influence of Low German first, and High
German afterwards, has had the effect of drawing modern Danish
constantly farther from this early type. The difference began to

show itself in the I2th century. R. K. Rask, and after him
N. M. Petersen, have distinguished four periods in the develop-
ment of the language. The first, which has been called Oldest
Danish, dating from about noo and 1250, shows a slightly
changed character, mainly depending on the system of inflections.
In the second period, that of Old Danish, bringing us down to
1400, the change of the system of vowels begins to be settled,
and masculine and feminine are mingled in a common gender.
An indefinite article has been formed, and in the conjugation of
the verb a great simplicity sets in. In the third period, 1400-
1 530, the influence of German upon the language is supreme, and
culminates in the Reformation. The fourth period, from 1530 to
about 1680, completes the work of development, and leaves the
language as we at present find it.

The earliest work known to have been written in Denmark was
a Latin biography of Knud the Saint, written by an English monk
/Elnoth, who was attached to the church of St Alban in Odense
where King Knud was murdered. Denmark produced several
Latin writers of merit. Anders Sunesen (d. 1228) wrote a long
poem in hexameters, Hexaemeron, describing the creation.
Under the auspices of Archbishop Absalon the monks of Soro
began to compile the annals of Denmark, and at the end of the
1 2th century Svend Aagesen, a cleric of Lund, compiled from
Icelandic sources and oral tradition his Compendiosa historia
regum Daniae. The great Saxo Grammaticus (q.ii.) wrote his
Historia Danica under the same patronage.

It was not till the i6th century that literature began to be
generally practised in the vernacular in Denmark. The oldest
laws which are still preserved date from the beginning of the i3th
century, and many different collections are in existence.1 A
single work detains us in the I3th century, atreatise en medicine3
by Henrik Harpestreng, who died in 1 244. The first royal edict
written in Danish is dated 1386; and the Act of Union at Kalmar,
written in 1397, is the most important piece of the vernacular of
the I4th century. Between 1300 and 1500, however, it is sup-
posed that the Kjaempeviser, or Danish ballads, a large collection
of about 500 epical and lyrical poems, were originally composed,
and these form the most precious legacy of the Denmark of the
middle ages, whether judged historically or poetically. We know
nothing of the authors of these poems, which treat of the heroic
adventures of the great warriors and lovely ladies of the chivalric
age in strains of artless but often exquisite beauty. Some of the
subjects are borrowed in altered form from the old mythology,
while a few derive from Christian legend, and many deal with
national history. The language in which we receive these ballads,
however, is as late as the i6th or even the i7th century, but it
is believed that they have become gradually modernized in the
course of oral tradition. The first attempt to collect the ballads
was made in 1591 by Anders Sorensen Vedel (1542-1616), who
published 100 of them. Peder Syv printed 100 more in 1695.
In 1812-1814 an elaborate collection in five volumes appeared
at Christiania, edited by W. H. F. Abrahamson, R. Nyerup
and K. M. Rahbek. Finally, Svend Grundtvig produced an
exhaustive edition, Danmarks gamle Folkeviser (Copenhagen,
1853-1883, 5 vols.), which was supplemented (1891) by A. Olrik.

In 1490, the first printing press was set up at Copenhagen, by
Gottfried of Gemen, who had brought it from Westphalia; and
five years later the first Danish book was printed. This was the
famous Rimkronike3; a history of Denmark in rhymed Danish
verse, attributed by its first editor to Niels (d. 1481), a monk of
the monastery of Soro. It extends to the death of Christian I.,
in 1481, which may be supposed to be approximately the date
of the poem. In 1479 the university of Copenhagen had been
founded. In 1506 the same Gottfried of Gemen published a
famous collection of proverbs, attributed to Peder Laale.
Mikkel, priest of St Alban's Church in Odense, wrote three sacred
poems, The Rose-Garland of Maiden Mary, The Creation and

1 Collected as Samling af gamle danske Love (5 vols., Copenhagen,
1821-1827).

2 Henrik Harpestraengs Laegebog (ed. C. Molbech, Copenhagen,
1826).

3 Ed. C. Molbech (Copenhagen, 1825).

DENMARK

[LITERATURE

Human Life, which came out together in 1514, shortly before
his death. The popular Lucidarius also appeared in the vulgar
tongue.

These few productions appeared along with innumerable works
in Latin, and dimly heralded a Danish literature. It was the
Reformation that first awoke the living spirit in the popular
tongua. Christiern Pedersen (<?.».; 1480-1554) was the first man
of letters produced in Denmark. He edited and published, at
Paris in 1514, the Latin text of the old chronicler, Saxo Gram-
maticus; he worked up in their present form the beautiful half-
mythical stories of Karl Magnus (Charlemagne) and Holger
Danske (Ogier the Dane). He further translated the
Psalms of David and the New Testament, printed in 1529, and
finally — in conjunction with Bishop Peder Palladius — the Bible,
which appeared in 1550. Hans Tausen, the bishop of Ribe
(1494-1561), continued Pedersen's work, but with far less
literary talent. He may, however, be considered as the greatest
orator and teacher of the Reformation movement. He wrote a
number of popular hymns, partly original, partly translations;
translated the Pentateuch from the Hebrew; and published
(1536) a collection of sermons embodying the reformed doctrine
and destined for the use of clergy and laity.

The Catholic party produced one controversialist of striking
ability, Povel Helgesen1 (b. c. 1480), also known as Paulus
Eliae. He had at first been inclined to the party of reform,
but when Luther broke definitely with the papal authority he
became a bitter opponent. His most important. polemical work
is an answer (1528) to twelve questions on the religious question
propounded by Gustavus I. of Sweden. He is also supposed to be
the author of the Skiby Chronicle? in which he does not confine
himself to the duties of a mere annalist, but records his personal
opinion of people and events. Vedel, by the edition of the
Kjaempeviser which is mentioned above, gave an immense
stimulus to the progress of literature. He published an excellent
translation of Saxo Grammaticus in 1575. The first edition of
a Danish Reineke Fucks, by Herman Weigere, appeared at
Liibeck in 1555, and the first authorized Psalter in 1559. Arild
Huitfeld wrote Chronicle of the Kingdom of Denmark, printed in
ten volumes, between 1595 and 1604.

There are few traces of dramatic effort in Denmark before
the Reformation; and many of the plays of that period may be
referred to the class of school comedies. Hans Sthen, a lyrical
poet, wrote a morality entitled Kortvending (" Change of For-
tune "), which is really a collection of monologues to be delivered
by students. The anonymous Ludus de Sancto Kanuto 3 (c. 1 530)
which in spite of its title, is written in Danish, is the earliest
Danish national drama. The burlesque drama assigned to
Christian Hansen, The Faithless Wife, is the only one of its
kind that has survived. But the best of these old dramatic
authors was a priest of Viborg, Justesen Ranch (1539-1607),
who wrote Kong Salomons Hylding (" The Crowning of King
Solomon ") (1585), Samsons Faengsel (" The Imprisonment of
Samson "), which includes lyrical passages which have given it
claims to be considered the first Danish opera, and a farce, Karrig
Niding (" The Miserly Miscreant "). Beside these works Ranch
wrote a famous moralizing poem, entitled " A new song, of the
nature and song of certain birds, in which many vices are pun-
ished, and many virtues praised." Peder Clausen4 (1545-1614),
a Norwegian by birth and education, wrote a Description of
Norway, as well as an admirable translation of Snorri Sturlason's
Heimskringla, published ten years after Clausen's death. The
father of Danish poetry, Anders Kristensen Arrebo (1587-1637),
was bishop of Trondhjem, but was deprived of his see for im-
morality. He was a poet of considerable genius, which is most
brilliantly shown in an imitation of Du Bartas's Divine Semaine,

1 See Povel Eliesens danske Skrifler (Copenhagen, 1855, &c.),
edited by C. E. Secher.

1 See Monumenta historiae Danicae (ed. H. Rordam, vol. i., 1873).

"Ed. Sophus Birket Smith (Copenhagen, 1868), who also edited
the comedies ascribed to Chr. Hansen as De tre aeldste danske
Skuespil (1874), and the works of Ranch (1876).

* His works were edited by Gustav Storm (Christiania, 1877-
1879).

the Hexaemeron, a poem on the creation, in six books, which did
not appear till 1661. He also made a translation of the Psalms.

He was followed by Anders Bording (1619-1677), a cheerful
occasional versifier, and by Thoger Reenberg (1656-1742), a poet
of somewhat higher gifts, who lived on into a later age. Among
prose writers should be mentioned the grammarian Peder Syv,6
(1631-1702); Bishop Erik Pontoppidan (1616-1678), whose
Grammatica Danica, published in 1668, is the first systematic
analysis of the language; Birgitta Thott (1610-1662), a lady
who translated Seneca (1658); and Leonora Christina Ulfeld,
daughter of Christian IV., who has left a touching account of
her long imprisonment in her Jammer sminde. Ole Worm (1588-
1654), a learned pedagogue and antiquarian, preserved in his
Danicorum monumentorum libri sex (Copenhagen, 1643) the
descriptions of many antiquities which have since perished or
been lost.

In two spiritual poets the advancement of the literature of
Denmark took a further step. Thomas Kingo 6 (1634-1703) was
the first who wrote Danish with perfect ease and grace. He was
a Scot by descent, and retained the vital energy of his ancestors
as a birthright. In 1677 he became bishop in Funen, where
he died in 1703. His Winter Psalter (1689), and the so-called
Kingo's Psalter (1699), contained brilliant examples of lyrical
writing, and an employment of language at once original and
national. Kingo had a charming fancy, a clear sense of form and
great rapidity and variety of utterance. Some of his very best
hymns are in the little volume he published in 1681, and hence
the old period of semi-articulate Danish may be said to close with
this eventful decade, which also witnessed the birth of Holberg.
The other great hymn- writer was Hans Adolf Brorson (1694-
1764), who published in 1740 a great psalm-book at the king's
command, in which he added his own to the best of Kingo's.
Both these men held high posts in the church, one being bishop
of Fiinen and the other of Ribe; but Brorson was much inferior
to Kingo in genius. With these names the introductory period
of Danish literature ends. The language was now formed, and
was being employed for almost all the uses of science and philo-
sophy.

Ludvig Holberg (q.v.; 1684-1754) may be called the founder
of modern Danish literature. His various works still retain their
freshness and vital attraction. As an historian his style was terse
and brilliant, his spirit philosophical, and his data singularly
accurate. He united two unusual gifts, being at the same time
the most cultured man of his day, and also in the highest degree
a practical person, who clearly perceived what would most rapidly
educate and interest the uncultivated. In his thirty-three
dramas, sparkling comedies in prose, more or less in imitation of
Moliere, he has left his most important positive legacy to litera-
ture. Nor in any series of comedies in existence is decency so
rarely sacrificed to a desire for popularity or a false sense of wit.

Holberg founded no school of immediate imitators, but his
stimulating influence was rapid and general. The university
of Copenhagen, which had been destroyed by fire in 1728, was
reopened in 1742, and under the auspices of the historian Hans
Gram (1685-1748), who founded the Danish Royal Academy of
Sciences, it inspired an active intellectual life. Gram laid the
foundation of critical history in Denmark. He brought to bear
on the subject a full knowledge of documents and sources. His
best work lies in his annotated editions of the older chroniclers.
In 1744 Jakob Langebek (1710-1775) founded the Society for
the Improvement of the Danish Language, which opened the field
of philology. He began the great collection of Scriptores rerum
Danicarum medii aevi (9 vols., Copenhagen, 1772-1878). In
jurisprudence Andreas Hoier (1690-1739) represented the new
impulse, and in zoology Erik Pontoppidan (q.v.), the younger.
This last name represents a lifelong activity in many branches
of literature. From Holberg's college of Sort), two learned
professors, Jens Schelderup Sneedorff ( 1 7 24- 1 7 64) and Jens Kraft
(1720-1765), disseminated the seeds of a wider culture. All
these men were aided by the generous and enlightened patronage

6 See Fr. W. Horn, Peder Syv (Copenhagen, 1878).
6 See A. C. L. Heiberg, Thomas Kingo (Odense, 1852).

LITERATURE]

DENMARK

of Frederick V. A little later on, the German poet Klopstock
settled in Copenhagen, bringing with him the prestige of his great
reputation, and he had a strong influence in Germanizing
Denmark. He founded, however, the Society for the Fine Arts,
and had it richly endowed. The first prize offered was won by
Christian Braumann Tullin (1728-1765) for his beautiful poem
of May-day. Tullin, a Norwegian by birth, represents the first
accession of a study of external nature in Danish poetry ; he was
an ardent disciple of the English poet Thomson. Christian
Falster (1690-1752) wrote satires of some merit, but most of his
work is in Latin. The New Heroic Poems of Jorgen Sorterup are
notable as imitations of the old folk-literature. Ambrosius Stub 1
(1705-1758) was a lyrist of great sweetness, born before his due
time, whose poems, not published till 1771, belong to a later age
than their author.

The Lyrical Revival. — Between 1742 and 1749, that is to say,
at the very climax of the personal activity of Holberg, several
poets were born, who were destined to enrich the language with
its first group of lyrical blossoms. Of these the two eldest,
Wessel and Ewald, were men of extraordinary genius, and
destined to fascinate the attention of posterity, not only by the
brilliance of their productions, but by the suffering and brevity
of their lives. Johannes Ewald (q.v.; 1743-1781) was not only
the greatest Danish lyrist of the i8th century, but he had few
rivals in the whole of Europe. As a dramatist, pure and simple,
his bird-like instinct of song carried him too often into a sphere
too exalted for the stage; but he has written nothing that is
not stamped with the exquisite quality of distinction. Johan
Herman Wessel2 (1742-1785) excited even greater hopes in his
contemporaries, but left less that is immortal behind him. After
the death of Holberg, the affectation of Gallicism had reappeared
in Denmark; and the tragedies of Voltaire, with their stilted
rhetoric, were the most popular dramas of the day. Johan
Nordahl Brun (1745-1816), a young writer who did better things
later on, gave the finishing touch to the exotic absurdity by
bringing out a wretched piece called Zarina, which was hailed by
the press as the first original Danish tragedy, although Ewald's
exquisite RolfKrage, which truly merited that title, had appeared
two years before. Wessel, who up to that time had only been
known as the president of a club of wits, immediately wrote
Love without Stockings (1772), in which a plot of the most abject
triviality is worked out in strict accordance with the rules of
French tragedy, and in most pompous and pathetic Alexandrines.
The effect of this piece was magical; the Royal Theatre ejected
its cuckoo-brood of French plays, and even the Italian opera.
It was now essential that every performance should be national,
and in the Danish language. To supply the place of the opera,
native musicians, and especially J. P. E. Hartmann, set the
dramas of Ewald and others, and thus the Danish school of
music originated. Johan Nordahl Brun's best work is to be
found in his patriotic songs and his hymns. He became bishop
of Bergen in 1803.

Of the other poets of the revival the most important were born
in Norway. Nordahl Brun, Claus Frimann (1746-1829), Claus
Fasting (1746-1791), who edited a brilliant aesthetic journal, The
Critical Observer, Christian H. Pram3 (1756-1821), author of
Staerkodder, a romantic epic, based on Scandinavian legend, and
Edvj>.rd Storm (1749-1794), were associates and mainly fellow-
students at Copenhagen, where they introduced a style peculiar
to themselves, and distinct from that of the true Danes. Their
lyrics celebrated the mountains and rivers of the magnificent
country they had left; and, while introducing images and
scenery unfamiliar to the inhabitants of monotonous Denmark,
they enriched the language with new words and phrases. This
group of writers is now claimed by the Norwegians as the founders
of a Norwegian literature; but their true place is certainly among
the Danes, to whom they primarily appealed. They added

1 His collected works were edited by Fr. Barford (Copenhagen,
5th ed., 1879).

_2Wessel's Digte (3rd ed., 1895) are edited by J. Levin, with a
biographical introduction.

3 A biography by his friend, K. L. Rahbek, is prefixed to a selection
of his poetry (6 vols., 1824-1829).

nothing to the development of the drama, except in the person
of N. K. Bredal (1733-1778), who became director of the Royal
Danish Theatre, and the writer of some mediocre plays.

To the same period belong a few prose writers of eminence.
Werner Abrahamson (1744-1812) was the first aesthetic critic
Denmark produced. Johan Clemens Tode (1736-1806) was
eminent in many branches of science, but especially as a medical
writer. Ove Mailing (1746-1829) was an untiring collector of
historical data, which he annotated in a lively style. Two
historians of more definite claim on our attention are Peter
Frederik Suhm (1728-1798), whose History of Denmark (n vols.,
Copenhagen, 1782-1812,) contains a mass of original material,
and Ove Guldberg (1731-1808). In theology Christian Bastholm
(1740-1819) and Nicolai Edinger Balle (1744-1816), bishop of
Zealand, a Norwegian by birth, demand a reference. But the
only really great prose-writer of the period was the Norwegian,
Niels Treschow (1751-1833), whose philosophical works are
composed in an admirably lucid style, and are distinguished
for their depth and originality.

The poetical revival sank in the next generation to a more
mechanical level. The number of writers of some talent was very
great, but genius was wanting. Two intimate friends, Jonas
Rein (1760-1821) and Jens Zetlitz (1761-1821), attempted, with
indifferent success, to continue the tradition of the Norwegian
group. Thomas Thaarup (1740-1821) was a fluent and eloquent
writer of occasional poems, and of homely dramatic idylls. The
early death of Ole Samsoe (1759-1796) prevented the develop-
ment of a dramatic talent that gave rare promise. But while
poetry languished, prose, for the first time, began to flourish
in Denmark. Knud Lyne Rahbek (1760-1830) was a pleasing
novelist, a dramatist of some merit, a pathetic elegist, and a witty
song-writer; he was also a man full of the literary instinct, and
through a long life he never ceased to busy himself with editing
the works of the older poets, and spreading among the people a
knowledge of Danish literature through his magazine, Minerva,
edited in conjunction with C. H. Pram. Peter Andreas Heiberg
(1758-1841) was a political and aesthetic critic of note. Hewas
exiled from Denmark in company with another sympathizer with
the principles of the French Revolution, Malte Conrad Brunn
(1775-1826), who settled in Paris, and attained a world-wide
reputation as a geographer. O. C. Olufsen (1764-1827) was a
writer on geography, zoology and political economy. Rasmus
Nyerup (1759-1829) expended an immense energy in the compila-
tion of admirable works on the history of language and literature.
From 1 7 78 to his death he exercised a great power in the statistical
and critical departments of letters. The best historian of this
period, however, was Engelstoft (1774-1850), and the most
brilliant theologian Bishop Mynster (1775-1854). In the annals
of modern science Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851) is a name
universally honoured. He explained his inventions and described
his discoveries in language so lucid and so characteristic that he
claims an honoured place in the literature of the country of whose
culture, in other branches, he is one of the most distinguished
ornaments.

On the threshold of the romantic movement occurs the name
of Jens Baggesen (q.v.; 1764-1826), a man of great genius,
whose work was entirely independent of the influences around
him. Jens Baggesen is the greatest comic poet that Denmark
has produced; and as a satirist and witty lyrist he has no rival
among the Danes. In his hands the difficulties of the language
disappear; he performs with the utmost ease extraordinary
tours de force of style. His astonishing talents were wasted on
trifling themes and in a fruitless resistance to the modern spirit
in literature.

Romanticism. — With the beginning of the I9th century the new
light in philosophy and poetry, which radiated from Germany
through all parts of Europe, found its way into Denmark also.
In scarcely any country was the result so rapid or so brilliant.
There arose in Denmark a school of poets who created for them-
selves a reputation in all parts of Europe, and would have done
honour to any nation or any age. The splendid cultivation of
metrical art threw other branches into the shade; and the epoch

DENMARK

[LITERATURE

of which we are about to speak is eminent above all for mastery
over verse. The swallow who heralded the summer was a
German by birth, Adolph Wilhelm Schack von Staffeldt1 (1769-
1826), who came over to Copenhagen from Pomerania, and
prepared the way for the new movement. Since Ewald no one
had written Danish lyrical verse so exquisitely as Schack von
Staffeldt, and the depth and scientific precision of his thought
won him a title which he has preserved, of being the first philo-
sophic poet of Denmark. The writings of this man are the
deepest and most serious which Denmark had produced, and at
his best he yields to no one in choice and skilful use of expression.
This sweet song of Schack von Staffeldt's, however, was early
silenced by the louder choir that one by one broke into music
around him. It was Adam Gottlob Ohlenschlager (q.ii.; 1779-
1850), the greatest poet of Denmark, who was to bring about
the new romantic movement. In 1802 he happened to meet the
young Norwegian Henrik Steffens (1773-1845), who had just
returned from a scientific tour in Germany, full of the doctrines
of Schelling. Under the immediate direction of Steffens,
Ohlenschlager began an entirely new poetic style, and destroyed
all his earlier verses. A new epoch in the language began, and the
rapidity and matchless facility of the new poetry was the wonder
of Steffens himself. The old Scandinavian mythology lived in the
hands of Ohlenschlager exactly as the classical Greek religion was
born again in Keats. He aroused in his people the slumbering
sense of their Scandinavian nationality.

The retirement of Ohlenschlager comparatively early in life,
left the way open for the development of his younger con-
temporaries, among whom several had genius little inferior to
his own. Steen Steensen Blicher (1782-1848) was a Jutlander,
and preserved all through life the characteristics of his sterile and
sombre fatherland. After a struggling youth of great poverty,
he published, in 1807-1809, a translation of Ossian; in 1814 a
volume of lyrical poems; and in 1817 he attracted considerable
attention by his descriptive poem of The Tour in Jutland. His
real genius, however, did not lie in the direction of verse; and
his first signal success was with a story, A Village Sexton's Diary,
in 1824, which was rapidly followed by other tales, descriptive of
village life in Jutland, for the next twelve years. These were
collected in five volumes (1833-1836). His masterpiece is a collec-
tion of short stories, called The Spinning Room. He also produced
many national lyrics of great beauty. But it was Blicher's use of
patois which delighted his countrymen with a sense of freshness
and strength. They felt as though they heard Danish for the first
time spoken in its fulness. The poet Aarestrup (in 1 848) declared
that Blicher had raised the Danish language to the dignity of
Icelandic. Blicher is a stern realist, in many points akin to
Crabbe, and takes a singular position among the romantic
idealists of the period, being like them, however, in the love of
precise and choice language, and hatred of the mere common-
places of imaginative writing.2

Nikolai Frederik Severin Grundtvig (q.v.; 1783-1872), like
Ohlenschlager, learned the principles of the German romanticism
from the lips of Steffens. He adopted the idea of introducing the
Old Scandinavian element into art, and even into life, still more
earnestly than the older poet. Bernhard Severin Ingemann
(q.v.; 1789-1862) contributed to Danish literature historical
romances in the style of Sir Walter Scott. Johannes Carsten
Hauch (q.v.; 1790-1872) first distinguished himself as a disciple
of Ohlenschlager, and fought under him in the strife against the
old school and Baggesen. But the master misunderstood the
disciple; and the harsh repulse of Ohlenschlager silenced Hauch
for many years. He possessed, however, a strong and fluent
genius, which eventually made itself heard in a multitude of
volumes, poems, dramas and novels. All that Hauch wrote is
marked by great qualities, and by distinction; he had a native
bias towards the mystical, which, however, he learned to keep
in abeyance.

1 See F. L. Liebenberg, Schack Staff eldts samlede Digte (2 vols.,
Copenhagen, 1843), and Samlinger til Schack Staff eldts Levnet (4 vols.,
1846-1851).

* Blicher's Tales were edited by P. Hansen (3 vols., Copenhagen,
1871), and his Poems in 1870.

Johan Ludvig Heiberg (q.v.; 1791-1860) was a critic who
ruled the world of Danish taste for many years. His mother,
the Baroness Gyllembourg-Ehrensvard (q.v.; 1773-1856), wrote
a large number of anonymous novels. Her knowledge of life,
her sparkling wit and her almost faultless style, make these
short stories masterpieces of their kind.

Christian Hviid Bredahl (1784-1860) produced six volumes
of Dramatic Scenes3 (1810-1833) which, in spite of their many
brilliant qualities, were little appreciated at the time. Bredahl
gave up literature in despair to become a peasant farmer, and
died in poverty.

Ludvig Adolf Bodtcher (1793-1874) wrote a single volume of
lyrical poems, which he gradually enlarged in succeeding editions.
He was a consummate artist in verse, and his impressions are
given with the most delicate exactitude of phrase, and in a very
fine strain of imagination. He was a quietist and an epicurean,
and the closest parallel to Horner in the literature of the North.
Most of Bodtcher's poems deal with Italian life, which he learned
to know thoroughly during a long residence in Rome. He was
secretary to Thorwaldsen for a considerable time.

Christian Winther (q.v.; 1796-1876) made the island of
Zealand his loving study, and that province of Denmark belongs
to him no less thoroughly than the Cumberland lakes belong
to Wordsworth. Between the latter poet and Winther there
was much resemblance. He was, without compeer, the greatest
pastoral lyrist of Denmark. His exquisite strains, in which pure
imagination is blended with most accurate and realistic descrip-
tions of scenery and rural life, have an extraordinary charm not
easily described.

The youngest of the great poets born during the last twenty
years of the i8th century was Henrik Hertz (q.v.; 1797-1870).
As a satirist and comic poet he followed Baggesen, and hi all
branches of the poetic art stood a little aside out of the main
current of romanticism. He introduced into the Danish literature
of his time inestimable elements of lucidity and purity. In his
best pieces Hertz is the most modern and most cosmopolitan of
the Danish writers of his time.

It is noticeable that all the great poets of the romantic period
lived to an advanced age. Their prolonged literary activity —
for some of them, like Grundtvig, were busy to the last — had a
slightly damping influence on their younger contemporaries, but
certain names in the next generation have special prominence.
Hans Christian Andersen (q.v.; 1805-1875) was the greatest of
modern fabulists. In 1835 there appeared the first collection of
his Fairy Tales, and won him a world-wide reputation. Almost
every year from this time forward until near his death he published
about Christmas time one or two of these unique stories, so delicate
in their humour and pathos, and so masterly in their simplicity.
Carl Christian Bagger (1807-1846) published volumes in 1834
and 1836 which gave promise of a great future, — a promise
broken by his early death. Frederik Paludan-Muller (q.v.;
1809-1876) developed, as a poet, a magnificent career, which
contrasted in its abundance with his solitary and silent life as a
man. His mythological or pastoral dramas, his great satiric
epos of Adam Homo (1841-1848), his comedies, his lyrics, and
above all his noble philosophic tragedy of Kalanus, prove the
immense breadth of his compass, and the inexhaustible riches
of his imagination. C. L. Emil Aarestrup (1800-1856) published
in 1838 a volume of vivid erotic poetry, but its quality was
only appreciated after his death. Edvard Lembcke (1815-1897)
made himself famous as the admirable translator of Shakespeare,
but the incidents of 1864 produced from him some volumes of
direct and manly patriotic verse.

The poets completely ruled the literature of Denmark during
this period. There were, however, eminent men in other depart-
ments of letters, and especially in philology. Rasmus Christian
Rask (1787-1832) was one of the most original and gifted linguists
of his age. His grammars of Old Frisian, Icelandic and Anglo-
Saxon were unapproached in his own time, and are still admirable.
Niels Matthias Petersen (1791-1862), a disciple of Rask, was the
author of an admirable History of Denmark in the Heathen

* Edited (3 vols., and ed., 1855, Copenhagen) by F. L. Liebenberg.

LITERATURE]

DENMARK

43

Antiquity, and the translator of many of the sagas. Martin
Frederik Arendt (1773-1823), the botanist and archaeologist,
did much for the study of old Scandinavian records. Christian
Molbech (1783-1857) was a laborious lexicographer, author of
the first good Danish dictionary, published in 1833. In Joachim
Frederik Schouw ( 1 789-185 2) , Denmark produced a very eminent
botanist, author of an exhaustive Geography of Plants. In later
years he threw himself with zeal into politics. His botanical
researches were carried on by Frederik Liebmann (1813-1856).
The most famous zoologist contemporary with these men was
Salomon Dreier (1813-1842).

The romanticists found their philosopher in a most remarkable
man, Soren Aaby Kierkegaard (1813-1855), one of the most
subtle thinkers of Scandinavia, and the author of some brilliant
philosophical and polemical works. A learned philosophical
writer, not to be compared, however, for genius or originality to
Kierkegaard, was Frederik Christian Sibbern (1785-1872). He
wrote a dissertation On Poetry and Art (3 vols., 1853-1869) and
The Contentsjtf a MS. from the Year 2133 (3 vols., 1858-1872).

Among novelists who were not also poets was Andreas Nikolai
de Saint-Aubain (1798-1865), who, under the pseudonym of
Carl Bernhard, wrote a series of charming romances. Mention
must also be made of two dramatists, Peter Thun Feorsom
(i777-i8i7),who produced an excellent translation of Shakespeare
(1807-1816), and Thomas Overskou (1798-1873), author of a long
series of successful comedies, and of a history of the Danish
theatre (5 vols., Copenhagen, 1854-1864).

Other writers whose names connect the age of romanticism
with a later period were Meyer Aron Goldschmidt (1819-1887),
author of novels and tales; Herman Frederik Ewald (1821-1908),
who wrote a long series of historical novels; Jens Christian
Hostrup (1818-1892), a writer of exquisite comedies; and the
miscellaneous writer Erik Bogh (1822-1899). In zoology,
J. J. S. Steenstrup (1813-1898); in philology, J. N. Madvig
(1804-1886) and his disciple V. Thomsen (b. 1842); in anti-
quarianism, C. J. Thomsen (1788-1865) and J. J. Asmussen
Worsaae (1821-1885); and in philosophy, Rasmus Nielsen
(1809-1884) and Hans Brochner (1820-1875), deserve mention.

The development of imaginative literature in Denmark became
very closely defined during the latter half of the igth century.
The romantic movement culminated in several poets of great
eminence, whose deaths prepared the way for a new school.
In 1874 Bodtcher passed away, in 1875 Hans Christian Andersen,
in the last week of 1876 Winther, and the greatest of all, Frederik
Paludan-Miiller. The field was therefore left open to the
successors of those idealists, and in 1877 the reaction began to
be felt. The eminent critic, Dr Georg Brandes (q.v.), had long
foreseen the decline of pure romanticism, and had advocated a
more objective and more exact treatment of literary phenomena.
Accordingly, as soon as all the great planets had disappeared,
a new constellation was perceived to have risen, and all the stars
in it had been lighted by the enthusiasm of Brandes. The new
writers were what he called Naturalists, and their sympathies
were with the latest forms of exotic, but particularly of French
literature. Among these fresh forces three immediately took
place as leaders — Jacobsen, Drachmann and Schandorph. In
J. P. Jacobsen (q.v.; 1847-1885) Denmark was now taught
to welcome the greatest artist in prose which she has ever pos-
sessed; his romance of Marie Grubbe led off the new school "with
a production of unexampled beauty. But Jacobsen died young,
and the work was really carried out by his two companions. Holger
Drachmann (q.v.; 1846-1908) began life as a marine painter;
and a first little volume of poems, which he published in 1872,
attracted slight attention. In 1877 he came forward again with
one volume of verse, another of fiction, a third of travel; in each
he displayed great vigour and freshness of touch, and he rose at
one leap to the highest position among men of promise. Drach-
mann retained his place, without rival, as the leading imaginative
writer in Denmark. For many years he made the aspects of
life at sea his particular theme, and he contrived to rouse the
patriotic enthusiasm of the Danish public as it had never been
roused before. His various and unceasing productiveness, his

freshness and vigour, and the inexhaustible richness of his lyric
versatility, early brought Drachmann to the front and kept him
there. Meanwhile prose imaginative literature was ably sup-
ported by Sophus Schandorph (1836-1901), who had been entirely
out of sympathy with the idealists, and had taken no step while
that school was in the ascendant. In 1876, in his fortieth year,
he was encouraged by the change in taste to publish a volume
of realistic stories, Country Life, and in 1878 a novel, Without a
Centre. He has some relation with Guy de Maupassant as a close
analyst of modern types of character, but he has more humour. He
has been compared with such Dutch painters of low life as Teniers.
His talent reached its height in the novel called Little Folk (1880),
a most admirable study of lower middle-class life in Copenhagen.
He was for a while, without doubt, the leading living novelist,
and he went on producing works of great force, in which, however,
a certain motonony is apparent. The three leaders had meanwhile
been joined by certain younger men who took a prominent
position. Among these Karl Gjellerup and Erik Skram were the
earliest. Gjellerup (b. 1857), whose first works of importance
date from 1878, was long uncertain as to the direction of his
powers; he was poet, novelist, moralist and biologist in one;
at length he settled down into line with the new realistic school,
and produced in 1882 a satirical novel of manners which had a
great success, The Disciple of the Teutons. Erik Skram (b. 1847)
had in 1879 written a solitary novel, Gertrude Coldbjornsen,
which created a sensation, and was hailed by Brandes as ex-
actly representing the " naturalism " which he desired to see
encouraged; but Skram has written little else of importance.
Other writers of reputation in the naturalistic school were
Edvard Brandes (b. 1847), and Herman Bang (b. 1858). Peter
Nansen (b. 1861) has come into wide notoriety as the author,
in particularly beautiful Danish, of a series of stories of a
pronouncedly sexual type, among which Maria (1894) has been
the most successful. Meanwhile, several of the elder generation,
unaffected by the movement of realism, continued to please the
public. Three lyrical poets, H. V. Kaalund (1818-1885), Carl
Ploug (1813-1894) and Christian Richardt (1831-1892), of very
great talent, were not yet silent, and among the veteran novelists
were still active H. F. Ewald and Thomas Lange (1829-1887).
Ewald's son Carl (1856-1908) achieved a great name as a novelist,
but did his most characteristic work in a series of books for
children, in which he used the fairy tale, in the manner of Hans
Andersen, as a vehicle for satire and a theory of morals. During
the whole of this period the most popular writer of Denmark was
J. C. C. Brosboll (1816-1900), who wrote, under the pseudonym
Cant Etlar, a vast number of tales. Another popular novelist
was Vilhelm Bergsoe (b. 1835), author of In the Sabine Mountains
(1871), and other romances. Sophus Bauditz(b. 1850) persevered
in composing novels which attain a wide general popularity.
Mention must be made also of the dramatist Christian Molbech
(1821-1888).

Between 1885 and 1892 there was a transitional period in
Danish literature. Up to that time all the leaders had been
united in accepting the naturalistic formula, which was combined
with an individualist and a radical tendency. In 1885, however,
Drachmann, already the recognized first poet of the country,
threw off his allegiance to Brandes, denounced the exotic|tradition,
declared himself a Conservative, and took up a national and
patriotic attitude. He was joined a little later by Gjellerup, while
Schandorph remained stanchly by the side of Brandes. The camp
was thus divided. New writers began to make their appearance,
and, while some of these were stanch to Brandes, others were
inclined to hold rather with Drachmann. Of the authors who
came forward during this period of transition, the strongest
novelist proved to be Hendrik Pontoppidan (b. 1857). In some
of his books he reminds the reader of Turgeniev. Pontoppidan
published in 1 898 the first volume of a great novel entitled Lykke-
Per, the biography of a typical Jutlander named Per Sidenius,
a work to be completed in eight volumes. From 1893 to 1909 no
great features of a fresh kind revealed themselves. The Danish
public, grown tired of realism, and satiated with pathological
phenomena, returned to a fresh study of their own national

44

DENNERY— DENNIS

characteristics. The cultivation of verse, which was greatly dis-
couraged in the eighties, returned. Drachmann was supported by
excellent younger poets of his school. J. J. Jorgensen (b. 1866),
a Catholic decadent, was very prolific. Otto C. Fonss (b. 1853)
published seven little volumes of graceful lyrical poems in praise
of gardens and of farm-life. Andreas Dolleris (b. 1850), of Vejle,
showed himself an occasional poet of merit. Alfred Ipsen (b. 1852)
must also be mentioned as a poet and critic. Valdemar Rb'rdam,
whose The Danish Tongue was the lyrical success of 1901, may
also be named. Some attempts were made to transplant
the theories of the symbolists to Denmark, but without signal
success. On the other hand, something of a revival of naturalism
is to be observed in the powerful studies of low life admirably
written by Karl Larsen (b. 1860).

The drama has long flourished in Denmark. The principal
theatres are liberally open to fresh dramatic talent of every kind,
and the great fondness of the Danes for this form of entertain-
ment gives unusual scope for experiments in halls or private
theatres; nothing is too eccentric to hope to obtain somewhere
a fair hearing. Drachmann produced with very great success
several romantic dramas founded on the national legends. Most
of the novelists and poets already mentioned also essayed the
stage, and to those names should be added these of Einar
Christiansen (b. 1861), Ernst von der Recke (b. 1848), Oskar
Benzon (b. 1856) and Gustav Wied (b. 1838).

In theology no names were as eminent as in the preceding
generation, in which such writers as H. N. Clausen (1793-1877),
and still more Hans Lassen Martensen (1808-1884), lifted the
prestige of Danish divinity to a high point. But in history the
Danes have been very active. Karl Ferdinand Allen (181 1-1871)
began a comprehensive history of the Scandinavian kingdoms
(5 vols., 1864-1872). Jens Peter Trap (1810-1885) concluded
his great statistical account of Denmark in 1879. The i6th
century was made the subject of the investigations of Troels
Lund (?.».). About 1880 several of the younger historians
formed the plan of combining to investigate and publish the
sources of Danish history; in this the indefatigable Johannes
Steenstrup (b. 1844) was prominent. The domestic history of
the country began, about 1885, to occupy the attention of
Edvard Holm (b. 1833), O. Nielsen and the veteran P. Frederik
Barfod (1811-1896). The naval histories of G. Liitken attracted
much notice. Besides the names already mentioned, A. D.
J6rgensen (1840-1897), J. Fredericia (b. 1849), Christian Erslev
(b. 1852) and Vilhelm Mollerup have all distinguished them-
selves in the excellent school of Danish historians. In 1896 an
elaborate composite history of Denmark was undertaken by some
leading historians (pub. 1897-1905). In philosophy nothing has
recently been published of the highest value. Martensen's Jakob
Bohme (1881) belongs to an earlier period. H. Hoffding (b. 1843)
has been the most prominent contributor to psychology. His
Problems of Philosophy and his Philosophy of Religion were
translated into English in 1906. Alfred Lehmann (b. 1858) has,
since 1896, attracted a great deal of attention by his sceptical
investigation of psychical phenomena. F. Ronning has written
on the history of thought in Denmark. In the criticism of art,
Julius Lange (1838-1896), and later Karl Madsen, have done
excellent service. In literary criticism Dr Georg Brandes is
notable for the long period during which he remained pre-
dominant. His was a steady and stimulating presence, ever
pointing to the best in art and thought, and his influence on
his age was greater than that of any other Dane.

AUTHORITIES. — R. Nyerup, Den danske Digtekunsts Historie
(1800-1808), and Almindeligt Literaturlexikon (1818-1820); N. M.
Petersen, Literaturhistorie (2nd ed., 1867-1871, 5 vols.); Oyerskpu,
Den danske Skueplads (1854-1866, 5 vols.), with a continuation
(2 vols., 1873-1876) by E Collin; Chr. Bruun, Bibliotheca Danica
(3 vols., 1872-1896) ; Bricka, Dansk biografisk Lexikon (1887-1901) ;
J. Paludan, Danmarks Literatur i Middelalderen (Copenhagen, 1896) ;
P. Hansen, Illustreret Dansk Literaturhistorie (3 vols., 1901-1902);
F. W. Horn, History of the Scandinavian North from the most ancient
times to the present (English translation by Rasmus B. Anderson
(Chicago, 1 884), with bibliographical appendix by Thorwald Solberg) ;
Ph. Schweitzer, Geschichte der Skandinavischen Litteratur (3 pts.,
Leipzig, 1886-1889), forming vol. viii. of the Geschichte der Welt-

litteratur. See also Brandes, Kritiker og Portraiter (1870); Brandes,
Danske Dilgere (1877); Marie Herzfeld, Die Skandinavische
Litteratur und ihre Tendenzen (Berlin and Leipzig, 1898) ; Hjalmar
Hjorth Boyesen, Essays on Scandinavian Literature (London, 1895);
Edmund Gosse, Studies in the Literature of Northern Europe (newed.,
London, 1883); Vilhelm Andersen, Litteraturbilleder (Copenhagen,
1903); A. P. J. Schener, Kortfattet Indledning til Romantikkus
Periode i Danmarks Litteratur (Copenhagen, 1894). (E. G.)

DENNERY, or D'ENNERY, ADOLPHE (1811-1899), French
dramatist and novelist, whose real surname was PHILIPPE, was
born in Paris on the I7th of June 1811. He obtained his first
success in collaboration with Charles Desnoyer in Emile, ou le
fils d'un pair de France (1831), a drama which was the first of a
series of some two hundred pieces written alone or in collaboration
with other dramatists.' Among the best of them may be
mentioned Gaspard Hauser (1838) with Anicet Bourgeois; Les
Bohemiens de Paris (1842) with Eugene Grange; with Mallian,
Marie-Jeanne, ou la femme du peuple (1845), in which Madame
Dorval obtained a great success; La Case d'Oncle Tom (1853);
Les Deux Orphelines (1875), perhaps his best piece, with Eugene
Cormon. He wrote the libretto^for Gounod's Tribut de Zamora
(1881); with Louis Gallet and Edouard Blan he composed the
book of Massenet's Cid (1885); and, again in collaboration with
Eugene Cormon, the books of Auber's operas, Le Premier Jour de
bonheur (1868) and Reve d' amour (1869). He prepared for the
stage Balzac's posthumous comedy Mercadet ou le faiseur,
presented at the Gymnase theatre in 1851. Reversing the usual
order of procedure, Dennery adapted some of his plays to the form
of novels. He died in Paris in 1899.

DENNEWITZ, a village of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Brandenburg, near Juterbog, 40 m. S.W. from Berlin. It is
memorable as the scene of a decisive battle on the 6th of
September 1813, in which Marshal Ney, with an army of 58,000
French, Saxons and Poles, was defeated with great loss by 50,000
Prussians under Generals Billow (afterwards Count Billow of
Dennewitz) and Tauentzien. The site of the battle is marked by
an iron obelisk.

DENNIS, JOHN (1657-1734), English critic and dramatist, the
son of a saddler, was born in London in 1657. He was educated
at Harrow School and Caius College, Cambridge, where he took
his B.A. degree in 1679. In the next year he was fined and dis-
missed from his college for having wounded a fellow-student with
a sword. He was, however, received at Trinity Hall, where he
took his M.A. degree in 1683. After travelling in France and
Italy, he settled in London, where he became acquainted with
Dryden, Wycherley and others; and being made temporarily
independent by inheriting a small fortune, he devoted himself to
literature. The duke of Marlborough procured him a place as one
of the queen's waiters in the customs with a salary of £ 1 20 a year.
This he afterwards disposed of for a small sum, retaining, at the
suggestion of Lord Halifax, a yearly charge upon it for a long
term of years. Neither the poems nor the plays of Dennis are of
any account, although one of his tragedies, a violent attack on
the French in harmony with popular prejudice, entitled Liberty
Asserted, was produced with great success at Lincoln's Inn
Fields in 1704. His sense of his own importance approached
mania, and he is said to have desired the duke of Marlborough to
have a special clause inserted in the treaty of Utrecht to secure
him from French vengeance. Marlborough pointed out that
although he had been a still greater enemy of the French nation,
he had no fear for his own security. This tale and others of a
similar nature may well be exaggerations prompted by his
enemies, but the infirmities of character and temper indicated in
them were real. Dennis is best remembered as a critic, and Isaac
D 'Israeli, who took a by no means favourable view of Dennis,
said that some of his criticisms attain classical rank. The
earlier ones, which have nothing of the rancour that afterwards
gained him the nickname of " Furius," are the best. They are
Remarks . . . (1696), on Blackmore's epic of Prince Arthur;
Letters upon Several Occasions written by and between Mr Dryden,
Mr Wycherley, Mr Moyle, Mr Gangrene and Mr Dennis, published
by Mr Dennis (1696); two pamphlets in reply to Jeremy
Collier's Short View; The Advancement and Reformation of

DENOMINATION— DENOTATION

45

Modern Poetry (1701), perhaps his most important work ;
The Grounds of Criticism in Poetry (i 704), in which he argued that
the ancients owed their superiority over the moderns in poetry
to their religious attitude; an Essay upon Publick Spirit . . .
(1711), in which he inveighs against luxury, and servile imitation
of foreign fashions and customs; and Essay on the Genius and
Writings of Shakespeare in three Letters (1712).

Dennis had been offended by a humorous quotation made
from his works by Addison, and published in 1713 Remarks upon
Colo. Much of this criticism was acute and sensible, and it is
quoted at considerable length by Johnson in his Life of Addison,
but there is no doubt that Dennis was actuated by personal
jealousy of Addison's success. Pope replied in The Narrative
of Dr Robert N orris, concerning the strange and deplorable frenzy
of John Dennis . . . (1713). This pamphlet was full of personal
abuse, exposing Dennis's foibles, but offering no defence of Cato.
Addison repudiated any connivance in this attack, and in-
directly notified Dennis that when he did answer his objections,
it would be without personalities. Pope had already assailed
Dennis in 1711 in the Essay on Criticism, as Appius. Dennis
retorted by Reflections, Critical and Satirical . . . , a scurrilous
production in which he taunted Pope with his deformity, saying
among other things that he was " as stupid and as venomous as
a hunch-backed toad." He also wrote in 1717 Remarks upon
Mr Pope's Translation of Homer . . . and A True Character of
Mr Pope. He accordingly figures in the Dunciad, and in a
scathing note in the edition of 1729 (bk. i. i. 106) Pope quotes
his more outrageous attacks, and adds an insulting epigram
attributed to Richard Savage, but now generally ascribed to
Pope. More pamphlets followed, but Dennis's day was over. He
outlived his annuity from the customs, and his last years were
spent in great poverty. Bishop Atterbury sent him money, and
he received a small sum annually from Sir Robert Walpole.
A benefit performance was organized at the Haymarket
(December 18, 1733) on his behalf. Pope wrote for the occasion
an ill-natured prologue which Gibber recited. Dennis died within
three weeks of this performance, on the 6th of January 1734.

His other works include several plays, for one of which, Appius
and Virginia (1709), he invented a new kind of thunder. He wrote
a curious Essay on the Operas after the Italian Manner (1706), main-
taining that opera was the outgrowth of effeminate manners, and
should, as such, be suppressed. His Works were published in 1702,
Select Works ... (2 vols.) in 1718, and Miscellaneous Tracts, the first
volume only of which appeared, in 1727. For accounts of Dennis
see Gibber's Lives of the Poets, vol. iv. ; Isaac D'Israeli's essays on
Pope and Addison in the Quarrels of Authors, and " On the Influence
of a Bad Temper in Criticism " in Calamities of Authors; and
numerous references in Pope's Works.

DENOMINATION (Lat. denominare, to give a specific name
to), the giving of a specific name to anything, hence the name or
designation of a person or thing, and more particularly of a class
of persons or things; thus, in arithmetic, it is applied to a unit
in a system of weights and measures, currency or numbers. The
most general use of " denomination " is for a body of persons
holding specific opinions and having a common name, especially
with reference to the religious opinions of such a body. More
particularly the word is used of the various " sects " into which
members of a common religious faith may be divided. The term
" denominationalism " is thus given to the principle of emphasiz-
ing the distinctions, rather than the common ground, in the faith
held by different bodies professing one sort of religious belief.
This use is particularly applied to that system of religious
education which lays stress on the principle that children
belonging to a particular religious sect should be publicly taught
in the tenets of their belief by members belonging to it and under
the general control of the ministers of the denomination.

DENON, DOMINIQUE VIVANT, BARON DE (1747-1825),
French artist and archaeologist, was born at Chalon-sur-Saone
on the 4th of January 1747. He was sent to Paris to study law,
but he showed a decided preference for art and literature, and
soon gave up his profession. In his twenty-third year he pro-
duced a comedy, Le Bon Pere, which obtained a succes d'estime, as
he had already won a position in society by his agreeable manners
and exceptional conversational powers. He became a favourite

of Louis XV., who entrusted him with the collection and arrange-
ment of a cabinet of medals and antique gems for Madame de
Pompadour, and subsequently appointed him attache to the
French embassy at St Petersburg. On the accession of Louis
XVI. Denon was transferred to Sweden; but he returned, after
a brief interval, to Paris with the ambassador M. de Vergennes,
who had been appointed foreign minister. In 1775 Denon was
sent on a special mission to Switzerland, and took the oppor-
tunity of visiting Voltaire at Ferney. He made a portrait of the
philosopher, which was engraved and published on his return to
Paris. His next diplomatic appointment was to Naples, where
he spent seven years, first as secretary to the embassy and after-
wards as charge d'affaires. He devoted this period to a careful
study of the monuments of ancient art, collecting many specimens
and making drawings of others. He also perfected himself in
etching and mezzotinto engraving. The death of his patron,
M. de Vergennes, in 1787, led to his recall, and the rest of his life
was given mainly to artistic pursuits. On his return to Paris
he was admitted a member of the Academy of Painting. After
a brief interval he returned to Italy, living chiefly at Venice.
He also visited Florence and Bologna, and afterwards went to
Switzerland. While there he heard that his property had been
confiscated, and his name placed on the list of the proscribed, and
with characteristic courage he resolved at once to return to Paris.
His situation was critical, but he was spared, thanks to the
friendship of the painter David, who obtained for him a com-
mission to furnish designs for republican costumes. When the
Revolution was over, Denon was one of the band of eminent men
who frequented the house of Madame de Beauharnais. Here he
met Bonaparte, to whose fortunes he wisely attached himself.
At Bonaparte's invitation he joined the expedition to Egypt, and
thus found the opportunity of gathering the materials for his most
important literary and artistic work. He accompanied General
Desaix to Upper Egypt, and made numerous sketches of the
monuments of ancient art, sometimes under the very fire of the
enemy. The results were published in his Voyage dans la basse
el la haute Egypte (2 vols. fol., with 141 plates, Paris, 1802), a
work which crowned his reputation both as an archaeologist
and as an artist. In 1804 he was appointed by Napoleon to the
important office of director-general of museums, which he filled
until the restoration in 1815, when he had to retire. He was a
devoted friend of Napoleon, whom he accompanied in his ex-
peditions to Austria, Spain and Poland, taking sketches with his
wonted fearlessness on the various battlefields, and advising the
conqueror in his choice of spoils of art from the various cities
pillaged. After his retirement he began an illustrated history of
ancient and modern art, in which he had the co-operation of
several skilful engravers. He died at Paris on the 27th of April
1825, leaving the work unfinished. It was published posthu-
mously, with an explanatory text by Amaury Duval, under the
title Monuments des arts du dessin chez les peuples tant anciens
que modernes, recueillis par Vivant Denon (4 vols. fol., Paris, 1829) .
Denon was the author of a novel, Point de lendemain (1777), of
which further editions were printed in 1812, 1876 and 1879.

See J. Renouvier, Histoire de I'art pendant la Revolution; A. de la
Fizeliere, L'CEuvre originate de Vivant-Denon (2 vols., Paris, 1872-
1873); Roger Portallis, Les Dessinateurs d' illustrations au XVIII'
siecle; D. H. Beraldi, Les Craveurs d' illustrations au XVIII" siecle.

DENOTATION (from Lat. denotare, to mark out, specify), in
logic, a technical term used strictly as the correlative of Con-
notation, to describe one of the two functions of a concrete term.
The concrete term " connotes " attributes and " denotes " all
the individuals which, as possessing these attributes, constitute
the genus or species described by the term. Thus " cricketer "
denotes the individuals who play cricket, and connotes the
qualities or characteristics by which these individuals are marked.
In this sense, in which it was first used by J. S. Mill, Denotation
is equivalent to Extension, and Connotation to Intension. It is
clear that when the given term is qualified by a limiting adjective
the Denotation or Extension diminishes, while the Connotation
or Intension increases; e.g. a generic term like "flower" has a
larger Extension, and a smaller Intension than " rose ": " rose "

46

DENS— DENSITY

than " moss-rose." In more general language Denotation
is used loosely for that which is meant or indicated by a word,
phrase, sentence or even an action. Thus a proper name or
even an abstract term is said to have Denotation. (See
CONNOTATION.)

DENS, PETER (1690-1775), Belgian Roman Catholic theo-
logian, was born at Boom near Antwerp. Most of his life was
spent in the archiepiscopal college of Malines, where he was for
twelve years reader in theology and for forty president. His
great work was the Theologia moralis el dogmatica, a compendium
in catechetical form of Roman Catholic doctrine and ethics
which has been much used as a students' text-book. Dens died
on the isth of February 1775.

DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick), in physics, the mass or quantity
of matter contained in unit volume of any substance: this is the
absolute density; the term relative density or specific gravity
denotes the ratio of the mass of a certain volume of a substance
to the mass of the same volume of some standard substance.
Since the weights used in conjunction with a balance are really
standard masses, the word " weight " may be substituted for
the word " mass " in the preceding definitions; and we may
symbolically express the relations thus: — If M be the weight of
substance occupying a volume V, then the absolute density
A = M/V; and if m, mi be the weights of the substance and
of the standard substance which occupy the same volume, the
relative density or specific gravity S = m\m\, or more generally
if tm\ be the weight of a volume v of the substance, and mi the
weight of a volume i\ of the standard, then S = rrm\lm\v. In the
numerical expression of absolute densities it is necessary to
specify the units of mass and volume employed; while in the case
of relative densities, it is only necessary to specify the standard
substance, since the result is a mere number. Absolute densities
are generally stated in the C.G.S. system, i.e. as grammes per
cubic centimetre. In commerce, however, other expressions are
met with, as, for example, " pounds per cubic foot " (used for
woods, metals, &c.), " pounds per gallon," &c. The standard
substances employed to determine relative densities are: water
for liquids and solids, and hydrogen or atmospheric air for gases;
oxygen (as 16) is sometimes used in this last case. Other
standards of reference may be used in special connexions; for
example, the Earth is the usual unit for expressing the relative
density of the other members of the solar system. Reference
should be made to the article GRAVITATION for an account of the
methods employed to determine the " mean density of the earth."

In expressing the absolute or relative density of any substance,
it is necessary to specify the conditions for which the relation
holds: in the case of gases, the temperature and pressure of the
experimental gas (and of the standard, in the case of relative
density) ; and in the case of solids and liquids, the temperature.
The reason for this is readily seen; if a mass M of any gas
occupies a volume V at a temperature T (on the absolute scale)
and a pressure P, then its absolute density under these conditions
is A = M/V; if now the temperature and pressure be changed to
Ti and PI, the volume Vi under these conditions is VPT/PiTi,
and the absolute density is MPiT/VPTi. It is customary to re-
duce gases to the so-called " normal temperature and pressure,"
abbreviated to N.T.P., which is o° C. and 760 mm.

The relative densities of gases are usually expressed in terms
of the standard gas under the same conditions. The density
gives very important information as to the molecular weight,
since by the law of Avogadro it is seen that the relative density
is the ratio of the molecular weights of the experimental and
standard gases. In the case of liquids and solids, comparison
with water at 4° C., the temperature of the maximum density of
water; at o° C., the zero of the Centigrade scale and the freezing-
point of water; at 15° and 18°, ordinary room-temperatures;
and at 25°, the temperature at which a thermostat may be
conveniently maintained, are common in laboratory practice.
The temperature of the experimental substance may or may not
be the temperature of the standard. In such cases a bracketed
fraction is appended to the specific gravity, of which the numer-
ator and denominator are respectively the temperatures of the

M

substance and of the standard; thus 1-093 (°e/4°) means that
the ratio of the weight of a definite volume of a substance at o°
to the weight of the same volume of water 4° is 1-093. It may
be noted that if comparison be made with water at 4°, the relative
density is the same as the absolute density, since the unit of mass
in the C.G.S. system is the weight of a cubic centimetre of water
at this temperature. In British units, especially in connexion
with the statement of relative densities of alcoholic liquors for
Inland Revenue purposes, comparison is made with water at
62° F. (16-6 C.); a reason for this is that the gallon of water
is defined by statute as weighing 10 Ib at 62° F., and hence the
densities so expressed admit of the ready conversion of volumes
to weights. Thus if d be the relative density, then lod represents
the weight of a gallon in Ib. The brewer has gone a step further
in simplifying his expressions by multiplying the density by 1000,
and speaking of the difference between the density so expressed
and 1000 as " degrees of gravity " (see BEER).

PRACTICAL DETERMINATION OF DENSITIES

The methods for determining densities may be divided into two
groups according as hydrostatic principles are employed or not. In
the group where the principles of hydrostatics are not employed the
method consists in determining the weight and volume of a certain
quantity of the substance, or the weights of equal
volumes of the substance and of the standard. In
the case of solids we may determine the volume in
some cases by direct measurement — this gives at the
best a very rough and ready value ; a better method
is to immerse the body in a fluid (in which it must
sink and be insoluble) contained in a graduated
glass, and to deduce its volume from the height to
which the liquid rises. The weight may be directly
determined by the balance. The ratio " weight to
volume " is the absolute density. The separate
determination of the volume and mass of such
substances as gunpowder, cotton-wool, soluble sub-
stances, &c., supplies the only means of determining
their densities. The stereometer of Say, which was
greatly improved by Regnault and further modified
by Kopp, permits an accurate determination of the
volume of a given mass of any such substance. In
its simplest form the instrument consists of a glass
tube PC (fig. l), of uniform bore, terminating in a
cup PE, the mouth of which can be rendered air-
tight by the plate of glass E. The substance whose
volume is to be determined is placed in the cup PE,
and the tube PC is immersed in the vessel of mercury
D, until the mercury reaches the mark P. The plate
E is then placed on the cup, and the tube PC raised
until the surface of the mercury in the tube stands
at M, that in the vessel D being at C, and the
height MC is measured. Let k denote this height,
and let PM be denoted by /. Let u represent the
volume of air in the cup before the body was inserted,
v the volume of the body, a the area of the horizontal FiG. t. — Say's
section of the tube PC, and h the height of the Stereometer.
mercurial barometer. Then, by Boyle's law
(u—v+al) (h—k) = (u—v)h, and therefore v — u—al(h—k)/k.

The volume u may be determined by repeating the experiment
when only air is in the cup. In this case t>=o, and the equation
becomes (u+al1) (h — kl) = uh, whence u=al1(h — k1)/kl. Substituting
this value in the expression for v , the volume of the body inserted in
the cup becomes known. The chief errors to which the stereometer
is liable are (l) variation of temperature and atmospheric pressure
during the experiment, and (2) the presence of moisture which dis-
turbs Boyle's law.

The method of weighing equal volumes is particularly applicable
to the determination of the relative densities of liquids. It consists
in weighing a glass vessel (i) empty, (2) filled with the liquid, (3)
filled with the standard substance. Calling the weight of the empty
vessel w, when filled with the liquid W, and when filled with the
standard substance Wi , it is obvious that W — to, and Wi — w,
are the weights of equal volumes of the liquid and standard,
and hence the relative density is (W— a>)/(Wi— w).

Many forms of vessels have been devised. The com
moner type of " specific gravity bottle " consists of a thin
glass bottle (fig. 2) of a capacity varying from 10 to 100 cc., ,
fitted with an accurately ground stopper, which is vertically
perforated by a fine hole. The bottle is carefully cleansed
by washing with soda, hydrochloric acid and distilled
water, and then dried by heating in an air bath or by blow-
ing in warm air. It is allowed to cool and then weighed. FIG. 2.
The bottle is then filled with distilled water, and brought
to a definite temperature by immersion in a thermostat, and the
stopper inserted. It is removed from the thermostat, and carefully

DENSITY

47

XJ

FIG. 3.

wiped. After cooling it is weighed. The bottle is again cleaned and
dried, and the operations repeated with the liquid under examina-
tion instead of water. Numerous modifications of this bottle are in
use. For volatile liquids, a flask provided with a long neck which
carries a graduation and is fitted with a well-ground stopper is
recommended. The bringing of the liquid to the mark is effected
by removing the excess by means of a capillary. In many forms a
thermometer forms part of the apparatus.

Another type of vessel, named the Sprengel tube or pycnometer
(Gr. jrwcvAs, dense), is shown in fig. 3. It consists of a cylindrical
tube of a capacity ranging from 10 to 50 cc., provided at the upper
end with a thick-walled capillary bent as shown on the left of the
figure. From the bottom there leads
" another fine tube, bent upwards, and
then at right angles so as to be at the
same level as the capillary branch. This
tube bears a graduation. A loop of plati-
num wire passed under these tubes serves
to suspend the vessel from the balance
arm. The manner of cleansing, &c., is
the same as in the ordinary form. The
vessel is filled by placing the capillary
in a vessel containing the liquid and
gently aspirating. Care must be taken
that no air bubbles are enclosed. The
liquid is adjusted to the mark by
withdrawing any excess from the capillary end by a strip of
bibulous paper or by a capillary tube. Many variations of this
apparatus are in use; in one of the commonest there are two
cylindrical chambers, joined at the bottom, and each provided
at the top with fine tubes bent at right angles ; sometimes the inlet
and outlet tubes are provided with caps.

The specific gravity bottle may be used to determine the relative
density of a solid which is available in small fragments, and is insoluble
in the standard liquid. The method involves three operations: —
(i) weighing the solid in air (W), (2) weighing the specific gravity
bottle full of liquid (Wi), (3) weighing the bottle containing the solid
and filled up with liquid (W2). It is readily seen that W+Wi-W2 is
the weight of the liquid displaced by the solid, and therefore is the
weight of an equal volume of liquid; hence the relative density is
W/fW+Wi-Wa).

The determination of the absolute densities of gases can only be
effected with any high degree of accuracy by a development of this
method. As originated by Regnault, it consisted in filling a large
glass globe with the gas by alternately exhausting with an air-pump
and admitting the pure and dry gas. The flask was then brought to
o° by immersion in melting ice, the pressure of the gas taken, and
the stop-cock closed. The flask is removed from the ice, allowed to
attain the1 temperature of the room,«and then weighed. The flask
is now partially exhausted, transferred to the cooling bath, and after
standing the pressure of the residual gas is taken by a manometer.
The flask is again brought to room-temperature, and re-weighed.
The difference in the weights corresponds to the volume of gas at a
pressure equal to the difference of the recorded pressures. The
volume of the flask is determined by weighing empty and filled with
water. This method has been refined by many experimenters,
among whom we may notice Morley and Lord Rayleigh. Morley
determined the densities of hydrogen and oxygen in the course of
his classical investigation of the composition of water. The method
differed from Regnault's inasmuch as the flask was exhausted to an
almost complete vacuum, a performance rendered possible by the high
efficiency of the modern air-pump. The actual experiment necessi-
tates the most elaborate precautions, for which reference must be
made to Morley's original papers in the Smithsonian Contributions
to Knowledge (1895), or to M. Travers, The Study of Gases. Lord
Rayleigh has made many investigations of the absolute densities of
gases, one of which, namely on atmospheric and artificial nitrogen,
undertaken in conjunction with Sir William Ramsay, culminated in
the discovery of argon (g.ti.). He pointed put in 1888 (Proc. Roy.
Soc. 43, p. 361) an important correction which had been overlooked
by previous experimenters with Regnault's method, viz. the change
in volume of the experimental globe duetoshrinkage under diminished
pressure; this may be experimentally determined and amounts to
between 0-04 and 0-16 % of the volume of the globe.

Related to the determination of the density of a gas is the deter-
mination of the density of a vapour, i.e. matter which at ordinary
temperatures exists as a solid or liquid. This subject owes its
importance in modern chemistry to the fact that the vapour density,
when hydrogen is taken as the standard, gives perfectly definite
information as to the molecular condition of the compound, since
twice the vapour density equals the molecular weight of the
compound. Many methods have been devised. In historical order
we may briefly enumerate the following: — in 1811, Gay-Lussac
volatilized a weighed quantity of liquid, which must be readily
volatile, by letting it rise up a short tube containing mercury and
standing inverted in a vessel holding the same metal. This method
was developed by Hofmann in 1868, who replaced the short tube
of Gay-Lussac by an ordinary barometer tube, thus effecting the
volatilization in a Torricellian vacuum. In 1826 Dumas devised a
method suitable for substances of high boiling-point ; this consisted

in its essential point in vaporizing the substance in a flask made of
suitable material, sealing it when full of vapour, and weighing. This
method is very tedious in detail. H. Sainte-Claire Deville and
L. Tropst made it available for specially high temperatures by
employing porcelain vessels, sealing them with the oxyhydrogen
blow-pipe, and maintaining a constant temperature by a vapour
bath of mercury (350°), sulphur (440°), cadmium (860°) and zinc
(1040°). In 1878 Victor Meyer devised his air-expulsion method.

Before discussing the methods now used in detail, a summary of
the conclusions reached by Victor Meyer in his classical investiga-
tions in this field as to the applicability of the different methods will
be given:

(1) For substances which do not boil higher than 260° and have
vapours stable for 30° above the boiling-point and which do not
react on mercury, use Victor Meyer's "mercury expulsion method."

(2) For substances boiling between 260° and 420°, and which do
not react on metals, use Meyer's " Wood's alloy expulsion method."

(3) For substances boiling at higher temperatures, or for any
substance which reacts on mercury, Meyer's " air expulsion method '
must be used. It is to be noted, however, that this method is
applicable to substances of any boiling-point (see below).

(4) For substances which can be vaporized only under diminished
pressure, several methods may be used, (a) Hofmann's is the best
if the substance volatilizes at below 310°, and does not react on
mercury; otherwise (b) Demuth and Meyer's, Eykman's, Schall's, or
other methods may be used.

i. Meyer's " Mercury Expulsion " Method. — A small quantity of
the substance is weighed into a tube, of the form shown in fig. 4,
which has a capacity of about 35 cc., provided with a capillary tube
at the top, and a bent tube about 6 mm. in diameter at the bottom.
The vessel is completely filled with mercury, the capillary
sealed, and the vessel weighed. The vessel is then lowered
into a jacket containing vapour at a known temperature
which is sufficient to volatilize the substance. Mercury is
expelled, and when this expulsion ceases, the vessel is
removed, allowed to cool, and weighed. It is necessary to
determine the pressure exerted on the vapour by the
mercury in the narrow limb; this is effected by opening
the capillary and inclining the tube until the mercury just
reaches the top of the narrow tube; the difference between FIG. 4.
the height of the mercury in the wide tube and the top of
the narrow tube represents the pressure due to the mercury column,
and this must be added to the barometric pressure in order to
deduce the total pressure on the vapour.

The result is calculated by means of the formula :
n W( i +q<)X 7,980,000

in which W = weight of substance taken; / = temperature of vapour
bath; 0 = 0-00366 = temperature coefficient of gases; p = baro-
metric pressure; p\ — height of mercury column in vessel; s =
vapour tension of mercury at t° ; m = weight of mercury contained in
the vessel; mi = weight of mercury left in vessel after heating;
(S = coefficient of expansion of glass = -0000303 ; y = coefficient of
expansion of mercury =0-00018 (0-00019 above 240°) (see Ber. 1877,
10, p. 2068; 1886, 19, p. 1862).

2. Meyer's Wood's Alloy Expulsion Method. — This method is a
modification of the one just described. The alloy used is composed
of 15 parts of bismuth, 8 of lead, 4 of tin and 3 of cadmium; it
melts at 70°, and can be experimented with as readily as mercury.
The cylindrical vessel is replaced by a globular one, and the pressure
on the vapour due to the column of alloy in the side tube is readily
reduced to millimetres of mercury since the specific gravity of the
alloy at the temperature of boiling sulphur, 444° (at which the
apparatus is most frequently used), is two-thirds of

that of mercury (see Ber. 1876, 9, p. 1220).

3. Meyer's Air Expulsion Method. — The simplicity,
moderate accuracy, and adaptability of this method
to every class of substance which can be vaporized
entitles it to rank as one of the most potent methods
in analytical chemistry; its invention is indissolubly
connected with the name of Victor M eyer, being termed
" Meyer's method " to the exclusion of his other
original methods. It consists in determining the
air expelled from a vessel by the vapour of a given
quantity of the substance. The apparatus is shown
in fig. 5. A long tube (a) terminates at the bottom in
a cylindrical chamber of about 100-150 cc. capacity.
The top is fitted with a rubber stopper, or in some
forms with a stop-cock, while a little way down there
is a bent delivery tube (b). To use the apparatus, the
long tube is placed in a vapour bath (c) of the requisite
temperature, and after the air within the tube is in
equilibrium, the delivery tube is placed beneath the
surface of the water in a pneumatic trough, the rubber
stopper pushed home, and observation made as to FIG. 5.
whether any more air is being expelled. If this be not

so, a graduated tube (d) is filled with water, and inverted over the
delivery tube. The rubber stopper is removed and the experimental
substance introduced, and the stopper quickly replaced to the same
extent as before. Bubbles are quickly disengaged and collect in the

48

DENSITY

graduated tube. Solids may be directly admitted to the tube from
a weighing bottle, while liquids are conveniently introduced by
means of small stoppered bottles, or, in the case of exceptionally
volatile liquids, by means of a bulb blown on a piece of thin
capillary tube, the tube being sealed during the weighing operation,
and the capillary broken just before transference to the ap-
paratus. To prevent the bottom of the apparatus being knocked
out by the impact of the substance, a layer of sand, asbestos or
sometimes mercury is placed in the tube. To complete the experi-
ment, the graduated tube containing the expelled air is brought
to a constant and determinate temperature and pressure, and this
volume is the volume which the given weight of the substance
would occupy if it were a gas under the same temperature and
pressure. The vapour density is calculated by the following formula :
— _ W(l + aQ X 587,780

in which W = weight of substance taken, V = volume of air expelled,
a — 1/273 = -003665, t and p = temperature and pressure at which
expelled air is measured, and s = vapour pressure of water at t°.

By varying the material of the bulb, this apparatus is rendered
available for exceptionally high temperatures. Vapour baths of iron
are used in connexion with boiling anthracene (335°), anthraquinone
e^ (368°),sulphur(444°),phosphoruspentasulphide(5i8°);

molten lead may also be used. For higher tempera-
tures the bulb of the vapour density tube is made of
porcelain or platinum, and is heated in a gas furnace.

(40) Hofmann's Method. — Both the modus operandi
and apparatus employed in this method particularly
recommend its use for substances which do not react
on mercury and which boil in a vacuum at below 310°.
The apparatus (fig. 6) consists of a barometer tube,
containing mercury and standing in a bath of the same
metal, surrounded by a vapour jacket. The vapour is
circulated through the jacket, and the height of the
mercury read by a cathetometer or otherwise. The sub-
stance is weighed into a small stoppered bottle, which
is then placed beneath the mouth of the barometer tube.
It ascends the tube, the substance is rapidly volatilized,
and the mercury column is depressed ; this depression
is read off. It is necessary to know the volume of the
tube above the second level ; this may most efficiently
be determined by calibrating the tube prior to its use.
Sir T. E. Thorpe employed a barometer tube 96 cm.
long, and determined the volume from the closed end
for a distance of about 35 mm. by weighing in mercury ;
below this mark it was calibrated in the ordinary way so that a scale
reading gave the volume at once. The calculation is effected by the
following formulae: —

1-0036650

FIG. 6.

0-0012934 XVXB

*,__ lit

',+*

1+0-00018/1 \i +0-00018/2 1+0-00018*
in which w = weight of substance taken; / = temperature of vapour
jacket ; V = volume of vapour at / ; h = height of barometer reduced
to o°; /; =temperature of air; hi = height of mercury column below
vapour jacket; fe = temperature of mercury column not heated by
vapour; hi = height of mercury column within vapour jacket; s =
vapour tension of mercury at /°. The vapour tension of mercury
need not be taken into account when water is used in the jacket.

(46) Demuth and Meyer's Method. — The principle of this method
is as follows: — In the ordinary air expulsion method, the vapour
always mixes to some extent with the air in the tube, and this in-
volves a reduction of the pressure of the vapour. It is obvious that
this reduction may be increased by accelerating the diffusion of the
vapour. This may be accomplished by using a vessel with a some-
what wide bottom, and inserting the substance so that it may be
volatilized very rapidly, as, for example, in tubes of Wood's alloy,
_ and by filling the tube with hydrogen. (For further

details see Ber. 23, p. 311.)

We may here notice a modification of Meyer's
r-*, process in which the increase of pressure due to the
*• •* volatilization of the substance, and not the volume
of the expelled air, is measured. This method has
been developed by J. S. Lumsden (Jcurn. Chem.
Soc. 1903, 83, p. 342), whose apparatus is shown
diagrammatically in fig. 7. The vaporizing bulb
A has fused about it a jacket B, provided with a
condenser c. Two side tubes are fused on to the
neck of A : the lower one leads to a mercury mano-
meter M, and to the air by means of a cock C ; the
upper tube is provided with a rubber stopper
through which a glass rod passes — this rod serves
FlG. 7. to support the tube containing the substance to be
experimented upon, and so avoids the objection to
the practice of withdrawing the stopper of the tube, dropping the
substance in, and reinserting the stopper. To use the apparatus, a
liquid of suitable boiling-point is placed in the jacket and brought
to the boiling-point. All parts of the apparatus are open to the air,
and the mercury in the manometer is adjusted so as to come to a

fixed mark a. The substance is now placed on the support already
mentioned, and the apparatus closed to the air by inserting the
cork at D and turning the cock C. By turning or withdrawing
the support the substance enters the bulb; and! during its vapori-
zation the free limb of the manometer is raised so as to maintain
the mercury at a. When the volatilization is quite complete, the
level is accurately adjusted, and the difference of the levels of the
mercury gives the pressure exerted by the vapour. To calculate the
result it is necessary to know the capacity of the apparatus to the
mark a, and the temperature of the jacket.

Methods depending on the Principles of Hydrostatics. — Hydro-
statical principles can be applied to density determinations in four
typical ways: (l) depending upon the fact that the heights of liquid
columns supported by the same pressure vary inversely as the
densities of the liquids ; (2) depending upon the fact that a body which
sinks in a liquid loses a weight equal to the weight of liquid which
it displaces; (3) depending on the fact that a body remains sus-
pended, neither floating nor sinking, in a liquid of exactly the same
density; (4) depending on the fact that a floating body is immersed
to such an extent that the weight of the fluid displaced equals the
weight of the body.

1. The method of balancing columns is of limited use. Two forms
are recognized. In one, applicable only to liquids which do not mix,
the two liquids are poured into the limbs of a U tube. The heights
of the columns above the surface of junction of the liquids are in-
versely proportional to the densities of the liquids. In the second
form, named after Robert Hare (1781-1858), professor of chemistry
at the university of Pennsylvania, the liquids are drawn or aspirated
up vertical tubes which have their lower ends placed in reservoirs
containing the different liquids, and their upper ends connected to a
common tube which is in communication with an aspirator for
decreasing the pressure within the vertical tubes. The heights to
which the liquids rise, measured in each case by the distance between
the surfaces in the reservoirs and in the tubes, are inversely pro-
portional to the densities.

2. The method of " hydrostatic weighing " is one of the most
important. The principle may be thus stated : the solid is weighed
in air, and then in water. If W be the weight in air, and Wi the
weight in water, then Wi is always less than W, the difference W-W,
representing the weight of the water displaced, i.e. the weight of a
volume of water equal to that of the solid. Hence W/(W-Wi) is the
relative density or specific gravity of the body. The principle is
readily adapted to the determination of the relative densities of two
liquids, for it is obvious that if W be the weight of a solid body in air,
Wi and W2 its weights when immersed in the liquids, then W-Wi
and W-Wz are the weights of equal volumes of the liquids, and
therefore the relative density is the quotient (W-Wi)/(W-Ws).
The determination in the case of solids lighter than water is effected
by the introduction of a sinker i.e. a body which when affixed to the
light solid causes it to sink. I" W be the weight of the experimental
solid in air, w the weight of the sinker in water, and Wi the weight of
the solid plus sinker in water, then the relative density is given by
W/(W+w-Wi). In practice the solid or plummet is suspended
from the balance arm by a fibre — silk, platinum, &c. — and carefully
weighed. A small stool is then placed over the balance pan, and on
this is placed a beaker of distilled water so that the solid is totally
immersed. Some balances are provided with a " specific gravity
pan," i.e. a pan with short suspending arms, provided with a hook
at the bottom to which the fibre may be attached ; when this is so,
the stool is unnecessary. Any air bubbles are removed from the
surface of the body by brushing with a camel-hair brush; if the
solid be of a porous nature it is desirable to boil it for some time in
water, thus expelling the air from its interstices. The weighing is
conducted in the usual way by vibrations, except when the weight
be small ; it is then advisable to bring the pointer to zero, an opera-
tion rendered necessary by the damping due to the adhesion of water
to the fibre. The temperature and pressure of the air and water
must also be taken.

There are several corrections of the formula A = W/(W-Wi)
necessary to the accurate expression of the density. Here we can
only summarize the points of the investigation. It may be assumed
that the weighing is made with brass weights in air at /° and p mm.
pressure. To determine the true weight in vacua at o°, account
must be taken of the different buoyancies, or losses of true weight,
due to the different volumes of the solids and weights. Similarly
in the case of the weighing in water, account must be taken of the
buoyancy of the weights, and also, if absolute densities be required,
of the density of water at the temperature of the experiment. In a
form of great accuracy the absolute density A(o°/4°) is given by

A(o°/4°) = (poW-5Wi)/(W-Wi),

in which W is the weight of the body in air at t° and p mm. pressure,
Wi the weight in water, atmospheric conditions remaining very
nearly the same ; p is the density of the water in which the body is
weighed, a is (l+o/°) in which a is the coefficient of cubical
expansion of the body, and S is the density of the air at t°, p mm.
Less accurate formulae are A = p W/(W-Wi), the factor involving
the density of the air, and the coefficient of the expansion of the
solid being disregarded, and A = W/(W-Wi), in which the density
of water is taken as unity. Reference may be made to J. Wade and
R. W. Merriman, Journ. Chem. Soc. 1909, 95, p. 2174.

DENTATUS

49

FIG. 8.

The determination of the density of a liquid by weighing a
plummet in air, and in the standard and experimental liquids,

has been put into a very
convenient laboratory form
by means of the apparatus
known as a Westphal balance
' (fig. 8). It consists of a steel-
yard mounted on a fulcrum;
one arm carries at its extrem-
ity a heavy bob and pointer,
the latter moving along a scale
affixed to the stand and serv-
ing to indicate when the beam
is in its standard position.
The other arm is graduated
in ten divisions and carries
riders — bent pieces of wire of
determined weights — and at
its extremity a hook from
which the glass plummet is
suspended. To complete the
apparatus there is a glass jar which serves to hold the liquid
experimented with. The apparatus is so designed that when the
plummet is suspended in air, the index of the beam is at the zero
of the scale; if this be not so, then it is adjusted by a levelling
screw. The plummet is now placed in distilled water at 15°, and the
beam brought to equilibrium by means of a rider, which we shall call
I, hung on a hook; other riders are provided, ^th and ji0th respec-
tively of I. To determine the density of any liquid it is only neces-
sary to suspend the plummet in the liquid, and to bring the beam
to its normal position by means of the riders; the relative density is
read off directly from the riders.

3. Methods depending on the free suspension of the solid in a
liquid of the same density have been especially studied by Retgers
and Gossner in view of their applicability to density determinations
of crystals. Two typical forms are in use; in one a liquid is pre-
pared in which the crystal freely swims, the density of the liquid
being ascertained by the pycnometer or other methods; in the other
a liquid of variable density, the so-called " diffusion column," is
prepared, and observation is made of the level at which the particle
comes to rest. The first type is in commonest use; since both
necessitate the use of dense liquids, a summary of the media of most
value, with their essential properties, will be given.

Acetylene tetrabromide, C2H2Br<, which is very conveniently
prepared by passing acetylene into cooled bromine, has a density
of 3-001 at 6° C. It is highly convenient, since it is colourless,
odourless, very stable and easily mobile. It may be diluted with
benzene or toluene.

Methylene iodide, CH2I2, has a density of 3-33, and may be diluted
with benzene. Introduced by Brauns in 1886, it was recommended
by Retgers. Its advantages rest on its high density and mobility;
its main disadvantages are its liability to decomposition, the
originally colourless liquid becoming dark owing to the separation of
iodine, and its high coefficient of expansion. Its density may be
raised to 3-65 by dissolving iodoform and iodine in it.

Thoulct s solution, an aqueous solution of potassium and mercuric
iodides (potassium iodo-mercurate), introduced by Thoulet and
subsequently investigated by V. Goldschmidt, has a density of
3-196 at 22-9°. It is almost colourless and has a small coefficient of
expansion; its hygroscopic properties, its viscous character, and
its action on the skin, however, militate against its use. A. Duboin
(Compt. rend., 1905, p. 141) has investigated the solutions of mercuric
iodide in other alkaline iodides; sodium iodo-mercurate solution has
a density of 3-46 at 26°, and gives with an excess of water a dense
precipitate of mercuric iodide, which dissolves without decomposition
in alcohol; lithium iodo-mercurate solution has a density of 3-28
at 25-6°; and ammonium iodo-mercurate solution a density of
2-98 at 26°.

Rohrbach's solution, an aqueous solution of barium and mercuric
iodides, jntroduced by Carl Rohrbach, has a density of 3-588.

Klein's solution, an aqueous solution of cadmium borotungstate,
2Cd(OH)2-B2O3-9WCVi6H2O, introduced by D. Klein, has a
density up to 3-28. The salt melts in its water of crystallization at
75°, and the liquid thus obtained goes up to a density of 3-6.

Silver -thallium nitrate^, TIAg(NO3)2, introduced by Retgers, melts
at 75° to form a clear liquid of density 4-8; it may be diluted with
water.

The method of using these liquids is in all cases the same; a
particle is dropped in; if it floats a diluent is added and the mixture
well stirred. This is continued until the particle freely swims,
and then the density of the mixture is determined by the ordinary
methods (see MINERALOGY).

In_the "diffusion column" method, a liquid column uniformly
varying in density from about 3-3 to I is prepared by pouring a little
methylene iodide into a long test tube and adding five times as much
benzene. The tube is tightly corked to prevent evaporation, and
allowed to stand for some hours. The density of the column at any
level is determined by means of the areometrical beads proposed by
Alexander Wilson (1714-1786), professor of astronomy at Glasgow
University. These are hollow glass beads of variable density;

they may be prepared by melting off pieces of very thin capillary
tubing, and determining the density in each case by the method just
previously described. To use the column, the experimental fragment
is introduced, when it takes up a definite position. By successive
trials two beads, of known density, say dt, d,, are obtained, one of
which floats above, and the other below, the test crystal; the
distances separating the beads from the crystal are determined by
means of a scale placed behind the tube. If the bead of density d\
be at the distance I, above the crystal, and that of d, at ^ below,
it is obvious that if the density of the column varies uniformly, then
the density of the test crystal is (dJ/2+<Wi)/(A+/2).

Acting on a principle quite different from any previously dis-
cussed is the capillary hydrometer or staktometer of Brewster,
which is based upon the difference in the surface tension and
density of pure water, and of mixtures of alcohol and water in varying
proportions.

If a drop of water be allowed to form at the extremity of a fine
tube, it will go on increasing until its weight overcomes the surface
tension by which it clings to the tube, and then it will
fall. Hence any impurity which diminishes the surface
tension of the water will diminish the size of the drop
(unless the density is proportionately diminished).
According to Quincke, the surface tension of pure water
in contact with air at 20° C. is 8 1 dynes per linear centi-
metre, while that of alcohol is only 25-5 dynes; and a
small percentage of aldohol produces much more than a
proportional decrease in the surface tension when added
to pure water. The capillary hydrometer consists simply
of a small pipette with a bulb in the middle of the stem,
the pipette terminating in a very fine capillary point.
The instrument being filled with distilled water, the
number of drops required to empty the bulb and
portions of the stem between two marks m and n (fig. 9)
on the latter is carefully counted, and the experiments
repeated at different temperatures. The pipette having
been carefully dried, the process is repeated with pure
alcohol or with proof spirits, and the strength of any
admixture of water and spirits is determined from the
corresponding number of drops, but the formula generally pJG „
given is not based upon sound data. Sir David Brewster Brewster's
found with one of these instruments that the number Stakto-
of drops of pure water was 734, while of proof spirit, meter
sp. gr. 920, the number was 2117.

REFERENCES. — Density and density determinationsarediscussed in
all works on practical physics; reference may be made to B. Stewart
and W. W. Haldane Gee, Practical Physics, vol. i. (1901); Kohl-
rausch, Practical Physics; Ostwald, Physico- Chemical Measure-
ments. The density of gases is treated in M. W. Travers, The Ex-
perimental Study of Gases (1901) ; and vapour density determinations
in Lassar-Cohn's Arbeitsmeihoden fur organisch-chemische Labora-
tctien (1901), and Manual of Organic Chemistry (1896), and in
H. Biltz, Practical Methods for determining Molecular Weights
(1899). (C. E.*)

DENTATUS, MANIUS CURIUS, Roman general, conqueror of
the Samnites and Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, was born of humble
parents, and was possibly of Sabine origin. He is said to have
been called Dentatus because he was born with his teeth already
grown (Pliny, Nat. Hist. vii. 15). Except that he was tribune of
the people, nothing certain is known of him until his first consul-
ship in 290 B.C. when, in conjunction with his colleague
P. Cornelius Rufinus, he gained a decisive victory over the
Samnites, which put an end to a war that had lasted fifty years.
He also reduced the revolted Sabines to submission; a large
portion of their territory was distributed among the Roman
citizens, and the most important towns received the citizenship
without the right of voting for magistrates (cimlas sine sufragio).
With the proceeds of the spoils of the war Dentatus cut an
artificial channel to carry off the waters of Lake Velinus, so as to
drain the valley of Reate. In 275, after Pyrrhus had returned
from Sicily to Italy, Dentatus (again consul) took the field
against him. The decisive engagement took place near Bene-
ventum in the Campi Arusini, and resulted in the total defeat of
Pyrrhus. Dentatus celebrated a magnificent triumph, in which
for the first time a number of captured elephants were exhibited.
Dentatus was consul for the third time in 274, when he finally
crushed the Lucanians and Samnites, and censor in 272. In the
latter capacity he began to build an aqueduct to carry the waters
of the Anio into the city, but died (270) before its completion.
Dentatus was looked upon as a model of old Roman simplicity
and frugality. According to the well-known anecdote, when the
Samnites sent ambassadors with costly presents to induce him
to exercise his influence on their behalf in the senate, they found

DENTIL— DENTISTRY

him sitting on the hearth and preparing his simple meal of roasted
turnips. He refused their gifts, saying that earthen dishes were
good enough for him, adding that he preferred ruling those who
possessed gold to possessing it himself. It is also said that he
died so poor that the state was obliged to provide dowries for his
daughters. But these and similar anecdotes must be received
with caution, and it should be remembered that what was a
competence in his day would have been considered poverty by
the Romans of later times.

Livy, epitome, 11-14; Polybius ii. 19; Eutropius ii. 9, 14;
Florus i. 18 ; Val. Max. iv. 3, 5, vi. 3, 4 ; Cicero, De senectute, 16 ;
Juvenal xi. 78 ; Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 25.

DENTIL (from Lat. dens, a tooth), in architecture, a small
tooth-shaped block used as a repeating ornament in the bed-
mould of a cornice. Vitruvius (iv. 2) states that the dentil
represents the end of a rafter (asser) ; and since it occurs in its
most pronounced form in the Ionic temples of Asia Minor, the
Lycian tombs and the porticoes and tombs of Persia, where
it represents distinctly the reproduction in stone of timber
construction, there is but little doubt as to its origin. The earliest
example is that found on the tomb of Darius, c. 500 B.C., cut in the
rock in which the portico of his palace is reproduced. Its first
employment in Athens is in the cornice of the caryatid portico
or tribune of the Erechtheum (480 B.C.). When subsequently
introduced into the bed-mould of the cornice of the choragic
monument of Lysicrates it is much smaller in its dimensions.
In the later temples of Ionia, as in the temple of Priene, the larger
scale of the dentil is still retained. As a general rule the pro-
jection of the dentil is equal to its width, and the intervals
between to half the width. In some cases the projecting band
has never had the sinkings cut into it to divide up the dentils,
as_in the Pantheon at Rome, and it is then called a dentil-band.
The dentil was the chief decorative feature employed in the bed-
mould by the Romans and the Italian Revivalists. In the porch
of the church of St John Studius at Constantinople, the dentil
and the interval between are equal in width, and the interval
is splayed back from top to bottom; this is the form it takes in
what is known as the" Venetian dentil," which was copied from
the Byzantine dentil in Santa Sophia, Constantinople. There,
however, it no longer formed part of a bed-mould: its use at
Santa Sophia was to decorate the projecting moulding enclosing
the encrusted marbles, and the dentils were cut alternately on
both sides of the moulding. The Venetian dentil was also intro-
duced as a label round arches and as a string course.

DENTISTRY (from Lat. dens, a tooth), a special department
of medical science, embracing the structure, function and
therapeutics of the mouth and its contained organs,
sketchf* specifically the teeth, together with their surgical and
prosthetic treatment. (For the anatomy of the teeth
see TEETH.) As a distinct vocation it is first alluded to by
Herodotus (500 B.C.). There are evidences that at an earlier
date the Egyptians and Hindus attempted to replace lost teeth
by attaching wood or ivory substitutes to adjacent sound teeth
by means of threads or wires, but the gold fillings reputed to
have been found in the teeth of Egyptian mummies have upon
investigation been shown to be superficial applications of gold
leaf for ornamental purposes. The impetus given to medical
study in the Grecian schools by the followers of Aesculapius
and especially Hippocrates (500 to 400 B.C.) developed among the
practitioners of medicine and surgery considerable knowledge of
.dentistry. Galen (A.D. 131) taught that the teeth were true bones
existing before birth, and to him is credited the belief that the
upper canine teeth receive branches from the nerve which supplies
the eye, and hence should be called " eye-teeth." Abulcasis
(loth cent. A.D.) describes the operation by which artificial crowns
are attached to adjacent sound teeth. Vesalius (1514), Ambroise
Par6, J. J. Scaliger, T. Kerckring, M. Malpighi, and lesser
anatomists of the same period contributed dissertations which
threw some small amount of light upon the structure and
functions of the teeth. The operation of transplanting teeth is
usually attributed to John Hunter (1728-1793), who practised it
extensively, and gave to it additional prominence by transplanting

a human tooth to the comb of a cock, but the operation was
alluded to by Ambroise Par6 (1509-1590), and there is evidence
to show that it was practised even earlier. A. von Leeuwenhoek
in 1678 described with much accuracy the tubular structure of
the dentine, thus making the most important contribution to
the subject which had appeared up to that time. Until the latter
part of the i8th century extraction was practically the only
operation for the cure of toothache.

The early contributions of France exerted a controlling influ-
ence upon the development of dental practice. UrbainHe'mard,
surgeon to the cardinal Georges of Arm^gnac, whom Dr Blake
(1801) calls an ingenious surgeon and a great man, published in
1582 his Researches upon the Anatomy of the Teeth, their Nature
and Properties. Of Hemard, M. Fauchard says: " This surgeon
had read Greek and Latin authors, whose writings he has judici-
ously incorporated in his own works." In 1728 Fauchard, who
has been called the father of modern dentistry, published his
celebrated work, entitled Le Chirurgien Dentiste ou traite des
dents. The preface contains the following statement as to the
existing status of dental art and science in France, which might
have been applied with equal truth to any other European
country: — " The most celebrated surgeons having abandoned
this branch of surgery, or having but little cultivated it, their
negligence gave rise to a class of persons who, without theoretic
knowledge or experience, and without being qualified, practised
it at hazard, having neither principles nor system. It was only
since the year 1 700 that the intelligent in Paris opened their eyes
to these abuses, when it was provided that those who intended
practising dental surgery should submit to an examination by
men learned in all the branches of medical science, who should
decide upon their merits." After the publication of Fauchard 's
work the practice of dentistry became more specialized and
distinctly separated from medical practice, the best exponents
of the art being trained as apprentices by practitioners of ability,
who had acquired their training in the same way from their
predecessors. Fauchard suggested porcelain as an improvement
upon bone and ivory for the manufacture of artificial teeth, a
suggestion which he obtained from R. A. F. de Reaumur, the
French savant and physicist, who was a contributor to the royal
porcelain manufactory at Sevres. Later, Duchateau, an apothe-
cary of St Germain, made porcelain teeth, and communicated his
discovery to the Academy of Surgery in 1 7 76, but kept the process
secret. Du Bois Ch6mant carried the art to England, and the
process was finally made public by M. Du Bois Foucou. M. Fonzi
improved the art to such an extent that the Athenaeum of Arts
in Paris awarded him a medal and crown (March 14, 1808).

In Great Britain the igth century brought the dawning of
dental science. The work of Dr Blake in 1801 on the anatomy
of the teeth was distinctly in advance of anything previously
written on the subject. Joseph Fox was one of the first members
of the medical profession to devote himself exclusively to dentistry,
and his work is a repository of the best practice of his time.
The processes described, though comparatively crude, involve
principles in use at the present time. Thomas Bell, the successor
of Fox as lecturer on the structure and disease of the teeth at
Guy's Hospital, published his well-known work in 1829. About
this period numerous publications on dentistry made their appear-
ance, notably those of Koecker, Johnson and Waite, followed
somewhat later by the admirable work of Alexander Nasmyth
(1839). By this time Cuvier, Serres, Rousseau, Berlin, Herissant
and others in France had added to the knowledge of human
and comparative dental anatomy, while M. G. Retzius, of Sweden,
and E. H. Weber, J. C. Rosenmuller, Schreger, J. E. von Purkinje,
B. Fraenkel and J. Miiller in Germany were carrying forward the
same lines of research. The sympathetic nervous relationships
of the teeth with other parts of the body, and the interaction of
diseases of the teeth with general pathological conditions, were
clearly established. Thus a scientific foundation was laid, and
dentistry came to be practised as a specialty of medicine. Certain
minor operations, however, such as the extraction of teeth and
the stopping of caries in an imperfect way, were still practised by
barbers, and the empirical practice of dentistry, especially of

DENTISTRY

those operations which were almost wholly mechanical, had
developed a considerable body of dental artisans who, though
without medical education in many cases, possessed a high
degree of manipulative skill. Thus there came to be two classes
of practitioners, the first regarding dentistry as a specialty of
medicine, the latter as a distinct and separate calling.

In America representatives of both classes of dentists began
to arrive from England and France about the time of the Revolu-
tion. Among these were John Wooffendale (1766), a student of
Robert Berdmore of Liverpool, surgeon-dentist to George III.;
James Gardette (1778), a French physician and surgeon; and
Joseph Lemaire (1781), a French dentist who went out with the
army of Count Rochambeau. During the winter of 1781-1782,
while the Continental army was in winter quarters at Providence,
Rhode Island, Lemaire found time and opportunity to practise
his calling, and also to instruct one or two persons, notably
Josiah Flagg, probably the first American dentist. Dental
practice was thus established upon American soil, where it has
produced such fertile results.

Until well into the igth century apprenticeship afforded the
only means of acquiring a knowledge of dentistry. 'The profits
derived from the apprenticeship system fostered secrecy and
quackery among many of the early practitioners; but the more
liberal minded and better educated of the craft developed an
increasing opposition to these narrow methods. In 1837 a local
association of dentists was formed in New York, and in
J^4° a nati°nal association, The American Society of
Dental Surgeons, the object of which was " to advance
the science by free communication and interchange of senti-
ments." The first dental periodical in the world, The American
Journal of Dental Science, was issued in June 1839, and in
November 1840 was established the Baltimore College of Dental
Surgery, the first college in the world for the systematic education
of dentists. Thus the year 1830-1840 marks the birth of the
three factors essential to professional growth in dentistry. All
this, combined with the refusal of the medical schools to furnish
the desired facilities for dental instruction, placed dentistry for
the time being upon a footing entirely separate from general
medicine. Since then the curriculum of study preparatory to
dental practice has been systematically increased both as to" its
content and length, until in all fundamental principles it is
practically equal to that required for the training of medical
specialists, and in addition includes the technical subjects
peculiar to dentistry. In England, and to some extent upon
the continent, the old apprenticeship system is retained as an
adjunct to the college course, but it is rapidly dying out, as it has
already done in America. Owing to the regulation by law of the
educational requirements, the increase of institutions devoted
to the professional training of dentists has been rapid in all
civilized countries, and during the past twenty years especially
so in the United States. Great Britain possesses upwards of
twelve institutions for dental instruction, France two, Germany
and Switzerland six, all being based upon the conception that
dentistry is a department of general medicine. In the United
States there were in 1878 twelve dental schools, with about
700 students; in 1907 there were fifty-seven schools, with 6919
students. Of these fifty-seven schools, thirty-seven are depart-
ments of universities or of medical institutions, and there is a
growing tendency to regard dentistry from its educational aspect as
a special department of the general medical and surgical practice.
Recent studies have shown that besides being an important
part of the digestive system, the mouth sustains intimate re-
lationship with the general nervous system, and is important as
the portal of entrance for the majority of the bacteria that cause
specific diseases. This fact has rendered more intimate the
relations between dentistry and the general practice of medicine,
and has given a powerful impetus to scientific studies in dentistry.
Through the researches of Sir J. Tomes, Mummery,
Hopewell Smith, Williams and others in England,
O. Hertwig, Weil and Rose in Germany, Andrews, Sudduth
and Black in America, the minute anatomy and embryology of
the dental tissues have been worked out with great fulness and

Research.

precision. In particular, it has been demonstrated that certain
general systemic diseases have a distinct oral expression. Through
their extensive nervous connexions with the largest of the cranial
nerves and with the sympathetic nervous system, the teeth
frequently cause irritation resulting in profound reflex nervous
phenomena, which are curable only by removal of the local tooth
disorder. Gout, lithaemia, scurvy, rickets, lead and mercurial
poisoning, and certain forms of chronic nephritis, produce dental
and oral lesions which are either pathognomonic or strongly
indicative of their several constitutional causes, and are thus of
great importance in diagnosis. The most important dental re-
search of modern times is that which was carried out by Professor
W. D. Miller of Berlin (1884) upon the cause of caries of the teeth,
a disease said to affect the human race more extensively than any
other. Miller demonstrated that, as previous observers had
suspected, caries is of bacterial origin, and that acids play an
important r61e in the process. The disease is brought about by
a group of bacteria which develop in the mouth, growing natur-
ally upon the debris of starchy or carbohydrate food, producing
fermentation of the mass, with lactic acid as the end product.
The lactic acid dissolves the mineral constituent of the tooth
structure, calcium phosphate, leaving the organic matrix of the
tooth exposed. Another class of germs, the peptonising and
putrefactive bacteria, then convert the organic matter into liquid
or gaseous end products. The accuracy of the conclusions ob-
tained from his analytic research was synthetically proved, after
the manner of Koch, by producing the disease artificially. Caries
of the teeth has been shown to bear highly important relation to
more remote or systemic diseases. Exposure and death of the
dental pulp furnishes an avenue of entrance for disease-producing
bacteria, by which invasion of the deeper tissues may readily
take place, causing necrosis, tuberculosis, actinomycosis,
phlegmon and other destructive inflammations, certain of which,
affecting the various sinuses of the head, have been found to
cause meningitis, chronic empyema, metastatic abscesses in
remote parts of the body, paralysis, epilepsy and insanity.

Operative Dentistry. — The art of dentistry is usually divided
arbitrarily into operative dentistry, the purpose of which is to
preserve as far as possible the teeth and associated tissues, and
prosthetic dentistry, the purpose of which is to supply the loss of
teeth by artificial substitutes. The filling of carious
cavities was probably first performed with lead, sug-
gested apparently by an operation recorded by Celsus
(100 B.C.), who recommended that frail or decayed teeth be
stuffed with lead previous to extraction, in order that they might
not break under the forceps. The use of lead as a filling was
sufficiently prevalent in France during the I7th century to bring
into use the word plombage, which is still occasionally applied in
that country to the operation of filling. Gold as a filling material
came into general use about the beginning of the igth century.1
The earlier preparations of gold were so impure as to be virtually
without cohesion, so that they were of use only in cavities which
had sound walls for its retention. In the form of rolls or tape it
was forced into the previously cleaned and prepared cavity, con-
densed with instruments under heavy hand pressure, smoothed
with files, and finally burnished. Tin foil was also used to a
limited extent and by the same method. Improvements in the
refining of gold for dental use brought the product to a fair degree
of purity, and, about 1855, led to the invention by Dr Robert
Arthur of Baltimore of a method by which it could be welded
firmly within the cavity. The cohesive properties of the foil
were developed by passing it through an alcohol flame, which
dispelled its surface contaminations. The gold was then welded
piece by piece into a homogeneous mass by plugging instruments
with serrated points. In this process of cold- weld ing, the mallet,
hitherto in only limited use, was found more efficient than hand
pressure, and was rapidly developed. The primitive mallet of
wood, ivory, lead or steel, was supplanted by a mallet in which

1 The filling of teeth with gold foil is recorded in the oldest known
book'pn dentistry, Artzney Buchlein, published anonymously in 1530,
in which the operation is quoted from Mesue (A.D. 857), physician to
the caliph Haroun al-Raschid.

DENTISTRY

a hammer was released automatically by a spring condensed by
pressure of the operator's hand. Then followed mallets operated
by pneumatic pressure, by the dental engine, and finally by the
electro-magnet, as utilized in 1867 by Bonwill. These devices
greatly facilitated the operation, and made possible a partial
or entire restoration of the tooth-crown in conformity with
anatomical lines.

The dental engine in its several forms is the outgrowth of the
simple drill worked by the hand of the operator. It is used in
removing decayed structure and for shaping the cavity for
inserting the filling. From time to time its usefulness has been
extended, so that it is now used for finishing fillings and polishing
them, for polishing the teeth, removing deposits from them and
changing their shapes. Its latest development, the dento- surgical
engine, is of heavier construction and is adapted to operations
upon all of the bones, a recent addition to its equipment being the
spiral osteotome of Cryer, by which, with a minimum shock to
the patient, fenestrae of any size or shape in the brain-case may
be made, from a simple trepanning operation to the more ex-
tensive openings required in intra-cranial operations. The rotary
power' may be supplied by the foot of the operator, or by
hydraulic or electric motors. The rubber dam invented by
S. C. Barnum of New York (1864) provided a means for protecting
the field of operations from the oral fluids, and extended the scope
of operations even to the entire restoration of tooth-crowns with
cohesive gold foil. Its value has been found to be even greater
than was at first anticipated. In all operations involving the
exposed dental pulp or the pulp-chamber and root-canals, it is
the only efficient method of mechanically protecting the field of
operation from invasion by disease-producing bacteria.

The difficulty and annoyance attending the insertion of gold,
its high thermal conductivity, and its objectionable colour have
led to an increasing use of amalgam, guttapercha, and cements
of zinc oxide mixed with zinc chloride or phosphoric acid.
Recently much attention has been devoted to restorations with
porcelain. A piece of platinum foil of -ooi inch thickness is
burnished and pressed into the cavity, so that a matrix is pro-
duced exactly fitting the cavity. Into this matrix is placed a
mixture of powdered porcelain and water or alcohol, of the colour
to match the tooth. The mass is carefully dried and then fused
until homogeneous. Shrinkage is counteracted by additions of
porcelain powder, which are repeatedly fused until the whole
exactly fills the matrix. After cooling, the matrix is stripped
away and the porcelain is cemented into the cavity. When the
cement has hardened, the surface of the porcelain is ground
and polished to proper contour. If successfully made, porcelain
fillings are scarcely noticeable. Their durability remains to be
tested.

Until recent times the exposure of the dental pulp inevitably
led to its death and disintegration, and, by invasion of bacteria
via the pulp canal, set up an inflammatory process
Dental which eventually caused the loss of the entire tooth.
A rational system of therapeutics, in conjunction with
proper antiseptic measures, has made possible both
the conservative treatment of the dental pulp when exposed, and
the successful treatment of pulp-canals when the pulp has been
devitalized either by design or disease. The conservation of the
exposed pulp is affected by the operation of capping. In capping
a pulp, irritation is allayed by antiseptic and sedative treatment,
and a metallic cap, lined with a non-irritant sedative paste, is
applied under aseptic conditions immediately over the point
of pulp exposure. A filh'ng of cement is superimposed, and this,
after it has hardened, is covered with a metallic or other suitable
filling. The utility of arsenious acid for devitalizing the dental
pulp was discovered by J. R. Spooner of Montreal, and first
published in 1836 by his brother Shear jashub in his Guide to
Sound Teeth. The painful action of arsenic upon the pulp was
avoided by the addition of various sedative drugs, — morphia,
atropia, iodoform, &c., — and its use soon became universal. Of
late years it is being gradually supplanted by immediate surgical
extirpation under the benumbing effect of cocaine salts. By the
use of cocaine also the pain incident to excavating and shaping

of cavities in tooth structure may be controlled, especially when
the cocaine is driven into the dentine by means of an electric
current. To fill the pulp-chamber and canals of teeth after loss
of the pulp, all organic remains of pulp tissue should be removed
by sterilization, and then, in order to prevent the entrance of
bacteria, and consequent infection, the canals should be perfectly
filled. Upon the exclusion of infection depends the future
integrity and comfort of the tooth. Numberless methods have
been invented for the operation. Pulpless teeth are thus pre-
served through long periods of usefulness, and even those remains
of teeth in which the crowns have been lost are rendered com-
fortable and useful as supports for artificial crowns, and as
abutments for assemblages of crowns, known as bridge-work.

The discoloration of the pulpless tooth through putrefactive
changes in its organic matter were first overcome by bleaching
it with chlorine. Small quantities of calcium hypochlorite are
packed into the pulp-chamber and moistened with dilute acetic
acid; the decomposition of the calcium salt liberates chlorine in
situ, which restores the tooth to normal colour in a short time.
The cavity is afterwards washed out, carefully dried, lined with a
light-coloured cement and filled. More efficient bleaching agents
of recent introduction are hydrogen dioxide in a 25% solution
or a saturated solution of sodium peroxide; they are less irritating
and much rnore convenient in application. Unlike chlorine,
these do not form soluble metallic salts which may subsequently
discolour the tooth. Hydrogen dioxide may be carried into the
tooth structure by the electric current. In which case a current
of not less than forty volts controlled by a suitable graduated
resistance is applied with the patient in circuit, the anode being a
platinum-pointed electrode hi contact with the dioxide solution
in the tooth cavity, and the cathode a sponge or plate electrode
in contact with the hand or arm of the patient. The current is
gradually turned on until two or three milliamperes are indicated
by a suitable ammeter. The operation requires usually twenty to
thirty minutes.

Malposed teeth are not only unsightly but prone to disease, and
may be the cause of disease in other teeth, or of the associated
tissues. The impairment of function which their abnormal
position causes has been found to be the primary cause of
disturbances of the general bodily health; for example, enlarged
tonsils, chronic pharyngitis and nasal catarrh, indigestion
and malnutrition. By the use of springs, screws, vulcanized
caoutchouc bands, elastic ligatures, &c., as the case may require,
practically all forms of dental irregularity may be corrected, even
such protrusions and retrusions of the front teeth as cause great
disfigurement of the facial contour.

The extraction of teeth, an operation which until quite recent
times was one of the crudest procedures in minor surgery, has
been reduced to exactitude by improved instruments,
designed with reference to the anatomical relations of
the teeth and their alveoli, and therefore adapted to the
several classes of teeth. The operation has been rendered painless
by the use of anaesthetics. The anaesthetic generally employed
is nitrous oxide, or laughing-gas, the use of which was discovered
in 1844 by Horace Wells, a dentist of Hartford, Conn., U.S.A.
Chloroform and ether, as well as other general anaesthetics, have
been employed in extensive operations because of their more pro-
longed effect; but chloroform, especially, is dangerous, owing to
its effect upon the heart, which in many instances has suddenly
failed during the operation. Ether, while less manageable than
nitrous oxide, has been found to be practically devoid of danger.
The local injection of solutions of cocaine and allied anaesthetics
into the gum-tissue is extensively practised; but is attended with
danger, from the toxic effects of an overdose upon the heart, and
the local poisonous effect upon the tissues, which lead in numerous
cases to necrosis and extensive sloughing.

Dental Prosthesis. — The fastening of natural teeth or carved
substitutes to adjoining sound teeth by means of thread or wire
preceded their attachment to base-plates of carved xrt/flcfa,
wood, bone or ivory, which latter method was practised teeth.
until the introduction of swaged metallic plates. Where
the crown only of a tooth or those of several teeth were lost, the

DENTISTRY

53

restoration was effected by engrafting upon the prepared root a
suitable crown by means of a wooden or metallic pivot. When
possible, the new crown was that of a corresponding sound tooth
taken from the mouth of another individual; otherwise an
artificial crown carved from bone or ivory, or sometimes from the
tooth of an ox, was used. To replace entire dentures a base-plate
of carved hippopotamus ivory was constructed, upon which were
mounted the crowns of natural teeth, or later those of porcelain.
The manufacture of a denture of this character was tedious and
uncertain, and required much skill. The denture was kept in
place by spiral springs attached to the buccal sides of the appliance
above and below, which caused pressure upon both jaws, necessi-
tating a constant effort upon the part of the unfortunate wearer.
to keep it in place. Metallic swaged plates were introduced in
the latter part of the i8th century. An impression of the gums
was taken in wax, from which a cast was made in plaster of
Paris. With this as a model, a metallic die of brass or zinc was
prepared, upon which the plate of gold or silver was formed, and
then swaged into contact with the die by means of a female die or
counter-die of lead. The process is essentially the same to-day,
with the addition of numerous improvements in detail, which
have brought it to a high degree of perfection. The discovery, by
Gardette of Philadelphia in 1800, of the utility of atmospheric
pressure in keeping artificial dentures in place led to the abandon-
ment of spiral springs. A later device for enhancing the stability
is the vacuum chamber, a central depression in the upper surface
of the plate, which, when exhausted of air by the wearer, materi-
ally increases the adhesion. The metallic base-plate is used also
for supporting one or more artificial teeth, being kept in place
by metallic clasps fitting to, and partially surrounding, adjacent
sound natural teeth, the plate merely covering the edentulous
portion of the alveolar ridge. It may also be kept in place by
atmospheric adhesion, in which case the palatal vault is included,
and the vacuum chamber is utilized in the palatal portion to
increase the adhesion.

In the construction usually practised, porcelain teeth are
attached to a gold base-- date by means of stay-pieces of gold,
perforated to receive the platinum pins baked in the body of the
tooth. The stay-pieces or backings are then soldered to the pins
and to the plate by means of high-fusing gold solder. The teeth
used may be single or in sections, and may be with or without
an extension designed in form and colour to imitate the gum of
the aveolar border. Even when skillfully executed, the process is
imperfect in that the jointing of the teeth to each other, and
their adaptation to the base-plate, leaves crevices and recesses,
in which food debris and oral secretions accumulate. To obviate
these defects the enamelled platinum denture was devised.
Porcelain teeth are first attached to a swaged base-plate of pure
platinum by a stay-piece of the same metal soldered with pure
gold, after which the interstices between the teeth are filled, and
the entire surface of the plate, excepting that in contact with the
palate and alveolar border, is covered with a porcelain paste
called the body, which is modelled to the normal contour of the
gums, and baked in a muffle furnace until vitrified. It is then
enamelled with a vitreous enamel coloured in imitation of the
colour of the natural gum, which is applied and fired as before,
the result being the most artistic and hygienic denture known.
This is commonly known as the continuous gum method. Origin-
ating in France in the early part of the igth century, and variously
improved by several experimenters, it was brought to its present
perfection by Dr John Allen of New York about 1846-1847.
Dentures supported upon cast bases of metallic alloys and of
aluminium have been employed as substitutes for the more
expensive dentures of gold and platinum, but have had only a
limited use, and are less satisfactory.

Metallic bases were used exclusively as supports for artificial
dentures until in 1855-1856 Charles Goodyear, jun., patented in
England a process for constructing a denture upon vulcanized
caoutchouc as a base. Several modifications followed, each the
subject of patented improvements. Though the cheapness and
simplicity of the vulcanite base has led to its abuse in incom-
petent hands, it has on the whole been productive of much

benefit. It has been used with great success as a means of
attaching porcelain teeth to metallic bases of gold, silver and
aluminium. It is extensively used also in correcting irregular
positions of the teeth, and for making interdental splints in the
treatment of fractures of the jaws. For the mechanical correction
of palatal defects causing imperfection of deglutition and speech,
which comes distinctly within the province of the prosthetic
dentist, the vulcanite base produces the best-known apparatus.
Two classes of palatal mechanism are recognized — the obturator,
a palatal plate, the function of which is to close perforations
or clefts in the hard palate, and the artificial velum, a movable
attachment to the obturator or palatal plate, which closes the
opening in the divided natural velum and, moving with it,
enables the wearer to close off the nasopharynx from the oral
cavity in the production of the guttural sounds. Vulcanite is
also used for extensive restorations of the jaws after surgical
operations or loss by disease, and in the majority of instances
wholly corrects the deformity.

For a time vulcanite almost supplanted gold and silver as
a base for artificial denture, and developed a generation of
practitioners deficient in that high degree of skill necessary
to the construction of dentures upon metallic bases.
The recent development of crown-and-bridge work methods.
has brought about a renaissance, so that a thorough
training is more than ever necessary to successful practice in
mechanical dentistry. The simplest crown is of porcelain, and is
engrafted upon a sound natural tooth-root by means of a metallic
pin of gold or platinum, extending into the previously enlarged
root-canal and cemented in place. In another type of crown the
point between the root-end and the abutting crown-surface is
encircled with a metallic collar or band, which gives additional
security to the attachment and protects the joints from fluids
or bacteria. Crowns of this character are constructed with a
porcelain facing attached by a stay-piece or backing of gold to a
plate and collar, which has been previously fitted to the root-end
like a ferrule, and soldered to a pin which projects through the
ferrule into the root-canal. The contour of the lingual surface of
the crown is made of gold, which is shaped to conform to the
anatomical lines of the tooth. The shell-crown consists of a
reproduction of the crown entirely of gold plate, filled with
cement, and driven over the root-end, which it closely encircles.
The two latter kinds of crowns may be used as abutments for
the support of intervening crowns in constructing bridge-work.
When artificial crowns are supported not by natural tooth-roots
but by soldering them to abutments, they are termed dummies.
The number of dummies which may be supported upon a given
number of roots depends upon the position and character of the
abutments, the character of the alveolar tissues, the age, sex and
health of the patient, the character of the occlusion or bite, and
the force exerted in mastication. In some cases a root will not
properly support more than one additional crown; in others
an entire bridge denture has been successfully supported upon
four well-placed roots. Two general classes of bridge-work are
recognized, namely, the fixed and the removable. Removable
bridge-work, though more difficult to construct, is preferable, as
it can be more thoroughly and easily cleansed. When properly
made and applied to judiciously selected cases, the bridge
denture is the most artistic and functionally perfect restoration
of prosthetic dentistry.

The entire development of modern dentistry dates from the
igth century, and mainly from its latter half. Beginning with a
few practitioners and no organized professional basis, educational
system or literature, its practitioners are to be found in all
civilized communities, those in Great Britain numbering about
5000; in the United States, 27,000; France, 1600, of whom
376 are graduates; German Empire, qualified practitioners
(Zahnarzte) , 1400; practitioners without official qualification,
4100. Its educational institutions are numerous and well
equipped. It possesses a large periodical and standard litera-
ture in all languages. Its practice is regulated by legislative
enactment in all countries the same as is medical practice.
The business of manufacturing and selling dentists' supplies

54

DENTON— DENVER

represents an enormous -industry, in which millions of capital
are invested.

AUTHORITIES. — W. F. Litch, American System of Dentistry;
Julius Scheff, jun., Handbuch der Zahnheilkunde; Charles J. Essig,
American Text-Book of Prosthetic Dentistry; Tomes, Dental Anatomy
and Dental Surgery; W. D. Miller, Microorganisms of the Human
Mouth; Hopewell Smith, Dental Microscopy; H. H. Burchard,
Dental Pathology, Therapeutics and Pharmacology; F. J. S. Gorgas,
Dental Medicine; E. H. Angle, Treatment of Malocclusion of the
Teeth and Fractures of the Maxillae ; G. Evans, A Practical Treatise
on Artificial Crown-and-Bridge Work and Porcelain Dental Art;
C. N. Johnson, Principles and Practice of Filling Teeth, American
Text-Book of Operative Dentistry (3rd ed., 1905); Edward C. Kirk,
Principles and Practice of Operative Dentistry (2nd ed., 1905);
J. S. Marshall, American Text-Book of Prosthetic Dentistry (edited by
C. R. Turner; 3rd ed., 1907). (E. C. K.)

DENTON, an urban district in the Gorton parliamentary
division of Lancashire, England, 4^ m. N.E. from Stockport, on
the London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 14,934. In
the township are reservoirs for the water supply of Manchester,
with a capacity of 1,860,000,000 gallons. The manufacture of
felt hats is the leading industry. Coal is extensively mined in
the district.

DENVER, the capital of Colorado, U.S.A., the county-seat
of Denver county, and the largest city between Kansas City,
Missouri, and the Pacific coast, sometimes called the " Queen
City of the Plains." Pop. (1870) 4759; (1880) 35,629; (1890)
106,713; (1900), 133,859, of whom 25,301 were foreign-born
and 3923 were negroes; (1910 census) 213,381. Of the
25,301 foreign-born in 1900, 5114 were Germans; 3485, Irish;
3376, Swedes; 3344, English; 2623, English-Canadian;
1338, Russians; and 1033, Scots. Denver is an important
railway centre, being served by nine railways, of which the
chief are the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe; the Chicago,
Burlington & Quincy; the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific;
the Denver & Rio Grande; the Union Pacific; and the
Denver, North-Western & Pacific.

Denver lies on the South Platte river, at an altitude exactly
i m. above the sea, about ism. from the E. base of the Rocky
mountains, which stretch along the W. horizon from N. to S.
in an unbroken chain of some 175 m. Excursions may be made
in all directions into the mountains, affording beautiful scenery
and interesting views of the mining camps. Various peaks are
readily accessible from Denver: Long's Peak (14,271 ft.), Gray's
Peak (14,341 ft.), Torrey Peak (14,336 ft.), Mt. Evans (14,330 ft.),
Pike's Peak (14,108 ft.), and many others of only slightly less
altitudes. The streets are excellent, broad and regular. The
parks are a fine feature of the city; by its charter a fixed
percentage of all expenditures for public improvements must be
used to purchase park land. Architectural variety and solidity
are favoured in the buildings of the city by a wealth of beautiful
building stones of varied colours (limestones, sandstones, lavas,
granites and marbles), in addition to which bricks and Roman
tiles are employed. The State Capitol, built of native granite and
marble (1887-1895, cost $2,500,000), is an imposing building.
Noteworthy also are the Denver county court house; the hand-
some East Denver high school; the Federal building, containing
the United States custom house and post office; the United
States mint; the large Auditorium, in which the Democratic
National convention met in 1908; a Carnegie library (1908)
and the Mining Exchange; and there are various excellent
business blocks, theatres, clubs and churches. Denver has an
art museum and a zoological museum. The libraries of the city
contain an aggregate of some 300,000 volumes. Denver is the
seat of the Jesuit college of the Sacred Heart (1888; in the
suburbs); and the university of Denver (Methodist, 1889), a
co-educational institution, succeeding the Colorado Seminary
(founded in 1864 by John Evans), and consisting of a college
of liberal arts, a graduate school, Chamberlin astronomical
observatory and a preparatory school — these have buildings
in University Park — and (near the centre of the city) the
Denver and Gross College of Medicine, the Denver law school, a
college of music in the building of the old Colorado Seminary, and
a Saturday college (with classes specially for professional men).

The prosperity of the city depends on that of the rich mining
country about it, on a very extensive wholesale trade, for which
its situation and railway facilities admirably fit it, and on its
large manufacturing and farming interests. The value of
manufactures produced in 1900 was $41,368,698 (increase
1890-1900, 41-5 %). The value of the factory product for 1905,
however, was 3-3 % less than that for 1900, though it represented
36-6 % of the product of the state as a whole. The principal
industry is the smelting and refining of lead, and the smelting
works are among the most interesting sights of the city. The
value of the ore reduced annually is about $10,000,000. Denver
has also large foundries and machine shops, flour and grist mills,
and slaughtering and meat-packing establishments. Denver is
the central live-stock market of the Rocky Mountain states. The
beet sugar, fruit and other agricultural products of the sur-
rounding and tributary section were valued in 1906 at about
$20,000,000. The assessed valuation of property in the city in
1905 was $115,338,920 (about the true value), and the bonded
debt $1,079,595.

At Denver the South Platte is joined by Cherry Creek, and
here in October 1858 were established on opposite sides of the
creek two bitterly rival settlements, St Charles and Auraria; the
former was renamed almost immediately Denver, after General
J. W. Denver (1818-1892), ex-governor of Kansas (which then
included Colorado), and Auraria was absorbed. Denver had
already been incorporated by a provisional local (extra legal)
" legislature," and the Kansas legislature gave a charter to a
rival company which the Denver people bought out. A city
government was organized in December 1859; and continued
under a reincorporation effected by the first territorial legislature
of 1861. This body adjourned from Colorado City, nominally
the capital, to Denver, and in 1862 Golden was made the seat of
government. In 1868 Denver became the capital, but feeling in
the southern counties was then so strong against Denver that
provision was made for a popular vote on the situation of the
capital five years after Colorado should become a state. This
popular vote confirmed Denver in 1881. Until 1870, when it
secured a branch railway from the Union Pacific line at Cheyenne
(Wyoming), the city was on one side of the transcontinental travel-
routes. The first road was quickly followed by the Kansas
Pacific from Kansas City (1870, now also part of the Union
Pacific), the Denver & Rio Grande (1871), the Burlington system
(1882), the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe (1887), and other roads
which have made Denver's fortune. In April 1859 appeared the
first number of The Rocky Mountain News. The same year a
postal express to Leavenworth, Kansas (10 days, letters 25 cents
an ounce) was established; and telegraph connexion with Boston
and New York ($9 for 10 words) in 1863. A private mint was
established in 1 860. In the 'seventies all the facilities of a modern
city — gas, street-cars, water-works, telephones — were intro-
duced. Much the same might be said of a score of cities in the
new West, but none is a more striking example than Denver of
marvellous growth. The city throve on the freighting trade of
the mines. In 1864 a tremendous flood almost ruined it, and
another flood in 1878, and a famous strike in Denver and
Leadville in 1879-1880 were further, but only momentary,
checks to its prosperity. As in every western city, particularly
those in mining regions whose sites attained speculative values,
Denver had grave problems with " squatters " or " land-
jumpers "in her early years; and there was the usual gambling
and outlawry, sometimes extra-legally repressed by vigilantes.
Settled social conditions, however, soon established themselves.
In 1880 there was a memorable election riot under the guise of
an anti-Chinese demonstration. In the decade 1870-1880 the
population increased 648-7%. The 'eighties were notable
for great real estate activity, and the population of the city
creased 199-5% from J88o to 1890. In 1882-1884 three
successive annual exhibits of a National Mining and Industrial
Exposition were held. After 1890 growth was slower but
continuous. In 1902 a city-and-county of Denver was created
with extensive powers of framing its own charter, and in
1904 a charter was adopted. The constitution of the state was

DEODAND— DEPARTMENT

55

framed by a convention that sat at Denver from December 1875
to March 1876; various territorial conventions met here; and
here W. J. Bryan was nominated in 1908 for the presidency.

DEODAND (Lat. Deodandum, that which is to be given to God),
in English law, was a personal chattel (any animal or thing)
which, on account of its having caused the death of a human
being, was forfeited to the king for pious uses. Blackstone, while
tracing in the custom an expiatory design, alludes to analogous
Jewish and Greek laws,1 which required that what occasions a
man's death should be destroyed. In such usages the notion of
the punishment of an animal or thing, or of its being morally
affected from having caused the death of a man, seems to be
implied. The forfeiture of the offending instrument in no way
depends on the guilt of the owner. This imputation of guilt to
inanimate objects or to the lower animals is not inconsistent with
what we know of the ideas of uncivilized races. In English law,
deodands came to be regarded as mere forfeitures to the king, and
the rules on which they depended were not easily explained by
any key in the possession of the old commentators. The law
distinguished, for instance, between a thing in motion and a thing
standing still. If a horse or other animal in motion killed a
person, whether infant or adult, or if a cart ran over him, it was
forfeited as a deodand. On the other hand, if death were caused
by falling from a cart or a horse at rest, the law made the chattel
a deodand if the person killed were an adult, but not if he
were below the years of discretion. Blackstone accounts for the
greater severity against things in motion by saying that in such
cases the owner is more usually at fault, an explanation which
is doubtful in point of fact, and would certainly not account
for other instances of the same tendency. Thus, where a man's
death is caused by a thing not in motion, that part only which is
the immediate cause is forfeited, as " if a man be climbing up the
wheel of a cart, and is killed by falling from it, the wheel alone is
a deodand"; whereas, if the cart were in motion, not only the
wheel but all that moves along with it (as the cart and the
loading) are forfeited. A similar distinction is to be found in
Britton. Where a man is killed by a vessel at rest the cargo is not
deodand; where the vessel is under sail, hull and cargo are both
deodand. For the distinction between the death of a child and the
death of an adult Blackstone accounts by suggesting that the child
" was presumed incapable of actual sin, and therefore needed no
deodand to purchase propitiatory masses; but every adult who
died in actual sin stood in need of such atonement, according to
the humane superstition of the founders of the English law." Sir
Matthew Hale's explanation was that the child could not take
care of himself, whereon Blackstone asks why the owner should
save his forfeiture on account of the imbecility of the child, which
ought to have been an additional reason for caution. The
finding of a jury was necessary to constitute a deodand, and the
investigation of the value of the instrument by which death was
caused occupied an important place among the provisions of
early English criminal law. It became a necessary part of an
indictment to state the nature and value of the weapon employed
— as, that the stroke was given by a certain penknife, of the value
of sixpence — so that the king might have his deodand. Accidents
on the high seas did not cause forfeiture, being beyond the domain
of the common law; but it would appear that in the case of
ships in fresh water the law held good. The king might grant his
right to deodands to another. In later times these forfeitures
became extremely unpopular; and juries, with the connivance
of judges, found deodands of trifling value, so as to defeat the
inequitable claim. At last, by an act of 1 846 they were abolished,
the date noticeably coinciding with the introduction of railways
and modern steam-engines.

DE06ARH, the name of several towns of British India, (i) A
town in the Santal Parganas district of Bengal. Pop. (1901)
8838. It is famous for a group of twenty-two temples dedicated
to Siva, the resort of numerous pilgrims. It is connected with
the East Indian railway by a steam tramway, 5 m. in length.

'"Compare also the rule of the Twelve Tables, by which an animal
which had inflicted mischief might be surrendered in lieu of com-
pensation.

(2) The headquarters of the Bamra feudatory state in Bengal;
58 m. by road from the Bamra Road station on the Bengal-
Nagpur railway. Pop. (1901) 5702. The town, which is well
laid out, with parks and gardens, and pleasantly situated in a
hollow among hills, rapidly increased in population under the
enlightened administration of the raja, Sir Sudhal Rao, K.C.I.E.
(b. 1860). It has a state-supported high school affiliated to
Calcutta University, with a chemical and physical laboratory.

(3) The chief town of the Deogarh estate in the state of Udaipur,
Rajputana, about 68 m. N.N.E. of the city of Udaipur. It is
walled, and contains a fine palace. Pop. (1901) 5384. The
holder of the estate is styled raivat, and is one of the first-class
nobles of Mewar. (4) Deogarh Fort, the ancient Devagiri or
Deoeiri (see DAULATABAD).

DEOLS, a suburb of the French town of Chateauroux, in the
department of Indre. Pop. (1906) 2337. Deols lies to the
north of Chateauroux, from which it is separated by the Indre.
It preserves a fine Romanesque tower and other remains of the
church of a famous Benedictine abbey, the most important in
Berry, founded in 917 by Ebbes the Noble, lord of Deols. A
gateway flanked by towers survives from the old ramparts of
the town. The parish church of St Stephen (i5th and i6th
centuries) has a Romanesque facade and a crypt containing the
ancient Christian tomb of St Ludre and his father St Leocade, who
according to tradition were lords of the town in the 4th century.
There are also interesting old paintings of the loth century
representing the ancient abbey. The pilgrimage to the tomb of
St Ludre gave importance to Deols, which under the name of
Vicus Dolensis was in existence in the Roman period. In 468
the Visigoths defeated the Gauls there, the victory carrying with
it the supremacy over the district of Berry. In the middle ages
the head of the family of D6ols enjoyed the title of prince and
held sway over nearly all Lower Berry, of which the town itself
was the capital. In the loth century Raoul of Deols gave his
castle to the monks of the abbey and transferred his residence
to Chateauroux. For centuries this change did not affect the
prosperity of the place, which was maintained by the prestige
of its abbey. But the burning of the abbey church by the
Protestants during the religious wars and in 1622 the suppression
of the abbey by the agency of Henry II., prince of Conde and of
Deols, owing to the corruption of the monks, led to its decadence.

DEPARTMENT (Fr. department, from dtpartir, to separate
into parts), a division. The word is used of the branches of the
administration in a state or municipality; in Great Britain it
is applied to the subordinate divisions only of the great offices
and boards of state, such as the bankruptcy department of the
Board of Trade, but in the United States these subordinate
divisions are known as " bureaus," while " department " is used
of the eight chief branches of the executive.

A particular use of the word is that for a territorial division
of France, corresponding loosely to an English county. Previous
to the French Revolution, the local unit in France was the
province, but this division was too closely bound up with the
administrative mismanagement of the old regime. Accordingly,
at the suggestion of Mirabeau, France was redivided on entirely
new lines, the thirty-four provinces being broken up into eighty-
three departments (see FRENCH REVOLUTION). The idea was
to render them as nearly as possible equal to a certain average
of size and population, though this was not always adhered to.
They derived their names principally from rivers, mountains
or other prominent geographical features. Under Napoleon the
number was increased to one hundred and thirty, but in 1815 it
was reduced to eighty-six. In 1860 three new departments were
created out of the newly annexed territory of Savoy and Nice. In
1871 three departments (Bas-Rhin, Haut-Rhin and Moselle)
were lost after the German war. Of the remains of the Haut-
Rhin was formed the territory of Belfort, and the fragments of
the Moselle were incorporated in the department of Meurthe,
which was renamed Meurthe-et-Moselle, making the number
at present eighty-seven. For a complete list of the departments
see FRANCE. Each department is presided over by an officer
called a prefect, appointed by the government, and assisted by a

DE PERE— DEPORTATION

prefectorial council (conseil de prefecture). The departments are
subdivided into arrondissements, each in charge of a sub-prefect.
Arrondissements are again subdivided into cantons, and these
into communes, somewhat equivalent to the English parish
(see FRANCE: Local Government).

DE PERE, a city of Brown county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on both
sides of the Fox river, 6 m. above its mouth, and 109 m. N. of
Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) 3625; (1900) 4038, of whom 1025
were foreign-born; (1905, state census) 4523. It is served by
the Chicago & North- Western and Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul
railways, by interurban electric lines and by lake and river
steamboat lines, it being the head of lake navigation on the Fox
river. Two bridges here span the Fox, which is from f m. to % m.
in width. It is a shipping and transfer point and has paper
mills, machine shops, flour mills, sash, door and blind factories,
a launch and pleasure-boat factory, and knitting works, cheese
factories and dairies, brick yards and grain elevators. There is
an excellent water-power. De Pere is the seat of St Norbert's
college (Roman Catholic, 1902) and has a public library. North
of the city is located the state reformatory. On the coming
of the first European, Jean Nicolet, who visited the place in
1634-1635, De Pere was the site of a polyglot Indian settlement
of several thousand attracted by the fishing at the first rapids of
the Fox river. Here in 1670 Father Claude Allouez established
the mission of St Francis Xavier, the second in what is now
Wisconsin. From the name Rapid.es des Peres, which the French
applied to the place, was derived the name De Pere. Here
Nicolas Perrot, the first French commandant in the North- West,
established his headquarters, and Father Jacques Marquette
wrote the journal of his journey to the Mississippi. A few
miles south of the city lived for many years Eleazer Williams
(c. 1 787-1857), the alleged " lost dauphin " Louis XVII. of France
and an authority on Indians, especially Iroquois. De Pere was
incorporated as a village in 1857, and was chartered as a city
in 1883.

DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL (1834- ), American
lawyer and politician, was born in Peekskill, New York, on the
23rd of April 1834, of a Huguenot family (originally Du Puis or
De Puy). He graduated at Yale in 1856, entered politics as a
Whig — his father had been a Democrat — was admitted to the
bar in 1858, was a member of the New York Assembly in
1861-1862, and was secretary of state of New York state in
1864-1865. He refused a nomination to be United States
minister to Japan, and through his friendship with Cornelius and
William H. Vanderbilt in 1866 became attorney for the New York
& Harlem railway, in 1869 was appointed attorney of the newly
consolidated New York Central & Hudson river railway, of which
he soon became a director, and in 1875 was made general counsel
for the entire Vanderbilt system of railways. He became second
vice-president of the New York Central & Hudson river in 1869
and was its president in 1885-1898, and in- 1898 was made
chairman of the board of directors of the Vanderbilt system. In
1872 he joined the Liberal-Republican movement, and was
nominated and defeated for the office of lieutenant-governor of
New York. In 1888 in the National Republican convention he
was a candidate for the presidential nomination, but withdrew
his name in favour of Benjamin Harrison, whose offer to him in
1889 of tne portfolio of state he refused. In 1899 he was elected
United States senator from New York state, and in 1904 was
re-elected for the term ending in 1911. His great personal
popularity, augmented by his ability as an orator, suffered
considerably after 1905, the inquiry into life insurance company
methods by a committee of the state legislature resulting in
acute criticism of his actions as a director of the Equitable Life
Assurance Society and as counsel to Henry B. Hyde and his
son. Among his best-known orations are that delivered at
the unveiling of the Bartholdi statue of Liberty enlightening
the World (1886), an address at the Washington Centennial in
New York (1889), and the Columbian oration at the dedication
ceremonies of the Chicago World's Fair (1892).

DEPILATORY (from Lat. depilare, to pull out the pilus or
hair), any substance, preparation or process which will remove

superfluous hair. For this purpose caustic alkalis, alkaline earths
and also orpiment (trisulphide of arsenic) are used, the last being
somewhat dangerous. No application is permanent in its effect,
as the hair always grows again. The only permanent method,
which is, however, painful, slow in operation and likely to leave
small scars, is by the use of an electric current for the destruction
of the follicles by electrolysis.

DEPORTATION, or TRANSPORTATION, a system of punishment
for crime, of which the essential factor is the removal of the
criminal to a penal settlement outside his own country. It is to
be distinguished from mere -expulsion (q.v.) from a country,
though the term " deportation " is now used in that sense in
English law under the Aliens Act 1905 (see ALIEN). Strictly,
the deportation or transportation system has ceased to exist in
England, though the removal or exclusion of undesirable persons
from British territory, under various Orders in Council, is possible
in places subject to the Foreign Jurisdiction Acts, and in the case
of criminals under the Extradition Acts.

Earlier British Transportation System. — At a time when the
British statute-book bristled with capital felonies, when the pick-
pocket or sheep-stealer was hanged out of hand, when Sir Samuel
Romilly, to whose strenuous exertions the amelioration of the
penal code is in a great measure due, declared that the laws
of England were written in blood, another and less sanguinary
penalty came into great favour. The deportation of criminals
beyond the seas grew naturally out of the laws which prescribed
banishment for certain offences. The Vagrancy Act of Elizabeth's
reign contained in it the germ of transportation, by empowering
justices in quarter sessions to banish offenders and order
them to be conveyed into such parts beyond the seas as should
be assigned by the privy council. Full effect was given to this
statute in the next reign, as is proved by a letter of James I.
dated 1619, in which the king directs " a hundred
dissolute persons " to be sent to Virginia. Another
act of similar tenor was passed in the reign of
Charles II.; in which the term " transportation "
appears to have been first used. A further and more systematic
development of the system of transportation took place in
1617, when an act was passed by which offenders who had
escaped the death penalty were handed over to contractors,
who engaged to transport them to the American colonies.
These contractors were vested with a property in the
labour of the convicts for a certain term, generally from
seven to fourteen years, and this right they frequently sold.
Labour in those early days was scarce in the new settlements;
and before the general adoption of negro slavery there was a
keen competition for felon hands. An organized system
of kidnapping prevailed along the British coasts; young lads
were seized and sold into what was practically white slavery in
the American plantations. These malpractices were checked, but
the legitimate traffic in convict labour continued, until it was
ended peremptorily by the revolt of the American colonies and
the achievement of their independence in 1776.*

The British legislature, making a virtue of necessity, discovered
that transportation to the colonies was bound to be attended by
various inconveniences, particularly by depriving the kingdom of
many subjects whose labour might be useful to the community;
and an act was accordingly passed which provides that convicts
sentenced to transportation might be employed at haid labour
at home. At the same time the consideration of some scheme
for their disposal was entrusted to three eminent public men —
Sir William Blackstone, Mr Eden (afterwards Lord Auckland)
and John Howard. The result of their labours was an act for the
establishment of penitentiary houses, dated 1778. This act is of
peculiar importance. It contains the first public enunciation of a
general principle of prison treatment, and shows that even at that
early date the system since nearly universally adopted was fully
understood. The. object in view was thus stated. It was hoped
" by sobriety, cleanliness and medical assistance, by a regular
series of labour, by solitary confinement during the intervals of
work and by due religious instruction to preserve and amend

1 See J. C. Ballagh, While Servitude in Virginia (Baltimore, 1895.)

DEPORTATION

57

the health of the unhappy offenders, to inure them to habits of
industry, to guard them from pernicious company, to accustom
them to serious reflection and to teach them both the principles
and practice of every Christian and moral duty." The experience
of succeeding years has added little to these the true principles
of penal discipline; they form the basis of every species of prison
system carried out since the passing of an act of 1779.

No immediate action was taken by the committee appointed.
Its members were not in accord as to the choice of site. One was
for Islington, another for Limehouse; Howard only stipulated
for some healthy place well supplied with water and conveniently
situated for supervision. He was strongly of opinion that the
penitentiary should be built by convict labour. Howard withdrew
from the commission, and new members were appointed, who
were on the eve of beginning the first penitentiary when the
discoveries of Captain Cook in the South Seas turned the attention
of the government towards these new lands. The vast territories
Australian °f Australasia promised an unlimited field for convict
penal colonization, and for the moment the scheme for
setae- penitentiary houses fell to the ground. Public opinion

***• generally preferred the idea of establishing penal
settlements at a distance from home. " There was general
confidence," says Merivale in his work on colonization, " in the
favourite theory that the best mode of punishing offenders was
that which removed them from the scene of offence and tempta-
tion, cut them off by a great gulf of space from all their former
connexions, and gave them the opportunity of redeeming past
crimes by becoming useful members of society." These views so
far prevailed that an expedition consisting of nine transports
and two men-of-war, the " first fleet " of Australian annals, sailed
in March 1787 for New South Wales. This first fleet reached
Botany Bay in January 1 788, but passed on and landed at Port
Jackson, where it entered and occupied Sydney harbour. From
that time forward convicts were sent in constantly increasing
numbers from England to the Antipodes. Yet the early settle-
ment at Sydney had not greatly prospered. The infant colony
had had a bitter struggle for existence. It had been hoped that
the community would raise its own produce and speedily become
self-supporting. But the soil was unfruitful; the convicts knew
nothing of farming. All lived upon rations sent out from home;
and when convoys with relief lingered by the way famine stared
all in the face. The colony was long a penal settlement and
nothing more, peopled only by two classes, convicts and their
masters; criminal bondsmen on the one hand who had forfeited
their independence and were bound to labour without wages for the
state, on the other officials to guard and exact the due perform-
ance of tasks. A few free families were encouraged to emigrate,
but they were lost in the mass they were intended to leaven,
swamped and outnumbered by the convicts, shiploads of whom
continued to pour in year after year. When the influx increased,
difficulties as to their employment arose. Free settlers were too
few to give work to more than a small proportion. Moreover, a
new policy was in the ascendant, initiated by Governor Macquarie,
who considered the convicts and their rehabilitation his chief
care, and steadily discouraged the irrfmigration of any but those
who " came out for their country's good." The great bulk of the
convict labour thus remained in government hands.

This period marked the first phase in the history of transporta-
tion. The penal colony, having triumphed over early dangers
and difficulties, was crowded with convicts in a state of semi-
freedom, maintained at the public expense and utilized in the
development of the latent resources of the country. The methods
employed by Governor Macquarie were not, perhaps, invariably
the best; the time was hardly ripe as yet for the erection of
palatial buildings in Sydney, while the congregation of the work-
men in large bodies tended greatly to their demoralization. But
some of the works undertaken and carried out were of incalculable
service to the young colony; and its early advance in wealth and
prosperity was greatly due to the magnificent roads, bridges and
other facilities of inter-communication for which it was indebted
to Governor Macquarie. As time passed the criminal sewage
flowing from the Old World to the New greatly increased in

volume under milder and more humane laws. Many now escaped
the gallows, and much of the overcrowding of the gaols at home
was caused by the gangs of convicts awaiting transhipment to
the Antipodes. They were packed off, however, with all con-
venient despatch, and the numbers on government hands in the
colonies multiplied exceedingly, causing increasing embarrass-
ment as to their disposal. Moreover, the expense of the Australian
convict establishments was enormous.

Some change in system was inevitable, and the plan of " assign-
ment" was introduced; in other words, that of freely lending the
convicts to any who would relieve the authorities of the burden-
some charge. By this time free settlers were arriving
in greater number, invited by a different and more ^*^°"
liberal policy than that of Governor Macquarie. system.
Inducements were especially offered to persons
possessed of capital to assist in the development of the country.
Assignment developed rapidly; soon eager competition arose for
the convict hands that had been at first so reluctantly taken.
Great facilities existed for utilizing them on the wide areas of
grazing land and on the new stations in the interior. A pastoral
life, without temptations and contaminating influences, was well
suited for convicts. As the colony grew richer and more populous,
other than agricultural employers became assignees, and numer-
ous enterprises were set on foot. The trades and callings which
minister to the needs of all civilized communities were more and
more largely pursued. There was plenty of work for skilled
convicts in the towns, and the services of the more intelligent
were highly prized. It was a great boon to secure gratis the
assistance of men specially trained as clerks, book-keepers or
handicraftsmen. Hence all manner of intrigues and manoeuvres
were afoot on the arrival of drafts and there was a scramble for
the best hands. Here at once was a palpable flaw in the system
of assignment. The lot of the convict was altogether unequal.
Some, the dull, unlettered and unskilled, were drafted up country
to heavy manual labour at which they remained, while clever
expert rogues found pleasant, congenial and often profitable
employment in the towns. The contrast was very marked from
the first, but it became the more apparent when in due course it
was seen that some were still engaged in irksome toil, while others
who had come out by the same ship had already attained to
affluence and ease. For the latter transportation was no punish-
ment, but often the reverse. It meant too often transfer to a new
world under conditions more favourable to success, removed from
the keener competition of the old. By adroit management, too,
convicts often obtained the command of funds, the product of
nefarious transactions at home, which wives or near relatives or
unconvicted accomplices presently brought out to them. It was
easy for the free new-comers to secure the assignment of their
convict friends; and the latter, although still nominally servants
and in the background, at once assumed the real control.
Another system productive of much evil was the employment of
convict clerks in positions of trust in various government offices;
convicts did much of the legal work of the colony; a convict was
clerk to the attorney general; others were schoolmasters and
were entrusted with the education of youth.

Under a system so anomalous and uncertain the main object
of transportation as a method of penal discipline and repression
was in danger of being quite overlooked. Yet the state
could not entirely abdicate its functions, although it
surrendered to a great extent the care of criminals to system.
private persons. It had established a code of penalties
for the coercion of the ill-conducted, while it kept the
worst perforce in its own hands. The master was always at
liberty to appeal to the strong arm of the law. A message carried
to a neighbouring magistrate, often by the culprit himself, brought
down the prompt retribution of the lash. Convicts' might be
flogged for petty offences, for idleness, drunkenness, turbulence,
absconding and so forth. At the out-stations some show of
decorum and regularity was observed, although the work done
was generally scanty and the convicts were secretly given to all
manner of evil courses. The town convicts were worse, because
they were far less controlled. They were nominally under the

DEPORTATION

surveillance and supervision of the police, which amounted to
nothing at all. They came and went, and amused themselves
after working hours, so that Sydney and all the large towns were
hotbeds of vice and immorality. The masters as a rule made
no attempt to watch over their charges; many of them were
absolutely unfitted to do so, being themselves of low character,
" emancipists " frequently, old convicts conditionally pardoned
or who had finished their terms. No effort was made to prevent
the assignment of convicts to improper persons; every applicant
got what he wanted, even though his own character would not
bear inspection. All whom the masters could not manage — the
incorrigible upon whom the lash and bread and water had been
tried in vain — were returned to government charge. These, in
short, comprised the whole of the refuse of colonial convictdom.
Every man who could not agree with his master, or who was
to undergo a penalty greater than flogging or less than capital
punishment, came back to government and was disposed of in
one of three ways, (i) the road parties, (2) the chain gang, or (3) the
penal settlements, (i) In the first case, the convicts might be
kept in the vicinity of the towns or marched about the country
according to the work in hand; the labour was severe, but, owing
to inefficient supervision, never intolerable; the diet was ample
and there was no great restraint upon independence within
certain wide limits. To the slackness of control over the road
parties was directly traceable the frequent escape of desperadoes,
who, defying recapture, recruited the gangs of bushrangers
which were a constant terror to the whole country. In (2) the
chain or iron gangs, as they were sometimes styled, discipline was
far more rigorous. It was maintained by the constant presence
of a military guard, and when most efficiently organized the gang
was governed by a military officer who was also a magistrate.
The work was really hard, the custody close — in hulk, stockaded
barrack or caravan; the first was at Sydney, the second in the
interior, the last when the undertaking required constant change
of place. All were locked up from sunset to sunrise; all wore
heavy leg irons; and all were liable "to immediate flagellation.
The convict " scourger " was one of the regular officials attached
to every chain gang. (3) The third and ultimate receptacle was
the penal settlement, to which no offenders were transferred till
all other methods of treatment had failed. These were terrible
cesspools of iniquity, so bad that it seemed, to use the words of
one who knew them well, that " the heart of a man who went to
them was taken from him and he was given that of a beast."
The horrors accumulated at Norfolk Island, Moreton Bay, Port
Arthur and Tasman's Peninsula are almost beyond description.
The convicts herded together in them were soon utterly degraded
and brutalized; . no wonder that reckless despair took possession
of them, that death on the gallows for murder purposely com-
mitted, or the slow terror from starvation following escape into
surrounding wilds was often welcomed as a relief.

The stage which transportation was now reaching and the
actual condition of affairs in the Australian colonies about this
period do not appear to have been much understood in England.
Earnest and thoughtful men might busy themselves with prison
discipline at home, and the legislature might watch with peculiar
interest the results obtained from the special treatment of a
limited number of selected offenders in Millbank penitentiary.
But for the great mass of criminality deported to a distant shore
no very active concern was shown. The country for a long time
seemed satisfied with transportation. Portions of the system
might be open to criticism. Thus the Commons committee of
1832 freely condemned the hulks at Woolwich and other arsenals
in which a large number of convicts were kept while waiting
embarkation. It was reported that the indiscriminate associa-
tion of prisoners in them produced more vice, profaneness and
demoralization than in the ordinary prisons. After dark the
wildest orgies went on unchecked — dancing, fighting, gambling,
singing and so forth; it was easy to get drink and tobacco and
to see friends from outside. The labour hours were short and
the tasks light; "altogether the situation of the convict in
the hulks," says the report, " cannot be considered penal; it is
a state of restriction, but hardly of punishment."

But no objection was raised to transportation. It was con-
sidered by this same committee " a most valuable expedient
in the system of secondary punishment." They only thought it
necessary to suggest that exile should be preceded by a period
of severe probationary punishment in England, a proposal
which was reiterated later on and actually adopted. It was in
the country most closely affected that dissatisfaction first began
to find voice. Already in 1832 the most reputable sections of
Australian society were beginning to murmur grievously. Trans-
portation had fostered the growth of a strong party — that
representing convict views— and these were advocated boldly in
unprincipled prints. This party, constantly recruited
from the emancipists and ticket-of-leave holders, A"*tr*u"t
gradually grew very numerous, and threatened soon fans'.
to swamp the honest and untainted parts of the
community. As years passed the prevalence of crime, and the
universally low tone of morality due to the convict element,
became more and more in the ascendant. At length in 1835
Judge Burton made a loud protest, and in a charge to the grand
jury of Sydney plainly intimated that transportation must cease.
While it existed, he said, the colonies could never rise to their
proper position; they could not claim free institutions. This
bold but forcible language commanded attention. It was speedily
echoed in England, and particularly by Archbishop Whately,
who argued that transportation failed in all the leading requisites
of any system of secondary punishment. Transportation
exercised no salutary terror in offenders; it was no longer exile to
an unknown inhospitable region, but to one flowing with milk and
honey, whither innumerable friends and associates had gone
already. The most glowing descriptions came back of the wealth
which any clever fellow might easily amass; stories were told
and names mentioned of those who had made ample fortunes in
Australia in a few years. As a matter of fact the convicts, or at
least large numbers of them, had prospered exceedingly. Some
had incomes of twenty, thirty, everrforty thousand pounds a year.
The deteriorating effects of the system were plainly manifest on
the surface from the condition of the colony, — the profligacy of
the towns, the scant reprobation of crimes and those who had
committed them. Down below, in the openly sanctioned slavery
called assignment, in the demoralizing chain gangs and in the
inexpressibly horrible penal settlements, were more abundant
and more awful proofs of the general wickedness and corruption.
Moreover these appalling results were accompanied by colossal
expenditure. The cost of the colonial convict establishments,
with the passages out, amounted annually to upwards of
£300,000; another £100,000 was expended on the military
garrisons; and various items brought the whole outlay to about
half a million per annum. It may be argued that this was not a
heavy price to pay for peopling a continent and laying the founda-
tions of a vast Australasian empire. But that empire could never
have expanded to its present dimensions if it had depended on
convict immigration alone. There was a point, too, at which
all development, all progress, would have come to a full stop
had it not been relieved of its stigma as a penal colony.

That point was reachefl between 1835 and 1840, when a
powerful party came into existence in New South Wales, pledged
to bring about the abandonment of transportation. A strongly
hostile feeling was also gaining ground in England. In 1837
a new committee of the House of Commons had
made a patient and searching investigation into the
meritsand demerits of the system and freely condemned meat.
it. The government had no choice but to give way;
it could not ignore the protests of the colonists, backed up by
such an authoritative expression of opinion. In 1840 orders were
issued to suspend the deportation of criminals to New South
Wales. But what was to become of the convicts? It was
impossible to keep them at home. The hulks which might have
served had also failed; the faultiness of their internal manage-
ment had been fully proved. The committee had recommended
the erection of more penitentiaries. But the costly experiment
of Millbank had been barren of results. The model prison at
Pentonville, in process of construction under the pressure of a

DEPORTATION

59

movement towards prison reform, could offer but limited accom-
modation. A proposal was put forward to construct convict
barracks in the vicinity of the great arsenals; but this, which
contained really the germ of the present British penal system,
was premature. The government in this dilemma steered a
middle course and resolved to adhere to transportation, but under
a greatly modified and it was hoped much improved form. The
colony of Van Diemen's Land, younger and less self-reliant than
its neighbour, had also endured convict immigration but had
made no protest. It was resolved to direct the whole stream
of deportation upon Van Diemen's Land, which was thus con-
stituted one vast colonial prison. The main principle of the new
system was one of probation; hence its name. All convicts were
to pass through various stages and degrees of punishment accord-
ing to their conduct and character. Some general depot was
needed where the necessary observation could be made, and it
was found at Millbank penitentiary. Thence boys were sent
to the prison for juveniles at Parkhurst; the most promising
subjects among the adults were selected to undergo the experi-
mental discipline of solitude and separation at Pentonville; less
hopeful cases went to the hulks; and all adults alike passed on to
the Antipodes. Fresh stages awaited the convict on his arrival
at Van Diemen's Land. The first was limited to " lifers " and
colonial convicts sentenced a second time. It consisted in deten-
tion at one of the penal stations, either Norfolk Island or Tasman's
Peninsula, where the disgraceful conditions already described
continued unchanged to the very last. The second stage received
the largest number, who were subjected in it to gang labour,
working under restraint in various parts of the colony. These
probation stations, as they were called, were intended to inculcate
habits of industry and subordination; they were provided with
supervisors and religious instructors; and had they not been
tainted by the vicious virus brought to them by others arriving
from the penal stations, they might have answered their purpose
for a time. But they became as bad as the worst of the penal
settlements and contributed greatly to the breakdown of the
whole system. The third stage and the first step towards freedom
was the concession of a pass which permitted the convict to be
at large under certain conditions to seek work for himself; the
fourth was a ticket-of-leave, the possession of which allowed him
to come and go much as he pleased; the fifth and last was
•absolute pardon, with the prospects of rehabilitation.

This scheme seemed admirable on paper; yet it failed com-
pletely when put into practice. Colonial resources were quite

unable to bear the pressure. Within two or three years
°abandoa- ^an Diemen's Land was inundated with convicts.
meat. Sixteen thousand were sent out in four years; the

average annual number in the colony was about
30,000, and this when there were only 37,000 free settlers.
Half the whole number of convicts remained in government
hands and were kept in the probation gangs, engaged upon public
works of great utility; but the other half, pass-holders
and ticket-of-leave men in a state of semi-freedom, could
get little or no employment. The supply greatly exceeded the
demand; there were no hirers of labour. Had the colony been as
large and as prosperous as its neighbour it could scarcely have
absorbed the glut of workmen; but it was really on the verge
of bankruptcy — its finances were embarrassed, its trades and
industries at a standstill. But not only were the convicts idle;
they were utterly depraved. It was soon found that the system
which kept large bodies always together had a most pernicious
effect upon their moral condition. " The congregation of
criminals in large batches without adequate supervision meant
simply wholesale, widespread pollution," as was said at the time.
These ever-present and constantly increasing evils forced the
government to reconsider its position; and in 1846 transporta-
tion to Van Diemen's Land was temporarily suspended for a
couple of years, during which it was hoped some relief might be
afforded. The formation of a new convict colony in North
Australia had been contemplated; but the project, warmly
espoused by Mr Gladstone, then under-secretary of state for the
colonies, was presently abandoned; and it now became clear

that no resumption of transportation was possible. The measures
taken to substitute other methods of secondary punishment are
set forth in the article PRISON (q.v.).

France. — France adopted deportation for criminals as far back
as 1763, when a penal colony was founded in French Guiana and
failed disastrously. An expedition was sent there, composed
of the most evil elements of the Paris population
and numbering 14,000, all of whom died. .The practice.
attempt was repeated in 1766 and with the same
miserable result. Other failures are recorded, the worst being
the scheme of the philanthropist Baron Milius, who in 1823
planned to form a community on the banks of the Mana (French
Guiana) by the marriage of exiled convicts and degraded women,
which resulted in the most ghastly horrors. The principle of
deportation was then formally condemned by publicists and
government until suddenly in 1854 it was reintroduced into the
French penal code with many high-sounding phrases. Splendid
results were to be achieved in the creation of rich colonies afar,
and the regeneration of the criminal by new openings in a new
land. The only outlet available at the moment beyond the sea
was French Guiana, and it was again to be utilized despite its
pestilential climate. Thousands were exiled, more than half to
find certain death; none of the penal settlements prospered.
No return was made by agricultural development, farms and
plantations proved a dead loss under the unfavourable conditions
of labour enforced in a malarious climate and unkindly soil, and
it was acknowledged by French officials that the attempt to
establish a penal colony on the equator was utterly futile.
Deportation to Guiana was not abandoned, but instead of native-
born French exiles, convicts of subject races, Arabs, Anamites
and Asiatic blacks, were sent exclusively, with no better success
as regards colonization.

In 1864, however, it was possible to divert the stream else-
where. New Caledonia in the Australian Pacific was annexed to
France in 1853. Ten years later it became a new settlement for
convict emigrants. A first 'shipload was disembarked in 1864 at
Noumea, and the foundations of the city laid. Prison buildings
were the first erected and were planted upon the island of Nou,
a small breakwater to the Bay of Noumea. Outwardly all went
well under the fostering care of the authorities. The population
steadily increased; an average total of 600 in 1867 rose in the
following year to 1554. In 1874 the convict population exceeded
5000; in 1880 it had risen to 8000; the total reached 9608
at the end of December 1883. But from that time forward the
numbers transported annually fell, for it was found that this
South Pacific island, with its fertile soil and fairly temperate
climate, by no means intimidated the dangerous classes; and
the French administration therefore resumed deportation of
French-born whites to Guiana, which was known as notoriously
unhealthy and was likely to act as a more positive deterrent.
The authorities divided their exiles between the two outlets,
choosing New Caledonia for the convicts who gave some promise
of regeneration, and sending criminals with the worst antecedents
and presumably incorrigible to the settlements on the equator.
This was in effect to hand over a fertile colony entirely to
criminals. Free immigration to New Caledonia was checked, and
the colony became almost exclusively penal. The natural growth
of a prosperous colonial community made no advance, and
convict labour did little to stimulate it, the public works, essential
for development, and construction of roads were neglected; there
was no extensive clearance of lands, no steady development of
agriculture. From 1898 simple deportation practically ceased,
but the islands were full of convicts already sent, and they still
received the product of the latest invention in the criminal code
known as " relegation," a punishment directed against the
recidivist or incorrigible criminal whom no penal retribution
had hitherto touched and whom the French law felt justified
in banishing for ever to the " back of beyond." A certain
period of time spent in a hard labour prison preceded relegation,
but the convicts on arrival were generally unfitted to assist in
colonization. They were for the most part decadent, morally
and physically; their labour was of no substantial value to

6o

DEPOSIT— DEPRETIS

colonists or themselves, and there was small hope of profitable
result when they gained conditional liberation, with a concession
of colonial land and a possibility of rehabilitation by their own
efforts abroad, for by their sentence they were forbidden to hope
for return to France. The punishment of relegation was not
long in favour, the number of sentences to it fell year after year,
and it has now been practically abandoned.

Other Countries. — Penal exile has been practised by some other
countries as a method of secondary punishment. Russia since
1823 has directed a stream of offenders, mainly political, upon
Siberia, and at one time the yearly average sent was 18,000. The
Siberian exile system, the horrors of which cannot be exaggerated,
belongs only in part to penitentiary science, but it was very
distinctly punitive and aimed at regeneration of the individual
and the development of the soil by new settlements. Although
the journey was made mostly on foot and not by sea transport,
the principle of deportation (or more exactly of removal) was
the essence of the system. The later practice, however, has been
exactly similar to transportation as originated by England and
afterwards followed by France. The penal colonization of the
island of Sakhalin reproduced the preceding methods, and the
Russian convicts were conveyed by ships through the Suez
Canal to the Far East. Sakhalin was hopefully intended as an
outlet for released convicts and their rehabilitation by their own
efforts, precisely in the manner tried in Australia and New
Caledonia. The result repeated previous experiences. There was
land to reclaim, forests to cut down, marshes to drain, everything
but a temperate climate and a good will of the felon labourers to
create a prosperous colony. But the convicts would not work; a
few sought to win the right to occupy a concession of soil, but the
bulk were pure vagabonds, wandering to and fro in search of food.
The agricultural enterprise was a complete failure. The wrong
sites for cultivation were chosen, the labourers were unskilled and
they handled very indifferent tools. Want amounting to constant
starvation was a' constant rule; the rations were insufficient and
unwholesome, very little meat eked out with salt fish and with
entire absence of vegetables. The general tone of morals was
inconceivably low, and a universal passion for alcohol and card-
playing prevailed. According to one authority the life of the
convicts at Sakhalin was a frightful nightmare, " a mixture of
debauchery and innocence mixed with real sufferings and almost
inconceivable privations, corrupt in every one of its phases."
The prisons hopelessly ruined all who entered them, all classes
were indiscriminately herded together. It is now generally
allowed that deportation, as practised, had utterly failed, the
chief reasons being the unmanageable numbers sent and the
absence of outlets for their employment, even at great
cost.

The prisons on Sakhalin have been described as hotbeds of
vice; the only classification of prisoners is one based on the length
of sentence. Some imperfect attempt is made to separate those
waiting trial from the recidivist or hardened offender, but too
often the association is indiscriminate. Prison discipline is
generally slack and ineffective, the staff of warders, from ill-
judged economy, too weak to supervise or control. The officers
themselves are of inferior stamp, drunken, untrustworthy, over-
bearing, much given to " trafficking " with the prisoners, accept-
ing bribes to assist escape, quick to misuse and oppress their
charges. Crime of the worst description is common.

Italy has practised deportation in planting various agricultural
colonies upon the islands to be found on her coast. They
were meant to imitate the intermediate prisons of the Irish
system, where prisoners might work out their redemption, when
provisionally released. Two were established on the islands
of Pianoso and Gorgona, and there were settlements made
on Monte Christo and Capraia. They were used also to give
effect to the system of enforced residence or domicilio
coatlo.

Portugal also has tried deportation to the African colony
of Angola on a small scale with some success, and combined
it with free emigration. The settlers have been represented as
well disposed towards the convicts, gladly obtaining their

services or helping them in the matter of security. The
convict element is orderly, and, although their treatment is
" pen repressive et relativement debonnaire," few commit offences.

The Andaman Islands have been utilized by the Indian
government since the mutiny (1857) for the deportation of
heinous criminals (see ANDAMAN ISLANDS).

AUTHORITIES. — Captain A. Phillip, R.N., The Voyage of Governor
Phillip to New South Wales (1790); David Collins, Account of the
English Colony of New South Wales (1798); Archbishop Whately,
Remarks on Transportation (1834); Herman Merivale, Colonization
and Colonies (1841); d'Haussonville, Etablissements penitenliaires
en France et aux colonies (1875) ; George Griffith, In a Prison Land;
Cuche, Science et legislation penitentiaire (1905); Hawes, The Utter-
most East (1906). (A. G.)

DEPOSIT (Lat. depositum, from deponere, to lay down, to put
in the care of), anything laid down or separated; as in geology,
any mass of material accumulated by a natural agency (see
BED), and in chemistry, a precipitate or matter settling from
a solution or suspension. In banking, a deposit may mean,
generally, a sum of money lodged in a bank without regard to
the conditions under which it is held, but more specially money
lodged with a bank on " deposit account " and acknowledged by
the banker by a " deposit receipt " given to the depositor. It is
then not drawn upon by cheque, usually bears interest at a rate
varying from time to time, and can only be withdrawn after fixed
notice. Deposit is also used in the sense of earnest or security
for the performance of a contract. In the law of mortgage the
deposit of title-deeds is usual as a security for the repayment of
money advanced. Such a deposit operates as an equitable
mortgage. In the law of contract, deposit or simple bailment is
delivery or bailment of goods in trust to be kept without recom-
pense, and redelivered on demand (see BAILMENT).

DEPOT (from the Fr. depSt, Lat. depositum, laid down; the
French accent marks are usually dispensed with in English), a
place where things may be stored or deposited, such as a furniture
or forage depot, the accumulation of military stores, especially
in the theatre of operatior s. In America the word is used of a
railway station, whether for passengers or goods; in Great
Britain on railways the word, when in use, is applied to goods
stations. A particular military application is to a depot, situated
as a rule in the centre of the recruiting district of the regiment or
other unit, where recruits are received and undergo the necessary
preliminary training before joining the active troops. Such
depots are maintained in peace time by all armies which have to
supply distant or oversea garrisons; in an army raised by com-
pulsory service and quartered in its own country, the regiments
are usually stationed in their own districts, and on their taking
the field for war leave behind a small nucleus for the formation
and training of drafts to be sent out later. These nucleus troops
are generally called depot troops.

DEPRETIS, AGOSTINO (1813-1887), Italian statesman, was
born at Mezzana Corte, in the province of Stradella on the 3ist
of January 1813. From early manhood a disciple of Mazzini
and affiliated to the Giovane Italia, he took an active part in the
Mazzinian conspiracies and was nearly captured by the Austrians
while smuggling arms into Milan. Elected deputy in 1848, he
joined the Left and founded the journal II Diritto, but held
no official position until appointed governor of Brescia in 1859.
In 1860 he went to Sicily on a mission to reconcile the policy of
Cavour (who desired the immediate incorporation of the island
in the kingdom of Italy) with that of Garibaldi, who wished to
postpone the Sicilian plebiscite until after the liberation of Naples
and Rome. Though appointed pro-dictator of Sicily by Garibaldi,
he failed in his attempt. Accepting the portfolio of public works
in the Rattazzi cabinet in 1862, he served as intermediary in
arranging with Garibaldi the expedition which ended disastrously
at Aspromonte. Four years later, on the outbreak of war against
Austria, he entered the Ricasoli cabinet as minister of marine,
and, by maintaining Admiral Persano in command of the fleet,
contributed to the defeat of Lissa. His apologists contend,
however, that, as an inexperienced civilian, he could not have
made sudden changes in naval arrangements without disorganiz-
ing the fleet, and that in view of the impending hostilities he was

DEPTFORD— DE QUINCEY

61

obliged to accept the dispositions of his predecessors. Upon the
death of Rattazzi in 1873, Depretis became leader of the Left,
prepared the advent of his party to power, and was called upon
to form the first cabinet of the Left in 1876. Overthrown by
Cairoli in March 1878 on the grist-tax question, he succeeded,
in the following December, in defeating Cairoli, became again
premier, but on the 3rd of July 1879 was once more overturned
by Cairoli. In November 1879 he, however, entered the Cairoli
cabinet as minister of the interior, and in May 1881 succeeded to
the premiership, retaining that office until his death on the 29th of
July 1887. During the long interval he recomposed his cabinet
four times, first throwing out Zanardelli and Baccarini in order
to please the Right, and subsequently bestowing portfolios upon
Ricotti, Robilant and other Conservatives, so as to complete the
political process known as " trasformismo." A few weeks before
his death he repented of his transformist policy, and again in-
cluded Crispi and Zanardelli in his cabinet. During his long term
of office he abolished the grist tax, extended the suffrage, com-
pleted the railway system, aided Mancini in forming the Triple
Alliance, and initiated colonial policy by the occupation of
Massawa; but, at the same time, he vastly increased indirect
taxation, corrupted and destroyed the fibre of parliamentary
parties, and, by extravagance in public works, impaired the
stability of Italian finance.

DEPTFORD, a south-eastern metropolitan borough of London,
England, bounded N. by Bermondsey, E. by the river Thames
and Greenwich, S. by Lewisham and W. by Camberwell. Pop.
(1901) 110,398. The name is connected with a ford over the
Ravensbourne, a stream entering the Thames through Deptford
Creek. The borough comprises only the parish of Deptford
St Paul, that of Deptford St Nicholas being included in the
borough of Greenwich. Deptford is a district of poor streets,
inhabited by a large industrial population, employed in engineer-
ing and other riverside works. On the river front, extending
into the borough of Greenwich, are the royal victualling yard
and the site of the old Deptford dockyard. The first supplies the
navy with provisions, medicines, furniture, &c., manufactured or
stored in the large warehouses here. The dockyard ceased to be
used in 1869, and was filled up and converted into a foreign cattle
market by the City Corporation. Of public buildings the most
noteworthy are St Paul's church (1730), of classic design; the
municipal buildings; and the hospital for master mariners,
maintained by the corporation of the Trinity House, which was
founded at Deptford, the old hall being pulled down in 1787.
Other institutions are the Goldsmiths' Polytechnic Institute,
New Cross; and the South-eastern fever hospital. A mansion
known as Sayes Court, taken down in 1729, was the residence of
the duke of Sussex in the reign of Elizabeth; it was occupied in
the following century by John Evelyn, author of Sylva, and by
Peter the Great during his residence in England in 1698. The
site of its gardens is occupied by Deptford Park of n acres.
Another open space is Telegraph Hill (9! acres). The parlia-
mentary borough of Deptford returns one member. The borough
council consists .of a mayor, 6 aldermen, and 36 councillors.
Area, 1562-7 acres.

DEPUTY ((through the Fr. from a Late Lat. use of deputare, to
cut off, allot; putare having the original sense of to trim, prune),
one appointed to act or govern instead of another; one who
exercises an office in another man's right, a substitute; in
representative government a member of an elected chamber. In
general, the powers and duties of a deputy are those of his
principal (see also REPRESENTATION), but the extent to which he
may exercise them is dependent upon the power delegated to him.
He may be authorized to exercise the whole of his principal's
office, in which case he is a general deputy, or to act only in
some particular matter or service, when he is termed a special
deputy. In the United Kingdom various officials are specifically
empowered by statute to appoint deputies to act for them
under certain circumstances. Thus a clerk of the peace, in case
of illness, incapacity or absence, may appoint a fit person to act
as his deputy. While judges of the supreme court cannot act by
deputy, county court judges and recorders can, in cases of illness

or unavoidable absence, appoint deputies. So can registrars of
county courts and returning officers at elections.

DE QUINCEY, THOMAS (1785-1859), English author, was born
at Greenheys, Manchester, on the isth of August 1785. He was
the fifth child in a family of eight (four sons and four daughters'*
His father, descended from a Norman family, was a merchant,
who left his wife and six children a clear income of £1600 a
year. Thomas was from infancy a shy, sensitive child, with a
constitutional tendency to dreaming by night and by day; and,
under the influence of an elder brother, a lad " whose genius for
mischief amounted to inspiration," who died in his sixteenth year,
he spent much of his boyhood in imaginary worlds of their own
creating. The amusements and occupations of the whole family,
indeed, seem to have been mainly intellectual; and in De
Quincey's case, emphatically, " the child was father to the man."
" My life has been," he affirms in the Confessions, " on the whole
the life of a philosopher; from my birth I was made an intellectual
creature, and intellectual in the highest sense my pursuits and
pleasures have been." From boyhood he was more or less in
contact with a polished circle; his education, easy to one of
such native aptitude, was sedulously attended to. When he
was in his twelfth year the family removed to Bath, where he was
sent to the grammar school, at which he remained for about two
years; and for a year more he attended another public school at
Winkfield, Wiltshire. At thirteen he wrote Greek with ease; at
fifteen he net only composed Greek verses in lyric measures, but
could converse in Greek fluently and without embarrassment; one
of his masters said of him, " that boy could harangue an Athenian
mob better than you or I could address an English one."
Towards the close of his fifteenth year he visited Ireland, with
a companion of his own age, Lord Westport, the son of Lord
Altamont, an Irish peer, and spent there in residence and travel
some months of the summer and autumn of the year 1800, —
being a spectator at Dublin of " the final ratification of the
bill which united Ireland to Great Britain." On his return
to England, his mother having now settled at St John's
Priory, a residence near Chester, De Quincey was sent
to the Manchester grammar school, mainly in the hope of
securing one of the school exhibitions to help his expenses at
Oxford.

Discontented with the mode in which his guardians conducted
his education, and with some view apparently of forcing them to
send him earlier to college, he left this school after less than
a year's residence — ran away, in short, to his mother's house.
There his mother's brother, Colonel Thomas Penson, made an
arrangement for him to have a weekly allowance, on which he
might reside at some country place in Wales, and pursue his
studies, presumably till he could go to college. From Wales,
however, after brief trial, " suffering grievously from want of
books," he went off as he had done from school, and hid himself
from guardians and friends in the world of London. And now, as
he says, commenced " that episode, or impassioned parenthesis
of my life, which is comprehended in The Confessions of an
English Opium Eater." This London episode extended over a
year or more; his money soon vanished, and he was in the
utmost poverty; he obtained shelter for the night in Greek
Street, Soho, from a moneylender's agent, and spent his days
wandering in the streets and parks; finally the lad was recon-
ciled to his guardians, and in 1803 was sent to Worcester College,
Oxford, being by this time about nineteen. It was in the course
of his second year at Oxford that he first tasted opium, — having
taken it to allay neuralgic pains. De Quincey's mother had
settled at Weston Lea, near Bath, and on one of his visits
to Bath, De Quincey made the acquaintance of Coleridge; he
took Mrs Coleridge to Grasmere, where he became personally
acquainted with Wordsworth.

After finishing his career of five years at college in 1808 he
kept terms at the Middle Temple; but in 1809 visited the
Wordsworths at Grasmere, and in the autumn returned to
Dove Cottage, which he had taken on a lease. His choice was
of course influenced partly by neighbourhood to Wordsworth,
whom he early appreciated, — having been, he says, the only man

DE QUINCEY

in all Europe who quoted Wordsworth so early as 1802. His
friendship with Wordsworth decreased within a few years, and
when in 1834 De Quincey published in Tail's Magazine his
reminiscences of the Grasmere circle, the indiscreet references to
the Wordsworths contained in the article led to a complete
cessation of intercourse. Here also he enjoyed the society and
friendship of Coleridge, Southey and especially of Professor
Wilson, as in London he had of Charles Lamb and his circle. He
continued his classical and other studies, especially exploring the
at that time almost unknown region of German literature, and
indicating its riches to English readers. Here also, in 1816, he

married Margaret Simpson, the " dear M " of whom a

charming glimpse is accorded to the reader of the Confessions;
his family came to be five sons and three daughters.

For about a year and a half he edited the Westmoreland Gazette.
He left Grasmere for London in the early part of 1820. The
Lambs received him with great kindness and introduced him to
the proprietors of the London Magazine. It was in this journal
in 1821 that the Confessions appeared. De Quincey also con-
tributed to Blackwood, to Knight's Quarterly Magazine, and later
to Tail's Magazine. His connexion with Blackwood took him to
Edinburgh in 1828, and he lived there for twelve years, contribut-
ing from time to time to the Edinburgh Literary Gazette. His
wife died in 1837, and the family eventually settled at Lasswade,
but from this time De Quincey spent his time in lodgings in
various places, staying at one place until the accumulation of
papers filled the rooms, when he left them in charge of the
landlady and wandered elsewhere. After his wife's death he gave
way for the fourth time in his life to the opium habit, but in 1844
he reduced his daily quantity by a tremendous effort to six
grains, and never again yielded. He died in Edinburgh on the
8th of December 1859, and is buried in the West Churchyard.

During nearly fifty years De Quincey lived mainly by his pen.
His patrimony seems never to have been entirely exhausted,
and his habits and tastes were simple and inexpensive; but he
was reckless in the use of money, and had debts and pecuniary
difficulties of all sorts. There was, indeed, his associates affirm,
an element of romance even in his impecuniosity, as there was in
everything about him; and the diplomatic and other devices
by which he contrived to keep clear of clamant creditors, while
scrupulously fulfilling many obligations, often disarmed ani-
mosity, and converted annoyance into amusement. The famous
Confessions of an English Opium Eater was published in a small
volume in 1822, and attracted a very remarkable degree of
attention, not simply by its personal disclosures, but by the
extraordinary power of its dream-painting. No other literary
man of his time, it has been remarked, achieved so high and
universal a reputation from such merely fugitive efforts. The
only works published separately (not in periodicals) were a novel,
Klosterheim (1832), and The Logic of Political Economy (1844).
After his works were brought together, De Quincey's reputation
was not merely maintained, but extended. For range of thought
and topic, within the limits of pure literature, no like amount of
material of such equality of merit proceeded from any eminent
writer of the day. However profuse and discursive, De Quincey
is always polished, and generally exact — a scholar, a wit, a man of
the world and a philosopher, as well as a genius. He looked upon
letters as a noble and responsible calling; in his essay on Oliver
Goldsmith he claims for literature the rank not only of a fine art,
but of the highest and most potent of fine arts; and as such he
himself regarded and practised it. He drew a broad distinction
between " the literature of knowledge and the literature of power,"
asserting that the function of the first is to teach, the function of
the second to move, — maintaining that the meanest of authors
who moves has pre-eminence over all who merely teach, that
the literature of knowledge must perish by supersession, while the
literature of power is " triumphant for ever as long as the language
exists in which it speaks." It is to this class of motive literature
that De Quincey's own works essentially belong; it is by virtue
of that vital element of power that they have emerged from the
rapid oblivion of periodicalism, and live in the minds of later
generations. But their power is weakened by their volume.

De Quincey fully defined his own position and claim to dis-
tinction in the preface to his collected works. These he divides
into three classes: — "first, that class which proposes primarily
to amuse the reader," such as the Narratives, Autobiographic
Sketches, &c.; " second, papers which address themselves purely
to the understanding as an insulated faculty, or do so primarily,"
such as the essays on Essenism, the Caesars, Cicero, &c.; and
finally, as a third class, " and, in virtue of their aim, as a far
higher class of compositions," he ranks those " modes of im-
passioned prose ranging under no precedents that I am aware
of in any literature," such as the Confessions and Suspiria de
Profundis. The high claim here asserted has been questioned;
and short and isolated examples of eloquent apostrophe, and
highly wrought imaginative description, have been cited from
Rousseau and other masters of style; but De Quincey's power
of sustaining a fascinating and elevated strain of " impassioned
prose " is allowed to be entirely his own. Nor, in regard to his
writings as a whole, will a minor general claim which he makes be
disallowed, namely, that he " does not write without a thoughtful
consideration of his subject," and also with novelty and freshness
of view. " Generally," he says, " I claim (not arrogantly, but
with firmness) the merit of rectification applied to absolute errors,
or to injurious limitations of the truth." Another obvious
quality of all his genius is its overflowing fulness of allusion and
illustration, recalling his own description of a great philosopher
or scholar — " Not one who depends simply on an infinite memory,
but also on an infinite and electrical power of combination,
bringing together from the four winds, like the angel of the
resurrection, what else were dust from dead men's bones into the
unity of breathing life." It is useless to complain of his having
lavished and diffused his talents and acquirements over so vast
a variety of often comparatively trivial ana passing topics.
The world must accept gifts from men of genius as they offer
them; circumstance and the hour often rule their form. Those
influences, no less than the idiosyncrasy of the man, determined
De Quincey to the illumination of such matter for speculation
as seemed to lie before him; he was not careful to search out
recondite or occult themes, though these he did not neglect, — a
student, a scholar and a recluse, he was yet at the same time a
man of the world, keenly interested in the movements of men and
in the page of history that unrolled itself before htm day by day.
To the discussion of things new, as readily as of things old, aided
by a capacious, retentive and ready memory, which dispensed
with reference to printed pages, he brought also the exquisite
keenness and subtlety of his highly analytic and imaginative
intellect, the illustrative stores of his vast and varied erudition,
and that large infusion of common sense which preserved him
from becoming at any time a mere doctrinaire, or visionary. If
he did not throw himself into any of the great popular contro-
versies or agitations of the day, it was not from any want of
sympathy with the struggles of humanity or the progress of
the race, but rather because his vocation was to apply to such
incidents of his own time, as to like incidents of all history, great
philosophical principles and tests of truth and power. In politics,
in the party sense of that term, he would probably have been
classed as a Liberal Conservative or Conservative Liberal — at
one period of his life perhaps the former, and at a later the latter.
Originally, as we have seen, his surroundings were aristocratic,
in his middle life his associates, notably Wordsworth, Southey
and Wilson, were all Tories; but he seems never to have held the
extreme and narrow views of that circle. Though a flavour of
high breeding runs through his writings, he has no vulgar sneers
at the vulgar. As he advanced in years his views became more
and more decidedly liberal, but he was always as far removed
from Radicalism as from Toryism, and may be described as a
philosophical politician, capable of classification under no definite
party name or colour. Of political economy he had been an
early and earnest student, and projected, if he did not so far
proceed with, an elaborate and systematic treatise on the science,
of which all that appears, however, are his fragmentary Dialogues
on the system of Ricardo, published in the London Magazine in
1824, and The Logic of Political Economy (1844). But political

DE QUINCEY

and economic problems largely exercised his thoughts, and his
historical sketches show that he is constantly alive to their
interpenetrating influence. The same may be said of his bio-
graphies, notably of his remarkable sketch of Dr Parr. Neither
politics nor economics, however, exercised an absorbing influence
on his mind, — they were simply provinces in the vast domain of
universal speculation through which he ranged " with unconfined
wings." How wide and varied was the region he traversed a
glance at the titles of the papers which make up his collected —
or more properly, selected— works (for there was much matter
of evanescent interest not reprinted) sufficiently shows. Some
things in his own line he has done perfectly; he has written
many pages of magnificently mixed argument, irony, humour
and eloquence, which, for sustained brilliancy, richness, subtle
force and purity of style and effect, have simply no parallels;
and he is without peer the prince of dreamers. The use of opium
no doubt stimulated this remarkable faculty of reproducing in
skilfully selected phrase the grotesque and shifting forms of that
" cloudland, gorgeous land," which opens to the sleep-closed eye.

To the appreciation of De Quincey the reader must bring an
imaginative faculty somewhat akin to his own — a certain general
culture, and large knowledge of books, and men and things.
Otherwise much of that slight and delicate allusion that gives
point and colour and charm to his writings will be missed; and
on this account the full enjoyment and comprehension of De
Quincey must always remain a luxury of the literary and in-
tellectual. But his skill in narration, his rare pathos, his wide
sympathies, the pomp of his dream-descriptions, the exquisite
playfulness of his lighter dissertations, and his abounding
though delicate and subtle humour, commend him to a larger
class. Though far from being a professed humorist — a char-
acter he. would have shrunk from — there is no more expert
worker in a sort of half-veiled and elaborate humour and
irony than De Quincey; but he employs those resources for
the most part secondarily. Only in one instance has he given
himself up to them unreservedly and of set purpose,
namely, in the famous " Essay on Murder considered as one
of the Fine Arts," published in Blackwood, — an effort which,
admired and admirable though it be, is also, it must be
allowed, somewhat strained. His style, full and flexible, pure
and polished, is peculiarly his own; yet it is not the style of a
mannerist,— its charm is, so to speak, latent; the form never
obtrudes; the secret is only discoverable by analysis and study.
It consists simply in the reader's assurance of the writer's
complete mastery over all the infinite applicability and resources
of the English language. Hence involutions and parentheses,
" cycle on epicycle," evolve themselves into a stately clearness
and harmony; and sentences and paragraphs, loaded with
suggestion, roll on smoothly and musically, without either
fatiguing or cloying — rather, indeed, to the surprise as well as
delight of the reader; for De Quincey is always ready to indulge
hi feats of style, witching the world with that sort of noble
horsemanship which is as graceful as it is daring.

It has been complained that, in spite of the apparently full
confidences of the Confessions and Autobiographic Sketches,
readers are left in comparative ignorance, biographically speaking,
of the man De Quincey. Two passages in his Confessions afford
sufficient clues to this mystery. In one he describes himself
" as framed for love and all gentle affections," and in another
confesses to the " besetting infirmity " of being " too much of an
eudaemonist." " I hanker," he says, " too much after a state of
happiness, both for myself and others; I cannot face misery,
whether my own or not, with an eye of sufficient firmness, and
am little capable of surmounting present pain for the sake of
any recessionary benefit." His sensitive disposition dictated the
ignoring in his writings of traits merely personal to himself, as
well as his ever-recurrent resort to opium as a doorway of escape
from present ill; and prompted those habits of seclusion, and
that apparently capricious abstraction of himself from the society
not only of his friends, but of his own family, in which he from
time to time persisted. He confessed to occasional accesses of
an almost irresistible impulse to flee to the labyrinthine shelter

of some great city like London or Paris, — there to dwell solitary
amid a multitude, buried by day in the cloister-like recesses of
mighty libraries, and stealing away by night to some obscure
lodging. Long indulgence in seclusion, and in habits of study the
most lawless possible in respect of regular hours or any con-
siderations of health or comfort, — the habit of working as pleased
himself without regard to the divisions of night or day, of times
of sleeping or waking, even of the slow procession of the seasons,
had latterly so disinclined him to the restraints, however slight,
of ordinary social intercourse, that he very seldom submitted
to them. On such rare occasions, however, as he did appear,
perhaps at some simple meal with a favoured friend, or in later
years in his own small but refined domestic circle, he was the most
charming of guests, hosts or companions. A short and fragile,
but well-prcportioned frame; a shapely and compact head; a
face beaming with intellectual light, with rare, almost feminine
beauty of feature and complexion; a fascinating courtesy of
manner; and a fulness, swiftness and elegance of silvery
speech, — such was the irresistible " mortal mixture of earth's
mould " that men named De Quincey. He possessed in a high
degree what James Russell Lowell called " the grace of perfect
breeding, everywhere persuasive, and nowhere emphatic "; and
his whole aspect and manner exercised an undefinable attraction
over every one, gentle or simple, who came within its influence;
for shy as he was, he was never rudely shy, making good his
boast that he had always made it his " pride to converse familiarly
more socratico with all human beings — man, woman and child " —
looking on himself as a catholic creature standing in an equal
relation to high and low, to educated and uneducated. He would
converse with a peasant lad or a servant girl in phrase as choice,
and sentences as sweetly turned, as if his interlocutor were his
equal both in position and intelligence; yet without a suspicion
of pedantry, and with such complete adaptation of style and topic
that his talk charmed the humblest as it did the highest that
listened to it. His conversation was not a monologue; if he had
the larger share, it was simply because his hearers were only too
glad that it should be so; he would listen with something like
deference to very ordinary talk, as if the mere fact of the speaker
being one of the same company entitled him to all consideration
and respect. The natural bent of his mind and disposition, and
his life-long devotion to letters, to say nothing of his opium
eating, rendered him, it must be allowed, regardless of ordinary
obligations in life — domestic and pecuniary — to a degree that
would have been culpable in any less singularly constituted
mind. It was impossible to deal with or judge De Quincey
by ordinary standards — not even his publishers did so. Much
no doubt was forgiven him, but all that needed forgiveness
is covered by the kindly veil of time, while his merits as a master
in English literature are still gratefully acknowledged.1 ,

[BIBLIOGRAPHY. — In r853 De Quincey began to prepare an edition
of his works, Selections Grave and Gay. Writings Published and Un-
published (14 vols., Edinburgh, 1853-1860), followed by a second
edition (1863-1871) with notes by James Hogg and two additional
volumes ; a further supplementary volume appeared in 1878. The
first comprehensive edition, however, was printed in America
(Boston, 20 vols., 1850-1855); and the "Riverside" edition
(Boston and New York, 12 vols., 1877) is still fuller. The standard
English edition is The Collected Writings of Thomas De Quincey (14
vols., Edinburgh, 1889-1 890), edited by David Masson, whoalsowrote
his biography (1881) for the " English Men of Letters " series. The
Uncollected Writings of Thomas De Quincey (London, 2 vols., 1890)
contains a preface and annotations by James Hogg ; The Posthumous
Writings of Thomas De Quincey (2 vols., 1891-1893) were edited by
A. H. Japp (" H. A. Page "), who wrote the standard biography,
Thomas De Quincey: his Life and Writings (London, 2 vols., and ed.,
1879), and De Quincey Memorials (2 vols., 1891). See also Arvede
Barine, Nevroses (Pans, 1898) ; Sir L. Stephen, Hours in a Library;
H. S. Salt, De Quincey (1904) ; and De Quincey and his Friends (1895),
a collection edited by James Hogg, which includes essays by Dr Hill
Burton and Shadworth Hodgson.] (J. R. F.)

1 The above account has been corrected and amplified in some
statements of fact for this edition. Its original author, John Ritchie
Findlay (1824-1898), proprietor of The Scotsman newspaper, and the
donor of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery in Edinburgh, had
been intimate with De Quincey, and in 1886 published his Personal
Recollections of him.

DERA GHAZI KHAN— DERBY, EARLS OF

DERA GHAZI KHAN, a town and district of British India,
in the Punjab. In 1001 the town had a population of 21,700.
There are several handsome mosques in the native quarter. It
commands the direct approaches to the Baluch highlands by
Sakki Sarwar and Fort Monro. For many years past both the
town and cantonment have been threatened by the erosion of
the river Indus. The town was founded at the close of the 1 5th
century and named after Ghazi Khan, son of Haji Khan, a
Baluch chieftain, who after holding the country for the Langah
sultans of Multan had made himself independent. Together
with the two other deras (settlements), Dera Ismail Khan and
Dera Fateh Khan, it gave its name to the territorial area locally
and historically known as Derajat, which after many vicissitudes
came into the possession of the British after the Sikh War, in 1849,
and was divided into the two districts of Dera Ghazi Khan and
Dera Ismail Khan.

The DISTRICT or DERA GHAZI KHAN contains an area of
5306 sq. m. The district is a long narrow strip of country,
198 m. in length, sloping gradually from the hills which form
its western boundary to the river Indus on the east. Below
the hills the country is high and arid, generally level, but some-
tunes rolling in sandy undulations, and much intersected by hill
torrents, 201 in number. With the exceptions of two, these
streams dry up after the rains, and their influence is only felt for
a few miles below the hills. The eastern portion of the district is
at a level sufficiently low to benefit by the floods of the Indus. A
barren tract intervenes between these zones, and is beyond the
reach of the hill streams on the one hand and of the Indus on the
other. Although liable to great extremes of temperature, and
to a very scanty rainfall, the district is not unhealthy. The
population in 1001 was 471,149, the great majority being Baluch
Mahommedans. The principal exports are wheat and indigo.
The only manufactures are for domestic use. There is no railway
in the district, and only 29 m. of metalled road. The Indus,
which is nowhere bridged within the district, is navigable by
native boats. The geographical boundary between the Pathan
and Baluch races in the hills nearly corresponds with the northern
limit of the district. The frontier tribes on the Dera Ghazi Khan
border include the Kasranis, Bozdars, Khosas, Lagharis,
Khetvans, Gurchanis, Mazaris, Mariris and Bugtis. The chief
of these are described under their separate names.

DERA ISMAIL KHAN, a town and district hi the Derajat
division of the North- West Frontier Province of India. The town
is situated near the right bank of the Indus, which is here crossed
by a bridge of boats during half the year. In 1901 it had a
population of 31,737. It takes its name from Ismail Khan, a
Baluch chief who settled here towards the end of the I5th century,
and whose descendants ruled for 300 years. The old town was
swept away by a flood in 1823, and the present town stands 4 m.
back from the permanent channel of the river. The native quarters
are well laid out, with a large bazaar for Afghan traders. It is the
residence of many Mahommedan gentry. The cantonment accom-
modates abou t a brigade of troops. There is considerable through
trade with Afghanistan by the Gomal Pass, and there are local
manufactures of cotton cloth scarves and inlaid wood-work.

The DISTRICT OF DERA ISMAIL KHAN contains an area of 3403
sq. m. It was formerly divided into two almost equal portions
by the Indus, which intersected it from north to south. To the
west of the Indus the characteristics of the country resemble
those of Dera Ghazi Khan. To the east of the present bed of the
river there is a wide tract known as the Kachi, exposed to river
action. Beyond this, the country rises abruptly, and a barren,
almost desert plain stretches eastwards, sparsely cultivated, and
inhabited only by nomadic tribes of herdsmen. In 1901 ths
trans-Indus tract was allotted to the newly formed North- West
Frontier Province, the cis-Indus tract remaining in the Punjab
jurisdiction. The cis-Indus portions of the Dera Ismail Khan
and Bannu districts now comprise the new Punjab district, of
Mianiwali. In 1001 the population was 252,379. chiefly Pathan
and Baluch Mahommedans. Wheat and wool are exported.

The Indus is navigable by native boats throughout its course
of 120 m. within the district, which is the borderland of Pathan

and Baluch tribes, the Pathan element predominating. The chief
frontier tribes are the Sheranis and Ustaranas.

DERBENT, or DERBEND, a town of Russia, Caucasia, in the
province of Daghestan, on the western shore of the Caspian,
153 m. by rail N.W. of Baku, in 42° 4' N. and 48° 15' E. Pop.
(1873) 15,739; (1897) 14,821. It occupies a narrow strip of
land beside the sea, from which it climbs up the steep heights
inland to the citadel of Naryn-kaleh, and is on all sides except
towards the east surrounded by walls built of porous limestone.
Its general aspect is Oriental, owing to the flat roofs of its two-
storeyed houses and its numerous mosques. The environs are
occupied by vineyards, gardens and orchards, in which madder,
saffron and tobacco, as well as figs, peaches, pears and other
fruits, are cultivated. Earthenware, weapons and silk and cotton
fabrics are the principal products of the manufacturing industry.
To the north of the town is the monument of the Kirk-lar, or
" forty heroes," who fell defending Daghestan against the Arabs
in 728; and to the south lies the seaward extremity of the
Caucasian wall (50 m. long), otherwise known as Alexander's
wall, blocking the narrow pass of the Iron Gate or Caspian Gates
(Portae Albanae or Portae Caspiae). This, when entire, had a
height of 29 ft. and a thickness of about 10 ft., and with its iron
gates and numerous watch-towers formed a valuable defence of
the Persian frontier. Derbent is usually identified with Albana,
the capital of the ancient Albania. The modern name, a Persian
word meaning " iron gates," came into use in the end of the 5th
or the beginning of the 6th century, when the city was refounded
by Kavadh of the Sassanian dynasty of Persia. The walls and
the citadel are believed to belong to the time of Kavadh's son,
Khosrau (Chosroes) Anosharvan. In 728 the Arabs entered into
possession, and established a principality in the city, which they
called Bab-el-Abwab (" the principal gate "), Bab-el-Khadid
(" the iron gate "), and Seraill-el-Dagab (" the golden throne ").
The celebrated caliph, Harun-al-Rashid, lived hi Derbent at
different times, and brought it into great repute as a seat of the
arts and commerce. In 1220 it was captured by the Mongols,
and in the course of the succeeding centuries it frequently changed
masters. In 1722 Peter the Great of Russia wrested the town
from the Persians, but in 1 736 the supremacy of Nadu- Shah was
again recognized. In 1 796 Derbent was besieged by the Russians,
and in 1813 incorporated with the Russian empire.

DERBY, EARLS OF. The ist earl of Derby was probably
Robert de Ferrers (d. 1139), who is said by John of Hexham to
have been made an earl by King Stephen after the battle of
the Standard in 1138. Robert and his descendants retained
the earldom until 1266, when Robert (c. I24O-C. 1279), probably
the 6th earl, having taken a prominent part in the baronial
rising against Henry III., was deprived of his lands and practi-
cally of his title. These earlier earls of Derby were also known
as Earls Ferrers, or de Ferrers, from their surname; as earls
of Tutbury from their residence; and as earls of Nottingham
because this county was a lordship under their rule. The large
estates which were taken from Earl Robert in 1266 were given
by Henry III. in the same year to his son, Edmund, earl of
Lancaster; and Edmund's son, Thomas, earl of Lancaster,
called himself Earl Ferrers. In 1337 Edmund's grandson,
Henry (c. 1290-1361), afterwards duke of Lancaster, was created
earl of Derby, and this title was taken by Edward III.'s son,
John of Gaunt, who had married Henry's daughter, Blanche.
John of Gaunt's son and successor was Henry, earl of Derby,
who became king as Henry IV. in 1399.

In October 1485 Thomas, Lord Stanley, was created earl of
Derby, and the title has since been retained by the Stanleys,
who, however, have little or no connexion with the county
of Derby. Thomas also inherited the sovereign lordship of the
Isle of Man, which had been granted by the crown in 1406 to
his great-grandfather, Sir John Stanley; and this sovereignty
remained in possession of the earls of Derby till 1736, when it
passed to the duke of Atholl.

The earl of Derby is one of the three " catskin earls," the others
being the earls of Shrewsbury and Huntingdon. The term
" catskin " is possibly a corruption of quatre-skin, derived from

DERBY, EARLS OF

the fact that in ancient times the robes of an earl (as depicted
in some early representations) were decorated with four rows of
ermine, as in the robes of a modern duke, instead of the three
rows to which they were restricted in later centuries. The three
" catskin "earldoms are the only earldoms now in existence which
date from creations prior to the i?th century. (A. W. H.*)

THOMAS STANLEY, ist earl of Derby (c. 1435-1504), was
the son of Thomas Stanley, who was created Baron Stanley in
1456 and died in 1459. His grandfather, Sir John Stanley
(d. 1414), had founded the fortunes of his family by marrying
Isabel Lathom, the heiress of a great estate in the hundred of West
Derby in Lancashire; he was lieutenant of Ireland in 1380-1391,
and again in 1399-1401, and in 1405 received a grant of the
lordship of Man from Henry IV. The future earl of Derby was
a squire to Henry VI. in 1454, but not long afterwards married
Eleanor, daughter of the Yorkist leader, Richard Neville, earl of
Salisbury. At the battle of Blore Heath in August 1459 Stanley,
though close at hand with a large force, did not join the royal
army, whilst his brother William fought openly for York. In
1461 Stanley was made chief justice of Cheshire by Edward IV.,
but ten years later he sided with his brother-in-law Warwick in
the Lancastrian restoration. Nevertheless, after Warwick's fall,
Edward made Stanley steward of his household. Stanley served
with the king in the French expedition of 1475, and with Richard
of Gloucester in Scotland in 1482. About the latter date he
married, as his second wife, Margaret Beaufort, mother of the
exiled Henry Tudor. Stanley was one of the executors of
Edward IV., and was at first loyal to the young king Edward V.
But he acquiesced in Richard's usurpation, and retaining his
office as steward avoided any entanglement through his wife's
share in Buckingham's rebellion. He was made constable of
England in succession to Buckingham, and granted possession of
his wife's estates with a charge to keep her in some secret place at
home. Richard could not well afford to quarrel with so powerful
a noble, but early in 1485 Stanley asked leave to retire to his
estates in Lancashire. In the summer Richard, suspicious of his
continued absence, required him to send his eldest son, Lord
Strange, to court as a hostage. After Henry of Richmond had
landed, Stanley made excuses for not joining the king ; for his
son's sake he was obliged to temporize, even when his brother
William had been publicly proclaimed a traitor. Both the
Stanleys took the field; but whilst William was in treaty
with Richmond, Thomas professedly supported Richard. On
the morning of Bosworth (August 22), Richard summoned
Stanley to join him, and when he received an evasive reply
ordered Strange to be executed. In the battle it was William
Stanley who turned the scale in Henry's favour, but Thomas,
who had taken no part in the fighting, was the first to salute the
new king. Henry VII. confirmed Stanley in all his offices, and on
the 27th of October created him earl of Derby. As husband of
the king's mother Derby held a great position, which was not
affected by the treason of his brother William in February 1495.
In the following July the earl entertained the king and queen
with much state at Knowsley. Derby died on the zgth of July
1504. Strange had escaped execution in 1485, through neglect to
obey Richard's orders; but he died before his father in 1497, and
his son Thomas succeeded as second earl. An old poem called
The Song of the Lady Bessy, which was written by a retainer of
the Stanleys, gives a romantic story of how Derby was enlisted
by Elizabeth of York in the cause of his wife's son.

For fuller narratives see I. Gairdner's Richard III. and J. H.
Ramsay's Lancaster and York; also Seacome's Memoirs of the
House of Stanley (1741). (C. L. K.)

EDWARD STANLEY, 3rd earl of Derby (1508-1572), was a
son of Thomas Stanley, 2nd earl and grandson of the ist earl,
and succeeded to the earldom on his father's death in May 1521.
During his minority Cardinal Wolsey was his guardian, and as
soon as he came of age he began to take part in public life, being
often in the company of Henry VIII. He helped to quell the
rising in the north of England known as the Pilgrimage of Grace
in 1536; but remaining true to the Roman Catholic faith he
disliked and opposed the religious changes made under Edward
vni. — 3

VI. During Mary's reign the earl was more at ease, but under
Elizabeth his younger sons, Sir Thomas (d. 1 576) and Sir Edward
Stanley (d. 1609), were concerned in a plot to free Mary, queen of
Scots, and he himself was suspected of disloyalty. However, he
kept his numerous dignities until his death at Lathom House,
near Ormskirk, on the 24th of October 1572.

Derby's first wife was Katherine, daughter of Thomas Howard,
duke of Norfolk, by whom he had, with other issue, a son Henry,
the 4th earl (c. 1531-1593), who was a member of the council of
the North, and like his father was lord-lieutenant of Lancashire.
Henry was one of the commissioners who tried Mary, queen of
Scots, and was employed by Elizabeth on other high under-
takings both at home and abroad. He died on the 25th of
September 1593. His wife Margaret (d. 1596), daughter of
Henry Clifford, 2nd earl of Cumberland, was descended through
the Brandons from King Henry VII. Two of his sons, Ferdinando
(c. 1559-1594), and William (c. 1561-1642), became in turn the
5th and 6th earls of Derby. Ferdinando, the 5th ear! (d. 1594),
wrote verses, and is eulogized by the poet Spenser under the name
of Amyntas. (A. W. H.*)

JAMES STANLEY, 7th earl of Derby (1607-1651), sometimes
styled the Great Earl of Derby, eldest son of William, 6th
earl, and Elizabeth de Vere, daughter of Edward, i7th earl of
Oxford, was born at Knowsley on the 3ist of January 1607.
During his father's life he was known as Lord Strange. After
travelling abroad he was chosen member of parliament for
Liverpool in 1625, was created knight of the Bath on the occasion
of Charles's coronation in 1626, and was joined with his father
the same year as lieutenant of Lancashire and Cheshire and
chamberlain of Chester, and in the administration of the Isle of
Man, being appointed subsequently lord-lieutenant of North
Wales. On the 7th of March 1628 he was called up to the House
of Lords as Baron Strange. He took no part in the political
disputes between king and parliament and preferred country
pursuits and the care of his estates to court or public life. Never-
theless when the Civil War broke out in 1642, Lord Strange
devoted himself to the king's cause. His plan of securing
Lancashire at the beginning and raising troops there, which
promised success, was however discouraged by Charles, who was
said to be jealous of his power and royal lineage and who com-
manded his presence at Nottingham. His subsequent attempts
to recover the county were unsuccessful. He was unable to get
possession of Manchester, was defeated at Chowbent and Lowton
Moor, and in 1643 after gaining Preston failed to take Bolton and
Lancaster castles. Finally, after successfully beating off Sir
William Brereton's attack on Warrington, he was defeated at
Whalley and withdrew to York, Warrington in consequence
surrendering to the enemy's forces. In June he left for the Isle
of Man to attend to affairs there, and in the summer of 1644 he
took part in Prince Rupert's successful campaign in the north,
when Lathom House, where Lady Derby had heroically resisted
the attacks of the besiegers, was relieved, and Bolton Castle
taken. He followed Rupert to Marston Moor, and after the
complete defeat of Charles's cause in the north withdrew to the
Isle of Man, where he held out for the king and offered an asylum
to royalist fugitives. His administration of the island imitated
that of Strafford in Ireland. It was strong rather than just. He
maintained order, encouraged trade, remedied some abuses, and
defended the people from the exactions of the church; but he
crushed opposition by imprisoning his antagonists, and aroused a
prolonged agitation by abolishing the tenant-right and introduc-
ing leaseholds. In July 1649 he refused scornfully terms offered
to him by Ireton. By the death of his father on the 29th of
September 1642 he had succeeded to the earldom, and on the
1 2th of January 1650 he obtained the Garter. He was chosen by
Charles II. to command the troops of Lancashire and Cheshire,
and on the isth of August 1651 he landed at Wyre Water in
Lancashire in support of Charles's invasion, and met the king
on the 1 7th. Proceeding to Warrington he failed to obtain
the support of the Presbyterians through his refusal to take the
Covenant, and on the 25th was totally defeated at Wigan, being
severely wounded and escaping with difficulty. He joined

66

DERBY, EARLS OF

Charles at Worcester; after the battle on the 3rd of September
he accompanied him to Boscobel, and while on his way north
alone was captured near Nantwich and given quarter. He was
tried by court-martial at Chester on the 2gth of September, and
on the ground that he was a traitor and not a prisoner of war
under the act of parliament passed in the preceding month,
which declared those who corresponded with Charles guilty of
treason, his quarter was disallowed and he was condemned to
death. When his appeal for pardon to parliament was rejected,
though supported by Cromwell, he endeavoured to escape; but
was recaptured and executed at Bolton on the isth of October
1651. He was buried in Ormskirk church. Lord Derby was a
man of deep religious feeling and of great nobility of character,
who though unsuccessful in the field served the king's cause with
single-minded purpose and without expectation of reward. His
political usefulness was handicapped in the later stages of the
struggle by his dislike of the Scots, whom he regarded as guilty
of the king's death and as unfit instruments of the restoration.
According to Clarendon he was " a man of great honour and clear
courage," and his defects the result of too little knowledge of
the world. Lord Derby left in MS. " A Discourse concerning the
Government of the Isle of Man " (printed in the Stanley Papers
and in F. Peck's Desiderata Curiosa, vol. ii.) and several volumes
of historical collections, observations, devotions (Stanley Papers)
and a commonplace book. He married on the 26th of June 1626
Charlotte de la Tremoille (1590-1664), daughter of Claude, due
de Thouars, and granddaughter of William the Silent, prince
of Orange, by whom besides four daughters he had five sons, of
whom the eldest, Charles (1628-1672), succeeded him as 8th earl.
Charles's two sons, William, the pth earl (c. 1655-1702), and
James, the icth earl (1664-1736), both died without sons, and
consequently, when James died in February 1736, his titles and
estates passed to Sir Edward Stanley (1680-1776), a descendant
of the ist earl. From him the later earls were descended, the
1 2th earl (d. 1834) being his grandson.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Article in Diet, of Nat. Biog. with authorities
and article in same work on Charlotte Stanley, countess of Derby;
the Stanley Papers, with the too laudatory memoir by F. R. Haines
(Chetham Soc. publications, vols. 62, 66, 67, 70) ; Memoires, by De
Lloyd (1668), 572; State Trials, v. 293-324; Notes & Queries, viii.
Ser. iii. 246; Seacombe's House of Stanley] Clarendon's Hist, of
the Rebellion; Gardiner's Hist, of the Civil War and Protectorate;
The Land of Home Rule, by Spencer Walpole (1893); Hist, of
the Isle of Man, by A. W. Moore (1900); Manx Soc. publications,
vols. 3, 25, 27. (P. C. Y.)

EDWARD GEOFFREY SMITH STANLEY, i4th earl of Derby (1799-
1869), the " Rupert of Debate," born at Knowsley in Lanca-
shire on the 29th of March 1799, grandson of the I2th earl and
eldest son of Lord Stanley, subsequently (1834) i3th earl of Derby
(1775-1851). He was educated at Eton and at Christ Church,
Oxford, where he distinguished himself as a classical scholar,
though he took no degree. In 1819 he obtained the Chancellor's
prize for Latin verse, the subject being " Syracuse." He gave
early promise of his future eminence as an orator, and in his youth
he used to practise elocution under the instruction of Lady
Derby, his grandfather's second wife, the actress, Elizabeth
Farren. In 1820 he was returned for Stockbridge in Hampshire,
one of the nomination boroughs whose electoral rights were
swept away by the Reform Bill of 1832, Stanley being a warm
advocate of their destruction.

His maiden speech was delivered early in the session of 1824 in
the debate on a private bill for lighting Manchester with gas. On
the 6th of May 1824 he delivered a vehement and eloquent speech
against Joseph Hume's motion for a reduction of the Irish Church
establishment, maintaining in its most conservative form the
doctrine that church property is as sacred as private property.
From this time his appearances became frequent; and he soon
asserted his place as one of the most powerful speakers in the
House. Specially noticeable almost from the first was the skill
he displayed in reply. Macaulay, in an essay published in 1834,
remarked that he seemed to possess intuitively the faculty which
in most men is developed only by long and laborious practice. In
the autumn of 1824 Stanley went on an extended tour through

Canada and the United States in company with Mr Labo-uchere,
afterwards Lord Taunton, and Mr Evelyn Denison, afterwards
Lord Ossington. In May of the following year he married the
second daughter of Edward Bootle-Wilbraham, created Baron
Skelmersdale in 1828, by whom he had a family of two sons
and one daughter who survived.

At the general election of 1826 Stanley renounced his connec-
tion with Stockbridge, and became the representative of the
borough of Preston, where the Derby influence was paramount.
The change of seats had this advantage, that it left him free to
speak against the system of rotten boroughs, which he did with
great force during the Reform Bill debates, without laying himself
open to the charge of personal inconsistency as the representative
of a place where, according to Gay, cobblers used to " feast three
years upon one vote." In 1827 he and several other distinguished
Whigs made a coalition with Canning on the defection of the more
unyielding Tories, and he commenced his official life as under-
secretary for the colonies, but the coalition was broken up by
Canning's death in August. Lord Goderich succeeded to the
premiership, but he never was really in power, and he resigned
his place after the lapse of a few months. During the succeeding
administration of the duke of Wellington (1828-1830), Stanley
and those with whom he acted were in opposition. His robust
and assertive Liberalism about this period seemed curious after-
wards to a younger generation who knew him only as the very
embodiment of Conservatism.

By the advent of Lord Grey to power in November 1830,
Stanley obtained his first opportunity of showing his capacity for
a responsible office. He was appointed to the chief secretary-
ship of Ireland, a position in which he found ample scope
for both administrative and debating skill. On accepting
office he had to vacate his seat for Preston and seek re-election;
and he had the mortification of being defeated by the Radical
" orator " Hunt. The contest was a peculiarly keen one, and
turned upon the question of the ballot, which Stanley refused to
support. He re-entered the House as one of the members for
Windsor, Sir Hussey Vivian having resigned in his favour. In 1 83 2
he again changed his seat, being returned for North Lancashire.

Stanley was one of the most ardent supporters of Lord Grey's
Reform Bill. Of this no other proof is needed than his frequent
parliamentary utterances, which were fully in sympathy with the
popular cry " The bill, the whole bill, and nothing but the bill."
Reference may be made especially to the speech he delivered on
the 4th of March 1831 on the adjourned debate on the second
reading of the bill, which was marked by all the higher qualities
of his oratory. Apart from his connexion with the general policy
of the government, Stanley had more than enough to have
employed all his energies in the management of his own depart-
ment. The secretary of Ireland has seldom an easy task; Stanley
found it one of peculiar difficulty. The country was in a very
unsettled state. The just concession that had been somewhat
tardily yielded a short time before in Catholic emancipation
had excited the people to make all sorts of demands, reasonable
and unreasonable. Undaunted by the fierce denunciations of
O'Connell, who styled him Scorpion Stanley, he discharged with
determination the ungrateful task of carrying a coercion bill
through the House. It was generally felt that O'Connell,
powerful though he was, had fairly met his match in Stanley,
who, with invective scarcely inferior to his own, evaded no
challenge, ignored no argument, and left no taunt unanswered.
The title " Rupert of Debate " is peculiarly applicable to him
in connexion with the fearless if also often reckless method of
attack he showed in his parliamentary war with O'Connell.
It was first applied to him, however, thirteen years later by Sir
Edward Bulwer Lytton in The New Timon: —

" One after one the lords of time advance ;
Here Stanley meets — here Stanley scorns the glance!
The brilliant chief, irregularly great,
Frank, haughty, rash, — the Rupert of debate."

The best answer, however, which he made to the attacks of the
great agitator was not the retorts of debate, effective though
these were, but the beneficial legislation he was instrumental in

DERBY, EARLS OF

67

passing. He introduced and carried the first national education
act for Ireland, one result of which was the remarkable and to
many almost incredible phenomenon of a board composed
of Catholics, Episcopalians and Presbyterians harmoniously
administering an efficient education scheme. He was also chiefly
responsible for the Irish Church Temporalities Act, though the
bill was not introduced into parliament until after he had quitted
the Irish secretaryship for another office. By this measure two
archbishoprics and eight bishoprics were abolished, and a remedy
was provided for various abuses connected with the revenues of
the church. As originally introduced, the bill contained a clause
authorizing the appropriation of surplus revenues to non-
ecclesiastical purposes. This had, however, been strongly opposed
from the first by Stanley and several other members of the
cabinet, and it was withdrawn by the government before the
measure reached the Lords.

In 1833, just before the introduction of the Irish Church
Temporalities Bill, Stanley had been promoted to be secretary
for the colonies with a seat in the cabinet. In this position it fell
to his lot to carry the emancipation of the slaves to a successful
practical issue. The speech which he delivered on introducing
the biU for freeing the slaves in the West Indies, on the i4th of
May 1833, was one of the finest specimens of his eloquence.

The Irish Church question determined more than one turning-
point in his political career. The most important occasion on
which it did so was in 1834, when the proposal of the government
to appropriate the surplus revenues of the church to educational
purposes led to his secession from the cabinet, and, as it proved,
his complete and final separation from the Whig party. In the
former of these steps he had as his companions Sir James Graham,
the earl of Ripon and the duke of Richmond. Soon after it
occurred, O'Connell, amid the laughter of the House, described
the secession in a couplet from Canning's Loves of the Triangles: —
" Still down thy steep, romantic Ashbourne, glides
The Derby dilly carrying six insides."

Stanley was not content with marking his disapproval by the
simple act of withdrawing from the cabinet. He spoke against the
bill to which he objected with a vehemence that showed the
strength of his feeling in the matter, and against its authors with
a bitterness that he himself is understood to have afterwards
admitted to have been unseemly towards those who had so
recently been his colleagues. The course followed by the govern-
ment was " marked with all that timidity, that want of dexterity,
which led to the failure of the unpractised shoplifter." His late
colleagues were compared to "thimble-riggers at a country fair,"
and their plan was "petty larceny, for it had not the redeeming
qualities of bold and open robbery."

In the end of 1834, Lord Stanley, as he was now styled by
courtesy, his father having succeeded to the earldom in October,
was invited by Sir Robert Peel to join the short-lived Con-
servative ministry which he formed after the resignation of Lord
Melbourne. Though he declined the offer for reasons stated in a
letter published in the Peel memoirs, he acted from that date
with the Conservative party, and on its next accession to power,
in 1841, he accepted the office of colonial secretary, which he had
held under Lord Grey. His position and his temperament alike,
however, made him a thoroughly independent supporter of any
party to which he attached himself. When, therefore, the injury
to health arising from the late hours in the Commons led him
in 1844 to seek elevation to the Upper House in the right of his
father's barony, Sir Robert Peel, in acceding to his request, had
the satisfaction of at once freeing himself from the possible effects
of his " candid friendship " in the House, and at the same time
1 greatly strengthening the debating power on the Conservative
side in the other. If the premier in taking this step had any
presentiment of an approaching difference on a vital question, it
was not long in being realized. When Sir Robert Peel accepted
the policy of free trade in 1846, the breach between him and Lord
Stanley was, as might have been anticipated from the antecedents
of the latter, instant and irreparable. Lord Stanley at once
asserted himself as the uncompromising opponent of that policy,
and he became the recognized leader of the Protectionist party,

having Lord George Bentinck and Disraeli for his lieutenants
in the Commons. They did all that could be done in a case in
which the logic of events was against them, though Protection
was never to become more than their watchword.

It is one of the peculiarities of English politics, however, that
a party may come into power because it is the only available one
at the time, though it may have no chance of carrying the very
principle to which it owes its organized existence. Such was the
case when Lord Derby, who had succeeded to the earldom on the
death of his father in June 1851, was called upon to form his first
administration in February 1852. He was in a minority, but the
circumstances were such that no other than a minority govern-
ment was possible, and he resolved to take the only available
means of strengthening his position by dissolving parliament and
appealing to the country at the earliest opportunity. The appeal
was made in autumn, but its result did not materially alter the
position of parties. Parliament met in November, and by the
middle of the following month the ministry had resigned in
consequence of their defeat on Disraeli's budget. For the six
following years, during Lord. Aberdeen's "ministry of all the
talents " and Lord Palmerston's premiership, Lord Derby
remained at the head of the opposition, whose policy gradually
became more generally Conservative and less distinctively
Protectionist as the hopelessness of reversing the measures
adopted in 1846 made itself apparent. In 1855 he was asked to
form an administration after the resignation of Lord Aberdeen,
but failing to obtain sufficient support, he declined the task. It
was in somewhat more hopeful circumstances that, after the
defeat of Lord Palmerston on the Conspiracy Bill in February
1858, he assumed for the second time the reins of government.
Though he still could not count upon a working majority, there
was a possibility of carrying on affairs without sustaining defeat,
which was realized for a full session, owing chiefly to the dexterous
management of Mr Disraeli in the Commons. The one rock
ahead was the question of reform, on which the wishes of the
country were being emphatically expressed, but it was not so
pressing as to require to be immediately dealt with. During the
session of 1858 the government contrived to pass two measures
of very considerable importance, one a bill to remove Jewish
disabilities, and the other a bill to transfer the government of
India from the East India Company to the crown. Next year
the question of parliamentary reform had to be faced, and,
recognizing the necessity, the government introduced a bill
at the opening of the session, which, in spite of, or rather in
consequence of, its " fancy franchises," was rejected by the
House, and, on a dissolution, rejected also by the country. A
vote of no confidence having been passed in the new parliament
on the loth of June, Lord Derby at once resigned.

After resuming the leadership of the Opposition Lord Derby
devoted much of the leisure the position afforded him to the
classical studies that had always been congenial to him. It was
his reputation for scholarship as well as his social position that
had led in 1852 to his appointment to the chancellorship of the
university of Oxford, in succession to the duke of Wellington ;
and perhaps a desire to justify the possession of the honour on
the former ground had something to do with his essays in the
field of authorship. His first venture was a poetical version of the
ninth ode of the third book of Horace, which appeared in Lord
Ravensworth's collection of translations of the Odes. In 1862 he
printed and circulated in influential quarters a volume entitled
Translations of Poems Ancient and Modern, with a very modest
dedicatory letter to Lord Stanhope, and the words " Not
published " on the title-page. It contained, besides versions of
Latin, Italian, French and German poems, a translation of the
first book of the Iliad. The reception of this volume was such as
to encourage him to proceed with the task he had chosen as his
magnum opus, the translation of the whole of the Iliad, which
accordingly appeared in 1864.

During the seven years that elapsed between Lord Derby's
second and third administrations an industrial crisis occurred
in his native county, which brought out very conspicuously his
public spirit and his philanthropy. The destitution in Lancashire

68

DERBY, EARLS OF

caused by the stoppage of the cotton-supply in consequence of the
American Civil War, was so great as to threaten to overtax the
benevolence of the country. That it did not do so was probably
due to Lord Derby more than to any other single man. From the
first he was the very life and soul of the movement for relief. His
personal subscription, munificent though it was, represented the
least part of his service. His noble speech at the meeting in
Manchester in December 1862, where the movement was initiated,
and his advice at the subsequent meetings of the committee,
which he attended very regularly, were of the very highest value
in stimulating and directing public sympathy. His relations
with Lancashire had always been of the most cordial description,
notwithstanding his early rejection by Preston; but it is not
surprising that after the cotton famine period the cordiality
passed into a warmer and deeper feeling, and that the name of
Lord Derby was long cherished in most grateful remembrance
by the factory operatives.

On the rejection of Earl Russell's Reform Bill in 1866, Lord
Derby was for the third time entrusted with the formation of a
cabinet. Like those he had previously formed it was destined to
be short-lived, but it lived long enough to settle on a permanent
basis the question that had proved fatal to its predecessor. The
" education " of the party that had so long opposed all reform to
the point of granting household suffrage was the work of another;
but Lord Derby fully concurred in, if he was not the first to
suggest, the statesmanlike policy by which the question was
disposed of in such a way as to take it once for all out of the region
of controversy and agitation. The passing of the Reform Bill was
the main business of the session 1867. The chief debates were, of
course, in the Commons, and Lord Derby's failing powers pre-
vented him from taking any large share in those which took place
in the Lords. His description of the measure as a " leap in the
dark " was eagerly caught up, because it exactly represented the
common opinion at the time, — the most experienced statesmen,
while they admitted the granting of household suffrage to be a
political necessity, being utterly unable to foresee what its effect
might be on the constitution and government of the country.

Finding himself unable, from declining health, to encounter
the fatigues of another session, Lord Derby resigned office early
in 1868. The step he had taken was announced in both Houses
on the evening of the 2$th of February, and warm tributes of
admiration and esteem were paid by the leaders of the two great
parties. He yielded the entire leadership of the party as well
as the premiership to Disraeli. His subsequent appearances in
public were few and unimportant. It was noted as a consistent
close to his political life that his last speech in the House of Lords
should have been a denunciation of Gladstone's Irish Church Bill
marked by much of his early fire and vehemence. A few months
later, on the 23rd of October 1869, he died at Knowsley.

Sir Archibald Alison, writing of him when he was in the zenith
of his powers, styles him " by the admission of all parties the
most perfect orator of his day." Even higher was the opinion of
Lord Aberdeen, who is reported by The Times to have said that
no one of the giants he had listened to in his youth, Pitt, Fox,
Burke or Sheridan, " as a speaker, is to be compared with our
own Lord Derby, when Lord Derby is at his best." (W.B.S.)

EDWARD HENRY STANLEY, isth earl of Derby (1826-
1893), eldest son of the i4th earl, was educated at Rugby
and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took a high degree
and became a member of the society known as the Apostles. In
March 1848 he unsuccessfully contested the borough of Lancaster,
and then made a long tour in the West Indies, Canada and the
United States. During his absence he was elected member for
King's Lynn, which he represented till October 1869, when he
succeeded to the peerage. He took his place, as a matter of
course, among the Conservatives, and delivered his maiden speech
in May 1850 on the sugar duties. Just before, he had made a
very brief tour in Jamaica and South America. In 1852 he went
to India, and while travelling in that country he was appointed
under-secretary for foreign affairs in his father's first administra-
tion. From the outset of his career he was known to be a most
Liberal Conservative, and in 1855 Lord Palmerston offered him

the post of colonial secretary. He was much tempted by the
proposal, and hurried down to Knowsley to consult his father,
who called out when he entered the room, "Hallo, Stanley!
what brings you here ? — Has Dizzy cut his throat, or are you
going to be married ? " When the object of his sudden appear-
ance had been explained, the Conservative chief received the
courteous suggestion of the prime minister with anything but
Favour, and the offer was declined. In his father's second
administration Lord Stanley held, at first, the office of secretary
for the colonies, but became president of the Board of Control on
the resignation of Lord EUenborough. He had the charge of the
India Bill of 1858 in the House of Commons, became the first
secretary of state for India, and left behind him in the India
Office an excellent reputation as a man of business. After the
revolution in Greece and the disappearance of King Otho, the
people most earnestly desired to have Queen Victoria's second
son, Prince Alfred, for their king. He declined the honour, and
they then took up the idea that the next best thing they could
do would be to elect some great and wealthy English noble, not
concealing the hope that although they might have to offer him
a Civil List he would decline to receive it. Lord Stanley was the
prime favourite as an occupant of this bed of thorns, and it has
been said that he was actually offered the crown. That, however,
is not true; the offer was never formally made. After the fall of
the Russell government in 1866 he became foreign secretary in
his father's third administration. He compared his conduct in
that great post to that of a man floating down a river and fending
off from his vessel, as well as he could, the various obstacles it
encountered. He thought that that should be the normal
attitude of an English foreign minister, and probably under the
circumstances of the years 1866-1868 it was the right one. He
arranged the collective guarantee of the neutrality of Luxemburg
in 1867, negotiated a convention about the " Alabama," which,
however, was not ratified, and most wisely refused to take any
part in the Cretan troubles. In 1874 he again became foreign
secretary in Disraeli's government. He acquiesced in the
purchase of the Suez Canal shares, a measure then considered
dangerous by many people, but ultimately most successful; he
accepted the Andrassy Note, but declined to accede to the Berlin
Memorandum. His part in the later phases of the Russo-Turkish
struggle has never been fully explained, for with equal wisdom
and generosity he declined to gratify public curiosity at the cost
of some of his colleagues. A later generation will know better
than his contemporaries what were the precise developments of
policy which obliged him to resign. He kept himself ready to
explain in the House of Lords the course he had taken if those
whom he had left challenged him to do so, but from that course
theyconsistently.refrained. Already in October i879itwas clear
enough that he had thrown in his lot with the Liberal party, but
it was not till March 1880 that he publicly announced this change
of allegiance. He did not at first take office in the second
Gladstone government, but became secretary for the colonies in
December 1882, holding this position till the fall of that govern-
ment in the summer of 1885. In 1886 the old Liberal party was
run on the rocks and went to pieces. Lord Derby became a
Liberal Unionist, and took an active part in the general manage-
ment of that party, leading it in the House of Lords till 1801,
when Lord Hartington became duke of Devonshire. In 1892 he
presided over the Labour Commission, but his health never
recovered an attack of influenza which he had in 1891, and he
died at Knowsley on the 2ist of April 1893.

During a great part of Lord Derby's life he was deflected from
his natural course by the accident of his position as the son of the
leading Conservative statesman of the day. From first to last *
he was at heart a moderate Liberal. After making allowance,
however, for this deflecting agency, it must be admitted that in
the highest quality of the statesman, " aptness to be right," he
was surpassed by none of his contemporaries, or — if by anybody
— by Sir George Cornewall Lewis alone. He would have been
more at home in a state of things which did not demand from its
leading statesman great popular power; he had none of those
" isms " and " prisms of fancy " which stood in such good stead

DERBY

69

some of his rivals. He had another defect besides the want
of popular power. He was so anxious to arrive at right con-
clusions that he sometimes turned and turned and turned a
subject over till the time for action had passed. One of his best
lieutenants said of him in a moment of impatience: " Lord
Derby is like the God of Hegel: ' Er setzt sich, er verneint sich,
er verneint seine Negation.' " His knowledge, acquired both
from books and by the ear, was immense, and he took every
opportunity of increasing it. He retained his old university
habit of taking long walks with a congenial companion, even in
London, and although he cared but little for what is commonly
known as society — the society of crowded rooms and fragments
of sentences — he very much liked conversation. During the
many years in which he was a member of " The Club " he was
one of its most assiduous frequenters, and his loss was acknow-
ledged by a formal resolution. His talk was generally grave, but
every now and then was lit up by dry humour. The late Lord
Arthur Russell once said to him, after he had been buying some
property in southern England: " So you still believe in land,
Lord Derby." " Hang it," he replied, " a fellow must believe in
something! " He did an immense deal of work outside politics.
He was lord rector of the University of Glasgow from 1868 to
1871, and later held the same office in that of Edinburgh. From
1875 to 1893 he was president of the Royal Literary Fund, and
attended most closely to his duties then. He succeeded Lord
Granville as chancellor of the University of London in 1891, and
remained in that position till his death. He lived much in
Lancashire, managed his enormous estates with great skill, and
did a great amount of work as a local magnate. He married in
1870 Maria Catharine, daughter of the 5th earl de la Warr, and
widow of the 2nd marquess of Salisbury.

The earl left no children and he was succeeded as i6th earl
by his brother Frederick Arthur Stanley (1841-1908), who had
been made a peer as Baron Stanley of Preston in 1886. He was
secretary of state for war and for the colonies and president of
the board of trade; and was governor-general of Canada from
1888 to 1893. He died on the i4th of June 1908, when his eldest
son, Edward George Villiers Stanley, became earl of Derby. As
Lord Stanley the latter had been member of parliament for the
West Houghton division of Lancashire from 1892 to 1906; he
was financial secretary to the War Office from 190x5 to 1903, and
postmaster-general from 1903 to 1905.

The best account of the I5th Lord Derby is that which was
prefixed by W. E. H. Lecky, who knew him very intimately,
to the edition of his speeches outside parliament, published in
1894. (M. G. D.)

DERBY, a city of New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A.,
coextensive with the township of Derby, about 10 m. W. of New
Haven, at the junction of the Housatonic and Naugatuck rivers.
Pop. (1900) 7930 (2635 foreign-born); (1910) 8991. It is served
by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and by
interurban electric railways. In Derby there are an opera house,
owned by the city, and a public library. Across the Housatonic
is the borough of Shelton (pop. 1910, 4807), which is closely
related, socially and industrially, to Derby, the two having a
joint board of trade. Adjoining Derby on the N. along the
Naugatuck is Ansonia. Derby, Ansonia and Shelton form one of
the most important manufacturing communities in the etate;
although their total population in 1900 (23,448) was only 2-9%
of the state's population, the product of their manufactories was
7-4% of the total manufactured product of Connecticut. Among
the manufactures of Derby are pianos and organs, woollen goods,
pins, keys, dress stays, combs, typewriters, corsets, hosiery, guns
and ammunition, and foundry and machine-shop products.
Derby was settled in 1642 as an Indian trading post under the
name Paugasset, and received its present name in 1675. The
date of organization of the township is unknown. Ansonia was
formed from a part of Derby in 1889. In 1893 the borough of
Birmingham, on the opposite side of the Naugatuck, was annexed
to Derby, and Derby was chartered as a city. In the i8th
century Derby was the centre of a thriving commerce with the
West Indies. Derby is the birthplace of David Humphreys

(1752-1818), a soldier, diplomatist and writer, General
Washington's aide and military secretary from 1780 until the
end of the War of Independence, the first minister of the
United States to Portugal (1790-1797) and minister to Spain in
1797-1802, and one of the " Hartford Wits."

See Samuel Orcutt and Ambrose Beardsley, History of the Old
Town of Derby (Springfield, 1880); and the Town Records of Derby
from 1655 to 1710 (Derby, 1901).

DERBY, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough,
and the county town of Derbyshire, England, 128$ m. N.N.W.
of London by the Midland railway; it is also served by the
Great Northern railway. Pop. (1891) 94,146; (1901) 114,848.
Occupying a position almost in the centre of England, the town
is situated chiefly on the western bank of the river Derwent, on an
undulating site encircled with gentle eminences, from which flow
the Markeaton and other brooks. In the second half of the igth
century the prosperity of the town was enhanced by the establish-
ment of the head offices and principal workshops of the Midland
Railway Company. Derby possesses several handsome public
buildings, including the town hall, a spacious range of buildings
erected for the postal and inland revenue offices, the county hall,
corn exchange and market hall. Among churches may be
mentioned St Peter's a fine building principally of Perpendicular
date but with earlier portions; St Alkmund's with its lofty spire,
Decorated in style; St Andrew's, in the same style, by Sir G. G.
Scott; and All Saints', which contains a beautiful choir-screen,
good stained glass and monuments by L. F. Roubiliac, Sir
Francis Chantrey and others. The body of this church is in
classic style (1725), but the tower was built 1509-1527, and is one
of the finest in the midland counties, built in three tiers, and
crowned with battlements and pinnacles, which give it a total
height of 210 ft. The Roman Catholic church of St Mary is one
of the best examples of the work of A. W. Pugin. The Derby
grammar school, one of the most ancient in England, was placed
in 1 1 60 under the administration of the chapter of Darley Abbey,
which lay a little north of Derby. It occupies St Helen's House,
once the town residence of the Strutt family, and has been
enlarged in modern times, accommodating about 160 boys. The
Derby municipal technical college is administered by the corpora-
tion. Other institutions include schools of science and art,
public library, museum and art gallery, the Devonshire alms-
houses, a remodelled foundation inaugurated by Elizabeth,
countess of Shrewsbury, in the i6th century, and the town and
county infirmary. The free library and museum buildings,
together with a recreation ground, were gifts to the town from
M. T. Bass, M.P. (d. 1884), while an arboretum of seventeen
acres was presented to the town by Joseph Strutt in 1840.

Derby has been long celebrated for its porcelain, which
rivalled that of Saxony and France. This manufacture was
introduced about 1750, and although for a time partially
abandoned, it has been revived. There are also spar works where
the fluor-spar, or Blue John, is wrought into a variety of useful
and ornamental articles. The manufacture of silk, hosiery, lace
and cotton formerly employed a large portion of the population,
and there are still numerous silk mills and elastic web works.
Silk " throwing " or spinning was introduced into England in
1717 by John Lombe, who found out the secrets of the craft
when visiting Piedmont, and set up machinery in Derby. Other
industries include the manufacture of paint, shot, white and
red lead and varnish; and there are sawmills and tanneries.
The manufacture of hosiery profited greatly by the inventions
of Jedediah Strutt about 1750. In the northern suburb of
Littlechester, there are chemical and steam boiler works. The
Midland railway works employ a large number of hands. Derby
is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Southwell. The parlia-
mentary borough returns two members. The town is governed
by a mayor, sixteen aldermen and forty-two councillors. Area,
3449 acres.

Littlechester, as its name indicates, was the site of a Roman
fort or village; the site is in great part built over and the remains
practically effaced. Derby was known in the time of the
heptarchy as Northworthig, and did not receive the name of

DERBYSHIRE

Deoraby or Derby until after it was given up to the Danes by the
treaty of Wedmore and had become one of their five boroughs,
probably ruled in the ordinary way by an earl with twelve
" lawmen " under him. Being won back among the sweeping
conquests of iEthelflad, lady of the Mercians, in 91 7, it prospered
during the icth century, and by the reign of Edward the Con-
fessor there were 243 burgesses in Derby. However, by 1086 this
number had decreased to 100, while 103 " manses " which used
to be assessed were waste. In spite of this the amount rendered
by the town to the lord had increased from £24 to £30. The first
extant charter granted to Derby is dated 1 206 and is a grant of all
those privileges which the burgesses of Nottingham had in the
time of Henry I. and Henry II., which included freedom from toll,
a gild merchant, power to elect a provost at their will, and the
privilege of holding the town at the ancient farm with an increase
of £10 yearly. The charter also provides that no one shall dye
cloth within ten leagues of Derby except in the borough. A
second charter, granted by Henry III. in 1229, limits the power of
electing a provost by requiring that he shall be removed if he
be displeasing to the king. Henry III. also granted the burgesses
two other charters, one in 1225 confirming their privileges and
granting that the comitalus of Derby should in future be held on
Thursdays in the borough, the other in 1260 granting that no
Jew should be allowed to live in the town. In 1337 Edward III.
on the petition of the burgesses granted that they might have two
bailiffs instead of one. Derby was incorporated by James I. in
1611 under the name of the bailiffs and burgesses of Derby, but
Charles I. in 1637 appointed a mayor, nine aldermen, fourteen
brethren and fourteen capital burgesses. In 1680 the burgesses
were obliged to resign their charters, and received a new one,
which did not, however, alter the government of the town. Derby
has been represented in parliament by two members since 1295.
In the rebellion of 1745 the young Pretender marched with his
army as far south as Derby, where the council was held which
decided that he should return to Scotland instead of going on to
London.

Among early works on Derby are W. Hutton, History of Derby
(London, 1791); R. Simpson, History and Antiquities of Derby
(Derby, 1826).

DERBYSHIRE, a north midland county of England, bounded
N. and N.E. by Yorkshire, E. by Nottinghamshire, S.E. and S. by
Leicestershire, S. and S.W. by Staffordshire, and W. and N.W. by
Cheshire. The area is 1029- 5 sq. m. The physical aspect is much
diversified. The extreme south of the county is lacking in
picturesqueness, being for the most part level, with occasional
slight undulations. The Peak District of the north, on the other
hand, though inferior in grandeur to the mountainous Lake
District, presents some of the finest hill scenery in England,
deriving a special beauty from the richly wooded glens and
valleys, such as those of Castleton, Glossop, Dovedale and
Millersdale. The character of the landscape ranges from the wild
moorland of the Cheshire borders or the grey rocks of the Peak,
to the park lands and woods of the Chatsworth district. Some of
the woods are noted for their fine oaks, those at Kedleston, 3 m.
from Derby, ranking among the largest and oldest in the kingdom.
From the northern hills the streams of the county radiate.
Those of the north-west belong to the Mersey, and those of the
north-east to the Don, but all the others to the Trent, which, like
the Don, falls into the Humber. The principal river is the Trent,
which, rising in the Staffordshire moorlands, intersects the
southern part of Derbyshire, and forms part of its boundary
with Leicestershire. After the Trent the most important river
is the Derwent, one of its tributaries, which, taking its rise in the
lofty ridges of the High Peak, flows southward through a beautiful
valley, 'receiving a number of minor streams in its course, includ-
ing the Wye, which, rising near Buxton, traverses the fine
Millersdale and Monsal Dale. The other principal rivers are the
following: The Dane rises at the junction of the three counties,
Staffordshire, Cheshire and Derbyshire. The Goyt has its source
a little farther north, at the base of the same hill, and, taking a
N.N.E. direction, divides Derbyshire from Cheshire, and falls into
the Mersey. The Dove rises on the southern slope, and flows as

the boundary stream between Derbyshire and Staffordshire for
nearly its entire course. It receives several feeders, and falls into
the Trent near Repton. The Erewash is the boundary stream
between Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire. The Rother rises
about Baslow, and flows into Yorkshire, with a northerly course,
joining the Don. Besides the attractions of its scenery Derby-
shire possesses, in Buxton, Matlock and Bakewell, three
health resorts in much favour on account of their medicinal
springs.

The whole northward extension of the county is occupied by
the plateau of the Peak and other plateau-like summits, the
highest of which are of almost exactly similar elevation. Thus
in the extreme north Bleaklow Hill reaches 2060 ft., while
southward from this point along the axis of main elevation are
found Shelf Moss (2046 ft.), and Kinder Scout and other summits
of the Peak itself, ranging up to 2088 ft. This plateau-mass is
demarcated on the north and west by the vales of the Etherow
and Goyt, by the valley of the Derwent on the east, and in part
by that of its tributary the Noe on the south. The flanks of the
plateau are deeply scored by abrupt ravines, often known as
" cloughs " (an Anglo-Saxon word, cloh) watered by streams
which sometimes descend over precipitous ledges in picturesque
falls, such as the Kinder Downfall, formed by the brook of that
name v/hich rises on Kinder Scout. The most picturesque
cloughs are found on the south, descending to Edale, and on the
west. Edale is the upper part of the Noe valley, and the narrow
gorge at its head is exceedingly beautiful, as is the more gentle
scenery of the Vale of Hope, the lower part of the valley. In a
branch vale is situated Castleton (<?.».), with the ruined Peak
Castle or Castle of the Peak, and the Peak Cavern, Blue John
Mine and other caves. The upper Derwent valley, or Derwent
Dale, is narrow and well wooded. In it, near the village of
Derwent Chapel, is Derwent Hall, a fine old mansion formerly
a seat of the Newdigate family. On Derwent Edge, above the
village, are various peculiar rock formations, known by such
names as the Salt-cellar. Ashopton, another village lower down
the dale, is a favourite centre, and here the main valley is joined
by Ashop Dale, a bold defile in its upper part, penetrating the
heart of the Peak.

The well-known high road crossing the plateau from east to
west, between the lower Derwent valley, Bakewell, Buxton and
Macclesfield, shows the various types of scenery characteristic
of the limestone hill-country of Derbyshire south of the Peak
itself. The lower Derwent valley, about Chatsworth, Rowsley,
Darley and Matlock, is open, fertile and well wooded. The road
leads up the tributary valley of the Wye, which after Bakewell
quickly narrows, and in successive portions is known as Monsal
Dale, Millersdale (which the main road does not touch), Chee
Dale and Wye Dale. On the flanks of these beautiful dales bold
cliffs and bastions of limestone stand out among rich woods.
Near the mouth of the valley, about Stanton, the fantastic
effects of weathering on the limestone are especially well seen,
as in Rowtor Rocks and Robin Hood's Stride, and in the same
locality are a remarkable number of tumuli and other early
remains, and the Hermitage, a cave containing sacred carvings.
From Buxton the road ascends over the high moors, here open
and grassy in contrast to the heather of the Peak, and shortly
after crossing the county boundary, reaches the head of the pass
well known by the name of an inn, the Cat and Fiddle, at its
highest point, 1690 ft.

South of Buxton the elevations along the main axis decrease,
thus Axe Edge reaches 1600 ft., and this height is nowhere
exceeded as the hills sink to the plain valley of the Trent. The
dales and ravines which ramify among the limestone heights are
characteristic and beautiful, and the valley of the Dove (q.v.)
or Dovedale, on the border with Staffordshire, is as famous as
any of the northern dales. Swallow-holes or waterworn caverns
are common in many parts of the limestone region. The hills
east of the Derwent are nowhere so high as those to the west —
Margley Hill reaches 1793 ft., Howden Edge 1787 ft. and Der-
went Moors 1505 ft. The plateau type is maintained. The
valley of the Derwent provides the most attractive scenery in

DERBYSHIRE

the southern part of the county, from Matlock southward by
Heage, Belper and Duffield to Derby.

Geology. — Five well-contrasted types of scenery in Derbyshire are
clearly traceable to as many varieties of rock ; the bleak dry uplands
of the north and east, with deep-cut ravines and swift clear streams,
are due to the great mass of Mountain Limestone; round the lime-
stone boundary are the valleys with soft outlines in the Pendleside
Shales; these are succeeded by the rugged moorlands, covered with
heather and peat, which are due to the Millstone Grit series; east-
ward lies the Derbyshire Coalfield with its gently moulded grass-
covered hills; southward is the more level tract of red Triassic rocks.
The principal structural feature is the broad anticline, its axis running
north and south, which has brought up the Carboniferous Limestone ;
this uplifted region is the southern extremity of the Pennine Range.
The Carboniferous or " Mountain " Limestone is the oldest formation
in the county; its thickness is not known, but it is certainly over
2000 ft. ; it is well exposed in the numerous narrow gorges cut by the
Derwent and its tributaries and by the Dove on the Staffordshire
border. Ashwood Dale, Chee Dale, Millersdale, Monsal Dale and the
valley at Matlock are all flanked by abrupt sides of this rock. It is
usually a pale, thick-bedded rock, sometimes blue and occasionally,
as at Ashford, black. In some places, e.g. Thorpe Cloud, it is highly
fossiliferous, but it is usually somewhat barren except for abundant
crinoids and smaller organisms. It is polished in large slabs at
Ashford, where crinoidal, black and " rosewood " marbles are pro-
duced. Volcanic rocks, locally called " Toadstone,"_are represented
in the limestones by intrusive sills and flows of dolerite and by necks
of agglomerate, notably near Tideswell, Millersdale and Matlock.
Beds and nodules of chert are abundant in the upper parts of the
limestone; at Bakewell it is quarried for use in the Potteries. At
some points the limestone has been dolomitized ; near Bpnsall it has
been converted into a granular silicified rock. A series of black
shales with nodular limestones, the Pendleside series, rests upon the
Mountain Limestone on the east, south and north-west ; much of the
upper course of the Derwent has been cut through these soft beds.
Mam Tor, or the Shivering Mountain, is made of these shales. Next
in upward sequence is a thick mass of sandstones, grits and shales —
the Millstone Grit series. On the west side these extend from
Blacklow Hill to Axe Edge ; on the east, from Derwent Edge to near
Derby; outlying masses form the rough moorland on Kinder Scout
and the picturesque tors near Stanton-by-Youlgreave. A small
patch of Millstone Grit and Limestone occurs in the south of the
county about Melbourne and Ticknall. The Coal Measures repose
upon the Millstone Grit ; the largest area of these rocksliesonthe east,
where they are conterminous with the coalfields of Yorkshire and
Nottingham. A small tract, part of the Leicestershire coalfield, lies
in the south-east corner, and in the north-west corner a portion of the
Lancashire coalfield appears about New Mills and Whaley Bridge.
They yield valuable coals, clays, marls and ganister. East of
Bolsover, the Coal Measures are covered unconformably by the
Permian breccias and magnesian limestone. Flanking the hills
between Ashbourne and Quarndon are red beds of Bunter marl,
sandstone and conglomerate ; they also appear at Morley, east of the
Derwent, and again round the small southern coalfield. Most of the
southern part of the county is occupied by Keuper marls and sand-
stones, the latter yield good building stone; and at Chellaston the
gypsum beds in the former are excavated on a large scale. Much of
the Triassic area is covered superficially by glacial drift and alluvium
of the Trent. Local boulders as well as northern erratics are found
in the valley of the Derwent. The bones of Pleistocene mammals,
the rhinoceros, mammoth, bison, hyaena, &c., have been found at
numerous places, often in caves and fissures in the limestones, e.g. at
Castleton, Wirksworth and Creswell. At Doveholes the Pleiocene
Mastodon has been reported. Galena and other lead ores are
abundant in veins in the limestone, but they are now only worked on
a large scale at Mill Close, near Winster; calamine, zinc, blende,
barytes, calcite and fluor-spar are common. Apeculiar variety of the
last named, called " Blue John," is found only near Castleton; at
the same place occurs the remarkable elastic bitumen, " elaterite."
Limestone is quarried at Buxton, Millersdale and Matlock for lime,
fluxing and chemical purposes. Good sandstone is obtained from
the Millstone Grit at Stancliffe, Tansley and Whatstandwell. Cal-
careous tufa or travertine occurs in the valley of Matlock and else-
where, and in some places is still being deposited by springs. Large
pits containing deposits of white sand, clay and pebbles are found
in the limestone at Longcliff, Newhaven and Carsington.

Climate. — From the elevation which it attains in its northern
division the county is colder and is rainier than other midland
counties. Even in summer cold and thick fogs are often seen
hanging over the rivers, and clinging to the lower parts of the
hills, and hoar-frosts are by no means unknown even in June
and July. The winters in the uplands are generally severe, and
the rainfall heavy. At Buxton, at an elevation of about 1000 ft.,
the mean temperature in January is 34-9° F., and in July 57-5°,
the mean annual being 45-4°. These conditions contrast with
those at Derby, in the southern lowland, where the figures are

respectively 37-5°, 61-2° and 48-8°, while intermediate conditions
are found at Belper, 9 m. higher up the Derwent valley, where
the figures are 36-3°, 59-9° and 47'3°- The contrasts shown by
the mean annual rainfall are similarly marked. Thus at Wood-
head, lying high in the extreme north, it is 52-03 in., at Buxton
49-33 in., at Matlock, in the middle part of the Derwent valley,
35-2 in., and at Derby 24-35 m-

Agriculture. — A little over seven-tenths of the total area of
the county is under cultivation. Among the higher altitudes of
north Derbyshire, where the soil is poor and the climate harsh,
grain is unable to flourish, while even in the more sheltered parts
of this region the harvest is usually belated. In such districts
sheep farming is chiefly practised, and there is a considerable
area of heath pasture. Farther south, heavy crops of wheat,
turnips and other cereals and green crops are not uncommon,
while barley is cultivated about Repton and Gresley, and also in
the east of the county, in order to supply the Burton breweries.
A large part of the Trent valley is under permanent pasture,
being devoted to cattle-feeding and dairy-farming. This industry
has prospered greatly, and the area of permanent pasture
encroaches continually upon that of arable land. Derbyshire
cheeses are exported or sent to London in considerable quantities;
and cheese fairs are held in various parts of the county, as at
Ashbourne and Derby. A feature of the upland districts is the
total absence of hedges, and the substitution of limestone walls,
put together without any mortar or cement.

Other Industries. — The manufactures of Derbyshire are both
numerous and important, embracing silks, cotton hosiery, iron,
woollen manufactures, lace, elastic web and brewing. For many
of these this county has long been famous, especially for that of
silk, which is carried on to a large extent in Derby, as well as in
Belper and Duffield. Derby is also celebrated for its china, and
silk-throwing is the principal industry of the town. Elastic web
weaving by power looms is carried on to a great extent, and the
manufacture of lace and net curtains, gimp trimmings, braids
and cords. In the county town and neighbourhood are several
important chemical and colour works; and in various parts of
the county, as at Belper, Cromford, Matlock, Tutbury, are cotton-
spinning mills, as well as hosiery and tape manufactories. The
principal works of the Midland Railway Company are at Derby.
The principal mineral is coal. Ironstone is not extensively
wrought, but, on account of the abundant supply of coal, large
quantities are imported for smelting purposes. There are
smelting furnaces in several districts, as at Alfreton, Chesterfield,
Derby, Ilkeston. Besides lead, gypsum and zinc are raised, to
a small extent ; and for the quarrying of limestone Derbyshire is
one of the principal English counties. The east and the extreme
south-west parts are the principal industrial districts.

Communications. — The chief railway serving the county is the
Midland, the south, east and north being served by its main line
and branches. In the north-east and north the Great Central
system touches the county; in the west the North Staffordshire
and a branch of the London & North- Western ; while a branch of
the Great Northern serves Derby and other places in the south.
The Trent & Mersey canal crosses the southern part of the county,
and there is a branch canal (the Derby) connecting Derby with
this and with the Erewash canal, which runs north from the
Trent up the Erewash valley. From it there is a little-used
branch (the Cromford canal) to Matlock.

Population and Administration. — The area of the ancient
county is 658,885 acres, with a population in 1891 of 528,033,
and 1901 of 620,322. The area of the administrative county is
652,272 acres. The county contains six hundreds. The municipal
boroughs are Chesterfield (pop. 27,185), Derby, a county borough
and the county town (114,848), Glossop (21,526), Ilkeston
(25,384). The other urban districts are Alfreton (17,505),
Alvastonand Boulton(i279), Ashbourne (4039), Bakewell(285o),
Baslow and Bubnell (797), Belper (10,934), Bolsover (6844)
Bonsall (1360), Brampton and Walton (2698),Buxton-(io,i8i),
Clay Cross(83s8), Dronfield^Sog), Fairfield(2969), Heage(2889),
Heanor (16,249), Long Eaton (13,045), Matlock (5979), Matlock
Bath and Scarthin Nick (1819), Newbold and Dunston (5986),

DERBYSHIRE

New Mills (7773), North Barley (2756), Ripley (10,111),
South Barley (788), Swadlmcote (18,014), Whittington (9416),
Wirksworth (3807). Among other towns may be mentioned
Ashover (2426), Barlborough (2056), Chapel-en-le-Frith (4626),
Clowne (3896), Crich (3063), Killamarsh (3644), Staveiey (i 1,420),
Whitwell (3380). The county is in the Midland circuit, and
assizes are held at Berby. It has one court of quarter sessions
and is divided into fifteen petty sessional divisions . The boroughs
of Berby, Chesterfield and Glossop have separate commissions of
the peace, and that of Berby has also a separate court of quarter
sessions. The total number of civil parishes is 3 14. The county
is mainly in the diocese of Southwell, with small portions in the
dioceses of Peterborough and Lichfield, and contains 255 ecclesi-
astical parishes or districts. The parliamentary divisions of
the county are High Peak, North-Eastern, Chesterfield, Mid,
Ilkeston, Southern and Western, each returning one member,
while the parliamentary borough of Berby returns two members.

History, — The earliest English settlements in the district which
is now Berbyshire were those of the West Angles, who in the
course of their northern conquests in the 6th century pushed
their way up the valleys of the Berwent and the Bove, where they
became known as the Pecsaetan. Later the district formed the
northern division of Mercia, and in 848 the Mercian witenagemot
assembled at Repton. In the gth century the district suffered
frequently from the ravages of the Banes, who in 874 wintered at
Repton and destroyed its famous monastery, the burial-place of
the kings of Mercia. Berby under Guthrum was one of the five
Banish burghs, but in 917 was recovered by ^Ethelflaed. In 924
Edward the Elder fortified Bakewell, and in 942 Edmund
regained Berby, which had fallen under the Banish yoke.
Barrows of the Saxon period are numerous in Wirksworth
hundred and the Bakewell district, among the most remarkable
being White-low near Winster and Bower's-low near Tissington.
There are Saxon cemeteries at Stapenhill and Foremark Hall.

Berbyshire probably originated as a shire in the time of
/Ethelstan, but for long it maintained a very close connexion with
Nottinghamshire, and the Bomesday Survey gives a list of local
customs affecting the two counties alike. The two shire-courts
sat together for the Bomesday Inquest, and the counties were
united under one sheriff until the time of Elizabeth. The villages
of Appleby, Oakthorpe, Bonisthorpe, Stret.ton-en-le-Field,
Willesley, Chilcote and Measham were reckoned as part of
Berbyshire in 1086, although separated from it by the Leicester-
shire parishes of Over and Nether Seat.

The early divisions of the county were known as wapentakes,
five being mentioned in Bomesday, while 13th-century documents
mention seven wapentakes, corresponding with the six present
hundreds, except that Repton and Gresley were then reckoned as
separate divisions. In the i4th century the divisions were more
frequently described as hundreds, and Wirksworth alone retained
the designation wapentake until modern times. Ecclesiastically
the county constituted an archdeaconry in the diocese of
Lichfield, comprising the six deaneries of Berby, Ashbourne,
High Peak, Castillar, Chesterfield and Repington. In 1884 it
was transferred to the newly formed diocese of Southwell. The
assizes for Nottinghamshire and Berbyshire were held at
Nottingham until the reign of Henry III., when they were held
alternately at Nottingham and Berby until 1569, after which the
Berbyshire assizes were held at Berby. The court of the Honour
of Peverel, held at Basford in Nottinghamshire, which formerly
exercised jurisdiction in the hundreds of Scarsdale, the Peak and
Wirksworth- was abolished in 1849. The miners of Berbyshire
formed an independent community under the jurisdiction of
a steward and barmasters, who held two Barmote courts
(q.v.) every year. The forests of Peak and Buffield had their
separate courts and officers, the justice seat of the former being
in an extra-parochial part at equal distances from Castleton,
Tideswell and Bowden, while the pleas of Buffield Forest were
held at Tutbury. Both were disafforested in the I7th
century.

The greatest landholder in Berbyshire at the time of the
Bomesday Survey was Henry de Ferrers, who owned almost the

whole of the modern hundred of Appletree. The Ferrers estates
were forfeited by Robert, earl of Berby, in the reign of Henry III.
Another great Bomesday landholder was William Peverel, the
historic founder of Peak Castle, whose vast possessions were
known as the Honour of Peverel. In 1155 the younger Peverel
was disinherited for poisoning the earl of Chester, and his estates
forfeited to the crown. Few Englishmen retained estates of any
importance after the Conquest, but one, Elfin, an under-tenant
of Henry de Ferrers, not only held a considerable property but
was the ancestor of the Berbyshire family of Brailsford. The
families of Shirley and Gresley can also boast an unbroken descent
from Bomesday tenants.

Buring the rebellion of Prince Henry against Henry II. the
castles of Tutbury and Buffield were held against the king, and
in the civil wars of John's reign Bolsover and Peak Castles were
garrisoned by the rebellious barons. In the Barons' War of the
reign of Henry III. the earl of Berby was active in stirring up
feeling in the county against the king, and in 1266 assembled
a considerable force, which was defeated by the king's party at
Chesterfield. At the time of the Wars of the Roses discontent
was rife in Berbyshire, and riots broke out in 1443, but the county
did not lend active support to either party. On the outbreak of
the Civil War of the i7th century, the county at first inclined
to support the king, who received an enthusiastic reception
when he visited Berby in 1642, but by the close of 1643 Sir
John Cell of Hopton had secured almost the whole county for
the parliament. Berby, however, was always royalist in sym-
pathy, and did not finally surrender till 1646; in 1659 it rebelled
against Richard Cromwell, and in 1745 entertained the young
Pretender.

Berbyshire has always been mainly a mining and manufactur-
ing county, though the rich land in the south formerly produced
large quantities of corn. The lead mines were worked by the
Romans, and the Bomesday Survey mentions lead mines at
Wirksworth, Matlock, Bakewell, Ashford and Crich. Iron has
also been produced in Berbyshire from an early date, and coal
mines were worked at Norton and Alfreton in the beginning of the
1 4th century. The woollen industry flourished in the county
before the reign of John, when an exclusive privilege of dyeing
cloth was conceded to the burgesses of Berby. Thomas Fuller
writing in 1662 mentions lead, malt and ale as the chief products
of the county, and the Buxton waters were already famous in his
day. The i8th century saw the rise of numerous manufactures.
In 1718 Sir Thomas and John Lombe set up an improved silk-
throwing machine at Berby, and in 1758 Jedediah Strutt intro-
duced a machine for making ribbed stockings, which became
famous as the " Berby rib." In 1771 Sir Richard Arkwright set
up one of his first cotton mills in Cromford, and in 1787 there
were twenty-two cotton mills in the county. The Berby porcelain
or china manufactory was started about 1750.

From 1295 until the Reform Act of 1832 the county and town
of Berby each returned two members to parliament. From this
latter date the county returned four members in two divisions
until the act of 1868, under which it returned six members for
three divisions.

Antiquities. — Monastic remains are scanty, but there are
interesting portions of a priory incorporated with the school
buildings at Repton. The village church of Beauchief Abbey,
near Bronfield, is a remnant of an abbey founded c. 1175 by
Robert Fitzranulf . It has a stately transitional Norman tower,
and three fine Norman arches. Bale Abbey, near Berby, was
founded early in the I3th century for the Premonstratensian
order. The ruins are scanty, but the east window is preserved,
and the present church incorporates remains of the ancient rest-
house for pilgrims. The church has a peculiar music gallery,
entered from without. The abbey church contained famous
stained glass, and some of this is preserved in the neighbouring
church at Morley. Berbyshire is rich in ecclesiastical architecture
as a whole. The churches are generally of various styles. The
chancel of the church at Repton is assigned to the second half of
the loth century, though subsequently altered, and the crypt
beneath is supposed to be earlier still; its roof is supported by

DEREHAM— DERHAM

73

four round pillars, and it is approached by two stairways. Other
remains of pre-Conquest date are the chancel arches in the
churches of Marston Montgomery and of Sawley; and the
curiously carved font in Wilne church is attributed to the same
period. Examples of Norman work are frequent in doorways,
as in the churches of Allestree and Willington near Repton,
while a fine tympanum is preserved in the modern church of
Findern. There is a triple-recessed doorway, with arcade above,
in the west end of Bakewell church, and there is another fine
west doorway in Melbourne church, a building principally of the
late Norman period, with central and small western towers.
In restoring this church curious mural paintings were discovered.
At Steetley, near Worksop, is a small Norman chapel, with
apse, restored from a ruinous condition; Youlgrave church, a
building of much general interest, has Norman nave pillars and
a fine font of the same period, and Normanton church has a
peculiar Norman corbel table. The Early English style is on
the whole less well exemplified in the county, but Ashbourne
church, with its central tower and lofty spire, contains beautiful
details of this period, notably the lancet windows in the Cockayne
chapel.

The parish churches of Dronfield, Hathersage (with some
notable stained glass), Sandiacre and Tides well exemplify the
Decorated period; the last is a particularly stately and beautiful
building, with a lofty and ornate western tower and some good
early brasses. The churches of Dethic, Wirksworth and Chester-
field are typical of the Perpendicular period; that of Wirksworth
contains noteworthy memorial chapels, monuments and brasses,
and that of Chesterfield is celebrated for its crooked spire.

The remains of castles are few; the ancient Bolsover Castle is
replaced by a castellated mansion of the lyth century; of the
Norman Peak Castle near Castleton little is left; of Codnor
Castle in the Erewash valley there are picturesque ruins of the
I3th century. Among ancient mansions Derbyshire possesses
one of the most famous in England in Haddon Hall, of the
15th century. Wingfield manor house is a ruin dating from
the same century. Hardwick Hall is a very perfect example of
Elizabethan building; ruins of the old Tudor hall stand near by.
Other Elizabethan examples are Barlborough and Tissington
Halls.

The village of Tissington is noted for the maintenance of an
old custom, that of " well-dressing." On the Thursday before
Easter a special church service is celebrated, and the wells are
beautifully ornamented with flowers, prayers being offered at
each. The ceremony has been revived also in several other
Derbyshire villages.

See Davies, New Historical and Descriptive View of Derbyshire
(Helper, 181 1) ; D. Lysons, Magna Britannia, vol. v. (London, 1817) ;
Maunder, Derbyshire Miners' Glossary (Bakewell, 1824) ; R. Simpson,
Collection of Fragments illustrative of the History of Derbyshire (1826) ;
S. Glover, History and Gazetteer of the County of Derby, ed. T. Noble,
part i of vols. i. and ii. (Derby, 1831-1833) ; T. Bateman, Vestiges
of the Antiquities of Derbyshire (London, 1848); L. Jewitt, Ballads
and Songs of Derbyshire (London, 1867); J. C. Cox, Notes on the
Churches of Derbyshire (Chester, 1875), and Three Centuries of
Derbyshire Annals (2 vols., London, 1890); R. N. Worth, Derby, in
"Popular County Histories" (London, 1886); T. P. Yeatman,
Feudal History of the County of Derby (3 vols., London, 1886-1895) :
Victoria County History, Derbyshire. See also Notts and Derbyshire
Notes and Queries.

DEREHAM (properly EAST DEREHAM), a market town in the
Mid parliamentary division of Norfolk, England, 122 m. N.N.E.
from London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban
district (1901) 5545. The church of St Nicholas is a cruciform
Perpendicular structure with a beautiful central tower, and some
portions of earlier date. It contains a monument to William
Cowper, who came to live here in 1796, and the Congregational
chapel stands on the site of the house where the poet spent his
last days. Dereham is an important agricultural centre with
works for the manufacture of agricultural implements, iron
foundries and a malting industry.

DERELICT (from Lat. derelinquere, to forsake), in law,
property thrown away or abandoned by the owner in such a
manner as to indicate that he intends to make no further claim to

it. The word is used more particularly with respect to property
abandoned at sea (see WRECK), but it is also applied in other
senses; for example, land gained from the sea by receding of the
water is termed dereliction. Land gained gradually and slowly
by dereliction belongs to the owner of the adjoining land, but in
the case of sudden or considerable dereliction the land belongs to
the Crown. This technical use of the term " dereliction " is to
be distinguished from the more general modern sense, dere-
liction or abandonment of duty, which implies a culpable failure
or neglect in moral or legal obligation.

DERENBOUR6, JOSEPH (1811-1895), Franco-German
orientalist. He was a considerable force in the educational
revival of Jewish education in France. He made great contribu-
tions to the knowledge of Saadia, and planned a complete edition
of Saadia's works in Arabic and French. A large part of this
work appeared during his lifetime. He also wrote an Essai sur
I'histoire et la geographic de la Palestine (Paris, 1867). This was
an original contribution to the history of the Jews and Judaism
in the time of Christ, and has been much used by later writers on
the subject (e.g. by Schiirer). He also published in collaboration
with his son Hartwig, Opuscules et Iraites d'Abou-'l-Walid (with
translation, 1 880); Deux Versions hebraiques du livre de Kalilah
et Dimnah (1881), and a Latin translation of the same story
under the title Joannis de Capua directorium vitae humanae
(1889); Commentaire de Maimonide sur la Mischnah Seder
Tohorot (Berlin, 1886-1891); and a second edition of S. de
Sacy's Seances de Hariri. He died on the 29th of July 1895, at
Ems.

His son, HARTWIG DERENBOURG (1844-1908), was born in Paris
on the 1 7th of June 1844. He was educated at Gottingen and
Leipzig. Subsequently he studied Arabic at the Ecole des
Langues Orientales. In 1879 he was appointed professor of
Arabic, and in 1886 professor of Mahommedan Religion, at the
Ecole des Hautes Etudes in Paris. He collaborated with his
father in the great edition of Saadia and the edition of Abu-'l-
Walld, and also produced a number of important editions of
other Arabic writers. Among these are Le Lftwdn de Ndbiqa
Dhobyanl; Le Livre de Slbawaihi (2 vols., Paris, 1881-1889);
Chrestomathie elenientaire de I'arabe litteral (in collaboration with
Spiro, 1885; and ed., 1892); Ousdma ibn Mounkidh, un emir
syrien (1889); Ousdma ibn Mounkidh, preface du livre du baton
(with trans., 1887); Al-Fdkhrt (1895); Oumdra du Gemen
(1897), a catalogue of Arabic MSS. in the Escorial (vol. i.,
1884).

DERG, LOUGH, a lake of Ireland, on the boundary of the
counties Galway, Clare and Tipperary. It is an expansion of the
Shannon, being the lowest lake on that river, and is 23 m. long
and generally from i to 3 m. broad. It lies where the Shannon
leaves the central plain of Ireland and flows between the hills
which border the plain. While the northerly shores of the lake,
therefore, are flat, the southern are steep and picturesque, being
backed by theSlieveAughty,SlieveBernaghandArraMountains.
Ruined churches and fortresses are numerous on the eastern
shore, and on Iniscaltra Island are a round tower and remains of
five churches.

Another LOUGH DERG, near Pettigo in Donegal, though small,
is famous as the traditional scene of St Patrick's purgatory. In
the middle ages its pilgrimages had a European reputation, and
they are still observed annually by many of the Irish from June i
to August 15. The hospice, chapels, &c., are on Station Island,
and there is a ruined monastery on Saints' Island.

DERHAM, WILLIAM (1657-1735), English divine, was born at
Stoulton, near Worcester, on the 26th of November 1657. He was
educated at Blockley, in his native county, and at Trinity College,
Oxford. In 1682 he became vicar of Wargrave, in Berkshire;
and in 1689 he was preferred to the living of Upminster, in Essex.
In 1696 he published his Artificial Clockmaker, which went
through several editions. The best known of his subsequent
works are Physico-Theology, published in 1713; Astro- Theology,
1714; and Christo-Theology, 1730. The first two of these books
were Ideological arguments for the being and attributes of God,
and were used by Paley nearly a century later. In 1 702 Derham

74

D'ERLON— DEROULEDE

was elected fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1716 was made
a canon of Windsor. He was Boyle lecturer in 1711-1712. His
last work, entitled A Defence of the Church's Right in Leasehold
Estates, appeared in 1731. He died on the sth of April 1735.
Besides the works published in his own name, Derham, who
was keenly interested in natural history, contributed a variety
of papers to the Transactions of the Royal Society, revised the
Miscellanea Curiosa, edited the correspondence of John Ray and
Eleazar Albin's Natural History, and published some of the MSS.
of Robert Hooke, the natural philosopher.

D'ERLON, JEAN BAPTISTE DROUET, COUNT (1765-1844),
marshal of France, was born at Reims on the 2pth of July 1765.
He entered the army as a private soldier in 1782, was discharged
after five years' service, re-entered it in 1792, and rose rapidly to
the rank of an officer. From 1 794 to 1 796 he was aide-de-camp
to General Lefebvre. He did good service in the campaigns of
the revolutionary wars and in 1799 attained the rank of general
of brigade. In the campaign of that year he was engaged in
the Swiss operations under Massena. In 1800 he fought under
Moreau at Hohenlinden. As a general of division he took part in
Napoleon's campaigns of 1805 and 1806, and rendered excellent
service at Jena. He was next engaged under Lefebvre in the
siege of Danzig and negotiated the terms of surrender; after this
he rejoined the field army and fought at Friedland (1807),
receiving a severe wound. After this battle he was made grand
officer of the Legion of Honour, was created Count d'Erlon and
received a pension. For the next six years d'Erlon was almost
continuously engaged as commander of an army corps in the
Peninsular War, in which he added greatly to his reputation as a
capable general. At the pass of Maya in the Pyrenees he inflicted
a defeat upon Lord Hill's troops, and in the subsequent battles
of the 1814 campaign he distinguished himself further. After
the first Restoration he was named commander of the i6th
military division, but he was soon arrested for conspiring with
the Orleans party, to which he was secretly devoted. He escaped,
however, and gave in his adhesion to Napoleon, who had returned
from Elba. The emperor made him a peer of France, and gave
him command of the I. army corps, which formed part of the
Army of the North. In the Waterloo campaign d'Erlon's corps
formed part of Ney's command on the i6th of June, but, in
consequence of an extraordinary series of misunderstandings,
took part neither at Ligny nor at Quatre Bras (see WATERLOO
CAMPAIGN). He was not, however, held to account by Napoleon,
and as the latter's practice in such matters was severe to the
verge of injustice, it may be presumed that the failure was not
due to d'Erlon.

He was in command of the right wing of the French army
throughout the great battle of the i8th of June, and fought in
the closing operations around Paris. At the second Restoration
d'Erlon fled into Germany, only returning to France after the
amnesty of 1825. He was not restored to the service until the
accession of Louis Philippe, in whose interests he had engaged in
several plots and intrigues. As commander of the I2th military
division (Nantes), he suppressed the legitimist agitation in his
district and caused the arrest of the duchess of Berry (1832).
His last active service was in Algeria, of which country he was
made governor-general in 1834 at the age of seventy. He
returned to France after two years, and was made marshal of
France shortly before his death at Paris on the 25th of January

1844-

DERMOT MAC MURROUGH (d. 1171), Irish king of Leinster,
succeeded his father in the principality of the Hui Cinsellaigh
(1115) and eventually in the kingship of Leinster. The early
events of his life are obscure; but about 1152 we find him
engaged in a feud with O Ruairc, the lord of Breifne (Leitrim and
Cavan). Dermot abducted the wife of O Ruairc more with the
object of injuring his rival than from any love of the lady. The
injured husband called to his aid Roderic, the high king (aird-
righ) of Connaught; and in 1166 Dermot fled before this powerful
coalition to invoke the aid of England. Obtaining from Henry II.
a licence to enlist allies among the Welsh marchers, Dermot
secured the aid of the Clares and Geraldines. To Richard

Strongbow, earl of Pembroke and head of the house of Clare,
Dermot gave his daughter Eva in marriage; and on his death
was succeeded by the earl in Leinster. The historical importance
of Dermot lies in the fact that he was the means of introducing
the English into Ireland. Through his aid the towns of Water-
ford, Wexford and Dublin had already become English colonies
before the arrival of Henry II. in the island.

See The Song of Dermot and the Earl, an old French Poem (by M.
Regan?), ed. with trans, by G. H. Orpen, 1892; Kate Norgate,
England under the Angevin Kings, vol. ii. (H. W. C. D.)

DERNA (anc. Darnis- Zarine}, a town on the north coast of
Africa and capital of the eastern hah" of the Ottoman province
of Bengazi or Barca. Situated below the eastern butt of Jebel
Akhdar on a small but rich deltaic plain, watered by fine perennial
springs, it has a growing population and trade, the latter being
mainly in fruits grown in its extensive palm gardens, and in hides
and wool brought down by the nomads from the interior. If the
port Avere better there would be more rapid expansion. The bay
is open from N.W. round to S.E. and often inaccessible in winter
and spring, and the steamers of the Nav. Gen. Italiana sometimes
have to pass without calling. The population has recovered
from the great plague epidemic of 1821 and reached its former
figure of about 7000. A proportion of it is of Moorish stock, of
Andalusian origin, which emigrated in 1493; the descendants
preserve a fine facial type. The sheikhs of the local Bedouin
tribes have houses in the place, and a Turkish garrison of about
2 50 men is stationed in barracks. There is a lighthouse W. of the
bay. A British consular agent is resident and the Italians
maintain a vice-consul. The names Darnis and Zarine are
philologically identical and probably refer to the same place. No
traces are left of the ancient town except some rock tombs.
Darnis continued to be of some importance in early Moslem times
as a station on the Alexandria-Kairawan road, and has served
on more than one occasion as a base for Egyptian attacks on
Cyrenaica and Tripolitana. In 1805 the government of the
United States, having a quarrel with the dey of Tripoli on account
of piracies committed on American shipping, landed a force to
co-operate in the attack on Derna then being made by Sidi
Ahmet, an elder brother of the dey. This force, commanded by
William Eaton (<?.».), built a fort, whose ruins and rusty guns are
still to be seen, and began to improve the harbour; but its work
quickly came to an end with the conclusion of peace. After 1835
Derna passed under direct Ottoman control, and subsequently
served as the point whence the sultan exerted a precarious but
increasing control over eastern Cyrenaica and Marmarica. It is
now in communication by wireless telegraphy with Rhodes and
western Cyrenaica. It is the only town, or even large village,
between Bengazi and Alexandria (600 m.) (D. G. H.)

DEROULEDE, PAUL (1846- ), French author and poli-
tician, was born in Paris on the 2nd of September 1846. He
made his first appearance as a poet in the pages of the Revue
nationals, under the pseudonym of Jean Rebel, and in 1869 pro-
duced at the Theatre Francais a one-act drama in verse entitled
Juan Strenner. On the outbreak of the Franco-German War he
enlisted as a private, was wounded and taken prisoner at Sedan,
and sent to Breslau, but effected his escape. He then served
under Chanzy and Bourbaki, took part in the latter's disastrous
retreat to Switzerland, and fought against the Commune in Paris.
After attaining the rank of lieutenant, he was forced by an
accident to retire from the army. He published in 187 2 a number
of patriotic poems (Chants du soldat), which enjoyed unbounded
popularity. This was followed in 1875 by another collection,
Nowveaux Chants du soldat. In 1877 he produced a drama in
verse called L'Hetman, which derived a passing success from the
patriotic fervour of its sentiments. For the exhibition of 1 878 he
wrote a hymn, Vive la France, which was set to music by Gounod.
In 1880 his drama in verse, La Moiibite, which had been accepted
by the Theatre Franjais, was forbidden by the censor on religious
grounds. In 1882 M. Deroulede founded the Ligue des patriotes,
with the object of furthering France's " revanche " against
Germany. He was one of the first advocates of a Franco-Russian
alliance, and as early as 1883 undertook a journey to Russia for

DERRICK— DERVISH

75

the furtherance of that object. On the rise of General Boulanger,
M. Deroulede attempted to use the Ligue des palriotes, hitherto a
non-political organization, to assist his cause, but was deserted by
a great part of the league and forced to resign his presidency.
Nevertheless he used the section that remained faithful to him
with such effect that the government found it necessary in 1889
to decree its suppression. In the same year he was elected to the
chamber as member for Angouleme. He was expelled from the
chamber in 1890 for his disorderly interruptions during debate.
He did not stand at the elections of 1803, but was re-elected in
1898, and distinguished himself by his violence as a nationalist
and anti-Dreyfusard. After the funeral of President Faure, on
the 23rd of February 1899, he endeavoured to persuade General
Roget to lead his troops upon the Elysee. For this he was
arrested, but on being tried for treason was acquitted (May 31).
On the 1 2th of August he was again arrested and accused, together
with Andre Buffet, Jules Guerin and others, of conspiracy against
the republic. After a long trial before the high court, he was
sentenced, on the 4th of January 1900, to ten years' banishment
from France, and retired to San Sebastian. In 1901, he was
again brought prominently before the public by a quarrel with
his Royalist allies, which resulted in an abortive attempt to
arrange a duel with M. Buffet in Switzerland. In November
1905, however, the law of amnesty enabled him to return to
France.

Besides the works already mentioned, he published Le Sergent,
in the Thedtre de campagne (1880); De I' education nationale
(1882); Monsieur le Uhlan et les Irois couleurs (1884); Le
Premier grenadier de France; La Tour d'Auvergne (1886); Le
Lime de la ligue des palriotes (1887); Refrains militaires (1888);
Histoire d'amour (1890); a pamphlet entitled Desarmement?
(1891); Chants du paysan (1894); Poesies Militaires (1896) and
Messire du Guesclin, drame en vers (1895); La mart de Hoche.
Cinq actes en prose (1897); La Plus belle fitte du monde, conte
dialogue en vers libres (1898).

DERRICK, a sort of crane (<?.».); the name is derived from
that of a famous early 17th-century Tyburn hangman, and was
originally applied as a synonym.

DERRING-DO, valour, chivalrous conduct, or " desperate
courage," as it is denned by Sir Walter Scott. The word in its
present accepted substantival form is a misconstruction of the
verbal substantive dorryng or durring, daring, and do or don,
the present infinitive of " do," the phrase dorryng do thus
meaning " daring to do." It is used by Chaucer in Troylus,
and by Lydgate in the Chronicles of Troy. Spenser in the
Shepherd's Calendar first adapted derring-do as a substantive
meaning " manhood and chevalrie," and this use was revived
by Scott, through whom it came into vogue with writers of
romance.

DE RUYTER, MICHAEL ADRIANZOON (1607-1676), Dutch
naval officer, was born at Flushing on the 24th of March 1607.
He began his seafaring life at the age of eleven as a cabin boy,
and in 1636 was entrusted by the merchants of Flushing with
the command of a cruiser against the French pirates. In 1640 he
entered the service of the States, and, being appointed rear-
admiral of a fleet fitted out to assist Portugal against Spain,
specially distinguished himself at Cape St Vincent, on the 3rd of
November 1641. In the following year he left the service of the
States, and, until the outbreak of war with England in 1652, held
command of a merchant vessel. In 1653 a squadron of seventy
vessels was despatched against the English, under the command
of Admiral Tromp. Ruyter, who accompanied the admiral in
this expedition, seconded him with great skill and bravery in the
three battles which were fought with the English. He was after-
wards stationed in the Mediterranean, where he captured several
Turkish vessels. In 1659 he received a commission to join the
king of Denmark in his war with the Swedes. As a reward of
his services, the king of Denmark ennobled him and gave him
a pension. In 1661 he grounded a vessel belonging to Tunis,
released forty Christian slaves, made a treaty with the Tunisians,
and reduced the Algerine corsairs to submission. From his
achievements on the west coast of Africa he was recalled in 1665

to take command of a large fleet which had been organized
against England, and in May of the following year, after a long
contest off the North Foreland, he compelled the English to take
refuge in the Thames. On the 7th of June 1672 he fought a
drawn battle with the combined fleets of England and France, in
Southwold or Sole Bay, and after the fight he convoyed safely
home a fleet of merchantmen. His valour was displayed to equal
advantage in several engagements with the French and English
in the following year. In 1676 he was despatched to the assistance
of Spain against France in the Mediterranean, and, receiving
a mortal wound in the battle on the 2ist of April off Messina,
died on the 2gth at Syracuse. A patent by the king of Spain,
investing him with the dignity of duke, did not reach the fleet till
after his death. His body was carried to Amsterdam, where a
magnificent monument to his memory was erected by command
of the states-general.

See Life of De Ruyter by Brandt (Amsterdam, 1687), and by
Klopp (2nd ed., Hanover, 1858).

DERVISH, a Persian word, meaning "seeking doors," i.e.
" beggar," and thus equivalent to the Arabic faqir (fakir).
Generally in Islam it indicates a member of a religious fraternity,
whether mendicant or not; but in Turkey and Persia it indicates
more exactly a wandering, begging religious, called, in Arabic-
speaking countries, more specifically a faqir. With important
differences, the dervish fraternities may be compared to the
regular religious orders of Roman Christendom, while the Ulema
(q.v.) are, also with important differences, like the secular clergy.
The origin and history of the mystical life in Islam, which led to
the growth of the order of dervishes, are treated under SUFI'ISM.
It remains to treat here more particularly of (i) the dervish
fraternities, and (2) the Sufi hierarchy.

i. The Dervish Fraternities. — In the earlier times, the relation
between devotees was that of master and pupil. Those inclined
to the spiritual life gathered round a revered sheikh (murshid,
"guide," usladh, pir, "teacher"), lived with him, shared his
religious practices and were instructed by him. In time of
war against the unbelievers, they might accompany him to the
threatened frontier, and fight under his eye. Thus murabit,
" one who pickets his horse on a hostile frontier," has become
the marabout (q.v.) or dervish of French Algeria; and ribat, " a
frontier fort," has come to mean a monastery. The relation,
also, might be for a time only. The pupil might at any time
return to the world, when his religious education and training
were complete. On the death of the master the memory of his
life and sayings might go down from generation to generation,
and men might boast themselves as pupils of his pupils. Con-
tinuous corporations to perpetuate his name were slow in forming.
Ghazali himself, though he founded, taught and ruled a Sufi
cloister (khanqah) at Tus. left no order behind him. But 'Adi
al-Hakkari, who founded a cloister at Mosul and died about 1 163,
was long reverenced by the 'Adawite Fraternity, and in 1166
died 'Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani, from whom the Qadirite order
descends, one of the greatest and most influential to this day.
The troublous times of the break up of the Seljuk rule may have
been a cause in this, as, with St Benedict, the crumbling Roman
empire. Many existing fraternities, it is true, trace their origin
to saints of the third, second and even first Moslem centuries, but
that is legend purely. Similar is the tendency to claim all the
early pious Moslems as good Sufis; collections of Sufi biography
begin with the ten to whom Mahomet promised Paradise. So,
too, the ultimate origin of fraternities is assigned to either Ali
or Abu Bekr. and in Egypt all are under the rule of a direct
descendant of the latter.

To give a complete list of these fraternities is quite impossible.
Commonly, thirty-two are reckoned, but many have vanished
or have been suppressed, and there are sub-orders innumerable.
Each has a " rule " dating back to its founder, and a ritual which
the members perform when they meet together in their convent
(khanqah, zawiya, takya). This may consist simply in the repeti-
tion of sacred phrases, or it may be an elaborate performance,
such as the whirlings of the dancing dervishes, the Mevlevites,
an order founded by Jelal ud-Dln ar-Rumi, the author of the

76

DERWENT

great Persian mystical poem, the Mesnevi, and always ruled by
one of his descendants. Jelal ud-DIn was an advanced pantheist,
and so are the Mevlevites, but that seems only to earn them the
dislike of the Ulema, and not to affect their standing in Islam.
They are the most broad-minded and tolerant of all. There are
also the performances of the Rifa'ites or " howling dervishes."
In ecstasy they cut themselves with knives, eat live coals and
glass, handle red-hot iron and devour serpents. They profess
miraculous healing powers, and the head of the Sa'dites, a sub-
order, used, in Cairo, to ride over the bodies of his dervishes
without hurting them, the so-called Doseh (dausa). These
different abilities are strictly regulated. Thus, one sub-order
may eat glass and another may eat only serpents. Another
division is made by their attitude to the law of Islam. When a
dervish is in a state of ecstasy (majdhub), he is supposed to be
unconscious of the actions of his body. Reputed saints, therefore,
can do practically anything, as their souls will be supposed to be
out of their bodies and in the heavenly regions. They may not
only commit the vilest of actions, but neglect in general the
ceremonial and ritual law. This goes so far that in Persia and
Turkey dervish orders are classified as ba-shar', " with law," and
bi-shar', " without law." The latter are really antinomians, and
the best example of them is the Bakhtashite order, widely spread
and influential in Turkey and Albania and connected by legend
with the origin of the Janissaries. The Qalandarite order is known
to all from the " Calenders " of the Thousand and One Nights.
They separated from the Bakhtashites and are under obligation
of perpetual travelling. The Senussi (Senussia) were the last
order to appear, and are distinguished from the others by a
severely puritanic and reforming attitude and strict orthodoxy,
without any admixture of mystical slackness in faith or conduct.
Each order is distinguished by a peculiar garb. Candidates for
admission have to pass through a noviciate, more or less lengthy.
First comes the 'ahd, or initial covenant, in which the neophyte
or murtd, " seeker," repents of his past sins and takes the sheikh
of the order he enters as his guide (murshid) for the future.
He then enters upon a course of instruction and discipline, called
a " path " (tarlqa), on which he advances through diverse
" stations " (maqamdt) or " passes " ('aqabaf) of the spiritual life.
There is a striking resemblance here to the gnostic system, with
its seven Archon-guarded gates. On another side, it is plain that
the sheikh, along with ordinary instruction of the novice, also
hypnotizes him and causes him to see a series of visions, marking
his penetration of the divine mystery. The part that hypnosis
and autohypnosis, conscious and unconscious, has played here
cannot easily be overestimated. The Mevlevites seem to have
the most severe noviciate. Their aspirant has to labour as a lay
servitor of the lowest rank for 1001 days — called the kdrra kolak,
or " jackal " — before he can be received. For one day's failure
he must begin again from the beginning.

But besides these full members there is an enormous number
of lay adherents, like the tertiaries of the Franciscans. Thus,
nearly every religious man of the Turkish Moslem world is a lay
member of one order or another, under the duty of saying certain
prayers daily. Certain trades, too, affect certain orders. Most
of the Egyptian Qadirites, for example, are fishermen and, on
festival days, carry as banners nets of various colours. On this side,
the orders bear a striking resemblance to lodges of Freemasons
and other friendly societies, and points of direct contact have
even been alleged between the more pantheistic and antinomian
orders, such as the Bakhtashite, and European Freemasonry.
On another side, just as the dhikrs of the early ascetic mystics
suggest comparison with the class-meetings of the early
Methodists, so these orders are the nearest approach in Islam
to the different churches of Protestant Christendom. They are
the only ecclesiastical organization that Islam has ever known,
but it is a multiform organization, unclassified internally or
externally. They differ thus from the Roman monastic orders,
in that they are independent and self-developing, each going its
own way in faith and practice, limited only by the universal
conscience (ijma\ "agreement": see MAHOMMEDAN LAW) of
Islam. Strange doctrines and moral defects may develop, but

freedom is saved, and the whole people of Islam can be reached
and affected.

2. Saints and the §ufl Hierarchy. — That an elaborate doctrine
of wonder-working saints should have grown up in Islam may, at
first sight, appear an extreme paradox. It can, however, be
conditioned and explained. First, Mahomet left undoubted
loop-holes for a minor inspiration, legitimate and illegitimate.
Secondly, the Sufis, under various foreign influences, developed
these to the fullest. Thirdly, just as the Christian church has
absorbed much of the mythology of the supposed exterminated
heathen religions into its cult of local saints, so Islam, to an
even higher degree, has been overlaid and almost buried by
the superstitions of the peoples to which it has gone. Their
religious and legal customs have completely overcome the direct
commands of the Koran, the traditions from Mahomet and
even the " Agreement " of the rest of the Moslem world (see
MAHOMMEDAN LAW). The first step in this, it is true, was taken
by Mahomet himself wl*en he accepted the Meccan pilgrimage and
the Black Stone. The worship of saints, therefore, has appeared
everywhere in Islam, with an absolute belief in their miracles
and in the value of their intercession, living or dead.

Further, there appeared very early in Islam a belief that there
was always in existence some individual in direct intercourse
with God and having the right and duty of teaching and ruling
all mankind. This individual might be visible or invisible;
his right to rule continued. This is the basis of the Isma'ilite
and Shi'ite positions (see MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION and
MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS). The Sufis applied this idea of
divine right to the doctrine of saints, and developed it into the
Sufi hierarchy. This is a single, great, invisible organization,
forming a saintly board of administration, by which the invisible
government of the world is supposed to be carried on. Its head
is called the Qutb (Axis); he is presumably the greatest saint
of the time, is chosen by God for the office and given greater
miraculous powers and rights of intercession than any other saint
enjoys. He wanders through the world, often invisible and
always unknown, performing the duties of his office. Under
him there is an elaborate organization of walls, of different ranks
and powers, according to their sanctity and faith. The term -wall
is applied to a saint because of Kor. x. 63, " Ho! the walls of
God; there is no fear upon them, nor do they grieve," where
wall means " one who is near ," friend or favourite.

In the fraternities, then, all are dervishes, cloistered or lay;
those whose faith is so great that God has given them miraculous
powers — and there are many — are walls; begging friars are
fakirs. All forms of life — solitary, monastic, secular, celibate,
married, wandering, stationary, ascetic, free — are open. Their
theology is some form of Sufi'ism.

AUTHORITIES. — The bibliography of this subject is very large, and
the following only a selection: — (i) On Dervishes. In Egypt, Lane's
Modern Egyptians, chaps, x. xx., xxiv., xxv. ; in Turkey, D'Ohsson,
Tableau general de I'emp. othoman, ii. (Paris, 1790); Turkey in
Europe by " Odysseus " (London, 1900); in Persia, E. G. Browne,
A Year among the Persians (1893) ; in Morocco, T. H. Weir, Sheikhs
of Morocco (Edinburgh, 1904) ; B. Meakin, The Moors (London, 1902),
chap. xix. ; in Central Asia, all Vambery's books of travel and
history. In general, Hughes, Diet, of Islam, s.v. " Faqir "; Depont
and Cappolani, Les Confreries religieuses musulmanes (Alger, 1897) ;
J. P. Brown, The Dervishes, or Oriental Spiritualism (London, 1868).
(2) On Saints. I. Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien, ii. 277 ff.,
and " De 1'ascedsme aux premiers temps de 1'Islam " in Revue de
I'histoire des religions, I vol. xxxvii. pp. 134. ff. ; Lane, Modern
Egyptians, chap. x. ; Arabian Nights, chap. lit. note 63; Vollers in
Zeitsch. d. morgenldnd. Gesellsch. xliii. 115 ff. (D. B. MA.)

DERWENT (Celtic Dwr-gent, clear water), the name of several
English rivers, (i) The Yorkshire Derwent collects the greater
part of the drainage of the North Yorkshire moors, rising in their
eastern part. A southern head-stream, however, rises in the
Yorkshire Wolds near Filey, little more than a mile from the
North Sea, from which it is separated by a morainic deposit, and
thus flows in an inlan d direction. The early course of the Derwent
lies through a flat open valley between the North Yorkshire moors
and the Yorkshire Wolds, the upper part of which is known as
the Carrs, when the river follows an artificial drainage cut. It
receives numerous tributaries from the moors, then breaches the

DERWENTWATER

77

low hills below Malton in a narrow picturesque valley, and
debouches upon the central plain of Yorkshire. Its direction,
hitherto westerly and south-westerly from the Carrs, now becomes
southerly, and it flows roughly parallel to the Ouse, which it
joins near Barmby-on-the-Marsh, in the level district between.
Selby and the head of the Humber estuary, after a course,
excluding minor sinuosities, of about 70 m. As a tributary of
the Ouse it is included in the Humber basin. It is tidal up to
Sutton-upon-Derwent, ism. from the junction with the Ouse,
and is locked up to Malton, but the navigation is little used. A
canal leads east from the tidal water to the small market town of
Pocklington.

(2; The Derbyshire Derwent rises in Bleaklow Hill north of
the Peak and traverses a narrow dale, which, with those of such
tributary streams as the Noe, watering Hope Valley, and the Wye,
is famous for its beauty (see DERBYSHIRE). The Derwent flows
south past Chatsworth, Matlock and Belper and then, passing
Derby, debouches upon a low plain, and turns south-eastward,
with an extremely sinuous course, to join the Trent near Sawley.
Its length is about 60 m. It falls in all some 1700 ft. (from
Matlock 200 ft.), and no part is navigable, save certain reaches at
Matlock and elsewhere for pleasure boats.

(3) The Cumberland Derwent rises below Great End in the
Lake District, draining Spinkling and Sty Head tarns, and flows
through Borrowdale, receiving a considerable tributary from
Lang Strath. It then drains the lakes of Derwentwater and
Bassenthwaite, after which its course, hitherto N. and N.N.W.,
turns W. and W. by S. past Cockermouth to the Irish Sea
at Workington. The length is about 34 m., and the fall about
2000 ft. (from Derwentwater 244 ft.); the waters are usually
beautifully clear, and the river is not navigable. At a former
period this stream must have formed one large lake covering the
whole area which includes Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite;
between which a flat alluvial plain is formed of the deposits of
the river Greta, which now joins the Derwent from the east
immediately below Derwentwater, and the Newlands Beck,
which enters Bassenthwaite. In time of high flood this plain is
said to have been submerged, and the two lakes thus reunited.

(4) A river Derwent rises in the Pennines near the borders of
Northumberland and Durham, and, forming a large part of the
boundary between these counties, takes a north-easterly course
of 30 m. to the Tyne, which it joins 3 m. above Newcastle.

DERWENTWATER, EARL OF, an English title borne by the
family of Radclyffe, or Radcliffe, from 1688 to 1716 when the
3rd earl was attainted and beheaded, and claimed by his
descendants, adherents of the exiled house of Stewart, from .that
date until the death of the last male heir in 1814. Sir Francis
Radclyffe, 3rd baronet (1625-1697), was the lineal descendant of
Sir Nicholas Radclyffe, who acquired the extensive Derwent-
water estates in 1417 through his marriage with the heiress of
John de Derwentwater, and of Sir Francis Radclyffe, who was
made a baronet in 1619. In 1688 Sir Francis was created
Viscount Radclyffe and earl of Derwentwater by James II.,
and dying in 1697 was succeeded as 2nd earl by his eldest
son Edward (1655-1705), who had married Lady Mary Tudor
(d. 1726), a natural daughter of Charles II. The 2nd earl died
in 1705, and was succeeded by his eldest son James (1689-1716),
who was born in London on the 28th of June 1689, and was
brought up at the court of the Stewarts in France as companion
to Prince James Edward, the old Pretender. In 1710 he came
to reside on his English estates, and in July 1712 was married to
Anna Maria (d. 1723), daughter of Sir John Webb, baronet, of
Odstock, Wiltshire. Joining without any hesitation in the
Stewart rising of 1715, Derwentwater escaped arrest owing to the
devotion of his tenantry, and in October, with about seventy
followers, he joined Thomas Forster at Green-rig. Like Forster
the earl was lacking in military experience, and when the rebels
capitulated at Preston he was conveyed to London and im-
peached. Pleading guilty at his trial he was attainted and
condemned to death. Great efforts were made to obtain a
mitigation of the sentence, but the government was obdurate,
and Derwentwater was beheaded on Tower Hill on the 24th

of February 1716, declaring on the scaffold his devotion to the
Roman Catholic religion and to King James III. The earl was
very popular among his tenantry and in the neighbourhood of
his residence, Dilston Hall. His gallant bearing and his sad
fate have been celebrated in song and story, and the aurora
borealis, which shone with exceptional brightness on the night of
his execution, is known locally as " Lord Derwentwater's lights."
He left an only son John, who, in spite of his father's attainder,
assumed the title of earl of Derwentwater, and who died un-
married in 1731; and a daughter Alice Mary (d. 1760), who
married in 1732 Robert James, 8th Baron Petre (1713-1742).

On the death of John Radclyfle in 1731 his uncle Charles
(1693-1746), the only surviving son of the 2nd earl, took the
title of earl of Derwentwater. Charles Radclyffe had shared the
fate of his brother, the 3rd earl, at Preston in November 1715,
and had been condemned to death for high treason; but, more
fortunate than James, he had succeeded in escaping from prison,
and had joined the Stewarts on the Continent. In 1724 he
married Charlotte Maria (d. 1755), in her own right countess of
Newburgh, and after spending some time in Rome, he was
captured by an English ship in November 1745 whilst proceeding
to join Charles Edward, the young Pretender, in Scotland.
Condemned to death under his former sentence he was beheaded
on the 8th of December 1 746. His eldest son, James Bartholomew
(1725-1786), who had shared his father's imprisonment, then
claimed the title of earl of Derwentwater, and on his mother's
death in 1755 became 3rd earl of Newburgh. His only son
and successor, Anthony James (1757-1814), died without issue
in 1814, when the title became extinct de fafto as well as de
jure. Many of the forfeited estates in Northumberland and
Cumberland had been settled upon Greenwich Hospital, and in
1 749 a sum of £30,000 had been raised upon them for the benefit
of the earl of Newburgh. The present representative of the
Radclyffe family is Lord Petre, and in 1874 the bodies of the
first three earls of Derwentwater were reburied in the family vault
of the Petres at Thorndon, Essex.

In 1865 a woman appeared in Northumberland who claimed
to be a grand-daughter of the 4th earl and, as there were
no male heirs, to be countess of Derwentwater and owner of the
estates. She said the 4th earl had not died in 1731 but had
married and settled in Germany. Her story aroused some
interest, and it was necessary to eject her by force from Dilston
Hall.

See R. Patten, History of the Late Rebellion (London, 1717) ; W. S.
Gibson, Dilston Hall, or Memoirs of James Radcliffe, earl of Derwent-
water (London, 1848-1850) ; G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage
(Exeter, 1887-1 898) ; and Dictionary of National Biography, vol. xlvii.
(London, 1896).

DERWENTWATER, a lake of Cumberland, England, in the
northern part of the celebrated Lake District (q.v. for the physical
relations of the lake with the district at large). It is of irregular
figure, approaching to an oval, about 3 m. in length and from
J m. to i J m. in breadth. The greatest depth is 70 ft. The lake
is seen at one view, within an amphitheatre of mountains of
varied outline, overlooked by others of greater height. Several
of the lesser elevations near the lake are especially famous as
view-points, such as Castle Head, Walla Crag, Ladder Brow and
Cat Bells. The shores are well wooded, and the lake is studded
with several islands, of which Lord's Island, Derwent Isle and
St Herbert's are the principal. Lord's Island was the residence
of the earls of Derwentwater. St Herbert's Isle receives its name
from having been the abode of a holy man of that name mentioned
by Bede as contemporary with St Cuthbert of Fame Island in the
7th century. Derwent Isle, about six acres in extent, contains
a handsome residence surrounded by lawns, gardens and timber
of large growth. The famous Falls of Lodore, at the upper end
of the lake, consist of a series of cascades in the small Watendlath
Beck, which rushes over an enormous pile of protruding crags
from a height of nearly 200 ft. The " Floating Island " appears
at intervals on the upper portion of the lake near the mouth
of the beck. This singular phenomenon is supposed to owe its
appearance to an accumulation of gas, formed by the decay of

DES ADRETS— DESAULT

vegetable matter, detaching and raising to the surface the matted
weeds which cover the floor of the lake at this point. The river
Derwent (q.v.) enters the lake from the south and leaves it on the
north, draining it through Bassenthwaite lake, to the Irish Sea.
To the north-east of the lake lies the town of Keswick.

DES ADRETS, FRANCOIS DE BEAUMONT, BARON (c. 1512-
1587), French Protestant leader, was born in 1512 or 1513 at
the chateau of La Frette (Isere) . During the reign of Henry II. of
France he served with distinction in the royal army and became
colonel of the " legions " of Dauphine, Provence and Languedoc.
In 1562, however, he joined the Huguenots, not from religious
conviction but probably from motives of ambition and personal
dislike of the house of Guise. His campaign against the Catholics
in 1562 was eminently successful. In June of that year Des
Adrets was master of the greater part of DauphinS. But his
brilliant military qualities were marred by his revolting atrocities.
The reprisals he exacted from the Catholics after their massacres
of the Huguenots at Orange have left a dark stain upon his name.
The garrisons that resisted him were butchered with every cir-
cumstance of brutality, and at Montbrison, in Fores, he forced
eighteen prisoners to precipitate themselves from the top of the
keep. Having alienated the affections of the Huguenots by
his pride and violence, he entered into communication with the
Catholics, and declared himself openly in favour of conciliation.
On the loth of January 1563 he was arrested on suspicion by
some Huguenot officers and confined in the citadel of Nimes.
He was liberated at the edict of Amboise in the following March,
and, distrusted alike by Huguenots and Catholics, retired to the
chateau of La Frette, where he died, a Catholic, on the 2nd of
February 1587.

AUTHORITIES. — I. Roman, Documents inedits sur le baron des
Adrets (1878); and memoirs and histories of the time. See also
Guy Allard, Vie de Francois de Beaumont (1675) ; 1'abbe J. C. Martin,
Histoire politique et militaire de Francois de Beaumont (1803) ; Eugene
and Emile Haag, La France protestante (and ed., 1877 seq.).

DESAIX DE VEYGOUX, LOUIS CHARLES ANTOINE

(1768-1800), French general, was born of a noble though im-
poverished family. He received a military education at the
school founded by Marshal d'Effiat, and entered the French
royal army. During the first six years of his service the young
officer devoted himself assiduously to duty and the study of his
profession, and at the outbreak of the Revolution threw himself
whole-heartedly into the cause of liberty. In spite of the pressure
put upon him by his relatives, he refused to " emigrate," and
in 1792 is found serving on Broglie's staff. The disgrace of this
general nearly cost young Desaix his life, but he escaped the
guillotine, and by his conspicuous services soon drew upon
himself the favour of the Republican government. Like many
other members of the old ruling classes who had accepted the new
order of things, the instinct of command, joined to native ability,
brought Desaix rapidly to high posts. By 1794 he had attained
the rank of general of division. In the campaign of 1795 he
commanded Jourdan's right wing, and in Moreau's invasion of
Bavaria in the following year he held an equally important
command. In the retreat which ensued when the archduke
Charles won the battles of Amberg and Wtirzburg (see FRENCH
REVOLUTIONARY WARS) Desaix commanded Moreau's rearguard,
and later the fortress of Kehl, with the highest distinction, and
his name became a household word, like those of Bonaparte,
Jourdan, Hoche, Marceau and Kleber. Next year his initial
successes were interrupted by the Preliminaries of Leoben,
and he procured for himself a mission into Italy in order to
meet General Bonaparte, who spared no pains to captivate the
brilliant young general from the almost rival camps of Germany.
Provisionally appointed commander of the " Army of England,"
Desaix was soon transferred by Bonaparte to the expeditionary
force intended for Egypt. It was his division which bore the
brunt of the Mameluke attack at the battle of the Pyramids, and
he crowned his reputation by his victories over Murad Bey in
Upper Egypt. Amongst the fellaheen he acquired the significant
appellation of the " Just Sultan." When his chief handed over
the command to Kleber and prepared to return to France,

Desaix was one of the small party selected to accompany the
future emperor. But, from various causes, it was many months
before he could join the new Consul. The campaign of 1800 was
well on its way to the climax when Desaix at last reported
himself for duty in Italy. He was immediately assigned to the
command of a corps of two infantry divisions. Three days later
(June 14), detached, with Boudet's division, at Rivalta, he heard
the cannon of Marengo on his right. Taking the initiative he
marched at once towards the sound, meeting Bonaparte's staff
officer, who had come to recall him, half way on the route. He
arrived with Boudet's division at the moment when the Austrians
were victorious all along the line. Exclaiming, " There is yet
time to win another battlel" he led his three regiments straight
against the enemy's centre. At the moment of victory Desaix
was killed by a musket ball. Napoleon paid a just tribute to the
memory of one of the most brilliant soldiers of that brilliant time
by erecting the monuments of Desaix on the Place Dauphine and
the Place des Victoires in Paris.

See F. Martha-Beker, Comte de Mons, Le General L. C. A. Desaix
(Paris, 1852).

DESAUGIERS, MARC ANTOINE MADELEINE (1772-1827),
French dramatist and song-writer, son of Marc Antoine
Desaugiers, a musical composer, was born at Frejus (Var) on
the i7th of November 1772. He studied at the Mazarin college
in Paris, where he had for one of his teachers the critic Julien
Louis Geoffrey. He entered the seminary Saint Lazare with a
view to the priesthood, but soon gave up his intention. In his
nineteenth year he produced in collaboration with his father a
light opera (1791) adapted from the Medecin malgrelui of Moliere.

During the Revolution he emigrated to St Domingo, and during
the negro revolt he was made prisoner, barely escaping with his
life. He took refuge in the United States, where he supported
himself by teaching the piano. In 1797 he returned to his native
country, and in a very few years he became famous as a writer of
comedies, operas and vaudevilles, which were produced in rapid
succession at the Theatre des Varietes and the Vaudeville. He
also wrote convivial and satirical songs, which, though different
in character, can only worthily be compared with those of
Beranger. He was at one time president of the Caveau, a con-
vivial society whose members were then chiefly drawn from
literary circles. He had the honour of introducing Beranger as a
member. In 1815 Desaugiers succeeded Pierre Yves Barre as
manager of the Vaudeville, which prospered under his manage-
ment until, in 1820, the opposition of the Gymnase proved too
strong for him, and he resigned. He died in Paris on the 9th of
August 1827.

Among his pieces may be mentioned Le Valet d'emprunt ( i 807 ) ^
Monsieur Vaulour (181 1) ; and Le Rigne d'un terme et le terme d'un
regne, aimed at Napoleon.

An edition of Desaugiers' Chansons et Poesies diverses appeared in
1827. A new selection with a notice by Alfred de Bougy appeared
in 1858. See also Sainte-Beuve's Portraits contemporains, vol.v.

DESAULT, PIERRE JOSEPH (1744-1795), French anatomist
and surgeon, was born at Magny-Vernois (Haute Saone) on the
6th of February 1744. He was destined for the church, but his
own inclination was towards the study of medicine; and, after
learning something from the barber-surgeon of his native village,
he was settled as an apprentice in the military hospital of Belfort,
where he acquired some knowledge of anatomy and military
surgery. Going to Paris when about twenty years of age, he
opened a school of anatomy in the winter of 1766, the success
of which excited the jealousy of the established teachers and
professors, who endeavoured to make him give up his lectures.
In 1776 he was admitted a member of the corporation of
surgeons; and in 1782 he was appointed surgeon-major to the
hospital De la Chariti. Within a few years he was recognized
as one of the leading surgeons of France. The clinical school of
surgery which he instituted at the H6tel Dieu attracted great
numbers of students, not only from every part of France but also
from other countries; and he frequently had an audience of
about 600. He introduced many improvements into the practice
of surgery, as well as into the construction of various surgical

DES BARREAUX— DESCARTES

79

instruments. In 1791 he established a Journal de chirurgerie,
edited by his pupils, which was a record of the most interesting
cases that had occurred in his clinical school, with the remarks
which he had made upon them in the course of his lectures. But
in the midst of his labours he became obnoxious to some of the
revolutionists, and he was, on some frivolous charge, denounced
to the popular sections. After being twice examined, he was
seized on the 28th of May 1793, while delivering a lecture, carried
away from his theatre, and committed to prison in the Luxem-
bourg. In three days, however, he was liberated, and permitted
to resume his functions. He died in Paris on the ist of June 1795,
the story that his death was caused by poison being disproved
by the autopsy carried out by his pupil, M. F. X. Bichat. A
pension was settled on his widow by the republic. Together
with Francois Chopart (1743-1795) he published a Traite des
maladies chirurgicales (1779), and Bichat published a digest
of his surgical doctrines in CEuvres chirurgicales de Desault
(1798-1799).

DES BARREAUX, JACQUES VALLEE, SIEUR (1602-1673),
French poet, was born in Paris in 1602. His great-uncle,
Geoff roy-Vallee, had been hanged in 1574 for the authorship of
a book called Le Flfau de la joy. His nephew appears to have
inherited his scepticism, which on one occasion nearly cost him
his life. The peasants of Touraine attributed to the presence
of the unbeliever an untimely frost that damaged the vines,
and proposed to stone him. His authorship of the sonnet on
" P6nitence," by which he is generally known, has been disputed.
He had the further distinction of being the first of the lovers of
Marion Delorme. He died at Chalon-sur-Sa6ne on the 9th of
May 1673.

See Poesies de Des Barreaux (1904), edited by F. Lachevre.

DESBOROUGH, JOHN (1608-1680), English soldier and
politician, son of James Desborough of Eltisley, Cambridgeshire,
and of Elizabeth Hatley of Over, in the same county, was baptized
on the I3th of November 1608. He was educated for the law.
On the 23rd of June 1636 he married Eltisley Jane, daughter
of Robert Cromwell of Huntingdon, and sister of the future
Protector. He took an active part in the Civil War when it
broke out, and showed considerable military ability. In 1645 he
was present as major in the engagement at Langport on the loth
of July, at Hambleton Hill on the 4th of August, and on the loth
of September he commanded the horse at the storming of Bristol.
Later he took part in the operations round Oxford. In 1648
as colonel he commanded the forces at Great Yarmouth. He
avoided all participation in the trial of the king in June 1649,
being employed in the settlement of the west of England. He
fought at Worcester as major-general and nearly captured
Charles II. near Salisbury. After the establishment of the
Commonwealth he was chosen, on the lyth of January 1652, a
member of the committee for legal reforms. In 1653 he became
a member of the Protectorate council of state, and a com-
missioner of the treasury, and was appointed one of the four
generals at sea and a commissioner for the army and navy. In
1654 he was made constable of St Briavel's Castle in Gloucester-
shire. Next year he was appointed major-general over the west.
He had been nominated a member of Barebones' parliament
in 1653, and he was returned to the parliament of 1654 for
Cambridgeshire, and to that of 1656 for Somersetshire. In July
1657 he became a member of the privy council, and in 1658 he
accepted a seat in Cromwell's House of Lords. In spite of his
near relationship to the Protector's family, he was one of the
most violent opponents of the assumption by Cromwell of the
royal title, and after the Protector's death, instead of supporting
the interests and government of his nephew Richard Cromwell,
he was, with Fleetwood, the chief instigator and organizer of the
hostility of the army towards his administration, and forced him
by threats and menaces to dissolve his parliament in April 1659.
He was chosen a member of the council of state by the restored
Rump, and made colonel and governor of Plymouth, but pre-
senting with other officers a seditious petition from the army
council, on the 5th of October, was about a week later dismissed.
After the expulsion of the Rump by Fleetwood on the i3th of

October he was chosen by the officers a member of the new
administration and commissary-general of the horse. The new
military government, however, rested on no solid foundation, and
its leaders quickly found themselves without any influence.
Desborough himself became an object of ridicule, his regiment
even revolted against him, and on the return of the Rump he
was ordered to quit London. At the restoration he was excluded
from the act of indemnity but not included in the clause of pains
and penalties extending to life and goods, being therefore only
incapacitated from public employment. Soon afterwards he was
arrested on suspicion of conspiring to kill the king and queen,
but was quickly liberated. Subsequently he escaped to Holland,
where he engaged in republican intrigues. Accordingly he was
ordered home, in April 1666, on pain of incurring the charge of
treason, and obeying was imprisoned in the Tower till February
1667, when he was examined before the council and set free.
Desborough died in 1680. By his first wife, Cromwell's sister, he
had one daughter and seven sons; he married a second wife in
April 1658 whose name is unrecorded. Desborough was a good
soldier and nothing more; and his only conception of govern-
ment was by force and by the army. His rough person and
manners are the constant theme of ridicule in the royalist ballads,
and he is caricatured in Butler's Hudibras and in the Parable of
the Lien and Fox.

DESCARTES, RENE (1596-1650), French philosopher, was
born at La Haye, in Touraine, midway between Tours and
Poitiers, on the 3ist of March 1596, and died at Stockholm on the
nth of February 1650. The house where he was born is still
shown, and a mttairie about 3 m. off retains the name of
Les Cartes. His family on both sides was of Poitevin descent.
Joachim Descartes, his father, having purchased a commission
as counsellor in the parlement of Rennes, introduced the family
into that demi-noblesse of the robe which, between the bourgeoisie
and the high nobility, maintained a lofty rank in French society.
He had three children, a son who afterwards succeeded to his
father in the parlement, a daughter who married a M. du Crevis,
and Rene, after whose birth the mother died.

Descartes, known as Du Perron, from a small estate destined
for his inheritance, soon showed an inquisitive mind. From
1604 to 1612 he studied at the school of La Flfiche,
which Henry IV. had lately founded and endowed for
the Jesuits. He enjoyed exceptional privileges; his
feeble health excused him from the morning duties, and thus
early he acquired the habit of reflection in bed, which clung to
him throughout life. Even then he had begun to distrust the
authority of tradition and his teachers. Two years before he
left school he was selected as one of the twenty-four who went
forth to receive the heart of Henry IV. as it was borne to its
resting-place at La Fle'che. At the age of sixteen he went home
to his father, who was now settled at Rennes, and had married
again. During the winter of 1612 he completed his preparations
for the world by lessons in horsemanship and fencing; and then
started as his own master to taste the pleasures of Parisian life.
Fortunately he went to no perilous lengths; the worst we hear
of is a passion for gaming. Here, too, he made the acquaintance
of Claude Mydorge, one of the foremost mathematicians of France,
and renewed an early intimacy with Marin Mersenne (g.v.), now
Father Mersenne, of the order of Minim friars. The withdrawal
of Mersenne in 1614 to a post in the provinces was the signal for
Descartes to abandon social life and shut himself up for nearly
two years in a secluded house of the faubourg St Germain.
Accident betrayed the secret of his retirement; he was com-
pelled to leave his mathematical investigations, and to take part
in entertainments, where the only thing that chimed in with his
theorizing reveries was the music. French politics were at that
time characterized by violence and intrigue to such an extent
that Paris was no fit place for a student, and there was little
honourable prospect for a soldier. Accordingly, in May 1617,
Descartes set out for the Netherlands and took service in the
army of Prince Maurice of Orange. At Breda he enlisted as a
volunteer, and the first and only pay which he accepted he kept
as a curiosity through life. There was a lull in the war, and the

Early
years.

8o

DESCARTES

Netherlands was distracted by the quarrels of Gomarists and
Arminians. During the leisure thus arising, Descartes one day
had his attention drawn to a placard in the Dutch tongue; as
the language, of which he never became perfectly master, was
then strange to him, he asked a bystander to interpret it into
either French or Latin. The stranger, Isaac Beeckman, principal
of the college of Dort, offered to do so into Latin, if the inquirer
would bring him a solution of the problem, — for the advertise-
ment was one of those challenges which the mathematicians of
the age were accustomed to throw down to all comers, daring
them to discover a geometrical mystery known as they fancied
to themselves alone. Descartes promised and fulfilled; and a
friendship grew up between him and Beeckman — broken only
by the dishonesty of the latter, who in later years took credit for
the novelty contained in a small essay on music (Compendium
Musicae) which Descartes wrote at this period and entrusted to
Beeckman.1

After spending two years in Holland as a soldier in a period
of peace, Descartes, in July 1619, attracted by the news of
the impending struggle between the house of Austria and the
Protestant princes, consequent upon the election of the palatine
of the Rhine to the kingdom of Bohemia, set out for upper
Germany, and volunteered into the Bavarian service. The
winter of 1619, spent in quarters at Neuburg on the Danube, was
the critical period in his life. Here, in his warm room (dans un
poele), he indulged those meditations which afterwards led to the
Discourse of Method. It was here that, on the eve of St Martin's
day, he " was filled with enthusiasm, and discovered the founda-
tions of a marvellous science." He retired to rest with anxious
thoughts of his future career, which haunted him through the
night in three dreams that left a deep impression on his mind.
The date of his philosophical conversion is thus fixed to a day.
But as yet he had only glimpses of a logical method which should
invigorate the syllogism by the co-operation of ancient geometry
and modern algebra. For during the year that elapsed before he
left Swabia (and whilst he sojourned at Neuburg and Ulm), and
amidst his geometrical studies, he would fain have gathered some
knowledge of the mystical wisdom attributed to the Rosicrucians;
but the Invisibles, as they called themselves, kept their secret.
He was present at the battle of Weisser Berg (near Prague), where
the hopes of the elector palatine were blasted (November 8,
1620), passed the winter with the army in southern Bohemia,
and next year served in Hungaiy under Karl Bonaventura de
Longueval, Graf von Buquoy or Boucquoi (1571-1621). On the
death of this general Descartes quitted the imperial service, and
in July 1621 began a peaceful tour through Moravia, the borders
of Poland, Pomerania, Brandenburg, Holstein and Friesland,
from which he reappeared in February 1622 in Belgium, and
betook himself directly to his father's home at Rennes in
Brittany.

At Rennes Descartes found little to interest him; and, after
he had visited the maternal estate of which his father now put
him in possession, he went to Paris, where he found the Rosi-
crucians the topic of the hour, and heard himself credited with
partnership in their secrets. A short visit to Brittany enabled
him, with his father's consent, to arrange for the sale of his
property in Poitou. The proceeds were invested in such a way
at Paris as to bring him in a yearly income of between 6000 and
7000 francs (equal now to more than £500). Towards the end
of the year Descartes was on his way to Italy. The natural
phenomena of Switzerland, and the political complications in
the Valtellina, where the Catholic inhabitants had thrown off the
yoke of the Orisons and called in the Papal and Spanish troops
to their assistance, delayed him some time; but he reached
Venice in time to see the ceremony of the doge's wedlock with the
Adriatic. After paying his vows at Loretto, he came to Rome,
which was then on the eve of a year of jubilee — an occasion which
Descartes seized to observe the variety of men and manners which
the city then embraced within its walls. In the spring of 1625

1 It was only published after the author's death; and of it, besides
the French version, there exists an English translation " by a Person
of Quality."

he returned home by Mont Cenis, observing the avalanches,'
instead of, as his relatives hoped, securing a post in the French
army in Piedmont.

For an instant Descartes seems to have concurred in the plan
of purchasing a post at Chatellerault, but he gave up the idea,
and settled in Paris (June 1625), in the quarter where he had
sought seclusion before. By this time he had ceased to devote
himself to pure mathematics, and in company with his friends
Mersenne and Mydorge was deeply interested in the theory of
the refraction of light, and in the practical work of grinding
glasses of the best shape suitable for optical instruments. But
all the while he was engaged with reflections on the nature of
man, of the soul and of God, and for a while he remained invisible
even to his most familiar friends. But their importunity made a
hermitage in Paris impossible; a graceless friend even surprised
the philosopher in bed at eleven in the morning meditating and
taking notes. In disgust, Descartes started for the west to take
part in the siege of La Rochelle, and entered the city with the
troops (October 1628). A meeting at which he was present after
his return to Paris decided his vocation. He had expressed an
opinion that the true art of memory was not to be gained by
technical devices, but by a philosophical apprehension of things;
and the cardinal de Berulle, the founder of the Congregation of
the Oratory, was so struck by the tone of the remarks as to
impress upon the speaker the duty of spending his life in the
examination of truth. Descartes accepted the philosophic
mission, and in the spring of 1629 he settled in Holland. His
financial affairs he had entrusted to the care of the abbe Picot,
and as his literary and scientific representative he adopted
Mersenne.

Till 1649 Descartes lived in Holland. Thrice only did he
revisit France — in 1644, 1647 and 1648. The first of these
occasions was in order to settle family affairs after the death
of his father in 1640. The second brief visit, in 1647, partly on
literary, partly on family business, was signalized by the award
of a pension of 3000 francs, obtained from the royal bounty
by Cardinal Mazarin. The last visit in 1648 was less fortunate.
A royal order summoned him to France for new honours — an
additional pension and a permanent post — for his fame had by
this time gone abroad, and it was the age when princes sought to
attract genius and learning to their courts. But when Descartes
arrived, he found Paris rent asunder by the civil war of the
Fronde. He paid the costs of his royal parchment, and left
without a word of reproach. The only other occasions on which
he was out of the Netherlands were in 1630, when he made a
flying visit to England to observe for himself some alleged
magnetic phenomena, and in 1634, when he took an excursion
to Denmark.

During his residence in Holland he lived at thirteen different
places, and changed his abode twenty-four times. In the choice
of these spots two motives seem to have influenced him — the
neighbourhood of a university or college, and the amenities of
the situation. Among these towns were Franeker in Friesland,
Harderwyk, Deventer, Utrecht, Leiden, Amersfoort, Amster-
dam, Leeuwarden in Friesland. His favourite residences were
Endegeest, Egmond op den Hoef and Egmond the Abbey (west
of Zaandam).

The time thus spent seems to have been on the whole happy,
even allowing for warm discussions with the mathematicians
and metaphysicians of France, and for harassing controversies in
the Netherlands. Friendly agents — chiefly Catholic priests — were
the intermediaries who forwarded his correspondence from Dort,
Haarlem, Amsterdam and Leiden to his proper address, which he
kept completely secret; and Father Mersenne sent him objections
and questions. His health, which in his youth had been bad,
improved. " I sleep here ten hours every night," he writes
from Amsterdam, " and no care ever shortens my slumber."
" I take my walk every day through the confusion of a great
multitude with as much freedom and quiet as you could find in
your rural avenues."3 At his first coming to Franeker he
arranged to get a cook acquainted with French cookery; but,
i(Euvres, v. 255. '76. vi. 199.

DESCARTES

81

to prevent misunderstanding, it may be added that his diet was
mainly vegetarian, and that he rarely drank wine. New friends
gathered round him who took a keen interest in his researches.
Once only do we find him taking an interest in the affairs of his
neighbours, — to ask pardon from the government for a homicide.1
He continued the profession of his religion. Sometimes from
curiosity he went to the ministrations of anabaptists,2 to hear
the preaching of peasants and artisans. He carried few books
to Holland with him, but a Bible and the Summa of Thomas
Aquinas were amongst them.3 One of the recommendations of
Egmond the Abbey was the free exercise there allowed to the
Catholic religion. At Franeker his house was a small chateau,
" separated by a moat from the rest of the town, where the mass
could be said in safety." 4 And one motive in favour of accepting
an invitation to England lay in the alleged leanings of Charles I.
to the older church.

The best account of Descartes's mental history during his
life in Holland is contained in his letters, which extend over the
whole period, and are particularly frequent in the latter half.
The majority of them are addressed to Mersenne, and deal with
problems of physics, musical theory (in which he took a special
interest), and mathematics. Several letters between 1643 and
1649 are addressed to the princess Elizabeth, the eldest daughter
of the ejected elector palatine, who lived at The Hague, where her
mother maintained the semblance of a royal court. The princess
was obliged to quit Holland, but kept up a philosophical corre-
spondence with Descartes. It is to her that the Principles of
Philosophy were dedicated; and in her alone, according to
Descartes, were united those generally separated talents for
metaphysics and for mathematics which are so characteristically
co-operative in the Cartesian system. Two Dutch friends,
Constantijn Huygens (von Zuylichem), father of the more
celebrated Huygens, and Hoogheland, figure amongst the
correspondents, not to mention various savants, professors and
churchmen (particularly Jesuits).

His residence in the Netherlands fell in the most prosperous
and brilliant days of the Dutch state, under the stadtholdership
of Frederick Henry (1625-1647). Abroad its navigators mono-
polized the commerce of the world, and explored unknown seas;
at home the Dutch school of painting reached its acme in
Rembrandt (1607-1669); and the philological reputation of
the country was sustained by Grotius, Vossius and the elder
Heinsius. And yet, though Rembrandt's " Nightwatch " is dated
the very year after the publication of the Meditations, not a word
in Descartes breathes of any work of art or historical learning.
The contempt of aesthetics and erudition is characteristic of the
most typical members of what is known as the Cartesian school,
especially Malebranche. Descartes was not in any strict sense a
reader. His wisdom grew mainly out of his own reflections and
experiments. The story of his disgust when he found that
Queen Christina devoted some time every day to the study of
Greek under the tuition of Vossius is at least true in substance.5
It gives no evidence of science, he remarks, to possess a tolerable
knowledge of the Roman tongue, such as once was possessed by
the populace of Rome.6 In all his travels he studied only the
phenomena of nature and human life. He was a spectator
rather than an actor on the stage of the world. He entered the
army, merely because the position gave a vantage-ground from
which to make his observations. In the political interests which
these contests involved he took no part; his favourite disciple,
the princess Elizabeth, was the daughter of the banished king,
against whom he had served in Bohemia; and Queen Christina,
his second royal follower, was the daughter of Gustavus
Adolphus.

Thus Descartes is a type of that spirit of science to which
erudition and all the heritage of the past seem but elegant
trifling. The science of Descartes was physics in all its branches,
but especially as applied to physiology. Science, he says, may
be compared to a tree; metaphysics is the root, physics is the
trunk, and the three chief branches are mechanics, medicine and

1 CEuvres, viii. 59.
4 Ib. vi. 123.

2 76. viii. 173.
' Ib. x. 375.

3 Ib. viii. 181.
' Ib. ix. 6.

morals, — the three applications of our knowledge to the outward
world, to the human body, and to the conduct of life.7

Such then was the work that Descartes had in view in Holland.
His residence was generally divided into two parts — one his
workshop for science, the other his reception-room for society.
" Here are my books," he is reported to have told a visitor, as he
pointed to the animals he had dissected. He worked hard at his
book on refraction, and dissected the heads of animals in order to
explain imagination and memory, which he considered physical
processes.8 But he was not a laborious student. " I can say
with truth," he writes to the princess Elizabeth,9 " that the
principle which I have always observed in my studies, and which
I believe has helped me most to gain whatjtnowledge I have, has
been never to spend beyond a very few hours daily in thoughts
which occupy the imagination, and a very few hours yearly in
those which occupy the understanding, and to give all the rest of
my time to the relaxation of the senses and the repose of the
mind." But his expectations from the study of anatomy and
physiology went a long way. " The conservation of health,"
he writes in 1646, " has always been the principal end of my
studies."10 In 1629 he asks Mersenne to take care of himself
" till I find out if there is any means of getting a medical theory
based on infallible demonstrations, which is what I am now
inquiring." u Astronomical inquiries in connexion with optics,
meteorological phenomena, and, in a word, the whole field
of natural Jaws, excited his desire to explain them. His own
observation, and the reports of Mersenne, furnished his data. Of
Bacon's demand for observation and collection of facts he is
an imitator; and he wishes (in a letter of 1632) that " some one
would undertake to give a history of celestial phenomena after
the method of Bacon, and describe the sky exactly as it appears
at present, without introducing a single hypothesis." 12

He had several writings in hand during the early years of his
residence in Holland, but the main work of this period was a
physical doctrine of the universe which he termed The World.
Shortly after his arrival he writes to Mersenne that it will prob-
ably be finished in 1633, but meanwhile asks him not to disclose
the secret to his Parisian friends. Already anxieties appear as to
the theological verdict upon two of his fundamental views — the
infinitude of the universe, and the earth's rotation round the
sun. 13 But towards the end of year 1633 we find him writing as
follows: — " I had intended sending you my World as a New
Year's gift, and a fortnight ago I was still minded to send you a
fragment of the work, if the whole of it could not be transcribed
in time. But I have just been at Leyden and Amsterdam to
ask after Galileo's cosmical system as I imagined I had heard of
its being printed last year in Italy. I was told that it had been
printed, but that every copy had been at the same time burnt at
Rome, and that Galileo had been himself condemned to some
penalty." 14 He has also seen a copy of Galileo's condemnation
at Liege (September 20, 1633), with the words "although he
professes that the [Copernican] theory was only adopted by him
as a hypothesis." His friend Beeckman lent him a copy of
Galileo's work, which he glanced through in his usual manner
with other men's books; he found it good, and " failing more
in the points where it follows received opinions than where it
diverges from them." 15 The consequence of these reports of the
hostility of the church led him to abandon all thoughts of
publishing. The World was consigned to his desk; and although
doctrines in all essential respects the same constitute the physical
portion of his Principia, it was not till after the death of Descartes
that fragments of the work, including Le Monde, or ?, treatise on
light, and the physiological tracts L'Homme and La Formation du
fcelus, were given to the world by his admirer Claude Clerselier
(1614-1684) in 1664. Descartes was not disposed to be a
martyr; he had a sincere respect for the church, and had no
wish to begin an open conflict with established doctrines.

In 1636 Descartes had resolved to publish some specimens of
the fruits of his method, and some general observations on its

7 Ib. iii. 24.
10 Ib. ix. 341.
13 Ib. vi. 73.

8 Ib. vi. 234.
11 Ib. vi. 89.
14 Ib. vi. 239.

9 Ib. ix. 131.
w Ib. vi. 210.
16 Ib. vi. 248.

DESCARTES

nature which, under an appearance of simplicity, might sow the
good seed of more adequate ideas on the world and man. " I
should be glad," he says, when talking of a publisher,1 " if the
whole book were printed in good type, on good paper, and I
should like to have at least 200 copies for distribution. The book
will contain four essays, all in French, with the general title of
' Project of a Universal science, capable of raising our nature to
its highest perfection; also Dioptrics, Meteors and Geometry,
wherein the most curious matters which the author could select
as a proof of the universal science which he proposes are explained
in such a way that even the unlearned may understand them.' "
The work appeared anonymously at Leiden (published by Jean
Maire) in 1637, under the modest title of Essais philosophiques;
and the project of a universal science becomes the Discours de la
methode pour bien conduire sa raison et chercher la iifrite dans les
sciences. In 1644 it appeared in a Latin version, revised by
Descartes, as Specimina philosophica. A work so widely circu-
lated by the author naturally attracted attention, but in France
it was principally the mathematicians who took it up, and their
criticisms were more pungent than complimentary. Fermat,
Roberval and Desargues took exception in their various ways to
the methods employed in the geometry, and to the demonstra-
tions of the laws of refraction given in the Dioptrics and Meteors.
The dispute on the latter point between Fermat and Descartes
was continued, even after the philosopher's death, as late as
1662. In the youthful Dutch universities the effect of the essays
was greater.

The first public teacher of Cartesian views was Henri Renery,
a Belgian, who at Deventer and afterwards at Utrecht had

introduced the new philosophy which he had learned
Cart**0' from personal intercourse with Descartes. Renery
s/«n/sm. only survived five years at Utrecht, and it was reserved

for Heinrich Regius (van Roy) — who in 1638 had been
appointed to the new chair of botany and theoretical medicine
at Utrecht, and who visited Descartes at Egmond in order more
thoroughly to learn his views — to throw down the gauntlet to
the adherents of the old methods. With more eloquence than
judgment, he propounded theses bringing into relief the points
in which the new doctrines clashed with the old. The attack was
opened by Gisbert Voe't, foremost among the orthodox theo-
logical professors and clergy of Utrecht. In 1639 he published a
series of arguments against atheism, in which the Cartesian views
were not obscurely indicated as perilous for the faith, though no
name was mentioned. Next year he persuaded the magistracy
to issue an order forbidding Regius to travel beyond the received
doctrine. The magisterial views seem to have prevailed in the
professoriate, which formally in March 1642 expressed its dis-
approbation of the new philosophy as well as of its expositors.
As yet Descartes was not directly attacked. Voe't now issued,
under the name of Martin Schoock, one of his pupils, a pamphlet
with the title of Methodus novae philosophiae Renati Descartes, in
which atheism and infidelity were openly declared to be the effect
of the new teaching. Descartes replied to Voet directly in a letter,
published at Amsterdam in 1643. He was summoned before the
magistrates of Utrecht to defend himself against charges of
irreligion and slander. What might have happened we cannot
tell; but Descartes threw himself on the protection of the French
ambassador and the prince of Orange, and the city magistrates,
from whom he vainly demanded satisfaction in a dignified letter,2
were snubbed by their superiors. About the same time (April
1645) Schoock was summoned before the university of Groningen,
of which he was a member, and forthwith disavowed the more
abusive passages in his book. So did the effects of the odium
theologicum, for the meanwhile at least, die away.

In the Discourse of Method Descartes had sketched the main
points in his new views, with a mental autobiography which
Discourse m^S^ explain their origin, and with some suggestions
of Method, as to their applications. His second great work,
andMedi- Meditations on the First Philosophy, which had been
tatiocs. begun soon after his settlement in the Netherlands,
expounded in more detail the foundations of his system,
1 (Euvres, vi. 276. 2 76. ix. 250.

laying especial emphasis on the priority of mind to body, and on
the absolute and ultimate dependence of mind as well as body on
the existence of God. In 1640 a copy of the work in manuscript
was despatched to Paris, and Mersenne was requested to lay it
before as many thinkers and scholars as he deemed desirable,
with a view to getting their views upon its argument and doctrine.
Descartes soon had a formidable list of objections to reply to.
Accordingly, when the work was published at Paris in August
1641, under the title of Medilaliones de prima philosophia ubi de
Dei existentia et animae immortalitate (though it was in fact not
the immortality but the immateriality of the mind, or, as the
second edition described it, animae humanae a corpore distinctio,
which was maintained), the title went on to describe the larger
part of the book as containing various objections of learned
men, with the replies of the author. These objections in the first
edition are arranged under six heads: the first came from
Caterus, a theologian of Louvain; the second and sixth are
anonymous criticisms from various hands; whilst the third,
fourth and fifth belong respectively to Hobbes, Arnauld and
Gassendi. In the second edition appeared the seventh — objec-
tions from Pere Bourdin, a Jesuit teacher of mathematics in
Paris; and subsequently another set of objections, known
as those of Hyperaspistes, was included in the collection of
Descartes's letters. The anonymous objections are very much
the statement of common-sense against philosophy; those of
Caterus criticize the Cartesian argument from the traditional
theology of the church; those of Arnauld are an appreciative
inquiry into the bearings and consequences of the meditations
for religion and morality; while those. of Hobbes (q.v.) and
Gassendi — both somewhat senior to Descartes and with a
dogmatic system of their own already formed — are a keen assault
upon the spiritualism of the Cartesian position from a generally
" sensational " standpoint. The criticisms of the last two are
the criticisms of a hostile school of thought; those of Arnauld
are the difficulties of a possible disciple.

In 1644 the third great work of Descartes, the Principia
philosophiae, appeared at Amsterdam. Passing briefly over
the conclusions arrived at in the Meditations, it deals
in its second, third and fourth parts with the general cl *ia
principles of physical science, especially the laws of
motion, with the theory of vortices, and with the phenomena of
heat, light, gravity, magnetism, electricity, &c., upon the earth.
This work exhibits some curious marks of caution. Undoubtedly,
says Descartes, the world was in the beginning created in all its
perfection. "But yet as it is best, if we wish to understand the
nature of plants or of men, to consider how they may by degrees
proceed from seeds, rather than how they were created by God
in the beginning of the world, so, if we can excogitate some
extremely simple and comprehensible principles, out of which,
as if they were seeds, we can prove that stars, and earth and all
this visible scene could have originated, although we know full
well that they never did originate in such a way, we shall in that
way expound their nature far better than if we merely described
them as they exist at present."3 The Copernican theory is
rejected in name, but retained in substance. The earth, or other
planet, does not actually move round the sun; yet it is carried
round the sun in the subtle matter of the great vortex, where it
lies in equilibrium, — carried like the passenger in a boat, who may
cross the sea and yet not rise from his berth.

In 1647 the difficulties that had arisen at Utrecht were repeated
on a smaller scale at Leiden. There the Cartesian innovations
had found a patron in Adrian Heerebord, and were openly
discussed in theses and lectures. The theological professors took
the alarm at passages in the Meditations; an attempt to prove
the existence of God savoured, as they thought, of atheism and
heresy. When Descartes complained to the authorities of this
unfair treatment,4 the only reply was an order by which all
mention of the name of Cartesianism, whether favourable or
adverse, was forbidden in the university. This was scarcely
what Descartes wanted, and again he had to apply to the prince
of Orange, whereupon the theologians were asked to behave with
* Princip. L. iii. S. 45. * CEuvres, x. 26.

DESCARTES

civility, and the name of Descartes was no longer proscribed.
But other annoyances were not wanting from unfaithful disciples
and unsympathetic critics. The Instantiate of Gassendi appeared
at Amsterdam in 1644 as a reply to the reply which Descartes had
published of his previous objections; and the publication by
Heinrich Regius of his work on physical philosophy (Fundamenta
phy sices; 1646) gave the world to understand that he had ceased
to be a thorough adherent of the philosophy which he had so
enthusiastically adopted.

It was about 1648 that Descartes lost his friends Mersenne
and Mydorge by death. The place of Mersenne as his Parisian
representative was in the main taken by Claude Clerselier (the
French translator of the Objections and Responses), whom he had
become acquainted with in Paris. Through Clerselier .he came to
know Pierre Chanut, who in 1645 was sent as French ambassador
to the court of Sweden. Queen Christina was not yet twenty,
and took a lively if a somewhat whimsical interest in literary
and philosophical culture. Through Chanut, with whom she
was on terms of familiarity, she came to hear of Descartes, and a
correspondence which the latter nominally carried on with the
ambassador was in reality intended for the eyes of the queen.
The correspondence took an ethical tone. It began with a long
letter on love in all its aspects (February 1647),' a topic suggested
by Chanut, who had been discussing it with the queen; and this
was soon followed by another to Christina herself on the chief
good. An essay on the passions of the mind (Passions de I'dme),
which had been written originally for the princess Elizabeth,
in development of some ethical views suggested by the De vita
beata of Seneca, was enclosed at the same time for Chanut. It
was a draft of the work published in 1650 under the same title.
Philosophy, particularly that of Descartes, was becoming a
fashionable divertissement for the queen and her courtiers, and
it was felt that the presence of the sage himself was necessary
to complete the good work of education. An invitation to
the Swedish court was urged upon Descartes, and after much
hesitation accepted; a vessel of the royal navy was ordered
to wait upon him, and in September 1649 he left Egmond for
the north.

The position on which he entered at Stockholm was unsuited
for a man who wished to be his own master. The young queen
Death wanted Descartes to draw up a code for a proposed
academy of the sciences, and to give her an hour of
philosophic instruction every morning at five. She had already
determined to create him a noble, and begun to look out an estate
in the lately annexed possessions of Sweden on the Pomeranian
coast. But these things were not to be. His friend Chanut fell
dangerously ill; and Descartes, who devoted himself to attend
in the sick-room, was obliged to issue from it every morning in
the chill northern air of January, and spend an hour in the palace
library. The ambassador recovered, but Descartes fell a victim
to the same disease, inflammation of the lungs. The last time he
saw the queen was on the ist of February 1650, when he handed
to her the statutes he had drawn up for the proposed academy.
On the nth of February he died. The queen wished to bury him
at the feet of the Swedish kings, and to raise a costly mausoleum
in his honour; but these plans were overruled, and a plain
monument in the Catholic cemetery was all that marked the place
of his rest. Sixteen years after his death the French treasurer
d'Alibert made arrangements for the conveyance of the ashes to
his native land; and in 1667 they were interred in the church of
Ste Genevieve du Mont, the modern Pantheon. In 1819, after
being temporarily deposited in a stone sarcophagus in the court
of the Louvre during the Revolutionary epoch, they were
transferred to St Germain-des-Pres, where they now repose
between Montfaucon and Mabillon. A monument was raised
to his memory at Stockholm by Gustavus III.; and a modern
statue has been erected to him at Tours, with an inscription on
the pedestal: " Je pense, done je suis."

Descartes never married, and had little of the amorous in his
temperament. He has alluded to a childish fancy for a young
girl with a slight obliquity of vision; but he only mentions it
1 CEuvres, x. 3.

d propos of the consequent weakness which led him to associate
such a defect with beauty.2 In person he was small, with large
head, projecting brow, prominent nose, and eyes wide apart,
with black hair coming down almost to his eyebrows. His voice
was feeble. He usually dressed in black, with unobtrusive
propriety.

Philosophy. — The end of all study, says Descartes, in one of his
earliest writings, ought to be to guide the mind to form true and
sound judgments on every thing that may be presented to it.3
The sciences in their totality are but the intelligence of man;
and all the details of knowledge have no value save as they
strengthen the understanding. The mind is not for the sake of
knowledge, but knowledge for the sake of the mind. This is the
reassertion of a principle which the middle ages had lost sight of
— that knowledge, if it is to have any value, must be intelligence,
and not erudition.

But how is intelligence, as opposed to erudition, possible?
The answer to that question is the method of Descartes. That
idea of a method grew up with his study of geometry
and arithmetic, — the only branches of knowledge
which he would allow to be " made sciences." But
they did not satisfy his demand for intelligence. " I found in
them," he says, " different propositions on numbers of which,
after a calculation, I perceived the truth; as for the figures, I
had, so to speak, many truths put before my eyes, and many
others concluded from them by analogy; but it did not seem to me
that they told my mind with sufficient clearness why the things
were as I was shown, and by what means their discovery was
attained-"4 The mathematics of which he thus speaks included
the geometry of the ancients, as it had been handed down to the
modern world, and arithmetic with the developments it had
received in the direction of algebra. The ancient geometry, as we
know it, is a wonderful monument of ingenuity — a series of
tours de force, in which each problem to all appearance stands
alone, and, if solved, is solved by methods and principles peculiar
to itself. Here and there particular curves, for example, had
been obliged to yield the secret of their tangent; but the ancient
geometers apparently had no consciousness of the general
bearings of the methods which they so successfully applied.
Each problem was something unique; the elements of transition
from one to another were wanting; and the next step which
mathematics had to make was to find some method of reducing,
for instance, all curves to a common notation. When that was
found, the solution of one problem would immediately entail the
solution of all others which belonged to the same series as itself.

The arithmetical half of mathematics, which had been gradually
growing into algebra, and had decidedly established itself as such
in the Ad logisticen speciosam notae priores of Francois Vieta
(1540- 1 603), supplied to some extent the means of generalizing
geometry. And the algebraists or arithmeticians of the i6th
century, such as Luca Pacioli (Lucas de Borgo), Geronimo or
Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576), and Niccola Tartaglia (1506-
1559), had used geometrical constructions to throw light on
the solution of particular equations. But progress was made
difficult, in consequence of the clumsy and irregular nomenclature
employed. With Descartes the use of exponents as now employed
for denoting the powers of a quantity becomes systematic; and
without some such step by which the homogeneity of successive
powers is at once recognized, the binomial theorem could scarcely
have been detected. The restriction of the early letters of the
alphabet to known, and of the late letters to unknown, quantities
is also his work. In this and other details he crowns and com-
pletes, in a form henceforth to be dominant for the language
of algebra, the work of numerous obscure predecessors, such as
Etienne de la Roche, Michael Stifel or Stiefel (1487-1567), and
others.

Having thus perfected the instrument, his next step was to
apply it in such a way as to bring uniformity of method into the
isolated and independent operations of geometry. " I had no
intention,"6 he says in the Method, "of attempting to master all

2 76. x. 53. » Regulae, CEuvres, xi. 202.

4 CEuvres, xi. 219. » Disc, de methode, part ii.

DESCARTES

the particular sciences commonly called mathematics; but as I
observed that, with all differences in their objects, they agreed in
considering merely the various relations or proportions subsisting
among these objects, I thought it best for my purpose to consider
these relations in the most general form possible, without refer-
ring them to any objects in particular except such as would
most facilitate the knowledge of them. Perceiving further, that
in order to understand these relations I should sometimes have
to consider them one by one, and sometimes only to bear them in
mind or embrace them in the aggregate, I thought that, in order
the better to consider them individually, I should view them as
subsisting between straight lines, than which I could find no
objects more simple, or capable of being more distinctly repre-
sented to my imagination and senses; and on the other hand
that, in order to retain them in the memory or embrace an
aggregate of many, I should express them by certain characters,
the briefest possible." Such is the basis of the algebraical or
modern analytical geometry. The problem of the curves is
solved by their reduction to a problem of straight lines; and the
locus of any point is determined by its distance from two given
straight lines — the axes of co-ordinates. Thus Descartes gave
to modern geometry that abstract and general character in
which consists its superiority to the geometry of the ancients.
In another question connected with this, the problem of drawing
tangents to any curve, Descartes was drawn into a controversy
with Pierre (de) Fermat (1601-1663), Gilles Persone de Roberval
(1602-1675), and Girard Desargues (1593-1661). Fermat and
Descartes agreed in regarding the tangent to a curve as a secant
of that curve with the two points of intersection coinciding, while
Roberval regarded it as the direction of the composite movement
by which the curve can be described. Both these methods,
differing from that now employed, are interesting as preliminary
steps towards the method of fluxions and the differential calculus.
In pure algebra Descartes expounded and illustrated the general
methods of solving equations up to those of the fourth degree
(and believed that his method could go beyond), stated the law
which connects the positive and negative roots of an equation
with the changes of sign in the consecutive terms, and introduced
the method of indeterminate coefficients for the solution of
equations.1 These innovations have been attributed on in-
adequate evidence to other algebraists, e.g. William Oughtred
(1575-1660) and Thomas Harriot (1560-1621).

The Geometry of Descartes, unlike the other parts of his essays,
is not easy reading. It dashes at once into the middle of the
subjects with the examination of a problem which had baffled
the ancients, and seems as if it were tossed at the heads of
the French geometers as a challenge. An edition of it ap-
peared subsequently, with notes by his friend Florimond de
Beaune (1601-1652), calculated to smooth the difficulties of
the work. All along mathematics was regarded by Descartes
rather as the envelope than the foundation of his method; and
the " universal mathematical science " which he sought after
was only the prelude of a universal science of all-embracing
character.2

The method of Descartes rests upon the proposition that all
the objects of our knowledge fall into series, of which the members
are more or less known by means of one another. In
method* everv sucn series or group there is a dominant element,
simple and irresoluble, the standard on which the rest
of the series depends, and hence, so far as that group or series is
concerned, absolute. The other members of the group are relative
and dependent, and only to be understood as in various degrees
subordinate to the primitive conception. The characteristic by
which we recognize the fundamental element in a series is its
intuitive or self-evident character; it is given by " the evident
conception of a healthy and attentive mind so clear and distinct
that no doubt is left." * Having discovered this prime or absolute
member of the group, we proceed to consider the degrees in which
the other members enter into relation with it. Here deduction
comes into play to show the dependence of one term upon the
others; and, in the case of a long chain of intervening links, the

1 Geometric, book iii. * (Euvres, xi. 224. • Ib. xi. 212.

problem for intelligence is so to enunciate every element, and so
to repeat the connexion that we may finally grasp all the links
of the chain in one. In this way we, as it were, bring the causal
or primal term and its remotest dependent immediately together,
and raise a derivative knowledge into one which is primary and
intuitive. Such are the four points of Cartesian method: —
(i) Truth requires a clear and distinct conception of its object,
excluding all doubt; (2) the objects of knowledge naturally fall
into series or groups; (3) in these groups investigation must
begin with a simple and indecomposable element, and pass from
it to the more complex and relative elements; (4) an exhaustive
and immediate grasp of the relations and interconnexion of
these elements is necessary for knowledge in the fullest sense of
that word.?

" There is no question," he says in anticipation of Locke
and Kant, " more important to solve than that of knowing
what human knowledge is and how far it extends." " This is a
question which ought to be asked at least once in their lives by
all who seriously wish to gain wisdom. The inquirer will find
that the first thing to know is intellect, because on it depends the
knowledge of all other things. Examining next what immediately
follows the knowledge of pure intellect, he will pass in review all
the other means of knowledge, and will find that they are two
(or three) , the imagination and the senses (and the memory) . He
will therefore devote all his care to examine and distinguish
these three means of knowledge; and seeing that truth and error
can, properly speaking, be only in the intellect, and that the two
other modes of knowledge are only occasions, he will carefully
avoid whatever can lead him astray."6 This separation of
intellect from sense, imagination and memory is the cardinal
precept of the Cartesian logic; it marks off clear and distinct
(i.e. adequate and vivid) from obscure, fragmentary and
incoherent conceptions.

The Discourse of Method and the Meditations apply what the
Rules for the Direction of the Mind had regarded in particular
instances to our conceptions of the world as a whole. paaaa.
They propose, that is, to find a simple and indecom- mental
posable point, or absolute element, which gives to the principles
world and thought their order and systematization. O/P*//O"
The grandeur of this attempt is perhaps unequalled in sop y'
the annals of philosophy. The three main steps in the argument
are the veracity of our thought when that thought is true to
itself, the inevitable uprising of thought from its fragmentary
aspects in our habitual consciousness to the infinite and perfect
existence which God is, and the ultimate reduction of the material
universe to extension and local movement. There are the central
dogmas of logic, metaphysics and physics, from which start
the subsequent inquiries of Locke, Leibnitz and Newton. They
are also the direct antitheses to the scepticism of Montaigne and
Pascal, to the materialism of Gassendi and Hobbes, and to the
superstitious anthropomorphism which defaced the reawakening
sciences of nature. Descartes laid down the lines on which
modern philosophy and science were to build. But himself no
trained metaphysician, and unsusceptible to the lessons of history,
he gives but fragments of a system which are held together, not
by their intrinsic consistency, but by the vigour of his personal
conviction transcending the weaknesses and collisions of his
several arguments. " All my opinions," he says, " are so
conjoined, and depend so closely upon one another, that it would
be impossible to appropriate one without knowing them all."6
Yet every disciple of Cartesianism seems to disprove the dictum
by his example.

The very moment when we begin to think, says Descartes,
when we cease to be merely receptive, when we draw back and
fix our attention on any point whatever of our belief, — that
moment doubt begins. If we even stop for an instant to ask
ourselves how a word ought to be spelled, the deeper we ponder
that one word by itself the more hopeless grows the hesitation.
The doubts thus awakened must not be stifled, but pressed
systematically on to the point, if such a point there be, where
doubt confutes itself. The doubt as to the details is natural; it

*Disc. de methods, part. ii. 6 (Euvres, xi. 243. • Ib. vii. 381.

DESCARTES

is no less natural to have recourse to authority to silence the
doubt. The remedy proposed by Descartes is (while not neglect-
ing our duties to others, ourselves and God) to let doubt range
unchecked through the whole fabric of our customary convictions.
One by one they refuse to render any reasonable account of
themselves; each seems a mere chance, and the whole tends to
elude us like a mirage which some malignant power creates for
our illusion. Attacked in detail, they vanish one after another
into as many teasing spectra of uncertainty. We are seeking
from them what they cannot give. But when we have done our
worst in unsettling them, we come to an ultimate point in the fact
that it is we who are doubting, we who are thinking. We may
doubt that we have hands or feet, that we sleep or wake, and that
there is a world of material things around us; but we cannot

doubt that we are doubting. We are certain that we
ergosum. are thinking, and in so far as we are thinking we are.

Je pense, done je suis. In other words, the criterion
of truth is a clear and distinct conception, excluding all pos-
sibility of doubt.

The fundamental point thus established is the veracity of
consciousness when it does not go beyond itself, or does not
postulate something which is external to itself. At this point
Gassendi arrested Descartes and addressed his objections to him
as pure intelligence, — O mensi But even this mens, or mind, is
but a point — we have found no guarantee as yet for its continuous
existence. The analysis must be carried deeper, if we are to gain
any further conclusions.

Amongst the elements of our thought there are some which we
can make and unmake at our pleasure; there are others which
come and go without our wish; there is also a third class which is
of the very essence of our thinking, and which dominates our
conceptions. We find that sail our ideas of limits, sorrows and
weaknesses presuppose an infinite, perfect and ever-blessed
something beyond them and including them, — that all our ideas,
in all their series, converge to one central idea, in which they find
their explanation. The formal fact of thinking is what constitutes
our being; but this thought leads us back, when we consider its
concrete contents, to the necessary pre-supposition on which our
ideas depend, the permanent cause on which they and we as
conscious beings depend. We have therefore the idea of an in-
finite, perfect and all-powerful being — an idea which cannot be
the creation of ourselves, and must be given by some being who
really possesses all that we in idea attribute to him. Such a
being he identifies with God. But the ordinary idea of God can
scarcely be identified with such a conception. " The majority
of men," he says himself, " do not think of God as an infinite and
incomprehensible being, and as the sole author from whom all
things depend ; they go no further than the letters of his name." 1

" The vulgar almost imagine him as a finite thing."
ofaod. The God of Descartes is not merely the creator of

the material universe; he is also the father of all
truth in the intellectual world. " The metaphysical truths," he
says, " styled eternal have been established by God, and, like
the rest of his creatures, depend entirely upon him. To say that
these truths are independent of him is to speak of God as a
Jupiter or a Saturn, — to subject him to Styx and the Fates."2
The laws of thought, the truths of number, are the decrees of God.
The expression is anthropomorphic, no less than the dogma of
material creation; but it is an attempt to affirm the unity of the
intellectual and the material world. Descartes establishes a
philosophic monotheism, — by which the medieval polytheism of
substantial forms, essences and eternal truths fades away before
God, who is the ruler of the intellectual world no less than of the
kingdom of nature and of grace. *»)

To attach a dear and definite meaning to the Cartesian
-doctrine of God, to show how much of it comes from the Christian
theology and how much from the logic of idealism, how far the
conception of a personal being as creator and preserver mingles
with the pantheistic conception of an infinite and perfect some-
thing which is all in all, would be to go beyond Descartes
and to ask for a solution of difficulties of which he was
1CEuvres, vi. 132. tlb. vi. 109.

scarcely aware. It seems impossible to deny that the tendency
of his principles and his arguments is mainly in the line of a
metaphysical absolute, as the necessary completion and founda-
tion of all being and knowledge. Through the truthfulness of
that God as the author of all truth he derives a guarantee for our
perceptions in so far as these are clear and distinct. And it is in
guaranteeing the veracity of our clear and distinct conceptions
that the value of his deduction of God seems in his own estimate
to rest. All conceptions which do not poseess these two attri-
butes— of being vivid in themselves and discriminated from all
others — cannot be true. But the larger part of our conceptions
are in such a predicament. We think of things not in the abstract
elements of the things themselves, but in connexion with, and
in language which presupposes, other things. Ouuidea of body,
e.g., involves colour and weight, and yet when we try to think
carefully, and without assuming anything, we find that we cannot
attach any distinct idea to these terms when applied to body.
In truth therefore these attributes do not belong to body at all ;
and if we go on in the same way testing the received qualities of
matter, we shall find that in the last resort we understand nothing
by it but extension, with the secondary and derivative characters
of divisibility and mobility.

But it would again be useless to ask how extension as the
characteristic attribute of matter is related to mind which thinks,
and how God is to be regarded in reference to extension. The
force of the universe is swept up and gathered in God, who com-
municates motion to the parts of extension, and sustains that
motion from moment to moment; and in the same way the force
of mind has really been concentrated in God. Every moment one
expects to find Descartes saying with Hobbes that man's thought
has created God, or with Spinoza and Malebranche that it is God
who really thinks in the apparent thought of man. After all, the
metaphysical theology of Descartes, however essential in his own
eyes, serves chiefly as the ground for constructing his theory of
man and of the universe. His fundamental hypothesis relegates
to God all forces in their ultimate origin. Hence the world is
left open for the free play of mechanics and geometry. The dis-
turbing conditions of will, life and organic forces are eliminated
from the problem; he starts with the clear and distinct idea of
extension, figured and moved, and thence by mathematical laws
he gives a hypothetical explanation of all things. Such ex-
planationof physical phenomena is the main problemof Descartes,
and it goes on encroaching upon territories once supposed proper
to the mind. Descartes began with the certainty that we are
thinking beings; that region remains untouched; but up to its
very borders the mechanical explanation of nature reigns
unchecked.

The physical theory, in its earlier form in The World, and later
in the Principles of Philosophy (which the present account
follows), rests upon the metaphysical conclusions of the
Meditations. . It proposes to set forth the genesis of the theory*
existing universe from principles which can be plainly
understood, and according to the acknowledged laws of the trans-
mission of movement. The idea of force is one of those obscure
conceptions which originate in an obscure region, in the sense
of muscular power. The true physical conception is motion, the
ultimate ground of which is to be sought in God's infinite power.
Accordingly the quantity of movement in the universe, like its
mover, can neither increase nor diminish. The only circum-
stance which physics has to consider is the transference of move-
ment from one particle to another, and the change of its direction.
Man himself cannot increase the sum of motion; he can only alter
its direction. The whole conception of force may disappear from
a theory of the universe; and we can adopt a geometrical
definition of motion as the shifting of one body from the neigh-
bourhood of those bodies which immediately touch it, and which
are assumed to be at rest, to the neighbourhood of other bodies.
Motion, in short, is strictly locomotion, and nothing else.

Descartes has laid down three laws of nature, and seven
secondary laws regarding impact. The latter are to a large
extent incorrect. The first law affirms that every body, so far
as it is altogether unaffected by extraneous causes, always

86

DESCARTES

perseveres in the same state of motion or of rest; and the second
law that simple or elementary motion is always in a straight line.1
These doctrines of inertia, and of the composite character of
curvilinear motion, were scarcely apprehended even by Kepler
or Galileo; but they follow naturally from the geometrical
analysis of Descartes.

Extended body has no limits to its extent, though the power
of God has divided it in lines discriminating its parts in endless
ways. The infinite universe is infinitely full of matter. Empty
space, as distinguished from material extension, is a fictitious
abstraction. There is no such thing really as a vacuum, any
more than there are atoms or ultimate indivisible particles.
In both these doctrines of d, priori science Descartes has not
been subverted, but, if anything, corroborated by the results of
experimental physics; for the so-called atoms of chemical theory
already presuppose, from the Cartesian point of view, certain
aggregations of the primitive particles of matter. Descartes
regards matter as uniform in character throughout the universe;
he anticipates, as it were, from his own transcendental ground,
the revelations of spectrum analysis as applied to the sun and
stars. We have then to think of a full universe of matter
(and matter = extension) divided and figured with endless variety,
and set (and kept) in motion by God; and any sort of division,
figure and motion will serve the purposes of our supposition as
well as another. " Scarcely any supposition,"2 he says, " can be
made from which the same result, though possibly with greater
difficulty, might not be deduced by the same laws of nature; for
since, in virtue of these laws, matter successively assumes all the
forms of which it is capable, if we consider these forms in order,
we shall at one point or other reach the existing form of the world,
so that no error need here be feared from a false supposition."
As the movement of one particle in a closely -packed universe is
only possible if all other parts move simultaneously, so that
the last in the series steps into the place of the first; and as
the figure and division of the particles varies in each point in the
universe, there will inevitably at the same instant result through-
out the universe an innumerable host of more or less circular
movements, and of vortices or whirlpools of material particles
varying in size and velocity. Taking for convenience a limited
portion of the universe, we observe that in consequence
°f tne circular movement, the particles of matter have
their corners pared off by rubbing against each other;
and two species of matter thus arise, — one consisting of small
globules which continue their circular motion with a (centrifugal)
tendency to fly off from the centre as they swing round the axis
of rotation, while the other, consisting of the fine dust — the
filings and parings of the original particles — gradually becoming
finer and finer, and losing its velocity, tends (centripetally) to
accumulate in the centre of the vortex, which has been gradually
left free by the receding particles of globular matter. This finer
matter which collects in the centre of each vortex is the first
matter of Descartes — it constitutes the sun or star. The spherical
particles are the second matter of Descartes, and their tendency
to propel one another from the centre in straight lines towards the
circumference of each vortex is what gives rise to the phenomenon
of light radiating from the central star. This second matter is
atmosphere or firmament, which envelops and revolves around
the central accumulation of first matter.

A third form of matter is produced from the original particles.
As the small filings produced by friction seek to pass through
the interstices between the rapidly revolving spherical particles
in the vortex, they are detained and become twisted and chan-
nelled in their passage, and when they reach the edge of the inner
ocean of solar dust they settle upon it as the froth and foam
produced by the agitation of water gathers upon its surface.
These form what we term spots in the sun. In some cases they
come and go, or dissolve into an aether round the sun; but in
other cases they gradually increase until they form a dense crust
round the central nucleus. In course of time the star, with
its expansive force diminished, suffers encroachments from the
neighbouring vortices, and at length they catch it up. If the
1 Princip. part ii. 37. * 76. part iii. 47.

velocity of the decaying star be greater than that of any part of
the vortex which has swept it up, it will ere long pass out of the
range of that vortex, and continue its movement from one to
another. Such a star is a comet. But in other cases the en-
crusted star settles in that portion of the revolving vortex which
has a velocity equivalent to its own, and so continues to revolve
in the vortex, wrapped in its own firmament. Such a reduced and
impoverished star is a planet; and the several planets of our
solar system are the several vortices which from time to time have
been swept up by the central sun-vortex. The same considera-
tions serve to explain the moon and other satellites. They too
were once vortices, swallowed up by some other, which at a later
day fell a victim to the sweep of our sun.

Such in mere outline is the celebrated theory of vortices, which
for about twenty years after its promulgation reigned supreme
in science, and for much longer time opposed a tenacious resist-
ance to rival doctrines. It is one of the grandest hypotheses
which ever have been formed to account by mechanical processes
for the movements of the universe. While chemistry rests in the
acceptance of ultimate heterogeneous elements, the vortex-theory
assumed uniform matter through the universe, and reduced
cosmical physics to the same principles as regulate terrestrial
phenomena. It ended the old Aristotelian distinction between
the sphere beneath the moon and the starry spaces beyond.
It banished the spirits and genii, to which even Kepler had
assigned the guardianship of the planetary movements; and,
if it supposes the globular particles of the envelope to be the
active force in carrying the earth round the sun, we may
remember that Newton himself assumed an aether for somewhat
similar purposes. The great argument on which the Cartesians
founded their opposition to the Newtonian doctrine was that
attraction was an occult quality, not wholly intelligible by the
aid of mere mechanics. The Newtonian theory is an analysis of
the elementary movements which in their combination determine
the planetary orbits, and gives the formula of the proportions
according to which they act. But the Cartesian theory, like
the later speculations of Kant and Laplace, proposes to give a
hypothetical explanation of the circumstances and motions which
in the normal course of things led to the state of things required
by the law of attraction. In the judgment of D'Alembert the
Cartesan theory was the best that the observations of the age
admitted; and " its explanation of gravity was one of the most
ingenious hypotheses which philosophy ever imagined." That
the explanation fails in detail is undoubted: it does not account
for the ellipticity of the planets; it would place the sun, not in
one focus, but in the centre of the ellipse; and it would make
gravity directed towards the centre only under the equator.
But these defects need not blind us to the fact that this hypothesis
made the mathematical progress of Hooke, Borelli and Newton
much more easy and certain. Descartes professedly assumed a
simplicity in the phenomena which they did not present. But
such a hypothetical simplicity is the necessary step for solving
the more complex problems of nature. The danger lies not in
forming such hypotheses, but in regarding them as final, or as
more than an attempt to throw light upon our observation of
the phenomena. In doing what he did, Descartes actually
exemplified that reduction of the processes of nature to mere
transposition of the particles of matter, which in different ways
was a leading idea in the minds of Bacon, Hobbes and Gassendi.
The defects of Descartes lie rather in his apparently imperfect
apprehension of the principle of movements uniformly acceler-
ated which his contemporary Galileo had illustrated and insisted
upon, and in the indistinctness which attaches to his views of the
transmission of motion in cases of impact. It should be added
that the modern theory of vortex-atoms (Lord Kelvin's) to
explain the constitution of matter has but slight analogy with
Cartesian doctrine, and finds a parellel, if anywhere, in a
modification of that doctrine by Malebranche.

Besides the last two parts of the Principles of Philosophy, the
physical writings of Descartes include the Dioptrics and Meteors,
as well as passages in the letters. His optical investigations are
perhaps the subject in which he most contributed to the progress

DESCARTES

of science; and the lucidity of exposition which marks his
Dioptrics stands conspicuous even amid the generally luminous

style of his works. Its object is a practical one, to
'theories, determine by scientific considerations the shape of lens

best adapted to improve the capabilities of the tele-
scope, which had been invented not long before. The conclusions
at which he arrives have not been so useful as he imagined, in
consequence of the mechanical difficulties. But the investiga-
tion by which he reaches them has the merit of first prominently
publishing and establishing the law of the refraction of light.
Attempts have been made, principally founded on some remarks
of Huygens, to show that Descartes had learned the principles
of refraction from the manuscript of a treatise by Willebrord
Snell, but the facts are uncertain; and, so far as Descartes founds
his optics on any one, it is probably on the researches of Kepler.
In any case the discovery is to some extent his own, for his proof
of the law is founded upon the theory that light is the propagation
of the aether in straight lines from the sun or luminous body to
the eye (see LIGHT). Thus he approximates to the wave theory
of light, though he supposed that the transmission of light was
instantaneous. The chief of his other contributions to optics was
the explanation of the rainbow — an explanation far from com-
plete, since the unequal refrangibility of the rays of light was yet
undiscovered — but a decided advance upon his predecessors,
notably on the De radiis visus et lucis (1611) of Marc- Antonio
de Dominis, archbishop of Spalato.

If Descartes had contented himself with thus explaining the
phenomena of gravity, heat, magnetism, light and similar forces
by means of the molecular movements of his vortices, even such a
theory would have excited admiration. But he did not stop short
in the region of what is usually termed physics. Chemistry and
biology are alike swallowed up in the one science of physics, and
reduced to a problem of mechanism. This theory, he believed,
would afford an explanation of every phenomenon whatever, and
in nearly every department of knowledge he has given specimens
of its power. But the most remarkable and daring application
of the theory was to account for the phenomena of organic life,
especially in animals and man. " If we possessed a thorough
knowledge," he says,1 " of all the parts of the seed of any species
of animal (e.g. man), we could from that alone, by reasons entirely
mathematical and certain, deduce the whole figure and conforma-
tion of each of its members, and, conversely, if we knew several
peculiarities of this conformation, we could from these deduce
the nature of its seed." The organism in this way is regarded as
a machine, constructed from the particles of the seed, which in
virtue of the laws of motion have arranged themselves (always
under the governing power of God) in the particular animal shape
in which we see them. The doctrine of the circulation of the
blood, which Descartes adopted from Harvey, supplied additional
arguments in favour of his mechanical theory, and he probably
did much to popularize the discovery. A fire without light,
compared to the heat which gathers hi a haystack when the hay
has been stored before it was properly dry — heat, in short, as an
agitation of the particles — is the motive cause of the contraction
and dilatations of the heart. Those finer particles of the blood
which become extremely rarefied during this process pass off
in two directions — one portion, and the least important in the
theory, to the organs of generation, the other portion to the
cavities of the brain. There not merely do they serve to nourish
the organ, they also give rise to a fine ethereal flame or wind
through the action of the brain upon them, and thus form the
so-called " animal " spirits. From the brain these spirits are
conveyed through the body by means of the nerves, regarded by
Descartes as tubular vessels, resembling the pipes conveying the
water of a spring to act upon the mechanical apph'ances in an
artificial fountain. The nerves conduct the animal spirits to act
upon the muscles, and in their turn convey the impressions of
the organs to the brain.

Man and the animals as thus described are compared to
automata, and termed machines. The vegetative and sensitive
souls which the Aristotelians had introduced to break the leap
1 CEuvres, iv. 494.

Auto-

tnstism.

between inanimate matter and man are ruthlessly swept away;
only one soul, the rational, remains, and that is restricted to man.
One hypothesis supplants the various principles of
life; the rule of absolute mechanism is as complete in
the animal as in the cosmos. Reason and thought,
the essential quality of the soul, do not belong to the brutes;
there is an impassable gulf fixed between man and the lower
animals. The only sure sign of reason is the power of language —
i.e. of giving expression to general ideas; and language in that
sense is not found save in man. The cries of animals are but
the working of the curiously-contrived machine, in which, when
one portion is touched in a certain way, the wheels and springs
concealed in the interior perform their Work, and, it may be, a
note supposed to express joy or pain is evolved; but there is
no consciousness or feeling. " The animals act naturally and by
springs, like a watch." 2 " The greatest of all the prejudices we
have retained from our infancy is that of believing that the beasts
think."3 If the beasts can properly be said to see at all, " they
see as we do when our mind is distracted and keenly applied else-
where; the images of outward objects paint themselves on the
retina, and possibly even the impressions made in the optic nerves
determine our limbs to different movements, but we feel nothing
of it all, and move as if we were automata."4 The sentience of
the animal to the lash of his tyrant is not other than the sensi-
tivity of the plant to the influences of light and heat. It is not
much comfort to learn further from Descartes that " he denies
life to no animal, but makes it consist in the mere heat of the
heart. Nor does he deny them feeling in so far as it depends on
the bodily organs." 6

Descartes, with an unusual fondness for the letter of Scripture,
quotes oftener than once in support of this monstrous doctrine
the dictum, " the blood is the life "; and he remarks, with some
sarcasm possibly, that it is a comfortable theory for the eaters of
animal flesh. And the doctrine found acceptance among some
whom it enabled to get rid of the difficulties raised by Montaigne
and those who allowed more difference between animal and animal
than between the higher animals and man. It also encouraged
vivisection — a practice common with Descartes himself.6 The
recluses of Port Royal seized it eagerly, discussed automatism,
dissected living animals in order to show to a morbid curiosity
the circulation of the blood, were careless of the cries of tortured
dogs, and finally embalmed the doctrine in a syllogism of their
logic, — No matter thinks; every soul of beast is matter: there-
fore no soul of beast thinks.

But whilst all the organic processes in man go on mechani-
cally, and though by reflex action he may repel attack uncon-
sciously, still the first affirmation of the system was that man was
essentially a thinking being; and, while we retain this original
dictum, it must not be supposed that the mind is a mere spectator,
or like the boatman in the boat. Of course a unity of nature
is impossible between mind and body so described.
And yet there is a unity of composition, a unity so
close that the compound is " really one and in a sense and body.
indivisible." You cannot in the actual man .cut soul
and body asunder; they interpenetrate in every member. But
there is one point in the human frame — a point midway in the
brain, single and free, which may in a special sense be called the
seat of the mind. This is the so-called c narion, or pineal gland,
where in a minimized point the mind on one hand and the vital
spirits on the other meet and communicate. In that gland the
mystery of creation is concentrated; thought meets extension
and directs it; extension moves towards thought and is per-
ceived. Two clear and distinct ideas, it seems, produce an
absolute mystery. Mind, driven from the field of extension,
erects its last fortress in the pineal gland. In such a state of
despair and destitution there is no hope for spiritualism, save
in God; and Clauberg, Geulincx and Malebranche all take
refuge under the shadow of his wings to escape the tyranny of
extended matter.

In the psychology of Descartes there are two fundamental

2 Tb. ix. 426. ' Ib. x. 204. 4 76. vi. 339.

6 Ib. x. 208. 6 Ib. iv. 452 and 454.

88

DESCARTES

Psycho-
log}-.

modes of thought, — perception and volition. " It seems to me,"
he says, " that in receiving such and such an idea the mind is
passive, and that it is active only in volition; that its
ideas are put in it partly by the objects which touch the
senses, partly by the impressions in the brain, and
partly also by the dispositions which have preceded in the mind
itself and by the movements of its will." l The will, therefore,
as being more originative, has more to do with true or false
judgments than the understanding. Unfortunately, Descartes is
too lordly a philosopher to explain distinctly what either under-
standing or wfll may mean. But we gather that in two directions
our reason is bound up with bodily conditions, which make or mar
it, according as the will, or central energy of thought, is true to
itself or not. In the range of perception, intellect is subjected to
the material conditions of sense, memory and imagination; and
in infancy, when the will has allowed itself to assent precipitately
to the conjunctions presented to it by these material processes,
thought has become filled with obscure ideas. In the moral
sphere the passions or emotions (which Descartes reduces to the
six primitive forms of admiration, love, hatred, desire, joy and
sadness) are the perceptions or sentiments of the mind, caused and
maintained by some movement of the vital spirits, but specially
referring to the mind only. The presentation of some object of
dread, for example, to the eye has or may have a double effect.
On one hand the animal spirits " reflected " 2 from the image
formed on the pineal gland proceed through the nervous tubes to
make the muscles turn the back and lift the feet, so as to escape
the cause of the terror. Such is the reflex and mechanical
movement independent of the mind. But, on the other hand,
the vital spirits cause a movement in the gland by which the mind
perceives the affection of the organs, learns that something is to
be loved or hated, admired or shunned. Such perceptions dispose
the mind to pursue what nature dictates as useful. But the
estimate of goods and evils which they give is indistinct and
unsatisfactory. The office of reason is to give a true and distinct
appreciation of the values of goods and evils; or firm and
determinate judgments touching the knowledge of good and
evil are our proper arms against the influence of the passions.3
We are free, therefore, through knowledge: ex magna luce in
intellectu sequitur magna propensio in voluntate, and omnis peccans
est ignorans. " If we clearly see that what we are doing is wrong,
it would be impossible for us to sin, so long as we saw it in that
light."4 Thus the highest liberty, as distinguished from mere
indifference, proceeds from clear and distinct knowledge, and
such knowledge can only be attained by firmness and resolution,
i.e. by the continued exercise of the will. Thus in the perfection
of man, as in the nature of God, will and intellect must be united.
For thought, will is as necessary as understanding. And innate
ideas therefore are mere capacities or tendencies, — possibilities
wJiich apart from the will to think may be regarded as nothing
at all.

The Cartesian School. — The philosophy of Descartes fought its
first battles and gained its first triumphs in the country of his
adoption. In his lifetime his views had been taught in Utrecht
and Leiden. In the universities of the Netherlands and of lower
Germany? as yet free from the conservatism of the old-established
seats of learning, the new system gained an easy victory over
Aristotelianism, and, as it was adapted for lectures and exam-
inations, soon became almost as scholastic as the doctrines
it had supplanted. At Leiden, Utrecht, Groningen, Franeker,
Breda, Nimeguen, Harderwyk, Duisburg and Herborn, and at
the Catholic university of Louvain, Cartesianism was warmly
expounded and defended in seats of learning, of which many are
now left desolate, and by adherents whose writings have for the
most part long lost interest for any but the antiquary.

The Cartesianism of Holland was a child of the universities,

and its literature is mainly composed of commentaries upon

Holland **"e or'gmal texts, of theses discussed in the schools,

and of systematic expositions of Cartesian philosophy

for the benefit of the student. Three names stand out in this

1 CEuvres, ix. 166.
1 76. 48.

2 Passions de I'ame, 36.
4 CEuvres, ix. 170.

Cartesian professoriate, — Wittich, Clauberg and Geulincx. Chris-
toph Wittich (1625-1687), professor at Duisburg and Leiden,
is a representative of the moderate followers who professed
to reconcile the doctrines of their school with the faith of
Christendom and to refute the theology of Spinoza. Johann
Clauberg (q.v.) commented clause by clause upon the Meditations
of Descartes; but he specially claims notice for his work De
corporis et animae in homine conjunctione, where he maintains
that the bodily movements are merely procatarctic causes (i.e.
antecedents, but not strictly causes) of the mental action, and
sacrifices the independence of man to the omnipotence of God.
The same tendency is still more pronounced in Arnold Geulincx
(q.v.). With him the reciprocal action of mind and body is
altogether denied; they resemble two clocks, so made by the
artificer as to strike the same hour together. The mind can act
only upon itself; beyond that limit, the power of God must
intervene to make any seeming interaction possible between body
and soul. Such are the half-hearted attempts at consistency in
Cartesian thought, which eventually culminate in the pantheism
of Spinoza (see CARTESIANISM).

Descartes occasionally had not scrupled to interpret the
Scriptures according to his own tenets, while still maintaining,
when their letter contradicted him, that the Bible was not meant
to teach the sciences. Similar tendencies are found amongst his
followers. Whilst Protestant opponents put him in the list of
atheists like Vanini, and the Catholics held him as dangerous as
Luther or Calvin, there were zealous adherents who ventured to
prove the theory of vortices in harmony with the book of Genesis.
It was this rationalistic treatment of the sacred writings which
helped to confound the Cartesians with the allegorical school of
John Cocceius, as their liberal doctrines in theology justified the
vulgar identification of them with the heresies of Socinian and
Arminian. The chief names in this advanced theology connected
with Cartesian doctrines are Ludwig Meyer, the friend and editor
of Spinoza, author of a work termed Philosophia scripturae
inter pres (1666); Balthasar Bekker, whose World Bewitched
helped to discredit the superstitious fancies about the devil; and
Spinoza, whose Tractatus theologico-polilicus is in some respects
the classical type of rational criticism up to the present day.
Against this work and the Ethics of Spinoza the orthodox
Cartesians (who were in the majority), no less than sceptical
hangers-on like Bayle, raised an all but universal howl of repro-
bation, scarcely broken for about a century.

In France Cartesianism won society and literature before
it penetrated into' the universities. Clerselier (the friend of
Descartes and his literary executor), his son-in-law _
Rohault (who achieved that relationship through his
Cartesianism), and others, opened their houses for readings to
which the intellectual world of Paris — its learned professors
not more than the courtiers and the fair sex, — flocked to hear the
new doctrines explained, and possibly discuss their value. Grand
seigneurs, like the prince of Conde, the due de Nevers and the
marquis de Vardes, were glad to vary the monotony of their
feudal castles by listening to the eloquent rehearsals of Male-
branche or Regis. And the salons of Mme de Sevigne, of her
daughter Mme de Grignan, and of the duchesse de Maine for
a while gave the questions of philosophy a place among the topics
of polite society, and furnished to Moliere the occasion of his
Femmes savantes. The Chateau of the due de Luynes, the trans-
lator of the Meditations, was the home of a Cartesian club, that
discussed the questions of automatism and of the comoosition
of the sun from filings and parings, and rivalled Port Royal in
its vivisections. The cardinal de Retz in his leisurely age at
Commercy found amusement in presiding at disputations between
the more moderate Cartesians and Don Robert Desgabets, who
interpreted Descartes in an original way of his own. Though
rejected by the Jesuits, who found peripatetic formulae a faithful
weapon against the enemies of the church, Cartesianism was
warmly adopted by the Oratory, which saw in Descartes some-
thing of St Augustine, by Port Royal, which discovered a
connexion between the new system and Jansenism, and by some
amongst the Benedictines and the order of Ste Genevieve-

DESCARTES

89

The popularity which Cartesianism thus gained in the social
and literary circles of the capital was largely increased by the
labours of Pierre-Sylvain Regis (1632-1707). On his visit to
Toulouse in 1665, with a mission from the Cartesian chiefs, his
lectures excited boundless interest; ladies threw themselves
with zeal and ability into the study of philosophy; and Regis
himself was made the guest of the civic corporation. In 1671
scarcely less enthusiasm was roused in Montpellier; and in 1680
he opened a course of lectures at Paris, with such acceptance
that hearers had to take their seats in advance. Regis, by
removing the paradoxes and adjusting the metaphysics to the
popular powers of apprehension, made Cartesianism popular,
and reduced it to a regular system.

But a check was at hand. Descartes, in his correspondence
with the Jesuits, had shown an almost cringing eagerness to have
their powerful organization on his side. Especially he had
written to Pere Mesland, one of the order, to show how the
Catholic doctrine of the eucharist might be made compatible with
his theories of matter. But his undue haste to arrange matters
with the church only served to compromise him more deeply.
Unwise admirers and malicious opponents exaggerated the
theological bearings of his system in this detail; and the efforts
of the Jesuits succeeded in getting the works of Descartes, in
November 1663, placed upon the index of prohibited books, —
donee corriganlur. Thereupon the power of church and state
enforced by positive enactments the passive resistance of old
institutions to the novel theories. In 1667, the oration at the
interment was forbidden by royal order. In 1669, when the chair
of philosophy at the College Royal fell vacant, one of the four
selected candidates had to sustain a thesis against " the pretended
new philosophy of Descartes." In 1671 the archbishop of Paris,
by the king's order, summoned the heads of the university to
his presence, and enjoined them to take stricter measures against
philosophical novelties dangerous to the faith. In 1673 a decree
of the parlement against Cartesian and other unlicensed theories
was on the point of being issued, and was only checked injtime by
the appearance of a burlesque mandamus against the intruder
Reason, composed by Boileau and some of his brother-poets.
Yet in 1675 the university of Angers was empowered to repress
all Cartesian teaching within its domain, and actually appointed
a commission charged to look for such heresies in the theses and
the students' note-books of the college of Anjou belonging to
the Oratory. In 1677 the university of Caen adopted not less
stringent measures against Cartesianism. And so great was the
influence of the Jesuits, that the congregation of St Maur, the
canons of Ste Genevieve, and the Oratory laid their official ban
on the obnoxious doctrines. From the real or fancied rapproche-
ments between Cartesianism and Jansenism, it became for a
while impolitic, if not dangerous, to avow too loudly a preference
for Cartesian theories. Regis was constrained to hold back for
ten years his System of Philosophy; and when it did appear, in
1690, the name of Descartes was absent from the title-page.
There were other obstacles besides the mild persecutions of the
church. Pascal and other members of Port Royal openly
expressed their doubts about the place allowed to God in the
system; the adherents of Gassendi met it by resuscitating
atoms; and the Aristotelians maintained their substantial forms
as of old; the Jesuits argued against the arguments for the being
of God, and against the theory of innate ideas; whilst Pierre
Daniel Huet (16305-1721), bishop of Avranches, once aCartesian
himself, made a vigorous onslaught on the contempt in which his
former comrades held literature and history, and enlarged on the
vanity of all human aspirations after rational truth.

The greatest and most original of the French Cartesians was
Malebranche (q.v.). His Recherche de la v6rit£, in 1674, was the
baptism of the system into a theistic religion which borrowed
its imagery from Augustine; it brought into prominence the
metaphysical base which Louis Delaforge, Jacques Rohault and
Regis had neither cared for nor understood. But this doctrine
was a criticism and a divergence, no less than a consequence,
from the principles in Descartes; and it brought upon
Malebranche the opposition, not merely of the Cartesian

physicists, but also ot Arnauld, Fenelon and Bossuet, who found,
or hoped to find, in the Meditations, as properly understood,
an ally for theology. Popular enthusiasm, however, was with
Malebranche, as twenty years before it had been with Descartes;
he was the fashion of the day; and his disciples rapidly increased
both in France and abroad.

In 1705 Cartesianism was still subject to prohibitions from the
authorities; but in a project of new statutes, drawn up for the
faculty of arts at Paris in 1720, the Method and Meditations of
Descartes were placed beside the Organon and the Metaphysics
of Aristotle as text-books for philosophical study. And before
1725, readings, both public and private, were given from
Cartesian texts in some of the Parisian colleges. But when
this happened, Cartesianism was no longer either interesting
or dangerous; its theories, taught as ascertained and verified
truths, were as worthless as the systematic verbiage which
preceded them. Already antiquated, it could not resist the wit
and raillery with which Voltaire, in his Lettres sur les Anglais
(1728), brought against it the principles and results of Locke and
Newton. The old Cartesians, Jean Jacques Dortous de Mairan
(1678-1771) and especially Fontenelle, with his Theoris des
tourbillons (1752), struggled in vain to refute Newton by styling
attraction an occult quality. Fortunately the Cartesian method
had already done its service, even where the theories were
rejected. The Port Royalists, Pierre Nicole (1625-1695) and
Antoine Arnauld (1612-1694), had applied it to grammar and
logic; Jean Domat or Daumat (1625-1696) and Henri Francois
Daugesseau (1668-1751) to jurisprudence; Fontenelle, Charles
Perrault (1628-1703) and Jean Terrasson (1670-1750) to literary
criticism, and a worthier estimate of modern literature. Though
it never ceased to influence individual thinkers, it had handed on
to Condillac its popularity with the masses. A Latin abridgment
of philosophy, dated 1784, tells us that the innate ideas of
Descartes are founded on no arguments, and are now universally
abandoned. The ghost of innate ideas seems to be all that it
had left. _

In Germany a few Cartesian lecturers taught at Leipzig and
Halle, but the system took no root, any more than in Switzerland,
where it had a brief reign at Geneva after 1669. In aermaay.
Italy the effects were more permanent. What is
termed the iatro-mechanical school of medicine, with G. A.
Borelli (1608-1679) as its most notable name, entered in a way
on the mechanical study of anatomy suggested by Descartes, but
was probably much more dependent upon the positive researches
of Galileo. At Naples there grew up a Cartesian school, of which
the best known members are Michel Angelo Fardella (1650-1708)
and Cardinal Gerdil (1718-1802), both of whom, however,
attached themselves to the characteristic views of Malebranche.

In England Cartesianism took but slight hold. Henry More,
who had given it a modified sympathy in the lifetime of the
author, became its opponent in later years; and England.
Cudworth differed from it in most essential points.
Antony Legrand, from Douai, attempted to introduce it into
Oxford, but failed. He is the author of several works, amongst
others a system of Cartesian philosophy, where a chapter on
" Angels " revives the methods of the schoolmen. His chief
opponent was SamuelParker (1640- 1688), bishop of Oxford, who,
in his attack on the irreligious novelties of the Cartesian, treats
Descartes as a fellow-criminal in infidelity with Hobbes and
Gassendi. Rohault's version of the Cartesian physics was
translated into English; and Malebranche found an ardent
follower in John Norris (1667-1711). Of Cartesianism towards
the close of the I7th century the only remnants were an over-
grown theory of vortices, which received its death-blow from
Newton, and a dubious phraseology anent innate ideas, which
found a witty executioner in Locke.

For an account of the metaphysical doctrines of Descartes,
in their connexions with Malebranche and Spinoza, see
CARTESIANISM.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — I. Editions and Translations. — The collected
works of Descartes were published in Latin in 8 vols. at Amsterdam
(1670-1683), in 7 vols. at Frankfort (1697) and in 9 vols. by Elzevir

9°

DESCHAMPS

(1713); in French in 13 vols. (Paris, 172,1-1729), republished by
Victor Cousin (Paris, 1824-1826) in 11 vols., and again under the
authority of the minister of public instruction by C. Adam and
P. Tannery (1897 foil.). Theseinclude his so-called posthumous works.
The Rules for the Direction of the Mind, The Search for Truth by the
Light of Nature, and other .unimportant fragments, published (in
Latin) in 1701. In l859-i8'6o Foucher de C'areil published in two
parts some unedited writings of Descartes from copies taken by
Leibnitz from the original papers. Six editions of the Opera philo-
sophica appeared at Amsterdam between 1650 and 1678; a two-
volume edition at Leipzig in 1843; there are also French editions,
CEuvres phttosophiques, by A. Gamier, 3 vols. (1834-1835), and L.
Aime-Martin (1838) and CEuvres morales et philosophiques by Aime-
Martin with an introduction on life and works by Amedee Prevost
(Paris, 1855); CEuvres choisies (1850) by Jules Simon. A complete
French edition of the collected works was begun in the Romance
Library (1907 foil.). German translations by J. H. von Kirchmann
under the title Philosophische Werke (with biography, &c., Berlin,
1868; and ed , 1882-1891), by Kuno Fischer, Die Hauptschriften
zur Grundlegung seiner Philosophic (1863), with introduction by
Ludwig Fischer (1892). There are also numerous editions and trans-
lations of separate works, especially the Method, in French, German,
Italian, Spanish and Hungarian. There are English translations by
J Veitch, Method, Meditations and Selections from the Principles
(1850-1853; iithed., 1897; New York, 1899); by H. A. P. Torrey
(New York, 1892).

II. Biographical. — A. Baillet, La Vie de M. Des Cartes (Pans, 1691 ;
Eng. trans., 1692), exhaustive but uncritical; notices in the editions
of Gamier and Aime-Martin; A. Hoffmann, Rene Descartes (1905);
Elizabeth S. Haldane, Descartes, his Life and Times (1905), contain-
ing full bibliography ; A. Barbier, Rene Descartes, sa famille, son lieu
de naissance, &c. (1901)? Richard Lowndes, Rene Descartes, his
Life and Meditations (London, 1878) ; J. P. Mahaffy, Descartes (1902),
with an appendix on Descartes 's mathematical work by Frederick
Purser; Victor de Swarte, Descartes directeur spirituel (Paris, 1904),
correspondence with the Princess Palatine ; C. J. Jeannel, Descartes
et la princesse palatine (Paris, 1869); Lettres de M. Descartes, ed.
Claude Clerselier (1657). A usetul sketch of recent biographies is to
be found in The Edinburgh Review (July 1906).

III. Philosophy. — Beside the histories of philosophy, the article
CARTESIANISM, and the above works, consult J.B.Bqrdas-Demoulini
Le Cartesianisme (2nd ed., Paris, 1874); J. P. Damiron, Histoire de
la philosophie du X VII' siecle (Paris, 1846) ; C. B. Renouvier, Manuel
de philosophie moderne (Paris, 1842); V. Cousin, Fragments philo-
sophiques, vol. ii. (3rd ed., Paris, 1838), Fragments de philosophie
cartesienne (Paris, 1845), and in the Journal des savants (1860-1861) ;
F. Bouillier, Hist, de la philosophie cartesienne (Paris, 1854), 2 vols.,
and Hist, et critique de la revolution cartesienne (Paris, 1842) ; J. Millet,
Descartes, sa vie, ses travaux, ses decouvertes dvant 1637 (Paris,
1867), and Hist, de Descartes depuis 1637 (Paris, 1870); L. Liard,
Descartes (Paris, 1882); A. Fouillee, Descartes (Paris, 1893); Revue
de metaphysique et de morale (July, 1896, Descartes number) ; Norman
Smith, Studies in the Cartesian Philosophy (1902); R. Keussen,
Bewusstsein und Erkenntnis bei Descartes (1906); A. Kayserling,
Die Idee der Kausalitdt in den Lehren der Occasionalisten (1896);
J. Iverach, Descartes, Spinoza and the New Philosophy (1904);
R. Joerges, Die Lehre von den Empfindungen bei Descartes (1901);
Kuno Fischer, Hisi. of Mod. Phil. Descartes and his Schobl (Eng. trans.,
1887) ; B. Christiansen, Das Urteil bei Descartes (1902) ; E. Boutroux,
'' Descartes and Cartesianism " in Cambridge Modern History, vol.
iv. (1906), chap. 27, with a very full bibliography, pp. 950-953;
P. Natorp, Descartes' Erkenntnis stlieorie (Marburg, 1882); L. A.
Prevost-Paradol, Les Moralistes franc,ais (Paris, 1865) ; C. Schaar-
schmidt, Descartes und Spinoza' (Bonn, 1850); R. Adamson, The
Development of Modern Philosophy (Edinburgh, 1903); J. Miiller,
Der Begriff der sittlichen Unvollkommenheit bei Descartes und Spinoza
(1890); J. H. von Kirchmann, R. Descartes' Prinzipien der Philos.
(1863); G. Touchard, La Morale de Descartes (1898); Lucien Levy-
Bruhl, Hist, of Mod. Philos. in France (Eng. trans., 1899), PP- J-76-

IV. Science and Mathematics. — V. Cajori, History of Mathematics
(London, 1894) ; M. Cantor, Vorlesungen iiber die Geschichte der
Mathematik (Leipzig, 1894-1901); Sir Michael Foster, Hist, of
Physiol. during the Sixteenth, Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
(1901); Duboux, La Physique de Descartes (Lausanne, 1881); G.
H. Zeuthen, Geschichte der MatJiematik im 16. und 17. Jahrhunden
(1903); Chas\es,Aperc,u historique sur I'origine et le developpement
des methodes en geometrie (3rd ed., 1889). (W. W.; X.)

DESCHAMPS, (5MILE (1791-1871), French poet and man of
letters, was born at Bourges on the zoth of February 1791. The
son of a civil servant, he adopted his father's career, but as early
as 1812 he distinguished himself by an ode, La Paix conquise,
which won the praise of Napoleon. In 1818 he collaborated with
Henri de Latouche in two verse comedies, Selmours de Flotian
and Le Tour defaveur. He and his brother were among the most
enthusiastic disciples of the cenacle gathered round Victor Hugo
and in July 1823 Emile founded with his master the Muse
franqaise, which during the year of its existence was the soeciaJ

organ of the romantic party. His Etud es franc. aises et elrangeres
[1828) were preceded by a preface which may be regarded as
one of the manifestos of the romanticists. The versions oi
Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet (1839) and of Macbeth (1844),
important as they were in the history of the romantic movement,
were never staged. He was the author of several libretti, among
which may be mentioned the Romeo el Juliette of Berlioz. The
list of his more important works is completed by his two volumes
of stories, Cohtes physiologiques (1854) and Realites fantastiques
(1854). He died at Versailles in April 1871. His (Euvres
completes were published in 1872-1874 (6 vols.).

His brother, Antoine Francois Marie, known as ANTONY
DESCHAMPS, was born in Paris on the i2th of March 1800 and
died at Passy on the agth of October 1869. Like his brother,
he was an ardent romanticist, but his production was limited by
a nervous disorder, which has left its mark on his melancholy
work. He translated the Divina Commedia in 1829, and his
poems, Dernieres Paroles and Resignation, were republished with
his brother's in 1841.

DESCHAMPS, EUSTACHE, called MOREL (i346?-i4o6?),
French poet, was born at Vertus in Champagne about 1346. He
studied at Reims, where he is said to have received some lessons
in the art of versification from Guillaume de Machaut, who is
stated to have been his uncle. From Reims he proceeded about
1360 to the university of Orleans to study law and the seven
liberal arts. He entered the king's service as royal messenger
about 1367, and was sent on missions to Bohemia, Hungary and
Moravia. In 1372 he was made huissier d'armes to Charles V.
He received many other important offices, was bailli of Valois,
and afterwards of Senlis, squire to the Dauphin, and governor of
Fismes. In 1380 his patron, Charles V., died, and in the same
year the English burnt down his house at Vertus. In his child-
hood he had been an eye-witness of the English invasion of 1358;
he had been present at the siege of Reims and seen the march on
Chartres; he had witnessed the signing of the treaty of Bretigny;
he was now himself a victim of the English fury. His violent
hatred of the English found vent in numerous appeals to carry
the war into England, and in the famous prophecy * that England
would be destroyed so thoroughly that no one should be able
to point to her ruins. His own misfortunes and the miseries of
France embittered his temper. He complained continually of
poverty, railed against women and lamented the woes of his
country. His last years were spent on his Miroir de manage, a
satire of 13,000 lines against women, which contains some real
comedy. The mother-in-law of French farce has her prototype
in the Miroir.

The historical and patriotic poems of Deschamps are of much
greater value. He does not, like Froissart, cast a glamour over
the miserable wars of the time but gives a faithful picture of the
anarchy of France, and inveighs ceaselessly against the heavy
taxes, the vices of the clergy and especially against those who
enrich themselves at the expense of the people. The terrible
ballad with the refrain " Sa, de V argent; ia, de I'argent " is
typical of his work. Deschamps excelled in the use of the ballade
and the chant royal. In each of these forms he was the greatest
master of his time. In ballade form he expressed his regret for
the death of Du Guesclin, who seems to have been the only man
except his patron, Charles V., for whom he ever felt any admira-
tion. One of his ballades (No. 283) was sent with a copy of his
works to Geoffrey Chaucer, whom he addresses with the words: —

" Tu es d'amours mondains dieux en Albie
Et de la Rose en la terre Angelique."

Deschamps was the author of an Art poetique, with the title of
L'Art de dictier et de fere chancons, balades, wrelais et rondeaulx.
Besides giving rules for the composition of the kinds of verse
mentioned in the title he enunciates some curious theories on
poetry. He divides music into music proper and poetry. Music
proper he calls artificial on the ground that everyone could by
dint of study become a musician; poetry he calls natural because

1 " De la prophecie Merlin sur la destruction d'Angleterre qui doit
brief advenir " (CEuvres, No. 211).

DESCHANEL— DESCRIPTIVE POETRY

he says it is not an art that can be acquired but a gift. He lays
immense stress on the harmony of verse, because, as was the
fashion of his day, he practically took it for granted that all
poetry was to be sung.

The work of Deschamps marks an important stage in the history
of French poetry. With him and his contemporaries the long,
formless narrations of the trouveres give place to complicated and
exacting kinds of verse. He was perhaps by nature a moralist
and satirist rather than a poet, and the force and truth of his
historical pictures gives him a unique place in 14th-century
poetry. M. Raynaud fixes the date of his death in 1406, or at
latest, 1407. Two years earlier he had been relieved of his
charge as bailli of Senlis, his plain-spoken satires having made
him many enemies at court.

His (Euvres completes were edited (10 vols., 1878-1901) for the
Societe des anciens textes frangais by Queux de Saint-Hilaire and
Gaston Raynaud. A supplementary volume consists of an Introduc-
tion by G. Raynaud. See also Dr E. Hoeppner, Eustache Deschamps
(Strassburg, 1904).

DESCHANEL, PAUL EUGENE LOUIS (1856- ), French
statesman, son of Emile Deschanel (1819-1904), professor at the
College de France and senator, was born at Brussels, where his
father was living in exile (1851-1859), owing to his opposition to
Napoleon III. Paul Deschanel studied law, and began his career
as secretary to Deshayes de Marcere (1876), and to Jules Simon
(1876-1877). In October 1885 he was elected deputy for Eure
and Loire. From the first he took an important place in the
chamber, as one of the ,most notable orators of the Progressist
Republican group. In January 1 896 he was elected vice-president
of the chamber, and henceforth devoted himself to the struggle
against the Left, not only in parliament, but also in public
meetings throughout France. His addresses at Marseilles on the
a6th of October 1896, at Carmaux on the 27th of December 1896,
and at Roubaix on the loth of April 1897, were triumphs of clear
and eloquent exposition of the political and social aims of the
Progressist party. In June 1898 he was elected president of
the chamber, and was re-elected in 1901, but rejected in 1902.
Nevertheless he came forward brilliantly in 1904 and 1905 as a
supporter of the law on the separation of church and state. He
was elected a member of the French Academy in 1899, his most
notable works being Orateurs et hommes d'etat (1888), Figures
defemmts (1889), La Decentralization (1895), La Question sociale
(1898).

DES CLOIZEAUX, ALFRED LOUIS OLIVIER LEGRAND
(1817-1897), French mineralogist, was born at Beauvais, in the
department of Oise, on the i7th of October 1817. He became
professor of mineralogy at the Ecole Normale Superieure and
afterwards at the Musee d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris. He
studied the geysers of Iceland, and wrote also on the classification
of some of the eruptive rocks; but his main work consisted in the
systematic examination of the crystals of numerous minerals, in
researches on their optical properties and on the subject of polar-
ization. He wrote specially on the means of determining the
different felspars. He was awarded the Wollaston medal by the
Geological Society of London in 1886. He died in May 1897.
His best-known books are Lemons de cristallographie (1861);
Manuel de mineralogie (2 vols., Paris, 1862, 1874 and 1893).

DESCLOIZITE, a rare mineral species consisting of basic lead
and zinc vanadate, (Pb, Zn)2(OH)VO4, crystallizing in the ortho-
rhombic system and isomorphous with olivenite. It was dis-
covered by A. Damour in 1854, and named by him in honour
of the French mineralogist Des Cloizeaux. It occurs as small
prismatic or pyramidal crystals, usually forming drusy crusts
and stalaetitic aggregates; also as fibrous encrusting masses with
a mammillary surface. The colour is deep cherry-red to brown
or black, and the crystals are transparent or translucent with a
greasy lustre; the streak is orange-yellow to brown; specific
gravity 5-9 to 6-2; hardness 3^. A variety known as cupro-
descloizite is dull green in colour; it contains a considerable
amount of copper replacing zinc and some arsenic replacing
vanadium. Descloizite occurs in veins of lead ores in association
with pyromorphite, vanadinite, wulfenite, &c. Localities are

the Sierra de Cordoba in Argentina, Lake Valley in Sierra county,
New Mexico, Arizona, Phoenixville in Pennsylvania, and Kappel
(Eisen-Kappel) near Klagenfurt in Carinthia.

Other names which have been applied to this species are
vanadite, tritochorite and ramirite; the uncertain vanadates
:usynchite, araeoxene and dechenite are possibly identical
with it.

DESCRIPTIVE POETRY, the name given to a class of literature,
which may be defined as belonging mainly to the i6th, i7th and
1 8th centuries in Europe. From the earliest times, all poetry
which was not subjectively lyrical was apt to indulge in ornament
which might be named descriptive. But the critics of the
1 7th century formed a distinction between the representations
of the ancients and those of the moderns. We find Boileau
emphasizing the statement that, while Virgil paints, Tasso
describes. This may be a useful indication for us in defining not
what should, but what in practice has been called " descriptive
poetry." It is poetry in which it is not imaginative passion
which prevails, but a didactic purpose, or even something of the
instinct of a sublimated auctioneer. In other words, the land-
scape, or architecture, or still life, or whatever may be the object
of the poet's attention, is not used as an accessory, but is itself
the centre of interest. It is, in this sense, not correct to call
poetry in which description is only the occasional ornament of a
poem, and not its central subject, descriptive poetry. The land-
scape or still life must fill the canvas, or, if human interest is
introduced, that must be treated as an accessory. Thus, in the
Hero and Leander of Marlowe and in the Alastor of Shelley,
description of a very brilliant kind is largely introduced, yet
these are not examples of what is technically called " descriptive
poetry," because it is not the strait between Sestos and Abydos,
and it is not the flora of a tropical glen, which concentrates the
attention of the one poet or of the other, but it is an example of
physical passion in the one case and of intellectual passion in the
other, which is diagnosed and dilated on. On the other hand
Thomson's Seasons, in which landscape takes the central place,
and Drayton's Polyolbion, where everything is sacrificed to a
topographical progress through Britain, are strictly descriptive.

It will be obvious from this definition that the danger ahead
of all purely descriptive poetry is that it will lack intensity, that
it will be frigid, if not dead. Description for description's sake,
especially in studied verse, is rarely a vitalized form of literature.
It is threatened, from its very conception, with languor and
coldness; it must exercise an extreme art or be condemned to
immediate sterility. Boileau, with his customary intelligence,
was the first to see this, and he thought that the danger might be
avoided by care in technical execution. His advice to the poets
of his time was: —

" Soyez riches et pompeux dans vos descriptions ;

C'est-Ia qu'il faut des vers etaler 1'elegance,"
and: —

" De figure sans nombre 6gayez votre ouvrage ;

Que toute y fasse aux yeux une riante image,"

and in verses of brilliant humour he mocked the writer who,
too full of his subject, and describing for description's sake, will
never quit his theme until he has exhausted it : —
" Fuyez de ces auteurs 1'abondance sterile
Et ne vous chargez point d'un detail inutile."

This is excellent advice, but Boileau 's humorous sallies do not
quite meet the question whether such purely descriptive poetry
as he criticizes is legitimate at all.

In England had appeared the famous translation (1592-1611),
by Josuah Sylvester, of the Divine Weeks and Works of Du
Bartas, containing such lines as those which the juvenile Dryden
admired so much: —

" But when winter's keener breath began
To crystallize the Baltic ocean,
To glaze the lakes, and bridle up the floods,
Andperriwig with wool the bald-pate woods."

There was also the curious physiological epic of Phineas Fletcher,
The Purple Island (1633). But on the whole it was not until
French influences had made themselves felt on English poetry,

DESERT

that description, as Boileau conceived it, was cultivated as a
distinct art. The Cooper's Hill (1642) of Sir John Denham may
be contrasted with the less ambitious Penshurst of Ben Jonson,
and the one represents the new no less completely than the other
does the old generation. If, however, we examine Cooper's Hill
carefully, we perceive that its aim is after all rather philosophical
than topographical. The Thames is described indeed, but not
very minutely, and the poet is mainly absorbed in moral reflec-
tions. Marvell's long poem on the beauties of Nunappleton comes
nearer to the type. But it is hardly until we reach the iSth
century that we arrive, in English literature, at what is properly
known as descriptive poetry. This was the age in which poets,
often of no mean capacity, began to take such definite themes
as a small country estate (Pomfret's Choice, 1700), the cultivation
of the grape (Gay's Wine, 1708), a landscape (Pope's Windsor
Forest, 1713), a military manoeuvre (Addison's Campaign, 1704),
the industry of an apple-orchard (Philip's Cyder, 1708) or a piece
of topography (Tickell's Kensington Gardens, 1722), as the sole
subject of a lengthy poem, generally written in heroic or blank
verse. These tours de force were supported by minute efforts in
miniature-painting, by touch applied to touch, and were often
monuments of industry, but they were apt to lack personal
interest, and to suffer from a general and deplorable frigidity.
They were infected with the faults which accompany an artificial
style; they were monotonous, rhetorical and symmetrical, while
the uniformity of treatment which was inevitable to their plan
rendered them hopelessly tedious, if they were prolonged to any
great extent.

This species of writing had been cultivated to a considerable
degree through the preceding century, in Italy and (as the
remarks of Boileau testify) in France, but it was in England that
it reached its highest importance. The classic of descriptive
poetry, in fact, the specimen which the literature of the world
presents which must be considered as the most important and
the most successful, is TheSeasons (1726-1730) of James Thomson
(q.v.). In Thomson, for the first time, a poet of considerable
eminence appeared, to whom external nature was all sufficient,
and who succeeded in conducting a long poem to its close by a
single appeal to landscape, and to the emotions which it directly
evokes. Coleridge, somewhat severely, described The Seasons as
the work of a good rather than of a great poet, and it is an in-
disputable fact that, at its very best, descriptive poetry fails to
awaken the highest powers of the imagination. A great part of
Thomson's poem is nothing more nor less than a skilfully varied
catalogue of natural phenomena. The famous description of twi-
light in " the fading many-coloured woods" of autumn may be
taken as an example of the highest art to which purely descriptive
poetry has ever attained. It is obvious, even here, that the effect
of these rich and sonorous lines, in spite of the splendid effort
of the artist, is monotonous, and leads us up to no final crisis of
passion or rapture. Yet Thomson succeeds, as few other poets
of his class have succeeded, in producing nobly-massed effects
and comprehensive beauties such as were utterly unknown to his
predecessors. He was widely imitated in England, especially by
Armstrong, by Akenside, by Shenstone (in The Schoolmistress,
1742), by the anonymous author of Albania, 1737, and by
Goldsmith (in The Deserted Village, 1770). No better example
of the more pedestrian class of descriptive poetry could be found
than the last-mentioned poem, with its minute and Dutch-like
painting: —

" How often have I paused on every charm:
The sheltered cot, the cultivated farm;
The never-failing brook, the busy mill.
The decent church that topped the neighbouring hill:
The hawthorn-bush, with seats beneath the shade.
For talking age and whispering lovers made."

On the continent of Europe the example of Thomson was almost
immediately fruitful. Four several translations of The Seasons
into French contended for the suffrages of the public, and J. F.
de Saint-Lambert (1716-1803) imitated Thomson in Les Saisons
(1769), a poem which enjoyed popularity for half a century, and
of which Voltaire said that it was the or.ly one of its generation

which would reach posterity. Nevertheless, as Madame du
Deffand told Walpole, Saint-Lambert is " froid, fade et faux,"
and the same may be said of J. A. Roucher (1745-1794), who
wrote Les Mois in 1779, a descriptive poem famous in its
day. The Abbe Jacques Delille (1738-1813), perhaps the most
ambitious descriptive poet who has ever lived, was treated
as a Virgil by his contemporaries; he published Les Georgiques
in 1769, Les Jardins in 1782, and L'Homme des champs in 1803,
but he went furthest in his brilliant, though artificial, Trois
regnes de la nature (1809), which French critics have called the
masterpiece of this whole school of descriptive poetry. Delille,
however, like Thomson before him, was unable to avoid mono-
tony and want of coherency. Picture follows picture, and no
progress is made. The satire of Marie Joseph Chenier, in his
famous and witty Discours sur les poemes descriptifs, brought
the vogue of this species of poetry to an end.

In England, again, Wordsworth, who treated the genius of
Thomson with unmerited severity, revived descriptive poetry
in a form which owed more than Wordsworth realized to the
model of The Seasons. In The Excursion and The Prelude, as
well as in many of his minor pieces, Wordsworth's philosophical
and moral intentions cannot prevent us from perceiving the
large part which pure description takes; and the same may be
said of much of the early blank verse of S. T. Coleridge. Since
their day, however, purely descriptive poetry has gone more and
more completely out of fashion, and its place has been taken by
the richer and director effects of such prose as that of Ruskin
in English, or 'of Fromentin and Pierre Loti in French. It is
almost impossible in descriptive verse to obtain those vivid
and impassioned appeals to the imagination which are of the
very essence of genuine poetry, and it is unlikely that descrip-
tive poetry, as such, will again take a prominent place in living
literature. (E. G.)

DESERT, a term somewhat loosely employed to describe those
parts of the land surface of the earth which do not produce
sufficient vegetation to support a human population. Few areas
of large extent in any part of the world are absolutely devoid of
vegetation, and the transition from typical desert conditions is
often very gradual and ill-defined. (" Desert " comes from Lat.
deserere, to abandon; distinguish " desert," merit, and " dessert,"
fruit eaten after dinner, from de and servier, to serve.)

Deserts are conveniently divided into two classes according
to the causes which give rise to the desert conditions. In " cold
deserts " the want of vegetation is wholly due to the prevailing
low temperature, while in " hot deserts " the surface is uroro-
ductive because, on account of high temperature and deficient
rainfall, evaporation is largely in excess of precipitation. Cold
deserts accordingly occur in high latitudes (see TUNDRA and
POLAR REGIONS). Hot desert conditions are primarily found
along the tropical belts of high atmospheric pressure in which the
conditions of warmth and dryness are most fully realized, and on
their equatorial sides, but the zonal arrangement is considerably
modified in some regions by the monsoonal influence of elevated
land. Thus we have in the northern hemisphere the Sahara
desert, the deserts of Arabia, Iran, Turan, Takla Makan and
Gobi, and the desert regions of the Great Basin in North
America; and in the southern hemisphere the Kalahari desert
in Africa, the desert of Australia, and the desert of Atacama in
South America. Where the line of elevated land runs east and
west, as in Asia, the desert belt tends to be displaced into higher
latitudes, and where the line runs north and south, as in Africa,
America and Australia, the desert zone is cut through on the
windward side of the elevation and the arid conditions intensified
on the lee side. Desert conditions also arise from local causes,
as in the case of the Indian desert situated in a region inaccessible
to either of the two main branches of the south-west monsoon.

Although rivers rising in more favoured regions may traverse
deserts on their way to the sea, as in the case of the Nile and the
Colorado, the fundamental physical condition of an arid area is
that it contributes nothing to the waters of the ocean. The rain-
fall chiefly occurs in violent cloudbursts, and the soluble matter
in the soil is carried down by intermittent streams to salt lakes

DESERTION— DESFORGES

93

around which deposits are formed as evaporation takes place.
The land forms of a desert are exceedingly characteristic. Surface
erosion is chiefly due to rapid changes of temperature through a
wide range, and to the action of wind transferring sand and dust,
often in the form of " dunes " resembling the waves of the sea.
Dry valleys, narrow and of great depth, with precipitous sides,
and ending in " cirques," are probably formed by the intense
action of the occasional cloud-bursts.

When water can be obtained and distributed over an arid
region by irrigation, the surface as a rule becomes extremely
productive. Natural springs give rise to oases at intervals and
make the crossing of large deserts possible. Where a river crosses
a desert at a level near that of the general surface, irrigation can
be carried on with extremely profitable results, as has been done
in the valley of the Nile and in parts of the Great Basin of North
America; in cases, however, where the river has cut deeply and
flows far below the general surface, irrigation is too expensive.
Much has been done in parts of Australia by means of artesian
wells.

For a general account of deserts see Professor Johannes Walther,
Das Gesetz der Wustcnbildimg (Berlin, 1900), in which many references
to other original authorities will be found. (H. N. D.)

DESERTION, the act of forsaking or abandoning; more
particularly, the wilful abandonment of an employment or of
duty, in violation of a legal or moral obligation.

The offence of naval or military desertion is constituted when
a man absents himself with the intention either of not returning
or of escaping some important service, such as embarkation for
foreign service, or service in aid of the civil power. In the
United Kingdom desertion has always been recognized by the
civil law, and until 1827 (7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 28) was a felony
punishable by death. It was subsequently dealt with by the
various Mutiny Acts, which were replaced by the Army Act
1881, renewed annually by the Army (Annual) Act. By § 12
of the act every person subject to military law who deserts or
attempts to desert, or who persuades or procures any person to
desert, shall, on conviction by court martial, if he committed the
offence when on active service or under orders for active service,
be liable to suffer death, or such less punishment as is mentioned
in the act. When the offence is committed under any other
circumstances, the punishment for the first offence is imprison-
ment, and for the second or any subsequent offence penal servi-
tude or such less punishment as is mentioned in the act. § 44
contains a scale of punishments, and §§ 175-184 an enumeration
of persons subject to military law. By § 153 any person who
persuades a soldier to desert or aids or assists him or conceals him
is liable, on conviction, to be imprisoned, with or without hard
labour, for not more than six months. § 154 makes provision
for the apprehension of deserters. § 161 lays down that where a
soldier has served continuously in an exemplary manner for not
less than three years in any corps of regular forces he is not to be
tried or punished for desertion which has occurred before the
commencement of the three years. Desertion from the regular
forces can only be tried by a military court, but in the case of the
militia and reserve forces desertion can be tried by a civil court.
The Army Act of 1881 made a welcome distinction between
actual desertion, as defined at the commencement of this article,
and the quitting one regiment in order to enlist in another. This
offence is now separately dealt with as fraudulent enlistment;
formerly, it was termed "desertion and fraudulent enlistment,"
and the statistics of desertion proper were consequently and
erroneously magnified. The gross total of desertions in the
British Army in an average year (1903-1904) was nearly 4000,
or 1-4% of the average strength of the army, but owing to men
rejoining from desertion, fraudulent enlistment, &c., the net loss
was no more than 1286, i.e. less than -5%. The army of the
United States suffers very severely from desertion, and very few
deserters rejoin or are recaptured (see Journal of the Roy. United
Service Inst., December 1905, p. 1469). In the year 1900-1901,
3110 men deserted (4-3% of average strength); in 1001-1902,
4667 (or 5-9%); in 1904-1905,6353 (o'r 6-8%); and in 1905-1906,
6258 out of less than 60,000 men, or 7-4%.

In all armies desertion while on actire service is punishable
by death; on the continent of Europe, owing to the system of
compulsory service, desertion is infrequent, and takes place
usually when the deserter wishes to leave his country altogether.
It was formerly the practice in the English army to punish a man
convicted of desertion by tattooing on him the letter " D " to
prevent his re-enlistment, but this has been long abandoned in
deference to public opinion, which erroneously adopted the idea
that the " marking " was effected by red-hot irons or in some
other manner involving torture. The Navy Discipline Act 1866,
and the Naval Deserters Act 1847, contain similar provisions to
the Army Act of 1881 for dealing with desertions from the navy.
In the United States navy the term " straggling " is applied to
absence without leave, where the probability is that the person
does not intend to desert. The United States government offers
a monetary reward of between $20 and $30 for the arrest and
delivery of deserters from the army and navy.

In the British merchant service the offence of desertion is
defined as the abandonment of duty by quitting the ship before
the termination of the engagement, without justification, and
with the intention of not returning.

Desertion is also the term applied to the act by which a man
abandons his wife and children, or either of them. Desertion of
a wife is a matrimonial, offence; under the Matrimonial Causes
Act 1857, a decree of judicial separation may be obtained in
England by either husband or wife on the ground of desertion,
without cause, for two years and upwards (see also DIVORCE).

For the desertion of children see CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO;
INFANT. (T. A. I.)

DBS ESSARTS, EMMANUEL ADOLPHE (1839- ), French
poet and man of letters, was born at Paris on the sth of Febru-
ary 1839. His father, Alfred Stanislas Langlois des Essarts
(d. 1893), was a Poet an(i novelist of considerable reputation.
The son was educated at the Ecole Normale Superieure, and
became a teacher of rhetoric and finally professor of literature
at Dijon and at Clermont. His works are: Poesies parisiennes
(1862), a volume of light verse on trifling subjects ; Les Elevations
(1864), philosophical poems; Origines de la poesie lyrique en
France au XVI' siede (i%i $) ; Du geniede Chateaubriand (1876) ;
Poemes de la Revolution (1879); Pallas Athene (1887); Portraits
de maitres (1888), &c.

DESFONTAINES, REN6 LOUICHE (1750-1833), French
botanist, was born at Tremblay (lle-et-Vilaine) on the i4th of
February 1750. After graduating in medicine at Paris, he was
elected a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1783. In the
same year he set out for North Africa, on a scientific exploring
expedition, and on his return two years afterwards brought with
him a large collection of plants, animals, &c., comprising, it is
said, 1600 species of plants, of which about 300 were described
for the first time. In 1786 he was nominated to the post of
professor at the Jardin des Plantes, vacated in his favour by his
friend, L. G. Lemonnier. His great work, Flora Atlanlica she
historia plantarum quae in Allanle, agro Tunetano el Algeriensi
crescunt, was published in 2 vols. 4to in 1 798, and he produced in
1804 a Tableau de I'ecole botanique du museum d'histoire naturelle
de Paris, of which a third edition appeared in 1831, under the
new title Catalogus plantarum horti regii Parisiensis. He was
also the author of many memoirs on vegetable anatomy and
physiology, descriptions of new genera and species, &c., one
of the most important being a " Memoir on the Organization of
the Monocotyledons." He died at Paris on the 1 6th of November
1833. His Barbary collection was bequeathed to the Museum
d'Histoire Naturelle, and his general collection passed into the
hands of the English botanist, Philip Barker Webb.

DESFORGES, PIERRE JEAN BAPTISTE CHOUDARD (1746-
(1806), French dramatist and man of letters, natural son of Dr
Antoine Petit, was born in Paris on the isth of September 1746.
He was educated at the College Mazarin and the College de
Beauvais.and at his father's desire began the study of medicine.
Dr Petit's death left him dependent on his own resources, and
after appearing on the stage of the Comedie Italienne in Paris
he joined a troupe of wandering actors, whom he served in the

94

DESGARCINS— DESIDERIO DA SETTIGNANO

capacity of playwright. He married an actress, and the two
spent three years in St Petersburg, where they were well received.
In 1782 he produced at the Comedie Italienne an adaptation of
Fielding's novel with the title Tom Jones a Londres. His first
great success was achieved with L'&preuve villageoise (1785)
to the music of Gretry. La Femme jalouse, a five-act comedy in
verse (1785), Jocnnde (1790) for the music of Louis Jaden, Les
£poux divorces (1799), a comedy, and other pieces followed.
Desforges was one of the first to avail himself of the new facilities
afforded under the Revolution for divorce and re-marriage.
The curious record of his own early indiscretions in Le Poete, ou
mimoires d'un homme de lettres ecrits par lui-meme (4 vols., 1798)
is said to have been undertaken at the request of Madame
Desforges. He died in Paris on the I3th of August 1806.

DESGARCINS, MAGDELEINE MARIE [LOUISE] (1769-1797),
French actress, was born at Mont Dauphin (Hautes Alpes). In
her short career she became one of the greatest of French tragedi-
ennes, the associate of Talma, with whom she nearly always
played. Her debut at the Comedie Francaise occurred on the
24th of May 1788, in Bajazet, with such success that she was at
once made sociftaire. She was one of the actresses who left the
Comedie Francaise in 1791 for the house in the rue Richelieu,
soon to become the Theatre de la Republique, and there her
triumphs were no less — in King Lear, Othello, La Harpe's
Melanie el Virginie, &c. Her health, however, failed, and she
died insane, in Paris, on the 27th of October 1797.

DESHAYES, GERARD PAUL (1795-1875), French geologist
and conchologist, was born at Nancy on the I3th of May 1797,
his father at that time being professor of experimental physics
in the ficole Centrale of the department of la Meurthe. He
studied medicine at Strassburg, and afterwards took the degree
of bachelier es lettres in Paris in 1821; but he abandoned the
medical profession in order to devote himself to natural history.
For some time he gave private lessons on geology, and subse-
quently became professor of natural history in the Museum
d'Histoire Naturelle. He was distinguished for his researches on
the fossil mollusca of the Paris Basin and of other Tertiary areas.
His studies on the relations of the fossil to the recent species led
him as early as 1829 to conclusions somewhat similar to those
arrived at by Lyell, to whom Deshayes rendered much assistance
in connexion with the classification of the Tertiary system into"
Eocene, Miocene and Pliocene. He was one of the founders of
the Societe Geologique de France. In 1839 he began the publica-
tion of his TraM elemcntaire de conchyliologie, the last part
of which was not issued until 1858. In the same year (1839) he
went to Algeria for the French Government, and spent three
years in explorations in that country. His principal work, which
resulted from the collections he made, Mollusques de VAlgirie,
was issued (incomplete) in 1848. In 1870 the Wollaston medal
of the Geological Society of London was awarded to him. He
died at Boran on the 9th of June 1875. His publications included
Description des coquilles fossiles des environs de Paris (2 vols.
and atlas, 1824-1837); Description des animaux sans vertebres
decouverts dans le bassin de Paris (3 vcls. and atlas, 1856-1866) ;
Catalogue des mollusques de I'ilede la Reunion (1863).

DESHOULIERES, ANTOINETTE DU LIGIER DE LA GARDE
(1638-1694), French poet, was born in Paris on the ist of January
1638. She was the daughter of Melchior du Ligier, sieur de la
Garde, maitre d'hoiel to the queens Marie de' Medici and Anne
of Austria. She received a careful and very complete education,
acquiring a knowledge of Latin, Spanish and Italian, and study-
ing prosody under the direction of the poet Jean Hesnault.
At the age of thirteen she married Guillaume de Boisguerin,
seigneur Deshoulieres, who followed the prince of Conde as
lieutenant-colonel of one of his regiments to Flanders about a
year after the marriage. Madame Deshoulieres returned for a time
to the house of her parents, where she gave herself to writing
poetry and studying the philosophy of Gassendi. She rejoined
her husband at Rocroi, near Brussels, where, being distinguished
for her personal beauty, she became the object of embarrassing
attentions on the part of the prince of Conde. Having made
herself obnoxious to the government by her urgent demand for

the arrears of her husband's pay, she was imprisoned in the
chateau of Wilworden. After a few months she was freed by her
husband, who attacked the chateau at the head of a small band
of soldiers. An amnesty having been proclaimed, they returned
to France, where Madame Deshoulieres soon became a conspicu-
ous personage at the court of Louis XIV. and in literary society.
She won the friendship and admiration of the most eminent
literary men of the age — some of her more zealous flatterers
even going so far as to style her the tenth muse and the
French Calliope. Her poems were very numerous, and included
specimens of nearly all the minor forms, odes, eclogues, idylls,
elegies, chansons, ballads, madrigals, &c. Of these the idylls
alone, and only some of them, have stood the test of time, the
others being entirely forgotten. She wrote several dramatic
works, the best of which do not rise to mediocrity. Her friend-
ship for Corneille made her take sides for the Phedre of Pradon
against that of Racine. Voltaire pronounced her the best of
women French poets; and her reputation with her contempor-
aries is indicated by her election as a member of the Academy of
the Ricovrati of Padua and of the Academy of Aries. In 1688
a pension of 2000 livres was bestowed upon her by the king, and
she was thus relieved from the poverty in which she had long
lived. She died in Paris on the I7th February 1694. Complete
editions of her works were published at Paris in 1695, I747, &c.
These include a few poems by her daughter, Antoine Therese
Deshoulieres (1656-1718), who inherited her talent.

DESICCATION (from the Lat. desiccare, to dry up), the
operation- of drying or removing water from a substance. It is
of particular importance in practical chemistry. If a substance
admits of being heated to say 100°, the drying may be effected
by means of an air-bath, which is simply an oven heated by gas
or by steam. Otherwise a desiccator must be employed; this
is essentially a closed vessel in which a hygroscopic substance is
placed together with the substance to be dried. The process may
be accelerated by exhausting the desiccator; this so-called
vacuum desiccation is especially suitable for the concentration
of aqueous solutions of readily decomposable substances. Of the
hygroscopic substances in common use, phosphoric anhydride,
concentrated sulphuric acid, and dry potassium hydrate are
almost equal in power; sodium hydrate and calcium chloride are
not much behind.

Two common types of desiccator are in use. In one the
absorbent is placed at the bottom, and the substance to be dried
above. Hempel pointed out that the efficiency would be
increased by inverting this arrangement, since water vapour is
lighter than air and consequently rises. Liquids are dried either
by means of the desiccator, or, as is more usual, by shaking with
a substance which removes the water. Fused calcium chloride
is the commonest absorbent; but it must not be used with
alcohols and several other compounds, since it forms compounds
with these substances. Quicklime, barium oxide, and dehy-
drated copper sulphate are especially applicable to alcohol and
ether; the last traces of water may be removed by adding
metallic sodium and distilling. Gases are dried by leading them
through towers or tubes containing an appropriate drying
material. The experiments of H. B. Baker on the influence of
moisture on chemical combination have shown the difficulty of
removing the last traces of water.

In chemical technology, apparatus on the principle of the
laboratory air-bath are mainly used. Crystals and precipitates,
deprived of as much water as possible by centrifugal machines
or filter-presses, are transported by means of a belt, screw, or
other form of conveyer, on to trays staged in brick chambers
heated directly by flue gases or steam pipes; the latter are easily
controlled, and if the steam be superheated a temperature of
300° and over may be maintained. In some cases the material
traverses the chamber from the coolest to the hottest part on a
conveyer or in wagons. Rotating cylinders are also used; the
material to be dried being placed inside, and the cylinder heated
by a steam jacket or otherwise.

DESIDERIO DA SETTIGNANO (1428-1464), Italian sculptor,
was born at Settignano, a village on the southern slope of the hill

DESIDERIUS— DESK

95

of Fiesole, still surrounded by the quarries of sandstone of which
the hill is formed, and inhabited by a race of " stone-cutters."
Desiderio was for a short time a pupil of Donatello, whom,
according to Vasari, he assisted in the work on the pedestal
of David, and he seems to have worked also with Mino da
Fiesole, with the delicate and refined style of whose works
those of Desiderio seem to have a closer affinity than with the
perhaps more masculine tone of Donatello. Vasari particularly
extols the sculptor's treatment of the figures of women and
children. It does not appear that Desiderio ever worked else-
where than at Florence; and it is there that those who are
interested in the Italian sculpture of the Renaissance must seek
his few surviving decorative and monumental works, though a
number of his delicately carved marble busts of women and
children are to be found in the museums and private collections of
Germany and France. The most prominent of his works are the
tomb of the secretary of state, Marsuppini, in Santa Croce, and
the great marble tabernacle of the Annunciation in San Lorenzo,
both of which belong to the latter period of Desiderio's activity;
and the cherubs' heads which form the exterior frieze of the
Pazzi Chapel. Vasari mentions a marble bust by Desiderio
of Marietta degli Strozzi, which for many years was held to
be identical with a very beautiful bust bought in 1878 from the
Strozzi family for the Berlin Museum. This bust is now, however,
generally acknowledged to be the work of Francesco Laurana;
whilst Desiderio's bust of Marietta has been recognized in another
marble portrait acquired by the Berlin Museum in 1842. The
Berlin Museum also owns a coloured plaster bust of an Urbino
lady by Desiderio, the model for which is in the possession of
the earl of Wemyss. Other important busts by the master are
in the Bargello, Florence, the Louvre in Paris, the collections of
M. Figdor and M. Benda in Vienna, and of M. Dreyfus in Paris.
Like most of Donatello's pupils, Desiderio worked chiefly in marble,
and not a single work in bronze has been traced to his hand.

See Wilhelm Bode, Die iialienische Plastik (Berlin, 1893).

DESIDERIUS, the last king of the Lombards, is chiefly known
through his connexion with Charlemagne. He was duke of
Tuscany and became king of the Lombards after the death of
Aistulf in 756. Seeking, like his predecessors, to extend the
Lombard power in Italy, he came into collision with the papacy,
and about 772 the new pope, Adrian I., implored the aid of
Charlemagne against him. Other causes of quarrel already
existed between the Frankish and the Lombard kings. In 770
Charlemagne had married a daughter of Desiderius; but he soon
put this lady away, and sent her back to her father. Moreover,
Gerberga, the widow of Charlemagne's brother Carloman, had
sought the protection of the Lombard king after her husband's
death in 771 ; and in return for the slight cast upon his daughter,
Desiderius had recognized Gerberga's sons as the lawful Frankish
kings, and had attacked Adrian for refusing to crown them. Such
was the position when Charlemagne led his troops across the Alps
in 773, took the Lombard capital, Ticinum, the modern Pavia,
in June 774, and added the kingdom of Lombardy to his own
dominions. Desiderius was carried to France, where he died,
and his son, Adalgis, spent his life in futile attempts to recover
his father's kingdom. The' name of Desiderius appears in the
romances of the Carolingian period.

See S. Abel, Untergang des Langobardenreichs (Gottingen, 1859);
and Jahrbucher des frdnkischen Reiches unter Karl dem Grossen
(Leipzig, 1865); L. M. Hartmann, Geschichte Italiens im Mittelalter
(Gotha, 1903) ; and Paulus Diaconus, Historia Langobardorum, edited
by L. Bethmann and G. Waitz (Hanover, 1878).

DESIGN (Fr. dessin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out),
in the arts, a drawing, more especially when made as a guide
for the execution of work; that side of drawing which deals
with arrangement rather than representation; and generally,
by analogy, a deliberate planning, scheming or purpose. Modern
use has tended to associate design with the word " original " in
the sense of new or abnormal. The end of design, however, is
properly utility, fitness and deligh't. If a discovery, it should be
a discovery of what seems inevitable, an inspiration arising out
of the conditions, and parallel to invention in the sciences. The
faculty of design has best flourished when an almost spontaneous

development was taking place in the arts, and while certain
classes of arts, more or less noble, were generally demanded and
the demand copiously satisfied, as in the production of Greek
vases, Byzantine mosaics, Gothic cathedrals, and Renaissance
paintings. Thus where a " school of design " arises there is much
general likeness in the products but also a general progress.
The common experience — " tradition " — is a part of each
artist's stock in trade; and all are carried along in a stream of
continuous exploration. Some of the arts, writing, for instance,
have been little touched by conscious originality in design, all
has been progress, or, at least, change, in response to conditions.
Under such a system, in a time of progress, the proper limitations
react as intensity; when limitations are removed the designer
has less and less upon which to react, and unconditioned liberty
gives him nothing at all to lean on. Design is response to needs,
conditions and aspirations. The Greeks so well understood this
that they appear to have consciously restrained themselves to
the development of selected types, not only in architecture and
literature, but in domestic arts, like pottery. Design with them
was less the new than the true.

For the production of a school of design it is necessary that
there should be a considerable body of artists working together,
and a large demand from a sympathetic public. A process of
continuous development is thus brought into being which sustains
the individual effort. It is necessary for the designer to know
familiarly the processes, the materials and the skilful use of the
tools involved in the productions of a given art, and properly
only one who practises a craft can design for it. It is necessary
to enter into the traditions of the art, that is, to know past
achievements. It is necessary, further, to be in relation with
nature, the great reservoir of ideas, for it is from it that fresh
thought will flow into all forms of art. These conditions being
granted, the best and most useful meaning we can give to
the word design is exploration, experiment, consideration of
possibilities. Putting too high a value on originality other than
this is to restrict natural growth from vital roots, in which true
originality consists. To take design in architecture as an example,
we have rested too much on definite precedent (a different thing
from living tradition) and, on the other hand, hoped too much from
newness. Exploration of the possibilities in arches, vaults, domes
and the like, as a chemist or a mathematician explores, is little
accepted as a method in architecture at this time, although in
antiquity it was by such means that the great master-works were
produced: the Pantheon, Santa Sophia, Durham and Amiens
cathedrals. The same is true of all forms of design. Of course
the genius and inspiration of the individual artist is not here
ignored, but assumed. What we are concerned with is a mode
of thought which shall make it most fruitful. (W. R. L.)

DESIRE, in popular usage, a term for a wishing or longing
for something which one has not got. For its technical use see
PSYCHOLOGY. The word is derived through the French from
Lat. desiderare, to long or wish for, to miss. The substantive
desiderium has the special meaning of desire for something one
has once possessed but lost, hence regret or grief. The usual
explanation of the word is to connect it with sidus, star, as in
considerare, to examine the stars with attention, hence, to look
closely at. If this is so, the history of the transition in meaning
is unknown. J. B. Greenough (Harvard Studies in Classical
Philology, i. 96) has suggested that the word is a military slang
term. According to this theory desiderare meant originally to
miss a soldier from the ranks at roll-call, the root being that
seen in sedere, to sit, sedes, seat, place, &c.

DESK (from Lat. discus, quoit, in med. sense of " table,"
cf. " dish " and Ger. Tisch, table, from same source), any-
kind of flat or sloping table for writing or reading. Its
earliest shape was probably that with which we are familiar
in pictures of the monastic scriptorium — rather high and
narrow with a sloping slab. The primitive desk had little
accommodation for writing materials, and no storage room for
papers; drawers, cupboards and pigeon-holes were the evolution
of periods when writing grew common, and when letters and
other documents requiring preservation became numerous. It

96

DESLONGCHAMPS

was long the custom to secure papers in chests or cabinets, whereas
the modern desk serves the double purpose of a writing-table and
a storehouse for documents. The first development from the
early stall-like desk consisted of the addition of a drawer; then
the table came to be supported upon legs or columns, which, as
in the many beautiful examples constructed by Boulle and his
school, were often of elaborate grace. Eventually the legs were
replaced by a series of superimposed drawers forming pedestals
— hence the familiar pedestal writing-table.

For a long period there were two distinct contemporary forms
of desk — the table and the bureau or escritoire. The latter shape
attained a popularity so great that, especially in England and
America, it was found even in houses in which there was little
occasion for writing. The English-speaking people of the i8th
century were amazingly fond of pieces of furniture which
served a double or triple purpose. The bureau — the word is
the French generic appellation for a desk — derives its name
from the material with which it was originally covered (Fr. bure,
woollen cloth). It consists of an upright carcass sloping inward
at the top, and provided with long drawers below. The upper
part is fitted with small drawers and pigeon-holes, and often with
secret places, and the writing space is formed by a hinged slab
supported on runners; when not in use this slab closes up the
sloping top. 'During the iSth century innumerable thousands of
these bureaux were made on both sides of the Atlantic — indeed,
if we except tables and chairs, no piece of old furniture is more
common. In the first part of that period they were usually of
oak, but when mahogany was introduced into Europe it speedily
ousted the heavier-looking wood. Its deep rich colour and the
high polish of which it was capable added appreciably to its
ornamental appearance. While the pigeon-holes and small
drawers were used for papers, the long drawers were often
employed for purposes other than literary. In time the bureau-
secretaire became a bureau-bookcase, the glazed shelves, which
were often a separate erection, resting upon the top of the bureau.
The cabinetmakers of the second half of the i8th century, the
period of the greatest floraison of this combination, competed
with each other in devising elegant frets for the glass fronts.
Solid and satisfying to the eye, if somewhat severe in form, the
mahogany bureau was usually an exceedingly presentable piece
of furniture. Occasionally it had a bombe front which mitigated
its severity; this was especially the case in the Dutch varieties,
which were in a measure free adaptations of the French Louis
Quinze commode. These Dutch bureaux, and the English ones
made in imitation of them, were usually elaborately inlaid with
floral designs in coloured woods; but whereas the Batavian
marquetry was often rough and crude, the English work was
usually of considerable excellence. Side by side with this form of
writing apparatus was one variety or another of the writing-table
proper. In so far as it is possible to generalize upon such a detail
it would appear that the bureau was the desk of the yeoman and
what we now call the lower middle class, and that the slighter and
more table-like forms were preferred by those higher in the social
scale. This probably means no more than that while the one
class preserved the old English affection for the solid and'heavy
furniture which would last for generations, those who were more
free to follow the fashions and fancies of their time were, as the
pecuniarily easy classes always have been, ready to abandon the
old for the new.

Just about the time when the flat table with its drawers in a
single row, or in nests serving as pedestals, was finally assuming
its familiar modern shape, an invention was introduced which
was destined eventually, so far as numbers and convenience go,
to supersede all other forms of desk. This was the cylinder-top
writing-table. Nothing is known of the originator of this device,
but it is certain that if not French himself he worked in France.
The historians of French furniture agree in fixing its introduction
about the year 1730, and we know that a desk worked on this
principle was in the possession of the French crown in the year
1760. Even in its early days the cylinder took more than one
form. It sometimes consisted of a solid piece of curved wood,
and sometimes of a tambour frame — that is to say, of a series of

narrow jointed strips of wood mounted on canvas; the revolving
shutters of a shop-front are an adaptation of the idea. For a long
period, however, the cylinder was most often solid, and remained
so until the latter part of the igth century, when the " American
roll-top desk " began to be made in large numbers. This is
indeed the old French form with a tambour cylinder, and it is
now the desk that is most frequently met with all over the world
for commercial purposes. Its popularity is due to its large
accommodation, and to the facility with which the closing of the
cylinder conceals all papers, and automatically locks every drawer.
To France we owe not only the invention of this ubiquitous form,
but the construction of many of the finest and most historic desks
that have survived — the characteristic marquetry writing-tables
of the Boulle period, and the gilded splendours of that of Louis
Quinze have never been surpa